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6
John Mware.
حالة
NON
ESSAYS CIRCULATING
ON
THE SACRED LANGUAGE, WRITINGS, AND
RELIGION OF THE PARSIS.
BY
MARTIN HAUG, PH.D.
LATE PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT AND COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH.
Second Edition.
EDITED BY
E. W. WEST, PH.D.
LONDON:
TRÜBNER & CO., LUDGATE HILL.
1878.
[All rights reserved.]
ΤΟ
THE PARSIS OF WESTERN INDIA
THIS REVISION OF THE
FIRST ATTEMPT, IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
TO GIVE A CORRECT ACCOUNT OF THEIR
ANCIENT ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION AND LITERATURE,
Is Inscribed
IN MEMORY OF THE OLD TIMES
OF FRIENDLY INTERCOURSE ENJOYED
BOTH BY THE AUTHOR AND BY
THE EDITOR.
316259
بالا
Henotheison, a wording & dichte gede, totally
different for Monothinson,
Monotheison, on the worship gore jed
moblong a distinct denial gall. When und de
Petzſhire, the worship & many
the together from one diona polity.
5
of Ceylan ofsuista:


A
Jities
remplit de bri
In the i 69
au suntsioone, by aricio, hem in secaïsme
PREFACE.
1
THE author of these Essays intended, after his return from
India, to expand them into a comprehensive work on the
Zoroastrian Religion; but this design, postponed from
time to time, was finally frustrated by his untimely
death. That he was not spared to publish all his varied
knowledge on this subject, must remain for ever a matter
of regret to the student of Iranian antiquities. In other
hands, the changes that could be introduced into this
second edition were obviously limited to such additions
and alterations as the lapse of time and the progress of
Zoroastrian studies have rendered necessary.
In the first Essay, the history of the European re-
searches has been extended to the present time; but, for
the sake of brevity, several writings have been passed
over unnoticed, among the more valuable of which those
of Professor Hübschmann may be specially mentioned.
Some account has also been given of the progress of
Zoroastrian studies among the Parsis themselves.
In the second Essay additional information has been
viii
PREFACE.
given about the Pahlavi language and literature; but the
technical portion of the Avesta Grammar has been re-
served for separate publication, being better adapted for
students than for the general reader.
Some additions have been made to the third Essay,
with the view of bringing together, from other sources,
all the author's translations from the Avesta, except those.
portions of the Gâthas which he did not include in the
first edition, and which it would be hazardous for an
editor to revise. Further details have also been given
regarding the contents of the Nasks.
Several additional translations, having been found.
among the author's papers too late for insertion in the
third Essay, have been added in an Appendix after care-
ful revision, together with his notes descriptive of the
mode of performing a few of the Zoroastrian ceremonies.
Some apology is due to Sanskrit scholars for the
liberties taken with their usual systems of representing
Sanskrit and Avesta sounds. These deviations from
present systems have been made for the sake of the
general reader, whether English or Indian, who can
hardly be expected to pronounce words correctly unless
they are spelt in accordance with the usual sounds of the
letters in English. Probably no European language can
represent Indian consonants so easily as English; but
as every English vowel has more than one characteristic
sound, it is necessary to look to some other European
PREFACE.
ix
language for the best representation of Indian vowels.
The system now generally adopted by Englishmen in
India, and followed in these Essays, is to use the con-
sonants to represent their usual English sounds, the
vowels to represent their usual Italian sounds, and to
avoid diacritical marks as much as possible, because they
are always liable to omission. In applying such a sys-
tem to the Aryan languages of India, Englishmen require
very few arbitrary rules. They have merely to observe
that g is always hard and ch always soft, that th and ph
are merely aspirates of t and p (not the English and Greek
th and ph), and that a represents the short vowel sound in
the English words utter, mother, come, and blood. As this
use of a is often repugnant to Englishmen, it may be
remarked that all the other vowels have to be appro-
priated for other sounds, and that it is also strictly in
accordance with the Sanskrit rule that when one a
coalesces with another the resulting sound is â, which
could not be the case unless there were a close relation-
ship between the two sounds.
Some unfortunate representations of Indian sounds
have become too inveterate to be lightly tampered with;
so it is still necessary to warn the general reader that
every w in the Avesta ought to be pronounced like an
English v, and that every v in Sanskrit or the Avesta
closely resembles an English w, unless it be followed by
i, î, e, ri, or a consonant, in which case it has a sound
X
PREFACE.
somewhere between v and h. Again, Sanskrit has two
sets of letters represented by t, th, d, dh, n, sh; one set
is extremely dental (pronounced with the tip of the
tongue touching the extremities of the teeth, or as close
to them as possible in the case of sh), the other set is
lingual (pronounced with the tip of the tongue far back
upon or near the palate). The English t, d, n, sh are
pronounced between these two extremes, but all natives
of India consider the sounds of these English letters as
decidedly lingual, so that they always represent them
by Indian linguals when transliterating English words.
Unfortunately, European scholars have been of the op-
posite opinion, and have represented the dental t, th, d,
dh, n as unmodified, and the linguals as modified, either
by a diacritical dot (as in this work) or by using italics.
For the sake of uniformity, this practice has been here
extended to sh; but there can be no doubt that the
dentals ought to be modified and the linguals unmodified,
though neither group can be exactly represented by Euro-
pean sounds. Further, the letters ri do not adequately
represent that peculiar Sanskrit vowel as pronounced in
Maharashtra, where the Brahmans have been least dis-
turbed by foreign influences. They say there that the
correct sound is ru, and the tendency in colloquial
Marâțhî is to corrupt it into u. The nearest European
approach to this sound appears to be the English re in
pretty, which word is never pronounced petty when the
PREFACE.
xi
is indistinctly sounded, but has a tendency to become
pootty.
In Avesta words th has the same lisping sound as in
English and Greek, ņ and ǹ have the sound of ng, q ought
to be sounded like khw, zh bears the same relation to
sh as z to s (that is, it has the sound of s in pleasure), and
shk is pronounced sh by the Parsis. They also pronounce
the other sibilants s and sh as written in this work, and
there seems no sufficient reason for departing from their
traditional pronunciation, which is corroborated, to a
great extent, by Pahlavi and Persian words derived from
the Avesta, such as Zaratusht, âtash, &c.
The author's principal object in publishing these Essays
originally was to present, in a readable form, all the
materials for judging impartially of the scriptures and
religion of the Parsis. The same object has been kept
in view while preparing this second edition, giving a
larger quantity of such materials collected from a variety
of sources, which I may now leave to the reader's im-
partial judgment.
MÜNCHEN, February 1878.
E. W. WEST.
!
CONTENTS.
ESSAY I.
HISTORY OF THE RESEARCHES INTO THE SACRED WRITINGS
AND RELIGION OF THE PARSIS
I. THE REPORTS OF THE GREEKS, ROMANS, ARMENIANS,
AND MOHAMMEDANS
•
II. THE EUROPEAN RESEARCHES .
III.-ZOROASTRIAN STUDIES AMONG THE PARSIS
PAGE
3
3
16
•
54
ESSAY II.
LANGUAGES OF THE PARSI SCRIPTURES
I.—THE LANGUAGE OF THE AVESTA, ERRONEOUSLY
CALLED ZEND
II. THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE AND PAZAND
65
67
78
93
III.—THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT .
ESSAY III.
THE ZEND-AVESTA, OR THE SCRIPTURE OF THE PARSIS
119
I. THE NAME OF THE PARSI SCRIPTURES
119
II. THE ORIGINAL EXTENT OF THE ZEND-AVESTA.-THE
NASKS
123
III. THE BOOKS NOW EXTANT AND THE SUPPOSED ZOROA-
STRIAN AUTHORSHIP
•
134
IV.-YASNA
•
139
V.-GATHAS
142
xiv
CONTENTS.
VI.-GATHA AHUNAVAITI
PAGE
146
VII.-GATHA USHTAVAITI
•
154
VIII. THE LAST THREE GÂTHAS
167
IX.-YASNA HAPTANHAITI AND THE MINOR TEXTS OF THE
OLD YASNA
170
X.-THE LATER YASNA
174
1. Hôma yasht
175
2. Yasna xix.
185
3.
XI.-VISPARAD
lvii.
189
191
XII.—YASHTS
194
1. Hormazd yasht
195
2. Haptân, Ardibahisht, and Khordâd yashts
195
3. Abân yasht
197
4. Khurshêd and Mâh yashts
199
5. Tîr and Gôsh yashts
•
200
6. Mihir yasht
202
7. Srôsh Hâdôkht and Rashnu yashts
205
8. Fravardin yasht
206
9. Behrâm and Râm yashts
213
10. Dîn and Ashi yashts
•
215
215
11. Ashtâd, Zamyâd, and Vanant yashts
12. Two fragments of the Hâdôkht nask; the
Afrin-i Paighambar Zaratusht, and Vish-
tâsp yasht
XIII.—SHORTER TEXTS (NYÂYISH, AFRINGÂNS, GÂES, SIRÔ-
ZAH)
XIV. VENDIDÂD
1. The first fargard
2. The second fargard
3. The third fargard
4. The fourth fargard
5. The fargards v.-xvii..
217
224
225
•
227
230
235
237
210
CONTENTS.
XV
6. The eighteenth fargard
7. The nineteenth fargard
8. The fargards xx.-xxii.
XV.-BRIEF SURVEY OF AVESTA LITERATURE
ESSAY IV.
THE ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION AS TO ITS ORIGIN AND
DEVELOPMENT
I. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE BRAHMANICAL AND
ZOROASTRIAN RELIGIONS
1. Names of divine beings
2. Names and legends of heroes
3. Sacrificial rites
4. Religious observances, domestic rites, and
cosmographical opinions
II. ORIGIN OF THE ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION.-SPITAMA
ZARATHUSHTRA AND HIS PROBABLE AGE
•
1. Traces of the origin to be found both in the
Vedas and Zend-Avesta
2. Causes of the schism.
3. Spitama Zarathushtra
4. The age when Spitama Zarathushtra lived
III.-SPITAMA ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY AND PHILOSO-
PAGE
243
252
257
257
267
267
267
276
279
285
286
287
292
294
298
PHY, AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE DEVELOPMENT
OF THE PARSI RELIGION
300
1. Zarathushtra's monotheism
301
2. Zarathushtra's two primeval principles
3. Development of Zarathushtra's doctrines of
303
the Supreme Being.-The two supreme
councils; Srosh and Boundless Time
305
4. The two intellects, two lives, heaven and
hell, resurrection, and palingenesis
310
xvi
CONTENTS.
APPENDIX.
PAGE
I. TRANSLATIONS FROM THE AVESTA
315
1. Vendidâd, fargard iii. 1-23 and 34, 35 ·
315
2.
22
""
iv.
44-55
319
लं
V.
""
""
322
4.
""
99
xix. 10-26 and 40-47
333
II. TRANSLATIONS FROM THE PAHLAVI VERSIONS
1. Pahlavi Yasna xxviii.
338
•
338
2.
xxix.
وو
""
341
3.
XXX.
وو
""
345
4.
xxxi.
""
""
348
5.
""
""
xxxii. I.
354
6. Pahlavi Vendidâd i.
355
وو
دو
7.
xviii.
""
8.
xix.
•
""
""
9.
XX.
364
379
وو
391
III.-NOTES DESCRIPTIVE OF SOME PARSI CEREMONIES
1. The ceremony preparatory to Ijashne .
393
394
2. The Ijashne ceremony
•
403
INDEX
3. The Darûn ceremony
4. The Afrîngân ceremony
407
408
4II
I.
HISTORY OF THE RESEARCHES INTO THE
SACRED WRITINGS AND RELIGION
OF THE PARSIS.
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES DOWN TO THE PRESENT.
A
A pod deal
نہیں
the Sersing wel box/
VL
Egin best
160 n
I,
HISTORY OF THE RESEARCHES INTO THE
SACRED WRITINGS AND RELIGION
OF THE PARSIS.
I.—THE REPORTS OF THE GREEKS, ROMANS, ARMENIANS, AND
MOHAMMEDANS.
In this Essay it is intended to give a brief outline of the
gradual acquaintance of the Western nations with the
Zoroastrian religion (now professed only by the small
Parsi community in India, and by a very insignificant
number which remain in their ancient fatherland in
Persia), and to trace the history of the scientific researches
of Europeans into the original records of this ancient
creed, where the true doctrine of the great Zoroaster and
his successors, buried for thousands of years, is to be
found.
To the whole ancient world Zoroaster's lore was best
known by the name of the doctrine of the Magi, which
denomination was commonly applied to the priests of
India, Persia, and Babylonia.
The earliest mention of them is made by the Prophet.
Jeremiah (xxxix. 3), who enumerated among the retinue
of King Nebuchadnezzar at his entry into Jerusalem, the
4
THE REPORTS OF
"Chief of the Magi" (rab mag in Hebrew), from which
statement we may distinctly gather, that the Magi exer-
cised a great influence at the court of Babylonia 600
years B.C. They were, however, foreigners, and are not to
be confounded with the indigenous priests. In the Old
Testament no account of their religion is given, and only
once (Ezekiel viii. 16, 17) it is hinted at.1 The Persians,
however, whose priests the Magi appear to have been, are
never spoken of as adherents to idolatry; and the Persian
kings, especially Cyrus (called Koresh in Hebrew, Kurush
in the cuneiform inscriptions), favoured the Jews. In
Isaiah this great king is called "the anointed (mashiakh
in Hebrew) of the Lord" (xlv. 1), "the shepherd who
carries out the Lord's decrees" (xliv. 28); he is the
"eagle 2 called from the orient, the man appointed by the
Lord's counsel" (xlvi. II); he is "strengthened by the
11);
Lord to subdue the heathens" (xlv. 1).3 From these high
terms, in which King Cyrus, who professed the religion of
the Magi, is spoken of, we are entitled to infer that this
religion was not so diametrically opposed to the Mosaic as
the other ancient religions were; that Cyrus, at all events,
was no idol-worshipper; a supposition we shall find con-
firmed by Herodotus, and by the sacred books of the
Parsis themselves. The Zoroastrian religion exhibits even
a very close affinity to, or rather identity with, several
important doctrines of the Mosaic religion and Chris-
tianity, such as the personality and attributes of the devil,
1 The religious custom alluded to
in Ezekiel undoubtedly refers to the
religion of the Magi. The prophet
complains that some of the Jews
worship the sun, holding towards
their face certain twigs. Exactly the
same custom of holding a bundle of
twigs in the hands is reported by
Strabo (xv. 3, 14), as being observed
by the Magi when engaged in prayer.
It is the so-called Barsom (Beresma
in the Avesta), still used by the Parsi
priests when engaged in worship.
2 In Eschylus's celebrated play
"The Persians" the eagle is the sym-
bol of the Persian empire (verses
205-10). The eagle was, as Xeno-
phon reports (Cyropodia, vii. 1, 2),
the ensign of the ancient Persians.
3 The Hebrew word goyim (liter-
ally "people"), used in the plural,
as it is here, denotes the heathenish
nations, the idol - worshippers, in
their strictest opposition to the Is-
raelites.
THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.
5.
and the resurrection of the dead, which are both ascribed
to the religion of the Magi, and are really to be found in
the present scriptures of the Parsis. It is not ascertained
whether these doctrines were borrowed by the Parsis from
the Jews, or by the Jews from the Parsis; very likely
neither is the case, and in both these religions they seem
to have sprung up independently. In the Zend-Avesta we
meet with only two words 1 which can be traced to the
Semitic languages, neither of them referring to religious
subjects. In the later books of the Old Testament we find
several Persian words and many names, but they have
nothing to do with religion. The most famous of these
Persian words in the Old Testament, now spread over the
whole civilised world, is the word "paradise,” which means
originally a park, a beautiful garden fenced in.²
The name Magi occurs even in the New Testament. In
the Gospel according to St. Matthew (ii. 1), the Magi
(Greek magoi, translated in the English Bible by "wise
men") came from the East to Jerusalem, to worship the
new-born child Jesus at Bethlehem. That these Magi
were priests of the Zoroastrian religion, we know from
Greek writers.
The earliest account of the religion of the Magi among
the Greeks is to be found in HERODOTUS, the father of
history (B.C. 450). In his first book (chap. cxxxi., cxxxii.)
we read the following report on the Persian religion:-
'I know that the Persians observe these customs. It
' is not customary among them to have idols made, temples
1 These are tanúra, "an oven;"
and hara, a mountain," found only
in the name Harô berezaiti, "high
mountain," considered to be the chief
of all mountains; preserved now-a-
days in the name Alborz. Tanúra is
evidently the same with the Hebrew
tanûr (Gen. xv. 17; Isa. xxxi. 9),
pairi-daêza (in the Zend - Avesta),
"circumvallation or enclosure;" in
Hebrew we find it in the form par-
des; in Greek as paradeisos. Pairi
is peri in Greek; dalza corresponds
to deha in Sanskrit-i.e., enclosure,
generally applied to the body. Of
the same root is the English thick
(very likely identical with S. digdha,
past participle of the root dih,
besmear, pollute," in a more compre-
2 The original form of the word is hensive sense to surround."
an oven, or furnace;" hara is iden-
tical with har in Hebrew, "a moun-
tain."
to
6
THE REPORTS OF
;
'built, and altars erected; they even upbraid with folly
those who do so. I can account for that, only from their
not believing that the gods are like men, as the Hellenes
'do. They are accustomed to offer sacrifices to Zeus on the
'summits of mountains; they call the whole celestial circle
Zeus. They offer sacrifices to the sun, moon, earth, fire,
water, and winds, these elements originally being the only
' objects of worship; but they accepted from the Assyrians
and Arabs the worship of Aphrodite, the Queen of
Heaven, whom the Assyrians call Mylitta, the Arabs
Alitta, the Persians Mitra.' 1
.
(
<
<
The Persians offer sacrifices to the aforesaid gods in
the following manner. They neither erect altars nor
kindle fires when they are about to offer a sacrifice; they
'neither use libations, nor flutes, nor wreaths, nor barley;
'but when any one is willing to offer a sacrifice, he then
carries the sacrificial beast to a pure spot, and after
having twined round his turban a great many wreaths of
'myrtle, in preference to any other leaf, he invokes the
'deity. The sacrificer ought not to pray only for his own
'prosperity; he must also pray for the welfare of all the
Persians, and for the king, because he is included among
them. When he has cut the animal into pieces, he then
boils its flesh, spreads the softest grass he can get, espe-
cially preferring clover, and places the pieces of flesh on
it. After having made this arrangement, one of the Magi
'who is present sings a theogony,2 as they call the incan-
<
(
1 Here Herodotus has committed a
mistake; not as to the matter, but
as to the name. The Persians, in
later times, worshipped a great fe-
male deity, who might be compared
with the Mylitta of the Babylonians
(the Ashtaroth or Astarte of the Old
Testament), but she was called ANA-
HITA (in the Zend-Avesta and cunei-
form inscriptions), and was known to
the Arab and Greek writers by the
name of ANAITIS. She represented
the beneficial influence of water.
Mitra is the well-known sun-god of
the Persians and a male deity.
2 Herodotus, who exhibits through-
out the whole report an intimate
knowledge of the Persian sacrifices,
means by theogony here, those sec-
tions of the sacred books which are
called Yashts or invocations, con-
taining the praises of all the feats
achieved by the deity in whose honor
the sacrifice is to be offered. See the
third Essay.
THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.
7
'tation (which is used); without one of the Magi no
'sacrifice can be offered. After waiting a short time, the
'sacrificer takes off the pieces of flesh, and uses them as
' he likes.' 1
(
(
In the 138th chapter of the same book, the father of
history says: Lying is regarded as the most discreditable
thing by them; next to it is the incurring of debt,
chiefly for this reason, that the debtor is often compelled
'to tell lies. If any one of the inhabitants of a town be
' affected with leprosy, or white spots (another kind of
leprosy), he cannot enter the town, nor have any inter-
'course with the other Persians; they believe him to have
' that disease in consequence of having sinned in one way
other against the sun.2 All foreigners affected with
these diseases are driven out of the country; for the same
reason many expel even white pigeons. They neither
make water, nor spit, nor wash their hands, in a river;
nor will they allow any one else to do so; for they pay a
high reverence to rivers.'
6
(
: or
In another passage (iii. 16) Herodotus reports that the
Persians believe Fire to be a god; wherefore Cambyses
committed a great sin, as he says, in burning the corpse
of King Amasis.
The chief Greek writers on the manners and religion
of the Persians were KTESIAS (B.C. 400), the well-known
physician to King Artaxerxes II., DEINON (B.C. 350), who
is looked upon as a great authority in Persian matters by
Cornelius Nepos (in the life of Konon), THEOPOMPOS of
Chios (B.C. 300), and HERMIPPOS, the philosopher of
Smyrna (B.C. 250). The books of all these writers being
lost, save some fragments preserved by later authors, such
1 This custom is still maintained
by the Parsis.
The flesh (or any
other sacrifice) to be offered is first
consecrated by the priest, then for a
short time left near the fire, and
finally taken off by the sacrificer, to
be used by him; but it is never
thrown into the fire,
2 The name given to sinners against
the sun is mithrô-drukhsh, i.c., one
who has belied Mithra (the sun).
Such diseases were believed to be the
consequence of lying.
8
THE REPORTS OF
as PLUTARCH, DIOGENES of Laerte, and PLINY, we cannot
judge how far they were acquainted with the religion of
the Magi. The two chief sources whence the Greeks and
Romans derived information about the religion of the
Magi were THEOPOMPOS's eighth book of the history of
King Philip of Macedonia, which was entitled “On Mira-
culous Things," and specially treated of the doctrine of
the Magi; and HERMIPPOS, who wrote a separate book
"On the Magi." We are left without information whether
or not Theopompos derived his statements on the lore of
the Magi from his intercourse with the Persian priests
themselves; but Hermippos, who composed, besides his
work on the Zoroastrian doctrine, biographies of lawgivers,
the seven sages of Greece, &c., is reported by Pliny (His-
toria Naturalis, xxx. 2) to have made very laborious.
investigations in all the Zoroastrian books, which were
said to comprise two millions of verses, and to have stated
the contents of each book separately. He therefore really
seems to have had some knowledge of the sacred language
and texts of the Magi, for which reason the loss of his
work is greatly to be regretted.
It is not intended to produce all the reports on the
Zoroastrian religion and customs to be met with in the
ancient writers, but only to point out some of the most
important.
According to Diogenes of Laerte (Pro-cemium, chap. vi.),
EUDOXOS and ARISTOTLE stated that in the doctrine of the
Magi there were two powers opposed to each other, one
representing the good god, called ZEUS and OROMASDES
(Ahuramazda, Hormazd), and the other representing the
devil, whose name was HADES and AREIMANIOS (Angrô-
mainyush, Ahriman). Of this chief doctrine of the Magi
THEOPOMPOS had given a further illustration. According
to Plutarch (De Iside et Osiride) and Diogenes of Laerte
(Pro-œmium, chap. ix.), he reported that Oromasdes ruled
for three thousand years alone, and Areimanios for three
thousand more. After this period of six thousand years
THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.
9
had elapsed they began to wage war against each other,
one attempting to destroy the other; but finally (he says)
Areimanios is to perish, mankind is to enjoy a blessed
state of life; men will neither be any more in need of food,
nor will they cast shadows; the dead are to rise again,
men will be immortal, and everything is to exist in conse-
quence of their prayers.
•
A brief but full account of Zoroaster's doctrine is to be
found in Plutarch's book "On Isis and Osiris (chap. xlvi.,
xlvii.), which being in detail, seems to have been borrowed
from a writer who was actually acquainted with the origi-
nal texts. The philosopher Hermippos, abovementioned,
being the only scholar of antiquity who can be supposed,
with sufficient reason, to have had a real knowledge of the
sacred language of the Zend-Avesta, we may regard him
as the author of Plutarch's statements. These are as
follows:-
<
.
Oromasdes sprang out of the purest light; among all
'things perceived by the senses that element most re-
sembles him; Areimanios sprang out of darkness, and is
'therefore of the same nature with it. Oromasdes, who
resides as far beyond the sun as the sun is far from the
earth, created six gods (the six Ameshaspentas, now
Amshaspends, "the archangels"); the god of benevo-
'lence (Vohu-mano, "good-mind," now called Bahman);
the god of truth (Asha vahishta, or Ardibahisht); the
god of order (Khshathra vairya, or Shahrivar); the god
' of wisdom (Armaiti, or Isfendarmad); and the god of
'wealth and delight in beauty (Haurvatât and Amerctát,
'or Khordâd and Amerdâd). But to counterbalance him,
'Areimanios created an equal number of gods counteract-
'ing those of Oromasdes. Then Oromasdes decorated
heaven with stars, and placed the star Sirius (Tishtrya,
'or Tishtar) at their head as a guardian. Afterwards he
'created twenty-four other gods,1 and set them in an egg;
1 This statement seems at the first
glance to be very strange. But one
may easily explain it from the Avesta
texts. This writer had evidently in
IO
THE REPORTS OF
(
<
<
'but Areimanios forthwith created an equal number of
'gods, who opened the egg; in consequence of this, evil is
always mingled with good. Thus the good god and the
'demon are engaged in a constant war. Of plants and
'animals, some belong to the good, some to the evil spirit;
to the good one belong dogs, birds, and crabs; to the evil
one, water-rats. At the end, the time is to come when
'Areimanios will perish and disappear, in consequence of
disease and famine, caused by himself. Then the earth
' will become even and equal, and there will be only one
'state and one language, and one and the same manner
of living to the happy men who then speak only one
language.'
(
<
STRABO the geographer (B.C. 60) has given in the 15th
book of his celebrated Geography an account of the religion
and customs of the Magi, of which some passages may be
thus translated:-To whatever deity the Persians may
' offer sacrifice, they first invoke fire, which is fed at their
sacred places with dried barkless pieces of wood, and is
never to be extinguished; they put fat over it, and pour
oil into it; if anybody happens to throw or blow into it
'anything dirty or dead, he is to die; the fire is to be
kindled by blowing.'
(
(
In another passage (xi. 8, 4) he enumerates as Per-
sian deities Anaitis, Omanes, and Anadates or Anandates.1
PAUSANIUS, the celebrated Greek traveller (A.D. 180), has
the following report on the fire-worship of the Magi (v.
27, 3). In the temples of the Persians there is a room
where ashes of another colour than those being burnt on
'the altar are to be found.2 To this room he first repairs,
<
view the thirty spirits presiding over
the particular days of the month; he
was informed, or he gathered it from
his, own reading of the texts, that
there are two distinct classes of divine
beings to be worshipped, six forming
the higher order, twenty-four the
lower; the Supreme Being, the crea-
tor Ahuramazda, was not comprised
in these. In the Parsi calendar (Sîro-
zalı, thirty days) Hormazd is included
in the number.
1 Anaitis is Andhita, a goddess,
representing the celestial waters.
Omanes is Vohu-mano or Bahman;
Anandates is Ameretât, spirit of the
trees.
2 The two kinds of ashes men-
THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.
II
puts dry wood upon the altar, puts on the tiara, and then
sings the invocation of the god, reading it from a book, f. 143
in a language utterly unintelligible to the Greeks. The
wood is to be ignited on the ashes, without fire, and to
'flame up into a bright blaze.'
Passing over DIO CHRYSOSTOMOS (A.D. 130), who has left
to us, in his sermons, some remarks on the theological
ideas of the Magi, as to their comparing the universe to
a chariot in continual motion, drawn by four horses; we
may notice an important passage of the historian AGA-
THIAS (A.D. 500) respecting Zoroaster. He says (ii. 24):
The present Persians almost entirely neglect their former
'customs, and have even changed them, and observe some
'strange and spurious usages, professing the doctrines of
'Zoroaster, the son of Ormasdes.1 The time when this
Zoroaster or Zarades (he is called by both these names)
'flourished and gave his laws, is not to be ascertained.
The Persians now-a-days simply say that he lived at
'the time of Hystaspes; but it is very doubtful, and the
'doubt cannot be solved whether this Hystaspes was the
'father of Darius, or another Hystaspes. At whatever
' time he may have lived, he was at all events their pro-
phet, and the master of the Magic rites. After having
'changed the ancient form of worship, he introduced
'manifold and strange doctrines. For they (the Per-
'sians) formerly worshipped Zeus and Kronos, and all
'other gods celebrated by the Greeks, only under other
names, as for example they call Zeus, Bel, Heracles,
Sandes, Aphrodite, Anaitis,2 and the others otherwise,
<
tioned here are those of the Dâd-gâh
(Dâityô-játush), or common hearth of
the temple (or any house), and of the
Atash-gâh, or place for the sacred fire,
which is fed with the greatest care.
By 'tiara' (a turban) the Penom (paiti-
dâna) is meant, a cloth used to cover
the lips to prevent the sacred fire
from being polluted. Pausanius well
describes here the divine service as
performed before the sacred fire.
The observance is still maintained.
1 Plato (Alcibiades, i. 37) says the
same, calling Zoroaster a son of Or-
mazdes, i.c., Ahuramazda, Hormazd.
2 In this report true and false
statements are mixed together.
is true that the religion of the Parsis
much
anterior to Zoroaster was
nearer to that of the Greeks than
It
.12
THE REPORTS OF THE
as is reported by BEROSOS the Babylonian, and ATHE-
NOKLES and SIMAKOS, who wrote on the most ancient
'history of the Assyrians and Medes.'
Before concluding this notice of the Greek records, and
proceeding to those of the Armenians and Mohammedans,
we may notice some passages of later Greek writers, who
lived after Christ at the time of the Sasanians, on the
supposed primitive principle of Zoroastrian theology,
which will be treated of fully in the last Essay in this
book.
The first Greek writer who alludes to it is DAMASCIUS.
In his book "On Primitive Principles" (125th p. 384, ed.
Kopp) he says, 'The Magi and the whole Aryan nation 1
consider, as Eudemos writes, some Space, and others
Time, as the universal cause, out of which the good
'god as well as the evil spirit were separated, or, as
others assert, light and darkness, before these two spirits
' arose,
<
.
On the same matter THEODOROS of Mopsuestia writes.
as follows, according to the fragment preserved by the
polyhistor Photios (Biblioth. 81): In the first book of
his work' (on the doctrines of the Magi), says Photios,2
he propounds the nefarious doctrine of the Persians.
which Zarastrades introduced, viz., that about ZAROUAM,3
'whom he makes the ruler of the whole universe, and
'calls him Destiny; and who when offering sacrifices in
order to generate Hormisdas, produced both Hormisdas
and Satan.'
.
This opinion on the primitive principle of the Zoroas-
trian theology seems to have been current among the
Christians at the time of the Sasanians, as we may learn
more fully from Armenian writers of the fifth century, from
after his time; but it is not true that
the Persians at that time worshipped
BEL, who was the chief god of the
Babylonians, and entirely unknown
to the Zend-Avesta.
1 By this name the Medes are to
be understood. According to Hero-
dotus their original name was Arioi.
2 He was a Christian.
3 He
means Zarvan akarana,
'boundless time.'
· ARMENIANS AND MOHAMMEDANS.
13
'
EZNIK, who wrote a book against heretical opinions, and
from ELISEUS, who compiled a history of VARTAN, and the
wars waged by the Armenians against the Persians. Eznik
says, in his refutation of heresies (in the second book), con-
taining a "refutation of the false doctrine of the Persians:"
'Before anything, heaven or earth, or creature of any
'kind whatever therein, was existing, Zeruan existed, whose
name means fortune or glory.1 He offered sacrifices for
a thousand years in the hope of obtaining a son, ORMIZT
by name, who was to create heaven, earth, and every-
thing therein. After having spent a thousand years in
sacrificing, he began to deliberate: Are these sacrifices
' of mine to produce any effect, and will a son, Ormizt by
name, be born to me? While he was thus deliberating,
'Ormizt and Arhmen were conceived in the womb of their
'mother, Ormizt as the fruit of his sacrifices, Arhmen as
'that of his doubts. When Zeruan was aware of this
'event he said: Two sons are in the womb; he who will
first come to me is to be made king. Ormizt, having
perceived his father's thoughts, revealed them to Arhmen,
saying: Zeruan, our father, intends to make him king
who shall be born first. Having heard these words,
Arhmen perforated the womb, and appeared before his
father. But Zeruan, when he saw him, did not know
'who he was, and asked him: Who art thou? He told
'him: I am thy son. Zeruan answered him: My son is
'well-scented and shining, but thou art dark and ill-
'scented. While they were thus talking, Ormizt, shining
' and well-scented, appeared before Zeruan, who, seeing
him, perceived him at once to be his son Ormizt on account
' of whom he was sacrificing. He took the rod 2 which he
had used in sacrificing, and
Hitherto this has been used
<
(
(
'
(
(
1 This interpretation is wrong. The
word zarvan means simply "time" in
the Zend-Avesta, and is preserved in
the modern Persian zamân.
gave it to Ormizt, saying:
by myself in offering sacri-
2 This is the so-called Barsom (Be-
resma, a bundle of twigs), always used
by the Parsi priests when engaged in
worship.
14
THE REPORTS OF THE
ド
​171
(
<
'fices for thy sake; henceforth thou mayst sacrifice for my
'sake. When Zeruan handed over his rod to Ormizt, and
blessed him, Arhmen approached him, saying: Hast thou
'not vowed to make that one of thy two sons king who
'should first come to thee? Zeruan, in order to avoid
breaking his vow, replied to Arhmen: Oh thou liar and
'evil-doer! the empire is to be ceded to thee for nine
thousand years; but I place Ormizt over thee as chief,
and after nine thousand years, he will reign and do what
he likes. Then Ormizt and Arhmen began the work of
creation; everything produced by Ormizt was good and
right, and everything wrought by Arhmen was bad and
perverse.'
<
<
From both these Armenian writers, EZNIK and ELISAEUS,
we further learn that the Zoroastrians in their times (5th
century A.D.) were split into two parties, inimically opposed
to each other; the one was called MoG (Magi, Maghava),
the other, ZENDIK,1
Passing on to MOHAMMEDAN Writers, who lived after the
conquest of Persia by the Mohammedans A.D. 650, we may
notice some interesting passages.
MASUDI, the celebrated Arabian historian and traveller.
(A.D. 950), has preserved to us the following notice of the
sacred books of the Parsis.2 The first book, made by
'ZERADUSHT, was Avesta. The Persians, not being able.
'to understand it, Zeradusht made a commentary, which
they called ZEND; further he made a commentary to this
commentary, and called it PAZEND. After Zeradusht's
death, the Persians made a commentary of the commen-
'tary, and an explanation of all the books just mentioned,
and called it YAZDAH.' 3
1 The Magi were chiefly spread over
the West, in Media and Persia; the
Zendiks over the East, in Bactria.
The former seem to have acknow-
ledged only the AVESTA or original
texts of the sacred writings; the latter
followed the traditional explanation,
called ZEND.
2 See Chwolsohn in the Zeitschrift
der Deutschen Morgenländischen Ge-
sellschaft, vol. vi. pp. 408, 409.
3 He understands by it those piece
which are called Yashts, and are un-
doubtedly the latest productions in
the Zend-Avesta.
J
ARMENIANS AND MOHAMMEDANS.
15
In another passage, he has the following remark on the
origin of the word ZENDIK, i.e., heretic in Persian: The
ZEND being only a commentary on what was formerly
'revealed from heaven (viz., the AVESTA), the Persians
'called any one who put forward religious opinions opposed
'to the Avesta a ZENDIK, because he held his own inter-
pretation (Zend) against that of the Avesta.'
On Zoroaster's age he remarks, that according to the
Magi he lived 280 years before Alexander the Great (or
about B.C. 610), that is, at the time of the Median king
Cyaxares.
SHAHRASTANI, a celebrated Mohammedan writer, who
died at Bagdad, A.D. 1153, has given in his highly valuable
work “On Religious Sects and Creeds” (kitâbu-l-milal wa
na'hal) an account of the religion of the Magi, of which he
had a better opinion than many other Mohammedan
writers. Whilst DIMISHQI (who died A.D. 1327), IBN Foz-
LAN, and others,1 identify the Magi with idolators and
pagans, Shahrastani brings them under the same head as
JEWS, CHRISTIANS, and MUSALMANS, or those whose creed
is founded on revealed books; and makes them diametri-
cally opposed to those who follow their own imaginations.
and inventions (as many philosophers did), the Brahmans
and Sabeans (star-worshippers). From his reports we
further learn that the Magi were split into several sects,
which very likely arose at the time of the Sasanians, such
as the MAZDAKYAHS, who believed in the transmigration of
souls, like the Brahmans and Buddhists (a doctrine which
is altogether strange to the Zend-Avesta); the KAYOMAR-
THIYAH, who believed in a revelation made by God to the
first man, called GAYOMARD by the Parsis, corresponding to
ADAM of the Bible; the ZERVANITS who believed in ZAR-
VAN AKARANA, i.e., boundless time, as the supreme deity,
which doctrines being altogether strange to the ancient
books, were derived from other creeds.
Before taking final leave of these Mohammedan writers,
1 See Chwolsohn, Die Sabier, i. p. 281; ii. p. 690.
16
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
we may notice a peculiar circumstance which deserves atten-
tion. In several Mohammedan writings, especially in ver-
nacular Persian dictionaries, we find ZOROASTER, or, as he
is there called, ZARADUSHT, identified with ABRAHAM, the
patriarch. The Magi are said to have called their religion
Kêsh-i-Ibrâhîm, i.e., creed of Abraham, whom they con-
sidered as their prophet and the reformer of their religion.
They traced their religious books to Abraham, who was
believed to have brought them from heaven. This was
altogether untrue, but the Magi, or Parsi priests, invented
it for the purpose of escaping the persecutions of the
Mohammedans, and that they might be tolerated to a
certain extent; for only those creeds were tolerated by the
Mohammedans, the followers of which were able to con-
vince them of their possession of sacred books, connected
in any way with the Jewish religion, whose prophets had
been acknowledged by Mohammed.
II. THE EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
The nations of modern Europe came into contact with
the adherents of the Zoroastrian religion in the western
part of India, where they had settled when they left their
fatherland, Persia, to escape the persecutions of the Mo-
hammedans. Already, in the seventeenth century, manu-
scripts of the sacred books of the Parsis were brought to
England as mere articles of curiosity, but were sealed
books to every one. The first who attempted to give a
complete description of the doctrines of the Magi was the
celebrated Oxford scholar, HYDE. In his very learned
work, "Historia religionis veterum Persarum eorumque
Magorum," the first edition of which was published in
the year 1700, he displays a vast deal of information on
the Parsi religion, derived from all the sources which were
accessible to him; from Greek and Roman, as well as from
Arabian and Persian writers; and tries his utmost to throw
light on the religion of the Magi, so famous in antiquity;
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
17
but being utterly unable to read the original texts of the
Zend-Avesta, though he himself was in possession of several
manuscripts of them, he could not succeed in furnishing.
his readers with a real insight into that ancient creed. His
work acted, however, as a stimulus to others to take more
interest in the matter.
The first scholar who made Europeans acquainted with
the contents of the sacred books of the Parsis was the cele-
brated Frenchman, ANQUETIL DUPERRON. His ardour and
zeal are almost unparalleled in the history of scholarship.
He happened once to see a facsimile of some pages written
in Avesta characters, which was circulated as a mere curio-
sity. Actuated by the liveliest desire of earning the glory of
first opening the Zend-Avesta to Europeans, he suddenly
resolved upon setting out for Western India in order to pur-
chase manuscripts of all the sacred books of the Zoroastrian
religion, and to obtain a thorough knowledge of their con-
tents, and of the religious customs of the Parsis from their
priests. Being himself unable to afford the means required
for carrying out his plan, he entered himself as a sailor in
a ship of the French Indian Company, bound for Bombay,
in the year 1754, where he safely arrived after a very pro-
tracted and dangerous voyage. All the hardships he had
to suffer during his passage would have been endured in
vain, and he would have ultimately failed in obtaining
what he was aiming at, if the French Government had not
granted him support. The Parsi priests, being full of dis-
trust towards him, were not willing to sell him valuable
manuscripts, and far less to teach him the language of
their sacred books.1 Finally, the only means of obtaining
the object wished for was money. He bribed one of the
most learned Dasturs, Dastur Dârâb, at Surat, to procure
1 Since the Parsis and their priests a benevolent interest in these mat-
have come more into contact with ters; and are always willing to give
Europeans, this distrust has subsided him full explanations of rites and
to a great extent. The Dasturs will ceremonies, and even to lend him
now readily converse about their valuable and unique manuscripts,
sacred books and their religion, with provided they are satisfied that he will
any European scholar who really takes not misuse the information he obtains.
B
+
18
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
him manuscripts, and to instruct him in the Avesta and
Pahlavi languages. But to ascertain that he was not de-
ceived by the Dastur, he opened an intercourse with some.
other priests (Kaus and Manjerj), and was very well satis-
fied at finding that the manuscripts he purchased first
were genuine. When he thought himself proficient enough
in the Avesta and Pahlavi, he set about making a French
translation of the whole ZEND-AVESTA. He commenced
that work in March 1759, and was engaged in it up to the
time of his departure. He left for Europe in 1761, after
six years' stay in different places in Western India. He
had purchased about 180 manuscripts in different Oriental
languages, among which were copies of the sacred books of
the Parsis. When, after a long and painful passage, he
arrived in Europe, he did not proceed at once to his father-
land, France, but went first to England to ascertain whether
or not the Avesta manuscripts to be found there agreed with
those in his own possession. Finding that they did not
differ, he returned quite satisfied to France. All his manu-
scripts, together with the dictations of the Dasturs, were
deposited in the National Library at Paris, where they may
be still inspected and used by the student. Ten years
after his departure from India he published (in 1771), as
the fruit of his indefatigable zeal and industry, the follow-
ing highly important work in French, Zend-Avesta, the
work of Zoroaster, containing the theological, physical, and
moral ideas of this lawgiver, the ceremonies of the divine
service which he established, and several important traits
respecting the ancient history of the Persians, translated into
French from the Zend original, with Notes and several
Treatises for illustrating the matters contained in it. By
Anquetil Duperron. 2 vols. 4to.
This groundwork for Avesta studies in Europe created
an immense sensation when it was published. A new
world of ideas seemed to have been disclosed to European
scholars; the veil which covered the mysteries of the
famous founder of the doctrines of the Magi seemed to be
lifted. But the philosophers found themselves soon greatly
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
19
disappointed. KANT, the great German philosopher, said,
after a careful perusal of the whole work, that throughout
the whole Zend-Avesta not the slightest trace of philo-
sophical ideas could be discovered.
The chief question, however, was the authenticity of
these books. Some contested, others advocated it. In
England the opinion prevailed that the books were forged,
and Anquetil imposed upon by the priests. The celebrated
Oriental scholar, Sir WILLIAM JONES, published in 1771 a
letter in French addressed to Anquetil Duperron (W. Jones's
Works, vol. x. pp. 403-99), where he tried to prove that the
works translated by that scholar could not be considered.
as the composition of the celebrated Zoroaster. The chief
reason alleged by him was, that their contents grossly
contradicted common sense and all sound reasoning; the
authority of these books as the chief source of information
on the doctrines of Zoroaster was thus denied, and they
were represented as the fictions of priestcraft brought
forward as the works of Zoroaster. RICHARDSON, the cele-
brated Persian lexicographer, tried to prove the spurious-
ness of the Parsi books translated by Anquetil, mainly
from philological reasons. He held the opinion (in the
preface to his "Persian Dictionary") that the two languages
Zend and Pahlavi, from which the learned Frenchman had
translated them, were mere inventions, which had never
existed in the provinces of the Persian Empire. His
opinion was founded upon four reasons: (1) there is too
great a number of Arabic words in both of them, which is
a strong proof against their genuineness; (2) the harsh
combinations of consonants are contrary to the genius of
the Persian language; (3) there is no connection between
them and modern Persian; (4) the contents of the books,
besides, are so childish that they cannot be ascribed to the
ancient Persians. All these reasons can be easily refuted
in the present state of research into the Zend-Avesta;
but it would be a mere waste of space and time to enter
into a real discussion about the authenticity of the Avesta
20
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and Pahlavi. In these languages there are no Arabic.
words whatever; the Avesta is written in a purely Aryan
dialect, the elder sister of Sanskrit, as can be easily seen.
on comparing it with the language of the Veda; in Pahlavi
there are many Chaldee, but no Arabic words, and the
greater part of the language has a close connection with
modern Persian.
In France the authenticity of these books was not
doubted, and the great merits of Anquetil were at once.
acknowledged. In Germany the opinions of scholars were
at issue. Some, as MEINERS and TYCHSEN, acceded to the
proofs alleged against the genuineness of these books; but
another renowned German scholar, KLEUKER, not only
admitted the authenticity of Anquetil's work, but trans-
lated the whole of it into German, and added several
appendices, containing passages from ancient writers on
the religion of the Magi. In advocating the authenticity
of Anquetil's Zend-Avesta, he relied chiefly on the accord-
ance of the reports of classical writers with those contained
in these books.
For a long time the correctness of Anquetil's translation
was not doubted by any one, for he had learned the lan-
guages from the most competent Parsi priests themselves,
who were supposed to possess necessarily a thorough and
profound knowledge of their sacred books. In Germany
the work was thenceforth the standard authority for all
researches into the ancient Persian religion, and the divines
used it even for the interpretation of the Old Testament.
In England it was laid aside as spurious, and not deserv-
ing any attention. The most comprehensive and best
description of the Persian religion, chiefly according to
the work of Anquetil, was compiled by RHODE, "The
Holy Tradition of the Zend People” (1820).
Inquiries into the real nature of the Avesta and Pahlavi
languages were not made until more than fifty years after
Anquetil's work had appeared. The first who attempted
to study this difficult subject was the great Danish scholar
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
21
RASK, who had himself been in Bombay, and had pur-
chased many valuable Avesta and Pahlavi manuscripts,
which are now deposited in the University Library at
Copenhagen. He wrote in 1826 a pamphlet "On the Age
and Genuineness of the Zend Language." In this little
book he proved the close affinity of the language of the
Zend-Avesta to Sanskrit. This proof was sufficient to
remove whatever doubts might have been entertained as
to the genuineness of the Avesta language. If this lan-
guage was a true and genuine sister to Sanskrit, then of
course it could not be a mere invention of priests, who,
moreover, would have been utterly unable to invent such
a well-organised language as that of the Avesta really is.
Although Anquetil had deposited all the rough copies of
his work, together with the dictations of his Parsi teachers
(they go by the name of "les brouillons d'Anquetil "), in
the National Library at Paris, for the purpose of subject-
ing his translation to public examination, for a long time
no examiner came forward. As Anquetil possessed neither
grammar nor dictionary of the Avesta language (because
they did not exist), there were, in fact, no means of sub-
jecting his work to a rigid examination. First, the gram-
matical structure of this ancient language, and the ety-
mology of its words, had to be discovered; but the only
means of accomplishing this were by comparing it with
Sanskrit, with which highly-finished language Europeans
have become acquainted since the end of last century.
Anquetil himself was thinking of acquiring a knowledge
of this language from the Brahmans, and translating the
Vedas, but he did not succeed. The study of Sanskrit
spread rapidly from England to France and Germany;
everywhere the high importance of this classical language
was at once acknowledged. Scholars early discovered its
close affinity to Greek and Latin, and as soon as attention
was directed to the Zend-Avesta, the relationship of its
language to Sanskrit could not but strike the inquirer as
still closer, even at the first glance. As already mentioned,
22
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
Rask first proved this close affinity, but he gave only a few
hints, tending to lead men of high talents to discoveries;
so that Rask himself cannot be considered as one of the
founders of Avesta philology. This honour was also re-
served for a Frenchman.
The first who laid the foundation of a real Avesta philo-
logy was EUGENE BURNOUF, Professor of Sanskrit at the
Collége de France at Paris, one of the most gifted and
talented scholars of his time, a man of whom, as their
countryman, Frenchmen have just reason to be proud.
Being himself exceedingly well versed in the classical
Sanskrit (not in that of the Vedas)-of his mastery over
which language he has left us more than sufficient speci-
mens in his translation of the Bhagavata Purâṇa, and his
classical works on Buddhism-he applied his sound and
critical knowledge of it to the discovery of the rudiments
of Avesta grammar and etymology; and his laborious re-
searches were crowned with success. He then first. dis-
covered the great incorrectness of Anquetil's translation,
the necessary result of a total want of acquaintance with
anything like the grammar of the Avesta language. In
making his researches he availed himself of NeryoSangh's
Sanskrit translation of the greater part of the Yasna, or
liturgy, but criticised it by means of comparative philo-
logy, chiefly with Sanskrit. Most of his researches he
published in his excellent work entitled "Commentary on
the Yasna" (1833-35), in which, starting from Neryo-
sangh's Sanskrit translation, he gave the translation, with
too copious an explanation, of only the first chapter out of
the seventy-two which make up the present Yasna, or
liturgy. In several numbers of the "Journal Asiatique "
(1844-46) he published a revised text, translation, and
explanation of the ninth chapter of the Yasna, containing
the praise of Homa (corresponding to the Soma of the
Brahmans). He published, besides, lithographed, the fairest
copy of a Vendidâd Sadah (comprising the Vendidâd,
Yasna, and Visparad, without the Pahlavi translation)
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
23
which he found among the manuscripts brought to Europe
by Anquetil. This was the first edition of Avesta texts
which appeared in Europe (1829-43). After that publi-
cation he relinquished his Avesta studies, and engaged
himself chiefly in researches into Buddhism. In 1852 a
premature death put an end to his important discoveries
in several branches of Oriental antiquities.
Before proceeding to trace the further course of Avesta
studies, especially in Germany, we may briefly review the
merits of the two Frenchmen who have just claims to be
regarded as the founders of our investigations into the
Zend-Avesta.
ANQUETIL DUPERRON furnished Europe with the mate-
rials for these researches, and by his translation introduced
the literary world to the chief contents of the sacred books
of the Zoroastrians. His work, although utterly incorrect
and inaccurate, nevertheless gives a notion of the whole of
the Zoroastrian ideas. One could learn from his books the
different names of the divine beings, the evil spirits, cere-
monies, observances, doctrines, and the contents in general.
The reader could see, for instance, that in the first chapter
of the Vendidâd the names of sixteen countries were enu-
merated, which being originally good, were spoiled by the
bad creations of the devil; that in its second chapter, the
story of Yima (Jamshêd) was treated; that the Yasna
contains prayers of different kinds, addressed to different
objects of worship; &c. But it is in the easier parts only
that he could gain even an approximate knowledge of the
contents; in the more difficult ones, such as the Gâthas,
he could not attain even so much, because in them nearly
all was translated by Anquetil Duperron according to his
own fancy and imagination. Being utterly unable to dis-
tinguish cases, tenses, moods, personal terminations, &c.,
he was liable to the gravest errors and mistakes, which
gave rise to wrong conceptions, not only of subordinate
points, but of such as were of the highest importance to
those interested in the Zoroastrian religion.
24
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1
$300
C
To enable the reader to judge of Anquetil's way of
translating, we may take his translation of one of the most
celebrated passages of the Vendidad (xix. 9, edition of
Westergaard), which was supposed to prove Zarvan
akarana, "boundless time," to be the primitive being, and
creator of the good and the bad spirits.
<
Ahriman,¹ master of the bad law! the being absorbed
' in glory has given (created) thee, the boundless Time has
given thee, it has given also, with magnificence, the
Amshaspends,' &c. According to this translation
Hormazd and Ahriman are not the two primitive spirits,
but they themselves were created by a supreme being
called Zarvan akarana, “boundless time." This doctrine
being altogether strange to the Zend-Avesta, as we shall
see hereafter, was merely interpreted into this passage by
Anquetil according to the teaching of his masters, the
Dasturs, in consequence of his ignorance of Avesta gram-
mar. He translates the words zruni akarané as a nomi-
native case, whilst a very superficial knowledge of Avesta
and Sanskrit grammars suffices to recognise both the forms
as locatives; they are therefore to be translated only, “in
boundless time," the subject of the sentence being speñtô
mainyush, "the bountiful spirit" (a name of Hormazd);
were it the nominative case, and the subject of the sen-
tence, then we should expect to find zarva akaranem.
The right translation is as follows:
'O evil-knowing Angrômainyush (Ahriman)! The
'bountiful spirit made (these weapons required to defeat
'the influences of the evil spirit) in boundless time,2 the
'immortal benefactors assisted him in making them.'
Although we may gather from this specimen that
Anquetil's translation is nowhere to be relied upon, always
lacking accuracy, yet we must thankfully acknowledge how
1 This verse concludes an old song,
describing the devil's attacks upon
Zarathushtra, and the conversation
carried on between them. In the
third Essay of this work the reader
will find a translation of the
whole.
2 That means only, at a time un-
known, at a time immemorial, or in
the beginning.
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
25
much we owe to him as the founder of all researches subse-
quently made into the Zend-Avesta. Whilst the translation
itself is utterly inaccurate and erroneous, his descriptions
of ceremonies and rites are quite correct, as the author can
assure the reader from his intercourse with Parsi priests.1
He was a trustworthy man in every respect, and wrote
only what he was taught by the Parsi Dasturs.2 These
high-priests of the Parsi community, who are the only
preservers of the religious traditions, and their interpreters,
derive all their information about their religion not from
the original Avesta texts themselves, but from the Pahlavi
translation made of them at the time of the Sasanians.
Considering that even this translation is not quite correct,
and, moreover, that it is not understood by the Dasturs in
a critical and philological way, how can Anquetil be ex-
pected to have furnished us with an accurate translation?
In many instances also Anquetil misunderstood the Das-
turs; so that his translation was tinged with errors of three
kinds, viz., those of the Pahlavi translations, those of the
Dasturs, and those of his own misunderstandings. His
work, therefore, cannot stand the test of close examination,
and from a critical point of view it can hardly be styled a
translation; it is only a summary report, in an extended
form, of the contents of the Zend-Avesta. But he cannot
be blamed for that; at his time it was impossible for the
most learned and sagacious scholars to do more than he
1 Anquetil was evidently a correct
observer and an accurate describer of
what he saw. His description of the
cave-temples in Salsette could be read
on the spot a century after his visit,
as the only accurate account of them
that had ever been published.
2 The European reader will not be
a little astonished to learn that An-
quetil's work was regarded afterwards
as a kind of authority by the Dasturs
themselves. As, for instance, the
late high-priest of the Parsis in Bom-
bay, Edalji Darabji Rustamji, who
passed for the most learned priest of
his time in India, quotes in his Guj-
rati work “Mujizât-i-Zartosht" (the
Miracles of Zoroaster), p. 10, Anquetil
as an authority in order to counte-
nance his strange and quite erroneous.
explanation of the word stehrpaêsan-
hem (decorated with stars), as meaning
sadarah, "the shirt " worn by the
Parsis, an interpretation which con-
tradicts the tradition as well as the
contexts of the passages, and was con-
sequently not acknowledged by other
Dasturs.
26
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actually did. From the Dasturs he learned the approxi-
mate meanings of the words, and starting from this very
rudimentary knowledge, he then simply guessed the sense
of each sentence.
BURNOUF, who first investigated, in a scientific way, the
language of the Zend-Avesta, would never have succeeded
in laying the foundation of Avesta philology without the
aid of Anquetil's labours. Anquetil had left ample mate-
rials for future researches, and had furnished scholars with
a summary of the contents of the Zend-Avesta. Burnouf,
in making his researches, availed himself chiefly of a San-
skrit translation of the Yasna, or liturgy of the Parsis, and
found on closer inquiry that this work was more reliable
than Anquetil's translation. The Pahlavi translation,
upon which this Sanskrit one is founded, would have better
answered his purposes; but as he did not take the trouble
to study this very peculiar language, it was of no use to
him. Neryosangh's Sanskrit translation was then, as to
grammatical forms and etymologies, rectified by Burnouf by
means of comparative philology, chiefly Sanskrit. But these
aids did not prevent him from committing many errors. On
the one side he relied too much on Neryosangh's imperfect
work; on the other, he applied too often to Sanskrit ety-
mologies. It is true he had made extensive preparations
before he commenced his researches, for he compiled for
his private use a vocabulary of the Avesta words with
quotations from the Zend-Avesta, where each particular
word occurs. In making his laborious inquiries into the
meaning of any particular word, he quoted parallel passages,
the broad ground on which the whole of modern philology,
now so highly developed, rests. But there being at his
disposal no printed editions of the Zend-Avesta, based on
different manuscripts, and pointing out the various read-
ings, he could not peruse the whole of it so carefully as
would have been requisite to guard himself against mis-
takes, which he was otherwise unable to avoid; he was,
therefore, often obliged to forego and overlook important
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27
passages which would have guided him, in many instances,
in ascertaining the exact meaning.
In his etymological proofs he was not always fortunate.1
He lacked, to a certain extent, the skill requisite for form-
ing sound etymologies (which is really a very difficult task),
and besides, his acquaintance with the most ancient forms
and words in Sanskrit, as they are to be met with only in
the Vedas, was too superficial. The Iranian languages,
such as Persian (the application of which requires even
greater skill and knowledge than in the case of Sanskrit),
were but little attended to by him. Whilst Burnouf often
failed in his etymologies, he was almost always successful
in determining the grammatical terminations, their affinity
to those in Sanskrit being too close not to be recognised at
once by a good Sanskrit scholar. And notwithstanding
some undeniable defects in his researches, he was the first
who gave, not a mere paraphrase or approximate statement
of the contents, but a real translation of two chapters of
the Yasna (1st and 9th). That was a great step taken
towards a sound philological interpretation of the whole
Zend-Avesta. But this great scholar seems to have be-
come, in the course of his studies, weary of spending many
years in the explanation of only a few chapters, and did
not pursue his inquiries further. After having simply
pointed out the way, and partially paved it, he left it for
others to follow in his tracks. His results refer chiefly to
1 Thus he says Akhtúirya (Yas. ix.
14, Vend. x. 11) is derived from the
Vedic root anj (to which he ascribes
the meaning "to sing"), and may be
taken in the sense of "made for being
sung." This is utterly wrong. The
root anj, to which he traces the word
in question, never means in the Vedas
"to sing," but "to smear, anoint"
(being identical with the Latin unguo,
"to smear"). The context of the pas-
sage, where the word in question oc-
curs, besides, requires another mean-
ing. Had he cast a glance only at
Vend. x. 3, 7, he would have recog-
fourth" (comp.
nised the word as a numeral, meaning
"four times" (literally, "till the
fourth time "), and being composed of
the preposition & (up to, till, as far
as), and khtúirya,
quatuor in Latin, keturi in Lithuanian,
"four"). To the word karafan (he
writes the crude form wrongly kar-
afna, guessing it from the very fre-
quent genitive plural, karafnăm), he
ascribes the meaning "deaf," while it
means, according to the Vedic lan-
guage, a “performer of sacrifices," as
we shall see in the fourth Essay.
28
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
grammatical points and the meanings of words, but very
little to the general contents of the sacred books of the
Zoroastrian religion, or to its origin and development.
About these matters his knowledge went but little beyond.
that of Anquetil. He had no idea of the importance of the
Gâthas; he neither knew that their language differs from
the usual Avesta language of the other books, nor that they
are metrical compositions, their metres agreeing with those
of the Vedic hymns; so that he was unable to trace even
an outline of the history of the Zoroastrian religion and its
sacred writings. This task was, however, at his time, too
difficult to be carried out; but he discharged his duties as
the founder of the first outlines of Avesta philology with an
accuracy, faithfulness, conscientiousness, and sagacity which
endear him to every sincere reader, and make his prema-
ture death a matter of deep regret. He was really a master
in scholarship and scientific investigations, and every page
he wrote, even where he erred, bears witness to the truth
of this statement.
Whilst the honor of having first opened the venerable
documents of the Zoroastrian doctrines to the civilised
world belongs to France, Germany and Denmark have to
claim the merit of having further advanced this entirely
new branch of philological and antiquarian studies.
The first German scholar who took up the study of the
Zend-Avesta was JUSTUS OLSHAUSEN, Professor of Oriental
Languages at Kiel. He intended to publish an edition of
the Zend-Avesta according to the manuscripts extant in
Europe, chiefly at Paris and Copenhagen, and to furnish
the learned public with a grammar and dictionary. He
commenced his edition by publishing the first four chapters
of the Vendidad, or religious code of the Parsis, in the year
1829; but after this first number had appeared he stopped
his edition, and relinquished this extremely difficult, and
in many respects thankless, branch of studies.
This fragment, published by Olshausen, and the edition
of a copy of the Vendidâd Sâdah belonging to the National
•
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
29
Library at Paris, by Burnouf, were the only means avail-
able for German scholars who had a desire to decipher the
language and teaching of the great Zoroaster. The utter
insufficiency of these, in order to make any progress in
these studies, was felt by all Oriental scholars in Germany.
They were, therefore, driven to content themselves with
the results arrived at by Burnouf.
.
The first who made an extensive and useful application
of them, now and then adding some remarks of his own,
was FRANCIS BOPP, the celebrated compiler of the first
comparative grammar of some of the chief languages of
the Aryan stock. He tried to give an outline of Avesta
grammar, chiefly according to the results arrived at by
Burnouf, but nowhere made discoveries of so much im-
portance in the Avesta language as that famous French-
man had done. His sketch of Avesta grammar, scattered
throughout his comparative grammar, although imperfect
and incomplete as a first outline, was a valuable assistance
to that increasing number of Oriental scholars who were
desirous of acquiring some knowledge of the Avesta lan-
guage, without taking the immense trouble of investigating
the original texts themselves.
The first step to be taken by German scholars towards
an advance in unravelling the mysteries of the Zend-
Avesta, was to put themselves in possession of larger and
better materials for their researches. There being no
Avesta manuscripts of importance in any German library,
students were obliged to go to Paris, Copenhagen, London,
and Oxford, the only places where Avesta manuscripts of
value were to be found in Europe. Among the German
States the honor of having provided scholars with the
necessary means to stay at these places in order to collect
more ample materials belongs to BAVARIA.
The Bavarian Government granted considerable sums
for these purposes to two scholars of its country, to MARC
JOSEPH MÜLLER, afterwards Professor of Oriental Lan-
guages at Munich, and to FREDERIC SPIEGEL, now Professor
30
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
of Oriental Languages at the Bavarian University of
Erlangen. Müller went to Paris to copy the most impor-
tant Avesta and Pahlavi manuscripts, and seems to have.
been very busy during his stay at Paris; he himself, how-
ever, made but little use of the materials collected by him.
He published only two small treatises, one on the Pahlavi
language (in the French Asiatic Journal 1839), treating
solely of the alphabet; and one on the commencement of
the Bundahish (in the Transactions of the Bavarian Aca-
demy of Sciences). Both are valuable, but chiefly based
on Anquetil's papers, which the author thankfully acknow-
ledged. Müller, very likely deterred by the enormous.
difficulties, like many others, then gave up this branch
of study, and handed most of his materials over to
his younger and more energetic countryman, FREDERIC
SPIEGEL.
This scholar intended to give the learned world the first
critical edition of all writings in the Avesta language,
commonly called the Zend-Avesta, to be based on a care-
ful comparison of all manuscripts then extant in Europe.
The materials left to him by Müller and Olshausen not.
being sufficient to achieve this task, he went, munificently
supported by the Bavarian Government, to Copenhagen,
Paris, London, and Oxford, and copied all the manuscripts.
which he required for his purpose. His intention was not
only to publish all the original texts, together with the
ancient Pahlavi translation, but also to prepare a German
translation of them with notes, and to issue both at the
same time. But before he was so far advanced as to be
able to publish a part of his large work, an edition of the
Vendidâd Sâdah (comprising the Vendidâd, Yasna, and
Visparad), in Roman characters, with an index and glos-
sary, appeared in 1850 at Leipsic.
The author of this really very useful work, which made
the original texts of the Zend-Avesta known to the learned
public at large, was HERMANN BROCKHAUS, Professor of
Sanskrit at the University of Leipsic. Not being in pos-
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
31
session of such extensive materials as Spiegel, he con-
tented himself with a transcription, in Roman characters,
of Burnouf's edition of the Avesta, and pointed out in
footnotes the various readings of Framji Aspendiarji's
edition published at Bombay in the years 1842-43 in
Gujrati characters. To facilitate the researches of stu-
dents, he added an index, indicating in alphabetical order
the passages where each particular word occurs.
In a
glossary (distinct from the index) he collected the explana-
tions of the Avesta words, so far as they had been given
by Burnouf, Bopp, Spiegel, &c. It was a rudimentary
Avesta dictionary, but of course very incomplete, the
author confining himself only to those words which were
already explained by other scholars. Now and then he
corrected errors.
This useful book contributed largely towards encourag-
ing Avesta studies in Germany. Burnouf's edition and his
commentary on the first chapter of the Yasna were too
costly and comprehensive to become generally used among
the students of German universities. But the work of
Brockhaus formed a manual for those Sanskrit students
who had a desire of making themselves acquainted with
the sacred language of the Zend-Avesta. The German
Sanskrit Professors began, now and then, to teach the
Avesta, but their knowledge of this language being very
limited, they could not succeed in training young men for
this branch of study so successfully as they did in San-
skrit. The subject is really so extremely difficult, that
any one who is desirous of acquiring a complete know-
ledge of it, is compelled to lay aside for many years nearly
all other studies, and devote his time solely to the Avesta.
The language could not be learned like Sanskrit, Arabic,
Persian, Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Ethiopic, Turkish,
Chinese, &c. (all which languages are taught in German
universities, but of course not always at the same place),
from grammars and dictionaries; in fact, the Avesta lan-
guage, before it could be learned, had first to be discovered.
t
32
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
But even to begin this task, a very comprehensive and
accurate knowledge of several Oriental languages, as the
starting-point for further inquiries, was indispensable.
In the meantime, the importance of the Avesta lan-
guage for antiquarian and philological researches became
more generally known, chiefly in consequence of the
attempts made to read the cuneiform inscriptions found in
Persia. The first language of these inscriptions (which
are engraved at Persepolis and on the rock of Bisutûn in
three languages) is an Aryan one, and decidedly the
mother of the modern Persian. Its very close affinity to
the Avesta language struck every one at the first glance;
hence the great importance of this language for decipher-
ing these inscriptions was at once acknowledged. That
circumstance removed many doubts which were still enter-
tained, especially in England, about the genuineness of
the Avesta language. The first work written in English
which shows any acquaintance with the original Avesta
texts was the Rev. Dr. Wilson's book on the Parsi reli-
gion, published at Bombay in 1843, which, although it
relies chiefly upon the results of Burnouf's researches,
also contains frequent indications of independent inves-
tigation.
Whilst Spiegel was preparing his critical edition of the
Zend-Avesta, WESTERGAARD, Professor at Copenhagen,
announced another one also, prepared from the same.
materials as were at the former's disposal. This great
Danish scholar had the first claims to the publication of
an edition of the Avesta texts, on account of the great
trouble he had taken to collect additional materials for
such a work. Not satisfied with the materials extant in
Europe, he left for India and Persia in order to search
after new ones. During his stay in India and Persia
(1841-43) he unfortunately did not succeed in obtaining
manuscripts of much value. There were, indeed, some
old copies of the Avesta books extant in Gujrat, and even
in Bombay, but it is very difficult to purchase them. In
♪
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
33
Persia, no books, hitherto unknown, could be discovered
by Westergaard, and even of those known to the Parsis in
India, he found only very few copies. We must there-
fore consider Western India, but more particularly Gujrat,
as the only place where any books, hitherto unknown,
may be discovered. In the advertisement of his edition
of the Zend-Avesta, Westergaard announced the addition
of a complete dictionary, with a grammar of both the
Avesta dialects, an English translation of the whole, and
an account of Iranian antiquities according to the Zend-
Avesta.
The first fruit of Westergaard's Iranian studies was,
however, not an edition of the Zend-Avesta, but one of the
Bundahish, or "original creation," still extant in Pahlavi,
but not in the Avesta. It is a compendious descrip-
tion of much of the Parsi religion, but is not acknowledged
by the Dasturs as a canonical book, like those styled
Zend-Avesta; its contents agreeing so exceedingly well
with the reports of Theopompos and Hermippos, men-
tioned above, that we are driven to assign to the original,
or its sources, a date not later than the fourth century
before the Christian era. Westergaard's edition (Copen-
hagen, 1851) contains, however, only a lithographed ver-
sion of one very old codex of the Bundahish, extant in the
University Library at Copenhagen. He added neither
translation nor notes; the only addition he made was a
transcript of two inscriptions of the Sasanians, found in a
cave at Hâjîâbâd, which were copied by him during his
stay in Persia. This edition was reviewed by the writer
of these Essays, and the review was accompanied by a
short sketch of Pahlavi Grammar.¹
1
Before Spiegel issued the first number of his edition of
the Avesta texts, he published a "Grammar of the Parsi
Language" (Leipzig, 1851). He means by Parsi language
that which is now called Pâzand by the Dasturs. It
1 See Ueber die Pehlewi-Sprache und den Bundehesh,' in the 'Göttinger
gelehrten Anzeigen,' 1854.
C
20
34
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
differs very little from modern Persian, except in the want
of Arabic words, and is nearly identical with the language
written by the great Persian poet Firdausi, A.D. 1000.
We are, therefore, fully entitled to call it a somewhat
obsolete form of modern Persian. Spiegel added some
specimens of religious literature extant in Parsi, with a
German translation. This book was also reviewed (in
1853) by the writer of these Essays, who found himself
compelled to take an unfavorable view of the scholarship
displayed by its author.
A short time after this grammar, the first number of his
edition of the Zend-Avesta, comprising the Avesta text of
about ten chapters of the Vendidad, appeared. It was
printed with beautiful new type at the Imperial printing-
office at Vienna (1851), and is really a masterpiece of
typography. This number, containing the mere text, with-
out either various readings or the Pahlavi translation, did
not suffice to enable the reader to form a judgment of the
way in which the text was edited; and the publication of
the remaining portion of the Vendidad, together with the
Pahlavi translation of the whole, was delayed till 1853.
In the same year the first number of Westergaard's edi-
tion, printed at Copenhagen, appeared. It comprised the
text of the Yasna only, chiefly based on a very old codex
(written A.D. 1323),1 but with footnotes indicating some
of the more important various readings of other codices.
This edition, although not printed with such beautiful
type as that used by Spiegel, was very accurate, and made
a much better impression upon the student than that of
his rival. In this first number one could see that he had
recognised the five Gâthas as metrical pieces. These first
numbers of Spiegel's and Westergaard's editions, together
with Spiegel's translation of the whole Vendidad, were
1 This codex is probably the oldest
Avesta manuscript in the world, and
contains the Yasna alternating with
its Pahlavi translation. Another
copy of the same texts by the same
writer, but dated twenty-two days
later, is in the library of Dastur
Jamaspji Minochiharji Jamaspasana
in Bombay.
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
35
reviewed (1852-53) by one of the most distinguished and
sagacious Sanskrit scholars in Europe, THEODOR BENFEY,
Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Göttingen, in
Hanover. He showed that, by a comparison with San-
skrit, which corresponds very closely with the Avesta
language, one might arrive at a much better understand-
ing of the Zend-Avesta than had been attained by Spiegel,
who appeared to have relied chiefly upon the Pahlavi
translation and the information supplied by Anquetil.
This Pahlavi translation, made at least thirteen hundred
or fourteen hundred years ago, would be a great assistance
to any modern translator who understands it thoroughly,
take the first sentences of the Ven-
didad as an illustration. The ori-
ginal Avesta text, with a literal in-
terlinear translation, is as follows:-
1 That Spiegel did not understand
how to avail himself of the Pahlavi
translation much better than Anque-
til, seems probable from many pas-
sages in his translation; but we may
Mraod Ahurô Mazdão Spitamâi Zarathushtrái: Azem dadham, Spitama
Spake Ahuramazda to Spitama Zarathushtra: I created, O Spitama
Zarathushtra ! asô rámô-dáitîm nóiḍ kudad shúitim; yêidhi
Zarathushtra ! a place of pleasant formation not anywhere habitable ; if
zî azem nôiḍ daidhyam, Spitama Zarathushtra! asû râmb-
then I not should have created, O Spitama Zarathushtra! a place of plea-
dâitîm nôiḍ
vispô anhush astrão Airyanem
sant formation not anywhere habitable,
all life existing into Iran
vačjo
the pure would have poured forth.
<
kudad shaitim,
frâshnváḍ.
This passage is rendered in the
Pahlavi translation, with explanatory
phrases (here included in brackets),
as follows:-' Aûharmazd said to
Spitâmân Zaratûshtar: I created, O
Spîtâmân Zaratûshtar! a delightful
creation of a place where no com-
fort was created [this is where man
is, the place where he is born and
they bring him up, seems good to
him, that is, very excellent and
' comfortable; this I created]; for if
'for it is not possible to go so far as
from region (këshvar) to region,
except with the permission of the
yazads (angels); some say that it is
possible to go also with that of the
demons].'
C
Spiegel's translation of the same
passage is as follows:- Ahura Maz-
da said to the holy Zarathushtra :
'I created, holy Zarathushtra! a
place, a creation of pleasantness,
'where nowhere was created a possi-
'holy Zarathushtra! I had not created
a place, a creation of pleasantness,
'where nowhere was created a possi-
'bility, the whole world endowed
with bodies would have gone to
Airyana-vaêja.'
'I should not have created, O Spîtâ-'bility (for drawing near). For if,
mân Zaratûshtar! a delightful crea-
'tion of a place where no comfort
was created, there would have been
an emigration of the whole material
'world to Aîrân-vêj (the earthly
'paradise), [that is, they would have
remained in the act, while their
going would have been impossible;
C
In this translation Spiegel differs
from the Pahlavi in two notable in-
36
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
as it contains much traditional information which would
be vainly sought for elsewhere; but this information is
given in a character and idiom not only very difficult to
understand, but also particularly liable to be misunder-
stood. In many cases the Pahlavi translation fails to
explain the original text, or evidently misinterprets it.
Under these circumstances it can be safely used only as a
supplementary authority, in confirmation or modification
of results already obtained (after the manner of Burnouf),
by a careful comparison of parallel passages, and search
for Sanskrit equivalents; or, when these means fail, the
Pahlavi translation may often afford valuable assistance,
if used judiciously.
Before Spiegel published the second volume of his
edition of the Zend-Avesta (1858), containing the Yasna
and Visparad, with their Pahlavi translations, Westergaard
succeeded in editing all the Avesta texts which are known
as yet; and to him we owe, therefore, the first complete
edition of the Zend-Avesta. The work is entitled Zend-
Avesta, or the Religious Books of the Zoroastrians, edited and
translated, with a Dictionary, Grammar, &c., by N. L.
Westergaard. Vol. I. The Zend Texts (Copenh., 1852-54);
but of the two remaining volumes nothing has yet
appeared. Westergaard knows too well the enormous
difficulties with which the study of the Zend-Avesta is
beset to come forward with a hasty translation, grammar,
stances, and, unfortunately, without connection with the meaning of
sufficient reason. The first deviation
is with regard to the word Spitama,
which he translates "holy," in ac-
cordance with Burnouf's explanation,
which was assented to by all Euro-
pean scholars for a long time. But
in Pahlavi it is translated by the
patronymical adjective Spitamûn,
"the Spitaman, or descended from
Spitama" who was the ancestor of
Zarathushtra in the ninth genera-
tion, as recorded in the Pahlavi
books. The Dasturs' tradition con-
firms this explanation, and the word
spitama never occurs in any other
holy." The other deviation is with
regard to the word shâitim, which
Spiegel translates "possibility," but
the Pahlavi translates more correctly
by âsânîh, “comfort.
"comfort." It is derived
from the root khshi, ‘to reside,' and
the meaning of the sentence in which
it occurs, is that a place was made
delightful which had previously been
nowhere habitable. Spiegel now ap-
pears to prefer comparing shâitîm
with the Persian shûdî, "pleasure,
joy," which is more in accordance
with the Pahlavi.
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
37
and dictionary; he knows that none but he who spends
many years in mere preparatory studies is able to give
anything like a correct translation of even a portion of the
Zend-Avesta. As a first edition of all the Avesta texts,
Westergaard's work deserves much praise; he follows, in
most cases, the best manuscripts; but if he finds their
readings decidedly incorrect, he amends them according to
sound philological principles. Compound words, so far as
he could discover them, are always marked. From a care-
ful perusal of his work, one may gather that Westergaard
understood already a good deal of the texts, and had
extensive collections of words, forms, various readings, &c.,
at his disposal. In every respect except typography,
Westergaard's edition of the Avesta texts is far prefer-
able to that of Spiegel, but he did not add the Pahlavi
translations.
Passing over some small treatises by Spiegel, published oc-
casionally in the Journal of the German Oriental Society and
the Transactions of the Bavarian Academy, of which the best
was his essay on the 19th Fargard of the Vendidad, we may
now proceed to speak of the researches in the sacred writ-
ings of the Parsis made by the author of these Essays.
He commenced the study of the Avesta language in the
autumn of 1852, shortly after the publication of the first.
number of Westergaard's edition of the Zend-Avesta con-
taining the Avesta text of the Yasna. He was already
acquainted with the results arrived at by Burnouf, which
knowledge was chiefly due to Brockhaus's valuable com-
pilation already noticed. But he was quite convinced, at
the very outset of his studies, that, from all that had been
hitherto written on the Avesta language and the Zend-
Avesta, one could obtain little but merely elementary in-
formation on the subject. Actuated by mere love of these
ancient records, and cherishing the hope of making some
discoveries in this terra incognita, he set about the task of
instituting inquiries into these sacred texts. He possessed
no other aids than those which were accessible to all other
38
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
scholars, while Spiegel and Westergaard had all the manu-"
scripts, or copies thereof, and the Pahlavi and Sanskrit
translations, at their disposal. Westergaard's edition of
the Yasna enabled the author to commence this study, but
it was soon apparent that unusual difficulties attended
every step in this branch of philological study. He first
directed his attention to the metrical portions of the Yasna,
called the five Gâthas, or hymns, the explanation of which
had never been attempted before by any Oriental scholar.
It is true Spiegel first observed that their language is dif-
ferent from the usual Avesta language to be found in the
Vendidad, Yashts, Visparad, and the other parts of the
Yasna; but he rested satisfied with pointing out some of
the most striking differences, such as the constant length-
ening of final vowels, and had never undertaken to trans-
late these hymns. The author first tried to make out the
meaning of a few lines by means of Anquetil's translation,
but was soon convinced of its utter insufficiency even as a
guide for ascertaining the general meaning. In the Ven-
didad and the other books Anquetil may guide one in this.
respect, but not in the Gâthas. The chief reason is the
peculiarity of these hymns as to language and ideas; they
contain no descriptions of ceremonies and observances, like
the Vendidad, nor any enumeration of the glorious feats
of angels, like the Yashts, but philosophical and abstract
thoughts, and they differ widely from all other pieces con-
tained in the Zend-Avesta. As they have been unintelli-
gible to the Parsi priests for more than two thousand years,
we could not expect Anquetil to give even an approximate
account of their general contents. As Anquetil's work
afforded no assistance, it became necessary to take the
trouble of collecting all the parallel passages throughout
the Zend-Avesta, and arranging them alphabetically. The
index of Brockhaus to the Vendidad, Yasna, and Visparad
was a considerable aid; but it was necessary to make an
index to the Yashts, which form about one-half of all the
Avesta texts extant, and were for the first time published
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
39
in Westergaard's edition. Being convinced, like Burnouf,
that the language of the Vedas stands nearest of all Aryan
dialects to the Avesta language, the author betook himself
to the study of the sacred writings of the Brahmans, espe-
cially that section which is called the Rigveda Samhita,
being a collection of rather more than a thousand very
ancient hymns. Only one-eighth part of this large work
being published at that time, it was necessary to copy out
from a manuscript, kindly lent by Professor Benfey at
Göttingen, the remaining seven parts. After that was
done, an alphabetical index, at least to some portions of
this extensive collection of hymns, had also to be made;
but in this tedious work assistance was given by a friend,
GOTTLOB WILHELM HERMANN (a young clergyman in Wür-
temberg), who possesses a remarkable knowledge of San-
skrit. Not content with these aids, the author commenced
the study of Armenian (which is affiliated to the Iranian
languages), and also that of Pahlavi (being already ac-
quainted with modern Persian). The study of Pahlavi,
which language resembles a mixture of Persian and Chal-
dee, was much facilitated by his being acquainted, to a
certain extent, with all Semitic tongues, which knowledge
he owed chiefly to his great teacher, Professor EWALD, at
Göttingen. After these preparations, the philological
operations were commenced in the following manner:
First, all the other passages were examined where the word
or form to be investigated occurred, in order to ascertain
its approximate meaning. But the parallels referred to
being often as obscure as the passage upon which they
had to throw light, it was frequently necessary first to make
out their meaning also by a reference to other parallels.
The approximate meaning of the word being thus arrived
at, in most cases after much trouble, it was confirmed or
modified by means of a sound etymology; first applying to
those words and forms of the Avesta language itself which
there was reason to suppose to be cognate to the word in
question, and then consulting the Vedas, especially the
40
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
hymns of the Rigveda. There being neither index nor
glossary to these hymns, the same trouble had to be taken
with them as with the Zend-Avesta, in order to ascertain
from parallels the meaning of the Vedic word referred to.
When no satisfactory result was obtained by these means,
further search was made in modern Persian and Armenian,
and now and then in Latin and Greek also. Modern Per-
sian, especially in its older form, commonly styled Parsi,
was of the highest value for such etymological researches.
But an appeal to this genuine niece of the sacred language
of the Zend-Avesta is in general more difficult, and sub-
ject to greater liability of error, than that to Vedic San-
skrit, which is an elder sister of the Avesta language. In
modern Persian a good many Avesta words are preserved,
but they have undergone such great changes as to make
them hardly discernible by a somewhat inexperienced ety-
mologist. Such corruptions of the ancient words are,
however, reducible to certain rules, which, being only par
tially known as yet, had first to be discovered. To illus-
trate these remarks on the corruption of ancient words in
modern Persian by some examples, we may take the Avesta
zaredaya, "heart," which has become dil in modern Per-
sian; sareda, "year," is sal; kerenaoiti, "he makes," is
kunad; atarsh, "fire," is âtash; &c. In Sanskrit, as the
elder sister, the corresponding words are much easier to
recognise thus, zaredaya is hridaya, saredha is sharad 1
(in the Vedas), kerenaoiti is krinoti (the Vedic form, altered
in classical Sanskrit into karoti), átar-sh is athar (pre-
served only in its derivative atharvan, "fireman, priest"),
&c. Of the ancient grammatical forms, such as the dis-
tinctive terminations of cases, tenses, &c., nothing remains.
in modern Persian, but all are extant in Vedic Sanskrit.
1 Spelt as pronounced; the letter ç,
generally used by European Oriental-
ists, misrepresents the sound of the
palatal sibilant, which is that of sh
in sheet, or ss in assure. The risk of
leading to mispronunciation (which is
by no means an imaginary evil) more
than counterbalances any etymologi-
cal advantage that can be gained by
using k, g, and ç to represent palatal
sounds.
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
41
From these remarks, it will be readily perceived that San-
skrit must be of much more use than modern Persian in
deciphering the Avesta language.
The first fruit of these laborious researches was an
attempt to explain the forty-fourth chapter of the Yasna
(forming a part of the second Gâtha), which appeared in
the Journal of the German Oriental Society (1853-54).
On account of the great difficulty of the subject, and the
incompleteness of the intended preparations, at that early
date it was impossible to be certain of many of the inter-
pretations proposed. But being convinced, from this first
attempt, that the Gâthas contained the undoubted teaching
of Zarathushtra himself, as he imparted it to his disciples,
the author thought it worth the trouble to pursue these
studies six years longer, and published the results of his
laborious investigations in a work entitled, "The Five
Gâthâs, or Collections of Songs and Sayings of Zarathush-
tra, his Disciples and Successors," edited, translated, and
explained (2 vols., Leipzig, 1858-60). It contains the
text, revised according to philological principles, and trans-
scribed into Roman characters, a literal Latin translation,
a free translation into German, and a complete critical and
philological commentary, with introductions to each of the
seventeen chapters, and concludes with an introduction to
the whole. The basis of the whole work is the commen-
tary, which gives, at full length, the results of a comparison
of all parallel passages in the Zend-Avesta and the Veda,
and the etymological researches in the Avesta and cognate
languages, together with a partial review of the traditional
explanations, so far as they were accessible in a bad trans-
cript of Neryosangh's Sanskrit translation of the Gâthas.
Some portions of this work, much revised, will be hereafter
submitted to the reader in the third Essay.
About six months after the publication of the first part
of this work, SPIEGEL published a translation of the whole
Yasna (including the Gâthas), together with the Visparad.
In this translation of the Yasna he appears to have relied
42
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
chiefly upon Neryosangh's Sanskrit version, which, in its
turn, is a mere echo of the Pahlavi translation. This is, no
doubt, the traditional interpretation; but, unfortunately,
the tradition goes but a short way back in the history of
such ancient writings as the Gâthas, which had evidently
become as unintelligible (from age or difference of dialect)
in the time of the Pahlavi translators as they are to the
Dasturs of the present day. Any translation based upon
such imperfect tradition can claim little attention as a
work to be relied on.
Spiegel had previously (in 1856) published his " Gram-
mar of the Huzvâresh Language," a term applied to Pah-
lavi, and usually written zvárish by Persian writers; it
appears, however, to mean the peculiar mode of writing
adopted in Pahlavi, in which Semitic words (or other obso-
lete forms) could be substituted by the writer for their
Iranian equivalents, and would be read by the reader just
as if the Iranian words had been written. This mode of
writing is by no means peculiar to Pahlavi, for even in
English we often write forms which are strictly analogous
to Huzvârish, such as viz., i.e., e.g., b., %, £ s. d., Xmas,
&c., which we generally read as if they were written
namely," "that is," "for example," "pound," "per cent.,"
"pounds, shillings, and pence," "Christmas," "et cetera."
Spiegel's grammar was based upon the forms he found in
the Pahlavi translations of the Avesta, and in the Bunda-
hish; and so far as the collection and arrangement of these
forms was concerned, it was very complete and useful; but
he was unfortunate in his explanations of the Huzvârish
forms, and so many of these explanations have since been
disproved, that his grammar is practically obsolete, and
likely to mislead.
<<
In 1860 Spiegel published, as a second part of his
Huzvârish grammar, a work on the traditional literature of
the Parsis, illustrated by quotations from the original texts,
with translations, and a glossary. This work contains
many valuable notices of such Pahlavi texts as were acces-
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
43
•
sible to him, especially the Bundahish, Bahman Yasht,
Minokhird, and the Pahlavi translations of the Vendidad,
Yasna, and Visparad; together with some allusions to the
Vajarkard-i-dini, Arda-Viraf-namah, Sad-dar Bundahish,
Zaratûsht-nâmah, Changhraghâch-nâmah, 'Ulamâ-i-Islâm,
Jâmâsp-nâmah, the Rivâyats, and a few minor writings.
With some of the longest of the Pahlavi writings Spiegel
was then unacquainted, and he was inclined to identify
the Shâyast-nashâyast with the Sad-dar Bundahish, not
being aware that it is the name applied to the Pahlavi
Rivâyat by the Dasturs, and that there is also a Persian
book of the same name extant.
Before proceeding to later researches, some other publi-
cations relating to the Zend-Avesta have to be mentioned.
LASSEN, the well-known Sanskrit scholar, published an
edition of the Avesta text of the first five chapters of the
Vendidad (Bonn, 1851); but he added neither translation
nor explanatory notes.
MAX DUNCKER, the author of a "History of Antiquity"
which is highly valued in Germany, treated of the ancient
Persian religion, its sacred books and prophets, in the
second volume of his work. Although himself a mere
historian, and no Oriental scholar, he succeeded in drawing
a fine and correct general picture of ancient Iranian life,
according to the reports of the Greeks and the modern
researches in the Zend-Avesta.
WINDISCHMANN, a Roman Catholic clergyman of high
position at Munich, published two valuable essays, one on
the deity Anaitis worshipped by the ancient Persians,
and mentioned, under the name Anâhita, in the Yashts
(Munich, 1856); the other was a translation of the Mihir
Yasht, with notes (Leipzig, 1857). His latest researches
were published, after his premature death, under the title
of "Zoroastrian Studies," edited by Spiegel (Berlin, 1863).
This work contains a very useful translation of the Bunda-
hish, with extensive explanatory notes and essays upon
several of its subjects, including a translation of the first
44.
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
half of the Fravardîn Yasht. His translations were a great
improvement on those of Anquetil, being made on scien-
tific principles. In the case of the Bundahish, he had
really to rely upon the single text published by Wester-
gaard, as previously mentioned; for Anquetil's manuscript
of the text was originally copied from the same codex, now
at Copenhagen.
In 1864, BLEECK published an English translation of the
Avesta, at the request of Seth Muncherjee Hormusjee Cama.
This was merely a translation from the German of Spiegel,
but the translator referred to the original text as a guide to
his choice of words in many places, and in some instances
he complains of the German version being quite as unin-
telligible as the Avesta text itself. This translation was
intended for the information of the Parsis, but it has also
been useful to that portion of the English public which
takes an interest in Zoroastrianism, though unprepared to
face the difficulty of foreign languages. It contains, of
course, all the imperfections of Spiegel's translations.
The further researches of the author of these Essays were
greatly facilitated by his being appointed, in 1859, super-
intendent of Sanskrit studies in Poona College, near Bom-
bay. He was thus brought into contact both with Brah-
mans and Parsi priests, the present possessors of all the
traditional Vedic and Zoroastrian lore that has not been
lost. After a short interval, employed in learning Marâțhi,
the vernacular language of that part of Western India, and
in the further study of English, he began his observations.
of the native modes of study, and followed them up by
close inquiries regarding their rites and ceremonies. He
had, in the first place, to unlearn much that he had learnt
in Europe; and to his readiness in accepting the fact that
European scholarship must often stand corrected before.
Indian tradition was probably due his ever-increasing
influence over the natives, which enabled him, in the
end, to obtain fuller information regarding their ceremonies
than had ever previously been given to a European.
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
45
The Parsis had gradually lost much of their reluctance
to discuss religious matters with Europeans, which had
been engendered or aggravated by their bitter controversy
with the missionaries, some twenty years before, and which
had been brought to a climax by the publication of the
Rev. Dr. Wilson's book before mentioned. They felt that
this book was so far one-sided as to give a false idea of
their religion, and they were naturally indignant at the
sarcasms it contained.¹ But the progress of time and
education had dissipated this ill-feeling, and they were
delighted to find a European scholar who understood so
much of their religion as to appreciate its good points
without dwelling too severely upon those which are doubt-
ful or objectionable. With a feeling of growing confidence,
the priests discussed their ceremonies and sacred books,
and the laity were glad to receive, from a European scholar,
explanations of their older scriptures which had hitherto
been nearly sealed books to all. To meet this increasing
demand for information, a public lecture, "On the Origin
of the Parsi Religion," was delivered on the 1st March
1861; and the first edition of these Essays was published
in 1862.
In the cold season of 1863-64 the author undertook a
tour in Gujrat, under Government patronage, to search for
Avesta, Pahlavi, and Sanskrit manuscripts. During this
tour he examined most of the Parsi libraries in Surat,2
Nâwsâri, Bhroch, and Balsâr, and succeeded in purchasing
several manuscripts for the Bombay Government, including
¹ Any personal ill-feeling which Dr.
Wilson may have occasioned by his
book soon disappeared; but it was
many years before his habitual kind-
liness, and conscientious efforts for
the improvement of the natives of
India, regained the confidence of the
Parsis. On his death, however, in
1875, no one felt more deeply than
the Dasturs themselves that they bad
lost one of their best friends, and
that in his controversy with them be
had only acted as his duty compelled
him.
2 The only Parsi priest in Surat
who knew anything of Anquetil Du-
perron was Dastur Kai-Khusre Darab,
who recollected hearing that Dastur
Darab had taught Anquetil the Avesta,
and shown him the sacred fire, when
disguised as a Parsi.
46
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a very old copy of the Avesta text of the Yasna, an old
copy of the Vendidad with Pahlavi, and a Vendidad-sâdah
written in 1626. Some other manuscripts were presented
to him as tokens of personal respect on the part of their
owners. Among these was a very old manuscript contain-
ing the Visparad with Pahlavi, Hâdôkht Nask, Pahlavi
Rivâyat, Ardâ-Vîrâf-nâmah, Bundahish, and several minor
texts, written in 1397; also copies of the Nîrangistân,
Shikand-gumâni, &c. With regard to Sanskrit transla-
tions, he could find none of the Yasna extending beyond
the Srôsh Yasht; and of the Vendidad, only Fargards viii.
79, 80, and ix. 1-4 (Westerg.), appear to have been ever
translated into Sanskrit. He also saw a Sanskrit Sîrozah
and an incomplete Avesta-Sanskrit glossary. At Nâw-
sâri he found two copies (one in Avesta and the other in
Avesta with Pahlavi) of a book called the Vaêtha Nask,
from its beginning with the word vaêtha; and other copies
of it were seen elsewhere. Both its Avesta and Pahlavi
were full of grammatical errors, and there is reason to
believe that this work was fabricated by some Dastur more
than a century ago, for the purpose of settling the inheri-
tance of the children of a non-Zoroastrian wife, which it
fixes at one-half the property, while the widow is to
receive the other half. This is contrary to the opinion of
most Parsi priests, who would consider such children not
entitled to any share of the paternal property, although
there appears to be nowhere, in the Avesta texts extant,
any direct prohibition of intermarriages between Zoroas-
trians and non-Zoroastrians.
After his return to Poona, in 1864, the author recom-
mended the Government of Bombay to employ Dastur
Hoshangji Jamaspji, a younger brother of the high-priest
of the Parsis at Poona, to prepare editions of several Pah-
lavi works for publication; and he subsequently under-
took to revise these works, and see them through the
press, on his return to Germany in 1866. He also de-
livered a lecture, "On an Original Speech of Zoroaster"
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
47
(Yasna xlv.), before an almost exclusively Parsi audience,
at Bombay, on the 8th October 1864, at their special re-
quest. And in pursuance of his schemes for encouraging
Parsis in the study of their religious literature, the pro-
ceeds of this lecture were appropriated as prizes for the
best translations, by Parsis, of two Pahlavi works, one of
which, the Pandnâmah of Adarpâd Mâraspend, was pub-
lished in 1869.
Turning back to Europe, we find a young and indus-
trious scholar, JUSTI, of Marburg, publishing a "Handbook
of the Zend Language" (Leipzig, 1864), containing a dic-
tionary (Avesta and German) of all words in the texts.
published by Westergaard, a grammar, and selections for
reading, all printed in Roman type. This dictionary is a
very useful compilation in a handy form, and, so far as
arrangement is concerned, it leaves little to be desired;
but having been prepared with too little study of the
texts, it is often incorrect in its definitions, and is there-
fore likely to perplex the careful student, and mislead the
unwary, unless it be used rather as a handy index than a
complete dictionary. Many of these defects will probably
disappear in a second edition, which ought also to include
the Avesta words peculiar to the Zend-Pahlavi glossary
and Nîrangistân; but the Avesta dictionary long ago
promised by Westergaard would be more welcome, and
be used with more confidence.
In 1868 Justi also published a translation of the Bun-
dahish, with the Pahlavi text lithographed and trans-
literated into Persian characters, and a glossary, in which
the Pahlavi words are printed in Persian type. From
some misconception, he claims, on the title-page, to have
published the Bundahish for the first time, whereas the
lithographed text had been already published by Wester-
gaard in 1851, and translations had been published by
Anquetil in 1771, and by Windischmann in 1863. Justi
had the advantage of collating another recension of the
text, contained in a Pahlavi MS. at Oxford and a Pâzand
48
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MS. in London, both of which have evidently been derived.
from the very old MS. written in 1397, and presented to
the author of these Essays at Surat, as mentioned above.
The translation is, therefore, more correct than its prede-
cessors, though blunders are not unfrequent. Justi argues
that the Bundahish is not older than the time of Fir-
dausi, and its statement about the accession of the Arabs
cannot, of course, be more than three centuries older; but
many of the other signs of late date which he relies on
are fallacious. It seems plausible enough to argue that
the more old forms of words a MS. contains, the older it
must be; but when one finds old forms substituted in a
modern MS. for later forms in a MS. five hundred years
old (as often happens in Pahlavi), this argument evidently
fails, and we have to suspend our judgment until the period
when the later forms first arose has been historically
ascertained. With regard to the Bundahish, it has pro-
bably been too hastily assumed that it is a single con-
tinuous work; it may be half-a-dozen fragments, either of
the same or various works, thrown together in different.
orders by different writers, as the MSS. vary in arrange-
ment, and the fragments constituting Anquetil's Chapters
xxviii., xxix., xxx., and xxxii., have been hitherto found
only in the MS. at Copenhagen, and its two modern
copies. This fragmentary condition of the book is more
consistent with the supposition of its antiquity than of its
later origin; it also explains how some fragments may be
much older than others. However this may be, the ar-
rangement of the fragments in the Copenhagen MS. is
probably that adopted in the latest edition, as it is most
consistent with the idea of a continuous text.
The author of these Essays, after his return to Germany
in 1866, revised and published, for the Government of
Bombay, some of the Pahlavi works prepared by Dastur
Hoshangji, as mentioned above. The first of these was
the "Old Zend-Pahlavi Glossary," which is found in two
of the oldest Pahlavi MSS. extant. The text was printed
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
49
in the original character, with an interlinear transliteration
in italics, and accompanied with an introduction, English
translation, and alphabetical index to the Avesta words,
arranged as an Avesta glossary. The introduction treated,
first, of the age and origin of Pahlavi; and, secondly, of
the age and value of the glossary; and it contained the
first systematic attempt to connect the Pahlavi of the
Sasanian inscriptions with that of the Parsi books. This
glossary was published in 1867, and was followed in 1870
by the "Old Pahlavi-Pâzand Glossary," of which the text
and index had likewise been prepared by Dastur Hosh-
angji. The index, which was arranged as a Pahlavi-
English glossary, was considerably enlarged by the addi-
tion of all the Pahlavi words in the "Zend-Pahlavi
Glossary." And the work was preceded by a long and
important introductory essay on the Pahlavi language, in
which the nature of that language was, for the first time,
fully and critically examined, and a sound basis laid for
future investigations. This essay began with a history.
of the researches in Pahlavi literature, inscriptions, and
numismatics which had been made in Europe. It then
proceeded to discuss the meaning of the terms Pahlavi
and Huzvârish, identifying Pahlavi with Parthian or
ancient Persian, and explaining Huzvârish as the mode
of writing Pahlavi with a large intermixture of foreign
or obsolete words. It next deciphered several Sasanian
inscriptions, and compared their language with that of the
Parsi books, with the view of determining the character
of Pahlavi, which it defined as a Semitic language, with
an admixture of Iranian words, and a prevailing Iranian
construction, if we look only to the way it is written (all
the pronouns and particles, and most of the common
words, being usually Semitic); or as a purely Iranian lan-
guage if we consider only the way in which it is read;
and to this practice, of reading the Iranian equivalents of
the written Semitic words, it attributed the total disappear-
ance of these Semitic words in modern Persian as soon as
D
50
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the writers began to write as they spoke. The essay con-
cluded by discussing the origin and age of Pahlavi, and
showed that traces of that language can be discovered in
some short inscriptions of the fourth and seventh centu-
ries B.C. Although this glossary was originally published
by Anquetil in his Zend-Avesta in 1771, it was in such a
modified form that it remained for a century practically
useless.
Shortly after the publication of the first of these glos-
saries, the author of these Essays was appointed Professor
of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology at the University of
Munich, where he continued to publish, from time to time,
short essays on subjects connected with Parsi literature;
among them an essay "On the Present State of Zend Phi-
lology" (1868), in which he sought to correct the mis-
apprehensions of other scholars with regard to the mean-
ings of certain Avesta words. Also a translation of the
eighteenth Fargard of the Vendidad, with a commentary
(1869); and an essay on the Yathâ-ahû-vairyô, one of the
most sacred formulas of the Parsis, with a translation of
its commentary in Yasna xix. (1872).
The last of his works connected with the Parsi religion
was the revision and publication of Dastur Hoshangji's
edition of "The Book of Ardâ-Vîrâf" (1872), and its glos-
sary (1874). In the preparation of these works, and also
in the Pahlavi-Pâzand glossary, he was assisted by an
English friend, E. W. West, whose attention had been first.
directed to Pahlavi by the discovery of inscriptions in that
language at the old Buddhist caves of Kanheri, about
twenty miles north of Bombay. To the Pahlavi text and
transliteration of the book of Arḍâ-Vîrâf were added the
texts and transliterations of the tale of Gôsht-i Fryânô
and the Hâḍôkht Nask, with English translations of all
three texts, and introductory essays describing the manu-
scripts used, the system of transliteration adopted, and the
contents of the texts. The glossary, which was prepared
by West from the original texts and from materials sup-
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
51
:
plied by Dastur Hoshangji, was arranged in the alpha-
betical order of the Pahlavi characters, as compared with
their modern Persian equivalents. It forms a complete
index to the three texts, and to some Pahlavi fragments
which had been published, but not glossarised, in the
introductions and notes to the previous glossaries. It
would be a great assistance to scholars if other Pahlavi
texts were published in a similarly complete manner, but
the labour of doing so, with sufficient accuracy, is alarm-
ingly great. To the glossary was added an outline of
Pahlavi grammar.
Besides assisting in the publication of Dastur Hos-
hangji's works, WEST had also published "The Book of the
Mainyô-i-khard" (1871) which professes to give the utter-
ances of the Spirit of Wisdom on many of the doctrines
and details of the Parsi religion. In this work the Pâzand
text and Neryosangh's Sanskrit translation were printed in
Roman type, and accompanied by a glossary of all the
Pâzand words, with an outline of Pâzand grammar.
Passing over some short essays, such as Sachau's “Con-
tributions to the Knowledge of Parsi Literature," and also
larger works of more pretension, such as Spiegel's “Iranian
Antiquities," this account of European researches may be
concluded by a short notice of some French works.
A new French translation of the Avesta is in the course
of publication by C. DE HARLEZ, Professor at the University
of Louvain, in Belgium. The first volume (1875) contains a
translation of the Vendidad, with an introductory historical
account of Zoroaster and the Avesta, and some details re-
garding Zoroastrian doctrines and ceremonies. The second
volume (1876) contains translations of the Visparad, Yasna,
Hâdôkht Nask, and the first ten Yashts of Westergaard's
edition of the texts. These translations are based not only
upon Spiegel's translations, but also upon the works of all
other scholars hitherto published, which have been care-
fully compared with the original text by M. de Harlez, who
has selected the most satisfactory explanations, or modified
52
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them in accordance with his own researches. He has
endeavoured to give the meaning of the text without being
slavishly literal in his translation, because the French
language, in his opinion, does not tolerate strictly literal
translation where the meaning is obscure. This is unfor-
tunate, as there are many obscure passages into which it
would be very hazardous to import more meaning than the
original text implies. Perhaps it would be more correct to
say that French writers, like Orientals, cannot tolerate that
strict accuracy of translation which seems so desirable to
Teutonic scholars.
With regard to the Vendidad, it may be noticed that all
translators have been misled into admitting Avesta quota-
tions, made by the Pahlavi commentator, as integral por-
tions of the Avesta text. This mistake has arisen from
the Avesta text being printed separate from the Pahlavi,
instead of alternating with it as in the original manu-
scripts. Neither the writers of the Vendidad Sâdah, nor
the European editors of the texts, have been always able to
distinguish these quotations from the original text; nor is
it sometimes easy to do so; but Vend. i. 4 (i. 2, Westerg.)
consists of four such quotations which form part of the
Pahlavi commentary.
A young French scholar, JAMES DARMESTETER, has
recently engaged in the study of the Avesta texts in a
strictly scientific manner, and has published several essays
of considerable importance. Among these may be men-
tioned his "Zend Notes," and "Notes on the Avesta," in
which he traces the philological relations of many Avesta
words, for the purpose of fixing their meanings. His essay
on "Haurvatâḍ and Ameretâḍ" (1875) traces the history
of these two ideas, health and immortality, as they first
became personified as archangels who oppose Tauru and
Zairicha, the demons of sickness and death; secondly, as
these archangels acquired the attributes of protectors of
water and vegetation, and their opponents became the
demons of hunger and thirst; and finally, as their names
EUROPEAN RESEARCHES.
53
became corrupted into Khurdâd and Murdâd, when there
appeared a tendency to treat them as titles of fire and the
angel of death. This account of these two Ameshaspentas
is ably supported, and to a great extent substantiated, by
quotations from the Avesta and Veda.
His latest work is an exhaustive essay " On Ormazd and
Ahriman" (1877), in which he has applied the method of
comparative mythology to explain the myths, equally with
that of comparative philology to explain the texts. The
conclusion he arrives at is, that Mazdayasnianism was
originally a dualism which taught that the universe was
created by two beings, Ahuramazda, who is luminous and
good, and Angra-mainyu, who is gloomy and bad; and the
history of the universe is a history of their struggles for
supremacy. Ahuramazda can be traced back to Asura, the
supreme god of Indo-Iranian times, and is the representa-
tive of Varuna, Zeus, or Jupiter. But Angra-mainyu is a
later idea of the Iranians only, although he takes the place
of the Indo-Iranian serpent-demon who fought with the
fire-god in storms. This dualism satisfied the popular
mind, but philosophers found it necessary, in the end, to
set up a First Cause, whom they called Boundless Time, or
Destiny, and from whom they imagined that both the crea-
tive beings proceeded. These conclusions, so far as the
primary dualism is concerned, will hardly be accepted by
the Dasturs as a correct view of Zarathushtra's teachings
The Parsis are now strict monotheists, and whatever may
have been the views of former philosophical writings, their
one supreme deity is Ahuramazda. Their views of Angra-
mainyu seem to differ in no respect from what is supposed
to be the orthodox Christian view of the devil. Whether
Darmesteter's conclusions regarding the dualism can be
fully maintained is rather doubtful; the question depends
rather upon the exact meaning of a few difficult passages
in old writings, which are confessedly mere fragments, than
upon the wide generalisations of comparative mythology,
which may easily mislead.
7
3
MAN-
54
ZOROASTRIAN WRITINGS.
III.-ZOROASTRIAN STUDIES AMONG THE PARSIS.
Before concluding this Essay, we may briefly notice the
efforts of the Zoroastrians themselves to preserve and
elucidate their ancient religion and literature.
The Persian cuneiform inscriptions inform us that the
Achæmenian kings believed in Ahuramazda, and that their
language was closely allied to that of the Avesta; in fact,
the period of their rule appears to have been the Augustan
age of Zoroastrian literature, when it was completed and
arranged in twenty-one books, called Nasks, each indexed
by one of the twenty-one words composing the sacred
Yathâ-ahú-vairyo formula. This period is approximately
mentioned in the book of Arḍâ-Vîrâf, when it states that
for "three hundred years the religion was in purity, and
men were without doubts."
We know from classical writers that Alexander, in a
drunken frolic, burnt the citadel and palace of the Achæ-
menian kings at Persepolis, in which one of the two
complete copies of the Zoroastrian literature had been
deposited; thus one copy was burnt, and the other is said
to have been plundered by the Greeks. Any other copies,
more or less partial, must have suffered greatly during the
next 550 years, while the Zoroastrian religion received
little support from either Greeks or Parthians, although
the fourth book of the Dînkard mentions that Valkhash
(Vologeses) the Ashkanian ordered all extant writings to
be collected and preserved.
The earlier kings of the Sasanian dynasty collected and
rearranged the scattered writings, and the more peaceable
of the later kings encouraged literary pursuits; but the
Mohammedan conquest of Persia, and the troubled times
which followed, swept away nearly all these writings, not-
withstanding two or three attempts of leading Zoroastrians
to preserve what was still extant. Of these attempts it is
recorded, at the end of the third book of the Dînkard, that
ZOROASTRIAN WRITINGS.
55
Adarpâd-i Adarfrobag-i Farukhzâdân collected all the old
writings he could find; and this collection falling into
decay, was again copied by Adarpâd-i Admítân, and
arranged in the form of the Dinkard, the fourth and fifth
books of which appear to contain the sayings of Adarfro-
bag-i Farukhzâdân, and those he selected from the reli-
gious books. Of the subsequent fate of the Dinkard more
will be said in the next Essay.
The Zoroastrian fugitives who settled on the western
shores of India found it difficult to preserve all their reli-
gious ceremonies and literature, and frequently applied to
their persecuted brethren in Persia for information during
the first ten centuries after the Mohammedan conquest.
Parsi writers may probably exaggerate the ignorance of
their forefathers in India, as it was during these dark ages
that one of their priests, the famous Neryosangh Dhaval,
was able to translate several of their religious books from
Pahlavi into Sanskrit. Among these books are the
Shikand-gumânî, Mainyô-i-khard, and the greater part of
the Yasna, the translations of which exhibit a knowledge
of the original Pahlavi that is hardly yet surpassed by
modern Dasturs. Neryosangh appears to have aimed at
popularising the obscure Pahlavi texts by transliterating
them into Pâzand; but why he should have added a San-
skrit translation is not so apparent, unless it were for the
information of strangers, or as a somewhat unnecessary
stepping-stone to a Gujrati version. As manuscripts of
the early part of the sixteenth century are still extant,
which have descended from Neryosangh's writings, it is
evident that he must have lived as early as the fifteenth
century; and judging from their genealogies, the present
Dasturs are inclined to think that he flourished about that
time.
The Parsis are also indebted, to some priests of these
dark ages, for the successive copies of their sacred books
which have preserved their religious writings from total
destruction. The oldest of these copyists whose manu-
56
PARSI WRITINGS.
scripts still survive was Mihrâpân-i Kaî-Khusro-i Mihrâ-
pân-i Spendyâḍ-i¹ Mihrâpân-i Marjpân-i Bahrâm, who
appears to have been a voluminous though rather careless
copyist, as we find his name in many colophons dated
about 550 years ago. He seems to have completed the book
of Arḍâ-Virâf and Gôsht-i Fryânô (copied in K20 now at
Copenhagen) on the 18th of the tenth month A.Y. 690; the
first part of the so-called Pahlavi Shâhnâmah (now in the
library of Dastur Jamaspji at Bombay) on the 11th of the
sixth month A.Y. 691, and the latter part on the 19th day of
another month in the same year; the Yasna with Pahlavi
(now at Copenhagen) on the 27th of the tenth month
A.Y. 692; another copy of the same (now in the library of
Dastur Jamaspji at Bombay) on the 19th day of the
eleventh month A.Y. 692; the Vendidad with Pahlavi (now
at Copenhagen) on the 24th day of the fourth month
A.Y. 693; the Shâyast-lâ-shâyast (copied in K20 now at
Copenhagen) on the 9th day of the seventh month A.Y. 700;
and the Hâḍôkht Nask (copied in the same) on the 18th
day of the ninth month A.Y. 720; also the Vendidad with
Pahlavi (now in the India Office Library at London)
seems to be in his handwriting, but the colophon is lost.
Of these eight manuscripts, four are still extant in Mihrâ-
pân's handwriting; three we know only from copies taken
about five hundred years ago, and now contained in the
manuscript K20 at Copenhagen; and the handwriting of the
Pahlavi Shâhnâmah is so like that of K20, that it may be a
similar copy from Mihrâpân's manuscript. Three of his
books were copied at Kambâyat from manuscripts (yadman
nipik) written by Rustam-i Mihrâpân-i Marjpân-i Dahishn-
yâr, who may have been his great-grand-uncle.
Passing on to later times, we find the arrival of the
Iranian Dastur Jamasp (surnamed Wilâyati, "foreign")
giving a considerable impulse to the study of religious
literature among the Indian Parsis. He is reported to
have left Persia on the 27th November 1720, and to have
1 Once written Spendyår.
PARSI WRITINGS.
57
given the Dasturs at Nawsari, Surat, and Bhroch much
information regarding the customs and learning of the
Zoroastrians in Persia. The chief Dastur at Nawsari,
Jamasp Asa, became celebrated for his learning, and at his
death, about 125 years ago, left a large library of manu-
scripts, which has become much scattered among his pos-
terity, now in the fifth generation. The visit of Dastur
Jamasp Wilâyati appears to have first called the attention
of the Indian Parsis to the fact that their calendar was
exactly one month behind that of their Persian brethren.
This was a matter of some importance, as it would, in their
opinion, destroy the efficacy of their prayers if the wrong
month were mentioned, and it altered the date of all their
festivals. It was not, however, till after further inquiries
in Persia, and the arrival of another priest therefrom, that
several Indian Parsis determined to adopt the Persian
calendar, which they did on the 17th June 1745, corre-
sponding to the 29th day of the ninth month A.Y. 1114 of
the Persian reckoning, which they styled qadîm, “ancient,”
while the old Indian reckoning, which has been retained
by the majority of the Parsis, is styled rasmi, "customary,"
or shahanshahî, "imperial;" the term qadim, however,
when found in older documents, is said to mean the old
reckoning of the Indian Parsis.
This alteration in the calendar, and several small altera-
tions in ritual in accordance with Persian usage, such as
pronouncing voht for vohú, constituted a complete schism
requiring a distinct priesthood, and occasioned much
controversy. The old-calendar party accounted for the
difference in reckoning by supposing that the people in
Persia had forgotten to insert an intercalary month which
their fugitive brethren had remembered to do shortly after
their flight from the Mohammedans: if this were the case,
it is difficult to understand why the intercalary month
was not again inserted every 120 years, according to the
supposed practice. To support this theory it became
necessary to prove, from the religious books, that such an
58
PARSI WRITINGS.
intercalary (kalisah) month was therein enjoined, and this
led to the kabisah controversy, in which the chief advo-
cates for the intercalation were Dastur Aspendiarji Kâm-
dinji of Bhroch, who published a book on the subject in.
1826, and Dastur Edalji Dârâbji of Bombay, who published
the book of the Khorehe-Vêhijak in 1828. Their chief
opponent was Mullâ Fîrûz, who published the Avîjeh-Dîn,
in 1830, to refute Dastur Edalji's views. Much of the
controversy turns upon the meaning of one or more Pah-
lavi words, generally read véhîjakîk, which Dastur Edalji
translates as "intercalary," and Mullâ Firûz explains as
referring to new-year's day, or the beginning. In some
cases the word cited means evidently "additional," but
none of the passages quoted seem to bear much on the
question of an intercalary month, either one way or the
other, although Dastur Edalji has mistranslated one obscure
passage so as to prove his case. That there must have
been some mode of keeping the calendar in accordance
with the sun in former times appears evident from the
Bundahish (p. 59, Westerg.), where two of the gahanbár
festivals are made coincident with the longest and shortest
days respectively; but there seems to be no account in
the Parsi books of the mode adopted for the rectification
of the calendar.
The growing demand among Parsis for further informa-
tion regarding the contents of their sacred books was met,
to some extent, by the publication (in 1843) of the Yasna
text in Gujrati characters, with a Gujrati translation, by
ASPANDIARJI FRAMJI; and a similar translation of the
Vendidad was made about the same time. These transla-
tions are noteworthy as being the latest Parsi works of
this nature which are free from European influence, and
can therefore be consulted by European scholars as the
last embodiment of pure traditional information.
The foremost of the Parsi writers who represent the
period of transition from confidence in old traditions to
reliance on European scholars, is Dastur PESHOTANJI
PARSI WRITINGS.
59
BEHRAMJI SANJÂNÂ, the present high-priest of the Bombay
Parsis of the predominant sect. In 1848 he published the
Pahlavi text of the Vajarkard-i-dînî, from a modern copy
of an old manuscript at Surat: this is probably the first
book printed with Pahlavi type. In 1853 he published a
Gujrati translation of the Pahlavi Kârnâmak-i Ardashîr-i
Pâpakân, which is a fairly good specimen of correct trans-
lation. Before the publication of his "Grammar of the
Pahlavi Language" (in Gujrati, 1871), Dastur Peshotanji
had ample opportunity to study the views of European
scholars; and his grammar, which is very complete,
though rather too voluminous, is a great improvement.
upon the one or two Pahlavi grammars previously pub-
lished by Parsi writers. He thinks that the pronunciation
of the Semitic portion of the Pahlavi in Sasanian times
has been correctly handed down by tradition, and that its
variations from Chaldee are due to corrupt pronunciation
when the words were first adopted, and not to mere mis-
reading of the characters after the correct pronunciation
was lost.
This opinion, however, is not confirmed by
reference to the inscriptions of Sasanian times; thus, the
word traditionally pronounced jânûn, “become,” is found
inscribed yahvûn in unambiguous Sasanian characters,
exactly as had been anticipated by European scholars,
whose proposed readings of several other Huzvârish words
are fully confirmed by the Sasanian inscriptions. In some
cases the inscriptions have contradicted the views of
European scholars, so Parsi writers exercise a wise dis-
cretion in not departing from their traditional readings too
hastily.
The latest work of Dastur Peshotanji, of which the first
volume appeared in 1874, is the Dînkard, in which he gives
the Pahlavi text with a transliteration in Avesta letters,
a Gujrati and English translation, and a glossary of some
selected words. This first volume contains about one-
eighteenth part of the extant portion of the Dinkard, or
about one-eighth of the third book, which is the least
60
PARSI WRITINGS.
interesting part of the work, and perhaps the most difficult
to translate. Many improvements in the translation
might be suggested, but it gives the meaning of the original
as nearly as can be expected in a first translation of a
difficult text. The second volume, published in 1876,
completes the first tenth part of the extant text, and fully
maintains the character of this edition of the Dînkard
for accuracy.
The works of Dastur HOSHANGJI JAMASPJI have already
been mentioned (p. 48–51) as having been revised by the
author of these Essays, and published under his super-
vision. In their original state they displayed a very con-
siderable knowledge of Pahlavi on the part of Dastur
Hoshangji, who had disposed of many of the chief diffi-
culties which might otherwise have troubled the reviser;
most of the corrections required were due to additions, and
to the progress of knowledge in the interval between the
first preparation and the publication of the works. Dastur
Hoshangji has also prepared an edition of the Pahlavi and
Pâzand texts of the Shikand-gumânî, with a glossary of
the Pahlavi words; and also an edition of the Avesta and
Pahlavi texts of the Vendidad, with a glossary of the
Pahlavi words; but neither of these works are yet pub-
lished.
In 1866 a prize was offered by Seth Khurshedji
Rustamji Kâmâ for a new Gujrati translation of the
Vendidad, with a complete glossary of the words in the
Avesta text. This translation was supplied, three years.
afterwards, by KAVASJI EDALJI KANGA, but was not pub-
lished till 1874. It is based upon Westergaard's text and
the best European translations which had appeared, and
the writer has added, in many places, a good deal of ex-
planatory commentary. This is likely to remain the
standard translation for the use of the Parsi community,
and it is to be regretted that its author has not avoided
the mistake of translating Avesta quotations, made by the
Pahlavi commentator, as part of the Avesta text, which
PARSI WRITINGS.
61
has been already noticed (p. 52) as a general error of
translators. In addition to the quotations admitted into
the text by M. de Harlez, he has translated the five quota-
tions which constitute Vend. ii. 6 (Westerg.), and finds
considerable difficulty in adapting them to the text, as
might be expected. If he had consulted a manuscript of
the Vendidad with Pahlavi he would have seen at once
that these five sentences are merely quoted by the Pahlavi
commentator to prove the correctness of his assertions.
The fact that these Avesta quotations form no part of the
text is noticed by Dastur Hoshangji in his manuscript
edition of the texts of the Vendidad.
In concluding these remarks upon the progress of Zo-
roastrian studies among the Parsis, it may be mentioned
that Dastur JAMASPJI MINOCHIHARJI JAMASPASANA of
Bombay has been engaged for many years in collecting
materials for a Pahlavi dictionary, the first part of which
is now in the press. This dictionary is likely to be ex-
ceedingly useful, being by far the largest collection of
Pahlavi words hitherto made; and these are arranged in
the order of the Sanskrit alphabet, which is convenient for
a people speaking Gujrati. It will adhere strictly to
traditional readings and interpretations, of which it ought
to form a permanent record, valuable to all parties in
these times of progressive transition.
Thus much had to be noticed regarding the general
course of researches into the sacred writings of the Parsis.
Slowly the ideas of past ages, buried for thousands of
years in documents written in a language more or less
unintelligible, begin to be unfolded; but many years and
many laborers will be required to make this new field.
for antiquarian and philological research yield much fruit.
The Dasturs, who are most concerned, and other younger,
talented, and well-to-do members of the Parsi community,
ought to consider it their duty to collect and multiply
correct and unimproved copies of all the oldest manu-
scripts extant, and to supply themselves with all the
62
PARSI WRITINGS.
means (such as a knowledge of Sanskrit, Persian, Chaldee,
&c.) now required for a successful investigation of the
Avesta and Pahlavi languages, in order that they may
study the contents of their manuscripts, and learn the
foundations on which their religion rests. Let them not
be discouraged if the results be not so flattering to their
self-love as they anticipated. So far as their researches.
disclose what is good and proper in their religion, they
must strengthen the belief in its divine origin; and so far
as they disclose what is bad and improper, they merely
indicate the corruptions introduced by human tradition.
Such corruptions can be neither concealed nor defended
with safety; but when discovered, they must be rejected
as mere human inventions and superstitious errors. All
religions have passed through human minds and human
hands, and are therefore likely to abound with human
errors; so that the man who believes in the infallibility
of a book is but one step removed from the superstition.
of him who believes in the infallibility of a high-priest;
he merely removes the idea of verbal inspiration from the
broad daylight of the present, where its improbability
would be too obvious, into the dim obscurity of the past,
where difficulties become lost in the misty shadows of
antiquity. Whatever is true in religion will bear the
fullest investigation and most searching criticism; it is
only error that fears discussion.

II.
LANGUAGES OF THE PARSI SCRIPTURES.
II.
LANGUAGES OF THE PARSI SCRIPTURES.
THE languages of Persia, commonly called Iranian, form
a separate family of the great Aryan stock of languages
which comprises, besides the Iranian idioms, Sanskrit
(with its daughters), Greek, Latin, Teutonic (with Eng-
lish), Slavonian, Letto-Lithuanian, Celtic, and all allied
dialects. The Iranian idioms arrange themselves under
two heads:-
1. Iranian languages properly so called.
2. Affiliated tongues.
The first division comprises the ancient, mediæval, and
modern languages of Iran, which includes Persia, Media,
and Bactria, those lands which are styled in the Zend-
Avesta airydo danháró, "Aryan countries."
We may
class them as follows:-
(a.) The East Iranian or Bactrian branch, extant only
in the two dialects in which the scanty fragments of the
Parsi scriptures are written. The more ancient of them
may be called the "Gâtha dialect," because the most
extensive and important writings preserved in this pecu-
liar idiom are the so-called Gâthas or hymns; the later
idiom, in which most of the books of the Zend-Avesta are
written, may be called "ancient Bactrian," or "the classi-
cal Avesta language," which was for many centuries the
spoken and written language of Bactria. The Bactrian
languages seem to have been dying out in the third cen-
tury B.C., and they have left no daughters.
(b.) The West Iranian languages, or those of Media and
E
66
IRANIAN LANGUAGES.
Persia. These are known to us during the three periods
of antiquity, middle ages, and modern times, but only in
the one dialect, which has, at every period, served as the
written language throughout the Iranian provinces of the
Persian empire. Several dialects are mentioned by lexi-
cographers, but we know very little about them. Of the
ancient Persian a few documents are still extant in the
cuneiform inscriptions of the kings of the Achæmenian
dynasty, found in the ruins of Persepolis, on the rock of
Behistun, near Hanıadan, and some other places in Persia.
This language stands nearest to the two Bactrian dialects
of the Zend-Avesta, but exhibits some peculiarities; for
instance, we find d used instead of z, as adam, “I,” in the
Avesta azem; dasta, "hand," in the Avesta zasta. It is
undoubtedly the mother of modern Persian, but the differ-
ences between them are nevertheless great, and in reading
and interpreting the ancient Persian cuneiform inscrip-
tions, Sanskrit and the Avesta, although they be only sister
languages, have proved more useful than its daughter,
the modern Persian. The chief cause of this difference
between ancient and modern Persian is the loss of nearly
all the grammatical inflexions of nouns and verbs, and the
total disregard of gender, in modern Persian; while in the
ancient Persian, as written and spoken at the time of the
1 In Sayyid Husain Shah Hakîkat's
Persian grammar, entitled Tuhfatu-
l-'Ajam, there are seven Iranian lan-
guages enumerated, which are classed
under two heads, viz. (a) the obso-
lete or dead, and (b) such dialects
as are still used. Of the obsolete he
knows four: Sughdî, the language
of ancient Sogdiana (Sughdha in the
Zend-Avesta); Zâult (for Zabuli),
the dialect of Zâbulistân; Sakzi,
spoken in Sajastân (called Sakastene
by the Greeks); and Hiriwt, spoken
in Herat (Harbyu in the Zend-
Avesta). As languages in use he
mentions Parst, which, he says, was
spoken in Istakhar (Persepolis), the
ancient capital of Persia; then Darî,
or language of the court, according
to this writer, spoken at Balkh, Bok-
hara, Marv, and in Badakhshân; and
Pahlaví, or Pahlavânî, the language
of the so-called Pahlav, comprising
the districts of Rai (Ragha in the
Zend-Avesta), Ispahan, and Dînûr.
Dart he calls the language of Fir-
dausi, but the trifling deviations he
mentions to prove the difference be-
tween Dart and Pûrsî (for instance,
ashkam, "belly," used in Dart for
shikam, and abd, “with," for ba),
refer only to slight changes in spell-
ing, and are utterly insufficient to
induce a philologist to consider Darî
an idiom different from Pârsî.
IRANIAN LANGUAGES.
67
Achæmenians (B.C. 500-300), we still find a great many
inflexions agreeing with those of the Sanskrit, Avesta,
and other ancient Aryan tongues.
At what time the
Persian language, like the English, became simplified, and
adapted for amalgamating with foreign words, by the loss
of its terminations, we cannot ascertain. But there is
every reason to suppose that this dissolution and absorp-
tion of terminations, on account of their having become
more or less unintelligible, began before the Christian era,
because in the later inscriptions of the Achæmenians
(B.C. 400), we find already some of the grammatical forms
confounded, which confusion we discover also in many
parts of the Zend-Avesta. No inscription in the verna-
cular Persian of the Arsacidans, the successors of the
Achæmenians, being extant, we cannot trace the gradual
dissolution of the terminations; and when we next meet
with the vernacular, in the inscriptions of the first two
Sasanian monarchs, it appears in the curiously mixed
form of Pahlavi, which gradually changes till about A.D.
300, when it differs but little from the Pahlavi of the
Parsi books, as we shall shortly see..
The second chief division of the Iranian tongues com-
prises the affiliated languages, that is to say, such as share
in the chief peculiarities of this family, but differ from it
in many essential particulars. To this division we must
refer Ossetic, spoken by some small tribes in the Caucasus,
but differing completely from the other Caucasian lan-
guages; also Armenian and Afghanic (Pashtû).
After this brief notice of the Iranian languages in
general, we shall proceed to the more particular considera-
tion of the languages of the Zend-Avesta and other religious
literature of the Parsis.
I. THE LANGUAGE OF THE AVESTA ERRONEOUSLY CALLED
ZEND.
The original language of the Parsi scriptures has usually
been called Zend by European scholars, but this name has
68
THE AVESTA LANGUAGE.
рко
never been generally admitted by Parsi scholars, although
it may have been accepted by a few on European autho-
rity, which is apt to be treated with too much deference
by Oriental minds. We shall see, hereafter, that this
application of the term Zend is quite inconsistent with its
general use in the Parsi books, and ought, therefore, to be
discarded by scholars who wish to prevent the propagation
of error.
At present we need only observe that no name
for the language of the Parsi scriptures has yet been found
in the Parsi books; but whenever the word Zend (zand) is
used alone, it is applied to some Pahlavi translation, com-
mentary, or gloss; and whenever the word Avesta (avisták)
is used alone, it is applied to the Parsi scriptures in their
original language. The language of the Zend, therefore,
is Pahlavi, and this is a sufficient reason for not applying
that term to another language, with which its connection
is probably slight. For want of a better term, we may
follow the example of most Parsi scholars in using the
term Avesta for the language of the Avesta; and to avoid
confusion, we must discard the word Zend altogether when
speaking of languages; although, for reasons given here- .
after, we may still use Zend-Avesta as a general term for
the Parsi scriptures.
The general character of the Avesta language, in both
its dialects, is that of a highly developed idiom. It is rich
in inflexions, both of the verbs and nouns. In the latter,
where three numbers and eight cases can be distinguished,
it agrees almost completely with Vedic Sanskrit, and in
the former it exhibits a greater variety of forms than the
classical Sanskrit. We find, besides, a multitude of com-
pound words of various kinds, and the sentences are joined
together in an easy way, which contributes largely to a
ready understanding of the general sense of passages. It
is a genuine sister of Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and Gothic;
but we find her no longer in the prime of life, as she
appears rather in her declining age. The forms are not
always kept strictly distinct from each other, as is the
THE AVESTA LANGUAGE.
69
re
case in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin; but are now and then
confounded, much less, however, in the verbs than in the
nouns, where the dissolution first began. The crude form,
or original uninflected state of the word, is often used
instead of the original inflected forms; thus, we find daêva,
demon, evil spirit," which is really the crude form of the
word, employed as the instrumental singular, which ought to
be daêrêna, or at least daérd, and as the nominative plural,
which ought to be daêrdonhô or daêcâ. The long vowels.
a and í are out of use in the nominative feminine, so that
the gender is not so easily recognised from the termina-
tion alone as in Sanskrit; thus we have daêna, “creed,
belief," instead of daếnâ; moreover, the forms of the dative
and instrumental are often confounded, especially in the
plural. These deviations from the regular forms, and the
confusion of terminations, are far more frequent in the
classical Avesta than in the Gâtha dialect, where the gram-
matical forms are, in most cases, quite regular.
Notwithstanding these symptoms of decay, the relation-
ship of the Avesta language to the most ancient Sanskrit,
the so-called Vedic dialect,¹ is as close as that of the dif-
ferent dialects of the Greek language (Eolic, Ionic, Doric,
or Attic) to each other. The languages of the sacred
hymns of the Brahmans, and of those of the Parsis, are
only the two dialects of two separate tribes of one and the
same nation. As the Ionians, Dorians, Etolians, &c., were
different tribes of the Greek nation, whose general name
was Hellenes, so the ancient Brahmans and Parsis were
two tribes of the nation which is called Aryas both in the
1 This is distinct from the usual
Sanskrit, which alone is studied now-
adays by the Brahmans. The most
learned Pandits of the present Brah-
manic community, who are perfectly
acquainted with the classical Sanskrit
language, are utterly unable to ex-
plain the more ancient portions of
the Vedas, which consist chiefly of
bymns, and speculations on the mean-
ing of ceremonies, their effects, &c.
They learn them parrot-like by heart,
but care nothing about understand-
ing their prayers. If they are asked
to explain the meaning, they refer to
a commentary made several hundred
years ago by a highly celebrated Brah-
man (Sâyaṇa), which often fails to
give a complete insight into Vedic
antiquity.
70
THE AVESTA LANGUAGE.
Veda and Zend-Avesta; the former may be compared with
the Ionians, and the latter with the Dorians. The most
striking feature perceptible when comparing both Avesta
dialects with Sanskrit is, that they are related closely to
the Vedic form of Sanskrit, but not to the classical. In
verbal forms, especially moods and tenses, the classical
Sanskrit, though very rich in comparison with modern
languages, is much poorer than the more primitive dialect
preserved in the Vedas; thus it has lost various forms of
the subjunctive mood, most tenses of all moods except the
indicative (the imperative and potential moods preserving
only the present tense), the manifold forms expressing the
infinitive mood,1 &c.; whereas all these forms are to be
found in the Vedas, Zend-Avesta, and Homeric Greek, in
the greatest completeness. The syntactical structure in
Vedic Sanskrit and the Avesta is simple enough, and
verbal forms are much more frequently used than in
classical Sanskrit. There can be no doubt that classical
Sanskrit was formed long after the separation of the Ira-
nians from the Hindus.
The differences between Vedic Sanskrit and the Avesta
language are very little in grammar, but are chiefly of
a phonetical and lexicographical nature, like the differ-
ences between German and Dutch. There are certain
regular changes of sounds, and other phonetic peculiarities
perceptible, a knowledge of which enables the philologist
to convert any Avesta word easily into a pure Sanskrit
one. The most remarkable changes are as follows:-
""
=
Initial s in Sanskrit is changed in the Avesta into h;
thus soma (the sacred juice used by the Brahmans)
haoma; sama, "together, the same, hama; sa, "that,
he," = ha; sach, "to follow," (Lat. sequi) = hach. In the
middle of a word the same change takes place, as in asu,
"life," = anhu; except now and then in the last syllable,
as in Av. yazaêsha, "thou shalt worship," where sh is pre-
In the Vedic dialect eleven such forms can be found, which are re-
duced to one in classical Sanskrit.
THE ·
yI
AVESTA LANGUAGE.
served. At the end of a word sh remains unless preceded
by a, in which case the termination ash is changed into ô,
except when followed by the enclitic conjunction cha,
when the sibilant is preserved; thus asura-s, "living,"
becomes ahurô, instead of aḥurash, but we find ahurashcha,
"and the living."
The Sanskrit h, when not original, but only a derived
sound, never remains in the Avesta. It is generally
changed into z, as in zî, "then, therefore," S. hi; zima,
"winter," S. hima; zbé (root), "to invoke," S. hve.
The Avesta z is also sometimes equivalent to a Sanskrit j,
as in zan, “to produce," (Pers. zâdan) S. jan (Lat.
gigno); hizva, "tongue," S. jihva.
=
In comparing Avesta with Sanskrit words, we often
observe a nasal in the former which is wanting in the
latter; this nasal is usually followed by h, as in anhu,
"life,'
""
=
S.asu.
Instead of Sanskrit shv we find sp in the Avesta, as in
aspa, "horse," =
S. ashva (Lat. equus, Gr. hippos); vîspa,
((
'all," = S. vishva; spá," dog," S. shvá.
In place of Sanskrit rit, besides the regular change into
aret,¹ we find ash as an equivalent in the Avesta, as in
mashya, "man," S. martya (Lat. mortalis, Gr. brotos);
asha, "right, true," S. rita.
=
Instead of Sanskrit sv the Avesta has a peculiar guttural
aspirate represented by g, and corresponding in sound
probably to qu in Latin and khw in Persian, as in qafna,
"sleep," S. svapna (Lat. somnus, Gr. hypnos, Pers.
khwab).
These are the most remarkable phonetic differences
between Sanskrit and Avesta words. By attending to them
it is very easy to find the Sanskrit word corresponding to
one in the Avesta, and we can thus discover a large number
of words and forms similar to those in the Vedas. There
are, of course, now and then (as is always the case in the
1 The Sanskrit vowel ri is always represented by are or cre; rit itself is a
corruption of art.
72
THE AVESTA LANGUAGE.
dialects of every language) peculiar words to be found in
the Avesta, but these are always traceable to Sanskrit
roots.
A comparison of the grammatical forms in the Avesta
and Sanskrit can be dispensed with. They are so very
similar, even when not quite identical, that they are
readily recognised by any one who has a slight knowledge
of Sanskrit. The strongest proof of the original identity
of Sanskrit and Avesta grammatical forms is their harmony
even in irregularities. Thus, for instance, the deviations
of the pronominal declension from that of the nouns are
the same in both languages, as ahmâi, "to him,” = S.
asmái; kahmái, "to whom," S. kasmai; yaêsham, "of
whom" (pl.), S. yesḥâm.
=
Also in the declension of
irregular nouns we find span, "dog," S. shvan,* sing.
nom. spá S. shvá, acc. spánem = S. shvânam, dat. sûné =
S. shune, gen, sûnó = S. shunas, pl. nom. spânô S. shvânas,
gen. sûnăm = S. shunâm; likewise pathan, "path,"
pathin, sing. nom. panta S. panthas, inst. patha = S. patha,
pl. nom. pantano S. panthânas, acc. patho = S. pathas,
gen. pathum = S. pathâm.
==
=
=
=
S.
The extremely close affinity of the Avesta language to
Vedic Sanskrit can be best seen from some forms of the
present tense, in which the classical Sanskrit differs from
the Vedic. Compare, for instance, Av. kerenaomi, "I make,"
with Ved. krinomi and S. karomi; Av. jamaiti, “he goes,"
with Ved. gamati and S. gachchhati; Av. gerewnâmi, “I
take," with Ved. gribhnâmi and S. grihnámi.
With regard to the differences between the two dialects
of the Avesta, the language of the Gâthas and the classical
or ordinary Avesta, we can here only discuss their relation-
ship to each other in a general way. The chief question
is, whether they represent the same language at two
different periods of time, or whether they are two con-
temporary dialects, spoken in two different provinces of
* Spelt as pronounced, sh representing the palatal sibilant, and sḥ the
cerebral sibilant.
THE AVESTA LANGUAGE.
73
Our knowledge of the
the ancient Bactrian empire.
dialects of the Iranian languages and the periods of their
development, previous to the Christian era, is so limited,
that it is extremely difficult to decide this question in a
satisfactory manner.
The differences between these two dialects are both of a
phonetical and grammatical nature. Were the deviations
merely of the former kind, we should be fully entitled to
ascribe them to two different ways of pronouncing certain
vowels and consonants, as generally happens in different
districts with nations speaking the same language; but
should we discover in one dialect fuller and more ancient
forms, and in the other evidently later and more con-
tracted ones, then the difference between the Gâtha
language and the ordinary Avesta must be ascribed to
their being written at different periods.
The phonetical differences of the Gâtha language from
that of the other books are, at a first glance, so considerable
as to induce one to trace them to different localities of the
same country, and not to different ages. But on closer
inquiry we find that several of these phonetical peculiarities,
such as the constant lengthening of final vowels, and the
severing of one syllable into two (as of the nom. pl. n. of
the relative pronoun yd into eeâ), are attributable to the
original chanting of the Gâthas and other shorter pieces,
constituting the older Yasna, and are not to be traced to
dialectical differences. These writings are the most im-
portant and holiest prayers used in the Zoroastrian divine
service, and the way of chanting them was, very likely,
analogous to that in which the Brahmans (originally near
relations of the Parsis) used to chant the verses of the
Sâmaveda at the time of solemn sacrifices, and which is
kept up to this day on such occasions. On hearing a
Sâmaveda priest chant some verses of this Veda, one
notices that he lengthens the final vowels of the words,
even when they are short. In Sanskrit, where the
grammar was fixed by rules, the texts were not altered
74
THE AVESTA LANGUAGE.
===
=
according to the mode of chanting them; while in the
Avesta, where nothing regarding the grammar and pro-
nunciation was settled, these peculiarities produced by
chanting the Gâthas and some other pieces crept into the
manuscripts, which were generally written from memory
only, as is still often the case. Besides these phonetical
changes which can be explained as the result of chanting,
there are a few other changes of vowels, such as that of a
final 6 or initial a into e, as in kē ko, "who?" and
ēmavat amavat, "strong;" also some changes of con-
sonants, as that of t into s in stavas = stavat, "praising,"
and the softening of harsh consonants, as in ddrēñg=
athrãs (acc. pl. of âtar, "fire"). These deviations are sug-
gestive of dialectical differences, but they are of no.great
importance, and no great weight can be attached to them;
they are merely such differences as might exist between
the idioms of neighbouring towns in the same district.
That these peculiarities, notwithstanding their insignifi-
cance, have been preserved so well, and not been dissolved
and changed into the current Bactrian language, which is
preserved in the largest portion of the Zend-Avesta, in-
dicates the great reverence in which these hymns were
held by the Zoroastrians. Considering that the Gâthas
contain the undoubted teaching of Zarathushtra himself
(without adverting to other reasons), we do not hesitate to
believe that the peculiar language used in the Gâthas was
the dialect of his own town or district.
As to grammatical forms, the Gâtha dialect exhibits not
a few deviations from the ordinary Avesta language.
Most of these differences evidently represent a more pri-
initive state of the Bactrian language, nearer to its Aryan
source; but some might be considered as merely dialec-
tical peculiarities. The genitive singular of masculine.
nouns in a ends, nearly throughout the Gâthas, in ahyâ,
which corresponds exactly with the Sanskrit genitive ter-
mination asya, while in the ordinary Avesta we always
find ahé, apparently a contraction of ahya, thus Gâth.
THE AVESTA LANGUAGE.
75
=
daêvahya, "of a demon,"
"of a demon," Av. daérahé S. devasya.
Again, the first pers. sing. imperative, expressing intention
or volition, requires only the termination â or âi in the
Gâthas, whereas in the ordinary Avesta the derived
termination ani prevails, and this is also used in Sanskrit;
the usual infinitive formation in the Gâthas is that in dyâi
which is also extremely frequent in the Vedic dialect,
while it is nearly unknown in the ordinary Avesta,
and wholly so in classical Sanskrit. In the pronouns,
especially, the language of the Gâthas exhibits more
ancient forms than we find in any other part of the
Zend-Avesta, as for example maibya, “to me,” which an-
cient form, agreeing so well with Sans. mahyam and Lat.
mihi, is nowhere to be found in the ordinary Avesta; ob-
serve also mahya, m. magyão, f. "of my," &c. The fre-
quent use of the enclitic pronominal particles i, îm, him,
&c. (which is a peculiar feature of the Vedic dialect, distin-
guishing it from classical Sanskrit), and the great freedom
with which prepositions are separated from their verbs (a
chief characteristic of Vedic Sanskrit and Homeric Greek),
indicate a more ancient stage of language in the Gâtha
dialect than we can discover in the ordinary Avesta, where
these traces of a more varied and not quite settled form of
expression are much fewer, and only met with, occasion-
ally, in poetical pieces.
Judging from these peculiarities, there seems no doubt
that the dialect of the Gâthas shows some traces of a higher
antiquity than can be claimed for the ordinary Avesta.
But the differences are not so great as between the Vedic
and classical Sanskrit, or between the Greek of Homer and
that of the Attic dialect, the two dialects of the Zend-
Avesta being much closer to each other. They represent
one and the same language, with such changes as may
have been brought about within the space of one or two
centuries. The Gâtha dialect is, therefore, only one or two
centuries older than the ordinary Avesta language, which
was the standard language of the ancient Iranian empire.
76
THE AVESTA LANGUAGE.
Much of the difficulty of understanding the Zend-Avesta
arises, no doubt, from grammatical defects in the texts
extant, owing to the want of grammatical studies among
the ancient Persians and Bactrians. Had the study of
grammar, as a separate science, flourished among the an-
cient Mobads and Dasturs, as was the case with Sanskrit
grammar among the ancient Brahmans, and had Iran pro-
duced men like Pânini, Kâtyâyana, and Patanjali, who
became lawgivers of the classical Sanskrit language, we
should have less ground to complain of the bad condition.
of the texts, and have found fewer difficulties in explain-
ing them than we have now to encounter. There is every
reason to believe that the grammar of the Bactrian lan-
guage was never fixed in any way by rules; thus the
corruptions and abbreviations of forms, which gradually
crept from the popular and colloquial into the written
language, became unavoidable. In Sanskrit the gramma-
rians built, by means of numerous rules, under which every
regular or irregular form in that language was brought, a
strong bulwark against the importation of forms from the
popular and vulgar language, which was characterised by
them as Prâkrit.1 Grammar became a separate branch of
study; manuscripts were then either copied or written in
strict accordance with the rules of grammar, but always
1 One must not, however, lose sight
of the fact that a language is not made
by grammarians, but by the common
people whom they despise. The work
of grammarians is merely to take the
language as they find it, and try to
ascertain what rules they can manu-
facture to account for the various
forms and idioms used by the people
around them. So long as such rules
are laid down merely as explanations
of existing facts, they will be useful
to the scholar, and will not impede
progress; but once let them be enun-
ciated as inflexible laws, unalterable
as those of the Medes and Persians,
and then they hinder progress, ossify
thought, and stop discovery. Gram-
0
mar is no exception to the general
rule that laws are hurtful unless sub-
ject to constant revision; for a law
that cannot be altered becomes a
dogma, an impediment to discussion,
progress, and improvement, whether
it be grammatical, medical, legal,
scientific, social, or religious. Whe-
ther the stoppage of Hindu progress
in knowledge beyond a certain point
be not due to the excessive systema-
tising adopted by their writers when
they approached that point, is a mat-
ter worth consideration. Arrived at
a certain amount of progress, they
ceased to look forward, but contented
themselves with surveying and ar-
ranging what they already knew.
THE AVESTA LANGUAGE.
77
·
with attention to phonetical peculiarities, especially in
Vedic books, if they had any real foundation. To these
grammatical studies of the Brahmans, which belong to an
age long gone by, we chiefly owe the wonderfully correct,
and accurately grammatical state of the texts of the Vedas
and other revered books of antiquity. In Iran almost all
knowledge of the exact meaning of the terminations died
out at the time when the ancient Iranian languages under-
went the change from inflected to uninflected idioms.
Books were extant, and learnt by heart for religious pur-
poses, as is still done by the Parsi priests. But when the
language of the Zoroastrian books had become dead, there
were no means for the priests, who cared more for the mere
mechanical recital of the sacred texts than for a real know-
ledge of their meaning, to prevent corruptions of the texts.
Ignorant of anything like grammar, they copied them me-
chanically, like the monks of Europe in the middle ages,
or wrote them from memory, and, of course, full of blun-
ders and mistakes. On this account we find the copies
now used by Mobads and Dasturs in a most deplorable
condition as regards grammar; the terminations are often
written as separate words, and vowels inserted where they
ought to be omitted, in accordance with the wrong pronun-
ciation of the writer. The best text, comparatively speak-
ing, is to be found in the oldest copies; while in Vedic
manuscripts (if written for religious purposes) there is not
the slightest difference, whether they are many centuries
old or copied at the present day. Westergaard has taken
great trouble to give a correct text, according to the oldest
manuscripts accessible to him, and his edition is, in most
cases, far preferable to the manuscripts used by the priests
of modern times. If older manuscripts than those used
by Westergaard be known to the Dasturs, they should con-
sider it their bounden duty to procure them for the purpose.
of collation with Westergaard's valuable edition, so that
they may ascertain all preferable readings for their own
information and that of other scholars. Why will they
78
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
remain behind the Brahmans and the Jews, who have
preserved their sacred writings so well, and facilitated
modern researches to so great an extent? The era for a
sound philological explanation of the time-hallowed frag-
ments of the Zoroastrian writings has come, and the Das-
turs, as the spiritual guides of the Parsi community, should
take a chief part in it. The darkness in which much of
their creed is enshrouded should be dispelled; but the only
way of obtaining so desirable a result is by the diffusion of
a sound and critical knowledge of the Avesta language.
II. THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE AND PAZAND.
It has been already noticed (p. 67) that after the five
centuries of obscurity, and probable anarchy,1 which fol-
lowed the death of Alexander, when we next meet with.
the vernacular language of Western Iran, it has assumed
the form of Pahlavi, the name generally applied to the
language of the inscriptions of the Sasanian dynasty,
whether on rocks or coins.
Various interpretations of the word Pahlavi have been
proposed. Anquetil derives it from the Persian pahlû,
side," in which case Pahlavi would mean "the frontier
language;” but although this opinion has been held by
some scholars, it can hardly be correct, as it is difficult to
imagine that a frontier language could have spread over a
vast empire. It has also been connected with pahlav, “ a
hero," but "the hero language" is a very improbable.
designation. Native lexicographers have traced Pahlavi
to the name Pahlav of a town and province; that it was
not the language of a town only, is evident from Firdausi's.
statements that the Pahlavi traditions were preserved by
the dihgân,“ village chief;" it may have been the language
C
1 'In the Kârnâmah of Artakhshîr-i
Papakân it was written that after
'the death of Alexander of Rûm,
'there were 240 small rulers of the
country of Aîrân. The warriors of
6
Fârs and the borders adjacent to it
were in the hands of a chieftain of
Ardavân. Pâpak was governor and
sovereign of Fârs, and was appointed
'by Ardavân.'-Kârnâmak-i A. P.
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
79
of a province, but the province of Pahlav is said to have
included Ispahân, Raf, Hamadân, Nihâvand,. and Adar-
baîjân, and must have comprised the ancient Media, but
that country is never called Pahlav by Persian and Arab
historians. Quatremère was of opinion that Pahlav was
identical with the province Parthia, mentioned by the
Greeks; he shows, by reference to Armenian authors, that
pahlav was a royal title of the Arsacidans. As the
Parthians regarded themselves as the most warlike people
of the Orient, it is not surprising that pahlar and pahlavân
in Persian, and palhav or pahlav, and pahlavig or palharig
in Armenian, became appellations for a warrior; the name
thus lost its national meaning altogether, and became only
a title for bold champions of old. It spread beyond the
frontiers of Iran eastwards to India, for we find the
Pahlavâs mentioned as a mighty foreign nation in the
Râmâyana, Mahâbhârata, and the Laws of Manu, and we
can only understand them to have been the Persians. Re-
garding the origin of the word, we may compare it with
pâhlûm, “excellent," but cannot derive it therefrom.
=
As the name of a nation, we can discover it only in the
Parthva of the cuneiform inscriptions, which is the Parthia
of the Greeks and Romans. The change of parthva into
pahlav is not surprising, as l is not discoverable in the
ancient Iranian tongues, where r is used instead, and th in
the middle of an ancient Iranian word generally becomes
h in Persian, as in Av. mithra Pers. mihir. It may be
objected that the Parthians were not Persians but pro-
bably a Scythic race, and that Pahlavi could not have been
the language of the Parthians. This objection, however,
will not hold good when we consider that the Parthians
were the actual rulers of Persia for nearly five hundred
years, and made themselves respected and famous every-
where by their fierce and successful contests with the
mightiest nation of the ancient world, the Romans. It is
not surprising, therefore, that the name which once struck
such terror into the hearts of Roman generals and emperors
80
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
was remembered in Persia, and that everything connected
with antiquity, whether in history, religion, letters, writing,
or language, was called pahlaví, or belonging to the ancient
rulers of the country, the Parthians. Pahlavi thus means,
in fact, nothing but "ancient Persian" in general, without
restriction to any particular period or dialect. This we
may see from the use made of the word by Mohammedan
writers; thus, Ibn Hauqal, an Arab geographer of the
tenth century, when describing the province of Fârs, the
ancient Persis, states that three languages were used there,
viz. (a) the Fârsî (Persian), spoken by the natives when
conversing with one another, which was spread all over
Persia, and understood everywhere; (b) the Pahlavî, which
was the language of the ancient Persians, in which the
Magi wrote their historical records, but which in the
writer's time could not be understood by the inhabitants.
of the province without a translation; (c) the Arabic, which
was used for all official documents. Of other languages
spoken in Persia he notices the Khûzî, the language of
Khûzistân, which he states to be quite different from
Hebrew, Syriac, or Fârsî. In the Mujmilu-t-tawârîkh there
is an account of "Pahlavi" inscriptions at Persepolis,
but the writer evidently means those in cuneiform char-
acters.
From all this we may clearly see that the name Pahlavi
was not limited to any particular period or district. In
the time of Firdausi (A.D. 1000), the cuneiform writing as
well as the Sasanian inscriptions passed for Pahlavi char-
acters; and the ancient Persian and Avesta were regarded
as Pahlavi, equally with the official language of the
Sasanian period, to which the term has been now restricted,
since the others have become better known. The term
Pahlavi was thus, in fact, never used by the Persians
themselves in any other sense than that of "ancient
P'ersian," whether they referred to the Sasanian, Arsacidan,
Achæmenian, Kayanian, or Peshdadian times. Any reader
of the Shâhnâmah will arrive at this conclusion,
This
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
81
misapplication of a more recent name to earlier historical
facts is analogous to the misuse of the appellation Arûmák,
"Roman," which the Parsi writers apply to Alexander, the
Macedonian conqueror, because he entered the Persian
empire from the quarter where the Roman armies appeared
in later times.
However loosely the term Pahlavi may have been for-
merly applied, it has long been practically restricted to the
written language of Persia during the Sasanian dynasty,
and to the literature of that period and a short time after,
of which some fragments have been preserved by the
Parsis, in a character resembling that of the Avesta, but
very deficient in distinct letters. These Pahlavi writings
are of a very peculiar character: instead of presenting us
with a pure Iranian dialect (as might be expected in the
language of a period commencing with the purely Iranian
ancient Persian, and ending with the nearly equally pure
Iranian language of Firdausi), it exhibits a large admixture
of Semitic words, which increases as we trace it further
back, so that the earliest inscriptions of the Sasanian
dynasty may be described as being written in a Semitic
language, with some admixture of Iranian words, and a
prevailing Iranian construction. Traces of the Semitic
portion of the Pahlavi can be found on coins of the third
and fourth century B.C., and possibly on some tablets found
at Nineveh, which must be as old as the seventh century
B.C.; so there is some reason to suppose that it may be
derived from one of the dialects of the Assyrian language,
although it differs considerably from the language of the
Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions. Practically, however, our
acquaintance with Pahlavi commences with the inscrip-
tions of the first Sasanian kings on rocks and coins.
Since the Mohammedan conquest of Persia, the language
has become greatly mixed with Semitic words from the
Arabic, but this Semitic admixture is of a totally different
character to that we find in Pahlavi. The Arabic element
in modern Persian consists chiefly of substantives and
F
1
82
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
adjectives, referring to religion, literature, or science; few
particles or verbs have been adopted, except when whole
phrases have been borrowed; in fact, the Arabic words,
although very numerous, are evidently borrowed from a
foreign language. The Semitic element in Pahlavi writ-
ings, on the contrary, comprises nearly all kinds of words
which are not Arabic in modern Persian; almost all pro-
nouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and common verbs, many
adverbs and substantives in frequent use, the first ten
numerals, but very few adjectives, are Semitic; while
nearly every Arabic word in modern Persian would be re-
presented by an Iranian one in Pahlavi writings. It is
optional, however, to use Iranian equivalents for any of
these Semitic words when writing Pahlavi, but these
equivalents are rarely used for some of the pronouns, pre-
positions, and conjunctions; so rarely, indeed, that the
orthography of a few of them is uncertain. Notwithstand-
ing the Semitic appearance of the written Pahlavi, we find
that all traces of Semitic inflexions have disappeared, except
in a few of the earliest Sasanian inscriptions, written in a
peculiar character and dialect, called Chaldæo-Pahlavi, in
which the Chaldee plural suffix în is still often used, as in
malkîn malká, "king of kings," instead of malkán malká
in the ordinary Sasanian Pahlavi inscriptions of the same
age, where the Iranian plural suffix an is used. Besides
this Iranian suffix to nouns, we find the verbs appearing in
one unchangeable Semitic form, to which is added certain
Iranian suffixes, except in the earliest inscriptions in Sasa-
nian Pahlavi, where these suffixes are wanting. In addition.
to these indications of Iranian grammar, we also find a
prevailing Iranian construction in the sentences, as much
in the older inscriptions as in the later writings.
The explanation of this extraordinary compound writ-
ing, fundamentally Semitic in its words and Iranian in its
construction, is that it never literally represented the
spoken language of any nation. The Iranians must have
inherited their writing from a Semitic people, and although
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
83
they were acquainted with the separate sounds of each of
the letters, they preferred transferring the Semitic words
bodily, so as to represent the same ideas in their own Ira-
nian language, and each Semitic word, so transferred, was
merely an ideogram, and would be read with the sound of
the corresponding Iranian word, without reference to the
sounds of the letters composing it; thus the Persians wrote
the old Semitic word malkâ, “king," but they pronounced
it shah. When the Semitic words had more than one
grammatical form, they would, for the sake of uniformity
be usually borrowed in one particular form, and probably
in the form which occurred most frequently in the Semitic.
writings. As these ideograms were to represent an Iranian
language, they would be arranged, of course, according to
Iranian syntax. For certain words the writer could find
no exact Semitic equivalent, especially for Iranian names.
and religious terms; to express them he had recourse to
the alphabet, and wrote these words as they were pro-
nounced; thus laying the foundation of the Iranian element
in the Pahlavi. As the Semitic ideograms remained un-
changed,¹ it was necessary to add Iranian suffixes to indicate
the few grammatical forms which survived in the spoken
language; these additions appear to have been only gra-
dually made, for the sake of greater precision, as some of
them are not found in the older inscriptions. In later
writings we find a few other Iranian additions to Semitic
words, used generally to indicate some modification of the
original word; thus abû pîd, "father," is altered into
abiḍar-piḍar; am mâd, "mother," into amidar máḍar;
amîḍar =
&c. In these later writings, we also find the proportion of
the Semitic element considerably reduced, being confined
to the representation of some three to four hundred of the
commonest words in the language, while all other words
are Iranian, written as they are pronounced.
=
=
1 The only exceptions extant seem
to be a few Semitic plurals in -în
found in the Chaldæo-Pahlavi inscrip-
tions before mentioned (p. 82); but
even these are used in phrases of Ira-
nian construction.
84
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
<<
<
As a proof that the Persians did not use the Semitic
words in speaking, we may quote the statement of Ammi-
anus Marcellinus (xix. 2, 11). When referring to the war
between the Roman Emperor Constantius and Shahpûhar
II., about A.D. 350, he says that the Persians used the
terms saansaan and pyrosen, meaning "king of kings" and
conqueror." Both these terms are Iranian, the first being
shahân-shah, and the latter pêrúz, "victorious," and show
conclusively that the Persians of those times did not pro-
nounce malkân malka, although they wrote those words,
but they both wrote and pronounced pîrúz, which has no
Semitic equivalent in Pahlavi. More than four centuries.
later, Ibn Muqaffa, a Mohammedan writer of the latter half
of the eighth century, states that the Persians 'possess a
'kind of spelling which they call zavárish; they write by
it the characters connected as well as separated, and it
'consists of about a thousand words (which are put toge-
ther), in order to distinguish those which have the same
meaning. For instance, if somebody intends to write
'gôsht, that is lakhm (meat) in Arabic, he writes bisrâ, but
'reads gôsht; and if somebody intends to write nân, that
is khubz (bread) in Arabic, he writes lahmâ, but reads
nán. And in this manner they treat all words that they
'intend to write. Only things which do not require such
a change are written just as they are pronounced.' It
appears from this that the Persians of the eighth century
did exactly as a Parsi priest would do at the present
time; when they came to a Semitic word while reading
Pahlavi, they pronounced its Persian equivalent, so that
their reading was entirely Persian, although the writing
was an odd mixture of Semitic, Persian, and hybrid words.
It was always optional to write the Persian word instead
of its Semitic equivalent, and it was only necessary to make
this the rule, instead of the exception, to convert the old
Pahlavi into pure Persian. This final step became com-
pulsory when the Persians adopted a new alphabet, with
which the old Semitic ideograms would not amalgamate,
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
85
but which facilitated the adoption of Arabic terms intro-
duced by their Mohammedan conquerors. Hence the
sudden change from Pahlavi to modern Persian was rather
a change in writing than an alteration in speaking. The
spoken language changed but slowly, by the gradual adop-
tion of Arabic words and phrases, as may be seen from a
comparison of the language of Firdausi with that of recent
l'ersian writers.
Ibn Muqaffa uses the term zavârish for the Semitic ele-
ment in Pahlavi, and this is the term usually employed in
Persian, although written occasionally azvârish or uzvúrsh;
in Pahlavi it is written húzvârish or aûzvárishn, but it is
doubtful if the word occurs in any very old writings.
Several attempts have been made to explain its etymology,
but as its correct form is by no means certain, it affords
very little basis for trustworthy etymology. The term
Huzvârish is applied not only to the Semitic ideograms,
but also to a smaller number of Iranian words written in
an obsolete manner, so as to be liable to incorrect pronun-
ciation; these obsolete Iranian written forms are used as
ideograms in the same manner as the old Semitic words.
The habit of not pronouncing the Huzvârish as it is written
must have tended to produce forgetfulness of the original
pronunciation of the words; this was to some extent ob-
viated by the compilation of a glossary of the Huzvârish
forms, with their pronunciation in Avesta characters, as
well as their Iranian equivalents. When this glossary was
compiled is uncertain, but as the pronunciation of some of
the Huzvârish words is evidently merely guessed from the
appearance of the letters, we may conclude that the true
sounds of some of the words were already forgotten.
It has been already noticed (p. 68) that Pahlavi trans-
lations of the Avesta are called Zand, and we may here
further observe that the Iranian equivalent of Huzvârish
is called Pâzand, reserving further explanation of these
terms for the third Essay. This Pâzand may be written in
Pahlavi characters, as happens when single Pâzand words.
86
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
are substituted for their Huzvârish equivalents in a Pah-
lavi text; or it may be written in Avesta characters, which
happens when the whole text is so transliterated, and is
then called a Pâzand text; or this Pâzand text may be
further transliterated into the modern Persian character,
when it is still called Pâzand, and differs from the Iranian
element of modern Persian only in its frequent use of ob-
solete words, forms, and construction. It would be conve-
nient to call this Persian form of Pâzand by the name
Pârsî, but it is not so called by the Parsis themselves, nor
in their books; with them, Pârsî or Fârsî means simply
modern Persian, more or less similar to Firdausi's language.
It has been mentioned above that it would be easy to
forget the pronunciation of the Huzvârish words, and it is
now necessary to explain how this could be. The Pahlavi
alphabets, being of Semitic origin, have not only all the
usual deficiencies of other Semitic alphabets, but also some
defects peculiar to themselves, so that several sounds are
sometimes represented by the same letter; this ambiguity
is greatly increased, in Pahlavi books, by the union of two
or more of these ambiguous letters into one compound
character, which is sometimes precisely similar to one of the
other single letters; the uncertainty of reading any word,
therefore, which is not readily identified is very great. No
short vowels are expressed, except initial a, but it is pre-
sumed they are to be understand where necessary, as in all
Semitic alphabets.
Two or three of the earliest rock inscriptions of the
Sasanian kings record the names and titles of Ardashîr-i
Pâpakân and his son Shahpûhar I. (A.D. 226–270) in three
languages, Greek and two dialects of Pahlavi. The Pah-
lavi versions are engraved in two very different characters,
one called Chaldæo-Pahlavi, from some resemblances to
Chaldee in letters and forms, the other called Sasanian
Pahlavi, as being more generally used by the Sasanian
kings in their inscriptions, both on rocks and coins. This
latter character changes by degrees, on the coins of the
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
87
later Sasanian kings, till it becomes nearly identical with
the Pahlavi character in the manuscripts still extant; while
the Chaldæo-Pahlavi appears to have gone out of use be-
fore A.D. 300. Two more inscriptions, of greater length,
are engraved in both these Pahlavi dialects, but without
any Greek translation; of one of these inscriptions only a
few fragments are yet known, but the other is complete,
and we may take it as a specimen of the Pahlavi writings
of the early Sasanian times, as it refers to King Shahpûhar
I. (A.D. 240–270).
This inscription is engraved on two separate tablets (one
for each dialect), cut on the rock-wall at the entrance of a
cave near the village of Hâjîâbâd, not far from the ruins of
Persepolis. Copies of the two versions were published by
Westergaard at the end (pp. 83, 84) of his lithographed
edition of the text of the Bundahish. Plaster casts of the
whole of the Chaldæo-Pahlavi, and of the first six lines of
the Sasanian Pahlavi version, are preserved in the British
Museum and elsewhere; and a photograph from one set
of these casts was published by Thomas in the “Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society," new series, vol. iii. From a
comparison of these copies with the photograph we obtain
the following texts, the words of one version being placed
immediately below those of the other for the sake of con-
venient comparison, and short vowels being introduced
where they seem necessary.
TEXTS OF THE PAHLAVI INSCRIPTIONS AT HÂJÎÂBÂD.
[SASANIAN PAHLAVI.]—Tagalâhî zenman¹lî mazdayasn bagi Shahpûharî,
[CHALDEO-PAHLAVI.]— Karzâvanî zenman lî mazdayazn alahâ Shahîpûhari,
malkan malka Airan va Anîrân, minô-chitri min yaztûn, barman maz-
malkîn malkâ Aryân va Anâryân, minô-shîhar min yâztan, barî maz-
¹ The syllable man is represented
by a single letter in both characters,
which evidently corresponds with the
common Pallavi termination man, as
we find it here in the common Pah-
lavi words zenman (= denman), bar-
man, ragelman, valman, tamman, hô-
man, lanman, and yadman, as well as
in the uncommon forms gadmatman,
atarman, and panman. In tamman
the syllable man corresponds to man
in Chaldee, but in other words we
must suppose it to represent an origi-
nal vân, vain, or ân. Thomas reads
88
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
'
dayasn bagi Artakhshatar, malkan malka Aîrân, minô-chitrî min yaztán,
dayazn alaha Artakhshatar, malkin malka Aryân, minô-shîhar min yâztan,
napi bagi Papaki malka; afan amat zenman khitaya shadî-
pûharî pûhar bag Papak malkâ; va amat lan zenman khireraya sha-
tun, adînan levini shatradarán va barbitan va vacharkân va Azûtan
dit, qadmatman khshatradaṛin, barbîtân,
rabân va âzâtan
shaditun, afan ragelman pavan zenman dîkî hankhetan, afan khitaya
shadît,
nagarîn patan zenman vêm haqâîmût, va khirerayâ
lechada zak chîtak bard ramîtun, bara valman vayak aîk khitayd rami-
lehad¹ lehû shiti lebara ramît, bish tamman anû khirerayâ naflat
tun, tamman vayák zak argûn la yehvûn, aîk hat chîtak chîtî hôman, adîn
lehavînd, atarman lâ yehût, aîk ak shîtî banît havîndê, kal
bîranî patyak yehvan homan; akhar lanman framát: Mino
lebara shadedrâ âkasî yehût havîndê; adîn lan aupadisht: Mino
chitaki aurundarî chiti, minô yadman ketab hôman, zak ragelman
shitî panman satar banît, avat minô yada kedab havînt, nagarîn
pavan zenman diki aya hankhetan, va khitaya val zak chitaki aya
patan zenman vêm hip haqâîmûd, va khirerayâ kal hû shiti hîp
shaditun, akhar minô khitaya val zak chîtîk ramîtun; valman yadman
shadyû,
minô khireraya kal hû shîtî yâmzûd; lehûp yadâ
ketab.
kedab havînd.
A few words in this inscription are not quite intelligible,
but by comparing one version with the other, which corre-
sponds closely in all but two or three phrases, we can
arrive at the meaning of most of the obscure passages, and
translate as follows:-
'This is an edict of me, the Mazda-worshipping divine
being Shahpûhar, king of the kings of Iran and non-Iran,
' of spiritual origin from God; son of the Mazda-worshipping
'divine being Ardashîr, king of the kings of Iran, of spiritual
origin from God; grandson of the divine being Pâpak, the
'king. And when this arrow 2 was shot by us, then it was
'shot by us in the presence of the satraps, grandees, mag-
the letter t, because it resembles in traditional man on the authority of
some old alphabets. For a similar the Chaldee tammân, and because wo
reason Andreas reads it a. Thomas do not see why there should be a
points to the correspondence of bar- second & in the alphabet.
man, in one dialect of our text, with
bart in the other. Andreas points to
a similar correspondence of yadman
with yadd; he also shows that the
reading a overcomes many etymolo-
gical difficulties. We adhere to the
1 Andreas reads this word lechad,
as the his peculiarly formed, and may
perhaps represent the letter tsade, or
ch in Pahlavi.
2 The form of the word is plural,
but used probably for the singular.
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
89
<
.
nates, and nobles; and our feet were set in this cave, and
the arrow was shot out by us towards that target; but
there where the arrow would have dropped was no place
(for it), where if a target were constructed, then it (the
arrow) would have been manifest outside; then we or-
'dered: A spirit target is constructed in front, thus a spirit
'hand has written: Set not the feet in this cave, and shoot
'not an arrow at that target, after the spirit arrow shot at
'that target; the hand has written that.'
(
Comparing the two versions of this inscription with the
Pahlavi of the manuscripts, it will be noticed that though
the Chaldæo-Pahlavi differs most, it still corresponds with
the manuscripts to the extent of about one-third of the
words, amongst which the preposition kal, "to, at," explains
the manuscript ghal, which has been often read ghan or
ghû, and is used for either val or valman. The construc-
tion of the Chaldæo-Pahlavi resembles generally that of
the manuscript Pahlavi, but it does not suffix the pronoun
to the initial conjunction or adverb in each phrase, which
is a peculiarity of Pahlavi as compared with modern Per-
sian. Furthermore, the Chaldæo-Pahlavi has begun to use
Iranian terminations to Semitic verbs, as t in haqâîmût,
yehût, havînt; d in lehavînd, haqâîmûd, yâmzûd; and the
conditional de in havîndé. The Sasanian version has not
advanced to that stage in which it adopted Iranian termi-
nations to Semitic verbs, although they are freely used in
other inscriptions some twenty or thirty years later; but
in all other respects the Sasanian approaches much closer
than the Chaldæo-Pahlavi to the language of the manu-
scripts, about two-thirds of the words being identical, and
the construction of the sentences precisely the same. Thus
we find the pronoun suffixed to the initial conjunction or
adverb in some phrases, as in afan and adînan, only the
pronominal suffix is Semitic; but in later Sasanian inscrip-
tions we find Iranian suffixes, as in afam and afash. This
inscription leaves the question of the origin of the idhâfat,
or relative particle, very uncertain. This particle is nearly
90
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
î
always expressed in Pahlavi writings, and not merely
understood, as it is generally in modern Persian. In this
inscription several words, in both versions, end in , but as
this vowel termination cannot be the idhâfat in some cases,
it may not be so in any. Thus in the Sasanian version the
final may be an idhâfat in bagi, Shahpûhari, napî, Pâpakî,
levînî, and possibly in chitri, but it cannot be so in dîkî,
bîrûnî, and chîtâkî, and an idhâfat is wanting after malkâ,
barman, Artakhshatar, and lechadi. In the Chaldæo-Pah-
lavi version the final î may be an idhâfat in Shahîpúharî,
barî, and púharê, but it cannot be so in shîtî and akasi,
and an idhâfat is wanting after alahá, malka, Artakhsha-
tar, pûhar, bag, Pâpak, and lehad, and perhaps after shîhar
and qadmatman. The omission of an idhâfat after malká
is most significant, as it is a position in which it would be
expressed even in modern Persian; it is, therefore, very
doubtful whether any final é is intended as an idhâfat. In
inscriptions a few years later we find the idhâfat in the
form of the Semitic relative zî.
To compare with the early Sasanian Pahlavi of the in-
scriptions, we may take, as a specimen of the manuscript
Pahlavi, a passage from the Kârnâmak-i Ardashîr Pâpakân,
in which the Semitic ideograms are given in italics, and a
complete Pâzand version, in Neryosangh's orthography,2 is
interlined; so that the upper line gives the text as it is
written, and the lower as it is pronounced :—
[PAHLAVI].—Pâpak amatash nâmak dîd andûhkûn yehevûnḍ, afash pavan
[PÂZAND]. — Pâpak kash nama dîḍ andûhgin bûd, vash ра
pasukhô val Arḍakhshir karḍ nipisht aîgh: Lak lâ dânâkyîsh karḍ, amat
pasukh ô Ardashîr kard navasht ku : Thô nẽ dânâihâ kard, ka
pavan mindavam-1 mûn zîyân la ajash shâyast bûdano, levatman vajûrgân
pa
this-ē ke zia nē azhash shâyast bûdan, awâ guzurgân
stĉjak yedrúntano milaya drûsht-advâjyîsh aûbash gûft.
stêzha burdan sakhun durusht-âwâzhihâ havash guft.
1 A few exceptions to this general
rule, besides unintentional omissions,
may be discovered, especially in ma-
nuscripts from Persia.
Kevan bûjishn
Nuñ bôzheshn
2 Derived from other works, as no
version of the Kârnâmak by Neryo-
sangh is known.
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
91
pa
yemalelun, pavan pêḍîk-mândak¹ angår; maman dânákân güft yekavîmînêḍ
gô,
pashēmāni afgår; chi
ested
dánágã guft
aigh: Dushman pavan dûshman zak lá tûbân vakhduntano mûn 2 asho mard
ku: Dushman
dushman å nẽ tuẩ
ра
griftan ke ashó mard
min kûnishn-î nafshman aûbash rasêḍ. Denmanich gûft yekarimûnêḍ aigh :
ezh kuneshn-i qësh havash rased. Iñ-cha guft ested ku:
Min zak aish mustâvarmând al yehevdnih mûn javiḍ min valman lá vijarêḍ.
Ezh ã kas mustâvarmãd ma básh ke jad ezh ói nē guzáréḍ.
Va lak benafshman dânêḍ3 aigh Ardaván madam li va lak va kabedân
U thô qad dânaê ku Ardavân awar men u thô u vasẵn
anshûta-î dên gêhân pavan tanû va khaya va chaban va khvástak kámkártar
mardum-i añdar gēhã pa tan u jãn u khir u qásta kámkârtar
pâḍakhshâî aîto. Va kevanich andarj-î li val lak denman sakhttar, aigh
pâdishâh hast. U nuñ-cha andarzh-i men ở thô iñ sakhttar, ku
khadûkânakih va farmân-bûrdâr4 vâdână nafshman-tanû varz val aûbên-
ēugânaî
buḍih al avaspâr.
u
farma-burdår
bûdî ma awaspâr.
kun
qësh-tan
Varz Ô
avin-
This passage may be translated as follows:-' Pâpak,
'when he saw the letter, became anxious, and he wrote in
<
<
<
<
reply to Ardashîr thus: Thou didst unwisely, when, to
carry on a quarrel with the great, in a matter from which
'there need be no harm, thou spakest words fierce and
loudly about it. Now call for release, and recount with
sorrow; for the wise have said that an enemy is not able
'to take that, as an enemy, to which a righteous man
attains by his own actions. This also is said: Be not an
antagonist of that person, away from whom you depart
'not. And thou thyself knowest that Ardavân is a very
despotic sovereign over me and thee and many men in
'the world, as to body and life, property and wealth. And
now also my advice to thee is most strongly this, that
thou practise conciliation thyself, and act obediently, and
'yield not to want of foresight.'
(
(
6
It will be noticed that many of the words in this Pahlavi
1 A doubtful word, and pashemant no difference between these words in
is merely a guess.
2 All MSS. have kardano min, and
no doubt some old copyist has read
vádûntano (= kardan) instead of
vakhdûntano (= griftan), there being
Pahlavi writing.
3 Plural used for the singular.
4 So in all MSS., but the text is
either corrupt, or the construction
peculiar.
92
THE PAHLAVI LANGUAGE.
text, such as dîḍ, karḍ, nipisht, &c., are Pâzand, although
they have Semitic or Huzvârish equivalents, such as
khadîtûnḍ, vâdûnḍ, yektîbûnḍ, &c., which might have been
used. This is generally the case in Pahlavi manuscripts,
as it is quite optional for the writer to use either the
Huzvârish word or its Pâzand equivalent, except perhaps
in the case of some of the particles and detached pro-
nouns, which are hardly ever used in their Pâzand form.
in Pahlavi writings. It is necessary to observe that the
proportion of Huzvârish words in a manuscript is no
criterion of its age, but merely an indication of the style.
of its writer, for it is not unusual for a manuscript of
yesterday to contain more Huzvârish than one of the
same text written five hundred years ago; though
sometimes the case is reversed. The reason for this un-
certain use of Huzvârish is obvious; the copyist either
knows the text by heart, or reads it from a manuscript,
but in either case he repeats it to himself in Pâzand, so
that he has nothing but frequent reference to the original
to guide him in the choice between Huzvârish and Pâzand
modes of writing, and for want of frequent reference he
will often substitute one for the other, or even use a wrong
equivalent (if he does not quite understand his text) when
there are two Huzvârish forms with nearly the same Pâzand,
or when he has misread a Huzvârish form which has two
meanings. Thus we often find the Huzvârish amat," when,"
confounded with mún, "which," because the Pâzand of
both is ka or ke; and sometimes the Huz. aigh, "that,"
is similarly confounded, owing to its having been read ki
instead of ku; on the other hand, as the Huz. vakhdúnd,
taken," cannot be distinguished from vádûnd, "done,"
they are both liable to be read and written either karḍ
or grift, according to the knowledge or ignorance of the
copyist.
cr
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
93
III.-THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
Pahlavi writings may be divided into two classes: first,
translations from the Avesta; and, secondly, writings of
which no Avesta original is known. The translations are
always written in sentences of moderate length, alternating
with those of the Avesta text; they are extremely literal,
but are interspersed with short explanatory sentences, and
sometimes with long digressions, serving as a commentary
on the text. The Pahlavi writings without an Avesta
original are nearly entirely of a religious character, though
a few are devoted to historical legends. Pâzand versions
of some of these writings, as well as of the translations, exist
both in the Avesta and modern Persian characters. Some-
times the Pâzand, when written in the Avesta character,
alternates with a Sanskrit or Gujrati translation; and
when written in the modern Persian character, in which
case we may call it a Pârsî version, it is usually accom-
panied by a Persian translation, either alternating with
the Pârsî sentences or interlined; in the latter case, it is a
literal translation, and in the former it is more of a para-
phrase. Some writings are found only in Persian, and
this is more especially the case with the Rivâyats or
collections of memoranda and decisions regarding cere-
monial observances and miscellaneous religious matters;
these are generally very free from Arabic words, but some
of them contain nearly as much Arabic as is used in
Mohammedan Persian writings. These Rivâyats also
contain metrical Persian versions of some of the more
popular Pahlavi and Pâzand books; these distant imita-
tions of the Shâhnâmah are generally from two hundred
to three hundred and fifty years old.
Having thus taken a brief survey of the Pahlavi writings
and their connection with Parsi literature generally, we
may now proceed to give further details of such works as
94
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
1
are known to be still extant, beginning with the translations
from the Avesta.
The Pahlavi Vendidâd is probably the most important
of these translations, and extends to about 48,000 words.1
Each sentence of the Avesta text is continuously followed
by a literal translation, or attempted translation, in Pahlavi,
interspersed with short explanations of unusual words, and
often concluding with an alternative translation, introduced
by the phrase, "There is (some one) who says." In many
places the translation of a sentence winds up with a longer
commentary, containing Avesta quotations, and citing the
opinions of various old commentators who are named, but
regarding whom very little is known. As the next sentence
in the Avesta text follows without break of line, it is often
difficult to distinguish it from one of the Avesta quotations
before mentioned. In the translation there are probably
fragments of various ages, as some of the commentaries
bear traces of translation from Avesta originals, while
many of the shorter explanations appear more modern,
but they must have been brought together in their present
form before the Mohammedan conquest. All the known
extant copies of the Vendidad with Pahlavi appear to have
descended from a manuscript of herbad Hômâst, from
which a copy was made in Sîstân in A.Y. 554 (A.D. 1185)
by Ardashîr Bahman, and taken to India by herbad
Mâhyâr Mâh-mihir, who had been passing six years with
the herbads of Sîstân, whither he had come from the town
of Khûjak on the Indus. After the arrival of this MS. in
India it was re-copied by Rustam Mihirâpân, who has for-
gotten to mention the year, 2 and from his copy the oldest
manuscript now extant was copied by herbad Mihirâpân
Kaî-Khûsrô (who was probably his great-grand-nephew) in
1 In estimating (more or less accu-
rately)the number of words in each
of the works he has examined, as the
best standard of their length, the
editor has not included the conjunc-
tion va and idhâfat i; and he has
counted compounds as either one or
two words according to the usual
mode of writing them.
2 He copied the Arḍa-Vîr⃠namak
in A.Y. 618 (A.D. 1249), and had visited
Persia.
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
95
A.Y. 693 (A.D. 1324) in the town of Kamhay. This manu-
script is now in the University Library at Copenhagen, but
is very defective; the first portion of the manuscript
(Vend. i. 1-v. 78, Sp.) having fallen into other hands,
probably on some division of property among brothers;
and nearly half the remainder is so much damaged, by
the ink corroding the paper, that it is almost useless.
Another manuscript, which appears to be in the same
handwriting, but the colophon of which is missing, is in
the India Office Library in London; this is also defective,
as the folios containing Vend. i. 1–iii. 48 and iv. 82–viii. 310
have fallen into other hands, and have been replaced by
modern writing; the folios containing Vend. iii. 49–iv. 81,
and a few others, are also damaged by the corrosive action.
of the ink used by Mihirâpân Kaî-Khûsrô. From a com-
parison of these two manuscripts, we can ascertain the
state of the text 553 years ago, except with regard to
Vend. i. 1-iii. 48 and a few other short defective passages,
for which we must refer to other old manuscripts. One of
these was formerly in the library of Dastur Jamasp Asa at
Nawsari, and is said to have been transferred from Bombay
to Teheran in Persia some twenty years ago. It was copied,
probably from the Copenhagen MS., in A.Y. 963 (A.D. 1594),
by herbad Ardashir Zîvâ, in the town of Bhroch; it is rather
carelessly written, and many of the later copies are descended
from it.1 Another old manuscript, now in the University
Library at Bombay, was obtained at Bhroch; it corresponds
very closely to the one last mentioned, and is probably about
the same age, but its colophon is lost. The Pahlavi Vendidad
was printed at Vienna separate from the Avesta text, and
was published by Spiegel in 1853, but his text can be much
improved by careful collation with the old manuscripts
above mentioned. None of these MSS. contain the twelfth
fargard of the Vendidad, so that the Pahlavi translation of
1 The descent of manuscripts can
generally be traced by their copying
errors, which have been insufficiently
erased; or by their misreading ill-
shaped letters; but it is hazardous to
argue on the authority of only one
such blunder.
96 THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
this fargard, which occurs in a few modern MSS., is pro-
bably the work of some Dastur in India. It is difficult to
account for the omission of the twelfth fargard in the old
MSS., as the fargards are all numbered, so that any acci-
dental leap from the eleventh to the thirteenth ought to
have been soon discovered; and it is unlikely that the
twelfth fargard would have occupied exactly the whole of
any number of folios which may have been lost from some
original manuscript before it was copied.
The Pahlavi Yasna contains about 39,000 words, ex-
clusive of the kiriya or introductory prayers. It is written
alternating with its Avesta, in the same manner as the Vendi-
dad, but the long interpolated commentaries are much less
common, and fewer commentators are quoted; so it may
be suspected of containing less old matter than the Pahlavi
Vendidad. For the oldest manuscripts of this text we are
again indebted to herbad Mihirâpân Kaî-Khûsrô, who
copied at Kambay a manuscript of the Yasna with Pahlavi
(now in the University Library at Copenhagen) in A.Y. 692
(A.D. 1323) from a manuscript written by Rustam Mihir-
âpân; in the same year he also wrote a second manuscript
of the same, which is now in the library of Dastur Jamaspji
Minochiharji in Bombay, and is dated only twenty-two
days later than the first, but it does not mention whence
it was copied. Both these manuscripts begin with a series
of introductory prayers in Avesta and Pahlavi, of which
the commencement is lost; some of the folios are also
damaged in both by the corrosive action of the ink used
by the writer; and one folio in the middle of the Bombay
copy is lost, and many others are worm-eaten. Several
more modern manuscripts of the Yasna with Pahlavi exist,
but they are less common than those of the Vendidad.
The Avesta and Pahlavi texts were printed separately at
Vienna, and published by Spiegel in 1858, but his text
would be improved by collation with the old manuscript
in Bombay.
The Pahlavi Visparad contains about 3300 words, and
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
97
resembles in character the Pahlavi translation of the
Yasna. Probably the oldest copy of this text extant is
contained in a manuscript of miscellaneous texts brought
from India by the author of these Essays; this copy was
written by Pêshyôtan Râm Kâmdîn at Bhroch in A.Y. 766
(A.D. 1397). The Avesta and Pahlavi texts were printed
separately at Vienna, and published by Spiegel, along with
the Yasna texts, in 1858.
The Hadokht nask in Pahlavi is a mere fragment, con-
taining about 1530 words, and consisting of three fargards
which were probably not consecutive in the original Nask.
The first fargard details the value of reciting the Ashem-
vohu formula under different circumstances, and is probably
an extract from the first division of the Nask. The second
and third fargards describe the fate of the souls of the
righteous and wicked respectively during the first three
days after death; but their contents do not agree very
well with the description of the Nask in the Dînkard,
where it is stated to have consisted of three divisions con-
taining 13, 102, and 19 sections respectively.1 The oldest
copies of the text known to be extant are contained in the
manuscript of miscellaneous texts written in A.D. 1397,
which includes the Visparad, as mentioned above; also
in a very similar manuscript in the University Library
at Copenhagen, which must be about the same age. The
Avesta and Pahlavi texts, alternating as in the manuscripts,
were printed at Stuttgart, and published with the Arḍâ-
Vîrâf Nâmak in 1872, and a translation of the Avesta text
will be found in the third Essay.
The Vishtâsp yasht is found with a Pahlavi translation
of about 5200 words, but only one manuscript has been
examined; this is in the library of Dastur Jamaspji in
Bombay, and is said to have been written some thirty-five
years ago. The Avesta text is probably descended from
the Kirman manuscript used by Westergaard, and now at
1 The total number of sections is
given as 133; so there must be an
error of one in some one of these four
numbers.
G
98
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
Copenhagen, and the Pahlavi text has the appearance of a
modern translation.
Pahlavi translations of other Yashts also exist; such as
those of the Aûharmazd yasht, about 2000 words; the
Khurshed yasht and Mâh yasht, each about 400 words; the
Srôsh yasht hâḍôkht, about 700 words; the Haptân yasht,
Behram yasht, and probably others which have not been.
examined. In these, as in all the other translations, the
Pahlavi alternates with the Avesta; and there seems little.
doubt that most of these Yasht translations are old.
Among the remaining translations are the Pahlavi texts
of the Atash nyayish, about 1000 words; the Khurshed
nydyish, about 500 words; the Abán nyayish, about 450
words; the Afrîngân gâtha, the Afrîngân gahanbâr, the
Afrîngân dahmân (Yasna, lix. 2-15 Sp.), the last containing
about 450 words; the Afrin myazd, also called Afrîn Zara-
tusht; the Sêrôzah in both its forms, containing about 530
and 650 words respectively; and many short extracts from
the Yasna which are much used in the Khurdah Avesta,
such as the Ashem-vohu, Yatha-ahû-vairyo, and Yenhê-
hâtăm formulas; Yasna, v. 1, 2; xxxv. 4–6, 13–15; i. 65–67,
Sp. ; &c.
The Chiḍak avistâk-i gâsân, or selection from the Gâthas,
is an old miscellaneous collection of short passages, some-
times merely single lines, from various parts of the Gâthas,
alternating with the usual Pahlavi translation. Altogether
76 lines are quoted from the Avesta, and the Pahlavi
translation of about 1100 words does not differ materially
from that given in manuscripts of the Yasna. Several
copies of this selection exist, but the oldest seems to be
that in the manuscript of miscellaneous texts written in
A.D. 1397, as mentioned above.
Intermediate between the translations and the purely
Pahlavi works, there are those which contain many Avesta
quotations, which are often translated, but do not in them-
selves form any connected text, as the bulk of the work is
Pahlavi. The following three are of this class:-
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
99
The Nirangistan contains about 30,000 words, including
the Avesta quotations, many of which are no longer extant
in the Zend-Avesta. It consists of three fargards, and
treats of a great number of minute details regarding rites
and ceremonies, and precautions to be adopted while per-
forming them. Its contents correspond very closely with
the description of the second section of the Hûspâram
Nask, as given in the Dinkard; and the name of that
section was Nîrangistân. The opinions of many of the
old commentators mentioned in the Pahlavi Vendidad
are also often quoted in this work. A manuscript of the
Nîrangistân was brought from Persia to India by Dastur
Jamasp Wilâyati, A.D. 1720; this was copied from a manu-
script dated A.Y. 840 (A.D. 1471), but whether it still exists
is uncertain; it was re-copied by Dastur Jamasp Asa of
Nawsâri in A.Y. 1097 (A.D. 1727), and this copy is now in
the library of the Khân Bahâdar Dastur Nôshirvânji
Jâmâspji at Poona. Several later copies exist, but owing
to the text being difficult and little known to copyists,
their variations from the original are unusually numerous.
The Farhang-i oêm khadûk, or vocabulary of Avesta and
Pahlavi, so called from its first words being om khaduk,
consists of about 3300 words, including the Avesta, and
contains several words and phrases which are no longer
extant in the Avesta texts. Very old copies of this voca-
bulary exist in two manuscripts of miscellaneous Pahlavi
texts, one brought from India by the author of these
Essays, and written in A.D. 1397, and the other at Copen-
hagen, written about the same time. Dastur Hoshangji's
edition of this vocabulary, printed at Stuttgart, and pub-
lished in 1867 with the title of "An Old Zand-Pahlavi
Glossary," could probably be improved by collation with
these old copies of the text.
The Afrin-i dahmân, including the aogemadaêcha Avesta
quotations, contains about 2000 words. The first of the
quotations is Yasna, vii. 60 Sp., but most of the others are
no longer extant in the Avesta. They are also found with
100 THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
alternating Pâzand and Sanskrit translations, and without
the introductory sentences of the Afrîn.
We may now proceed to notice the purely Pahlavi works,
which contain but few quotations from the Avesta, and
those are generally references to the proper texts to be
recited on particular occasions. There is much diversity
in the style of these compositions, some being merely
descriptive, in which the language is easy and the con-
struction simple; while others are more philosophical, and
their language difficult and obscure.
The Vajarkard-i dînî, containing about 19,000 words,
might almost be classed with the preceding, as the latter
part of it contains several quotations from the Avesta. It
is a very miscellaneous collection of injunctions and de-
tails regarding religious matters, resembling a Rivâyat, and
divided into three chapters, professing to have been written
by Mêdyômâh, one of the old commentators quoted in the
Pahlavi translations and other works. An old manuscript.
of the work, written in Kirmân, A.Y. 609 (A.D. 1240), is said
to have been brought to India and deposited in the library
of the Mody family in Surat, where it was copied A.Y. 1123
(A.D. 1754) by an uncle of the late high-priest of the Parsis
in Bombay; from this copy the text was edited by Dastur
Peshotanji, and printed in Bombay in 1848, as already
mentioned (p. 59). This work includes three or four of
the minor texts hereafter mentioned, as will be noticed
when we come to them.
The Dînkard is the longest Pahlavi work extant, although
the first portion of it, containing the first and second books,
is missing; the latter part of the work, consisting of books
iii.-ix., contains about 170,000 words. The third book con-
sists of a series of explanations of religious matters and
duties, for general information and removal of doubt, con-
cluding with a description of the solar and lunar years,
and a legendary history of the Dinkard which is evidently
identified with that of the Nasks generally; this book
contains 73,000 words. The fourth book contains various
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
ΙΟΙ
•
statements selected from the religious books by Adarfro-
bag-i Farukhzâdân, the original editor of the Dinkard (see
p. 55), extending to about 4000 words; these statements.
commence with the characteristics of the Ameshâspends,
and in discussing those of Shatrovair, the third Ameshâ-
spend, an account is given of the endeavours of various
sovereigns, from Vishtâsp to Khûsrô-i Kavâdân (Nôshir-
vân), to collect and preserve the national literature. The
fifth book contains the sayings of the same Adarfrobag
from a book called Sîmrâ,1 and his replies to many ques-
tions on obscure and difficult matters in history, astrology,
and religious customs, extending to about 6c00 words.
The sixth book contains the opinions of the pôryoḍkéshân
(professors of the primeval religion of Zarathushtra) on all
matters of tradition, customs, and duties, with many say-
ings of Adarpâd-i Mâraspendân; the whole extending to
about 23,000 words. The seventh book contains an ac-
count of the wonders, or miracles, of the Mazdayasnian
religion from the time of Gâyômard, the first man, to that
of Sôshâns, the last of the future prophets; including many
details of the life of Zaratûsht, and extending to about
16,000 words. The eighth book contains an account of
the twenty-one Nasks, giving a short description of each, but
going into more details of the four Nasks xv.-xviii. which
constitute the majority of the seven "legal" Nasks; this
book consists of about 20,000 words. The ninth book
contains a much more detailed account of the contents of
each fargard of the first three Nasks, concluding with some
remarks upon selections from the whole Yasna, and ex-
tending to about 27,000 words. The work concludes with
colophons to the extent of nearly 1000 words, which relate
that this latter part of the Dînkard was copied at the place
where it was found, Khûshkand in Asûristân, from an
original which had been written by elders of the family of
Adarpâd-i Mâraspendân, by Mâhvandâd Narimahân Behrâm
Mihirâpân, and finished on the 24th day of the 4th month
1 There are, of course, many other ways of reading this name.
102
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
A.Y. 369 (7th July A.D. 1000). From this copy others dated
A.Y. 865, 1009,1 and 10381 have descended, and the last
appears to have been brought from Persia to Surat in A.Y.
1152 (A.D. 1783) by Mullâ Bahman, and about four years
afterwards some copies of the manuscript of A.Y. 1038 (A.D.
1669) were spread among the Parsis; but before any of
these copies were made, the manuscript from Persia had
been lent to various parties, and more than one-sixth of
the whole had been abstracted, so that all the manuscripts
are now deficient to that extent; but out of 69 folios
missing, 64 have been discovered, though they still remain
in various hands. The manuscript itself is in the library
of Dastur Sohrabji Rustamji, the high-priest of the Kadmi
sect of Parsis in Bombay. Dastur Peshotanji is publish-
ing an edition of the text, with Gujrati and English trans-
lations, as has been already mentioned (p. 59), but it
will be many years before he can complete his task.
The name Dadistân-i-dînî is usually confined to a work
of about 30,000 words, written by Dastur Minochihar
Yúdân-damân, who was high-priest of the Mazdayasnians
in Fârs and Kirmân about A.Y. 3502 (A.D. 981). It con-
sists of 92 questions and answers about religious duties,
customs, and legends; the last of these answers seems to be
incomplete, so that a portion of the original work may
have been lost. The oldest manuscript of this text that
has been examined was written in Kirmân by Marjpân
Frêdûn in A.Y. 941 (A.D. 1572); his writing was to supply
the deficiencies in a still older manuscript, of which only
28 folios now remain; and his manuscript has, in its turn,
had its deficiencies supplied from later copies. In this
manuscript the text of the Dâḍistân-i-dînî is preceded and
followed by other somewhat similar writings by the same
Dastur, and by Zâd-sparam-i Yûdân-damân, who appears
1 These dates no longer exist in the
manuscript brought from Persia, but
are taken from the copies and from
the account given by Mullâ Firaz in
his Avijeh-Din.
2 Altered to 250 in the old manu-
script written by Marjpân Frêdûn,
but whether the alteration was made
by the original writer or not is un-
certain,
THE PAIILAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
103
to have been his brother. The first part of these extra
writings contains about 23,000 words, and the last part
about 30,000 words, of which 5000 are lost; if these writ-
ings be taken as part of the Dâdistân-i-dînî, the whole
work contains about 78,000 words extant. The author of
these Essays recommended the Parsis, twelve years ago, to
have this work translated, and it is said that a translation
was prepared, but has not been published. If the non-
appearance of this translation be due to any of the opinions
of the old Dastur of Kirmân differing from those of Parsis
of the present day, it is to be regretted, as the proper
course in such a case would be to publish a correct trans-
lation, and point out the probable cause of the original
writer's errors in notes; this is all the more necessary as
none of the Pahlavi books are free from statements which
would be considered heterodox nowadays. Thus, whenever
they give details regarding khrétûk-das, or next-of-kin mar-
riage, they describe it as applying to closer relationships
than present customs tolerate; but whatever may have
been the reasons for the establishment of this custom
when the Zoroastrian faith was in power, it is evident.
that when the faith was held merely by a persecuted.
remnant of the Persian people, their priests advocated the
custom as a specially meritorious act, with the view of
discouraging intermarriages with their Mohammedan
neighbours, which would have led to the final extinction
of Zoroastrianism. That the present customs of the Parsis
are not quite the same as those of eight or ten centuries
ago is not surprising, when we consider that it was the
usual practice of all Christian sects who had sufficient
power, two or three centuries ago, to put heretics and
witches to death by burning or otherwise; such practices
were then not only legal, but were considered highly meri-
torious; now they would be called judicial murders.
1 They had probably something to
do with the dislike of Eastern nations
to any absolute alienation of family
property; a feeling which led even
1
the Jews to adopt stringent excep-
tional marriage laws, in case of a
failure in direct heirs.
104
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
The Shikand-gumânî vijâr is a controversial work of
about 18,000 words, written by Marḍân-farukh-i Aûhar-
mazd-dâḍ, who acknowledges the instruction he has re-
ceived from the Dinkard of Adarfrobag-i Farukhzâdân,
which contained a thousand chapters (dar), as well as
from the Dinkhard 1 of Adarpâdyâvand, a work no longer
known, unless it be the book of the Mainyô-i-kharḍ, men-
tioned hereafter. The writer begins by answering some
questions of Mihiryâr-i Mâhmâdân of Ispâhân regarding
the existence and work of the evil spirit being permitted
by Aûharmazd; he then proceeds to prove the existence
of God, and to disprove the arguments of atheists, and of
those who disbelieve in the evil spirit, and attribute both
good and evil to God; and he concludes by criticising the
doctrines of the Jews, Christians, and Manichæans. Most
of the manuscripts of this work are incomplete, and only
the first 3600 words are found in the Pahlavi character;
the more complete manuscripts are in Pâzand with Neryo-
sangh's Sanskrit translation, but there are evident indica-
tions of the Pâzand text having been originally transliter-
ated from Pahlavi. An edition of the Pahlavi and Pâzand
texts has been prepared by Dastur Hoshangji, but is not
yet printed.
The Bundahish calls itself 'the Zand-âkâs 2 (zand-know-
'ing, or tradition-informed), which is first about Aûhar-
'mazd's original creation and the antagonism of the evil
'spirit, and afterwards about the nature of the creatures
'from the original creation till the end, which is the future
'existence, just as it is revealed by the religion of the
1 The Mullâ Firfiz library in Bom-
bay contains two modern Persian
manuscripts, named respectively Din-
kard and Dinkhird; these were writ-
ten by Mulla Firûz to describe his
voyage to Persia and the answers he ob-
tained to seventy-eight questions pro-
posed by the Indian Dasturs. These
Persian works must not be confound-
ed with their namesakes in Pahlavi
2 The word min, "from," with
which many of the manuscripts com-
mence, appears to be a later addition,
as it is not found in the Copenhagen
manuscript, and has evidently been
added by a later hand in the only
other manuscript of equal age men-
tioned in the text.
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
105
'Mazdayasnians.' The contents of this book are too well
known to require further description; it contains about
13,000 words, but the manuscripts do not agree either in
extent or arrangement. The most complete and best-ar-
ranged text, but not the most accurately copied, is that in
the manuscript of miscellaneous Pahlavi texts at Copen-
hagen, which is about five hundred years old, and has lost
one or more folios in the middle of the text of the Bunda-
hish, but contains more sections (chaps. xxviii., xxix., xxx.,
and xxxii. of Anquetil) than are found in other independent
copies. The text is found differently arranged, without
those sections, but more accurately copied, in the similar
manuscript of miscellaneous texts brought from India by
the author of these Essays, and written in 1397. Most of
the manuscripts in India seem to have been copied from
the latter of these two old manuscripts, but they some-
times vary further in their arrangement. The Copenhagen
text was lithographed in facsimile and published by
Westergaard in 1851; a French translation was published
by Anquetil in 1771, and German translations by Win-
dischmann in 1863, and by Justi in 1868.
The Minok-i 1 khard, called in Pâzand Mainyô-i khard, or
Spirit of Wisdom, consists of sixty-two answers given by the
said Spirit to the inquiries of a wise man regarding the
tenets, legends, and morals of the Mazdayasnian religion.
It contains about 12,000 words, but the text ends abruptly,
as if incomplete; and its introduction bears some resem-
blance to that of the Shikand-gumânî, so as to lead to the
suspicion that it may be the first portion of the Dînkhard
consulted by the author of that work. An old manuscript.
of the Pahlavi text was brought by Westergaard from
1 This word, which is traditionally
read madônad, has been pronounced
mînavad, or maînivad, and traced to
a supposed ancient Persian form, mai-
nivat. Whether such a form actually
existed is not known, and if it did, we
should expect to find its final letter
represented by dt in Pahlavi, and
not by d. On the other hand, the
Persian mind must have been minok
in Pahlavi ; this would be liable to be
written minôg, and the addition of
circumflexes (all the uses of which,
in Pahlavi, are not thoroughly under-
stood) changes this word into the tra-
ditional madônad.
106
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
Persia, but the Pahlavi versions in India are probably
merely translations from the better-known Pâzand text
which generally alternates with Neryosangh's Sanskrit
translation; a manuscript of this Pâzand-Sanskrit text,
written in A.D. 1520, is preserved in the India Office Library
in London. A few fragments of the Pâzand text were
published, with a German translation, by Spiegel in his
"Grammar of the Parsi Language" (1851) and his “Tradi-
tional Literature of the Parsis" (1860); and the whole.
text, both Pâzand and Sanskrit, was published by West,
with an English translation, in 1871.
The Shayast lâ-shâyast, or Pahlavi Rivâyat, contains
about 10,000 words, and treats of sins and good works,
the proper treatment of corpses and other kinds of impu-
rity, with the proper modes of purification, the proper use
of the sacred thread and shirt, other customs and rites,
with the reasons for reciting each of the Gâthas, and details
of the extent of those hymns; all subjects which are gene-
rally explained in the Persian Rivâyats; but here the
statements are enforced by quotations of the opinions of
several of the old commentators, and by references to some
of the Nasks no longer extant. The oldest extant copies.
of this work are contained in the two manuscripts of mis-
cellaneous Pahlavi texts, written about five hundred years.
ago, which have been already mentioned. In these manu-
scripts the text appears in two detached portions of about
7500 and 2500 words respectively.
1
The Arḍâ¹ Vîrâf nâmak, or book of Arḍâ Vîrâf, con-
tains about 8800 words, and describes what was seen by a
chosen high-priest in a vision of the other world, where
he was shown the rewards of the righteous, the punish-
ments of the wicked, and the neutral state of stationary
expectation of those who belong to neither extreme. It is
stated in this work that Arḍâ Vîrâf was called Nikhshâpûr
doubt merely a title meaning "right-
eous;" the Parsis say, however, that
it is also a name.
1 Sometimes written Ardût, which
should perhaps be read Arḍak, having
been altered into arḍâg, which is not
distinguishable from arḍat. It is no
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
107
by some; this is not only the name of a town, but is also
that of one of the old commentators, sometimes quoted in
the Pahlavi Vendidad, and very often in the Nîrangistân;
it is possible, therefore, that this commentator may have
written the book of Ardâ Virâf. Copies of this text are
found in the two old manuscripts of miscellaneous texts
written about five hundred years ago, which have been
already mentioned. A manuscript of a Pâzand and San-
skrit version, written A.D. 1410, was also brought from
India by the author of these Essays; and Persian versions,
both in prose and verse, are likewise extant. The Pahlavi
text was printed at Stuttgart, and published, with an Eng-
lish translation, in 1872.
The Mâdîgân-i Gôsht-i Fryânô, of about 3000 words, is
a tale of the evil Akhtya of the Abân Yasht (81-83), pro-
pounding thirty-three enigmas to Yôishtô-yô-Fryananãm,
to be solved on pain of death; after this is done he has to
solve three enigmas in his turn, but fails and is destroyed.
The enigmas are generally of a very trivial character,
and nine of them seem to be omitted. This text accom-
panies that of the book of Arḍâ Vîrâf in the two old manu-
scripts before mentioned, and was published with it in
1872.
The Bahman yasht, of about 4200 words, professes to be
a revelation from Aûharmazd to Zaratûsht of the sufferings
and triumphs of the Mazdayasnian religion, from his time
to the end of the world, apparently in imitation of part of
the Sûdkar Nask. As it mentions the Mûsalmâns, and
gives many details of the sufferings occasioned by them, it
must have been written a considerable time after the Mo-
hammedan conquest. It details how the power of the
Mazdayasnian religion is to be restored by the victories of
Vahirâm-i Varjâvand, a prince (kaî) of the Kayân race,
who at the age of thirty is to put himself at the head of
Indian and Chinese armies, whose power will be felt as far
as the banks of the Indus, which is called the country of
Bambo. Foreigners should be careful not to confound this
108 THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
name with Bombay, which is merely a European corrup-
tion, through the Portuguese, of Mumbaî; a corruption
which native writers still avoid when writing in the ver-
nacular languages. The Pahlavi text of this work is found
in the old manuscript of miscellaneous texts at Copenhagen,
and its two copies, one of which is at Paris, but no other
copies have been met with; a Pâzand version is, however,
common in India. Spiegel has given a German transla-
tion of extracts from the Bahman Yasht in his "Traditional
Literature of the Parsis."
In the same old manuscript at Copenhagen is the
Andarj-i Hûdâvar-i¹ dânâk, containing about 1800 words,
of which one-third have been lost, as two folios are missing..
This admonition (andary) is given in reply to questions
asked by his disciple (ashâkard). No other copy of this
work has been met with, but it will be found, of course, in
the two copies of the Copenhagen manuscript.
In the same manuscript is also a copy of the Mâḍîgân-i
gujastak Abâlish, containing about 1200 words. The ac-
cursed Abâlish appears to have been a zandîk or heretic,
who relied upon later corrupt traditions in preference to
the true faith. In the presence of Mâmûn, the commander
of the faithful (amîr-i mûminîn) at Baghdâd, he proposes
seven questions to a Mobad, who replies to the satisfaction
of Mâmûn and the confusion of Abâlish himself.
writer concludes by blessing Adarfrobag-i Farukhzâdân
(the author of an old edition of the Dînkard) for having
destroyed Abâlish; and he could not have written this work
before A.D. 830, as Mâmûn was living at that time. Many
copies of it exist in Pahlavi, Pâzand, and Persian.
The
The Jamásp namak consists of Jâmâsp's replies to King
Gushtâsp's questions regarding creation, history, customs
of various nations, and the future fate of the religion. The
most complete manuscript examined contains about 5000
words, but seems unfinished. The Pahlavi text is rare. A
very old manuscript in Dastur Peshotanji's library in
1 This name may also be read Khashvar-i, or otherwise.
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
109
:
Bombay contains about one-fourth of the text, but no other
copy has been met with. The Pâzand and Persian ver-
sions are found in many manuscripts.
A very old manuscript in the library of Dastur Jamaspji
in Bombay has been called the Pahlavi Shahnamak, as it
contains several short tales connected with the kings of
Persia. Its colophon states that it was finished in India,
in the town of Tânak,1 on the 19th day of some month
A.Y. 691 (A.D. 1322), by Mihirâpân Kaî-Khûsrô, the copyist
who wrote the oldest manuscripts of the Yasna and Ven-
didad that are still extant. The handwriting, however,
more nearly resembles that of the old manuscript of mis-
cellaneous texts at Copenhagen, which contains several
copies of Mihirâpân's writings, with his colophons attached;
so that the Pahlavi Shâhnâmak may also be a copy of his
manuscript, but, like that at Copenhagen, it is certainly
about five hundred years old. This manuscript is much
wormeaten, but a copy of it exists at Teheran, made one
hundred and ten years ago, before the original was much
damaged, which will probably supply most of the defi-
ciencies in those texts of which no other copies are known
to exist.
Of the texts contained in this old manuscript and its
single complete copy, the following are not known to exist
elsewhere in Pahlavi:-(1.) Yâḍkâr-i Zarîrân, of about
3000 words, containing an account of the war between
King Vishtâsp and Arjâsp. (2.) Cities of the Land of Iran,
about 880 words, giving their names and a very brief
account of each. (3.) Wonders and Prodigies of the Land
of Sîstân, in about 290 words. (4.) Khúsrô-i Kavâḍân
(Nôshirvân) and the Slave-boy, who replies to the king's
thirteen inquiries as to what things are the most pleasant,
about 1770 words. (5.) Admonitions to Mazḍayasnians in
six separate paragraphs, about 940 words. (6.) Andarj-i
1 In another colophon, in the mid-
dle of the manuscript, this place is
called Tâmûk in Jazîrak (or Gujîrak)
zilah, the date being the 6th day of
the sixth month A.Y. 691.
IIO THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
Khûsrô-i Kavâḍân (Nôshirvân), about 380 words, said to
contain the dying injunctions of that monarch. (7.)
Sayings of Adarfrobag-i Farukhzâḍân and Bakht-âfrîḍ,
about 320 words.
The following texts, contained in this old manuscript,
are also found in Dastur Peshotanji's old manuscript,
which has been already mentioned as containing part
of the Jâmâsp-nâmak; but they are not known to exist.
elsewhere in Pahlavi:-(1.) Mâdîgân-i si rôz, about 460
sî
words, is a statement of what ought to be done on each of
the thirty days of the month; at the end it is called an
admonition (andarj) of Adarpâd-i Mâraspendân to his son,
which leads one to suspect that it may be a detached por
tion of his Pandnâmak. (2.) Dirakht-i Asûrîk, about 800
words, is a debate between a tree and a goat as to which
of them is the more worthy. (3.) Chatrang namak, about
820 words, relates how a chessboard and chessmen were
sent by Dêvasârm, a great king of India, to Khûsrô-i
Anôshak-rûbân (Nôshirvân), with a request for an ex-
planation of the game, which was given by Vajûrg-mihir-i
Bûkhtakân, who afterwards takes the game of Nîv-Ardashîr
to India, as an effectual puzzle for the Indian sages. (4.)
Injunctions given to men of the good religion, about 800
words. (5.) The Five Dispositions of priests, and Ten
Admonitions, about 250 words, which also occur in the
Vajarkard-i-dînî (pp. 13-16 of Dastur Peshotanji's edition).
(6.) Dârûk-i khûrsandi, about 120 words. (7.) Anecdote
of King Vahirâm-i Varjâvand, about 190 words. (8.) Advice
of a certain man (fulân gabrâ), about 740 words. Of the
following texts contained in the two old manuscripts of
Dastur Peshotanji and Dastur Jamaspji, a third copy
exists in the library of the latter Dastur:-(1.) Forms of
Letters to kings and great men, about 990 words, found
also in the Vajarkard-i-dînî (pp. 102-113 of Dastur
Peshotanji's edition). (2.) Form of Marriage Contract,
dated A.Y. 627 (A.D. 1258), about 400 words. (3.) Vâchak
aéchand (some sayings) of Adarpâd-i Mâraspendân, about
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
III
1270 words. (4.) Stayishn-i drôn va sipásdârî-i myazdpân,
about 560 words.
Of the following texts contained in Dastur Jamaspji's
old manuscript many copies exist:-(1.) Pandnámak-i
Zaratûsht, about 1430 words, contains admonitions as to
man's duties. A copy of three-fourths of this text exists
in the University Library at Copenhagen. (2.) Andarj-i
Adarpád-i Mâraspendân, about 1700 words, is sometimes
called his Pandnâmak, and contains his advice to his son
Zaratûsht; but the last quarter of the text is missing in
the old manuscript, and the end is very abrupt in other
manuscripts, which makes it probable that the next text
in the old manuscript, the Mâḍîgân-i sî rôz, may have
been originally the conclusion of this, as has been already
noticed. This Pahlavi text was printed in Bombay, and
published, with a Gujrati translation, by Shahryârji
Dadabhai in 1869; and an English version of this Guj-
rati translation, by the Rev. Shapurji Edalji, was published
in 1870, but being a translation of a translation, it differs.
considerably from the meaning of the original. (3.) Kâr-
nâmak-i Artakhshîr-i Pâpakân, about 5600 words, records
many of the actions of King Ardashîr and his son Shahpûhar,
beginning with the discovery of Sâsân, the father of the
former, among the shepherds of Pâpak, and ending with
Aûharmazd, the son of the latter, ascending the throne;
but this is not the original work, as it begins with the
phrase, ‘In the Kârnâmak of Artakhshîr-i Pâpakân it was
I thus written.' A Gujrati translation of this text was
published by Dastur Peshotanji in 1853. (4.) Pand-
namak-i Vajûrg-mihir-i Bûkhtakân, the prime minister of
King Khûsrô Nôshirvân, contains about 1690 words, but
seems to be merely a fragment of the work, as it ends very
abruptly. This text is also called the Ganj-i shâîgân, be-
cause it states that it was placed in the royal treasury
(ganj-i shahakân in the old manuscript).
The other old manuscript in Dastur Peshotanji's library,
which includes some of the above-mentioned texts, likewise
112 THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
contains the following:-(1.) Mâḍîgân-i sî yazaḍân, about
80 words, stating the one special quality of each of the
thirty Yazads who give their names to the days of the
month. Another similar statement, in the old manuscript.
of miscellaneous texts brought from India by the author of
these Essays, specifies different qualities in most cases. (2.)
Mâḍigân-i mâh Fravardin roj-i Horvadad, about 760
words, which details all the remarkable occurrences said
to have taken place, at different periods, on the sixth day
of the first month of the Parsi year. A Persian version of
this text is found in the Rivâyats. (3.) Another Mâdîgân-i
sî rôz, about 1150 words, detailing the proper business and
duties for each of the thirty days in the Parsi month and
the five Gâtha days at the end of the Parsi year. This
text is also contained in the Vajarkard-i Dînî (pp. 113-125
of Dastur Peshotanji's edition).
Copies of the remaining texts are numerous both in
Pahlavi and Pâzand. The Mâdîgân-i haft amesháspend,
about 990 words, contains a detail of the various duties of
the seven Ameshâspends, as revealed by Aûharmazd to
Zaratûsht. The Andarj-i dânâk mard, about 520 words,
details the advice of a wise man to his son.
The Pahlavi-Pâzand farhang, about 1300 words, is the
glossary of Huzvârish and Pâzand edited by Dastur
Hoshangji and published in 1870. It is called the
Mârîknamak-i Asurik, or Assyrian vocabulary, by Dastur
Peshotanji in the list of Pahlavi works given in the intro-
duction to his Pahlavi Grammar; but the origin of this
name requires explanation, as it appears to be unknown
to the Dasturs generally.
The Patît-i Adarpád-i Mâraspend, about 1490 words, is
a form of renunciation of every possible heinous sin, to be
recited by the sinner. The Patît-i khúḍ, about 1000
words, is a similar form of renunciation, but somewhat
abbreviated. Avar chim-i drôn, about 380 words, regard-
ing the symbolism of the ceremonial wafer-cakes, and the
use of them in the mydzd, or sacred feast. The Pahlavi
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
113
Ashirvad, or marriage blessing, about 460 words. The
Nam-stayishni, or praise of Aûharmazd, about 260 words.
The Afrîn-i "tú peshgah-i khada," so called from its first
words, about 190 words. And other benedictions and
prayers which have not been examined.
A Pahlavi version of the Saddar Bundahish is also said
to exist, but must be a modern translation, for the Sad-dar
itself, although often written in Avesta characters, seems
to be rather Persian than Pâzand, as it contains many
Arabic words. Dastur Peshotanji mentions a few more
Pahlavi texts, some of which may be included among
those described above, but under different names.
There
are also several Persian texts, such as the book of Dâdâr
bin Dâd-dukht, &c., which may have originated in Pahlavi.
From the above details we may form some idea of the
probable extent of the scanty remnants of Pahlavi litera-
ture. Without making any allowance for works which
remain unexamined or have escaped observation, it appears
that the extant Pahlavi translations from the Avesta ex-
ceed 104,000 words, and the other Pahlavi works excecd
413,000 words, making a total of upwards of 517,000
words in all the extant Pahlavi writings which have been
examined. This total is nearly eleven times the extent of
the Pahlavi Vendidad, or forty times that of the Bundahish.
The Parsi community has been doing a good deal, of late
years, for the preservation of the last remnants of their
national literature, but it would be better if their efforts
were of a more systematic character. Before much more
is done for encouraging the publication of isolated texts, a
systematic inquiry for manuscripts should be set on foot,
for the purpose of ascertaining which are the oldest and
best manuscripts, so as to avoid the error of editing texts
without reference to the best materials. Influential mem-
bers of the Parsi community, assisted by the Dasturs,
ought to have but little difficulty in inducing all possessors
of manuscripts to supply a properly organised committee
with complete catalogues of their collections. Such cata-
H
114 THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
logues need only be lists of the names of the works, with
the names and dates of the copyists when these are re-
corded; but all undated manuscripts supposed to be more
than a century old should be specially noted. From such
lists the committee could easily prepare a statement of all
extant. texts and of the owners of several of the more valu-
able manuscripts of each text. Possessed of this informa-
tion, the next step would be to obtain a copy of the oldest
manuscript of each text, beginning with the rarest works,
and have it collated with one or two of the next oldest
manuscripts (not being copies of the first). These collated
copies, if correctly made without any attempt at emendation,
would form standard editions of the texts, and should be
carefully preserved in some public institution accessible to
all members of the Parsi community, such as the Mullâ
Firûz Library.
It can hardly be expected that Westergaard's edition of
the Avesta texts can be much improved from any manu-
scripts to be found in India; although copies from Yazd
or Kirmân, in Persia, might afford valuable emendations
coming from an independent source, but it is generally
understood in India that there are very few such manu-
scripts still existing in Persia. Justi's Old-Bactrian Dic-
tionary is a tolerably complete collection of the Avesta
words, but requires to be supplemented by the addition of
many words contained in the Nîrangistân, Farhang-i oîm
khadûk, and Aogemadaêcha; and the meanings attached
to the words want careful revision.
With regard to Pahlavi texts, it would be important to
discover any Pahlavi Vendidad or Yasna descended from
any other source than the manuscripts of Mihirâpân Kaî-
Khûsrô, also to find the first three fargards, missing from
his manuscripts in Europe, in his own handwriting. The
first two books of the Dinkard, the Pahlavi text of the
latter part of the Shikand-gumânî, chaps. xxviii.-xxx. of
the Bundahish, and a complete Pahlavi version of the
Jâmâsp-nâmak, are all desiderata regarding which some
THE PAHLAVI LITERATURE EXTANT.
115
information might be obtained by a systematic inquiry for
manuscripts. Hitherto the Parsis have had to rely upon
Europeans for all explanations of their literature, beyond
the merely traditional learning of their priesthood; they
may always rely upon some European being ready to carry
on such investigations, provided the materials be forth-
coming; and Europeans, in their turn, ought to be able to
rely on the Parsis for the discovery of all existing materials,
and for rendering them accessible.
III.
THE ZEND-AVESTA ;
OR,
THE SCRIPTURE OF THE PARSIS.
!
III.
THE ZEND-AVESTA; OR, THE SCRIPTURE
OF THE PARSIS.
In this Essay it is intended to give a brief statement of the
contents of the whole Zend-Avesta, together with transla-
tions of some important or interesting passages contained
therein, which will enable the reader to form some judg-
ment of the true character of the sacred books of the
Parsis. After some preliminary remarks about the name,
extent, and preservation of the sacred books, the separate
parts of the present Parsi scriptures will be described in
detail, and finally, an attempt will be made to give a
short, critical, and historical sketch of this religious
literature.
1. THE NAME OF THE PARSI SCRIPTURES.
The sacred writings of the Parsis have usually been
called Zend-Avesta by Europeans, but this is, without
doubt, an inversion of the proper order of the words, as
the Pahlavi books always style them¹ avisták va zand
(Avesta and Zend), and this order is confirmed by the
traditional, as well as the critical and historical, explana-
tion of both terms. In the opinion of the present Parsi
priests, Avesta means the original text of the sacred books,
and Zend denotes the Pahlavi translation. This view is
correct to a great extent, as many passages may be quoted.
1 Only one exception has been noticed in many hundred occurrences of the
phrase.
I20 THE NAME OF THE PARSI SCRIPTURES.
<
from the Pahlavi books in which Zend means simply
"translation," or "commentary;" thus the old Farhang-i
oim khadúk commences (in the old manuscripts) with the
words: Madam bard-shinakhtano-i vaj va mârîkâno-i
Avisták, aighash Zand maman va chigún, on fully under-
'standing the words and phrases of the Avesta, that is,
' the nature and quality (lit. the what and the how) of its
Zend.' But it is probable that the term Zend was ori-
ginally applied to commentaries written in the same lan-
guage as the Avesta, for in the Pahlavi translation of the
Yasna, when the scriptures are mentioned, both terms,
Avistûk va Zand, are used,¹ as if of equal authority, which
would have been an instance of gross self-conceit on the
part of the translator, if he meant his own translation by
the term Zend. From this use of the denomination
Avesta and Zend by the Pahlavi translators, we are fully
entitled to conclude that the Zend they mentioned was a
commentary on the Avesta already existing before they
undertook their translation; and as they considered it
sacred, this Zend was probably in the same language as
the original Avesta. There are many traces, in the Avesta
quotations and other phrases of the Pahlavi translations,
of much of this old Zend having been replaced by the new
Zend of the Pahlavi translators; but there are also traces
of a good deal of it remaining incorporated in the present
Avesta text, as will be pointed out from time to time in
the translations which follow. The term Avesta and
Zend, or Zend-Avesta, cannot be considered, therefore, ast
wholly inappropriate when applied to the Parsi scriptures.
in their original language, although the word Zend is im-
properly used when applied to that language itself, as it
is much more commonly employed as a name for Pahlavi
commentaries.
From the above remarks, it will be seen that the term
1 See Yasna, xxx. 1, xxxi. 1, where
the Avesta and Zend of both sayings,
or both blessings, are specified in
the Pahlavi translation. Neryosangh
generally renders the word Zend by
artha, "meaning," in his Sanskrit
translation of the Yasna.
THE NAME OF THE PARSI SCRIPTURES.
121
Avesta was originally confined to the sacred texts ascribed
to Zarathushtra and his immediate disciples; but in the
course of time this term has been gradually extended to
all later explanations of those texts written in the same
language, till at the present time it includes all writings
in that language, whatever their age. All these writings,
having become unintelligible to the majority of the Zoro-
astrians, came to be regarded as equally sacred.
astrians word
The word Avesta does not occur in the sacred texts
themselves with the meaning now attached to it, and it
must not be confounded with the Sasanian apistân, en-
graved on gems in the phrase apistân val yazdân, as this
phrase is also found in the Pahlavi texts, with the mean-
ing of "prayers to God," whereas the Pahlavi apistâk, or
avisták (Avesta), is a distinct word, never used in that
sense, which, indeed, would be inapplicable to nine-tenths
of the Avesta. So far as the form of the Pahlavi avistâk
is concerned, it might be best traced to ava + stâ, in the
sense of "what is established," or " text," as was proposed
by M. J. Müller in 1839; but such a meaning, though it
might be fairly applicable to most of the Avesta now
extant, would hardly describe the very miscellaneous con-
tents of the Nasks which have been lost, and which are
all said to have had both Avesta and Zend. A more
satisfactory meaning can be obtained by tracing avistâk to
â + vista (p. p. of vid, “to know"), with the meaning
"what is known," or "knowledge," 1 corresponding nearly
with veda, the name of the sacred scriptures of the Brah-
mans. It may be objected to this etymology that the first
syllable of avistâk is written like ap, and an Avesta v does
not usually change into a Pahlavi p; this is only true,
however, when the p would be initial; in other cases, such
as vi = Pahl. apî, the change is common.
With regard to the term Zend, we see that its applica-
tion varied at different times. Originally it meant the
1 More literally, "what is announced," or “declaration;" approaching
the meaning of "revelation."
1
122 THE NAME OF THE PARSI SCRIPTURES.
;
commentaries made by the successors of Zarathushtra
upon the sacred writings of the prophet and his imme-
diate disciples. These commentaries must have been
written in nearly the same language as the original text,
and as that language gradually became unintelligible to
all but the priests, the commentaries were regarded as a
part of the text, and a new explanation, or Zend, was
required. This new Zend was furnished by the most
learned priests of the Sasanian period, in the shape of a
translation into Pahlavi, the vernacular language of Persia
in those days; and in later times the term Zend has been
confined to this translation.
The word Zend may be traced in dzaiñtish (Yas. lvi.
3, 3 Sp.) and is to be referred to the root zan, "to know,”
Sans. jnd, Gr. yvw, Lat. gno (in agnosco and cognosco), so
that it has the meaning of "knowledge, science." What
passages in the present Avesta may be supposed to be
remnants of the old Zend will be pointed out when-
ever they occur in the translations we propose to give
further on.
The term Pâzand, which is met with frequently in con-
nection with Avesta and Zend, denotes a further explana-
tion of the Zend, and is probably a corruption of paiti-
zanti, which must have meant "re-explanation;" this
word does actually occur (Yas. lix. 2 Sp.), but with a
more general meaning. Some passages in the present
Avesta will be pointed out, in the translations further on,
which may be supposed to represent an old Pâzand in the
Avesta language; but at present the term Pâzand (as has
been already shown in the second Essay) is applied only
to purely Iranian versions of Pahlavi texts, whether
written in the Avesta or Persian characters, and to such
parts of Pahlavi texts as are not Huzvârish.
ORIGINAL EXTENT OF THE ZEND-AVESTA. 123
1.16
II. THE ORIGINAL EXTENT OF THE ZEND-AVESTA.
THE NASKS.
From the ancient classical writers, as well as from the
tradition of the Parsis, we learn that the religious litera-
ture of the ancient Persians was of considerable extent,
though the Zend-Avesta, in its present state, is a compara-
tively small book. This circumstance necessarily leads us
to the conclusion, that the sacred literature of the Zoroas-
trians has suffered very heavy losses. Thus Pliny reports,
on the authority of Hermippos, the Greek philosopher
(see page 8), that Zoroaster composed two millions of
verses; and an Arab historian, Abu Jafir Attavari,1
assures us that Zoroaster's writings covered twelve hun-
dred cowhides (parchments). These reports might appear,
at the first glance, to be exaggerations, but for the enor-
mous extent of the sacred books of other Oriental nations,2
which affords us sufficient reason for believing that the
number and extent of the books ascribed to Zoroaster by
his followers may have been very considerable.
The loss of most of these writings, known to the ancient
Greeks, is ascribed by the Parsis mainly to the ravages
attendant upon the conquest of the Persian Empire by
Alexander the Great. Thus it appears from the third
book of the Dînkard, that at the time of Alexander's
inroad there were only two complete copies of the sacred
books (a term which the Dînkard seems to identify with
itself); one of these was deposited in the royal archives at
1 Hyde, De Religione Veterum Per- words, we may conclude that each
sarum, p. 318.
line must contain as much as ten lines
of any ordinary poetical measure.
Thus, 4500 × 2 × 9 × 10 = 810,000 lines
of ordinary measure. Again, the
commentary extends to a greater
length than the text, so that there
must be nearly 2,000,000 lines in the
whole of these sacred books.
2 Thus, for instance, the text of the
sacred books of the southern Bud-
dhists of Ceylon, Birma, &c., accord-
ing to Turnour's computation, com-
prises 4500 leaves, each page being
about two feet long and containing
nine lines. The text being written
without any spaces between the
124
THE ORIGINAL EXTENT OF THE
}
}
Persepolis, which were burned by Alexander, and the
other, which was deposited in another treasury, fell into
the hands of the Greeks, and was translated into their
language. The Ardâ-Vîrâf-nâmak mentions only the one
copy of the Avesta and Zend of the religion, which was
deposited in the archives at Persepolis, and burned by
Alexander; but it also mentions that he killed many of
the priests and nobles. Both these accounts were written
ages after the events they describe, so they merely repre-
sent the tradition that had been handed down, probably
in writing, or otherwise it would have been more exag-
gerated; but as these accounts appear to have been written
before the Mohammedan conquest, they cannot have con-
founded Alexander's ravages with those of the Mohamme-
dans, for details of which we may refer to the Bahman
Yasht. But although these accounts must be founded
upon tradition, they are singularly confirmed by the ac-
counts given by classical writers. Thus we find from
Diodorus (xvii. 72) and Curtius (v. 7), that Alexander
really did burn the citadel and royal palace at Persepolis,
in a drunken frolic, at the instigation of the Athenian
courtesan Thais, and in revenge for the destruction of
Greek temples by Xerxes. Arrian (Exped. Alex., iii. 18)
also speaks of his burning the royal palace of the Persians.
This act of barbarous folly was evidently the result of
hasty impulse, and was probably committed at night,
when the palace was full of attendants, courtiers, and
priests; the last, who had special charge of the archives,
would naturally attempt to save their treasures, and would
certainly be opposed by the intoxicated Greeks, at the
cost of many lives. The sacred books would be burned
with the archives, in which they were deposited, and many
Persians, priests and others, would lose their lives in the
confusion. Such would be the natural consequences of
the facts mentioned by the Western writers, and such are
the traditional statements of the Parsis.
But besides the official copies of the sacred books, there
ZEND-AVESTA.—THE NASKS.
125
must have been other copies of many portions of them,
which would be indispensably necessary in all cities where
priests and judges had to perform their duties; and the
copies of the sacred books, which the first Sasanian
monarchs collected, were no doubt derived from these
scattered copies. Notwithstanding the long interval of
550 years of foreign domination and domestic anarchy,
which had intervened between Alexander and Ardashîr
Pâpakân, the Sasanian kings were able to collect a large
proportion of the old writings, if we may believe the
details given of the contents of the books in their days;
and it is, therefore, to the later ravages and persecutions,
occasioned by the Mohammedans, that we must attribute
the final loss of most of the writings. No doubt the
books, as restored by the Sasanians, were chiefly collec-
tions of fragments; but some portion of nearly every
book seems to have been recovered by them, and the
total disappearance of most of the books must be traced
to recent times.
The names of all the books are, however, extant, to-
gether with short summaries of their contents. Accord-
ing to these reports, the whole scripture. consisted of
twenty-one books, called Nasks,1 each containing Avesta
and Zend, i.e., an original text with a commentary on it.
The number 21 was evidently an artificial arrangement,
in order to have one Nask to each of the 21 words of
the most sacred formula of the Zoroastrians, which are
as follows:
Yatha ahú vairyô, athâ ratush, asháḍ chiḍ hacha,
Vanheush dazda mananhô, shkyaothnanam anhēush mazdâi,
Khshathremchá ahurai â, yim dregubyć dadhaḍ vâstârem.
Each of the Nasks was, as it were, indexed under one
particular word of this formula; and in the same manner
1 This word occurs in the Zend-
Avesta itself (Yas. ix. 73 Sp.) in the
compound nasko-frasûoņhô, “study-
ing the Nasks," that is to say, the
different parts of the scripture. It
seems to be of foreign origin, and is
probably identical with the Assyrian
nusku, and the Arabic nuskhah, pl.
nusakh.
126
THE ORIGINAL EXTENT OF THE
1
as this formula consists of three lines or verses (gâs),
so also the Nasks were divided into three classes, ac-
cording to their subjects to some extent, but not very
strictly so.
Several descriptions of the contents of these Nasks are
extant. The longest of these accounts forms the eighth and
ninth books of the Dînkard, as has been already noticed (p.
IOI), and goes into many details with regard to about one-
third of the Nasks, though noticing the others much more
superficially. Another Pahlavi description of the Nasks.
is found in the Dînî-vajarkard, and this does not differ
much from those given in the Rivâyats. Persian descrip-
tions of the same are found in the Rivâyats 1 of Kâmah
Bahrah, Barzû Qiyâmu-d-dîn, and Narîmân Hôshang;
these differ but little, except in small details. The fol-
lowing statement of the contents of the Nasks is taken
from the Dini-vajarkard,2 except where otherwise noted,
but their names and the order in which they stand are
corrected from the Dînkard.
1. Sûḍkar, “conferring benefits," corresponding to the
Avesta word yathâ in the Yatha ahú vairyô formula,
and called Stûdgar, or Istûdgar, in the Rivâyats and
Dînî-vajarkard, consisted of 22 sections. It contained
advice to mankind as to prayer and virtue, the perform-
ance of good actions and meditation, producing harmony
among relations, and such-like matters. In the Rivâyats
and Dînî-vajarkard this Nask is the second, as their lists
begin with the twenty-first Nask, which removes all the
others one step lower down; this error appears to have
been occasioned by the Dînkard giving two lists, one
dividing the Nasks into three classes, gâsânîk, hâdak-
1 The Rivâyats are miscellaneous
collections of information and deci-
sions regarding the religion, made by
various old Dasturs, chiefly in Per-
sian, but also containing translations
of passages from religious books, both
in Persian verse and Pâzand.
2 This must be a different work
from the Vajarkard-i-dînî described
in p. 100, but it has not been exa-
mined. The passage referring to
the Nasks was extracted from a
manuscript in the library of the
Khân Bahâdar Dastur Nôshirvânji
Jâmâspji, at Poona,
ZEND-AVESTA.-THE NASKS.
127
mansarik (or yashtak-mansarik), and dâdîk; 1 the other
recapitulating the names in their proper order, which is
preserved in the after descriptions of their contents. The
first or classified list begins with the twenty-first Nask
on the general list, and this may have led the writers
of the Rivâyats to consider it the first Nask. That
the second list in the Dinkard is correct, appears from
its placing the Vendidad nineteenth on the list, which
is confirmed by Rustam-i Mihirâpân's colophon in the
old Vendidad with Pahlavi at Copenhagen; whereas the
Rivâyats and Dînî-vajarkard make it the twentieth.
2. Varshtamânsar, corresponding to Av. ahû in Y. a. v.,
and called Vahisht-mânsrah (or mântar) in the Riv. and
D.v., consisted of 22 sections. It contained reasons for
being trustful and heedful of the Mazdayasnian religion,
for attending to religion, and using the benedictions and
praises of the blessed Zaratûsht; also all events before
Zaratûsht which were manifestly good, and all events
which are to be after Zaratûsht until the future exist-
ence; the benefits of this world, and such-like matters.
3. Bakó, corresponding to Av. vairyô in Y. a. v., and
called Bagh in the Riv. and D.v., consisted of 21 sections.
It contained an explanation of the Mazdayasnian religion
and the ideas which Aûharmazd taught to men; the exer-
cise of reverence, heedfulness, law, and judgment; the
performance of the proper duty and good actions of a
magistrate; stopping the admission of the evil spirit into
one's self, attaining spiritual existence for one's self, and
such-like.
4. Dâmdâd, corresponding to Av. athâ in Y. a. v., and
called Dvâzdah-hâmâst (or homâst) in the Riv. and D.v.,
consisted of 32 sections. It contained an explanation of
the spiritual existence and heaven, good and evil, the
material existence of this world, the sky and the earth,
and everything which Aûharmazd produced in water,

1 The seven gâsânîk are Nasks 21,
I, 2, 3, II, 20, 13; the seven hádak-
mânsarîk are Nasks 4-10; and the
seven dûdîk are Nasks 15-19, 12, 14.
128
THE ORIGINAL EXTENT OF THE
{
fire, and vegetation, men and quadrupeds, reptiles and
birds, and everything which is produced from the waters,
and the characteristics of all things. Secondly, the pro-
duction of the resurrection and future existence; the con-
course and separation at the Chinvad bridge; on the re-
ward of the meritorious and the punishment of sinners
in the future existence,¹ and such-like explanations.
5. Nadar, corresponding to Av. ratush in Y. a. v., and
called Nâdûr in D.v., consisted of 35 sections. It con-
tained explanations of the stars, both fixed and planetary,
the good and evil (influence) of each star, the course of
all the planets in the signs of the zodiac and lunar
mansions. It is translated into Arabic and Persian, and
they named the book Bûtâl; in Persian it is named
Kapâmajân.2
6. Pájak, or Pâjî, corresponding to Av. ashaḍ in
Y. a. v., and called Pâjam in the Riv. and D.v., con-
sisted of 22 sections. It contained explanations of the
slaughter of quadrupeds and sheep, and how they are
to be slaughtered; which quadrupeds it is lawful to eat,
and which kinds are not lawful; how he who slaughters
should strike at the time the sheep is expiring.3 The
more that is spent upon a Gahanbâr,4 so much the more
1 The text appears to be va madam
vinâskārān pâḍafrâs-i yehevûnêḍ pa-
van tanû-i pasîn in the Dînî-vajar-
kard. If the meaning be that the
punishment is to endure during the
future existence, which is not quite
certain, the D.v. differs from the
orthodox view; it is not, however,
a book of any authority, as the text
is evidently a mere translation of
modern Persian.
2 The Rivâyats are quite uncertain
how to read these names, but they
prefer Bawaftâl and Fawâmsubhhân,
but Fawâmjasân, Fawâmîkhsân, and
even Khawâsahhân, occur in different
copies. The Dinkard knows nothing
about the contents of the Nadar
Nask, so that the Rivayats must have
had other sources of information.
3 The slaughtering is performed by
cutting (peskúntano), but the animal
must be finally killed by a blow, as
explained by Dastur Hoshangji.
4 One of the six season festivals
which are held on the 45th, 105th,
180th, 210th, 290th, and 365th days
of the Parsi year, which commences
now on the 20th of September ac-
cording to Indian Parsi reckoning,
or on the 21st of August according
to Persian reckoning, but retrogrades
one day every leap-year. These
periods, which seem originally to
have been the six seasons of the
year, came to represent, in later
times, the six periods of creation.
See section xi. of this Essay.
ZEND-AVESTA.—THE NASKS.
129
is the reward; how much it is needful to bestow upon
Dasturs, Mobads, and Herbads, and upon the unwavering
doers of good works in the good religion; to every one
who celebrates a Gahanbâr, and consecrates a dress 1 for
a (departed) soul, what happens in the last times and
in heaven, and what merit accrues to him; the giving
of a dress in charity for righteous relatives, using media-
tion on the part of the righteous, the five greater and
lesser Fravarḍîgân 2 days; and the performance of good
works on these ten days is enjoined in this Nask; all
men should read this book, with good and wise under-
standing, who would become fully aware of its explana-
tions.
7. Ratoshtâîtî, corresponding to Av. chid in Y. a. v.,
and called Ratushtâî in the Riv. and D.v., consisted of
50 sections until the accursed Alexander burnt the Nasks,
but after that only a fragment containing 13 sections
came to hand, as the rest no longer existed. It con-
tained explanations of performing service, giving orders,
and remaining at the command of kings, high-priests, and
judges; the means of preserving cities is declared; the
commands of religion, and means of taking reptiles, birds,
cattle, and fish; everything which is a creation of Aûhar-
mazd and Ahriman; accounts of all seas, mountains, and
Tands; and matters similar to those mentioned.
8. Barish, corresponding to Av. hachâ in Y. a. v., con-
sisted of 60 sections at first, but after the accursed Alex-
ander's (time only) 12 remained. It contained informa-
tion as to how kings should rule, and what should be
the orders and decrees of the judges of the religion; the
preservation and protection of the world; making every
new city flourish; accounts of false-speaking men, sinners,
and such-like are given in this Nask.
1 Or "a cup," the text being va (fravashi, fravarti), or spiritual re-
jâm-i pavan rûbân yezbekhûnêḍ.
2 The last five days of the old year
and the first five of the new one.
During these ten days the frohars
presentatives, of the deceased are
believed to come to the houses; and
the days are, therefore, called Fra-
vardigân.
I
130
THE ORIGINAL EXTENT OF THE
9. Kashkisrobo, corresponding to Av. vanheush in Y.
a. v., and called Kashkasîrah or Kashsrôb in the Riv.
and D.v., consisted of 60 sections formerly, but after the
accursed Alexander's (time only) 15 remained. It con-
tained accounts of wisdom and knowledge, the cause of
childbirth,¹ teaching guides to wisdom, performance of
purification, speaking truth, bringing mankind from evil
to good, bringing them from impurity and filth to purity;
greatness and promotion are for men near kings; and in
what manner men become tellers of falsehood to relatives
and kings, and such-like.
10. Vishtâsp-sâstó, corresponding to Av. dazdâ in Y.
a. v., and called Vishtâsp-shâh or Vishtâsp in the Rivâyats,
and Vishtâspâḍ in D.v., consisted of 60 sections, but after
the accursed Alexander's (time only) 10 remained.2 It
contained an account of the reign of Gushtâsp; that
Zaratûsht-i Spîtâmân brought the religion from Aûhar-
mazd, and King Vishtâsp accepted it and made it current.
in the world; and such-like.
II. Vashti or Dadak,3 corresponding to Av. manaṇhô
in Y. a. v., and called Khasht in the Rivâyats, and Khûstô
in D.v., consisted of 22 sections originally, but after the
accursed Alexander's (time only) 6 remained (called juzwa,
portion, bundle of folios," in the Rivâyats). The first
portion was about understanding the attributes of Aûhar-
mazd, being without doubts about the religion of Zara-
tûsht, all the duties and good works which are enjoined
in the religion, and such-like. The second portion was
about accepting service, the truth of religion, and all
commands, from kings; and withholding one's hand from
evil doings, so that it may be far from vice. The third
portion was about debt to virtuous disputants, the ad-
vantage and merit of the last deliverance from hell, and
such-like. The fourth was about the creation of the
1 Chîm-i pêḍák-yehcvûntano min
amidar in the original text.
2 The Rivâyat of Barzû Qiyâmu-d-
dîn says "eight."
3 It is doubtful whether the first
letter in one of the lists be part of
the name, or merely the conjunction
val.
ZEND-AVESTA.—THE NASKS.
131
world, the practice of agriculture, the cultivation of trees,
the date-tree and all fruit-trees; whence is the chief
strength of men and cattle; on the obedience of the
doers of good works and the virtuous, on obedience to
Dasturs, and such-like. The fifth portion was on the
ranks of men; all are mentioned whose knowledge is
great, as kings, judges, and the learned in religion; in
the second rank are all who take care of the country
and attack the enemy; in the third rank are those who
are called vâstryôshân, " agriculturists;" the fourth rank
is said to be those of great skill, market dealers of dili-
gence and volubility to avoid loss, giving one-tenth to
the Dastur and king, offering praise on their hardened
knees, and whose last reward is that they obtain in
heaven. The contents of the sixth portion are not
stated.
12. Chiḍrashtô, corresponding to Av. shkyaothnanăm in
Y. a. v., and called Jirasht in the Riv. and D.v., consisted
of 22 sections. This Nask was sent by Aûharmazd to
manifest to men what are the details of that science
through which mankind is born; 1 how many individuals.
are still-born, and how many will live; then, how many
men become kings, and how many perform the mission.
of prophesy and high-priesthood, how many men are
very great, and how many are very small men, and
how this happens; from first to last the time men are
born, and all those details are in this Nask. The
numbers of all the preceding Nasks, as given in the
Rivâyats and Dînî-vajarkard, have been one in excess
of those given in the Dînkard, their order being in both
cases the same; but this Nask and the next one have
changed places (and so have the 16th and 17th Nasks)
in the Riv. and D.v., which make this the 14th Nask.
13. Spend, corresponding to Av. aņhēush in Y. a. v.,
and called Sfend in the Rivâyats, consisted of 60 sections,
1 Maman chîm zak danishn-i mún zerkhûnêḍ in the original text, mean-
marḍúm min ashkômbo-i máḍo barâ ing "midwifery."
132
THE ORIGINAL EXTENT OF THE
which are valuable to great men, productive of virtuous.
actions, and cause attention to the great and religious. It
contained accounts of Zaratûsht from his being brought
forth by Dughda till his tenth year. Every Dastur and
Mobad, who shall reverentially recite this Nask for several
days in purity and by heart, shall obtain every wish for
himself, or any favour he may request for others. This is
the 13th Nask according to all authorities.
14. Bakân-yasto, "worship of divinities," corresponding
to Av. mazdai in Y. a. v., and called Baghân-yasht in the
Riv. and D.v., consisted of 17 sections.1 It contained
accounts of Aûharmazd the lord, the knowledge of his
attributes, the service and sublimity of Aûharmazd, when
is the time of every Gâh (time of prayer) till the future
existence, what duty is to be performed, the offering praise
for every benefit from Aûharmazd, obtaining benefits from
him; the appearance (chitar) of the Ameshâspends, and
knowing in the future existence what is such-and-such an
appearance of such-and-such an Ameshâspend. This Nask,
made in homage of Aûharmazd and the Ameshâspends, is
very fine.
15. Nikaḍúm, corresponding to Av. khshathremchâ in
Y. a. v., and called Niyârum 2 in the Riv. and D.v., con-
sisted of 54 sections. It contained details about preserv-
ing wealth and placing it out, bargaining and measuring
by the cubit and handful; everything the creator Aûhar-
mazd has ordained as innocent; deliverance from hell,
and how to walk in the path of reverence and worship;
what is in the mind of man, and everything which is in
the body of man, and similar matters to those mentioned.
16. Dúbásrújḍ,3 or Dúbásrúd, corresponding to Av.
ahurðí in Y. a. v., and called Dvâsrûjad, Dvâsrûnjad,
1 D.v. says 18, but this is probably this form of the name, but this is
a copyist's error.
2 Evidently a modern Persian blun-
der, as r and d are very similar in
that alphabet.
probably a copyist's blunder; the
second form is evidently reproduced
in the last Rivâyat form, which would
be dvásrût if it were not wrongly
3 The Dînkard prefixes dûbarêd to pointed.
ZEND-AVESTA.-THE NASKS.
133
Dvâsrûb in different Rivâyats, and Dvâsrûzd in D.v., con-
sisted of 65 sections. It contained accounts of khrétûkdas
(next-of-kin marriage), forming connections among rela-
tives, and such-like. In the Riv. and D.v. this is the
18th Nask, having changed places with the next one,
as has been already noticed in the remarks on the 12th
Nask.
17. Húspâram, corresponding to Av. â in Y. a. v., and
called Aspâram in the Rivâyats, and Aspârûm in D.v.,
consisted of 64 sections according to the Rivâyats (one of
them says 60), or 65 according to D.v. It contained
religious matters which all people know well, the punish-
ment suffered by sinners which they receive in their last
career; everything which is innocent is allowable, and
what is not innocent is not allowable; the stars which
preside over the destiny of men, and such-like. This is
the 17th Nask according to all authorities.
18. Sakáḍúm, corresponding to Av. yim in Y. a. v., and
called Askâram in the Rivâyats, and Askârûm in D.v.,
consisted of 52 sections. About giving orders and exer-
cising authority, practising wisdom in everything; causing
the resurrection, by which every man who has passed
away is made living again, and the malformations of
Ahriman and the demons are destroyed; and the like.
19. Vîk-dev-dâḍ, Vîk-shêdâ-dâḍ, or Jariḍ-shédâ-dâḍ,
corresponding to Av. dregubyô in Y. a. v., and called Van-
dîdâd, or Jud-dêv-dâd, in the Rivâyats and D.v., consists
of 22 sections. About what preserves men from evil and
impurity, and will restrain them from all kinds of pollu-
tion. Of all the 21 Nasks, the Javîḍ-dêv-dâḍ has re-
mained complete; while several remained scattered by
the wretched accursed Alexander, this Vendîdâd remained
in hand, and from its elucidation the Mazdayasnian reli-
gion exists now.
20. Hâdőkhtô, corresponding to Av. dadaḍ in Y. a. v.,
and called Hâdukht in the Rivâyats, consisted of 30 sec-
tions. It contained much goodness and much gratifica-
134
THE BOOKS NOW EXTANT.
tion. Every one who recites this Hâdôkht, drives the evil
Ahriman far from him, and approaches and comes near
to Aûharmazd. This is the 21st Nask according to the
Rivâyats and D.v., which remove all the Nasks, except
the 12th, 13th, 16th, 17th, and 21st, one step lower on
the list.
21. Stúd-yasto, corresponding to Av. vâstârem in Y. a. v.,
and called Stûd-yasht in the Riv. and D.v., consisted of
33 sections. It contained the praise and reverence of
Aûharmazd and the Ameshâspends, and thanksgivings.
Aûharmazd sent this Nask into the world that every one
should recite it from memory; and to every Dastur who
recites both the Avesta and Zend of this Nask three
times accurately the Ameshâspends will come near; he
knows this without doubt. This is the 1st Nask in the
Rivâyats and D.v., as has been previously mentioned.
III.—THE BOOKS NOW EXTANT, AND THE SUPPOSED
ZOROASTRIAN AUTHORSHIP.
Of these twenty-one Nasks, which have been enume-
rated, only the nineteenth, the Vendidad, is preserved
complete; of a few of the others, such as the Vishtásp-
sástô and Hâdokhtô, and perhaps the Bakó,1 some frag-
ments only are extant; but by far the larger number of
these ancient sacred books have been lost for ever. There
are, however, in the Zend-Avesta, as used by the Parsi
priests nowadays, other books extant besides the Vendi-
dad, which are either not mentioned in the foregoing list,
as the Yasna and Visparad, or not clearly indicated, as
the Yashts. These last, as well as the shorter prayers
(Nyâyish, Afrîngân, Gâhs, Sîrôzah), were very probably
contained in the 14th and 21st Nasks.
¹ In the library of the Khân Bahâ-
dar Dastur Nôshirvanji, at Poona,
there is a small fragment said to be-
long to this Nask, and referring to
the treatment of a dead body and
the fate of the soul immediately
after death; but Dastur Hoshangji is
doubtful about its authenticity.
THE BOOKS NOW EXTANT.
135
As to the Yasna and Visparad, they are not to be
found in any of the twenty-one Nasks, if we examine
the statements of their contents. They were probably
separate from them altogether, occupying in regard to the
Nasks the same rank as the Vedas, in the Brahmanical
literature, do in reference to the Shâstras and Purâņas.
That the Yasna is the most sacred book of the whole
Zend-Avesta may be easily ascertained by perusing and
comparing it with the other books contained in the scripture
of the Parsis nowadays, where (as in the Vendidad) many
verses from it are quoted as most sacred and scriptural.
The difference between the Yasna and the Avesta-Zend
said to have been contained in the twenty-one Nasks is
about the same as that between the five Mosaic books
(Pentateuch), which were always believed by the Jews
to be the most sacred part of the Old Testament,1 and
the other books of the Old Testament together with
the different parts of the extensive Talmud.2. There is
no doubt, (and the present state of the only Nask now
completely extant, viz., the Vendidad, seems to prove it,,
that by far the larger bulk of the various contents of
these books contained Zend, or the explanation of an
ancient sacred text called Avesta. A good deal of the
contents of these Zend books is in all probability extant
in the Pahlavi literature, as yet very imperfectly known
in Europe.
From the contents of the Nasks, as given above, we
clearly see that they must represent the whole religious
and scientific literature current throughout the ancient
Persian Empire; for they treated not only of religious
topics, but of medicine, astronomy, agriculture, botany,
philosophy, &c. That the contents of those Zoroastrian
books which were known to the Greeks and Romans,
1 The Samaritan Jews acknow-
ledge, to this day, only the five books
of Moses as scripture.
2 Some portions of this enormously
large work, which may be said even
CC
to surpass the original extent of the
twenty-one Nasks, especially those
called Halakah, rule,' are as
authoritative for the Jews as the
Thorah (Pentateuch) itself.
1
!
136
THE BOOKS NOW EXTANT.
1
were of such a various character, undoubtedly follows
from the reports which have reached our time. Indexes
of them, like the catalogues of the ancient literature
known to Parsi priests nowadays, were extant at the
time of Alexander the Great; because Hermippos (see
p. 8) is said to have read and perused such a catalogue.
This extensive ancient literature, which in all probability
was already complete in B.C. 400 (see the last section of
this Essay), shows the great activity and scientific in-
terest exhibited by the priests of the Zoroastrian religion.
in olden times. So comprehensive a literature was of
course the work of centuries, especially if one takes
into consideration the scarcity and expense of fit writ-
ing materials,1 the clumsiness of the ancient characters
used (in all probability a kind of cuneiform), and the
long time which Orientals require for original composi-
tion. The composition of the sacred literature of the
Jews, from the time of Moses (B.C. 1300 to 1500) down
to the close of the Talmudic literature (A.D. 960), occu-
pied a period of about 2400 years. Were we to apply
the same calculation to the Zoroastrian literature, its be-
ginning would have to be placed as early as B.C. 2800,
which would not in the least contradict the statements
made by the Greeks,2 about the age in which the founder
of the Parsi religion was believed by them to have lived.
At all events, this much seems to be certain, that at least
a thousand years must have elapsed before a sacred litera-
ture so various and extensive could have grown up out of
the seeds sown by the great founder of the Parsi creed,
Spitama Zarathushtra.
1 They used cowskins, which were
prepared for the purpose. In the
fragments of the ancient literature,
extant in the Zend-Avesta, no word
meaning "to write" is anywhere to
be found. This is merely fortuitous,
because systematic books on scientific
matters can never be composed with-
out the aid of writing. That the art
of alphabetical writing, as practised
now by European nations, was per-
fectly understood by the Persians in
the sixth century before the Christian
era, we know now from the inscrip-
tions of the kings of the Achæmenian
dynasty, such as Cyrus and Darius.
2 See the fourth Essay.
SUPPOSED ZOROASTRIAN AUTHORSHIP.
137
As to the authorship of these books, they were ascribed
by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and are so by the
present l'arsis, to Zoroaster himself. This opinion being
so old as to have been known to the Greeks several
centuries previous to the commencement of the Christian
era, we may presume that it is not without foundation;
though, on the other hand, it is impossible for a modern
critic to believe that so extensive a literature as this,
treating of such various topics, was the work of a single
man. The Parsi tradition, it is true, gets over this diffi-
culty by asserting that all the twenty-one Nasks were
written by God Himself, and given to Zoroaster, as his
prophet, to forward them to mankind. But such asser-
tions being inadmissible in modern criticism, which tries
to solve problems by appeal to reason, not to miracles of
the most extraordinary character, we must dispense with
them entirely, the more so as such claims to God's im-
mediate authorship of the whole Zend-Avesta are never
made in any of the books which are now extant. They
lay claim to divine revelation (only the Yasna, not the
Vendidad), but not in such a form as to exclude all
activity on the part of the receiving prophet. As to
the nature of this revelation, the reader may best learn
it from the second Gâtha, of which a translation will
be given in the 7th section of this Essay. He will see
that the prophet was believed to have held conversa-
tions with God Himself, questioning the Supreme Being
about all matters of importance, and receiving always the
right answers to his questions. The prophet accordingly,
after having been instructed, communicated these accounts
of his conversations with God to his disciples and the
public at large. Who wrote them down is quite uncer-
tain; for in the old books no mention of this circum-
stance is made. The scanty texts which can be traced
to the founder himself were very likely not written
down by him, but learned by heart by his disciples, as
was the case with the numerous Vedic hymns which
138 SUPPOSED ZOROASTRIAN AUTHORSHIP.
1
for centuries were handed down orally only. To the
European reader it may be somewhat astonishing to
hear that such large works as the Vedas could be faith-
fully and accurately retained in the memory for cen-
turies; but considering that at the present day thousands
of Brahmans exist who are able to recite parrot-like with
the greatest accuracy, even as to accents, the whole of
one of the Vedas, we are driven to admit that the same
might have been the case in those early times to which
we must trace the origin of the Zoroastrian religion. As
long as the language of the hymns or prayers repeated.
was a living one and perfectly intelligible, there was no
need of committing them to writing; but as soon as it
had become dead, the aid of writing was required in
order to guard the sacred prayers against corruption and
mutilation. That was, in all probability, the case already
a thousand years before the beginning of our era.
To revert to the supposed Zoroastrian authorship of the
whole Zend-Avesta, believed by the ancient Greeks as well
as by the modern Parsis, the solution of the difficulty is
simple, if we take the name "Zarathushtra" (Zoroaster),
not as the proper name of only one individual, but as
the general title of the spiritual heads of the religious
community of the ancient Persians. That this was really
the case the reader will see from the fourth Essay. The
founder is distinguished by the name "Spitama." The
high-priest of the whole Parsi community was believed
to be the successor of the great founder, Spitama Zara-
thushtra, and to have inherited his spirit. His sayings
and decisions, therefore, were listened to with the greatest
reverence, and in the course of time believed to be as
sacred and divine as those which are with reason to be
ascribed to the founder alone. The meaning of the sup-
posed Zoroastrian authorship of the whole Zend-Avesta
is that the scripture is the joint work of the high-priests
in the ancient Persian Empire and other priests nearest
to them in rank, compiled in the course of centuries.
YASNA.
139
This circumstance throws light upon the fact, that only
the Dasturs, or present high-priests, are required to
understand the meaning of the Zend-Avesta, and no one
who has not thoroughly studied it can be acknowledged
as a real Dastur.
The texts extant now, and collected for the first time
in Westergaard's valuable edition, comprise the following
books:-YASNA, VISPARAD, VENDIDAD, and twenty-four sec-
tions called YASHTS, including fragments of the Hâdôkht
Nask (No. 22 in Westergaard's edition) and Vishtâsp Nask
(No. 24); to these are added some short prayers of dif-
ferent kinds, called AFRINGAN (3), NYAYISH (6), GAH (5),
with some miscellaneous fragments (9), and the SIROZAH
(thirty days) or calendar. We shall treat of each of them
successively in detail.
t
IV.—YASNA.
The word yasnal corresponds exactly to the S. yajna,
"sacrifice," and does not signify only mere prayers, like
the Nyâyish, but prayers referring to sacrificial rites, and
includes the performance of the latter. The solemn recital
of the Yasna before the fire is always connected with cere-
monies, to which several of the prayers contained in the
Yasna allude. Thus they require consecrated water
(zaothra), a kind of bread (garetem, "food"), butter (gâush
hudhâo), fresh milk (gâush jîvya), meat (myazda),2 the
branches of the Homa plant together with one of the
pomegranate (hadhânaêpâta), the juice of the Homa plant
(para-haoma), hair of an ox (varasa), and a bundle of
twigs (baresma, nowadays barsom) which are tied together
1 Yajishn (sometimes atjishno) in
Fahlavi, transliterated into Ijashne
in Gujrati; the root is yaz, yas, "to
worship by means of sacrifices and
prayers;" na forms abstract nouns
in the Avesta, and in Pahlavi ishn
answers the same purpose.
2 The Dasturs nowadays under-
stand it to mean "fruit," which they
use when performing the Ijashne
ceremony. But originally it meant
"flesh," as may be clearly seen from
the cognate Armenian mis, meat,
(comp. Sans. mâñsa) being identical
with meat."
140
YASNA.
by means of a reed. Without these implements, which
are evidently the remnants of sacrifices agreeing to a
certain extent with those of the Brahmans, as we shall
see in the fourth Essay, no Ijashne can be performed by
the priest. All these things must be in readiness, except
the prepared Homa juice, and placed on a table of marble.
opposite to the fire of the Dadgah, or the common hearth
of the temple (not before the sacred fires Adarân or Beh-
râm), before the Ijashne ceremony can be commenced.
The Yasna at the present time comprises seventy-two
chapters, which number (6 times 12) is probably to repre-
sent the six gahanbârs, or seasons, during which Ahura-
mazda is said to have created the world. At all events,
the extension of the several sections of the Yasna, called
Ha (from Av. hâta), to the number of seventy-two, is not
accidental, but was purposely made, as we may guess
easily from the fact that several chapters occur twice.
within the compass of those seventy-two. For instance,
the 61st and 72d chapters are the same, and the 18th con-
tains nothing but verses from, the Gâtha portion of the
Yasna.
On closer inquiry, we find the Yasna really consists of
at least two different parts, distinguishable by consider-
able differences in language and contents. One part we
may call “the old," the other "the later Yasna." The old
Yasna is written in a peculiar dialect, styled the Gâtha
dialect in the second Essay, where its chief peculiarities
have been pointed out.
All parts written in this peculiar dialect 1 formed origi-
nally a separate book, which was believed to be sacred
even at the time of the composition of the other books con-
tained in the present Zend-Avesta. The original name of
this collection was, in all probability, mathra spenta, "bene-
1 These are the five Gâthas :-Yas.
xxviii.-xxxiv. ; xliii.-xlvi. ; xlvii.-1.;
li. ; liii.; Yasna haptaṛhaiti (Yasna of
seven chapters), xxxv.-xli., and some
other smaller pieces, as Yas. iv. 26; xi.
9, 17, 18; xii. ; xiii. ; xiv.; xv. 2, 3;
xxvii. 13, 14; lvi.; lviii. All refer-
ences made to the Avesta, in this
Essay, are to Westergaard's edition
of the texts, unless otherwise noted.
YASNA.
141
ficent ritual" (called Mansarspend in Persian writings),
which is several times mentioned in the Vendidad (iv. 44)
with the meaning of "Scripture." Its different parts were
known by different names, as Gathas or hymns, Yasna
haptanhaiti or the Yasna of seven chapters, which are
often quoted in the other books, as in Yas. lvii. 8 (where
the angel Srosh is said to have first recited the five Gâthas
of Spitama Zarathushtra), Yas. lxxi. 11, 12, 18 (where the
Gâthas, the sacrificial prayers, and Yasna haptaṇhaiti,
are distinguished, and a collection of all prayers is men-
tioned besides). In the Vendidad, especially in its tenth.
chapter, many sacred prayers are quoted, which are all to
be found in the old Yasna, written in the peculiar Gâtha
dialect.
In the first chapter of the Visparad we find a series of
sacred prayers (or rather their angels 1) invoked. This
passage being of the greatest importance for the history of
the Avesta literature, I shall point out here all that refers
therein to this matter. As sacred prayers and sacred
literature in general, the following writings are there
enumerated :—1. The three most sacred short formulas,
viz., Yathâ ahû vairyó (Yas. xxvii. 13), ashem vohû (Yas.
xxvii. 14), and yênhé hátām 2 (Yas, iv. 26); 2. the Gâtha
' for the sake of righteousness, (to be)
the giver of the good thoughts, of
'the actions of life, towards Mazda;
' and the dominion is for the lord
(Ahura) whom he (Mazda) has given
as a protector for the poor.' The
Ashem vohû formula, which is even
more frequently used than the Ahuna-
vairya, may be translated as follows:
-' Righteousness is the best good, a
1 According to Zoroastrian ideas,
everything in the good creation,
whether animate or inanimate, is pre-
sided over by an angel, as the reader
will learn from the 11th section of
this Essay.
2 These three formulas are very
short; it is, therefore, somewhat
hazardous to venture upon a transla-
tion of them. The words themselves
do not offer much difficulty, but the
context does. The text of the first
has already been given (p. 125); it is
usually called Ahuna-vairya, and
hence the first Gâtha is called Ahu-
navaiti, as it is written in the same
metre and follows this formula, which
may be translated as follows: "As a
'heavenly lord is to be chosen, so is
an earthly master (spiritual guide),
'
blessing it is; a blessing be to that
'which is righteousness towards Asha-
vahishta (perfect righteousness).
It is to be understood that “righteous-
ness," here and elsewhere where it
translates ashem, means "what is
right or meritorious in a ritualis-
tic or materialistic sense, and does
not necessarily imply holiness, any
more than the Sans. punyam does.
142
GATHAS.
140
1
ahunavaiti (Yas. xxviii.-xxxiv.); 3. Yasna haptanhaiti
(Yas. xxxv.-xli.); 4. Gâtha ushtavaiti (Yas. xliii.-xlvi.);
5. Gâtha speñtâ-mainyú (Yas. xlvii.-1.); 6. Gâtha vohu-
khshathra (Yas. li.); 7. Gátha vahishtôishti (Yas. liii.); 8.
Dahmi vaņuhi and âfriti (the Dahmân Afringán, Yas. lx.,
the principal prayer for deceased pious Zoroastrians, called
dahma); 9. Airyama ishyó (Yas. liv., a short prayer now
used at the time of the solemnisation of a marriage); 10.
Fshashô-mathra (Yas. lviii., a prayer for prosperity); 11.
Berezo hadaokhdha (perhaps Yas. xv.); 12. the conversa-
tions with and teaching of Ahuramazda, as imparted to
the ruler and chief high-priest (Zarathushtrôtemố, “the
highest Zarathushtra") of a whole country, by which a
book like the Vendidad is to be understood, as we shall
see afterwards.
In Vendidad xviii. 51, three classes of sacred writings
are enumerated in the following order :-Gâthas, Yasna (by
which very likely the Yasna haptanhaiti is to be under-
stood), and a sacred tradition in a conversational form
(called paitiparshtô-sravanhem), which appears to have
been a work like the present Vendidad.
From these passages we may gather with certainty that
the old Yasna, i.e., that part of the present Yasna which is
written in the peculiar Gâtha dialect, is the most ancient
of the whole Zend-Avesta, being known as scripture.
already to the later Yasna, the Visparad, and Vendidad.
All other parts of the Yasna, written in the ordinary
Avesta language, are evidently of a later date; they may,
therefore, be called the later Yasna. We shall first exa-
mine the contents of the chief parts of the old Yasna,
the Gâthas.
V.-GATHAS.
The Gâthas, five in number, are comparatively small
collections of metrical compositions, containing short
prayers, songs, and hymns, which generally express philo-
sophical and abstract thoughts about metaphysical sub-
GATHAS.
143
((
jects. The name Gâtha," which is also well known in
Sanskrit and Pâli literature, means "song" (especially a
stanza which contains allusions to historical facts, as pre-
served in the mouths of the ancient bards), from the root
gai, "to sing." That they were sung is not to be doubted,
as we may learn from Greek reports (see p. 11), and from
their being metrical compositions, the recital of which is
always designated by a separate word: frasrâvayéiti.¹ At
present, the priests do not make any distinction as to the
way of repeating the different parts of the Zend-Avesta ;
they recite them equally in a singing tone. That is not
to be wondered at, the different constituents of the Yasna
being unknown to the present priests, which was not the
case in ancient times.
As to the metres used in the Gâthas, we find them of
the same nature as those which are to be found in the
Vedic hymns. No rhyme is observed, only the syllables
are counted, without much attention being paid to their
quantity. The five collections into which the Gâthas
have been brought exhibit each a different metre. Verses
of the same metre were put together, irrespective of their
So the first Gâtha contains verses, each of
which consists of forty-eight syllables; in the second, the
metre is of fifty-five syllables; in the third, of forty-four,
The number of syllables is not always strictly
observed; we find, now and then, one less or one more.
To give the reader an idea of this poetry, some specimens
contents.
&c.
1 There are three expressions used
for the recital of the sacred texts,
viz., mar, "to recite," drenj (or
framru), "to recite in a low tone,"
and srávay, frasrâvay, "to recite
with a loud voice and observing musi-
cal accents." The first expression
conveys the most general meaning,
viz., to repeat from memory" (mar
= S. smar, <<
to recollect"), which
was very likely done in the same way
as the Brahmans repeat the verses of
the Rigveda, observing the accents in
66
general. Drenj means evidently a
peculiar kind of recital; it is chiefly
applied to spells, and may be com-
pared to the recital of the verses of
the Yajurveda, which is done with a
low voice, and monotonously. Fra-
srávay is the solemn recital in the
form of a very simple tune, compar-
able to the way of singing the Sâma-
veda by the Brahmans. This expres-
sion is pre-eminently applied to the
Gathas. Compare Yas. xix. 6, Vend.
iv. 45, Yt. xiii. 20
144
GATHAS.
are here quoted. In the first Gâtha (called ahunavaiti,
from the Ahuna-vairya formula which precedes it), each
verse consists of three lines, each comprising sixteen
syllables, as may be seen from the following example
(Yas. xxxi. 8):—
Aḍ thwa mēnhi
So thee I thought
first
paourvim mazda yazam stôi mananha
Mazda great in creation in mind.
Vanheush ptarēm mananho hyaḍ thwa hēm chashmaini heñgrabem
of the good father mind therefore thee together in the eye I seized
apheush ahurem shkyaothanaesha.¹
of life Ahura in actions.
Haithim ashahya
true of righteousness
dâmîm
creator
In this verse the cesura is after the seventh syllable;
the second half of each line comprises, therefore, nine
syllables. Were the cesura after the eighth syllable, and
if the whole verse comprised only thirty-two syllables,
instead of forty-eight, this metre would correspond to the
Sanskrit shloka, consisting of four half-verses (pâdas)
each comprising eight syllables, which metre is preserved
in some fragments of epic songs in the Zend-Avesta, as
we shall see hereafter. It stands nearest to the Gâyatrî
metre, which consists of twenty-four syllables, divisible
into three pâdas, each comprising eight syllables.
In the second Gâtha (called ushtavaiti, from its first
words, ushtâ ahmâi, “hail to him!") there are five lines in
each stanza, each consisting of eleven syllables, for instance
(Yas. xliv. 3):-
Taḍ thwa peresa
eresh
môi
That
thee
I will ask
right
me
vaocha
tell
ahurd!
Ahura!
Kasna
What man
Kasna
What man
zātha
creator
pta
father
ashahya
paouruyô?
of righteousness
first?
qēñg
sun
staremcha
and stars
dad
made
advanem?
path?
Kē
Who
ya
that
mão
the moon
ukhshyéiti
increases
nerefsaiti
wanes
thwad? 2
besides thee?
Táchid
such things
mazdá
Mazda!
vasemi
I wish
anyacha
and other
viduyê.
to know.
1 See a freer translation further on.
2 Thwad is the ablative case, depen-
dent on ke (ko), who? The meaning
"besides, else," here absolutely re-
GATHAS.
145
This metre is very near to the Vedic trishtubh, which is
sacred to the god Indra, and consists of four pâdas, each
comprising eleven syllables, which make forty-four in all.
The Ushtavaiti Gâtha only exceeds it by one pâda of eleven
syllables. In the third Gâtha, called speñtá-mainyû, how-
ever, the trishṭubh is completely represented, as each verse
there comprises four pâdas, each of eleven syllables, in all
forty-four, just as many as the trishtubh is composed of 1
To obtain the number of syllables which is required for
each pâda or foot, in the specimen quoted above (taḍ thưấ
peresa), as well as in other verses of the Gâthas, the sound
ere, corresponding to the Sanskrit vowel ri, makes only one
syllable; and the short e (in vasemi, S. vashmi, "I want,
wish"), being a mere auxiliary vowel, and u in viduyé (in-
stead of vîdyé) being of the same nature, are not to be
counted. The syllables va and ya, yê, are often made liquid,
as is the case in the Vedic metres also, that is to say, they
are pronounced as two syllables like ua, ia, iyê. The verse
quoted above is, therefore, to be read as follows:-
Tad thua persa ersh môi vocha ahural
kasná zãthâ ptá ashahyâ pouruyô ?
kasná gēñg staremchâ dâḍ aduûnem ?
kē ya mão ukhshiyêitî nerfsaitî thwaḍ?
táchîò̟ mazdâ vasmî anyáchâ vîdyê.
In the fourth Gâtha each stanza comprises three verses,
quired for a translation into modern
languages, lies implied in the context;
vîduyê is a peculiar infinitive form of
the root vid, "to know."
Agne
O fire god!
vishvâni
all
yuyodhy
remove
bhuish thêm
utmost
naya
bring
deva
O god!
asmaj
from us
tc
on thee
¹ To illustrate this assertion, I sub-
join a specimen of this metre taken
from Rigveda, i. 189, 1.
supatha rave
on the good way to wealth
vayunáni
arts
(Agni! provide us with riches through
good fortune, O thou god, who know-
est all arts of obtaining wealth! Re-
move from us all faults at which thou
juhurânam
wrath kindled
nama-uktim
worship-hymn
asmân
us,
vid vân
knowing!
eno
sin,
vidhemu
let us bestow !
hast felt angry with us; let us pre-
pare for thee a most excellent hymn
for thy worship.)
K
146
GATHA AHUNAVAITI.
or six pâdas or feet, each consisting of seven syllables,
which make in all forty-two. In the fifth Gâtha, various
metres are used.
The five Gâthas are expressly designated as the "five
Gâthas of Zarathushtra" (Yas. lvii. 8), in order to distin-
guish them from other Gâthas or hymns, as, for instance,
those devoted to the praise of Homa (Yas. x.) That they
really contain the sayings and teaching of the great founder
of the Parsi religion, Spitama Zarathushtra himself, cannot
be doubted, as the reader will perceive from a perusal of
the larger portion of them, which will be found in the fol-
lowing sections.
VI.-GATHA AHUNAVAITI.1
This Gâtha is divided into seven chapters 2 (Yas. xxviii.—
xxxiv., Westerg.), which comprise IOI verses, all of them
being composed in the same metre, described above (p.
144). As to its contents, it resembles more a collection of
scattered verses than one continuous whole. It is even
doubtful whether the author is always the same, the style
being now and then different. But in consequence of one
and the same spirit pervading the whole Gâtha, we must
admit that it all belongs to the same age. We have in it,
in all probability, the sayings and songs of Zarathushtra
himself, mixed with those of his disciples Jamáspa,Vish-
tâspa, and Frashaoshtra. Thus, for instance, the following
verse (Yas. xxviii. 7) must be considered as the composi-
tion of one of the disciples of the prophet:-
'Come with the good mind, grant prosperity for life
'long, by means of thy mighty words, O thou Mazda! give
'both Zarathushtra and us thy powerful assistance to put
'down the assaults of our enemy.'
Here Zarathushtra being spoken of in the third, and the
To the explanation of this Gâtha
the whole of the first volume of the au-
thor's German work on the Gâthas
(containing 246 pages) is devoted.
2 The chapters of the Yasna are
called Hâs, which is a corruption of
the Avesta word hâta.
GATHA AHUNAVAITI.
147
author in the first person, we are fully entitled to ascribe
the verse to one of his followers, not to himself.
<
The heading of this Gâtha, 'The revealed thought, the
' revealed word, the revealed deed of the righteous Zara-
thushtra; the archangels first sang the Gathas,'¹ is of
high interest, because it does not refer to this Gátha alone,
but to all five indiscriminately. These introductory re-
marks are written not in the peculiar Gâtha dialect, but in
the common Avesta language, which circumstance shows
clearly that they proceed not from one of the authors, but
from a subsequent collector of these sacred verses.
learn from them that the Gâthas were believed to contain
all that has been revealed 2 to Spitama Zarathushtra; that
he learnt them from the choir of the archangels, who sang
them to his mental ears when, in a state of ecstasy, his
mind was raised to heaven.
We
Translations of some parts of this Gâtha will be pre-
sented to the reader. In its second section (Yas. xxix.) it
is related that the Geush urvd,3" the soul of the animated
1 A full explanation of this heading
is given in the author's German work
on the Gâthas, vol. i. pp. 41-46.
2 The term in the original is yûnîm,
which does not signify “good, happy,"
as the Dasturs think, but anything
seen when in a state of ecstasy. This
meaning is even preserved in the mo-
dern Persian word yûn, a reverie of
a fanatic, a trance." The literal mean-
ing is "
a walk," as may be seen from
its use in the Vedic Sanskrit (root yd,
"to go"), but applied to the gesticu-
lations of a prophet or seer when in
ecstasy, it means what he perceives
with his mental eye in such an extra-
ordinary frame of mind. The word
'to see
is really used in reference to
revelation in the Gâthas (see Yas.
xliii. 5, xxxi. 8, xxviii. 6). This ap-
plication of the word is wholly in
accordance with its meaning in the
Vedas, where it is stated that the
sacred songs (mantra) have been seen
by the Rishis.
>>
the name is corrupted into góshárún,
which is very likely preserved in the
modern Persian gawhar, nature."
According to the tradition, it was the
first animated creature, in the shape
of an ox, from which, after having
been killed and cut into picces, the
whole living creation is said to have
sprung. The slaughterer of this pri-
mary ox, the supposed ancestor of the
whole animal kiugdom, is often al-
luded to by the name gëush tashâ,
"cutter of the ox." Who was the
killer of this ox is not stated in the
Zend-Avesta, but tradition charges
this murder, of course, to Angrô-
mainyush, the devil. This legend
about the origin of the animated crea-
tion apparently refers to sacrificial
rites, the creation of the world being
considered by several ancient nations
as a sacrifice; by the Brahmans as
that of Brahma himself; by the an-
cient Scandinavians, the people of the
Edda, as that of the primary giant
3 In the Parsi or Pâzand language, Bör.
148
GATHA AHUNAVAITI.
1
creation," was crying aloud in consequence of attacks made
upon its life, and imploring the assistance of the arch-
angels. The murderer, frightened by this cry, asked one
of the archangels, Asha (Ardibahisht), as to who had been
appointed to protect this soul of the earth. Asha referred
him to Mazda, who is "the most wise, and the giver of
oracles." Mazda answered that Geush urvâ was being cut
into pieces for the benefit of the agriculturist. Mazda now
deliberated with Asha as to who might be fit to communi-
cate this declaration of the heavenly council to mankind.
Asha answered that there was only one man who had
heard the orders issued by the celestial councillors, viz.,
Zarathushtra Spitama; he, therefore, was to be endowed
with eloquence to bring their messages to the world.
Gēush urvâ means the universal soul of earth, the cause
of all life and growth. The literal meaning of the word,
"soul of the cow," implies a simile; for the earth is com-
pared to a cow.1 By its cutting and dividing, ploughing
is to be understood. The meaning of that decree, issued
by Ahuramazda and the heavenly council, is that the soil
is to be tilled; it, therefore, enjoins agriculture as a reli-
gious duty. Zarathushtra, when encouraging men by the
order of Ahuramazda to cultivate the earth, acts as a pro-
phet of agriculture and civilisation. In this capacity we
shall also find him afterwards.
In the third section of this Gâtha (Yas. xxx.) one of
the most important sections of the Gâtha literature is
presented to us. It is a metrical speech, delivered by
Spitama Zarathushtra himself, when standing before the
sacred fire, to a numerously attended meeting of his coun-
trymen. The chief tendency of this speech is to induce
his countrymen to forsake the worship of the devas or
1 Gaus has in Sanskrit the two Teutonic mythology), who represent
meanings cow" and "earth." In the creative powers in nature, are said
Greek gê, “carth," is to be traced to to "have cut the cow and made fertile
this word. In the Vâmadeva hymns the earth." The term evidently re-
(fourth book of the Rigveda), the fers to the cultivation of the soil.
Ribhus (comparable to the elves of the

Thon are sorme for monotheiste hymums in the Rigveda
He the Bused Mine eyesare coorgetre (Rv. x.81.3.) "Becho is the
farther that boots begat ust... That one thing in the all thricht
things.
usted von pland on the Rape othe Unborn. You will near kun him
hr created there things; something the stands tation for thine xor
When in the god & then vor huHA ALTUNATAIT!!
offer sacrife.
GATHA
149
4
3.6.
Tor Enì nãos
Alag. 1878./131.
4. The atomis Godaboor all
gods, i.e., polytheism, to bow only before Ahuramazda, dd" Rr. iv.53.8
and to separate themselves entirely from the idolators.
In order to gain the object wished for, he propounds the or. Fronde
great difference which exists between the two religions, Alsus: Fraser's
Monotheism and Polytheism, showing that whereas the
former is the fountain of all prosperity both in this and
the other life, the latter is utterly ruinous to mankind.
He attempts further to explain the origin of both these
religions, so diametrically opposed to each other, and finds
it in the existence of two primeval causes, called "exist-
ence" and "non-existence." But this merely philosophi-
cal doctrine is not to be confounded with his theology,
according to which he acknowledged only one God, as will
be clearly seen from the second Gâtha. The following is
a translation of the whole of this inaugural speech of
Zarathushtra.
Yas. xxx. I. I will now tell you who are assembled
here the wise sayings of Mazda, the praises of Ahura, and
the hymns of the good spirit, the sublime truth which I
see arising out of these sacred flames.
2. You shall, therefore, hearken to the soul of nature1
(i.e., to plough and cultivate the earth); contemplate the
beams of fire with a most pious mind! Every one, both
men and women, ought to-day to choose his creed (be-
tween the Deva and the Ahura religion). Ye offspring
of renowned ancestors, awake to agree with us (i.c., to
approve of my lore, to be delivered to you at this
moment)!
(The prophet begins to deliver the words revealed to
him through the sacred flames.)
3. In the beginning there was a pair of twins, two
spirits, each of a peculiar activity; these are the good
and the base, in thought, word, and deed. Choose one of
these two spirits! Be good, not base!
4. And these two spirits united created the first (the
¹ Gēush urvâ, see p. 147-8. It is here evidently an allusion made to the
legend mentioned above.
653
150
GATHA AHUNAVAITI.
material things); one, the reality, the other, the non-
reality. To the liars (the worshippers of the devas, i.e.,
gods) existence will become bad, whilst the believer in the
true God enjoys prosperity.
5. Of these two spirits you must choose one, either the
evil, the originator of the worst actions, or the true, holy
spirit. Some may wish to have the hardest lot (ie., those
who will not leave the polytheistic deva-religion), others
adore Ahuramazda by means of sincere actions.
6. You cannot belong to both of them (i.e., you cannot
be worshippers of the one true God, and of many gods at
the same time). One of the devas, against whom we are
fighting, might overtake you, when in deliberation (what
faith you are to embrace), whispering you to choose the
worst mind. Then the devas flock together to assault the
two lives (the life of the body and that of the soul), praised
by the prophets.
7. And to succour this life (to increase it), Armaiti 2
came with wealth, the good and true mind; she, the
everlasting one, created the material world; but the soul,
as to time, the first cause among created beings, was with
Thee.
8. But when he (the evil spirit) comes with one of
these evils (to sow mistrust among the believers), then
thou hast the power through the good mind of punishing
them who break their promises, O righteous spirit! 3
9. Thus let us be such as help the life of the future.4
The wise living spirits 5 are the greatest supporters of it.
1 Akem mano (superlat. achishtem
mano) means literally "evil mind.”
It is a philosophical term applied by
Zarathushtra to designate his prin-
ciple of non-existence, non-reality,
which is the cause of all evils.
low that preached by Zarathushtra,
will be punished by God should they
break their promise.
4 In this passage we have the germs
of the doctrine of the resurrection of
the dead; see the author's German
2 She is the angel of earth, and the work on the Gâthas, vol. i. pp. 109-
personification of prayers.
3 That is to say, those who give
to-day the solemn promise to leave
the polytheistic religion and to fol-
II2.
5 These are the archangels (Am-
shaspends).
GATHA AHUNAVAITI.
151
The prudent man wishes only to be there where wisdom
is at home.
10. Wisdom is the shelter from lies, the annihilation of
the destroyer (the evil spirit). All perfect things are
garnered up in the splendid residence of the Good Mind
(Vohu-manô), the Wise (Mazda), and the Righteous
(Asha),¹ who are known as the best beings.
II. Therefore, perform ye the commandments which,
pronounced by Mazda himself, have been given to man-
kind; for they are a nuisance and perdition to liars, but
prosperity to the believer in the truth; they are the foun-
tain of happiness.
In the fourth section of the first Gâtha (Yas. xxxi.) we
have a collection of urvâtas," sayings," of Ahuramazda,
revealed to his prophet Zarathushtra, for the purpose of
protecting the good creation from the attacks of wicked
men and evil spirits. The chief means of checking evil
influences is the cultivation of the soil. Some of these
verses are here translated.
Yas. xxxi. 7. He (Ahuramazda) first created, through
his inborn lustre,2 the multitude of celestial bodies, and
through his intellect the good creatures, governed by the
inborn good mind. Thou Ahuramazda, the spirit who art
everlasting, makest them (the good creatures) grow.
8. When my eyes beheld Thee, the essence of truth,
the Creator of life, who manifests his life in his works,
then I knew Thee to be the primeval spirit, Thou Mazda,
so high in mind as to create the world, and the father of
the good mind.3
9. In Thee was Armaiti (spirit of earth), in Thee the
very wise fertiliser of the soil, O Ahuramazda, Thou
1 Three names of archangels.
2 Qûthra, "by means of his own
fire." Ahuramazda, as the source of
light, which most resembles him, and
where he appears to his prophet, is
called qathro, "having his own light"
(not borrowed).
life in men and animals, the principle
of vitality. If Ahuramazda is called
the father of Vohu-manô, it means
that all vital powers in the animated
beings have sprung out of him, as the
supreme being.
* Literally, “the cutter of the cow "
3 Vohu-man6. He represents the (geush-tasha), see p. 147.
!
152
GATHA AHUNAVAITI.
spirit! when Thou hast made her paths that she might
go from the tiller of the soil to him who does not culti-
vate it.1
10. Of these two (the agriculturist and the herdsman),
she chose the pious cultivator, the propagator of life,
whom she blessed with the riches produced by the good
mind. All that do not till her, but worship the devas
(false gods), have no share in her good tidings (the fruits
produced by her, and the blessings of civilisation).
II. When Thou madest the world with its bodies, and
(gavest them) motions and speeches, then Thou Mazda!
hast created at first through Thy mind the gaethas (enclo-
sures), and the sacred visions (daénão), and intellects.2
18. Do not listen to the sayings and precepts of the
wicked (the evil spirit), because he has given to destruc-
tion house, village, district, and province. Therefore,
kill them (the wicked) with the sword.
The fifth section (Hâ) of this Gâtha (Yas. xxxii.) is one
of the most difficult pieces of the whole Yasna. It depicts,
in glowing colours, idolatry and its evil eonsequences. The
prophet directs his speech against the devas, or gods, in the
following manner :—
Yas. xxxii. 3. Ye devas have sprung out of the evil
1 The meaning is, that Armaiti, the
spirit of earth, is wandering from
spot to spot to convert deserts and
wildernesses into fruitful fields. She
goes from the agriculturist to the
shepherd, who still adheres to the
ancestral nomadic life, to call upon
him to cultivate the soil also.
2 By gaêlhas, frequently mentioned
in the Zend-Avesta, the ancient set-
tlements of the Iranian agriculturists
are to be understood. Ahuramazda
is constantly called their creator,
which means, that these settlements
belong to a very remote antiquity,
and that they form the basis of the
Ahura religion, or the religion of the
agriculturists. The daĉnas are the
revelations communicated to the pro-
phets through visions. The root of
the word is dî, "to see (preserved
in the modern Persian didan, "to
see;" it is related to the Sanskrit root
dhyai, "to think," thinking being
considered to be a seeing by means
of the mental eyes). Afterwards it
passed into the more general meaning
of "religion, creed," and is retained
in the form dîn down to this day in
Persian, whence it was incorporated
into Arabic, like many other Iranian
words, at a time anterior to Moham-
med. This word is also to be found
in the Lithuanian language (a link of
the Aryan stock) in the form dainô,
meaning "a song" (the mental fiction
of the poet).
GATHA AHUNAVAITI.
153
spirit who takes possession of you by intoxication (Shora),
teaching you manifold arts to deceive and destroy man-
kind, for which arts you are notorious everywhere.
4. Inspired by this evil spirit, you have invented spells,
which are applied by the most wicked, pleasing the devas
only, but rejected by the good spirit; but the wicked
perish through the wisdom and righteousness of Ahura-
mazda.
5. Ye devas and thou evil spirit! ye by means of your
base mind, your base words, your base actions, rob man-
kind of its earthly and immortal welfare by raising the
wicked to power.
Of the sixth and seventh Hâs (Yas. xxxiii. xxxiv.) a few
verses are here translated.
Yas. xxxiii. 2. Whoever are opposed, in their thoughts,
words, and actions, to the wicked, and think of the welfare
of the creation,1 their efforts will be crowned with success
through the mercy of Ahuramazda.
3. Whoever of two lords, of two yeomen, of two bonds-
men,2 behaves himself well towards a righteous man (an
adherent of the Zoroastrian religion), and furthers the
works of life by tilling the soil, that one will be in the
fields of the righteous and good (i.e., in paradise).
4. But by means of prayer I will remove from Thee
(from thy community), O Mazda! irreligiousness and
wickedness, the disobedience of the lord, and the false-
hood of the servant belonging to him and his yeoman,
and frustrate the most wicked designs plotted for destroy-
ing the fields.
14. Among the priests Zarathushtra maintains the
opinion that the peculiar nature of each body (living
creature) subsists through the wisdom of the good mind,
1 The term in the Avesta is asti,
"existence." It is the consequence
of adherence to the good principle.
2 These three names of the mem-
bers of the ancient Iranian community
are very frequently used in the Gâ-
thas, but not in the other books of the
Zend-Avesta. The word for lord is
qaêtu, owner;" that for yeoman,
airyama, associate, friend;" that
for bondsman, verezēna, workman,
labourer."
154
GATHA USHTAVAITI.
through righteousness of action, and the hearing of, and
keeping to, the revealed word.
Yas. xxxiv. 1. Immortality, righteousness, wealth, health,
all these gifts to be granted in consequence of (pious)
actions, words, and worshipping, to these (men who pray
here), are plentiful in Thy possession, O Ahuramazda!
VII.—GATHA USHTAVAITI (Yas. xliii.—xlvi.)1
Whilst the first Gâtha appears to be a mere collection
of fragments of hymns and scattered verses, made without.
any other plan than to transmit to posterity what was
believed to be the true and genuine sayings of the prophet,
in this second Gâtha we may observe a certain scheme
carried out. Although its contents, with the exception of
a few verses only (xlvi. 13-17), are all sayings of Zara-
thushtra himself, yet they have not been put together, as
is the case in many other instances, irrespective of their
contents, but in a certain order, with the view of present-
ing the followers of the prophet with a true image of the
mission, activity, and teaching of their great master. In
the first section of this Gâtha (Yas. xliii.), his mission, by
order of Ahuramazda, is announced; in the second (Yas.
xliv.), he receives instructions from the Supreme Being
about the highest matters of human speculation; in the third
(Yas. xlv.), he appears as a prophet before a large assem-
bly of his countrymen, to propound to them his new doc-
trines; and in the fourth or last section (Yas. xlvi.) we
find different verses referring to the fate of the prophet,
the congregation which he established, and his most emi-
nent friends and supporters.
As this Gâtha is the most important portion of the
whole Zend-Avesta for giving an accurate knowledge of
Zarathushtra's teaching and activity, a translation of the
1 See the text, with a literal Latin
translation, in the author's German
work on the Gathas, vol. ii. pp. 2-18,
and the commentary on it, ibid., pp.
59-154.
GATHA USHTAVAITI.
USHTAVA
155
whole of it is submitted to the reader in the following
pages.
1. (YAS. xliii.)
1. Blessed is he, blessed is every one, to whom Ahura-
mazda, ruling by his own will, shall grant the two ever-
lasting powers (health and immortality). For this very
good I beseech Thee (Ahuramazda). Mayest Thou through
Thy angel of piety, Armaiti, give me happiness, the good
true things, and the possession of the good mind.
2. I believe Thee to be the best being of all, the source
of light for the world. Every one shall choose Thee (be-
lieve in Thee) as the source of light, Thee, O Mazda, most
beneficent spirit! Thou createdst all good true things by
means of the power of Thy good mind at any time, and
promisedst us (who believe in Thee) a long life.
3. This very man (Sraosha) may go (and lead us) to
Paradise, he who used to show us the right paths of hap-
piness both in the earthly life and in that of the soul, in
the present creations, where Thy spirit dwells, the living,
the faithful, the generous, the beneficent, O Mazda!
4. I will believe Thee to be the powerful benefactor, O
Mazda! For Thou givest with Thy hand, filled with helps,
good to the righteous man, as well as to the wicked, by
means of the warmth of the fire 1 strengthening the good
things. For this reason the vigour of the good mind has
fallen to my lot.
5. Thus I believed in Thee, O Ahuramazda! as the fur-
therer (of what is good); because I beheld Thee to be the
primeval cause of life in the creation, for Thou, who hast
rewards for deeds and words, hast given evil to the bad and
good to the good. I will believe in Thee, O Ahura! in the
last (future) period of creation.
6. In whatever period of my life I believed in Thee,
O Mazda, munificent spirit! in that Thou camest with
1 The fire is supposed in the Zend-Avesta and the Vedas to be spread
everywhere as the cause of all life.
1
1
156
GATHA USHTAVAITI.
wealth, and with the good mind through whose actions our
settlements thrive. To these (men who are present) Ar-
maiti¹ tells the everlasting laws, given by Thy intellect,
which nobody may abolish.
7. Thus I believed in Thee, O Ahuramazda! as the fur-
therer (of what is good); therefore he (Sraosha) came to
me and asked: Who art thou? whose son art thou? How
dost thou at present think to increase and improve thy
settlements and their beings (to increase the power of the
good mind in all thy territories where thou appearest) ?
8. I replied to him: Firstly, I am Zarathushtra. I will
show myself as a destroyer to the wicked, as well as be a
comforter for the righteous man. As long as I can praise
and glorify Thee, O Mazda! I shall enlighten and awaken
all that aspire to property (who wish to separate them-
selves from the nomadic tribes and become settlers in a
certain country).
9. Thus I believed in Thee, O Ahuramazda! as the fur-
therer (of what is good); therefore he came to me with the
good mind (and I asked him): To whom dost thou wish
the increase of this life should be communicated? Stand-
ing at Thy fire amongst Thy worshippers who pray to Thee,
I will be mindful of righteousness (to improve all good
things) as long as I shall be able.
10. Thus mayest Thou grant me righteousness. Then I
shall call myself, if accompanied by the angel of piety, a
pious obedient man. And I will ask in behalf of both of
us 2 whatever Thou mayest be asked. For the king will,
as it is only allowed to mighty men, make Thee for Thy
answers a mighty fire (to cause Thy glory and adoration to
be spread over many countries like the splendour of a large
blazing flame).
II. Thus I believed in Thee, O Ahuramazda! as the fur-
therer (of what is good); therefore he (Sraosha) came to
1 The spirit of earth.
2 This refers to Zarathushtra and
Kava Vishtåspa, for whose welfare
and renown the prophet is here pray-
ing.
GATHA USHTAVAITI.
157
me with the good mind. For since I, who am your most
obedient servant amongst men, am ready to destroy the
enemies first by the recital of your 1 words, so tell me the
best to be done.
12. And when Thou camest to instruct me, and taughtest
me righteousness; then Thou gavest me Thy command not
to appear (before large assemblies as a prophet), without
having received a (special) revelation, before the angel
Sraosha, endowed with the sublime righteousness which
may impart your righteous things to the two friction woods
(by means of which the holiest fire, the source of all good
in the creation, is produced) for the benefit (of all beings),
shall have come to me.
13. Then I believed in Thee, O Ahuramazda! as the
furtherer (of what is good); therefore he came to me with
the good mind. Let me obtain the things which I wished
for; grant me the gift of a long life: none of you may
detain it from me for the benefit of the good creation sub-
ject to Thy dominion.
14. Therefore (Sraosha), the powerful proprietor (of
all good), communicated to me, his friend, knowledge of
Thy helps (Thy powers); for endowed with all the gifts
granted by Thee, as to the various kinds of speech, like
all other men who recite Thy prayers, I was resolved upon
making my appearance (in public as a prophet).
15. Thus I believed in Thee, O Ahuramazda! as the
furtherer (of what is good); therefore he came to me with
the good mind. May the greatest happiness brightly blaze
out of these flames! May the number of the worshippers
of the liar (evil spirit) diminish! may all those (that are
here present) address themselves to the priests of the holy
fire!
16. Thus prays, O Ahuramazda! Zarathushtra and every
holy (pure) man for all that choose (as their guide) the
most beneficent spirit. May vitality and righteousness
1 This refers to Ahuramazda and the archangels forming the celestial
council.
1
5
158
GATHA USHTAVAITI.
hi146
(the foundations of the good creation) become predomi-
nant in the world! In every being which beholds the
sun's light may Armaiti (the spirit of piety) reside! She
who causes all growth by her actions through the good
mind.
2. (YAS. xliv.)
1. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
whether your friend (Sraosha) be willing to recite his own
hymn as prayer to my friend (Frashaoshtra or Vishtâspa),
O Mazda! and whether he would come to us with the good
mind, to perform for us true actions of friendship.1
2. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
How arose the best (present) life (this world)? By what
means are the present things (the world) to be supported?
That spirit, the beneficent (Vohu-manô) O righteous Mazda!
is the guardian of the beings to ward off from them every
evil; He is the promoter of all life.
3. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
Who was in the beginning the father and creator of right-
eousness? Who created the path of the sun and stars?
Who causes the moon to increase and wane but Thou?
This I wish (to know), O Mazda! besides what I know
(already).
4. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
Who is holding the earth and the skies above it? Who
made the waters and the trees of the field? Who is in
the winds and storms that they so quickly run?
the creator of the good-minded beings, O Mazda ?
Who is
5. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
Who created the lights of good effect and the darkness?
Who created the sleep of good effect and the activity?
Who (created) morning, noon, and night, reminding the
priest always of his duties?
1 The meaning is, the prophet would make communications to his
wants to ascertain from Ahuramazda, (the prophet's) friend.
whether or not the angel Sraosha
GATHA USHTAVAITI.
159
6. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
Whether these (verses) which I shall recite, are really
thus ?1 (a) Armaiti doubles righteousness by her actions.
(6) He collects wealth with the good mind. (c) For whom
hast thou made the imperishable cow Rânyô-skereti ? 2
7. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
Who has prepared the Bactrian (berekhdha) home with its
properties? Who fashioned, by a weaving motion, the
excellent son out of the father? 3 To become acquainted
with these things, I approach Thee, O Mazda, beneficent
spirit! creator of all beings!
8. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
What soul (what guardian angel) may tell me good things,
to perform five times (a day) 4 the duties which are en-
joined by Thyself, O Mazda! and to recite those prayers
which are communicated for the welfare (of all beings) by
the good mind. Whatever good, intended for the increase
of life, is to be had, that may come to me.
9. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura! How
shall I bless that creed which Thy friend (Sraosha), who
protects it with a true and good mind in the assembly (of the
heavenly spirits), ought to promulgate to the mighty king?
10. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura! The
faith which, being the best of all, may protect my posses-
sion, and may really produce the good things, by means of
the words and actions of Armaiti (the spirit of earth). My
heart wishes (it is my lively desire) that I may know
Thee, O Mazda !
1 Here are quoted the first phrases
of three ancient prayers which are no
longer known.
2 This is a mythological name of
the earth, to be found in the Gâthas
only. It means "producing the two
friction woods (two wooden sticks,
by means of rubbing which fire was
produced)." See the author's work
on the Gâthas, vol. ii. pp. 91, 92.
3 This refers to the production of
fire by the friction of two wooden
sticks, which was in ancient times
the most sacred way of bringing into
existence the fire, commonly called
'Ahuramazda's son.' See the author's
work on the Gâthas, vol. ii. pp. 81, 82.
4 The so-called five gâhs: Hâvanî,
from 6 to 10 A.M.; Rapithwina, 10 A. M.
to 3 P.M.; Uzayêirina, from 3 to 6 P.M.
(sunset); Aiwisrûthrema, from 6 to 12
P.M.; Ushahina, from 12 P.M. to 6
A. M.
160
GATHA USHTAVAITI.
1
II. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura !
How Armaiti 1 may visit those men to whom the belief in
Thee, O Mazda! is preached? By those I am there
acknowledged (as a prophet); but all dissenters are regarded
as my enemies.
12. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
Who is the righteous man and who the impious, after
whom I wish to inquire? With which of the two is the
evil (spirit), and with which the good one? Is it not right
to consider the impious man who attacks me or Thee to
be an evil one?
13. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
How shall we drive away the destruction (destroyer) from
this place to those who, full of disobedience, do not respect
righteousness in keeping it, nor care about the thriving
of the good mind (that it may be diffused all over the
earth)?
14. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
How shall I deliver the destroyer into the hands of truth,
to be annihilated by means of the hymns for Thy praise?
If Thou, O Mazda! communicatest to me an efficacious
spell to be applied against the impious man, then I will
destroy every difficulty and every misfortune.
15. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
When or to whom of the lords givest Thou as proprietor
this fat flock (of sheep), two armies being gathered for a
combat in silence, by means of those sayings which Thou,
O Mazda! art desirous of pronouncing?
16. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
Who killed the hostile demons of different shapes, to enable
me to become acquainted with the rules established for the
course of the two lives (physical and spiritual)? So may
the angel Sraosha, assisted by the good mind, shine for
every one towards whom Thou art propitious.
1 This refers to the wanderings of
Armaiti, the spirit of earth, by which
is to be understood the progress of
agriculture and the arts of a more
civilised life.
GATHA USHTAVAITI.
161
J
17. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
How may I come, O Mazda! to your dwelling-place (that
of God and the angels) to hear you sing? Aloud I ex-
press my wish to obtain the help of (the angel of) health,
and that of immortality, by means of that hymn which is
a treasure of truth.
18. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
How shall I, O Righteous! spend this gift, ten pregnant
mares and a camel,¹ to obtain in future the two powers of
health and immortality, in the same way as Thou hast
granted them to these men (to others known to the pro-
phets)?
19. That I shall ask Thee, tell it me right, O Ahura!
How is the first intellect2 of that man, who does not return
(what he has received) to the offerer of this gift,3 of him who
does not grant anything to the speaker of truth? For the
last intellect of this man (his doing) is already known to
me.
20. What, O good ruler Mazda! are the Devas (evil
spirits)? Thus I might ask Thee for those who attack
the good existence (the good beings), by whose means the
priest and prophet of the idols expose the earth (the
cultivated countries) to destruction; and (I wish to know
beaides) what the false prophet has gained by doing so.
Do not, O Righteous! grant him a field to fence it in (to
make it his own property).
3. (YAS. xlv.)
1. All ye, who have come from near and far, should
now listen and hearken to what I shall proclaim. Now
the wise have manifested this universe as a duality. Let
1 This refers to a sacrifice. Sacri-
fices of animals were customary in
Zarathushtra's time.
The first and last intellects are
notions of the Zoroastrian philo-
sophy; see the fourth Essay. The
first intellect is that which is innate
in the soul, which came from heaven;
the last is that one which man him-
self acquires by experience.
3 That is to say, 'who is ungrateful
towards God.
L
162
GATHA USHTAVAITI.
A
!
}
?
not the mischief-maker destroy the second life, since
he, the wicked, chose with his tongue the pernicious
doctrines.
2. I will proclaim the two primeval spirits of the world,
of whom the increaser thus spoke to the destroyer: Do
not thoughts, do not words, do not wisdoms, nor doctrines,
do not speeches, nor actions, do not meditations, do not.
souls follow us?
3. I will proclaim the primeval (thought) of this life
which Ahuramazda, who knows it, spoke unto me; for
those of you who do not carry my word into practice so as
I think and speak it, the end of the life will come.
4. I will proclaim the Best in this life. Mazda knows
it in truth, who created it as the father of the Good Mind
who is working (in the minds); its daughter is Devotion
(Armaiti) with good works. The Lord (Ahura) who is
giving all (good things) cannot be deceived.
5. I will proclaim the word which the Most Beneficent
(the source of all prosperity) spoke to me, which is the
best for men to hear. All those who give a hearing to
this my word, will be free from all defects and reach im-
mortality. Mazda is Lord through the instrumentality of
the Good Mind.
6. I will proclaim, as the greatest of all things, that one
should be good, praising only righteousness.
Ahura-
mazda will hear those who are bent on furthering 1 (all
that is good). May He whose goodness is communicated
by the Good Mind, instruct me in his best wisdom.
7. All that have been living, and will be living, subsist
by means of His bounty only. The soul of the righteous
attains to immortality, but that of the wicked man has
everlasting punishment. Such is the rule of Ahuramazda,
whose the creatures are.
8. Him whom I wish to extol with my praises I now
behold with (my) eye, knowing him to be Ahuramazda,
the reality of the good mind, deed, and word. Let us thus
¹ Literally, "who are good with the increasing (beneficent) spirit.”
GATHA USHTAVAITI.
163
set down our gifts of praise in the dwelling-place of the
heavenly singers (angels).1
.
9. Him I wish to adore with my good mind, Him who
gives us fortune and misfortune according to His will.
May Ahuramazda make our progeny (and) cattle thrive,
that of the master as well as that of the servant, by pro-
ducing in them the good qualities of the Good Mind.
10. Him I wish to extol with the prayers of my devo-
tion, who calls himself Ahuramazda, that is,2 He knows
with his true and good mind, and gives to this world the
freedom from defects and immortality, which are in His
possession, as two permanently active powers.
II. Whoever thinks the idols and all those men besides,
who think of mischief only, to be base, and distinguishes
such people from those who think of the right; his friend,
brother, or father is Ahuramazda. This is the beneficent
revelation of the supreme fire-priest.
4. (YAS. xlvi.)
1. To what land shall I turn? whither shall I go in
turning? owing to the desertion of the master (Zara-
thushtra) and his companion? None of the servants pay
reverence to me, nor do the wicked rulers of the country.
How shall I worship Thee further, O Ahuramazda ?
2. I know that I am helpless. Look at me being
amongst few men, for I have few men (I have lost my
followers or they have left me); I implore Thee weeping,
O Ahura! who grantest happiness as a friend gives (a pre-
sent) to his friend. The good of the good mind is in thy
own possession, O Righteous! 3
4. The wicked man enjoys the fields of the angel of
truth who is protecting the earth in the district as well as
1 The meaning is that our prayers,
offered here, may go up to heaven, to
be heard before the throne of God.
2 What follows is an explanation of
the meaning of the name Ahuramazda.
3 These two verses (1, 2) refer evi-
dently to Zarathushtra's persecution.
The third verse, consisting of several
sentences which seem not to be con-
nected with each other, is omitted.
See the author's work on the Gâthas,
vol. ii. pp. 130, 131.
}
!
164
GATHA USHTAVAITI.
1
in the province; but by choosing evil, instead of good, he
cannot succeed in his deeds. Whoever drives him out of
his dominion, or out of his property, O Mazda! he is going
further on the paths of good intellect.1
5. If in future a ruler takes hold of one who trespasses
the law, or if a nobleman takes hold of one who violates
the bonds of friendship, or if a righteous man, living
righteously, takes hold of a wicked man: he shall then,
having learned it, inform the master; into distress and
utter want he shall be thrown to be unhappy.2
6. But whoever, although he may be able, does not go
to him (the chief of the community), he may, however,
follow the customs of the untruth now prevailing.3 For
he is a wicked man whom another wicked one considers
to be the best, and he is a righteous man whose friend is
a righteous one. Such sayings of old hast Thou revealed,
O Ahura!
7. Who 4 is appointed protector of my property, O
Mazda! when the wicked endeavour to hurt me? who
else, if not Thy fire, and Thy mind, through whose opera-
tion Thou hast created rightful existence (good beings),
O Ahura! Tell me the power necessary for upholding
the religion.
8. Whoever spoils my estates, and does not choose me
by bowing before my fire (the symbol of the deity), retri-
bution may be made to him for his person in the same
way. He shall be excluded from every good possession,
but not from a bad one filled up with evils, O Mazda!
9. Who is that man, who whilst supporting me, made
1 It is considered to be a good work
to destroy the enemics of agriculture,
because by laying waste the culti-
vated soil they cause great damage to
the good creation.
2 This and the following verses re-
fer to the breaking of solemn pro-
mises (called mithra, see Vend. iv.)
and apostasy.
3 The meaning is that a man, who
does not assist in punishing such
crimes as apostasy and promise-break-
ing, is himself an infidel and no more
to be recognised as a member of the
Zoroastrian community.
4 This verse is one of the most cele-
brated prayers used by the Parsis
now-a-days. It is the so-called Srosh
báj.
GATHA USHTAVAITI.
165
me first acquainted with thee as the most venerable being,
as the beneficent righteous Lord? 1 The true sayings
revealed by the maker of the earth 2 come to my hands by
means of thy good mind.
10. Whatever man, or woman, O Ahuramazda! per-
forms the best actions, known to thee, for the benefit of this
(earthly) life, promoting thus the truth for the angel of truth,
and spreading thy rule through the good mind, as well as
gratifying all those men, who are gathered round me, to
adore (the heavenly spirits): all these I will lead over the
bridge of the gatherer (heavenly bridge 3 to Paradise).
II. The sway is given into the hands of the priests and
prophets of idols, who by their (atrocious) actions, endea-
vour to destroy human life. Actuated by their own
spirit and mind, they ought to avoid the bridge of the
gatherer, to remain for ever in the dwelling-place of de-
struction (hell).
12. When after the defeat of the enemy Fryâna the
true rites (fire-worship and agriculture) arose amongst the
(Iranian) tribes, and their allies, thou fencedst with stakes
the earth's settlements. Thus Ahuramazda, having fenced
them all, assigned them to those men (his worshippers) as
property.4
13. Whoever amongst men pays reverence zealously
to Spitama Zarathushtra, such a one is fit to deliver in
public his lore. To him (Zarathushtra) Ahuramazda
entrusted life (the existence of all good beings to protect
them); for him he established through the good mind the
settlements; him we think to be your good friend (that is,
of thyself and thy angels), O Righteous!
1 This refers very likely to the
gēush urva, "the soul of earth," to
whose oracles the prophet was con-
stantly listening.
which can be facilitated to the de-
ceased by prayers recited for him.
4 Here the origin of the gaêthas,
"possessions, estates," so frequently
2 Lit. "the cutter of the cow," alluded to in the Zendavesta, is de-
see p. 147.
3 None can enter Paradise without
having first passed the "bridge of the
1 gatherer" (Chinvat), the passing of
scribed. We must understand by
them the original settlements of the
Iranians exposed to constant attacks
on the part of nomadic tribes.
166
GATHA USHTAVAITI.
1
•
14. Zarathushtra! Who is thy sincere friend (to assist
in performing) the great work? Or, who will deliver it in
public? The very man to do it, is Kavâ Vîshtâspa. I
will worship through the words of the good mind all those
whom thou hast elected at the (heavenly) meeting.
15. Ye sons of Hêchaḍ-aspa Spitama! to you I will
speak; because you distinguish right from wrong. By
means of your actions, the truth, (contained) in the ancient
commandments of Ahura, has been founded.
16. Venerable Frashôshtra! Go thou with those helpers
whom we both have elected for the benefit of the world
(the good beings), to that field where Devotion resides,
attended by Righteousness, where the stores of the Good.
Mind may be acquired, where is the dwelling-place of
Ahuramazda (ie., Paradise).
17. Where from you only blessings, not curses,¹ vener-
able wise Jâmâspas! are to be heard, always (protecting)
the goods of the leader and performer of the sacred rites,
namely of Ahuramazda himself, endowed with great intel-
lectual power.
18. For him, who bestowed most favours on me, I
collect all the best of my goods (acquired) through the
Good Mind. But to their last shifts I will put all those,
Mazda, O righteous! who have put us to them. I will
beseech you to assist me. Such is my decision conceived
according to my intellect and understanding.
19. Whoever makes this very life increase by means of
righteousness, to the utmost for me, who am Zarathushtra
myself, to him the first (earthly) and the other (spiritual)
life will be granted as a reward, together with all goods to
be had on the imperishable earth. Thou art the very
owner of all these things to the greatest extent, thou who
art my friend, O Mazda!
1 When on earth, they used to pro-
nounce curses as well as blessings.
But in Paradise only good, no bad,
words can be heard from them. They
were celebrated Magi (magavas).
THE LAST THREE GATHAS.
167
VIII. THE LAST THREE
GATHAS (SPENTA-MAINYU, Yas.
xlvii.-l.; VOHU-KHSHATHREM, Yas. li.; VAHISIITOISHTI,
Yas. liii.) 1
These three collections of ancient hymns are much
smaller than the first two; the fourth and fifth consist
only of one Hâ (chapter) each. Merely a short account
of them will be given, with a translation of a few verses.
The several chapters, except the last of the third Gâtha
(Yas. 1.), form nowhere a whole as regards composition,
but are generally mere collections of detached verses,
which were pronounced on different occasions, either by
Zarathushtra himself, or by his disciples. While in the
first two Gâthas the majority of the verses can be traced
to Zarathushtra himself, in these last three Gâthas most
of the verses appear to be the work of the master's dis-
ciples, such as Jâmâspa, Frashôshtra, and Vishtâspa, and
some verses are perhaps the work of their pupils, as they
themselves are therein spoken of (especially in Yas. li.)
with great reverence.
Yas. xlvii. 1. Ahuramazda gives through the beneficent
Spirit, appearing in the best thought, and in recti-
tude of action and speech, to this world (universe),
perfection (Haurvatât) and immortality (Ameretât),
wealth (Khshathra) and devotion (Armaiti).²
2. From his (Ahuramazda's) most beneficent spirit
all good has sprung in the words which are pro-
nounced by the tongue of the Good Mind (Vohû
mano), and the works wrought by the hands of
Armaiti (spirit of earth). By means of such know-
ledge Mazda himself is the father of all rectitude" "Father gas
(in thought, word, and deed).
Yas. xlviii. 4. He who created, by means of his wisdom,
1 See the author's German work,
vol. ii. pp. 20-38 and 155-217.
2 Ahuramazda is in this, and the
following two verses, described as the
only God and Spirit, in whom good
and evil both originate. All the
Ameshaspentas (archangels) of the
later Parslism are only his gifts.
Buth.
al
168
THE LAST THREE GATHAS.
the good and evil mind in thinking, words, and
deeds, rewards his obedient followers with pro-
sperity. Art Thou (Mazda!) not he, in whom the
final cause of both intellects (good and evil) exists?
10. When will appear, O Mazda! the men of vigour
and courage to pollute that intoxicating liquor (the
Soma)? This diabolical art makes the idol-priests
so overbearing, and the evil spirit, reigning in the
countries, increases (this pride).1
Yas. xlix. 4. Those poor (wretches) who, instigated by
their base minds, cause mischief and ruin to the
wealthy (settlers) through the spells uttered by
their tongues, who are devoid of all good works and
find delight in evil doings only; such men produce
the demons (devas) by means of their pernicious
thoughts.
5. Mazda himself, and the prayers (offered by men),
and every one who is a truly noble son of Armaiti,
(the earth), as well as all that are in Thy dominions,
O Ahura! will protect this faith (Zoroastrian reli-
gion) by means of the good (inborn) mind.
II. The spirits (of the deceased) 2 are fighting against
the wicked, evil-minded, evil-speaking, evil-doing,
evil-thinking, disbelievers (in the true god, Ahura-
mazda). Such men will go to hell!
Yas. 1. 6. Zarathushtra is the prophet who, through his
wisdom 3 and truth, utters in words the sacred
thoughts (mantras). Through his tongue he makes
known to the world, the laws given by my 4 intel-
lect, the mysteries hidden in my mind.
¹ This verse refers to the Brahmanic
Soma worship, which, as the cause of
so much evil, was cursed by Zara-
thushtra. See the second section of
the fourth Essay.
2 In the original urvânô, "souls."
In the other books the common name
of the spirits of the deceased pious
Zoroastrians, who are fighting against
the attacks made by the hellish em-
'
pire upon the kingdom of light and
goodness, is fravashi, guardian
spirit," which name is, however,
never to be met with in the Gâthas.
3 Lit. through mazda " which
word is, now and then, used in the
appellative sense "wisdom."
4 The speaker in this verse, as well
as in the whole 50th chapter, is the
geush urvâ.
THE LAST THREE GATHAS.
169
10. All the luminaries with their bright appearances,
all that is endowed with a radiant eye by the good
mind, stars and the sun, the day's foreteller, wander
(in their spheres) to Thy praise, O righteous Ahura-
mazda!
Yas. li. 6. Ahuramazda bestows, through His power, the
best of all upon him who brings offerings to please
Him; but the worst of all will fall to the lot of him
who does not worship God in the last time of the
world (when the good is engaged in a hard struggle
against the bad).
7. Thou who hast created earth, water, and trees,
give me immortality (Ameretât) and prosperity
(Haurvatât), O Mazda, most beneficent spirit! Those
everlasting powers I will praise with a good mind.
15. Zarathushtra assigned in times of yore, as a re-
ward to the Magavas 1 the Paradise where first of
all Mazda Himself had gone! You (O Amesha-
spentas!) have in your hands through your good and
true mind those two powers 2 (to obtain everlasting
life).
16. Kavâ Vîshtâspa obtained, through the possession
of the spiritual power (maga), and through the
verses which the good mind had revealed, that
knowledge which Ahuramazda Himself, as the cause
of truth, has invented.
17. Frashôshtra, the noble, wished to see my High-
lands (berekhdha kehrpa, i.e., Bactria), to propagate
there the good religion. May Ahuramazda bless
this undertaking! cry aloud that they may aspire
after truth!
18. The wise Jâmâspas, the noble, the illustrious, who
have the good mind with truth, prefer the settled
1 This word is the original form of
"Magi," which name was given in
later times to all the Persian priests.
Its form in the cuneiform inscriptions
is magush. According to this verse
it seems to have denoted the earliest
followers of Zarathushtra.
2 These are Ameretât,and Haurra-
tât, the last two of the seven arch-
angels in the Parsîism of later times.
3
14.
170
YASNA HAPTANHAITI.
life,1 saying: Let me have it, because I cling to Thee,
O Ahuramazda!
Yas. liii. 1. It is reported that Zarathushtra Spitama pos-
sessed the best good; for Ahuramazda granted him
all that may be obtained by means of a sincere
worship, for ever, all that promotes the good life,
and he is giving the same to all those who keep
the words, and perform the actions, enjoined by the
good religion.

}
X
}
IX.-YASNA HAPTANHAITI, AND THE MINOR TEXTS OF THE
OLD YASNA.
The Yasna haptanhaiti, or as its name indicates, the
Yasna of seven Hâs (comprising the sections from Yas.
xxxv. to xli.), though written in the Gâtha dialect, is to be
distinguished from the Gâthas. It is undoubtedly very
old, but there is no sufficient evidence to trace it to Zara-
thushtra himself. Its contents are simple prayers, in
prose, which are to be offered to Ahuramazda, the Amesha-
spentas, and the Fravashis; to the fire, as the symbol of
Ahuramazda who appears in its blazing flame (Yas. xxxvi.
1); to the earth and other female spirits (called gend,
"wife," Greek, gyné, see Yas. xxxviii. 1), such as the angel
presiding over food (îzhd, corresponding to ila, a name
of the earth in the Veda), devotion, speech, &c.; to the
waters, to the animating spirit of creation, and to all beings
of the good creation. Compared with the Gâthas, they
represent the Zoroastrian religion not in its original un-
altered, but in a somewhat developed and altered state.
The high philosophical ideas which are laid down in Zara-
thushtra's own hymns, are partially abandoned, and par-
tially personified; and the philosophical, theological, and
1 This can be understood only, if
one bears in mind, that the Zoro-
astrian religion arose at the time of
transition from pastoral life to agri-
culture. The kindred Brahmanical
tribes, who were inimical to this new
mode of life, continued to lead the
pastoral life of their ancestors. Agri-
culture was considered as a religious
duty by the ancient Zoroastrians.
YASNA HAPTANHAITI.
171
moral doctrines have given way to the custom, which has
lasted to the present time, of addressing prayers to all
beings of a good nature, irrespective of their being mere
abstract nouns (such as Asha, "rightfulness, truth," or
Vohumanó, "good thought"), or real objects (such as
waters, trees, or fire). The formula, with which here and in
the later Yasna (for which the Yasna haptanhaiti has un-
doubtedly furnished the model) the prayers begin, viz.,
yazamaidé, "we worship," is entirely strange to the Gâthas,
as well as the invocation of waters, female spirits, &c.;
even the name Ameshaspenta (except in the heading of Yas.
xxviii. I, see p. 147) as the general term for the highest
angels, and the term Fravashi, which is so extremely fre-
quent in the later Avesta literature, are never to be met
with in those metrical compositions.
Although the Yasna haptanhaiti is more recent than the
Gâthas, still it has just claims to be considered as more
ancient and original than the sections of the later Yasna.
A very striking proof, besides the difference of dialect, is
that the objects of worship are much fewer than in the
later prayers; thus, for instance, the six seasons, the five
divisions of the day, the five Gâthas, Zoroaster, the sacred
twigs (Barsom), the sacred drink (Homa), &c., are never
mentioned in the Yasna of seven chapters. It formed
originally a separate book, and was very likely composed
by one of the earliest successors of Zoroaster, as it stands
intermediate between the Gâthas and the later Yasna, in
point of style.
The following are some extracts from it:-
Yas. xxxv. I. We worship Ahuramazda the righteous.
master of righteousness. We worship the Amesha-
spentas (the archangels), the possessors of good, the
givers of good. We worship the whole creation of
the righteous spirit, both the spiritual and earthly,
all that supports (raises) the welfare of the good
creation, and the spread of the good Mazdayasnian
religion.
172
YASNA HAPTANHAITI.
2. We praise all good thoughts, all good words, all
good deeds, which are and will be (which are being
done and which have been done),¹ and we likewise
keep clean and pure all that is good.
3. O Ahuramazda, thou righteous happy being! we
strive to think, to speak, and to do, only what of
all actions may be best fitted to promote the two
lives (that of the body and that of the soul).
4. We beseech the spirit of earth by means of these
best works (agriculture) to grant us beautiful and
fertile fields, to the believer as well as to the un-
believer, to him who has riches as well as to him
who has no possession.
Yas. xxxvii. 1. Thus we worship Ahuramazda, who
created the spirit of earth and righteousness, and
who created the good waters and trees, and the
luminaries, and the earth, and all good things.
1
2. Him we worship by the first prayers which were
made by the spirit of earth, because of his power
and greatness and good works.
3. We worship him in calling him by the Ahura
names which were chosen by Mazda himself, and
which are the most beneficent. We worship him.
with our bodies and souls. We worship him as
(being united with) the spirits (Fravashis) of righte-
ous men and women.
4. We worship righteousness, the all-good (Ashem
vahishtem), all that is very excellent, beneficent,
immortal, illustrious, every thing that is good.
Yasna xii. is written in the Gâtha dialect, and contains
a formula, by which the ancient Iranians, who were weary
of worshipping the Devas (Brahmanical gods) and of the
nomadic life, were received into the new religious com-
munity established by Zarathushtra Spitama.
1 The words verczyamnanamcha words, yadacha (yet) now," and
vâverczyamnanămcha are evidently anyadacha, "not now," i.e., either in
only an explanatory note on the rare the future, or in the past.
YASNA XII.
173
I. I cease to be a Deva (worshipper). I profess to be a
Zoroastrian Mazdayasnian (worshipper of Ahuramazda), an
enemy of the Devas, and a devotee of Ahura, a praiser of
the immortal benefactors (Ameshaspentas), a worshipper
of the immortal benefactors. I ascribe all good things to
Ahuramazda, who is good, and has good, who is righteous,
brilliant, glorious, who is the originator of all the best
things, of the spirit of nature (gdush), of righteousness, of
the luminaries, and the self-shining brightness which is in
the luminaries.
2. I choose (follow, profess) the beneficent Armaiti, the
good; may she be mine! I abominate all fraud and in-
jury committed on the spirit of earth, and all damage and
destruction of the quarters of the Mazdayasnians.
3. I allow the good spirits, who reside on this earth in
the good animals (as cows, sheep, &c.), to go and roam
about free according to their pleasure. I praise, besides,
all that is offered with prayer to promote the growth of
life. I will cause neither damage nor destruction to the
quarters of the Mazdayasnians, neither with my body nor
my soul.
4. I forsake the Devas, the wicked, bad, wrongful origi-
nators of mischief, the most baneful, destructive, and basest
of beings. I forsake the Devas and those like Devas, the
sorcerers and those like sorcerers, and any beings whatever
of such kinds. I forsake them with thoughts, words, and
deeds; I forsake them hereby publicly, and declare that
all lie and falsehood is to be done away with.
5. 6. In the same way as Zarathushtra, at the time.
when Ahuramazda was holding conversations and meet-
ings with him, and both were conversing with each other,
forsook the Devas, so do I forsake the Devas, as the righteous
Zarathushtra did.
7. Of what party the waters are, of what party the trees,
and the animating spirit of nature; of what party Ahura-
mazda is, who has created this spirit and the righteous
man; of what party Zarathushtra, and Kavâ Vishtâspa,
174
THE LATER YASNA.
11.29
4295
and Frashôshtra, and Jâmâspa were; of what party all the
ancient fire-priests (Sôshyañtô), the righteous spreaders of
truth, were—of the same party¹ and creed (am I).
8. I am a Mazdayasnian, a Zoroastrian Mazdayasnian.
I profess this religion by praising and preferring it to
others (the Deva religion). I praise the thought which
is good, I praise the word which is good, I praise the work
which is good.
9. I praise the Mazdayasnian religion, and the righteous
brotherhood which it establishes and defends against ene-
mies, the Zoroastrian Ahuryan religion, which is the
greatest, best, and most prosperous of all that are, and
that will be. I ascribe all good to Ahuramazda. This
shall be the praise (profession) of the Mazdayasnian
religion.
X.—THE LATER YASNA.
This part of the Yasna, which is written in the common
Avesta language, is of much less importance, as regards
the history of the Zoroastrian religion, than the older
Yasna. Its contents are, however, of various natures, and
consist evidently either of fragments of other books, or of
short independent writings. Thus, for instance, the chap-
ters i.-viii. contain the preliminary prayers to the Ijashne
ceremony (see p. 139); chapters ix.-xi. refer to the pre-
paration and drinking of the Homa juice; chapter lvii. is
a Yasht, or sacrificial prayer, addressed to the angel Srosh;
chapters xix.-xxi. are commentaries (Zend) on the most
sacred prayers, Yatha aha vairyo, Ashem vohu, and Yênhe
Tất âm.
Refraining from giving a full account of it, we shall
notice here only some remarkable passages, and translate
a few extracts.
In Yas. viii. 5-8 there is a short prayer, concluding
with a benediction by the high-priest, the two last verses
1 The word used is varana, varena, lit. "choice" (var, "to choose"); it
is, then, applied to religion.
HOMA YASHT.
175
of which are of particular interest. The high-priest, who
calls himself Zarathushtra (see p. 188), addresses all the
heads of the various divisions of the Iranian empire as
follows:-
7. I, who am Zarathushtra, exhort the heads¹ of houses,
villages, towns, and countries to think and speak and act
according to the good Zoroastrian Ahuryan religion.
8. I bless the splendour and vigour of the whole rightful
creation, and I curse2 the distress and wretchedness of the
whole wrongful creation.
I.-HÔMA YASHT.
Chapters ix. and x., which compose the so-called Hôma
Yasht, are, strictly speaking, no part of the Yasna, but
belong to that extensive class of Avesta literature which
is known by the name of Yashts, or sacrificial invocations
of a special spiritual being, and which we shall describe
hereafter. As to style, these two chapters contain no
prose, but on close inquiry we find they consist of verses,
and at the end (Yas. x. 19) they are even called gâthâo,
"hymns." The metre itself is near the Sanskrit Anush-
tubh (four times eight syllables, with the cesura in the
middle of every half verse), which has given origin to the
common Shlokas, but it is apparently often irregular.
Each half verse consists of seven to nine syllables, the
normal measure being limited to eight.
To give the reader an idea of this ancient metre, the
commencement of this Yasht is here subjoined: 3—
1 The word used is fratema (S. pra-
thama) “first.
first." It is one of the Per-
sian words which are to be found in
the Old Testament. Its form there
is partemîm (îm is the Hebrew plural
suffix), by which the grandees of the
Persian empire are meant. In the
sense of "head, chief," the word ratu
is more usual in the Avesta.
2 For blessing and cursing one and
the same word is used, afrînûmi.
The same peculiarity is to be observed
in the old Hebrew word bérék, to give
a blessing, and to curse.
3
с
ere is to be read as a single sylla-
ble, and the short c does not generally
constitute a separate syllable.
curzone. Av. 18.59.4 Hicheed king with world (18.96.10), in haspon
an (vill: 48.9) tom cowse the godare indebted.
Marth!!
life sinmortality in 87.21. is king harm thaist,
+ porolong the life gman
men, & gods. ix-97.24
175
ix ·
4169
HOMA YASHT.
+
Havanîm
a
ratúm
Haomo upâiḍ
Zarathushtrem
morning prayer
at time at
Homa came
to Zarathushtra
atarem pairi yaozhdatheñtem
gáthatoscha
(who was) fire everywhere
cleaning
and hymns
srávayañtem.
singing.
a dim
peresaḍ
Zarathushtrô :
K6
nare ahi
yim azem
Him
asked
Zarathushtra :
Who, man, art thou? whom I
vispahê
anheush
of the whole
life
astvatô
having bodies
sraêshtem
the best
dâdaresa
I have seen
qahê
of his own
gayêhê
qanvatô
ameshahê?
aad
mê
aêm
paiti-aokhta
body,
brilliant,
immortal?
Then to me
Huomo ashava
dúraoshô:
Azem
ahmi
I
〆
​1
Haoma righteous death-removing :
Haomô ashava
draoshô;
Homa righteous death-removing;
A mãm
to me
avi
that one answered
Zarathushtra !
am O Zarathushtra!
yasaṇuha Spitama!
bring worship, O Spitama!
mam
frå mãm hunvaṇuha
me
squeeze out
qaretēê;
to taste (me);
on
me
yatha
ma
aparachid
as
me.
the other all
saoshyañtô
fire-priests
staomaini staidhi,
in praising praise,
stavân.
praised.
The word Homa, which is identical with the Vedic word.
Soma, is used in two senses in the Zend-Avesta. First it
means the twigs of a particular tree,¹ the juice of which is
extracted and drunk before the fire; secondly, they un-
derstand by it a spirit who has poured his life and vigour
into that particular plant. There were many stories cur-
rent in ancient times about the miraculous effects of the
drinking of the Homa juice (a panacea for all diseases),
which led to the belief, that the performance of this cere-
mony (which is only the Soma worship of the Brahmans,
very much reformed and refined) proves highly beneficial
to body and soul. These stories were embodied in a hymn
(preserved in Yas. ix.), which contains an enumeration of
the miracles effected by Homa, composed in his honour.
The following is a translation of the first part of this
Yasht:
Yas. ix. I. In the forenoon (Hâvan Gâh) Homa came
to Zarathushtra, while he was cleaning around the fire,2
1 The Dasturs obtain them from
Persia in a dried state. For their
preparation, see section I. 3, of the
fourth Essay.
2 Meaning, probably, that he was
averting evil from the fire by feeding
it around with fuel.
HOMA YASHT.
177
and chanting the Gâthas. Zarathushtra asked him: Who
art thou, O man ?1 who appearest to me the finest in the
whole material creation, having such a brilliant, immortal
form of your own.2
2. Thereupon answered me Homa the righteous, who
expels death: I am, O Zarathushtra! Homa the righteous,
who expels death. Address prayers to me, O Spitama!
and prepare me (the Hom juice) for tasting. Repeat
about me the two praise hymns,3 as all the other Sosh-
yants repeated them.
3. Then spake Zarathushtra: Reverence to Homa!
Who was the first who prepared thee, O Homa! for the
material world? What blessing was bestowed upon him?
What reward did he obtain ?
4. Thereupon answered me Homa the righteous, who
expels death: Vivaṇhâo was the first man who prepared
me for the material world; this blessing was bestowed
upon him, this reward he obtained, that a son was born
to him, Yima-khshaêta (Jamshêd) who had abundance of
flocks, the most glorious of those born, the most sun-like
of men; that he made, during his reign over her (the
earth), men and cattle free from death, water and trees
free from drought, and they were eating inexhaustible food
5. During the happy reign of Yima there was neither
cold nor heat, neither decay nor death, nor malice pro-
duced by the demons; father and son walked forth, each
fifteen years old in appearance.
Zend.
2 The phrase amereza gayêhê stûna,
"O imperishable pillar of life," con-
cludes the commentary on this sen-
tence, and is another fragment of the
original Zend.
1 Some MSS. of the Yasna with- has been translated into Pahlavi,
out Pahlavi insert here the phrase: the usual language of the present
Mithro zayad Zarathushtrem,
may
Mithra favour Zarathushtra." This
is evidently an Avesta phrase for-
merly existing in the Pahlavi com-
mentary, but now translated into
Mitrok khupo alto Zaratishtar, and
the commentary implies that this was
a friendly salutation proffered by
Homa on his arrival. Here we have
a distinct trace of a commentary, or
Zend, in the Avesta language, which
3 Reading staomaini, instead of
staomainê. The two hymns may be
the two chapters of this Yasht (Yas.
ix. and x.), or the two Homa rituals
(Yas. i.to xi. and xii. to xxvii.).
M
178
HOMA YASHT.
6. Who was the second man who prepared thee, O
Homa! for the material world? What blessing was be-
stowed upon him? What reward did he obtain?
7. Thereupon answered me Homa the righteous, who
expels death: Athwya was the second man who prepared
me for the material world; this blessing was bestowed
upon him, this reward he obtained, that a son was born.
to him, Thraêtona (Frêdûn) of the hero tribe,1 (8.) who
smote the Serpent (Azhi) Dahâka which had three mouths,
three heads, six eyes, a thousand spies,2 which was of
enormous strength, a fiendish destroyer, an evil, a devas-
tator of the Gaêthas 3 (settlements), a nuisance which was
a destroyer of most enormous strength, and (which) Angrô-
mainyush produced in the material world for the destruc-
tion of the settlements of righteousness.4
9. Who was the third man who prepared thee, O Homa!
for the material world? What blessing was bestowed upon
him? What reward did he obtain?
10. Thereupon answered me Homa the righteous, who
expels death: Thrita the most useful (of the family) of
the Sâmas was the third man who prepared me for the
material world; this blessing was bestowed upon him,
this reward he obtained, that two sons were born to him,
Urvâkhshaya and Keresâspa; the one was a judge ad-
ministering justice, the other a youthful hero who wore
a sidelock 5 and carried a club, (11.) who slew the serpent
Srvara 6 which devoured horses and men, which was
1 This is the literal translation of Reading gaêtha-vayo, in accord-
vîsô sûraydo which may, however, be ance with several old MSS.
the name of a locality. The Pahlavi
translation is afzâr-vîs, “of a village
of resources;" and it explains afzar-
visîh by "his house became numer
ous from the continued residence of
his forefathers, and was retained by
the oppression of Dahâk; and his
authority was that he preserved the
relatives who had disappeared."
2 In Pahlavi hazûr vajôstûr adâḍ-
ako pavan gôharako, thousand
inquirers unjust in disposition."
3
kô
4 The Pahlavi commentary contains
the imperfect Avesta phrase:
thwãm yim Ahurem mazdām,
"who
(worshipped) thee who art Ahura-
mazda?" probably.
5 The Pahlavi translates gaêsush
by gêsvar – Pers. gês-bar,
Pers. gês-bar, "ringlet-
wearing." Compare the epithet
kapardin, "wearing braided hair,”
applied to the Vasishthas, Rigveda,
vii. 83, 8.
6 Pronounced Srúara.
HOMA YASHT.
179
poisonous and yellow, over which yellow poison flowed
a hand's-breadth high.1 On which Keresâspa cooked
a beverage in a caldron at the mid-day hour, and the
serpent scorched, hissed, sprang forth, away from the
caldron, and upset the boiling water; Keresâspa Narema-
nâo fled aside frightened.
12. Who was the fourth man who prepared thee, ()
Homa! for the material world? What blessing was be-
stowed upon him? What reward did he obtain ?
13. Thereupon answered me Homa the righteous, who
expels death: Pourushaspa was the fourth man who pre-
pared me for the material world; this blessing was be-
stowed upon him, this reward he obtained, that thou wast
born to him, thou O righteous Zarathushtra! of the house
of Pourushaspa, (who art) opposed to the demons, and of
the Ahura religion. (14.) Famous in Airyana-vaêjô thou,
O Zarathushtra! first recitedst the Ahuna-vairya four
times, with pauses between the verses,2 each successive
time with a louder recitation.3 (15.) Thou madest all the
demons hide themselves beneath the earth, who formerly
flew about the earth in human shape, O Zarathushtra!
who wert the strongest, firmest, most active, swiftest, and
most triumphant of the creatures of the two spirits (Spentô-
mainyush and Angrô-mainyush).
16. Then spake Zarathushtra: Reverence to Homa!
good is Homa, well-created is Homa, rightly created, of a
good nature, healing, well-shaped, well-performing, suc-
cessful, golden-coloured, with hanging tendrils, as the
1 The Pahlavi says, as high as a literally taking asunder the verses.
horse;" it also quotes the following The Ahuna-vairya formula consists
Avesta phrase: khshvaêpaya vainaiti of three such padas, lines, or verses.
barenush, "the angry one (?) strikes
by darting."
2 The epithet vî-berethwañtem is
from the root bar = Sans. bhṛi=hṛi,
"to take." In the Brahmanical
ritual viharati (originally vibharati)
is a technical term for pausing after
each pada, while reciting verses,
3 This practice of gradually raising
the voice with each successive recita-
tion, is also observed in the Hotṛi
ritual of the Brahmans.
4 The Pahlavi translation has narm-
tak, "with soft tendrils;" but năm-
yasush must be traced to the root
nam,
to bend downwards."
180
HOMA YASHT.
best for eating and the most lasting provision for the
soul.1
17. O yellow (Homa)! I keep in thee by my word 2
(thy power of giving) knowledge, strength, victory, health,
healing, advancement, growth, vigour to the whole body,
understanding of subjects of every kind. I keep in (thee
by my word) that (power) that I might wander freely in
the world, putting an end to troubles (and) annihilating
the destructive powers (of the enemies of the good
creation). (18.) I keep in (thee by my word) that (power)
that I might put down the troubles caused by those whose
very nature is to give troubles, such as the demons and
(bad) men, the sorcerers and witches, the oppressors,
wizards, and idol-priests, the criminals with two legs, the
apostates with two legs, the wolves with four legs, of the
army with a wide front, shouting and flying (in the air).3
19. On this first walk 4 I ask from thee, O Homa! who
expellest death, the best life (paradise) of the righteous,
the splendid, the all-radiant with its own brilliancy. On
this second walk I ask from thee, O Homa! who expellest
death, the health of this body. On this third walk I ask
from thee, O Homa! who expellest death, the long life of
the soul.
re-
1 The term pathmainya means
maining on the way," hence provi-
sions for a journey.
2 The words nî mruyê, “I call
down," are here used technically in
the sense of binding by calling to-
gether, so that none of the powers
may be dissipated. In the Brahmani-
cal Soma ritual this is done by recit-
ing eight mantras before the juice is
extracted from the Soma twigs.
3 The term davāithylo must be
traced to the root du, "to talk (as
an evil being)," and is very appro-
priate to this flying host of evils
which is analogous to the band of
Odhin among the Scandinavians, the
Wodan's heer of the ancient Ger-
mans, and the host of Marutas of
the Veda, sweeping through the air,
who are all represented as shouting
and making a noise.
4 That the word yânem has here
its primitive meaning of
"walk"
(from ya, "to go") is clear from the
practice of the Parsi priests who,
during the Homa ceremony, walk
about six times round the sacred fire
with the Hom, and each time a dis-
tinct blessing seems to be asked for.
Nearly the same ceremony is per-
formed by the Brahmans, when they
put the Soma twigs on a cart, and
carry them round the sacrificial area
in the six directions: east, west,
south, north, up, and down (accord-
ing to an ancient Aryan division).
HOMA YASHT.
181
ì
20. On this fourth walk I ask from thee, O Homa! who
expellest death, that I may stand forth at will, powerful
(and) successful upon the earth, putting down troubles
(and) annihilating the destructive powers. On this fifth
walk I ask from thee, O Homa! who expellest death, that
I may stand forth as victor (and) conqueror in battle upon
the earth, putting down troubles (and) annihilating the
destructive powers.
21. On this sixth walk I ask from thee, O Homa! who
expellest death, that we may first become aware of a
thief, murderer, (or) wolf; may no one else become aware
(of him) sooner! may we become aware of everything
first!
22. Homa grants strength and vigour to those who
mounted on white horses, wish to run over a race-course.1
Homa gives splendid sons and righteous progeny to those
who have not borne children.2 Homa grants fame and
learning to all those who are engaged in the study of
books.3
23. Homa grants a good and rich husband to those who
have long been maidens, as soon as he (Homa), the wise,
is entreated.
1 The verb takhsheñti is a desidera-
tive form of the root tach, "to run;"
crenâum is explained as a horse"
by the Pahlavi translator, but this
can be merely a guess; it must be
traced to the root ar Sans. i, "to
move, go, instigate," and is here
taken as a race-course.
2 So the Pahlavi translator under-
stands the word âzîzanâitibish, but
in that case the prefix & must be mis-
written for the privative a.
3 This is the only occurrence, in
the extant Avesta, of the word naskó
which is applied, in later writings,
to the twenty-one books, or divisions,
of the Zoroastrian writings; here,
however, it is probably used in the
general sense of "book," and even
nowadays Parsi writers sometimes
apply the term to any Avesta writ-
3
ing. It has been probably borrowed
by Arabic, in the forms nuskhat,
copy" (pl. nusakh), and naskhi, the
name of Arabic writing; for these
words can have no real connection
with the Arabic root nasakha, “he
obliterated, abrogated." The appli-
cation of a general term for “book
to sacred writings in particular, is
common to many religions; thus the
Brahmans use the word grantha,
which denotes any literary composi-
tion, for the Vedic writings, and in
Mahârâshtra the compound dasha-
granthi, one who knows the ten
Granthas by heart," refers solely to
the Vedic writings, for the ten Gran-
thas are the Sanhitâ, Pada, Brâh-
maņam, Araņa (always used there
for Aranyaka by the 'Brahmans), aud
the six Vedângas.
182
HOMA YASHT.
24. Homa deposed Keresâni¹ from his sovereignty, whose
lust of power had so increased that he said: No âthrava's
(fire-priest's) repetition of the apum aiwishtish 2 (" approach
of the waters") shall be tolerated in my empire, to make
it prosper; (and) he would annihilate all that are prosperous,
(and) put down all that are prosperous by destroying them.
25. Hail to thee who art of absolute authority through
thy own strength, O Homa! hail to thee! thou knowest
many sayings rightly spoken. Hail to thee! thou askest
for no saying but one rightly spoken.
26. Mazda brought to thee the star-studded, spirit-
fashioned girdle (the belt of Orion) leading the Paurvas3
[(Pâzand) the good Mazdayasnian religion]; then thou
art begirt with it, (when growing) on the summit of the
mountains, to make lasting the words and long accents4 of
the sacred text (mãthra).
1 It is evident, from the context, the four Vedas, in his introduction
that Keresâni is the name of some to the Mahâbhâshya, where the
enemy of the Athrava religion, and words: shañ no devirbhishṭaye re-
there can be little doubt that he is present the Atharva-veda.
the Krishânu of the Vedic books,
who appears as the guardian of the
Soma in heaven (Aitareya Brahm. iii.
26);
he is represented as an archer
(Rigveda ix. 77, 2 ; x. 64, 8 ; iv. 27, 3),
and identified with fire (Vâjasaneyi
sañhita v. 32, Shânkhâyana shrauta-
sutras vi. 12, Raghuvansha ii. 49).
As a personage Krishânu appears to
represent "lightning," and perhaps a
particular kind of it.
2 These words are evidently a
technical name for the Atharva-veda
Sanhita which commences, in some
manuscripts, with the mantra: shañ
no devîrbhishṭaya Apo bhavantu vîtaye,
in which both words occur; this
mantra is omitted at the commence-
ment of the printed edition, but is
given in i. 6, 1, where it also occurs
again in the manuscripts alluded to.
That the Atharva-veda actually com-
menced with these words about 2000
years ago, is clearly shown by Patan-
jali's quotation of the initial words of
3 In the word Paurva we readily
recognise the Persian name of the
Pleiades, which is variously written
part, parvah, parrîn, and parvíz;
this parvíz is given as the name of
the third and fourth lunar mansions.
in the Bundahish (p. 6, Westerg.),
corresponding to the Indian Naksha-
tras krittika (Pleiades) and rohinî
(Aldebaran and Hyades); the fifth
Nakshatra is mrigashiras (in the
head of Orion), over which Soma
(= Homa) is presiding deity (Tait-
tirîya Brâhmanam iii. 1, 2, 3); hence
the constellation Orion is in advance
of the Paurvas on the moon's path,
and the epithet "leading the Paur-
vas" is appropriate for Orion's belt.
The idea of Homa being begirt with
Orion's belt, implies that the Homa
plant was supposed to be specially
under the sideral influence of the con-
stellation Orion.
4 The term aiwidhâiti must be
equivalent to Sans. abhidhâna,
HOMA YASHT.
183
27. O Homa! (thou) lord of the house, lord of the clan,
lord of the tribe, lord of the country, (thou) successful
physician 1 I further invoke thee for strength and pro-
sperity for my body, and for the attainment of much
pleasure.2 (28.) Keep far from us the vexations of (our)
enemies! divert the mind of (our) abusers! Whatsoever
man in this house, in this clan, in this tribe, in this
country, may injure (us), take strength from his feet!
darken his intellect! disorder his mind!
29. May he be paralysed in the feet! may he be
palsied in the hands!3 may he not see the earth with
(his) eyes may he not see nature with (his) eyes! who
injures our mind, or injures our body.
30. Strike a deadly blow, O yellow Homa! at the
yellow blackish 4 serpent, emitting poison for destroying
the body of the righteous man.5 Strike a deadly blow,
O yellow Homa! at the murderer who has wrought mis-
chief, who angrily inflicts wounds for destroying the body
of the righteous man.
31. Strike a deadly blow, O yellow Homa! at the im-
pious tyrant in human form, who has a darting at the
head for destroying the body of the righteous man. Strike
"name, appellation, word;" and
the reading garishcha (preferable
to graûshcha) gives garu, which re-
presents Sans. guru, a long vowel,"
a very noticeable feature of the
Gâthas.
1 Literally, "master of physicians
(or doctor of medicine) through
beneficence;" vaêdhya here must
be equivalent to Sans. vaidya, a
physician," or vaidya, a drug."
2 Thrima must be traced to the
root tar= Sans. tri, "to pass over,
attain ;" and baokhshnahe is to be
taken in the same sense as baosh-
nâoscha in Yt. iv. 1, i.e., "pleasure,
enjoyment," compare Sans. bhuj, "to
enjoy."
3 More literally, "May he not be
able to progress with the feet! may
be not be able to work with the
hands!"
(6
4 Sima is here taken as equivalent
to Sans. shyâma, Jark-coloured,"
from the root shyai, some derivatives
of which change shyâ into shî.
5 The construction kehrpem nûshem-
nai ashaonê is literally "for the
righteous being made to lose (his)
body;" compare drishe vishvâya sûr-
yam, "that all should see the sun
(Rigveda, i. 50, 1); kehrpem is not
governed by paiti, but by nûshemnái,
and is to be regarded as the accusa-
tive of the object which retains its
original case when the active con-
struction is changed to a passive one.
6 This appears to be an allusion to
Zohak and his troublesome serpents.
184
HOMA YASHT.
a deadly blow, O yellow Homa! at the body of the dis-
turber of righteousness, the impious, who destroys the life
of this (Zoroastrian) religion, by proposing thoughts and
words, but not carrying them into action, for destroying
the body of the righteous man.
32. Strike a deadly blow, O yellow Homa! at the body
of the bewitching courtezan who causes madness, who
acts as procuress, whose mind is unstable as a cloud
driven by the wind, for destroying the body of the right-
eous man. Strike a deadly blow, O yellow Homa! at
whatever serves for destroying the body of the righteous
man.
Yas. x. I. Let the water-drops fall here for the destruc-
tion of the Devas and Devis. May the good Sraosha slay
(them)! May Ashi-vanuhi (the spirit of fortune) take up
her abode here! May Ashi-vanuhi grant happiness here,
in this sacred abode of Homa, the transmitter of right-
eousness.
2. I accompany thy preparation, at the beginning each
time, with words of praise, O intelligent! when he (the
managing priest) takes thy twigs. I accompany thy pre-
paration, in each successive act by which thou art killed
through the strength of a man, with words of praise, O
intelligent!
3. I praise the cloud and the rain which make thy
body grow on the summit of the mountains. I praise the
high mountains where thou hast grown, O Homa!
4. I praise the earth, the wide-stretched, the passable,
the large, the unbounded, thy mother, O righteous Homa!
I praise the earth that thou mayest grow, spreading fast
(thy) fragrance, as thou growest on the mountain, O
Homa! with the good Mazdian growth; and that thou
mayest thrive on the path of the birds (i.e., on high), and
be, in fact, the source of righteousness.
5. Grow! through my word, in all stems, in all branches,
and in all twigs.
6. Homa grows when being praised. So the man who
YASNA XIX.
185
praises him becomes more triumphant. The least extrac-
tion of Hom-juice, the least praise, the least tasting (of
it), O Homa! is (sufficient) for destroying a thousand of
the Devas.
7. The defects produced (by the evil spirit) vanish from
that house, as soon as one brings, as soon as one praises,
the healing Homa's evident wholesomeness, healing power,
and residence in that village.
8. For all other liquors are followed by evil effects,1 but
this which is the liquor of Homa is followed by elevating
righteousness,2 (when) the liquor of Homa (is in him who)
is grieved. Whatever man shall flatter Homa, as a young
son, Homa comes to the aid of him and his children, to be
(their) medicine.
9. Homa! give me (some) of the healing powers where-
by thou art a physician. Homa! give me (some) of the
victorious powers whereby thou art a victor. &c.
From the contents of this Homa Yasht one may clearly
see, that the Homa worship was not instituted by Zara-
thushtra, but was known at a much earlier period. Zara-
thushtra is only said to have adopted it. But in the
second division of the fourth Essay, we shall see that he
was fighting against the Brahmanical Soma worship and
trying to overthow it.
2.-YASNA xix.
This chapter, written in prose, is a kind of theological
commentary on the most sacred formula, Ahuna-vairya
The following is
The following is a translation of this
(Honovar).
chapter:-
1, 2. Zarathushtra asked Ahuramazda: O Ahuramazda!
most munificent spirit, creator of the settlements supplied
with creatures, righteous one! Which was the word, O
Ahuramazda! that thou spakest unto me, (which was) before.
1 Literally, "by the cruel Aêsh-
""
(Wrath, one of the demons).
2 Literally, "by Asha who is carry-
ing up."
3 Or perhaps, "the liquor of Homa
exhilarates."
186
YASNA XIX.
the heavens, before the water, before the earth, before the
animals, before the trees, before the fire, son of Ahura-
mazda, before the righteous man, before the demons and
savage men (cannibals), before the whole material world,
before all good things created by Mazda, that are of right-
ful origin?
3, 4. Then said Ahuramazda: This was the parts of the
Ahuna-vairya, O Spitama Zarathushtra! which I spake
unto thee, (which was) before the heavens, before the
water, &c. (as before).
5. These my parts of the Ahuna-vairya, when recited
without mistake (and) without mispronunciation, are
equal, O Spitama Zarathushtra! to a hundred of the other
principal stanzas (Gâthas), recited without mistake (and)
without mispronunciation. Even recited with mistakes.
(and) mispronunciation (they are) equal to ten other
principals.
6. And whoever, in this my world supplied with crea-
tures, O Spitama Zarathushtra! shall recall (mentally)
one part of the Ahuna-vairya, or in the course of recalling
shall mutter it, or in the course of muttering shall chant
it, or in the course of chanting prays to it,¹ his soul will
I, who am Ahuramazda, carry all three times over the
bridge to paradise (Vahishtem ahûm, “the best life,” Bahisht
in Pers.), [(Pâzand), to the best life, to the best righteous-
ness, to the best luminaries.]
7. And whoever in this my world supplied with crea-
tures, O Spitama Zarathushtra! takes off in muttering a
part of the Ahuna-vairya, either a half, or a third, or a
fourth, or a fifth of it, his soul will I, who am Ahura-
mazda, separate from paradise, to such a distance in width
and breadth as the earth is, [(Pâzand) and the earth has
the same width as breadth].
8. And I spake for myself this saying, about the heavenly
1 Here the different ways of recital hymn, being considered a being) with
are mentioned; see p. 143. After the formula: Yazamaidê (we wor-
chanting, or reciting, sacred verses ship, pray to) Ahunem vairím (the
one prays to them (the verse, or Aluna-vairya formula).
YASNA XIX.
187
lord (ahu), and earthly master (ratu), before the creation
of the heavens, before the water, before the earth, before
the trees, before the creation of the four-footed animals,
before the birth of the righteous biped man, before the
sun-composed matter for the creation of the archangels
(Ameshaspentas).
9. The more beneficent of my two Spirits 1 has produced,
by speaking it, the whole rightful creation, which is, and
was, and will be, through the operation of the actions of
life towards Mazda,2
10. And this is the highest saying of those sayings
which I have spoken, and do speak, and (which) are to be
spoken; for the nature of this saying is such that if the
whole material world had learned it, being preserved by
reciting it, it would escape liability to destruction.
II. And this our saying I proclaimed, and repeated, and
counted (the repetitions), as it is for every being for the
sake of the righteousness which is best.
12. As he (who recites it) has here said that he has
appointed it as heavenly lord (ahu) and earthly master
(ratu), so he recognises him who is Ahuramazda as prior
to the creatures, the first being the Mind. As he acknow-
ledges it as the greatest of all things, so he acknowledges
the creatures are (due) to it.
13. That the good beings are (works) of Mazda he
shows by reciting the third phrase (beginning with) van-
heush (“of the good"). (With the words) dazdâ manaṇhô
("the giver of mind”) he acknowledges it (the Ahuna-
vairya) from the first as the Mind. As (the word) man-
anho thus makes it the producer for the Mind, he then
makes it the heavenly lord of actions (shkyaothnanãm
ahum).
14. As he acknowledges it for the creatures through
1 The two spirits united in Ahura-
mazda, as the one God, are speñtô
mainyush, “the beneficent spirit,"
and aṇrô mainyush, "the hurtful
spirit."
2 These words (shkyaothnanam an-
hēush Mazdâi) are quoted from the
second line of the Ahuna-vairya for-
mula, and are again referred to in
verses 13, 14.
188
YASNA XIX.
Mazda, so (he does) this, that the creatures are his. (The
phrase) khshathrem Ahurdi (" the dominion is for Ahura ")
acknowledges it as thy dominion, O Mazda! (The phrase)
dregubyć vâstârem ("protector for the poor") acknow-
ledges, as a friend to Spitama, the five phrases, the
whole recital of the saying, the complete saying of
Ahuramazda.
15. The most excellent Ahuramazda proclaimed the
Ahuna-vairya; the Most-excellent, the Eternal, caused it to
be repeated (after him). Owing to a pause Evil originated,
but he restrained the Wicked One with this interdict:
Neither our thoughts, nor sayings, nor intellects, nor creeds,
nor words, nor deeds, nor creative ideas, nor souls, agree.
16. And this saying, uttered by Mazda, has three verses
(lines), the four classes, the five chiefs, (and) a conclusion
with liberality.1 How (arose) its verses? (Through the
words) well-thought, well-spoken, well-done.2
17. Through what classes? The priest, warrior, agri-
culturist, (and) artizan, through the whole duty pertaining
to the righteous man, to think rightly, to speak rightly, to
act rightly, to appoint a spiritual guide, (and) to fulfil
religious duties, through which works the earthly settle-
ments advance in righteousness.
18. Which are the chiefs? (Those) of the house, of the
village, of the tribe, of the province, (and) Zarathushtra as
the fifth in those countries which are distinct from the
Zarathushtrian Ragha.3 The Zarathushtrian Ragha has
1 This is an allusion to the words
dregubyć vástárem, "protector for the
poor," in the last phrase of the
Ahuna-vairya, which evidently imply
liberality.
2 These words, humatem hakhtem
hvarshtem, contain the fundamental
principles of Zoroastrian morality,
and are repeated habitually on many
occasions.
3 The word Rajôid is the ablative
of a crude form Raji, a softer form
of Raghi, which variant of Ragha
seems to have been used, as we find
traces of more than one form of the
name in Greek writings. That one
form should be used here, and the
other in the next phrase, is owing, no
doubt, to the next phrase being a
later addition to the text. It is also
possible that the regular ablative of
Ragha, which would be Raghayâḍ or
Raghayad, might become Rajôid by «
the change of aya into aê, ê, ôi, which
change would probably occasion the
softening of gh into j.
YASNA LVII.
189
four chiefs. Which are its chiefs? (Those) of the house,
of the village, of the tribe, (and) Zarathushtra as the
fourth.
19. What is "well-thought"? The righteous original
Mind. What is "well-spoken"? The munificent Word.
What is "well-done"? (That done) by the praising crea-
tures, first in righteousness.
20. Mazda proclaimed. What did he proclaim? The
righteous (Ahuna-vairya) both spiritual and earthly. What
was he who proclaimed the recital (of the Ahuna-vairya)?
The best ruler. As what (did he proclaim it)? As true
perfection, but not despotic authority (i.e., subject to the
ruler).
3.-YASNA lvii.
This chapter is devoted to the praise of the angel
Sraosha (Srosh), and is, therefore, called the Srosh Yasht.
He is the personification of the whole divine worship of p307
the Parsis. This Yasht is to be recited at the commence-
ment of the night-time.
2. We worship (the angel) Srosh, the righteous, the beau-
tiful, the victorious, who protects our territories, the true,
the master of truth, who of Ahuramazda's creatures first
worshipped Ahuramazda by means of arranging the
sacred twigs (Barsom), who worshipped the Ameshaspen-
tas (the archangels), who worshipped the two masters, the
two creators 1 (thwôreshtara) who create all things.
3. For his splendour and glory, for his power and
victory, for his praying to the angels (in our behalf), I will
worship him with an audible prayer and with the offering
of consecrated water (zaothra). May he come to help us,
he, the victorious, righteous Srosh!
6. He who first arranged the bundle of sacred twigs
(Barsom), that with three, that with five, that with seven,
and that with nine stalks, those which were as long as to
1 These are the two spirits spentô-mainyush and angrô-mainyush, men-
tioned in the note to Yas. xix. 9.
!
190
YASNA LVII.
1
go up to the knees, and those which went as far as the
middle. of the breast, (he arranged them) to worship, to
praise, to satisfy, and to extol the archangels.
8. He who first sang the five Gâthas of the righteous
Spitama Zarathushtra according to their stanzas and
their sentences, distinguishing their high and low tones.
10. He who wounds after sunset with his drawn sword
the cruel demon Aêshemô (i.e., attack, rapine).
1
15-18. He who slays the demon of destruction (derî-
drukhsh), who prevents the growth of nature, and murders.
its life. He who is the guardian and protector of the whole
world here below. He who, never slumbering, preserves
by vigilance the creatures of Mazda. He who, never slum-
bering, protects by vigilance the creatures of Mazda. He
who guards, with his sword drawn, the whole world sup-
plied with creatures after sunset. He who never enjoyed
sleep since the two spirits, the beneficent and the
hurtful, created (the world); he is watching the territories
of the good creation and fighting, day and night, against
the Devas (demons) of Mazenderan.2 He is never
frightened nor runs away when struggling with the
demons; but all the demons must flee from him and hide
themselves in darkness.
21. He who has a palace with a thousand pillars erected
on the highest summit of the mountain Alborz.3 It has
its own light from inside, and from outside it is decorated
with stars. He whose victorious sword is the Ahuna-
vairya formula, the Yasna of seven chapters (see p. 170),
the victorious Fshûsha-prayer (Yas. lviii.), and all the
sections of the Yasna.
24. He who walks, teaching the religion, round about
1 In the original fravôish (see the
same in Yt. x. 103), which has the
same origin as the modern Persian
fard, farid, down, downwards."
The Pahlavi translators (who have
fráj, "forth, forwards") misunder-
stood this rare word.
2 In the original mázanya. These
Mazanian Devas, several times alluded
to in the Zend-Avesta, are evidently
the Divs of Mazenderan, so well
known to the readers of the Shâh-
namah.
3 In the Avesta harô berezaiti “the
high mountain."
끼니
​VISPARAD.
191
the world. Ahuramazda, Vohu-manô, Ashem-vahishtem,
Khshathra-vairya, Spenta-ârmaiti, Haurvatât, Ameretât,¹
the Ahuryan question, and the Ahuryan creed (ie., their
respective angels) believed in this religion.
25. Protect our two lives, that of the body and that
of the soul, O Srosh! against death, against the attacks
of evil spirits. &c.
XI.-VISPARAD.
The name Visparad (Av. vîspê rataró) means "all
chiefs, or heads." By this name a collection of prayers,
composed of twenty-three chapters, is understood. They
are written in the usual Avesta language, and bear a great
resemblance, as regards their contents, to the first part of
the later Yasna (chap. i.-xxvii.). They refer to the same
ceremony, as does that part of the Yasna, viz., to the pre-
paration of the sacred water, and the consecration of cer-
*tain offerings, such as the sacred bread, the twigs of Homa,
with a twig of the pomegranate - tree, and the juice
obtained from them (called Parahoma), fruits, butter,
hair, fresh milk, and flesh, which are carried round about
the sacred fire, and after having been shown to it, are
eaten by the priest, or by the man, in whose favour the
ceremony is performed. These offerings, which are
nothing but a remnant of the ancient Aryan sacrifices,
so carefully preserved to this day by the Brahmans (see
the fourth Essay), represent a meal, given to all the heads
or chiefs (called ratus) of both the visible and invisible
world, who are all severally invoked. In the first chapter
of the Yasna, there are a good many more enumerated
than in the first chapter of the Visparad. In the Yasna
the enumeration of "the heads" begins with Ahuramazda
and the archangels, while in the Visparad the invitation 2
1 The six names after that of Ahu-
ramazda are those of the archangels.
2 The formula is nivaêdhayêmi hañ-
kûrayêmi, “I invite and prepare for "
(I prepare a meal and invite to it).
With nivaêdhayêmi compare the nai-
vedya of the Brahmans, i.c., the food
given to the gods. The Brahmans
192
VISPARAD. ·
commences with the heads of the spiritual (mainyava)
and terrestrial (gaêthya) world, the chiefs of all that is in
the water, in the sky, born out of eggs, of what is walking
on its face (quadrupeds), and of water crabs.1 In this
rough division of created living beings (of the good crea-
tion only) the whole animal kingdom is comprised. The
primary type of each class is its respective ratu or chief.
After the chiefs of the animals, the six chiefs of the year,
or the six seasons,2 are enumerated, which are now called
Gahanbârs. These are believed to have been instituted
by Ahuramazda in commemoration of the six periods,
during which, according to the Zoroastrian doctrine, the
world was created, and they are strictly observed by the
Parsis to this day. The names of these six seasons are:—
1, Maidhyo-zaremya (now 3d November); 2, Maidhy6-
shema (now 2d January); 3, Paitish-hahya (now 18th
March); 4, Ayâthrema (now 17th April); 5, Maidhyairya
(now 6th July); 6, Hamaspathmaêdaya (now 19th Sep-
tember), the season at which great expiatory sacrifices
were offered for the growth of the whole creation 3 in the
two last months of the year.4
After the six seasons, the chiefs of all the sacred prayers
begin all their ceremonies with the
words, aham karishye, "I shall per-
form a ceremony.'
(C
a
1 Chanranhách, who follow (the
species) chanra," Pers. changra,
crab."
That crabs are creatures of
Ahuramazda, is reported by Plu-
tarch; see p. 10.
""
2 The ancient name for season
was the word ratu itself, which is
preserved in the corresponding San-
skrit ritu (the six seasons, as repre-
sentatives of the Creator Prajapati or
Brahma, are often mentioned in the
Vedic writings). But after the em-
ployment of this word in a more
general sense, yare was used for
season," being evidently identical
with "year."
8 This the name implies, and also its
epithet areto-kerethana, "killer of ene-
mies," by which animals of the bad
creation, as frogs, lizards, serpents,
are to be understood. In the Bun-
dahish this season is said to be about
the vernal equinox, while Maidhy-
âirya is made to correspond with mid-
winter, and Maidhyô-shema with
midsummer; but since the disuse of
intercalary months, the season-festi-
vals have receded to the dates given
in the text according to the Indian
Parsi reckoning, or thirty days further
back according to the Persian Parsis.
4 In the first period heaven was
created, in the second the waters, in
the third the earth, in the fourth the
trees, in the fifth the animals, and in
the sixth man.
VISPARAD.
193
(which are believed to be angels), including more especially
the Gâthas, are invited, together with the female spirits
(ghena), "who give abundance of all things, and especially
posterity;" also Ardvi Sûra Anâhita (the heavenly water,
see the Abân Yasht), the mountains, the angels Behram,
Mithra, Râma-qâstar (presiding over food), the ruler of the
country, the Zarathushtrôtema (supreme highpriest or
Dastûr-i-Dastûrân), &c.
After this general invitation of the spirits of all orders
to come to the meal prepared for them, the water and Bar-
som (sacred twigs) are presented to them as a welcome
(chap.ii.). Several other invocations follow (chap. iii.). The
chief priest, who superintends the whole ceremony, the
Zaota (called Hota in the Vedas), orders his subordinate
priest Rathwi (now Raspi, Adhvaryu in the Vedas) to sum-
mon the different orders of priests, the representatives of
the three castes (priests, warriors, cultivators), the heads of
houses, villages, towns, and districts, the ladies of houses,
other respectable women, &c. Very likely all chiefs of the
Iranian society of a whole district were, if possible, obliged
to be present at the time of the celebration of the Gahan-
bârs, for which the Visparad seems to be particularly in-
tended, and on which occasions it must be used even now.
This whole assembly then praises all good things (chap.
iv.), after which the chief priest (Zaota) says, that he
is the praiser and worshipper of Ahuramazda and the
archangels, and that he is worshipping them with words.
and ceremonies (chap. v., vi.). Then the members of the
congregation invoke several spirits, as Sraosha, Mithra, &c.
(chap. vii.).
After these introductory prayers, the principal parts of
the meal, Homa with a branch of a pomegranate tree, but-
ter, fresh milk, bread, fruits, and flesh, are consecrated and
presented to the chiefs of the whole creation (chaps. ix.-xii.).
After the whole meal has been offered in a solemn way,
the ritual concludes with a series of prayers and invoca-
tions, in which, however, nothing remarkable occurs.
N
194
YASHTS.
XII. YASHTS.
The name Yasht (yeshti, “worship by prayers and sacri-
fices") is applied to certain collections of prayer and
praise, of which there are twenty extant, which have been
collected and published for the first time in Westergaard's.
edition of the Zend-Avesta (pp. 143-293). Their chief
difference from the prayers of the Yasna and Visparad is,
that each of them is devoted to the praise and worship of
one divine being only, or of a certain limited class of divine
beings, as Ahuramazda, the archangels (Amshaspends), the
heavenly water Ardvi Sûra Anâhita, the sun (Mithra), the
star Tishtrya, the Fravashis, &c., whereas in the Yasna
and Visparad all these beings are invoked promiscuously.
The majority of these beings are called Yazatas 1 (now
Izads) or angels.
The devotee endeavours, by an enumeration of all the
glorious feats achieved by the particular angel, and the
miracles wrought by him, to induce him to come and enjoy
the meal which is prepared for him, and then to bestow
such a blessing upon the present worshipper, as had been
bestowed by the angel upon his devotees in ancient times.
These praises are often highly poetical, and on close in-
quiry we find they really contain, in several cases, metrical
verses. They are to be traced to the songs of the Median
bards, who are mentioned by Greek historians, and were
the primary sources of the legends contained in the Shâh-
nâmah. For the legendary history of the ancient Iranians,
and especially for a critical inquiry into the celebrated
Shâhnâmah, the Yashts are the most important part of
the Zend-Avesta.
In the following pages a brief summary of them is given,
and occasionally some extracts are translated from the
more interesting parts.
'
1 Corresponding to the Vedic Ya-
jata, a being which deserves wor-
ship." The modern Persian Yazdan,
ઃઃ
'God," is the plural of this word
Yazuta.
HAPTAN, ETC., YASHTS.
195
1
1. HORMAZD Yasht.
""
Zarathushtra asked Ahuramazda for the most effectual
spell (mãthra) to guard against the influence of evil spirits.
He was answered by the Supreme Spirit, that the utter-
ance of the different names of Ahuramazda protects best
from evil. Thereupon Zarathushtra begged Ahuramazda
to communicate to him these names. Ahuramazda then
enumerates twenty names. The first, for instance, is ahmi,
"I am;" the fourth, asha-vahishta, "the best righteous-
ness" (the name of the archangel Ardibahisht); the sixth,
"I am the wisdom;" the eighth, "I am the knowledge;
the twelfth, ahura, "living;" the twentieth, "I am who I
am,¹ Mazda" (ahmi yaḍ ahmi mazdão). Ahuramazda says
then further: "If you call me by day or at night by these
names, I will come to assist and help you, the angel Srosh
will then come to assist and help you, the spirits of the
waters and the trees, and the spirits of deceased righteous
men will come to assist you." For the utter defeat of the
evil spirits, bad men, sorcerers, Paris 2 (pairika), &c., a
series of other names of Ahuramazda are suggested to Zara-
thushtra, such as protector, guardian, spirit, the holiest, the
best fire-priest, &c.
2. HAPTÂN, ARDIBAHISHT, AND KHORDAD YAshts.
In the Haptan Yasht (i.e., the praise of the seven su-
preme spirits) Ahuramazda and the six archangels, who
constitute the celestial council, are invoked. The greater
part of it is of no particular interest. At the end (Yt. ii. 11)
there is a short spell, such as we find now and then in the
Zend-Avesta. It is composed of short verses, each consist-
ing of six or seven syllables, in the following manner :-
1 Compare the explanation of the
name Jehovah, as given in Exod. iii.
14; ehyeh asher ehyeh, "I am who I
am.'
2 The Paris, i.e., fairies, so well
Sypha Nuk ju Ank.
known to the readers of modern Per-
sian poetry, are evil spirits in the
Zend-Avesta, because they seduce
men by their beauty.
1
196
HAPTAN, ETC., YASHTS.
Yatu
may he come
Koi
zł
Zarathushtra,
vanaḍ
daêvô mashyo
then Zarathushtra, may he destroy the devils and bad men
nmânahé, badha
soon
who (are)
Vispa
in the house,
drukhsh
janaité,
every
Yatha
when
evil spirit is slain,
haonaoiti
he hears
Spitama Zarathushtra!
Spitama Zarathushtra !
vispa drukhsh náshaité,
every evil spirit
ashãm
these
goes away,
vachām.
words.
In the Ardibahisht Yasht, Ahuramazda requests Zara-
thushtra to protect and promote the asha vahishta (now
Ardibahisht), "the best righteousness," by praising, in-
voking, inviting (to sacrificial meals), worshipping, sing-
ing, &c., in order to keep up the splendour and light of the
luminaries, which is indispensable for the growth of the
good creation.
Zarathushtra is ready to obey the divine command, but
he first wants to know the appropriate words which would
have the effect proposed by Ahuramazda. The chief
mãthra for this purpose is the Airyēmâ ishyó prayer (Yas.
liv.).1 Some spells follow, which are intended to remove
diseases and evils of every kind, like the spells found in
the Atharvaveda, and those used down to the present time
by wizards in Europe, as, for instance, "Go away, diseases!
Go away, death! Go away, ye devils!" &c.
Then the killing of the "serpent seed" (azhi-chithra),
i.e., all noxious creatures, such as wolves, frogs, mice, ants,
snakes, &c., which are believed to be the mere disguises of
evil spirits, is enjoined as meritorious, and contributing
largely towards the growth of nature and preservation of
light, which are both represented by the archangel Ardi-
bahisht. The last sentences of this Yasht occur also in
Vend. viii. 21.
(C
The Khordâd Yasht is devoted to the archangel Khordâd
(Haurvataḍ in the Avesta), which name signifies com-
pleteness, wholesomeness, health." Ahuramazda says to
Zarathushtra: "I created the Haurvatâds for the righteous
men, and aids so that the archangels come to help them."
1 Addressed to Airyama, an angel men, and in possession of numerous
who is a friend and assistant of pious resources.
ABAN YASHT.
197
As a chief means of preserving the Haurvatâd, or the same
good condition in which every being of the good creation
has been created by Ahuramazda, the recital of mathras is
recommended, together with the Barashnom ceremony (de-
scribed in Vend. ix. ; see section xiv. 5). The mathra,
which is intended to drive away the evil spirits, is hardly
intelligible in a grammatical point of view; the grammar
of this and the two preceding Yashts being extremely bad.
At the end Zarathushtra is strictly ordered by Ahuramazda
not to communicate this effective spell to any other man
than to a son, or brother, or relative, or to a priest of one
of the three orders (thrâyava, i.e., Herbads, Mobads, and
Dasturs). Such interdictions of divulging mãthras, or
spells, are not unfrequent in the Yashts.
3. ABAN YASHT.
This Yasht, which is of considerable length (thirty sec-
tions containing 132 verses in all), is devoted to Ardri
Súra Anâhita (now called Arduisur), the mighty goddess
Anaitis of the ancient Persians, corresponding to the My-
litta of the Babylonians, and the Aphrodite (Venus) of the
Greeks. Her name Anâhid is even still preserved in
modern Persian, and well known to the readers of Hafiz.
In this Yasht she is always called by the three names just
mentioned, which are only epithets. Ardvi means “high,
sublime," súra "strong, excellent," and anahita "spot-
less, pure, clean," which terms refer to the celestial waters
represented by her. The contents are as follows:-
i. Ahuramazda calls upon Zarathushtra to worship Anâ-
hita, who rolls under bridges, who gives salubrity, who
defeats the devils, who professes the Ahura religion, who
is to be worshipped and praised in this living world. She,
as the giver of fertility, purifies the seed of all males, and
the wombs of all females, and provides the latter at the
right time with milk. Coming from one of the summits.
of the mountain Alborz, she is as large as all other waters
taken together, which spring out of this heavenly source.
When she discharges herself into the sea Vouru-kasha,
198
ABAN YASHT.
then all its shores are widened. This heavenly fountain
has a thousand springs and a thousand canals, each of them.
forty days' journey long. Thence a channel goes through
all the seven kêshvars, or regions of the earth, conveying
everywhere pure celestial water. She was created by
Ahuramazda himself for the benefit of the house, village,
town, and country.
iii. Her chariot is drawn by four white horses, which
defeat all the devils.
From the fifth section, nearly to the end, all the praises
which Anâhita has received, and the rewards which she
has granted to her devotees, are enumerated.
v. Ahuramazda himself is said to have worshipped her,
in order to secure her assistance in inducing Zarathushtra
to become his prophet. She readily granted his request.
vi. Haoshyanha (Hoshang in the Shâhnâmah) sacrificed
to her a hundred horses, a thousand cows, and ten thou-
sand young animals. She gave him strength to conquer
all the demons and men, and to establish an empire.
vii, Yima Khshaêta (Jamshêd) asked the same blessing
from her which she readily granted, while she refused.
(viii.) to grant Azhi dahaka's (Zohak, an incarnation of the
devil) prayer for strength to kill all the men on the sur-
face of the earth. (ix.) But she assisted Thraétaona
(Frêdûn), who had worshipped her also, to destroy this
tyrant. Besides these heroes, a good many others are
mentioned as worshippers of Anâhita, such as Kava Us (Kai
Kavus in the Shâhnâmah), Kava Husrava (Kai Khusró),
&c. The example set by Ahuramazda himself and the
great heroes and sages of Iranian antiquity, of worshipping
Anâhita in order to obtain blessings from her, was followed,
of course, by Zarathushtra and his royal disciple Kava
Vishtâspa (Kai Gushtâsp in Sh.), who are always repre-
sented as having respected the ancient forms of worship.
In sections xxi, and xxx. two short hymns are pre-
served, on the recital of which Anâhita was expected to
appear. The first is ascribed to Ahuramazda himself. It
commences as follows:-
KHURSHED AND MAH YASHTS.
199
Aidhi
paiti
come
before (me)
ava-jasa,
come down,
Ardvi-sûra
Andhite/
Arduisur
Anáhita!
hacha
avaḍbyć
from
yonder
stareby
stars
avi zām
on to the earth
Thwam
yazȧoñté
Thee
shall worship
ahurdonhô¹
lords
puther do nhô
sons
Ahuradhátam.
created by Ahuramazda.
aurclionho
the handy
danhupatayo,
the rulers of countries,
danhupaitinām.
of the rulers of countries.
4. KHURSHED AND MAH YASHTS.
The first of these Yashts is devoted to the sun, which is
called in the Avesta hvare khshaéta, "sun the king" (pre-
served in the modern Persian khurshed, "sun"); the second
is devoted to the moon, called máonh (in modern Persian
mah).
The prayer addressed to the sun commences as follows:-
"We worship the king sun, the immortal, brilliant.
When he burns with his rays, then all the heavenly spirits.
rise by hundreds and by thousands to spread his splendour,
to send it down to the earth, created by Ahuramazda, for
protecting the cultivated fields (gaétháo) and their bodies.2
When the sun rises, then he purifies the earth, created by
Ahuramazda, he purifies the flowing water, as well as that
of springs and lakes, he purifies all the creatures of the
beneficent spirit. As long as the sun has not risen, all the
demons are endeavouring to spread havoc throughout the
1 It is nom. pl. From this passage
one may clearly see that ahura is not
a title confined to the Supreme Being,
but can be applied to men also. The
same is the case with the Hebrew
word elohim, "God," which is now and
then used in the sense of "judges,"
Exod. xxi. 6 (according to the ancient
Chaldaic translator Onkelos), and in
that of "kings" (see Ps. lxxxii. 1, 6).
2 In this passage, as well as in many
others in the Yashts and the Vendi-
dad, some interpolations have been
made in later times to illustrate
phrases which were considered hardly
intelligible. Thus, for instance,
hām-bârayêiñti (anbûshtan, “to fill ”
in Pers.)," they carry everywhere,"
is explained by nipârayêiñti, “they
make pass down (everywhere)."
200
TIR AND GOSH YASHTS.
}
seven regions of the earth, and none 1 of the heavenly
spirits withstands and slays them, whilst all the living
creation is drowned in sleep."
At the end the conjunction of sun and moon is par-
ticularly mentioned as the luckiest of all conjunctions.
The word for "conjunction," hakhedhrem, is of particular
interest, because it is preserved in the modern Persian
akhtar, "star," whose original meaning "conjunction "
may still be found in some phrases, such as akhtar-i-
dânish, “Jupiter and Mercury" (literally, the conjunction
foreboding wisdom).
In the Mâh Yasht the moon is invoked by the epithet
gaochithra, which means "cow-faced." All" the immortal
benefactors (archangels) rise and spread the moonlight
over the surface of the earth created by Ahuramazda, then
the light of the moon shines through the tops of the golden-
coloured trees; and gold-like it rises from the earth (i.e.,
it is reflected by her)." 2 The new moon and the full moon
are especially alluded to.
5. TIR AND GOSH YASHTS.
The Tîr Yasht is devoted to the praise of the star Tish-
trya, “Mercury” (tashtar in Parsi, tîr in modern Pers.).
He is called the giver of wealth (bakhta shoithrahe); his
lustre is red, and of great beauty. His most significant
epithet is afsh-chithra, "waterfaced" (of one and the same
nature with the water), because he brings the waters from
the celestial ocean, Vouru-kasha, down on the earth to
fertilise the soil. He discharges this duty, which is assigned
to him, with the utmost quickness, being “as swift as the
river Tighrish, which has the swiftness of an arrow, and is
the swiftest of all Aryan (rivers) when it falls from the
1 This seems to be in contradiction
to the Srosh Yasht, where Srosh is
said to fight at night-time against the
evil spirits. But one has to bear in
mind that Srosh is not one of the
Yazatas, or angels, but of a higher
order; he is the representative of the
religion itself; if it were not for him
the world would fall a prey to the
demons during the night-time.
2 The reflection of moonlight is
called paitidîti, "what looks against."
TIR AND GOSH YASHTS.
201
Khshaotha mountain down to the Qanvat mountain." (Yt.
viii. 6.)
He defeats and expels the fairies (pairika = parî in
Pers.), who "fall as star-worms (i.e., glow-worms) between
earth and heaven into the sea Vouru-kasha (to prevent the
waters from coming out)." But Tishtrya enters this sea
in the shape of a horse, and by swelling it, makes it over-
flow its shores, and so carries its waters, as showers, over
the "seven regions of the earth."
<<
His worship was compulsory at the time of a drought;
for unless the prayers of men were addressed to him, he
was powerless to defeat the evil spirits, who kept back the
waters in the sea. If men invoke him, says he, as they
invoke other angels, then he proceeds from his magnificent
palace to the Vouru-kasha. He steps into the sea in the
shape of a red horse with yellow ears. There the Deva
Apaosho, in the shape of a black horse with black ears and
tail, encounters him. Both fight for three days and nights;
at length he is defeated by the Deva. Tishtrya then leaves
the sea, crying aloud: I am lost, the waters are lost, the
trees are lost, the Mazdayasnian religion is destroyed. Men
do not worship me as they worship other angels. If they
would worship me, I would gain the strength of ten horses,
ten camels, ten oxen, ten mountains, ten navigable rivers."
When men then come to aid him by their prayers, and
consequently his strength increases, he descends for a
second time into the sea, attacks the Deva again, and defeats
him. After having conquered him, he proclaims the vic-
tory, gained by him, to the whole good creation. He makes
the waters of the sea then flow over its borders, and fertilises
the soil. In the midst of the sea there is a mountain
called Hendva (very likely the Hindu-kush range of moun-
tains is to be understood), over which the clouds gather
together. The winds carry them rapidly off, and they then
discharge their watery load upon the thirsty and parched
soil.
The Gôsh Yasht is devoted to a female spirit who is
202
MIHIR YASHT.
called here Drvâspa, i.e., one who keeps horses in health.
The name Gosh, "cow," which was given her in after times,
refers to geush urvâ, the universal soul by which all living
beings of the good creation are animated. From the terms
in which Drvâspa is spoken of in this Yasht, she was
believed to preserve the life of the good animals. In
heaven she represents the Milky-way, and in this respect
is described as having many spies (eyes), having light of
her own, having a far way, and a long constellation
(dareghô-hakhedhrayana).
She was worshipped by the heroes of antiquity, such as
Haoshyanha Paradhâta (Hoshang the Peshdadian in the
Shâhnâmah), Yima (Jamshêd), Thraêtaona (Frêdûn), Kava
Vîshtâspa, Zarathushtra himself, &c., and different favours
were asked of her, such as, to give strength for defeating
enemies, to rid the creation from the evils of heat and cold,
to propagate the good religion, &c.
6. MIHIR YASHT.
In this long Yasht, which comprises thirty-five sections
(146 verses in Wester.), the angel presiding over, and
directing the course of the sun, who was called Mithra,
"friend" (mihir in Persian), is invoked and praised. His
worship was widely spread, not only in ancient Persia
itself, but far beyond its frontiers in Asia Minor, and even
in Greece and Rome.
In the first section of this Yasht, Ahuramazda says to
Spitama Zarathushtra: "I created Mithra, who rules over
large fields (vouru-gaoyaoitish), to be of the same rank and
dignity (as far as worship is concerned) as I myself am.
The wretch who belies Mithra,1 spoils the whole country.
Therefore, never break a promise, neither that contracted
with a fellow-religionist, nor that with an infidel. Mithra
gives those who do not belie him, swift horses; the fire,
¹ Mithra has several meanings, viz.,
"angel of the sun, sun, friend,” and
"promise, contract." Promise-break-
ing, or lying, or not paying debts
which have been contracted, is called
Mithrô-drukhsh, “belying Mithra."
MIHIR YASHT.
203
Ahuramazda's son, leads such men on the straightest way,
the Frohars (Fravashis) give them children of superior
qualities."
Near the end of the first section there is a short hymn
by which Ahuramazda is said to call him. It consists of
verses, each of about eight syllables, and commences as
follows:-
ácha
Hither
по jamyaḍ
to us may come
avanhê,
to help,
acha
no
hither to us may come
jamyáḍ
ravanhê,
to face
(before us),
Acha
пв
jamyaḍ
rafnaghê, &c.
hither
to us
may come
ughrô authang
yasnyő,
the strong conqueror
vispem
all
a
in
Mithro
deserving
vahmyô,
deserving praise,
to joy, &c.
anaiwidrukhtô,
not to be belied,
worship,
anuhê
astraité,
the life supplied with bodies (i.e., in the creation,
((
Mithra
уб
who
vouru-gaoyaoitish.
rules over large fields.
Mithra, who always speaks the truth, has a thousand
ears, ten thousand eyes, and is always watching, without
falling asleep, over the welfare of the creation" (ver. 7).
"He, first of the celestial spirits, crosses the mountain
Harô-berezaiti (Alborz, the supposed centre of the world)
on its eastern side, where the immortal sun with his swift
horses is stationed; he first, covered with gold, reaches
the summits of that mountain, and thence overlooks the
whole of Iran. Through him the rulers build their high
fortresses, through him the high mountains, with their
many pasturages, produce food for the animals, through
him the deep wells have abundance of waters, through
him the large navigable rivers run swiftly through Aish-
kata,1 Pouruta (Parthia, Parthava in the cuneiform in-
scriptions), Mouru (Marv), Harôyú (Herat), Gau Sughdha
(Sogdiana, Samarkand), and Qâirizem (Khowaresmia). He
brings light to all the seven regions (the whole earth);
victory resounds in the ears of those who, by their know-
1 A locality not yet identified.
204
MIHIR YASHT.
1
ledge of the appropriate prayers and rites, continuously
worship him with sacrifices." (Yt. x. 13-16).
He protects those who do not break their promises
when in distress and misery; but inflicts severe punish-
ments upon those who sin against him by lying and pro-
mise-breaking; he makes their arms and feet lame, their
eyes blind, their ears deaf (ver. 23). The same idea is
embodied in the short hymn which forms the 11th section
(vers. 47-49). The verses consist of eight syllables, as in
the following specimen :
dad yaḍ Mithro
Then when Mithra
avi
ham-yanta
fravazaiti | avi halnayão
khrvîshyêitîsh,
drives in the two armies ready for battle,
rusmaoyô
añtare
against they encounter in two battle lines in order
danhu-paperetané,
for the country
(each other)
to fight,
athra naram
then of the men
mithrô-drujām
who break
apash
away
γαυδ
the hand
darezayêiti,
he binàs,
promise
pairi
round
daêma
the face
vârayêiti, &c.
he covers, &c.
i.e., at the time of a battle taking place between two hos-
tile armies, and both being arrayed in battle lines against
each other, in order to fight for a country, Mithra drives
in his chariot to the battlefield, and punishes all those
who were formerly sinning against him by breaking pro-
mises; he causes some to be made prisoners, and dooms
others to lose their eyes, or their feet, or their ears.
The residence of this mighty angel, the punisher of
rascals and scoundrels, is on the mountain Harô-berezaiti
(Alborz), where Ahuramazda himself has built a palace for
him, where is "no night, no darkness, no cold wind, nor
hot, no smoke, no putri faction, no fogs," which is the
model of an Iranian paradise (ver. 50).
All the demons (devas) flee from him when he, as the
ruler of the whole earth, drives in his chariot on her right
side. On his right side he is followed by Sraosha, the
angel ruling over the whole of the divine service, and by
Rashnu razishta (Rashnu râst), the angel of justice, and
the spirits of the waters, trees, &c. (vers. 100, 101).
SROSH HADOKHT AND RASHNU YASHTS. 205
In verse 104 mention is made of the eastern and
western Hindus (hiñdrô = sindhavas, i.e., the (seven) rivers
in the Vedas, the ancient name of India).
Ahuramazda paid his respects to him. He drives out
from paradise (garôdemâna) in a splendid chariot, drawn
by four white horses. He carries with him weapons of
all kinds for the destruction of the Devas; among them
is the vazra,1 the most powerful.
7. SROSH HÂDÔKHT AND RASHNU YASHTS.
The former Yasht, which is now particularly used at
the time of initiating priests (chiefly of the lower grade,
the Herbads) into their office, is dedicated to the angel
Sraosha, of whom we have already given an account (see
p. 189).
An analysis of this Yasht would, therefore,
afford no particular interest.
In the Rashnu Yasht the angel Rashnu razishta, “ the
rightest righteousness," who is believed to preside over
the eternal laws of nature, as well as morality (corres-
ponding to the idea of Themis among the ancient Greeks),
is invoked and worshipped. He is everywhere, and re-
presents, to a certain extent, the omnipresence of the
divine being. He is particularly distinguished by firm-
ness and the greatest hatred of disorder and immorality
of every kind. His devotee, in paying reverence to him,
by placing various sweet fruits and oil before the sacred
fire, invokes and praises him wherever he may be, whether
in one of the seven regions (karshvare), or in different
parts of the sea Vouru-kasha (the ocean surrounding the
earth), either on the large tree, bearing all kinds of fruits
at the same time, which is planted in its middle, or on its
shores, or in its depths. He is further praised whether he
be on the ends of the earth, or on the celestial mountain
Harô-berezaiti (Alborz), or in one of the stars, such as
1 Gurz,
a club, battleaxe," in
Persian is identical with vajra,
"thunderbolt," in the Vedas, where
it is Indra's weapon.
206
FRAVARDIN YASHT.
1
Churl's Wain (Ursa major) called Haptôiring, or in the
water stars, or vegetation stars, or in the moon, or sun,
or in the luminaries which were from the beginning
(anaghra raochâo), or in paradise.
·
8. FRAVARDÎN YASHT.
This Yasht, comprising thirty-one chapters, which are
divided into 158 verses, is the longest of all. It is dedi-
cated to the praise of the Frohars, Fravashi in the Avesta
(preserved in the name Phraortes, which is Fravartish
in the ancient Persian of the cuneiform inscriptions),
which means "protector." These Frohars or protectors,
who are numberless, are believed to be angels, stationed
everywhere by Ahuramazda for keeping the good creation
in order, preserving it, and guarding it against the con-
stant attacks of fiendish powers. Every being of the good
creation, whether living, or deceased, or still unborn, has
its own Fravashi or guardian angel who has existed from
the beginning. Hence they are a kind of prototypes, and
may be best compared to the "ideas" of Plato who sup-
posed everything to have a double existence, first in idea,
secondly in reality.2 Originally the Fravashis represented
1 In modern Persian haftwarang.
This word is highly interesting from
its identity with the ancient Vedic
and Greek names of the same con-
stellation. The original form in the
Vedas is riksha, "a bear" (which is
found only once in the hymns of the
Rigveda, i. 24, 10) = Greek arktos.
According to an account in the Sha-
tapatha Brâhmaņa, ii. 1, 2, 4 (second
part of the white Yajurveda) this
name was changed afterwards into
that of Sapta rishayaḥ, "the seven
Rishis," by which name the stars of
Ursa major are called in the later
Vedic hymns (see Rigveda x. 82, 2,
Atharvaveda vi. 40, 1) and in the
classical Sanskrit writings. The
sounds of riksha, "bear," and rishi,
seer, prophet," were so near to one
another, that at the time when they
commenced to deify those great
founders of Brahmanism, nothing
was more natural than to assign to
them a place in the sky, and make
them one of the brightest and most
beautiful constellations. In the Iran-
ian languages, however, the old name
"the seven bears" was faithfully
preserved.
2 The ideas are the models (para-
deigmata) of everything existing;
the realities (or, according to Plato,
non-realities, because only the ideas
have a real existence according to his
doctrine) being only imitations there-
of. The ideas are unborn, eternal,
invisible, imperishable, but their imi-
tations, the substances, are subject to
all changes. See Parmenides, p. 132,
d. Steph. Timous., 48, c. 52 a. Ac-
cording to Aristotle (Metaphysics, i.
FRAVARDIN YASHT.
207
only the departed souls of ancestors, comparable to the
pitaras, "fathers," of the Brahmans, and the Manes of the
Romans. The following extracts are translated from the
Fravardin Yasht:-
1-7. Ahuramazda spoke to Spitama Zarathushtra: To
thee alone I shall tell the power and strength, glory, use-
fulness, and happiness of the holy guardian-angels, the
strong and victorious, O righteous Spitama Zarathushtra !
how they come to help me, [(Zend) how they give me
assistance]. By means of their splendour and glory I up-
hold the sky which is shining so beautifully, and which
touches and surrounds this earth; 1 it resembles a bird
which is ordered by God to stand still there; it is high as
a tree, wide-stretched, iron-bodied, having its own light in
the three worlds (thrishva); on which (the sky) Ahura-
mazda, together with Mithra, Rashnu, and Spenta Armaiti,
puts a garment decked with stars, and made by God in
such a way that nobody can see the ends of its parts.
By means of their splendour and glory, I uphold the
high, strong Anâhita (the celestial water) with bridges, the
salutary, who drives away the demons, who has the true
faith, and is to be worshipped in the world, and to be
praised in the world; the righteous who furthers life, the
righteous who increases wealth, the righteous who increases
property, the righteous who makes the fields thrive, the
righteous who makes the countries thrive; who purifies
the seed of all males, who purifies the wombs of all females
to make them fit for conception, who makes all pregnant
females bear fine offspring, who provides females at the
right time with milk; the praised, the far-renowned, who
is as large as all the waters which flow over the earth, who
runs with might from the celestial heights into the sea
9, 2), Plato imagined as many "ideas"
as there are things really existing.
Such celestial, or invisible, prototypes
of terrestrial things are mentioned
also in the Bible; see Heb. ix. 23;
Exod. xxv. 9, 40.
1 Baváva would be according to
Sanskrit the first person dual, but this
meaning does not agree with the struc-
ture of the sentence; it is evidently
put for baraiti va, "it is for both."
1
208
FRAVARDIN YASHT.
1232
Vouru-kasha. All its shores are then overflowing from its
very centre, when those waters fall into it, when the high,
strong Anâhita pours them forth into their channels. She
has a thousand springs, a thousand channels; each of
these springs and each of these channels is of the circuit
of a forty days' journey for a well-mounted messenger.
II. By means of their splendour and glory, I keep, O
Zarathushtra! the embryos alive in the pregnant females,
to be formed out of a formless inanimate mass, to obtain
a living soul, bones, form, cousistency, growth of the
faculty of walking, and speaking.
12. If the strong guardian-angels of the righteous would
not give me assistance, then cattle and men, the two best
of the hundred classes of beings, would no longer exist for
me; then would commence the devil's power, the devil's
reign, the whole living creation would belong to the devil.
13. Between earth and heaven may the devilish spirit
take up his residence! [(Zend) between earth and heaven
may the devil reside!]; but he (the devil) will not be
able to destroy entirely (the influence) of the beneficent
spirit (Ahuramazda).
14. By means of their splendour and glory, the waters
flow straight forward in inexhaustible sources; by means
of their splendour and glory, trees grow out of the earth;
by means of their splendour and glory, the winds blow,
carrying with them vapours from inexhaustible sources.
15. By means of their splendour and glory, the females
are getting with children; by means of their splendour and
glory, they produce good offspring; by means of their
splendour and glory, there will be descendants.
16. By means of their splendour and glory, that ingen-
uous man (Zarathushtra), who spoke such good words,
who was the source of wisdom, who was born before
Gotama¹ had such intercourse (with God, obtained revela-
1 Gaotema (in the original) is the
proper name of Buddha, the founder
of Buddhism. Its Sanskrit form is
Gautama. That Buddhism existed at
Balkh is well known.
FRAVARDIN YASHT.
209
tion). By means of their splendour and glory, the sun
goes on his path; by means of their splendour and glory,
the moon goes on her path; by means of their splendour
and glory, the stars go on their path.
17. These guardian-angels of the righteous give great
assistance in great battles (to be fought against the devil-
ish empire). The guardian-angels of the righteous among
the believers in the old religion, or those of the prophets
(Saoshyañtô) to come, for making perpetuation of life, are
the strongest of all; then the guardian-angels of the living
righteous men are stronger than those of the dead.
18. When a man living, who is the ruler over all the
estates of a country, supports well the guardian-angels of
the righteous, then each of his dominions will be well
populated [(Zend) who supports well your good friend (the
sun, mithra) with his far-extended dominions, and the pro-
bity which is protecting and sheltering estates].
19. Thus I tell thee, holy Spitama! the power, strength,
glory, support, and delight of the strong, victorious guardian-
angels of the righteous, as they come to assist me, [(Zend)
as the strong guardian-angels of the righteous bring me
assistance].
20. Ahuramazda said to Spitama Zarathushtra: When
in this world, O Spitama Zarathushtra! thou hast to pass
mischief-bringing, bad, baneful ways, and thy life is threat-
ened, then shalt thou recite these words, [(Zend) then shalt
thou speak these victorious words, O Zarathushtra !] :
21. I praise, invoke, and extol the good, strong, bene-
ficent, guardian-angels of the righteous. We praise those
who are in the houses, those who are in the villages, those
who are in the towns, those who are in the countries, those
who are in the Zoroastrian communities, those of the pre-
sent, those of the past, those of the future righteous, all
those invoked in countries where invocation is practised.
22. Who uphold heaven, who uphold water, who uphold
earth, who uphold nature, &c.
49, 50. We worship the good, strong, beneficent, guardian-
210
FRAVARDIN YASHT.
angels of the righteous, who come to the village in the
season called Hamaspathmaêda. Then they roam about
there during ten nights, wishing to learn what assistance
they might obtain, saying: Who will praise us? who will
worship (us)? who will adore (us)? who will pray (to us)?
who will satisfy (us) with milk and clothes in his hand,
with a prayer for righteousness? whom of us will he call
here? whose soul is to worship you? To whom of us will
he give that offering in order to enjoy imperishable food
for ever and ever?
51, 52. Then the man who worships them with milk in
his hand, and with clothes, and the prayer for righteous-
ness, upon him the pleased (with this sacrifice), favourable,
not-hurting, strong guardian-angels of the righteous bestow
blessings. In this house (where they are worshipped in
such a way) there will be abundance of cows and of men
(posterity); there will be a swift horse and a well-fastened
carriage; there will be found a prudent man who will
worship us (in future) with milk and clothes in his hand
and with the prayer for righteousness.
82-84. We worship the good, strong, beneficent guardian-
angels of the righteous, those of the immortal benefactors
(Ameshaspentas), the rulers with their watchful eyes, the
high, powerful, swift, living ones of everlasting truth. All
seven are of the same mind, speak the same words, per-
form the same actions; [(Zend) they have the same mind,
the same words, the same action, and the same master and
ruler, the Creator Ahuramazda]. Qne looks into the soul
of the other, considering about good thoughts, considering
about good words, considering about good deeds, consider-
ing about the best life, that the prayer may go up to their
brightly shining paths.
85. We worship the good, strong, beneficent guardian-
angels, that of the blazing, beneficent, penetrating fire, and
that of Sraosha, the righteous, swift, self-speaking, swiftly-
running, the living, and that of Nairyôsanha (the angel).
86. That of the rightest righteousness (Rashnu razishta),
FRAVARDIN YASHT.
211
}
that of Mithra with his far-extended dominions, that of
the holy word (Mãthra speñta), that of the day, that of
water, that of earth, that of the trees, that of nature, that
of existence, that of the two righteous worlds (visible and
invisible, earthly and spiritual).
87. We worship the guardian-angel of Gayô-marathan
(Gayomard, Kayomars, the Adam or Manu of the Iranians),
the righteous, who first listened to Ahuramazda's thoughts
and sayings; out of whose body he (Ahuramazda) formed
the central mass (nâfô, "navel") 1 of the Aryan countries,
the surface of the Aryan countries.
88-94. We worship the rule and the guardian-angel of
Zarathushtra Spitama, who first thought good thoughts,
who first spoke good words, who first performed good
actions, who was the first priest, the first warrior, the first
cultivator of the soil, the first prophet, the first who was
inspired, the first who has given (to mankind) nature and
truth and words, and hearing of words, and wealth and all
good, created by Mazda, of rightful appearance. Who first
made turning the wheel among gods and men,2 who first
was praising the rightfulness of the living creation, and
destroying idolatry, who confessed the Zarathushtrian
worship of Mazda, the religion of Ahura opposed to the
demons. Who first spoke the word opposed to the demons,3
being the religion of Ahura in the animated creation, who
first promulgated the word opposed to the demons, being
the religion of Ahura in the animated creation. Who first
spoke the whole of what is given by the demons in the
animated creation, and what is neither to be worshipped
nor invoked (it is profane), that is the strong, blessed, old
religion of the countries (the ante-Zoroastrian, Deva reli-
gion).4 Through whom the whole true and revealed word
1 Compare the Greek appellation of
Delphi: Omphale gês, “navel of the
earth," i.c., its centre.
2 This is a Buddhistic expression,
meaning "established and propagated
the good religion."
3 That is to say, the Vendidad.
4 This means that Zarathushtra is
the originator of all religious thoughts,
both those current after, and those
current before his time.
V
212
FRAVARDIN YASHT.
Aegs
was heard, which is the life and guidance of the world, the
praises of the righteousness 1 which is the greatest, best,
and most excellent, and the promulgation of the best reli-
gion of those existing. Whom all Ameshaspentas, together
with the Sun, worship with believing inquiry in the mind,
for the duration of life, as the patron spirit and religious
preceptor of the world, as praiser of the righteousness
which is the greatest, best, and most excellent, and the
promulgator of the best religion of those existing. Through
his knowledge and speech the waters and trees become de-
sirous of growing; through his knowledge and speech all
beings, created by the beneficent Spirit, are uttering words
of happiness. For our welfare the fire-priest (âthrava),
Spitama Zarathushtra, was born, he offered sacrifice for us,
and arranged the holy twigs. Thus comes forth from the
waters (i.e., from its source) the good religion of the Maz-
dayasnians, spreading over all the seven regions of the
earth.
95. There the friend of the waters (the sun), ruling over
far-extended dominions, produced all virtues of the coun-
tries by their means, and makes them play when overflow-
ing; there the son of waters, the strong fire, produced all
virtues of countries, and appeases them when overflowing.
We worship the virtue and the guardian angel of
Maidhyô-mâonha, the disposer (of the good faith), who first
heard Zarathushtra's speech and sayings.
99. We worship the guardian-angel of Kavi Vishtâspa,
the bold, who speaks his own verses, the attacker of the
demons, the believer in Ahura, who defiled,2 for the benefit
of the good creation, the face of the devil and the witches,
[(Zend) who cleft the face of the devil and the witches,
that is to say, who was the arm and support of the Zoro-
astrian belief in Ahura]; (100.) who carried away from the
1 The
praise of righteousness" is
the Pahlavi technical name of the
Ashem-vohu formula.
trahêcha, contain fragments of an old
epic poem in honour of Kavi Vîsh-
tâspa, with some interpolations. The
2 The words from yć druja, to vas- metre is the Shloka.
BEHRAM AND RAM YASHTS.
213
Hunus¹ the standard [(Zend) which was tied], and depo-
sited it in the impregnable fortress Maidhyôishâdha, shield-
ing cattle and fields, [(Zend) favourable to cattle and fields].
104. We worship the guardian-angel of Hushkyaothna,
son of Frashaoshtra, that of Qâdaêna, son of Frashaoshtra,
that of Haṇhaurvat, son of Jâmâspa, that of Vareshan, son
of Haṇhaurvat, that of Vohu-nemaṇh, son of Aváraoshtra,
to ward off the mischief done by nightmares, by ghosts
disguised as black-coloured animals, by demons, and by
witches.
105. We worship the guardian-angel of Sîmaêzhi, the
reciter of spells, the Herbad, who slew most of the Usa-
ghanas, who polluted the bodies and disturbed righteous-
ness, who were irreligious, acknowledging neither patron
spirit nor religious preceptor, who were charmers, frustrat-
ing the help of the guardian-angels to resist the hostilities
which were crushing the righteous.
129. We worship the guardian-angel of Astvaḍ-ereta
who is called the victorious Saoshyâns. He is called
Saoshyâns, as he will conduce (sâvayâḍ) to the welfare of
the whole animated creation. He is called Astvaḍ-ereta,
as he is keeping up the animated creation, guarding it
against destruction, especially against the destruction
caused by the two-legged Drukhsh (the personification of
destruction), caused by the hatred of (the demons) who
annihilate rightful things.
9. BEHRÂM AND RÂM YASHTS.
The Behram Yasht is devoted to the angel Behrâm.
The original form of this name is Verethraghna, which
means "killer of enemies," i.e., conqueror, and is to be iden-
tified with Indra's name Vritrahd to be found in the Vedas.
He is the giver of victory, and appears personally before his
1 This nation is mentioned by the
name of Húnas in Indian writings
also. See Vishnu Purâna, translated
by H. H. Wilson, pp. 177, 194. They
were hostile to the Iranians, who seem
to have often been engaged in war
with them. They were the white
Huns who were once the terror of
Europe.
214
BEHRAM AND RAM YASHTS.
devotee in such different forms as he may choose to assume.
He appears in the form of a wind, in that of a cow, in
that of a horse, in that of a camel, in that of a boar (varâza,
Sans. varâha), in that of a boy aged fifteen, in that of a
warrior, &c. Zarathushtra worshipped him, and was re-
warded by the angel with strength in his arms and vigour
in his whole body.
Zarathushtra once asking Ahuramazda in what way the
angel Behrâm should be worshipped, is answered in the
following manner: The Aryan countries (ie., their inha-
bitants, the Iranians, ancestors of the Parsis) shall conse-
crate water (called zaothra), arrange the sacred twigs called
Barsom, and kill an animal of a reddish or yellowish colour,
the flesh of which is to be cooked. Of this meal of Beh-
râm, which is prepared occasionally to this day, neither a
criminal, nor a courtezan, nor an infidel who is an enemy
of the Zoroastrian religion, is allowed to eat. Should that
happen then the Aryan countries will be visited by plagues,
and devastated by incursions of hostile armies.
1
The Râm Yasht is devoted to the angel Râm, who is,
however, never mentioned in it by this name, but is called
vayush ¹ uparô-kairyô, i.e., the wind whose business is above
(in the sky), the celestial breath; or he is simply invoked
by the names of Apâ, "who is far, remote," and Bagha,2
"destiny." He is described as being everywhere (on all
sides), and as the primary cause (akhshti) of the whole
universe. From these remarks we may gather that he re-
presents that very fine and subtle substance which is called
ether, and known to the Indian philosophers as akasha.
He was worshipped by Ahuramazda and the great heroes
and sages of antiquity, such as Haoshyanha, Takhma-urupa
(Tahmuras), Yima, &c. Old maids beg him to grant them
husbands.
In the last (eleventh) section his manifold names are
"the
1 This name seems to be connected
with the Vedic god Vâyu,
wind," the original long a having
been shortened to a.
2 See the first section of the fourth
Essay.
DIN, ETC., YASHTS.
215
explained. Vayush is there traced to the root vi, "to go,
penetrate," and to va, "both," and explained by "I go to
both creatures, those of the beneficent, and those of the
malevolent spirit." By this and other names he is to be
invoked at the time of worship. He has then the power
of defeating hostile armies.
IO. DIN AND ASHI YASITS.
In the Dîn Yasht the daéna mâzdayasnish, or the Zoroas-
trian religion, is invoked as an angel. She was, of course,
pre-eminently worshipped by Zarathushtra. The way in
which he invoked her is described in a short hymn com-
mencing as follows:—
Yt. xvi. 2. Rise from thy place! go out from thy
house! thou wisdom, created by Mazda! which is the
rightest; if thou art in the front (of the house), put up
with me; if thou art behind it, return to me.
Ashi is a female angel whom the Dasturs at present
compare with Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth. But
the Yasht devoted to her does not countenance this opi-
nion. Her full name is Ashish vaṇuhi (now corrupted to
Ashishang), which means "the good truth." She is called
a daughter of Ahuramazda, and a sister of the Amesha-
spentas or archangels. She makes the wisdom of all pro-
phets continue, and inspires them in their turn with the
heavenly (lit. original) wisdom. She comes to help all
that invoke her from far and near. The ancient heroes and
sages, Yima, Thraêtaona, Zarathushtra, Kavâ Vishtâspa,
&c., worshipped her, and to all she granted what they were
praying for, such as wealth, victory, or children.
II. ASHTÂD, ZAMYÂD, AND VANANT YASHTS.
The name Ashtad, which is to be traced to the Avesta
word Arshtâḍ, "height," does not occur in the Yasht bear-
ing this name. The glory of the Aryan countries (i.c.,
their riches and wealth in trees, cows, sheep, and all other
things of the good creation, which are the most effective
means for destroying the works of the demons, and for pre-
216 ASHTAD, ZAMYAD, AND VANANT YASHTS.
serving everything in its original rectitude), and the Ashi
vanuhi berezaiti (the good, high truth) are invoked in this
Yasht. The glory (qareno) being chiefly the subject of the
Zamyâd Yasht, and the Ashi Vaṇuhi that of the preceding
Ashi Yasht, we cannot ascribe any independent value to
this Ashtâd Yasht, which is only an appendage to those
two others. The name Ashtâd, by which the Dasturs un-
derstand the height of mountains, was given to this short
chapter only to distinguish it by a separate name from the
two other Yashts.
The name Zamydd refers to the earth. She is not
directly invoked in this Yasht, which is chiefly devoted to
the praise of the "glory" (qareno) above mentioned. Its
first section, which describes the origin of all mountains
out of the heart of the central and primeval mountain.
Alborz (Harô berezaiti),1 stands separate. Several names.
of mountains are particularly mentioned,2 such as Ushidhao
(creator of light), Ushi-darenem (district of light), &c.
The number of all the mountains is said to be 2244.
In the following sections of this Yasht we find always.
invoked "the mighty glory which was peculiar to the
Kavis" (the chiefs of the Iranian community in ancient
times, mostly before Zoroaster). Ahuramazda produced it
at the time of creating all that is good, bright, shining, and
propagating life. It attached itself generally to one of the
great heroes of antiquity, such as Thraêtaona, Yima, &c.,
and enabled him to achieve great feats. This heavenly
glory is essential for causing the dead to rise at the end of
the world. About this resurrection of the dead, which is a
genuine Zoroastrian doctrine, we find in this Yasht two very
interesting passages, which are almost identical (Yt. xix.
II, 12 and 89, 90). The following is a translation of the
second passage :-
1 Here we find the peculiar form
haraiti baresh, in which haraiti is an
abstract noun, meaning "mountain
range," and baresh, barez (in the Vedas
brikas) "elevated, high." Its heart
(zaredhó) is here regarded as a sepa-
rate mountain, surrounded by its vast
mountain ranges.
2 To express the word "mountain "
we find here two words used: gairi and
paurvata, which are both to be found
also in Sanskrit (giri and parvata).
THE HADOKHT NASK.
217
<
<
This splendour attaches itself to the hero (who is to rise
' out of the number) of prophets (called Saoshyantó) and to
'his companions, in order to make life everlasting, unde-
caying, imperishable, imputrescible, incorruptible, for ever
existing, for ever vigorous, full of power (at the time)
'when the dead shall rise again, and imperishableness of
' life shall commence, making life lasting by itself (without
further support). All the world will remain for eternity
' in a state of righteousness; the devil will disappear from
'all those places whence he used to attack the righteous
'man in order to kill (him); and all his brood and crea-
'tures will be doomed to destruction.'
The Vanant Yasht is a very short prayer addressed to
the star Vanant (by which the Dasturs understand the
Milky-way, or Kâh-i-kashân in Persian), to kill all dis-
turbers of the good creation. This constellation is said to
stand directly over hell in order to frighten the demons.1
12. TWO FRAGMENTS OF THE HÂDÔKHT NASK; THE AFRÎN-I
PAIGHAMBAR ZARATUSHT AND VISHTÂSP YASHT.
These four texts conclude the collection of all the Yashts
extant, in Westergaard's edition.
In the first fragment of the Hâḍôkht Nask, the praise of
Ashem or righteousness is recommended by Ahuramazda
to Zarathushtra as one of the most meritorious works. By
this praise we can understand only the recital of the sacred
formula, Ashem vohu, which is called, in Pahlavi, "the praise.
of righteousness." The larger or smaller amount of merit,
resulting from repeating this prayer, depends on the time
and occasion when it is done. Thus, for instance, the
merit is far greater if the praise is uttered at night than if
uttered in the day-time.
The second fragment treats of the fate of the soul imme-
diately after death, till it reaches either heaven or hell on
1 The Dasturs are of opinion, that
this constellation is the weapon
(vazra) which is constantly aimed by
Mithra at the head of the Devas, as
stated in the Khurshêd Yasht.
218
TWO FRAGMENTS OF
}
the fourth morning (inclusive of the day of death), accord-
ing as its good words, or its sins, have preponderated during
life. The following is a translation of these fragments:—
1
Yt. xxi. 1. Zarathushtra asked Ahuramazda: O Ahura-
mazda! most munificent spirit, creator of the settlements
supplied with creatures, righteous one! in whom ¹ alone is
thy word, the enunciation of all good, of all that is of
rightful origin!
2. Ahuramazda answered him: In the Ashem-reciter,2
O Zarathushtra!
3. Whoever recites the Ashem, with believing inquiry
(remembrance) in his mind for the continuance of life, he
praises me who am Ahuramazda, he praises the water, he
praises the earth, he praises the cattle, he praises the trees,
he praises all good, created by Mazda, that is of rightful
origin.
4. For this saying, O Zarathushtra! being recited cor-
rectly (in addition) to the saying Ahuna-vairya if out-
spoken, is for strength and victory in the soul and religion
so benefited.
5. For one recital of the Ashem, or one eulogy of a
righteous man, is worth, O Spitama Zarathushtra! a hun-
dred sleep-(prayers), a thousand (prayers) when eating
meat, a myriad (of prayers) for the conception of bodies
occurring in the primary existence.
6. What is the one recital of the Ashem which is worth
ten of the other recitals of the Ashem in greatness and
goodness and excellence?
7. Ahuramazda answered him: That, indeed, O right-
eous Zarathushtra! which a man recites as the Ashem for
Haurvatâd and Ameretâd when eating, praising good
thoughts and good words and good deeds, renouncing evil
thoughts and evil words and evil deeds.
8. What is the one recital of the Ashem which is worth
1 Reading kahmya, which in the
Avesta character is very like kahmai
the form given in all the manuscripts.
2 Ashem-statô, taken here as a loca-
tive, seems to be a genitive.
THE HADOKHT NASK.
219
a hundred of the other recitals of the Ashem in greatness
and goodness and excellence?
9. Ahuramazda answered him: That, indeed, O right-
eous Zarathushtra! which a man recites as the Ashem
after swallowing of the out-squeezed Homa, praising good
thoughts, &c. [as in ver. 7].
10. What is the one recital of the Ashem which is worth
a thousand of the other recitals of the Ashem in greatness
and goodness and excellence?
II. Ahuramazda answered him: That, indeed, O right-
eous Zarathushtra! which a man recites as the Ashem,
starting up from sleep and going to sleep again, praising
good thoughts, &c. [as in ver. 7].
12. What is the one recital of the Ashem which is worth
a myriad of the other recitals of the Ashem in greatness
and goodness and excellence?
13. Ahuramazda answered him: That, indeed, O right-
eous Zarathushtra! which a man recites as the Ashem,
awaking and rising from sleep, praising good thoughts, &c.
[as in ver. 7].
14. What is the one recital of the Ashem which is worth
the whole region of Qaniratha, with cattle and with wealth
in humankind,1 in greatness and goodness and excellence?
15. Ahuramazda answered him: That, indeed, O right-
eous Zarathushtra! which a man recites as the Ashem at
the extreme end of life, praising good thoughts and good
words and good deeds, renouncing all evil thoughts and
evil words and evil deeds.
16. What is the one recital of the Ashem which is worth
all this which is in the earth and in the sky, and this earth,
and those luminaries, and all good things created by Mazda
(and) of rightful origin?
17. Ahuramazda answered him: That, indeed, O right-
eous Zarathushtra! when one forsakes evil thoughts and
evil words and evil deeds.
Yt. xxii. 1. Zarathushtra asked Ahuramazda: O Ahura-
1 Or perhaps "with chiefs among men."
It
220
TWO FRAGMENTS OF
1154
246
mazda! most munificent spirit, creator of the settlements
supplied with creatures, righteous one! when a righteous
man passes away, where dwells his soul that night?
2. Then said Ahuramazda: It sits down in the vicinity
of the head, chanting the Gâtha Ushtavaiti, imploring
blessedness (thus): Blessed is he, blessed is every one to
whom Ahuramazda, ruling by his own will, shall grant 1
(the two everlasting powers). That night the soul experi-
ences as much of pleasure as all that which (it had) as a
living existence (i.e., when living in this world).
3. Where dwells his soul the second night?
4. Then said Ahuramazda: &c. [as in ver. 2]. That
night, too, (the soul perceives) as much of pleasure, &c. [as
in ver. 2].
5. Where dwells his soul also the third night?
6. Then said Ahuramazda: &c. [as in ver. 2]. And that
night, too, (the soul perceives) as much of pleasure, &c. [as
in ver. 2].
7. On the passing away of the third night, as the dawn
appears, the soul of the righteous man appears, passing
through plants and perfumes. To him there seems a wind
blowing forth from the more southern side, from the more
southern quarters, a sweet scent more sweet-scented than
other winds.
8. Then, inhaling that wind with the nose, the soul of
the righteous man considers: Whence blows the wind, the
most sweet-scented wind which I have ever inhaled with
the nostrils ?
9. Advancing with this wind there appears to him what
is his own religion (i.e., religious merit), in the shape of a
beautiful maiden, brilliant, white-armed, strong, well-
grown, erect, tall, high-bosomed, graceful, noble, with a
dazzling face,² of fifteen years, with a body as beautiful in
(its) limbs (lit. growths) as the most beautiful of creatures.
1 These phrases constitute the first two lines of the Gâtha Ushtavaiti.
See p. 155.
2 Or "of brilliant origin."
THE HADOKHT NASK.
221
10. Then the soul of the righteous man spoke to her,
asking: What maiden art thou whom I have thus seen as
yet the most beautiful of maidens in form?
II. Then answered him his own religion: I am, O
youth! thy good thoughts, good words, good deeds, (and)
good religion, who (am) thy own religion in thy own self.
Every one has loved thee for such greatness and goodness
and beauty and perfume and triumph and resistance to
foes, as thou appearest to me.
12. Thou hast loved me, O youth! the good thoughts,
good words, good deeds, (and) good religion, with such
greatness, &c. [as in ver. 11] as I appear to thee.
13. When thou chancedst to see another performing
burning (of the dead) and idol-worship, and causing op-
pression, and cutting down trees, then thou wouldst sit
down, chanting the Gâthas, and consecrating the good
waters and the fire of Ahuramazda, and extolling the
righteous man coming from near and far.
14. Then (thou madest) me being beloved, more beloved,
(me) being beautiful, more beautiful, (me) being desirable,
more desirable, (me) sitting in a high place thou wouldst
seat in a still higher place, through this good thought,
through this good word, through this good deed. Then
men afterwards worship me, Ahuramazda, the long-wor-
shipped and conversed-with.
15. The soul of the righteous man first advanced with a
step he placed upon Humata (good thought); the soul of
the righteous man secondly advanced with a step he placed
upon Hûkhta (good word); the soul of the righteous man
thirdly advanced with a step he placed upon Huvarshta
(good action); the soul of the righteous man fourthly ad-
vanced with a step he placed on the eternal luminaries.¹
16. To him spake a righteous one, previously deceased,
asking: How, O righteous one! didst thou pass away?
how, O righteous one! didst thou come away from the
dwellings supplied with cattle, and from the procreative
1 These four stages are the four grades in heaven.
1
•
p 163
!
222
THE HADOKHT NASK.
birds? from the material life to the spiritual life? from the
perishable life to the imperishable life? how long was it
for thee in the blessing? 1
17. Then said Ahuramazda: Ask not him whom thou
askest, who has come along the frightful, deadly, destruc-
tive path which is the separation of the body and soul.
18. Of the nourishments brought to him (is some) of the
Zaremaya oil; 2 that is the food, after decease, of a youth
of good thoughts, of good words, of good deeds, of good
religion; that is the food, after decease, for a woman of
very good thoughts, of very good words, of very good deeds,
well-instructed, ruled by a master, (and) righteous.
19. Zarathushtra asked Ahuramazda: &c. [as in ver. 1]
when a wicked man dies where dwells his soul that night?
20. Then said Ahuramazda: There, indeed, O righteous
Zarathushtra in the vicinity of the head it runs about,
chanting the Gâtha Kam-nemôi-zam, the saying: To
what land shall I turn? whither shall I go in turning? 3
That night the soul experiences as much of discomfort as
all that which (it had) as a living existence (ie., when
living in the world).
21, 22. Where dwells his soul the second night? &c. [as
in ver. 20].
23, 24. Where dwells his soul the third night? &c. [as
in ver. 20].
25. On the passing away of the third night, O righteous
Zarathushtra! as the dawn appears, the soul of the wicked
man appears, passing through terrors and stenches. To him
there seems a wind blowing forth from the more northern
side, from the more northern quarters, a stench more foul-
smelling than other winds.
26. Then, inhaling that wind with the nose, the soul of
1 That is, "how long wast thou re-
citing the Gatha. Ushtavaiti?" See
See
ver. 2.
2 A cupful of this beverage is said
to be given, by the archangel Vohu-
man, to the soul of a righteous person
before it enters paradise. By drink-
ing it the soul is supposed to become
oblivious of all worldly cares and con-
cerns, and is thus prepared for eternal
happiness.
3 These phrases constitute the first
line of the fourth section (Yas: xlvi.)
of the Gâtha Ushtavaiti. See p. 163.
A
AFRIN-I-ZARATUSHT.
223
the wicked man considers: Whence blows the wind, the
most foul-smelling wind which I have ever inhaled with
the nostrils?
27-33. [This passage, which must have been the con-
verse of ver. 9-15, is omitted in all known manuscripts as
far as] the soul of the wicked man fourthly advanced with
a step he placed on the eternal glooms.¹
34. To him spake a wicked one, previously dead, asking:
How, O wicked one! didst thou die? how, O wicked one!
didst thou come away from the dwellings supplied with
cattle, and from the procreative birds? from the material
life to the spiritual life? from the perishable life to the
imperishable life? how long was thy distress ?
35. Angrô-mainyush shouted: Ask not him whom thou
askest, who has come along the frightful, deadly, destruc-
tive path which is the separation of the body and soul.
36. Of the nourishments brought to him (are some) from
poison and poisonous stench; that is the food, after death,
of a youth of evil thoughts, of evil words, of evil deeds, of
evil religion; that is the food, after death, for a harlot of
very evil thoughts, of very evil words, of very evil deeds,
ill-instructed, not ruled by a master, (and) wicked.2
The Afrin-i Paighambar-Zaratusht contains the blessing,
by which the high priest (Zarathushtra) of the Iranians
used to bless a governor or king. It is said to have been
bestowed by Spitama Zarathushtra on his royal friend
Kavi Vishtâspa. The high priest wishes the king to have
children, to be as victorious as the hero Frêdun, as brilliant
as Kai Kaus, as radiant as the sun, as shining as the moon,
as just as the angel of justice himself, as free from disease
and death as Kai Khusro; and that, hereafter, he (the
blessed) may enjoy the happy life of the blessed in the
1 This is the fourth and lowest
grade in hell; the first three grades
being dushmata, "evil thought," duz-
hakhta, "evil word," and duzh-
varshta, evil deed."
2 The remaining sentences, append-
ed in Westergaard's edition, do not
belong to the Hâdôkht Nask.
224
NYAYISH, AFRINGANS, ETC.
land of light and splendour. The blessing concludes by
the words "so it shall happen 1 as I bless you."
The Vishtasp Yasht, the first chapter of which is partly
identical with the preceding text, is so corrupt in its
grammatical forms that we may refrain from examining
its contents, which, besides, do not appear to be particu-
larly interesting. It is divided into eight chapters, of
which the last is nearly identical with part of the second
fragment of the Hâdôkht Nask (Yt. xxii. 1-18); but the
whole composition seems to be of comparatively latę date.
XIII.—SHORTER TEXTS (NYAYISH, AFRINGANS,
GAHS, SIROZAH).
These writings, which are comparatively very short,
contain the prayers most commonly used by the Parsis
nowadays; but their contents, which are all taken from
other parts of the Zend-Avesta (chiefly from the Yasna
and Yashts), are of no particular interest either for the
history of Avesta literature, or for that of the Parsi
religion.
The five Nyâyishes or praises are devoted to the Sun
(khurshêd), the Angel of the sun (Mithra, Mihir), the
Moon (mâh), Waters (âbân), and Fire (âtash). The prayers
addressed to the Sun and Mithra, are to be repeated thrice
every day by every pious Parsi. Habitual neglect of this
prevents the soul from passing the bridge Chinvaḍ after
death. Thrice every month the praise addressed to the
moon is absolutely necessary. The repetition of the praise.
of the waters and fire is meritorious, but not so indis-
pensable as that of the three other Nyâyishes.
Afringáns are blessings which are to be recited over a
meal consisting of wine, milk, bread, and fruits, to which
an angel or the spirit of a deceased person is invited,
and in whose honour the meal is prepared. After the
1 Atha jamya in the Avesta; this phrase corresponds to our amen at the
end of prayers and blessings.
VENDIDAD.
225
consecration (which only a priest can perform) is over, the
meal is eaten by those who are present.
#
The performance of these Afringâns is required of every
pious Parsi at certain fixed times during the year. These
are the six Gahanbârs, each lasting for five days (at the
six original seasons of the year), for which the Afringân-
Gahanbâr is intended; the five Gâtha days (the five last
days of the year), during which the Afringân Gâtha must
be used; and lastly, the third day (Ardibahisht) of the
first month (Fravardin) in the year, at which the perform-
ance of Afringân Rapithwin, devoted to the spirit presiding
over the southern quarter (who is the guardian of the path
to paradise), is enjoined to every Parsi whose soul wants
to pass the great bridge Chinvad after death.
The five Gahs are the prayers which are devoted to the
several angels who preside over the five watches, into
which the day and night are divided (as detailed above in
the note on p. 159). These prayers must be recited every
day at their respective times.
The Sirozah, referring to the thirty days, is extant in
two forms. It is nothing but a calendar enumerating the
names and attributes of the thirty spiritual beings, each of
whom is supposed to preside over one of the thirty days
of the month, and by whose names the days are called.
It is chiefly recited on the thirtieth day after a man's
death,
XIV.—VENDIDÂD.
The Vendidâd,1 which is the code of the religious, civil,
and criminal laws of the ancient Iranians, consists, in its
present state, of twenty-two chapters, commonly called
fargards (exactly corresponding to the word pericope), i.c.,
sections. The style of its constituent parts is too varied
to admit of ascribing it to a single author. Some parts are
1 This name is a corruption of vi-
daévô-dátem, "what is given against
the demons," i.e., to guard against
their influence. In Pahlavi it is
usually translated literally by javid-
shêdû-dâḍ.
P
226
VENDIDAD.
4262
evidently very old, and might be traced to the first cen-
turies subsequent to the prophet; but the greater bulk of
the work contains (like the Talmud) too minute a descrip-
tion of certain ceremonies and observances to allow a
modern critic to trace it to the prophet, or even to one of
his disciples. The Vendidâd as a whole (some of its parts
seem to be lost, especially those containing the original
texts, or the Avesta, of the old laws) is apparently the
joint work of the Zarathushtras, or high-priests, of the
ancient Iranians during the period of several centuries.
They started with old sayings and laws (Avesta), which
must partially have descended from the prophet himself,¹
and interpreted them in various ways, often contradicting
each other. These interpretations, the so-called Zend,
became in the course of time as authoritative as the Avesta,
or the original text, of the scripture itself, and in many
cases, seem to have superseded it. This Zend was then
capable of further explanation, which was less authori-
tative and went by the name "Pâzand." That we can
actually discover these three different stages in the present.
Vendidâd, the attentive reader will learn from a perusal of
the following pages, where they will be separated from.
each other as much as possible.
The Vendidâd may, as to its contents, be divided into
three parts. The first (fargard i.-iii.) is only introductory,
and formed very likely part of a very ancient historical or
legendary work of a similar kind to the Shâhnâmah. It
contains an enumeration of sixteen Aryan countries, over
which the Zoroastrian religion was spread (farg. i.), the
legends of King Yima (farg. ii.), and strong recommenda-
tions of agriculture as the most useful and meritorious
work (farg. iii.). The second part (farg. iv.-xvii.), forming
the groundwork of the Vendidâd, treats of laws, ceremonies,
and observances, without keeping to any strict order. The
third part (farg. xviii.-xxii.) is apparently an appendix
treating of various subjects. Several extracts from this
1 Compare for instance Vend. iv. with Yas. xlvi. 5 (see p. 164).
VENDIDAD, FARGARD I.
227
text are here translated, and a summary is given of the
contents of the remainder.
1. THE FIRST FARGARD OF THE VENDIDÂD,
The First Sixteen Settlements of the Iranians.
Avesta.
1. Ahuramazda said to Spitama Zarathushtra : I created,
O Spitama Zarathushtra a delightful spot (which had
been previously) nowhere habitable; for if I had not
created, O Spitama Zarathushtra! a delightful spot (which
had been previously) nowhere habitable, all earthly life
would have poured forth towards Airyana-vaêjô (the
earthly paradise).1
3. As the first best of regions and countries, I, who am
Ahuramazda, produced Airyana-vaêjô of good capability.
Thereupon, as an opposition to it, Angrô-mainyush, the
deadly, formed a mighty serpent and frost caused by the
Devas.
Zend.
4. Ten months of winter are there, two of summer; 2
and these (the latter) are cold as to water, cold as to earth,
cold as to plants; 3 then, as the snow falls around, then
is the direst disaster.
Avesta.
5. As the second best of regions 4 and countries, I, who
am Ahuramazda, produced Gâu, in which Sughdha is
1 The disconnected phrases which
constitute ver. 2 are evidently frag-
ments of an old Avesta commentary,
either quoted by the Pahlavi trans-
lator, or left untranslated by him,
and must be read as portions of the
commentary, not as part of the text.
The Pahlavi commentary, which con-
tains these Avesta phrases, is rather
obscure, but evidently refers to the
general arrangement of the after part
of the fargard, as well as to the
details of the first sentence.
2 The Pahlavi translator adds:
and afterwards also hapta heîti
hãminô máoṇhâ, pañcha zayana (seven
are the summer months, five the win-
ter) is declared."
3 The phrase adha zimahê maidhim,
adha zimahê zaredhaêm (then is mid-
winter, then is the heart of winter),
not being translated by the Pahlavi
commentator, appears to be merely
quoted by him from some older
Avesta commentary.
4 That is, "second of the best.
regions."
228
VENDIDAD, FARGARD I.
1
situated. Thereupon, as an opposition to it, Angrô-
mainyush, the deadly, formed a pestilence ¹ which is fatal
to cattle great and small.
6. As the third best of regions and countries, I, who
am Ahuramazda, produced Môuru (Marv), the strong, the
righteous. Thereupon, as an opposition to it, Angrô-
mainyush, the deadly, formed war and pillage.
7. As the fourth best of regions and countries, I, who
am Ahuramazda, produced fortunate Bâkhdhi (Bactria),
with the lofty banner. Thereupon, as an opposition to it,
Angrô-mainyush, the deadly, formed buzzing insects and
poisonous plants.
8. As the fifth best of regions and countries, I, who am
Ahuramazda, produced Nisâi (Nisæa), [(Zend) which is
between Môuru and Bâkhdhi]. Thereupon, as an opposi-
tion to it, Angrô-mainyush, the deadly, formed the curse
of unbelief.
9. As the sixth best of regions and countries, I, who
am Ahuramazda, produced Harôyu (Herat), the water-
diffusing. 2 Thereupon, as an opposition to it, Angrô-
mainyush, the deadly, formed hail and poverty.
10. As the seventh best of regions and countries, I, who
am Ahuramazda, produced Vaêkereta,3 in which Duzhaka
is situated. Thereupon, as an opposition to it, Angrô-
mainyush, the deadly, formed the witch (pairika, “malevo-
lent fairy") Khnãthaiti, who attached herself to Keresâspa.
II. As the eighth best of regions and countries, I, who
am Ahuramazda, produced Urvâ,4 abounding in pasture.
Thereupon, as an opposition to it, Angrô-mainyush, the
deadly, formed the curse of devastation,5
1 The Pahlavi translation has
kúrako még, a swarm of locusts."
2 The Pahlavi translator calls it
"the village-deserting; and its village-
desertion is this, where we keep the
periods of nine nights and a month,
they desert the house as evil, and go
away:" that is, they deserted pol-
luted houses altogether, and did not
believe in their becoming purified
after a certain lapse of time. Herat
is called Hariva in the cuneiform
inscriptions.
3 Probably Sajastân; though the
Pahlavi translator identifies it with
Kabul.
* Perhaps Kabul.
5 Perhaps "evil invasions."
VENDIDAD, FARGARD I.
229
1
12. As the ninth best of regions and countries, I, who
am Ahuramazda, produced Khneñta, in which Vehrkána
is situated. Thereupon, as an opposition to it, Angrô-
mainyush, the deadly, formed the evil, inexpiable deeds of
pæderastism.
13. As the tenth best of regions and countries, I, who
am Ahuramazda, produced the fortunate Haraqaiti.2 There-
upon, as an opposition to it, Angrô-mainyush, the deadly,
formed the evil, inexpiable deeds of burying the dead.
14. As the eleventh best of regions and countries, I,
who am Ahuramazda, produced Haêtumat,3 the brilliant,
the glorious. Thereupon, as an opposition to it, Angrô-
mainyush, the deadly, formed evil sorceries.
Zend.
15. And this was its essential token, this (its) essential
appearance; as wherever they attained the sorcery of
incantation, then are the worst sorceries, then those even
arise which are for murder and wounding the heart; they
are capable of any blights and potions.4
Avesta.
16. As the twelfth best of regions and countries, I, who
am Ahuramazda, produced Ragha with the three races.5
Thereupon, as an opposition to it, Angrô-mainyush, the
deadly, formed the curse of over-scepticism.
17. As the thirteenth best of regions and countries, I,
1 Possibly Kandahar.
2 The Harauvati of the cuneiform
inscriptions, and Arachosia of the
classics.
3 The modern Hilmand, and Ety-
mander of the classics.
4 These phrases are evidently the
remains of an old Zend in the Avesta
language, the first portion of which
is given by the Pahlavi translator
only in Pahlavi, while he gives these
phrases in both languages. This old
Zend, or commentary, as translated
into Pahlavi, states that 'sorcery is
this, that although they desire it
'not, yet it happens, and then it is
'said that it is in a way not allow-
able;' &c. [as in ver. 15 in the
text].
5 The Pahlavi explains the three
races as the three original classes of the
community: the priests, warriors,
and husbandmen. The extra phrase
vaêdhanhô nóid uzôish is to be taken
probably in connection with the end
of the Pahlavi commentary.
232
VENDIDAD, FARGARD I.
who am Ahuramazda, produced Chakhra, the strong, the
righteous. Thereupon, as an opposition to it, Angrô-
mainyush, the deadly, formed the evil, inexpiable deeds of
burning the dead.
18. As the fourteenth best of regions and countries, I,
who am Ahuramazda, produced Varena, which is four-
cornered; 1 at which was born Thraêtaona (Frêdûn), the
slayer of the destructive serpent (Azhi-Dahâk). There-
upon, as an opposition to it, Angrô-mainyush, the deadly,
formed untimely menstruations, and non-Aryan plagues of
the country.2
19. As the fifteenth best of regions and countries, I,
who am Ahuramazda, produced (the land) of the seven
rivers (India).3 Thereupon, as an opposition to it, Angrô-
mainyush, the deadly, formed untimely menstruations, and
irregular fever.
20. As the sixteenth best of regions and countries,
I, who am Ahuramazda, produced those who dwell
without ramparts on the sea-coast. Thereupon, as an
opposition to it, Angrô-mainyush, the deadly, formed frost
caused by the Devas, and hoar-frost as a covering of the
land.
Zend.
21. There are also other fortunate regions and countries,
valleys and hills, and extensive plains.
2. THE SECOND FARGARD.
(Yima, or Jamshed, the King of the Golden Age.)
Avesta.
1. Zarathushtra asked Ahuramazda: O Ahuramazda!
1 Varena is probably Ghilân; but
the Pahlavi translator states that some
say it is Kirmân, and that it was
called four-cornered because it had
either four roads, or four gates.
Indus country, or India. The ad-
ditional phrase: hacha ushastara
Hiñdva avi daoshatarem Hiñdum,
from the eastern (lit. more morn-
ing) Hindu to the western (lit. more
2 Perhaps " non-Aryan invasions of evening) Hindu," is merely an Avesta
phrase quoted by the Pahlavi trans-
lator.
the country."
3 Hapta Hindu is the sapta-sind-
Lavas of the Vedas, a name of the
VENDIDAD, FARGARD II.
231
most munificent Spirit, creator of the settlements supplied
with creatures, righteous one! with what man didst thou,
who art Ahuramazda, first converse, besides me, who am
Zarathushtra (i.e., before me)? [(Pâzand) to whom didst
thou teach the Ahuryan, Zoroastrian faith ?]
2. Then said Ahuramazda: With Yima, the fortunate,
the rich in flocks, O righteous Zarathushtra! with him I,
who am Ahuramazda, conversed first among men, besides
thee (i.e., before thee), who art Zarathushtra. [(Pâzand)
to him I taught the Ahuryan, Zoroastrian faith.]
3. Then I said to him, O Zarathushtra! I, who am
Ahuramazda: Become, O fortunate Yima Vivanghana!
my promulgator and bearer of the faith (the Zoroastrian
religion). Then he, the fortunate Yima, answered me, O
Zarathushtra! Neither am I fit, nor known, as promul-
gator and bearer of the faith.
4. Then I said to him, O Zarathushtra! I, who am
Ahuramazda: If thou, O Yima! wilt not become my pro-
mulgator and bearer of the faith, then enclose my settle-
ments; then thou shalt become the conservator and the
herdsman and the protector of my settlements.
5. Then he, the fortunate Yima, answered me, O Zara-
thushtra ! I will enclose 1 thy settlements; I will become
the conservator and the herdsman and the protector of
thy settlements; in my empire there shall be no cold
wind nor hot, no fog, no death.2
7. Then I, who am Ahuramazda, brought forth his im-
plements, a golden sword 3 and a goad decorated with
gold. Yima is to bear the royal dignity.
8. Then the sway was given to Yima for three hundred
winters (i.c., years). Then his earth was to be filled with
1 Or "enlarge, extend."
2 The phrases which constitute ver.
6 are merely Avesta passages quoted
by the Pallavi commentator in sup-
port of his statements, and form no
part of the text.
"hav-
3 In Pahlavi sûlák-hômand,
ing holes, a sieve," which supports
the view that sufra-Sans. shûrpa,
winnowing tray." A ploughshare
would be sulak (not sûlük) in Pahlavi.
232
VENDIDAD, FARGARD II.
cattle, oxen, men, dogs, birds, and red blazing fires. They
found no room therein, the cattle, oxen, and men.
9. Then I made known to Yima: O fortunate Yima
Vivanghana! the earth is to be filled with the assemblage
of cattle, oxen, men, dogs, birds, and red blazing fires.
They find no room therein, the cattle, oxen, and men.
IO. Then Yima went forth towards the stars on the
sun's noonday path; 1 he touched this earth with the
golden sword, he pierced into it with the goad, speaking
thus: Extend, O bounteous Armaiti! enlarge and spread,
O bearer of cattle and oxen and men !
II. Then Yima made the earth expand herself by one-
third larger than she was before; there the cattle and
oxen and men walk according to their own will and
pleasure, [(Pâzand) just as it is their pleasure].
Zend.
12-15. Then the sway was given to Yima for six
hundred winters, &c. [as in ver. 8-11, but substituting
"two-thirds" for "one-third "].
16-19. Then the sway was given to Yima for nine
hundred winters, &c. [as in ver. 8-11, but substituting “to
three-thirds" for "by one-third "].2
Avesta.
21. An assembly was held with the heavenly angels by
Ahuramazda, the creator, the renowned in Airyana-vaêjô
of good qualities.
Zend.
An assembly was held, with the best men, by Yima, the
king, rich in flocks, the renowned in Airyana-vaêjô of good
qualities. To this assembly, with the heavenly angels,
came Ahuramazda, the creator, the renowned in Airyana-
vaêjô of good qualities.
1 That is, towards the south;
rapithwa means the time called gah
rapithwan, lasting from 10 A.M. to
3 P.M.
2 The phrases constituting ver. 20
are merely Avesta passages quoted by
the Pahlavi commentator, and form
no part of the text.
VENDIDAD, FARGARD II.
233
Avesta.
To this assembly, with the best men, came Yima, the
king, rich in flocks, the renowned in Airyana-vaêjô of good
qualities.
22. Then spake Ahuramazda to Yima: O fortunate
Yima Vîvanghana! unto the material world the evil of
winter will come, and consequently a strong, deadly frost.
Zend.
Unto the material world the evil of winter will come;
consequently much driving snow will fall on the highest
mountains, on the summits of the heights.
23. From three places, O Yima! the cows should go
away, when they are in the most baneful of places (deserts),
and when they are on the tops of the mountains, and when
in the gorges of the valleys, into the well-fastened cottages.
Avesta.
24. Before the winter the produce of this country was
pasturage; the water used before to overflow it, and after-
wards the melting of the snow, and pools would occur
there, O Yima! in the material world, where the footprints
of cattle and their young would appear.
25. Then make that enclosure the length of a riding-
ground on each of the four sides; bring thither the seeds
of cattle, oxen, men, dogs, birds, and red blazing fires.
Zend.
Then make that enclosure the length of a riding-ground
on each of the four sides, for a dwelling-place of men; the
length of a riding-ground on each of the four sides, as a
field for cows (a cattle-run).
Avesta.
26. There collect the water into a channel the size of a
Hâthra; 1 there fix land-marks on a gold-coloured spot.
1 A measure equivalent to a Farsang of one thousand footsteps of two
feet; see Bund. p. 63.
234
VENDIDAD, FARGARD II.
(provided) with imperishable food; there erect houses
(composed of) mats and poles and roofs and walls.
Zend.
27. Thither bring the seeds of all men and women who
are the greatest and best and finest on this earth. Thither
bring the seeds of all kinds of cattle which are the greatest
and best and finest on this earth.
28. Thither bring the seeds of all plants which are the
tallest and most odoriferous on this earth. Thither bring
the seeds of all foods which are the most eatable and most
odoriferous on this earth. Make pairs of them unceasingly,
in order that these men may exist in the enclosures.
Avesta.
29. There shall be no overbearing, no low-spiritedness,
no stupidity, no violence, no poverty, no deceit, no dwarf-
ishness, no deformity, no monstrous teeth, no leprosy
overspreading the body, nor any of the other signs which
are the badge of Angrô-mainyush, and are laid upon men.
30. In the uppermost part of the country make nine
bridges, in the middle six, in the lowermost three. To the
bridges in the uppermost part bring the seeds of a thousand
men and women, to those of the middle part six hundred,
to those of the lowermost part three hundred; and com-
pass them in the enclosures with the golden sword,' and
furnish a door to the enclosure, (and) a self-lighting window
from the inside.
31. Then Yima considered: How shall I make the
enclosure as Ahuramazda told me? Then Ahuramazda
spoke to Yima: O fortunate Yima Vîvanghana! distend
this earth with the heels, rend it with the hands, like as
men now separate the earth in cultivating.
32. Then Yima did so as Ahuramazda desired; he dis-
1 If this implement be a plough it
would surround them with a furrow,
but this would not be a very effectual
enclosure. If the implement be a
winnowing-tray, they are to be
covered over with it.
VENDIDAD, FARGARD II.
235
tended this earth with the heels, he rent it with the hands,
like as men now separate the earth in cultivating.1
33-38. Then Yima made the enclosure, &c. [correspond-
ing to ver. 25-30].
Zend.
39. Creator of the settlements supplied with creatures,
righteous one! Which then are those lights, O righteous
Ahuramazda! which shine there in those enclosures which
Yima made?
40. Then spake Ahuramazda: Self-created lights and
created ones. [(Pâzand) All the eternal lights shine up
above, all created lights shine below from inside.] Once
(a year) one sees there the stars and moon and sun rising
and setting.
41. And they think that a day which is a year. Every
forty years two human beings are born from two human
beings, [(Pâzand) a pair, female and male]. So also with
those which are of the cattle species. Those men enjoy
the greatest happiness in these enclosures which Yima
made.
42. Creator of the settlements supplied with creatures,
righteous one! Who propagated there the Mazdayasnian
religion in these enclosures which Yima made? Then
spake Ahuramazda: The bird Karshipta, O Spitama
Zarathushtra!
43. Creator of the settlements supplied with creatures,
righteous one! Who is their heavenly lord and earthly
master? Then said Ahuramazda: Urvatad-narô, O Zara-
thushtra! and thou who art Zarathushtra.
3. THE THIRD FARGARD.
(The Holiness of Agriculture, Vend. iii. 24-33.)
Avesta.
24. For this earth is not a place which is to lie long un-
1 This verse is found only in the Vendidâd Sâdah, and is probably an
addition made by the Zendist.
1
236
VENDIDAD, FARGARD III.
cultivated. She is to be ploughed by the ploughman, that
she may be for them (men) a habitation of a good (kind).
Then the beautiful woman (the earth), who long goes.
childless, so (produces) for them male progeny (bulls) of a
good (kind).
Zend.
25. Whoever cultivates this earth, O Spitama Zara-
thushtra! with the left arm and the right, with the right
arm and the left, unto him she bears fruit; in like manner
as a loving man does to (his) beloved, she stretched on the
connubial couch [(Pâzand) lying on a place ¹] brings forth
to him a son [(Pâzand) or fruit].
26. Whoever cultivates this earth, O Spitama Zara-
thushtra! with the left arm and the right, with the right
arm and the left, then speaks the earth to him: O man!
who cultivatest me with the left arm and the right, with
the right arm and the left, (27) I will, indeed, prosper the
countries here, I will, indeed, come to bear all nourish-
ments here; [(Pâzand) may they (the fields) yield a full
crop besides barley].
28. Whoever does not cultivate this earth, O Spitama
Zarathustra! with the left arm and the right, with the
right arm and the left, then speaks the earth to him: O
man! who dost not cultivate me with the left arm and
the right, with the right arm and the left, (29) here thou
standest, indeed, at another's door obtaining victuals
[(Pâzand) among the beggars], and victuals are brought to
thee, sitting outside, indeed, in driblets. [(Pâzand) They
are brought to thee by those who have abundance of goods.]
30. Creator, &c., [as in ii. 39]: What causes the growth
of the Mazdayasnian religion? Then said Ahuramazda:
Whatever is efficacious in the cultivation of barley, O
Spitama Zarathushtra!
1 The words gâtush sayamno are
amno. Vañtu evidently appertains
an explanation of the older phrase to vañta, which is defined as "a virtu-
vañtavê stareta; gâtush, 'place,' ous woman in the Farhang-i Oîm-
explaining vantavé, and stareta, khadûk.
"stretched," corresponding to say-
""
VENDIDAD, FARGARD III.
237
31. Whoever cultivates barley, he cultivates righteous-
ness, [(Pâzand) he promotes the Mazdayasnian religion], he
extends this Mazdayasnian religion as by a hundred resist-
ances (against the demons), a thousand offerings, ten thou-
sand prayer-readings.¹
Avesta.
32. When barley occurs,2 then the demons hiss;
When thrashing occurs, then the demons whine;
When grinding occurs, then the demons roar;
When flour occurs, then the demons flee.
Zend.
So the demons are driven out from the place [(Pâzand]
in the house for this flour]; they shall burn their jaws,
whereby it happens that the greater number are fellow-
fugitives when barley becomes plentiful.
33. Then may he (the cultivator), therefore, recite the
text:
Avesta,
There is no strength in those who do not eat,
Neither for vigorous righteousness,
Nor for vigorous husbandry,
Nór for vigorous begetting of sons.
[(Pâzand) For by eating all living beings exist; with-
out eating they must die.]
4. THE FOURTH FARGARD.
(Civil and Criminal Laws.)
Avesta.
I. Whoever does not return property to the owner of
the property, becomes a thief of the property, taking it by
1 Cultivation of barley, or wheat, is
equivalent, so far as the destruction
of the bad creation (the duty of every
Zoroastrian) is concerned, to 100,
1000, and 10,000 other meritorious
works.
2 The original is in metrical verses,
which contain even rhymes.
238
VENDIDAD, FARGARD IV.
force,¹ if he seize for his own out of anything of theirs.
agreed upon, whether by day or by night.
Zend.
2. Creator of the settlements supplied with creatures,
righteous one! how many such agreements (mithra) are
thine, who art Ahuramazda? Then said Ahuramazda:
Six, O righteous Zarathushtra! The first by words, the
second by offering the hand, the third by (depositing) the
value of a sheep, the fourth by (depositing) the value of
an ox, the fifth by (depositing) the value of a man (slave),
the sixth by (depositing) the value of a district [(Pâzand)
of a well-thriving, fenced-in, walled-in, well-arranged,
prosperous district].
3, 4. The word makes the first agreement (promise).
After that, the offering of the hand is marked, [(Pâzand) the
offering of the hand takes place after that among friends];
after that, that of a sheep's value is marked, [(Pâzand) that
of a sheep's value takes place among friends]; after that,
that of an ox's value is marked, [(Pâzand) that of an ox's
value takes place among friends]; after that, that of a
man's value is marked, [(Pâzand) that of a man's value
takes place among friends]; after that, that of a district's
value is marked, [(Pâzand) that of a district's value takes
place among friends].
5. Creator of the settlements supplied with creatures,
righteous one! What punishment has the breaker of an
agreement, made by words, to undergo? Then said Ahu-
ramazda: He has to pay a fine of 300 pieces to the next
kinsmen (of the defrauded one).
(The fine varies from 300 to 1000 pieces; the breaking
of the second class of agreement is fined by 600, that of
the third by 700, that of the fourth by 800, that of the
fifth by 900, and that of the sixth by 1000 pieces of atone-
ment money.)
1 The phrase yaḍ nå kasvikāmchana translator, and forms no part of the
is merely quoted by the Pahlavi text.
VENDIDAD, FARGARD IV.
239
Pâzand.
II. Creator of the settlements supplied with creatures,
righteous one! Whoever violates an agreement made by
words, what is his punishment? Then said Ahuramazda :
One may give him three hundred blows with a horse-goad
[(later Pâzand) three hundred with a whip].
(According to this Pâzand the number of blows varies
from three hundred to one thousand, exactly in the same
order as in the Zend above.)
Avesta.
17. When a man's weapon rises, that is his attempt (âge-
reptem); when it assails, that is his assault (avaoirishtem);
when it penetrates any one with evil intention, that is his
perpetration (of manslaughter, aredush); at the fifth per-
petration the man forfeits himself (his life).
What follows (ver. 18-42) is Pâzand, which, as to its
character, is completely in accordance with the Pâzand in
ver. 11-16. The Zend or old explanation of this criminal
law is lost, but from this Pâzand it may be seen that the
distinctions regarding the degree of guilt in attempted or
accomplished murder, have become in course of time much
more numerous. In the old text or Avesta, as quoted
above (ver. 17), there are only three degrees distinguished,
namely, agereptem, or attempt; avaoirishtem, or assault;
and aredush, or perpetration. In its Zend or commentary
there were probably more distinctions made, and different
degrees of punishment mentioned, as we may infer from
the Zend following ver. 1. In this Avesta capital punish-
ment is ordered only when aredush has been committed
five times. In the Pâzand or sub-commentary there is a
detailed list of punishments, consisting of blows with a
horse-goad or whip, varying from five to two hundred in
number.
Towards the end of the fourth Fargard (ver. 44-54), we
have only Avesta without Zend or commentary. This
240
VENDIDAD, FARGARDS V.—XVII.
7
1
Avesta, which is certainly very old, and refers apparently
to various subjects, is so very obscure in style as to be the
most difficult passage of the whole Vendidad. In its be-
ginning there is an ancient law, enjoining the greatest
friendship and equality among the members of the Zoro-
astrian community. It runs as follows: And when men
of the same (Mazdayasnian) religion should come here,
' either brothers or friends, seeking a field, or seeking a
wife, or seeking wisdom, if they should come seeking a
'field, they may acquire their field here, if they should come
seeking a wife, you may make some of the women marry;
if they should come seeking wisdom, you may recite the
• beneficent texts.'
'
5. THE FARGARDS V.-XVII.
From the fifth to the eighth Fargard, we find very minute
and detailed precepts for the treatment of a dead body, the
construction of Dakhmas or "towers of silence," and the
purification of men or things brought into contact with a
corpse. The idea pervading the whole is the utter impu-
rity of a dead body, and the extreme purity and sacred-
ness of earth, fire, and water. No impure thing can,
therefore, be thrown upon any one of these elements, be-
cause it would spoil the good creation by increasing the
power and influence of the daevas or demons, who take
possession of the body as soon as a man is dead. The
corpse is, therefore, to be carried on to the barren top of a
mountain or hill, and to be placed on stones (or iron plates),
and exposed to dogs and vultures, so as to benefit in this
way the animals of the good creation. A man who touches
a dead body, the contagious impurity of which has not
been previously checked by holding towards the corpse a
peculiar kind of dog,¹ is said to be at once visited by a
1 Which is called "the four-eyed
dog," a yellow spot on each of its eye-
lids being considered an additional
eye. He has yellow ears, and the
colour of the rest of his body varies
from yellow to white. To his eyes
a kind of magnetic influence is as-
cribed.
VENDIDAD, FARGARDS VIII-IX.
241
spectre, representing death itself. This is called drukhsh
nasush, "the destructive corruption." To get rid of this
annoyance he is to be sprinkled with water on the different
parts of his body, as described with the greatest minute-
ness in the eighth Fargard.
In the same Fargard (vers. 73–96) the preparation of the
sacred fire is described. Fires from sixteen different places
are required, which, after having been purified by praying
over them, must be brought to one and the same hearth
(called dâitys-gâtush, now Dadgah). The fire in which a
dead body is being burnt is indispensable; although it be
the most impure of all,¹ it is believed to have absorbed the
fire (heat or electricity) which was in the animal body. It
is called nasupáka, and its obtainment and purification by
putting it into a certain number of holes called hañdareza,
(Persian andazah, "a measure "), which requires much
trouble, are more minutely described than the acquisition
of the other fires (those of dyers, potters, glassworkers,
blacksmiths, bricklayers, &c.). The collective fire obtained
in this way represents the essence of nature, the fluid per-
vading the whole earth, the cause of all growth, vigour,
and splendour, and it is, therefore, regarded with great
reverence by the Parsis.
In the ninth Fargard there is a very detailed description
of the great purification ceremony, called the "Barashnom
of nine nights," which lasts for nine days (or rather nights).
It is intended for the removal of any impurity whatever,
and is practised chiefly by priests. The person who has to
undergo the ceremony must drink the urine of a cow, sit
on stones within the compass of certain magic circles, and
while moving from one heap of stones to another he must
rub his body with cow's urine, then with sand, and lastly
wash it with water. This custom has descended from the
most ancient times, when a purifying and healing influence
1 To burn a dead body is, according to the spirit of the Zoroastrian law,
one of the greatest crimes.
Q
242
VENDIDAD, FARGARDS X.-XVI.
f
was ascribed to the urine proceeding from so sacred an
animal as the cow was to the ancient Aryans.¹
In the tenth and eleventh Fargards prayers are enume-
rated, which were believed to have the power of removing
the impurity caused by contact with a dead body. All
these prayers are to be found in the older part of the
Yasna.
The twelfth Fargard treats of the duration of mourning
for the death of the head of a family, and of relations in
different degrees. For those who die as righteous men by
the law of nature (who are called dahmas) only half as
much time of mourning is required as for those who die
by their own hands, or are executed (who are called tanu-
perethas).
The thirteenth and fourteenth Fargards treat of dogs and
water-dogs (udra, "otter"), which are not to be badly
treated, wounded, mutilated, starved, or killed. Should
a man be found guilty of such charges, he is to be severely
punished. The killing of an otter is especially regarded as
a horrible crime, since this animal is believed to contain
the souls of a thousand male and a thousand female dogs.
A man who commits this crime has to receive ten thou-
sand lashes with a horsewhip, according to the later inter-
pretation; or he must kill ten thousand animals of the bad
creation, such as snakes, mice, lizards, frogs, &c., and carry
ten thousand loads of wood to the fire, &c.
In the fifteenth Fargard various topics are treated, such
as the sins called peshô-tanu (i.e., such actions as are not
of themselves considered specially hurtful or injurious,
but which may under certain circumstances cause damage
or injury), the crime of procuring abortion in the case of
an illegitimate child,2 and the treatment of pregnant dogs.
The whole sixteenth Fargard is devoted to the treatment
of women at the time of their menstruation.
1 Cow's urine was probably a meta-
phorical name for "rain-water" ori-
ginally—the clouds being cows meta-
phorically.
2 This is strictly prohibited, and if
it be committed, the seducer, the girl,
and the nurse, are equally guilty of
the murder.
VENDIDAD, FARGARDS XVII-XVIII.
243
In the seventeenth Fargard precepts are given how to
treat hair and nails which have been cut. The demons
must be prevented from using the cuttings for doing injury
to the good creation.
6. THE EIGHTEENTH FARGARD.
The commencement of this Fargard is probably lost, as
it appears to begin now in the middle of a subject; and
its contents are of a very miscellaneous character, as may
be seen from the following translation:-
1. For many a man-so said Ahuramazda: O righteous
Zarathushtra! wears another mouth-veil 1 (penôm, though)
unclothed with religion; falsely he is termed a fire-priest;
thou shouldst not call him a fire-priest,-so said Ahura-
mazda: O righteous Zarathushtra ! 2
2. He carries another vermin-killer 3 (khrafstraghna,
though) unclothed with religion; falsely he is termed a
fire-priest; thou shouldst not call him a fire-priest,—so
said Ahuramazda: O righteous Zarathushtra ! 4
3. He carries another plant 5 (as barsom, though) un-
clothed with religion; falsely he is termed a fire-priest;
thou shouldst not call him a fire-priest,—so said Ahura-
mazda: O righteous Zarathushtra !
4. He wields the deadly poniard (for sacrificing, though)
unclothed with religion; falsely he is termed a fire-priest;
1 That is, not the kind of mouth-
veil used by priests. The paitidúna,
a putting-on, a mouth-veil" (Pahl.
padám, Pâz. penom), consists of two
pieces of white cotton cloth, hanging
loosely from the bridge of the nose to
at least two inches below the mouth,
and tied with two strings at the back
of the head. It must be worn by a
priest whenever he approaches the
sacred fire, so as to prevent his breath
from contaminating the fire. On cer-
tain occasions a layman has to use a
substitute for the penom by screening
his mouth and nose with a portion of
his muslin shirt.
2 The extra words baê-erezu-frath-
anhem, "two fingers' breadth," are
merely an Avesta quotation, made by
the Pahlavi translator, with reference
to the extent of the Penôm.
3 That is, not the kind used by
priests. The krafstraghna was some
implement that has now gone out of
use.
4 The two additional phrases are
quoted by the Pahlavi translator.
5 This seems to refer to the use of
twigs of any improper plant for the
sacred barsom.
2.
244
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XVIII.
thou shouldst not call him a fire-priest, so said Ahura-
mazda: O righteous Zarathushtra!
5. Whoever lies the whole night through without pray-
ing, without reciting (the Gâthas), without repeating (the
short prayers), without performing (any ceremony), with-
out studying, without teaching,¹ in order to acquire a soul
fit for the Chinvad (bridge), falsely he is termed a fire-
priest; thou shouldst not call him a fire-priest,—so said
Ahuramazda: O righteous Zarathushtra !
2
6. Thou shouldst call him the fire-priest-so said Ahura-
mazda: O righteous Zarathushtra !—who, the whole night
through, would interrogate a righteous understanding, free
from anxiety (or defect), fit for the widening (and) gratify-
ing 3 Chinvaḍ bridge, (and) obtaining the life, righteous-
ness, and perfection of the best life (paradise).
7. Inquire, O just one! of me who am the Creator, the
most munificent, the wisest, and the readiest replier to
questions; so will it be better for thee, so wilt thou be
more beneficent, if thou wilt inquire of me.
T
8. Zarathushtra asked Ahuramazda: O Ahuramazda !
most munificent spirit, creator of the settlements supplied.
with creatures, righteous one! through what is one a
criminal worthy of death?
9, 10. Then said Ahuramazda: By teaching an evil reli-
gion, O Spitama Zarathushtra! Whoever, during three
spring seasons, does not put on the sacred thread-girdle
(kustî),4 does not recite the Gâthas, does not reverence the
good waters, and whoever sets this man," delivered into
my custody, again at large, thereby performs no better
1 Or, perhaps, "without studying
the accents, and without intoning
them :" comp. Sans. shiksha.
2 That is, a soul so good that it
will find the Chinvad bridge wide
enough to allow it to pass over it to
heaven. If the soul be wicked it is
said to find the bridge too narrow for
it to pass over.
3 Or, perhaps, "assisting,"
viceable.'
ser-
4 The Parsis wear the kustî as an
indispensable symbol of their religion;
it is formed of seventy-two fine woollen
threads twisted together.
5 Who neglects his duties as before
stated, and so incurs punishment or
tribulation.
1
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XVIII.
245
work than if he should cut the extent of the skin off his
head.1
11. For the prayer of one heretical, evil, unrighteous
(man) lengthens the chin; (that) of two lengthens the
tongue; of three there is no (such prayer) whatever; four
invoke themselves.2
12. Whoever gives of the out-squeezed Hom-juice, or of
the consecrated meats, to one heretical, evil, unrighteous
(man), thereby performs no better work than if he should
lead a troop of a thousand horse into the Mazdayasnian
villages, should slay the men, and should drive away the
cattle as booty.
13. Inquire, O just one! &c. [as in ver. 7].
14. Zarathushtra asked, &c. [as in ver. 8, to] righteous
one who is the dutiful attendant (sraoshâvareza) of Srosh
the righteous, the mighty, the embodiment of the sacred
word, the impetuous runner?
4
15-17. Then said Ahuramazda: The bird named Parô-
darsh, O Spitama Zarathushtra! which evil-speaking men
call by the name Kahırkatâs.3 Moreover, this bird raises
(its) voice at the approach of dawn (thus): Arise ye men!
praise the righteousness which is most perfect; repulsed
are the demons; this one oppresses you, Bûshyãsta 5 the
long-handed, she lulls to sleep the whole living creation
after it is awakened by the light (saying): Sleep long,
O man! it befits thee not (to rise); trouble not about the
three best things, the well-considered thought, the well-
spoken word, and the well-done action; (but) trouble
about the three worst things, the ill-considered thought,
the ill-spoken word, and the ill-done action.
18, 19. Moreover, for the first third of the night, my fire
1 That is, should scalp him.
2 The meaning of this verse is very
obscure, and the text may be defec-
tive.
• The term ushãm sûrãm is given
as a name for the third quarter of the
night in the Farhang-i Oîm-khadûk.
5 The demoness personifying un-
3 A nickname of the domestic seasonable sleep and lethargy.
cock.
245
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XVIII.
1
of Ahuramazda 1 entreats the master of the house (saying):
Arise to help, O master of the house! put on thy clothes,
wash thy hands, fetch firewood, bring it to me, with washed.
hands make me blaze again by means of purified firewood;
the demon-formed Azi (covetousness) may get at me, he
seems clinging around (my) life.
20, 21. Then for the second third of the night, my fire
of Ahuramazda entreats the husbandman (saying): Arise
to help, O husbandman! put on thy clothes, &c. [as in ver.
19].
22. Then for the third third of the night, my fire of
Ahuramazda entreats Srosh the righteous (saying): Arise
to help, O righteous, handsome Srosh! does one bring to
me any of the purified firewoods of the material world with
washed hands? the demon-formed Azi may get at me, he
seems clinging around (my) life.
23-25. Then he, Srosh the righteous, wakes the bird
named Parô-darsh, &c. [as in vers. 15-17].
26. Then speaks each of two companions lying on a bed:
Do thou arise! he (the cock) drives me away; whichever
of the two rises first will attain to the best life (paradise);
whichever of the two brings to the fire of Ahuramazda
(some) of the purified firewoods with washed hands, him
will the fire, pleased (and) unharmed, bless in the follow-
ing manner:
27. May a herd of cattle accompany thee! (and so) may
a multitude of men (sons)! may an active mind and an
active life attend thee! mayst thou subsist with an exist-
ence of the nature of (this) blessing, so many nights as thou
shalt live! This is the blessing of the fire for him who
brings dry firewood, selected for burning, (and) purified by
the utterance of the Ashem (-vohu formula).
28. And whoever had given away, with perfect recti-
tude, these my birds, O Spitama Zarathushtra! in a pair,
male and female, to a righteous man, may consider his
1 That is, my sacred fire, often called the son, or offspring, of Ahura-
mazda.
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XVIII.
247
gift a mansion with a hundred columns, a thousand girders,
ten thousand rooms,1 (and) ten thousand windows.
29. And whoever had given a morsel 2 of flesh to this
my bird Parô-darsh, I who am Ahuramazda shall never be
asking him a second word, forth I will depart to the best
·life (paradise).
30. The righteous Srosh, with lowered club, asked the
Drukhsh: 0 Drukhsh, inglorious (and) inactive! dost thou
then alone of all the living creation engender without
cohabitation?
31, 32. Thereupon, she who is the fiendish Drukhsh
answered him: O righteous, handsome Srosh! I do not
alone of all the living creation engender without cohabita-
tion: indeed I have even four paramours; they cohabit
with me just as any other males cohabit with females for
progeny.
33. The righteous Srosh, with lowered club, asked the
Drukhsh: 0 Drukhsh, inglorious (and) inactive! who is
the first of these thy paramours?
34, 35. Thereupon, she who is the fiendish Drukhsh
answered him: O righteous, handsome Srosh! that, indeed,
is the first of these my paramours, when a man gives not
the merest trifle of unused clothes to a righteous man
(when they are) begged for with perfect rectitude, he
cohabits with me just as, &c. [as in ver. 32].
36. The righteous Srosh, with lowered club, asked the
Drukhsh: 0 Drukhsh, inglorious (and) inactive! what is
the extermination of (the result of) this?
37, 38. Thereupon, she who is the fiendish Drukhsh
answered him: O righteous, handsome Srosh! this is the
extermination of it, when the man gives even a trifle of
unused clothes to a righteous man (when they) are not
begged for with perfect rectitude, he destroys my concep-
1 The exact meaning of the words
translated "rooms" and "windows"
is very uncertain.
otherwise translated, but hardly so
as to make sense out of all parts of
the sentence. The flesh would pol-
2 The words tanu mazổ may be lute the cock if he ate it.
248
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XVIII.
tions just as a four-legged wolf would utterly tear a child
out of the womb.
39. The righteous Srosh, with lowered club, asked the
Drukhsh: 0 Drukhsh, inglorious (and) inactive! who is
the second of these thy paramours?
40, 41. Thereupon, she who is the fiendish Drukhsh
answered him: O righteous, handsome Srosh! that, indeed,
is the second of these my paramours, when a man makes
water an instep's length beyond the toes; he cohabits
with me just as, &c. [as in ver. 32].
42. The righteous Srosh, &c. [as in ver. 36].
43, 44. Thereupon, she who is the fiendish Drukhsh
answered him: O righteous, handsome Srosh! this is the
extermination of it, when the man, after he shall stand
up,2 shall repeat, three steps off, the Ashem (-vohu formula)
thrice, the Humatanam (Yas. xxxv. 2) twice, the Hukh-
shathrôtemâi (Yas. xxxv. 5) thrice, shall then recite the
Ahuna-vairya (Yas. xxvii. 13) four times, (and) shall pray
Yênhê-hâtăm (Yas. vii. 27); he destroys my conceptions,
&c. [as in ver. 38].
45. The righteous Srosh, with lowered club, asked the
Drukhsh: 0 Drukhsh, inglorious (and) inactive! who is
the third of these thy paramours?
46, 47. Thereupon, she who is the fiendish Drukhsh
answered him: O righteous, handsome Srosh! that,
indeed, is the third of these my paramours, when a man
asleep emits semen; he cohabits with me just as, &c. [as
in ver. 32].
48. The righteous Srosh, &c. [as in ver. 36].
49-52. Thereupon, she who is the fiendish Drukhsh
answered him: O righteous, handsome Srosh! this is the
extermination of it, when the man, after waking from
sleep, shall repeat the Ashem (-vohu formula) thrice, &c.
1 Literally the length of the
fore-part of the foot beyond the
'fore-part of the foot; frabda
(Sans. prapada), "the fore-part
of the foot," is understood to be a
measure equivalent to a hand's-
breadth.
2 From the squatting position (rest-
ing merely on the soles of the feet)
which is customary in such cases,
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XVIII.
249
[as in vers. 43, 44]. Then he speaks to the bountiful
Armaiti (spirit of the earth): O bountiful Armaiti! I
commit to thee this progeny (lit. man), mayst thou restore
this progeny to me at the triumphant renovation (of
creation, at the resurrection)! as one knowing the Gâthas,
knowing the Yasna, attending to the discourses,1 intellec-
tual, experienced, embodying the sacred word. Then thou
shouldst announce his name as Fire-produced (âtare-dûta),
or Fire-offspring (atare-chithra), or Fire-race (âtare-zañtu),
or Fire-land (âtare-daqyu), or any other name of (those)
formed with (the word) Fire.2
53. The righteous Srosh, with lowered club, asked the
Drukhsh: 0 Drukhsh, inglorious (and) inactive! who is
the fourth of these thy paramours ?
54, 55. Thereupon, she who is the fiendish Drukhsh
answered him: O righteous, handsome Srosh! that, indeed,
is the fourth of these my paramours, when a man, after
(his) fifteenth year, frequents a courtezan, ungirdled or
uncovered,³ then at the fourth departing step, immediately
afterwards, we who are demons, at once we occupy (his)
tongue and marrow; afterwards the possessed ones destroy
the settlements of righteousness (which are) supplied with
creatures, as the spells of sorcerers destroy the settlements
of righteousness.
56. The righteous Srosh, &c. [as in ver. 36].
57-59. Thereupon, she who is the fiendish Drukhsh
answered him: O righteous, handsome Srosh! there is
no extermination whatever of it; when a man, after (his)
fifteenth year, &c. [as in vers. 54, 55].
60. Inquire, O just one! &c. [as in ver. 7].
61. Zarathushtra asked, &c. [as in ver. 8, to] righteous
one who offends thee, who art Ahuramazda, with the
1 Or
"conversations," referring
probably to such conversations be-
tween Ahuramazda and Zarathushtra
as are common in the Vendidad.
2 The same kind of names, accord-
ing to Dastur Hoshangji, ought to be
used for still-born children, who
must all be named.
3 That is, without sacred thread-
girdle (kustí) or sacred shirt (sadarah);
anabdûtô is a contraction of anaiwi-
dâtô.
p 312
250
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XVIII.
greatest offence? [(Zend) who annoys (thee) with the
greatest annoyance ?]
62. Then said Ahuramazda: Truly the courtezan, O
righteous Zarathushtra! who commingles the seed of the
pious and impious, of idolaters and non-idolaters, of self-
destroying sinners and non-self-destroying sinners (ie.,
those whose sins are heinous and mortal and the reverse).
63. With a look, O Zarathushtra! she stagnates one-
third of the mighty waters flowing in streams. With a
look, O Zarathushtra! she destroys one-third the growth
of the up-shooting, flourishing, golden-coloured 1 trees.
64. With a look, O Zarathushtra! she destroys one-
third the coverings (crops) of the bountiful Armaiti (spirit
of the earth). With a leer, O Zarathushtra! she destroys
one-third of the strength, and success, and righteousness
of a righteous man of very good thoughts, of very good
words, of very good deeds.
65. I tell thee, O Spitama Zarathushtra! these females.
are also more destructive than darting serpents, or than
howling wolves, or than a she-wolf suckling her young 2
(who) rushes into a (sheep-) fold, or than a frog spawning
thousands (who) dives into the water.
66. Inquire, O just one! &c. [as in ver. 7].
67, 68. Zarathushtra asked, &c. [as in ver. 8, to] righte-
ous one! whoever, knowingly (and) intentionally cohabits
with a menstruous woman (who is) conscious, knowing,
and informed (of it), what is his punishment? what is his
atonement? what works performed in compensation for
this may the culprit execute?
69, 70. Then said Ahuramazda: Whoever, knowingly,
&c. [as in ver. 67, to] informed (of it), he shall furnish a
thousand young cattle, and he should offer, with perfect
rectitude, the fat of the kidneys 3 of all these cattle to the
1 Perhaps "green-coloured, ver-
dant."
2 This translation of the epithet
azrð-daidhîm is only a guess; per-
haps "seeing a goat" might also be
suggested, but the meaning is very
uncertain.
3 All the old MSS. read asmaniwdo
(not afsmanivão), and the Pahlavi
translation quotes, as an explanation,
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XVIII.
251
**
priest for the fire; he should offer (it) to the good waters
with (his) arm.
71. He should offer with perfect rectitude a thousand
loads¹ of hard firewoods, well-hewn, (and) selected (as
dry), for the fire; he should offer, with perfect rectitude, a
thousand loads of soft firewoods of the sandal-wood
(urvásna), or benzoin (voh-gaona), or aloe-wood (vohû-
kereti), or pomegranate (hadhânaêpata),2 or any other of
the most odoriferous trees, for the fire.
3
72. He should lop off a thousand loppings for the
sacred twigs (Barsom). He should offer, with perfect recti-
tude, to the good waters, fallen twigs of the shrub which
is called pomegranate, for a thousand consecrated waters
(zaothra) with Homa and milk, (which are) purified,
examined (as to purity), purified by a pious man (a priest,
and) examined by a pious man.
73. He should kill a thousand serpents gliding on their
bellies, (and) two thousand others. He should kill a thou-
sand land-frogs, (and) two thousand water-(frogs). He
should kill a thousand ants carrying away corn, (and) two
thousand others.
4
74. He should erect thirty bridges across navigable
waters. One should strike (him) a thousand blows with
a horse-goad, two thousand with a scourge (sraoshô-
charana).
75, 76. That is his punishment, that is his atonement,
such are the works, performed in compensation for this, the
culprit may execute. If he shall execute (them) he shall
attain that life which is for the righteous, (but) if he shall
the Avesta phrase: yaḍ añtare veredh-
ka asma reja, from which it appears
that asman is connected with veredh-
ka, a kidney."
1 That is, loads for a man's back.
2 Such are the traditional explana-
tions of these terms for odoriferous
woods.
3 That is, he should supply the
material for the Barsom. The verb
frastairydd cannot refer to the pre-
paration or final arrangement of the
Barsom, which can be performed only
by a priest. The same remark ap-
plies to all the other offerings here
mentioned, which must be brought
to a priest for him to offer.
4 That is, he should form foot-
bridges across streams which are not
fordable with safety.
252
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XIX.
not execute (them) he shall attain that life which is for the
wicked (and is) gloomy, originating in darkness, (and) dark.¹
7. THE NINETEENTH FARGARD.
FRAGMENT OF AN OLD EPIC SONG, vers. 4, 6-9.
(The devil's attempts to frustrate Zarathusthra's doings.)
The verses 1-3 are introductory to the ancient song, and
evidently intended as some explanation of the contents of
this ancient text. In this introduction is described how
Drukhsh, one of the evil spirits in Ahriman's service, came
forth from the northern regions at her master's command,
to destroy Zarathushtra. The prophet frustrated all such
attempts to ruin him by simply repeating the sacred
formula Yatha-ahu-vairyó. Drukhsh, having been thus.
defeated, told the chief of the evil spirits, Angrô-mainyush,
that it was impossible to do any mischief to the prophet.
Zarathushtra perceived the snares laid for him, and
thought about escaping them. This is described in the
verses of the old song, which were undoubtedly current in
the mouths of the Iranian people. The song is composed
in the heroic metre of the ancient Aryans, the Anusḥtubh,
which has given rise to the common Shloka.²
1 It is probable that this sentence in this world, as well as in the futuro
refers to rewards and punishments existence.
2 The original ballad is here subjoined in its metrical form, its translation
being given in the text.
(4)
Usehishtaḍ
Zarathushtrô
khruzhdya
dbaêsho parshtanẩm,
asaretô
asanô
aka
zasta
mananha
drazhimno.
DEFECTIVE.
(6)
Paiti ahmai
adavata
duzhdamô
Anrô
mainyush:
ма
mê dāma mereñchaṇuha,
Тат ahi Pourushaspahê
Zavishi; apa-stavanuha
ashâum Zarathushtra !
puttrô
vaṇuhîm đuê năm
barethryad
hacha
mázdayasnîm,
Viñddi
yanem yatha vindaḍ 1
Vadhaghano
dańhupaitish.
(7)
Paiti ahmâi avashata
Noid hê apastavané
уб
vaṇuhîm daênẩm
daênām
Spitamô
Zarathushtrô :
mazdayasnim.
Noiḍ asta noid ushtanem
noid baodhascha
urvisyad.
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XIX.
253
1. From the northern quarter [(Pâz.) from the northern
quarters], Angrô-mainyush, the deadly, the demon of
demons, rushed forth. Thus spoke the evil-doing Angrô-
mainyush, the deadly: Drukhsh (demon of destruction)!
rush forth and kill the righteous Zarathushtra. Then the
Drukhsh rushed about him, the demon Bûiti, the destroyer
intending to kill.
2. Zarathushtra recited the Ahuna-vairya (formula); he
invoked the good waters of good qualities, he confessed
the Masdayasnian religion. Drukhsh was overthrown by
it; the demon Bûiti, the destroyer intending to kill, ran
away.
3. Drukhsh then replied: Impostor Angrô-mainyush!
I do not think about doing any harm to Spitama Zara-
thushtra [(Pâz.) the all-glorious, righteous Zarathushtra].
Zarathushtra perceived in his mind that the wicked, evil-
doing demons were laying snares for him.
Song.
4. Zarathushtra arose [(Pâz.) Zarathushtra went forward]
uninjured by the hostile intentions of the evil spirits, hold-
ing a stone (?) in his hand, [(Zend) as large as a cottage].
The righteous Zarathushtra was praying to Ahuramazda
the creator: Wherever thou touchest this wide, round, far-
extended earth, incline to support Pourushaspa's house.
5. Zarathushtra informed Angrô-mainyush: Evil-doing
Angrô-mainyush! I will destroy the creatures produced
.
Paiti
Kahê
ahmâi
vacha
(8)
adavata
duzh đâm ô
vandhi?
kahê
(9)
Kana zaya hukeretȧonhô
ahmâi avashata | yồ
Havanacha tashtacha
Paiti
Maná
Ana
di
Dathaḍ
zaya
haomacha
asti vahishtem;
vacha αρα yasani,
duzhda Anra mainyô !
zruni
Hukhshathra hudhâophô.
akarané,
Anro
mainyush:
vacha apayasâhi ?
mana dāma Aṇrô mainyush?
Spitâmô
vacha
ana
Zarathushtr6:
mazdó-fraokhta
vacha vanâni,
ana zaya hukeretâonhô.
dathaḍ speñtô mainyush,
fradathen ameshao spenta
254
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XIX.
220
by the demons, I will destroy death produced by the
demons, I will destroy the witch Khnathaiti¹ for whose
(destruction) the triumphant Soshyâns will be born out of
the water Kãsoya from the eastern quarter [(Paz.) from
the eastern quarters].
6. To him spoke Angrô-mainyush the creator of evils:
Do not destroy my creations, O righteous Zarathushtra!
Thou art Pourushaspa's son, from birth thou invokest.
Curse the good Mazdayasnian religion, (then) thou shalt
obtain fortune such as King Vadhaghana obtained.
7. To him replied Spitama Zarathushtra: I will not
curse the good Mazdayasnian religion, not (if my) body,
not (if my) soul, not (if my) life should part asunder.
8. To him spoke Angrô-mainyush the creator of evils:
With whose words wilt thou smite? with whose words
wilt thou suppress my creatures (who am) Angrô-
mainyush? (and) with what well-made weapons?
9. To him replied Spitama Zarathushtra: The mortar
and dish and Homa, and the words pronounced by Mazda
are my best weapons; with these words will I smite, with
these words will I suppress, with these well-made weapons,
O evil-doing Angrô-mainyush! The beneficent spirit
made (them), he made (them) in boundless time, the
immortal benefactors (Ameshaspentas), the good rulers
and good arrangers, co-operated.
(The fate of the soul after death, vers. 27–32.)
27. Creator of the settlements supplied with creatures,
righteous one! What are the events [(Paz.) what events.
happen? what events take place? what events are met.
with?] (when) a man shall give up his soul in this world
of existence?
28. Then said Ahuramazda: After a man is dead [(Paz.)
after a man has departed, when the running evil-doing
demons make destruction (of his life)], at daybreak after
the third night, [(Paz.) when aurora is shining], he reaches
¹ Probably an idol-worshipper in Kandahar, or thereabouts.
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XIX.
255
Mithra, rising above the mountains resplendent with their
own rightful lustre [(Pâz.) when the sun rises].
29. The demon Vizareshô by name, O Spitama Zara-
thushtra! carries the soul bound towards the country of
the wicked Deva-worshipping men.¹ It goes on the time-
worn paths, which are for the wicked and which are for the
righteous, to the Chinvaḍ bridge, created by Mazda, and
right, where they ask the consciousness and soul their
conduct in the settlements (i.e., world) [(Pâz.) what was
achieved in the world of existence].
30. She, the beautiful, well-formed, strong, (and) well-
grown, comes with the dog, with the register, with chil-
dren, with resources, with skilfulness.² She dismisses
the sinful soul of the wicked into the glooms (hell). She
meets the souls of the righteous when crossing the (celestial
mountain) Harô-berezaiti (Alborz), and guides them over the
Chinvad bridge [(Pâz.) the bridge of the heavenly spirits].
31. Vohu-manô (the archangel Bahman) rises from a
golden throne; Vohu-manô exclaims: How hast thou come
hither to us, O righteous one! from the perishable life to
the imperishable life?
32. The souls of the righteous proceed joyfully to
Ahuramazda, to the Ameshaspentas, to the golden throne,
to paradise (Garô-nemâna) [(Pâz.) the residence of Ahura-
mazda, the residence of the Ameshaspentas, and the resi-
dence of the other righteous ones.]
(Fragment not connected with the preceding.)
33. The righteous man being purified, the demons, the
wicked evil-doers, are so frightened at (his) scent, after
death, as a sheep encompassed by wolves is frightened by
a wolf.
1 The country of the deva-wor- dently refers to the maiden who is a
shippers is India.
personification of one's actions during
life, and is said to meet the soul after
its third night's separation from the
body. Compare the Hâdôkht Nask
(Yt. xxii. 9, p. 220).
2 The dog is requisite to be looked
at by a man at the last gasp, but the
meaning of the two following epithets
is very uncertain. This passage evi-
|-
256
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XIX.
1
34. The righteous men assemble, Nairyô-sanha assem-
bles. Say: Ahuramazda's friend is Nairyô-sanha; thy-
self invoke, O Zarathushtra! this creation of Ahuramazda.
35. Zarathushtra said unto me the words: I praise the
rightful creation, formed by Ahuramazda; I praise the
earth created by Ahura, the water created by Mazda, the
rightful vegetation; I praise the sea Vouru-kasha (i.e.,
having distant shores); I praise the brightly-shining sky;
I praise the eternal luminaries (the fixed stars), the self-
created.1
36. I praise the best life (paradise) of the righteous,
(which is) resplendent (and) all-glorious; I praise the
house of song (garô-nemâna, equivalent to "paradise"), the
residence of Ahuramazda, the residence of the Ameshas-
pentas, the residence of the other righteous ones; I praise
the bridge Chinvad (bridge of the gatherer), created by
Mazda, in the self-created intermediate region (between
heaven and hell).
37. I praise good fortune, the wide-eyed; I praise the
strong guardian-angels (Fravashis) of the righteous, bene-
fiting all creatures; I praise Behram created by Ahura,
the bearer of splendour created by Mazda; I praise the
shining, glorious star Tishtar (Tîr, Mercury), with the body
of a golden-horned ox.
38. I praise the beneficent hymns (the five Gâthas),
ruling over the (five) periods (of the day), the righteous
ones. I praise the Ahunavaiti Gâtha; I praise the Ushta-
vaiti Gâtha; I praise the Spentâ-mainyû Gâtha; I praise
the Vohu-khshathra Gâtha; I praise the Vahishtôishti
Gâtha.
39. I praise the region (Karshvare, or Keshvar) Arezahi
(and) Savahi; I praise the region Fradadhafshu (and)
Vîdadhafshu; I praise the region Vouru-bareshti (and)
Vouru-jareshti; I praise the region Qaniratha; I praise
the splendid Hêtumat (Hilmand), the shining, the glorious.
I praise the good wealth (Ashi); I praise the good science,
1 Throughout these verses 'I invoke' would be more correct than 'I praise.'
BRIEF SURVEY OF AVESTA LITERATURE. 257
I praise the rightest science. I praise the glory of the
Aryan countries; I praise the glory of Yima the king, rich
in flocks.
8. THE FARGARDS XX.-XXII.
These last three Fargards of the Vendidad seem to have
belonged originally to some medical book. They contain
spells for curing diseases, which resemble very much the
mantras which are intended for the same purpose in the
Atharvaveda. Thrita is said to have been the first phy-
sician who relieved mankind from the distress and misery
caused by diseases. The angel, presiding over the medical
art, is called Airyaman, to whom even Ahuramazda des-
patches his messenger Nairyô-sanha (Neryosangh).
XV.-BRIEF SURVEY OF AVESTA LITERATURE.
Having described, and illustrated by selected specimens,
the various branches of the sacred literature of the Parsis,
we may conclude this Essay with a brief summary and
survey of the whole.
At the head of this literature undoubtedly stand the
FIVE GÂTHAS, which we must regard as the work of Spitama
Zarathushtra himself and his disciples, as any one can
easily convince himself by a careful perusal of the nume-
rous passages, translated above from these hymns, and by
comparing them with those extracted from other parts of
the Zend-Avesta. Besides the internal evidence, which is
strong and convincing enough, some external reasons may
be alleged to corroborate the opinion that these Gâthas
contain the undoubted teachings and sayings of the cele-
brated Zoroaster himself. While the other parts are no-
where said to be the work of Spitama Zarathushtra himself,
he is distinctly and expressly mentioned, in the Srosh
Yasht, as the author of these ancient and sacred songs (see
p. 141). Whereas in the other parts of the Zend-Avesta
Zarathushtra is spoken of in the third person, and even.
occasionally invoked as a divine being-in the Gâthas he
R
piqu
258 BRIEF SURVEY OF AVESTA LITERATURE.
4.146
speaks of himself in the first person, and acts throughout
as a man who is commissioned by God to perform a great
task. We find him placed among men, surrounded by his
friends, Kava Vîshtâspa, Jâmâspa, and Frashaoshtra, preach-
ing to his countrymen a new and purer religion, exhorting
them to forsake idolatry and to worship only the living
God.
The Gâtha literature was, in ancient times, certainly
not confined to the scanty fragments which are now extant.
There existed, no doubt, a much larger collection of the
hymns and sayings of Spitama Zarathushtra and his dis-
ciples, including those of the ancient prophets called
Saoshyanto, which are now and then alluded to in the
Yasna. Out of this larger collection those verses were
selected, which were believed to be most efficacious for
putting down the evil influences of the hostile Devas and
their priests (the Brahmans), and for increasing the welfare
of the Zoroastrians; and these only have been preserved.
The collection of the Gâthas, extant now-a-days, may be
well compared to the Sâmaveda, which contains detached
verses, selected from the Rigveda, intended only for
being sung at the celebration of the great Soma sacrifices.
While the Brahmans preserved their complete Rigveda,
or entire collection of hymns, irrespective of their litur-
gical application, the ancestors of the Parsis, who were
apparently more careless of their sacred literature than
their Brahmanical brethren, lost it almost entirely.
+
Next to the Gâthas in rank stands the YASNA OF SEVEN
CHAPTERS (see p. 170). For reasons pointed out above,
we cannot regard it as a genuine work of Spitama Zara-
thushtra himself. It appears to be the work of one of the
earliest successors of the prophet, called in ancient times
Zarathushtra or Zarathushtrôtema (see sect. ii. 3, of the
fourth Essay), who, deviating somewhat from the high and
pure monotheistic principle of Spitama, made some con-
cessions to the adherents of the ante-Zoroastrian religion
by addressing prayers to other beings than Ahuramazda.
BRIEF SURVEY OF AVESTA LITERATURE. 259
The first part of the Yasna, styled above the LATER
YASNA, is certainly of a far later date than even the
"Yasna of Seven Chapters." The high-priests seem to
have tried to conciliate the men of the old party (called
paoiryô-ṭkaéshô, "of the old creed"), who were unwilling
to forsake the ancient polytheistic religion, and its time-
hallowed rites and ceremonies. The old sacrifices were
reformed, and adapted to the more civilised mode of life
of the Iranians. The intoxicating Soma beverage was
replaced by a more wholesome and invigorating drink,
prepared from another plant than the original Soma plant,
together with twigs of the pomegranate tree, and without
any process of fermentation (water being merely poured
over them); but its name in the Iranian form, Haoma,
remained, and some of the ceremonies also, as we shall see
in the fourth Essay; the solemn sacrificial cakes of the
Brahmans (puroḍâsha) were superseded by the sacred
bread called draonó (Darûn). New invocations, addressed
to those divine beings who occupied the places of the
ancient Devas or gods (branded by Spitama Zarathushtra
as the originators of all evil and sin), were composed and
adapted for the reformed Soma sacrifice (Homa ceremony).
These new prayers form the substance of the later Yasna
which was to represent the formulas of the Brahmanical
Yajurveda.
If we compare this later Yasna with the Gâthas, we find
(irrespective of the difference of dialect) such a vast differ-
ence in their contents, that it is quite impossible for a
conscientious critic to assign them to one author. While
in the Gâthas we never find mentioned either Homa,
Barsom, or gods like Mithra and Anâhita, or even Amesha-
spenta, the general name for the heavenly councillors, we
meet with their names in nearly every page of the later
Yasna. Here naturally arises the question why the author
of the Gâthas, in propounding his new religious doctrines,
entirely overlooked the things which were considered in
after times as the most indispensable implements of divine
h191.
260 BRIEF SURVEY OF AVESTA LITERATURE.
1
=
service, and why he disregarded those gods and divine
beings whom it was afterwards held very sinful to neglect?
The only answer is, that he neither believed in them, nor
thought them to be an essential part of religion.
In the same rank as the later Yasna may be classed the
VISPARAD (see p. 191). It was composed by one of the
later high-priests for the celebration of the Gahanbârs.
While the Yasna and Visparad represent the Vedas
among the Parsis, their VENDIDAD corresponds exactly to
the Smritis, or collections of customs, observances, laws,
penalties, and fines, which form the groundwork of the
so-called Dharma-Shastra. Its different constituent parts
have been noticed above (p. 225), and every thinking man
can convince himself of the impossibility of ascribing the
whole to Spitama Zarathushtra himself. The book only
professes to give the conversations, which Zarathushtra is
unanimously said (even in the Gâthas) to have held with
God himself; and that there was, in very ancient times, a
work in existence purporting to contain such conversations,
follows undoubtedly from the notice of such a work
to be found in the Visparad and Vendidad itself (see p.
142).
If we compare Zarathushtra's conversations with Ahura-
mazda, as contained in the Gâthas, with those which are
reported in the Vendidad, we find a considerable difference
between the two. In the Gâthas there is never any allu-
sion made to the numerous ceremonies and observances
which were deemed absolutely necessary for a pious
Hormazd-worshipper. Thus, for instance, among the ques-
tions put by Spitama Zarathushtra to Ahuramazda in
Yasna xliv. (see p. 158), about the true religion and its
observance, there is not a single one which refers to the
treatment of the dead body, one of the most important
things in the time of the Vendidad, or to the great purifi-
cation ceremony (see p. 241), deemed so essential for the
welfare of the Iranian community. Very likely Spitama
Zarathushtra himself never gave any direct precepts about
BRIEF SURVEY OF AVESTA LITERATURE. 251
the customs and usages which already existed in his time.
Had he done so we should expect him to allude to them,
especially in those verses where he mentions the means
of checking the evil influences exercised by the Devas
(demons); but all he mentions are the splendour of fire, the
mighty words revealed to him by Ahuramazda, the cultiva-
tion of the soil, and purity in thought, word, and deed.
From his never mentioning the ceremonies enjoined in
the Vendidad, it undoubtedly follows that, though he
might know them, he did not attach much weight to their
observance.
Only on one point we find the laws given in the Ven-
didad corroborated by the Gâthas. These are those which
refer to the sacredness of a promise or contract, called
Mithra, as one may learn from comparing Vend. iv. (see p.
238) with Yas. xlvi. 5 (see p. 164). These seem to have
originated from Spitama Zarathushtra himself, when he
called into existence a new religious community, to be
founded on the principle of inviolable faith and truth.
From a careful consideration of these and other circuin-
stances which are pointed out above (p. 226), we cannot
regard the Vendidad as a work of Spitama Zarathushtra
himself, but as the joint work of his successors, the supreme
high-priests of the Iranian community. That the chief
high-priests, together with the kings, were believed to
stand in direct communication with Ahuramazda himself,
and to receive from him answers to their questions, we
may see distinctly from Visp. i. 9 (quoted above, p. 193).
The chief high-priest is there called Zarathushtrotemo,
which word literally means "the greatest Zarathushtra, or
high-priest" (tema being the superlative suffix). His com-
munications are held sacred in this passage, and placed on
a level with the Gâthas. From this circumstance we may
distinctly gather that the works of the Zarathushtrôtemas.
were held in ancient times to be about equally sacred
with those of Spitama Zarathushtra himself. If we then.
consider the Vendidad as their joint work, compiled during
262 BRIEF SURVEY OF AVESTA LITERATURE.
several successive centuries, it is not to be wondered that
we find it so highly revered by the Zoroastrians even to
the present day.
Of the three stages which we can discover in the present
Vendidad, the AVESTA, no doubt, is very old, and perhaps
partially traceable to oral sayings descended from the
prophet himself. Even the ZEND, which makes up by far
the larger portion of the present Vendidad, belongs to a
very early age, and seems to be at least as old as the later
Yasna. The PAZAND is comparatively recent, and seems
to be more of a literary and learned character than of
practical consequence.
In the YASHTS (see p. 194), which correspond partially to
the Purâņic literature of the Brahmans, one may distinguish
generally two classes of works, firstly, hymns, and secondly,
conversations with Ahuramazda.
The metrical pieces or hymns represent the fragments of
the ancient epic poetry of the Iranians, as living in the
mouths of their bards, and are not only to be found in the
properly so-called Yashts, but are scattered throughout the
whole Zend-Avesta (see Yas. ix., x.; Vend. xix.). In their
present form the Yashts, together with the shorter prayers,
such as Afrîngâns, Gâhs, &c. (see p. 224), are evidently
the most modern pieces of the Zend-Avesta, and have not
the slightest claim to have been composed by Zarathushtra,
or even by his earlier successors. This kind of literature
grew up at a time when the Zoroastrian religion had
already very much degenerated, and its original monotheism.
had partially given way to the old gods, who had been
stigmatised and banished by Spitama Zarathushtra, but
were afterwards transformed into angels. The songs of
the bards, which we find introduced into the Yashts, may
be old and genuine, but, strictly speaking, they have very
little concern with the Zoroastrian religion. The Zoroas-
trian conversations with Ahuramazda, which we often find
in the Yashts, may be the work of the later high-priests,
(
BRIEF SURVEY OF AVESTA LITERATURE. 263
but they seem to be entirely foreign to all that we know
of Spitama.
The tendency of the authors of these Yashts was to
raise the dignity of the angels, such as Mithra, Tishtrya
Anâhita, &c., to that of Ahuramazda, with whom they are
said even to have equal rank (see p. 202). Therefore
Ahuramazda himself is called, now and then, their wor-
shipper. Zarathushtra is also reported to have paid them
great reverence, but not the slightest trace of this can be
discovered in his own Gâthas.
21
Thay Mill
This kind of literature has, no doubt, largely contributed
towards the deterioration of the religion founded by Spitama
Zarathushtra, and has partially re-established what the
prophet endeavoured to destroy. As to its age, there is
happily a certain historical hint to be found in the Fra-
vardin Yasht, where mention is made of Gaotema (Gautama
Buddha), the founder of Buddhism (see p. 208). That
Buddhism was spread over Bactria, at a very early time,
we know from other sources. Buddha entered Nirvâņa
(died) in B.C. 543; and before his lore could spread in BC.472
Bactria, at least one or two centuries must have elapsed
after the master's death. Thus we arrive at a date,
between B.C. 450 and B.C. 350, for the Fravardin Yasht;
and there is no difference, in language and ideas, between
it and the others. A later date than this cannot be reason-
ably assigned to the majority of the Yashts, because their
language had already begun to die out before the com-
mencement of the Christian era, and most of the Yashts
are written in comparatively correct language, without
more grammatical errors than abound in some parts of the
Vendidad. There is, besides, another reason for attribut-
ing the principal Yashts to the fifth century before the
Christian era. At that time, as we learn from two inscrip-
tions of King Artaxerxes Mnemon,¹ the worship of Mithra
and Anâhita was spreading through all the dominions of
1 See Benfey, "Persische Keilin-
schriften," p. 67; Norris, "Memoir
on the Scythic version of the Behis-
tun Inscription," p. 159.
ཡི་-
264 BRIEF SURVEY OF AVESTA LITERATURE.
the Persian Empire, which was not the case at the time of
Darius Hystaspes, who never mentions these deities in his
numerous inscriptions. This new form of worship called
into existence a new appropriate sacred literature, which
is partially preserved in the Yashts.
The question as to the age of the other and older parts of
the Zend-Avesta is closely connected with the determina-
tion of the period at which Spitama Zarathushtra himself
lived. As we shall see in the fourth Essay, we cannot
place his era at a much later date than B.C. 1200; and if
we assign this date to the Gâthas, as the work of Spitama
Zarathushtra and his disciples, then we must fix the age
of the larger portion of the Vendidad at about B.C. 1000-
900, and that of the later Yasna at about B.C. 800-700.
The Pâzand portion of the Vendidad is very likely not
older than B.C. 500, and at the same time the collection of
its different parts may have taken place.
If we date the commencement of the sacred literature of
the Parsis from B.C. 1200, and place its close at B.C. 400,
we allow a period of about 800 years, which is, in compari-
son with other sacred literatures, such as those of the Jews
and Brahmans, rather too short than too long.
i
IV.
THE ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION
AS TO ITS
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT.
(267)
IV.
THE ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION AS TO ITS
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT.
In this Essay it is intended to give a summary view of the
origin of the Zoroastrian religion,1 its general character and
development, so far as they can be ascertained from the
original Avesta texts. The reader being furnished, in the
preceding Essay, with translations of a good many passages
referring particularly to this subject, the conclusions to be
drawn from them can be here condensed into compara-
tively
I. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE BRAHMANICAL
AND ZOROASTRIAN RELIGIONS.
Before we can properly discuss the question of the
origin of the Zoroastrian religion, and the time when its
founder flourished, certain traces of an originally close
connection (which the attentive reader of both the Vedas
and Zend-Avesta will readily perceive to exist) must be
pointed out between the Brahmanical and Zoroastrian
religions, customs, and observances.
-NAMES OF DIVINE BEINGS.
The most striking feature, in this respect, is the use
which we find made, in both the Vedas and Zend-Avesta,
of the names, deva and asura (ahura in the Avesta). Deva
1 This subject has been already
briefly treated in the author's "Lec-
ture on the origin of the Parsi reli-
gion," delivered on the 1st of March
1861, at Poona; and more fully in
the Essay appended to his German
work on the Gâthas, vol. ii. pp.
231-259.
of the coming Agni kemur Varuna, he becomes Mitra
Адні
Ihm he rises of the made were the resor in the
noring,
having homme Savitri he paper
hama Indra
Now the sky, having heima
"middle" ( "+tharva-vida xiii. 3.13)
·
268 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BRAHMANICAL
is in all the Vedas, and in the whole Brahmanical litera-
ture, the name of the divine beings, the gods who are the
objects of worship on the part of the Hindus to the pre-
sent day. In the Zend-Avesta, from its earliest to its
latest texts, and even in modern Persian literature, deva
(Pers. div) is the general name of an evil spirit, a fiend,
demon, or devil, who is inimical to all that comes from
God and is good. In the confession of faith, as recited by
Parsis to this day, the Zoroastrian religion is distinctly
said to be vi-daévó, "against the Devas," or opposed to
them (see Yasna xii. 1, p. 173), and one of their most sacred
books is called vî-daêvô-dâta (now corrupted into Ven-
didâd), i.e., what is given against, or for the removal of,
the Devas. The Devas are the originators of all that is
bad, of every impurity, of death; and are constantly
thinking of causing the destruction of the fields and trees,
and of the houses of religious men. The spots most liked.
by them, according to Zoroastrian notions, are those most.
filled with dirt and filth, especially cemeteries, which places.
are, therefore, objects of the greatest abomination to a true
Hormazd-worshipper.
Asura is, in the form Ahura, the first part of AHURA-
MAZDA (Hormazd), the name of God among the Parsis;
and the Zoroastrian religion is distinctly called the Ahura
religion (see Yasna xii. 9, p. 174), in strict opposition to the
Deva religion. But among the Hindus Asura has assumed
a bad meaning, and is applied to the bitterest enemies of
their Devas (gods), with whom the Asuras are constantly
waging war, and not always without success, as even Hindu
legends acknowledge. This is the case throughout the
whole Purânic literature, and as far back as the later parts
of the Vedas; but in the older parts of the Rigveda Sañ-
hitâ we find the word Asura used in as good and elevated
a sense as in the Zend-Avesta. The chief gods, such as
Indra (Rigveda i. 54, 3),¹ Varuņa (Rv. i. 24, 14), Agni
1 In the quotations from the Rig- ten), the second to the hymn, and the
veda, the first number refers to the third to the verse.
Mandala ("book," of which there are
AND ZOROASTRIAN RELIGIONS.
269
tr
(Rv. iv. 2, 5; vii. 2, 3), Savitri (Rv. i. 35, 7), Rudra or
Shiva (Rv. v. 42, 11), &c., are honoured with the epithet
Asura," which means "living, spiritual," signifying the
divine, in its opposition to human nature. In the plural,
it is even used, now and then, as a name for all the gods,
as for instance in Rv. i. 108, 6: "This Soma is to be dis-
tributed as an offering among the Asuras," by which word
the Rishi means his own gods whom he was worshipping.
We often find one Asura particularly mentioned, who is
called “Asura of heaven" (Rv. v. 41, 3; heaven itself is
called by this name, Rv. i. 131, 1), "our father, who pours
down the waters" (Rv. v. 83, 6); Agni, the fire god, is
born out of his womb (Rv. iii. 29, 14); his sons support
heaven.
In a bad sense we find Asura only twice in the older
parts of the Rigveda (ii. 32, 4; vii. 99, 5), in which pas-
sages the defeat of the " sons or men of the Asura” is
ordered, or spoken of; but we find the word more fre-
quently in this sense in the last book of the Rigveda,
(which is only an appendix to the whole, made in later
times), and in the Atharvaveda, where the Rishis are said
to have frustrated the tricks of the Asuras (iv. 23, 5), and
to have the power of putting them down (vi. 7, 2).
In the Brâhmaņas, or sacrificial books, belonging to each
of the Vedas, we find the Devas always fighting with the
Asuras.¹ The latter are the constant enemies of the
Hindu gods, and always make attacks upon the sacrifices
offered by devotees. To defeat them all the craft and
cunning of the Devas were required; and the means of
checking them was generally found in a new sacrificial
rite. Thus the Asuras are said to have given rise to a
good many sacrificial customs, and in this way they largely
1 In the Purânas the Asuras are
fighting not with the Devas, but with
the Suras. The latter word is a mere
fiction of later times, and not to be
found in the Vedas. A false etymo-
logy has called this new class of gods
into existence. The bad sense at-
tached to Asura was thought to lie
in the negative prefix a, and there-
fore their opponents should appear
without it, in the form Sura.
1-
270 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BRAHMANICAL
contributed towards making the Brahmanical sacrifices so
complicated and full of particular rites and ceremonies.
To give the reader an idea of the way in which the battles
between the Devas and Asuras are said to have been
fought, a translation of a passage, taken from the Aitareya
Brâhmaņa (i. 23)1 of the Rigveda, is here given :-
<
'
'The Devas and Asuras waged war in these worlds.
The Asuras made these worlds fortified places (pur, i.e.,
polis, town), and made them as strong and impregnable
as possible; they made the earth of iron, the air of silver,
and the sky of gold. Thus they transformed these worlds
into fortified places (castles). The Devas said: These
Asuras have made these worlds fortified places; let us
thus build other worlds in opposition to these (now occu-
'pied solely by them). They then made out of her (the
earth) a seat, out of the air a fire-hearth, and out of the
'sky two repositories for sacrificial food (these are called
Havirdhana). The Devas said: Let us bring the Upa-
sads; 2 by means of a siege (upasada) one may conquer
a large town. When they performed the first Upasad,
then they drove them (the Asuras) out from this world.
(the earth); when they performed the second, then they
drove them out from the air; and when they performed
‹ the third, then they drove them out from the sky. Thus
<
<
'
<
<
1 An edition and translation of the
whole work (in two volumes) was
published by the author in 1863,
giving full information regarding the
Brahmanical sacrifices, which were
previously little known to European
Sanskrit scholars, as it is scarcely
possible to obtain a knowledge of them
without oral information from pro-
fessional sacrificial priests. But they
are too essential a part of the Vedic
religion (now chiefly preserved by the
so-called Agnihotris) to be overlooked
by those who are inquiring into the
Brahmanical religion and its history.
2 This is a particular ceremony
which is to take place immediately
after the great Pravargya ceremony,
during which the priests produce for
the sacrificer (yajamâna) a golden
celestial body, with which alone he
is permitted by the gods to enter
heaven. When in this way the sacri-
ficer is born anew, he is to receive
the nourishment appropriate for an
infant's body, and this is milk. The
chief part of the Upasad ceremony is,
that one of the priests (the Adhvaryu)
presents milk to him in a large
wooden spoon, which he must drink.
Formerly it had to be drunk from
the cow which was to be milked by
the Adhvaryu. But this custom has
now fallen into disuse.
AND ZOROASTRIAN RELIGIONS.
271
<
they drove them out from these worlds. The Asuras,
thus driven out of these worlds, repaired to the Ritus
(seasons). The Devas said: Let us perform Upasad.
The Upasads being three, they performed each twice
(that makes six in all, corresponding with the six seasons).
Then they drove them (the Asuras) out from the Ritus.
The Asuras repaired now to the months. The Devas
'made twelve Upasads, and drove them out from the
'months. After having been defeated here also, they re-
'paired to the half-months. The Devas performed twenty-
four Upasads and drove the Asuras out of the half-
'months. After having been defeated again, the Asuras
' repaired to the day and night; the Devas performed the
Upasads and drove them out. Therefore, the first Upasad
'ceremony is to be performed in the first part of the day
‹ and the other in the second part of the day. He (the
sacrificer) leaves thus only so much space to the enemy
as exists between the conjunction of day and night (that
' is, the time of twilight in the morning and evening).'
<
That the Asuras of the Brahmanical literature are the
supreme beings of the Parsis (Ahuramazda with his arch-
angels) is, according to these statements, hardly to be
doubted. But there exists, perhaps, a still more convincing
proof. Among the metres, used in the Yajurveda, we find
seven which are marked by the epithet dsurî, such as
Gayatri âsuri, Ushnih âsuri, Pankti âsuri. These Asura
metres, which are foreign to the whole Rigveda, are actu-
ally to be found in the Gâtha literature of the Zend-
Avesta, which professedly exhibits the doctrines of the
Ahura (Asura) religion. The Gayatri âsurt consists of
fifteen syllables, which metre we discover in the Gâtha
Ahunavaiti (see p. 144), if we bear in mind that the number
of sixteen syllables, of which it generally consists, is often
reduced to fifteen (compare, for instance, Yas. xxxi. 6, and
the first two lines of xxxi. 4). The Ushņih âsurî, consist-
ing of fourteen syllables, is completely extant in the Gâtha
1
¹ See the "White Yajurveda," edited by A. Weber, vol. i. p. lx.
In the reda, Mitra is the sun as lighted up &th light iste
Morning. (Ath. Veda. 1.3.18) Varung in the okay as the all-vo
tiny dual deities is
In the Veda or havs hymen ent only to Mitra & Varuna, but to
Miträvarunare as on. This formatiny de
Juculiar to the 272 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BRANMANICAL
Vohu-khshathra (Yas. li.), each verse of which comprises
fourteen syllables. The Pankti âsurî consists of eleven
syllables, just as many as we found (p. 144) in the Gâthas
Ushtavaiti and Spenta-mainyû. This coincidence can
certainly not be merely accidental, but shows clearly, that
the old Gâtha literature of the Zend-Avesta was well
known to the Rishis who compiled the Yajurveda.
Of great importance, for showing the original close re-
lationship between the Brahmanical and Parsi religions, is
the fact that several of the Indian gods are actually men-
tioned by name in the Zend-Avesta, some as demons, others
as angels.
Indra, the chief god of the Brahmans in the Vedic times,
the thunderer, the god of light and god of war, for whom
pre-eminently the Rishis, the ancient founders of Brah-
manism, squeezed and drank the intoxicating Soma bever-
age, is expressly mentioned in the list of the Devas or
demons which we find in Vend. xix. 43.¹ He is there
second only to Angrô-mainyush (Ahriman), the arch-fiend
who is sometimes designated daevanam daévô, "demon of
demons" in the Avesta, but "god of the gods" in Sanskrit.
Next to Indra stands Saurva daeva, whom we discover
in one of Shiva's names Sharva (see the White Yajurveda,
xvi. 28). In Nâonhaithya daeva we readily recognise.
the Nâsatyas of the Vedic hymns, which name is there
given to the two Ashvins, the Dioskuri of the Indian
mythology.
Some names of the Vedic Devas are, however, used in a
good sense, and are transformed into Yazatas or angels in
the Zend-Avesta. The most noticeable is Mithra, the
Sanskrit form being Mitra. In the Vedic hymns he is
generally invoked together with Varuna (identical with
the god Uranos of the Greeks), the ruler of heaven and
master of the universe; 2 but in the Zend-Avesta he was
1 This passage is omitted in two of the Vedic hymns he occupied a much
the oldest manuscripts.
higher position. The whole universe
is subject to his laws.
2 In later times he was believed to
preside over the waters only; but in
AND ZOROASTRIAN RELIGIONS.
273
+
everywhere separated from his ancient companion. How-
ever, there is one hymn in the Rigveda (iii. 59, mitrô janân
yatagati) in which Mitra alone (as the sun) is addressed
in the following way:-
<
८
Mitra calls men to their work; Mitra is preserving
' earth and heaven; Mitra looks upon the nations always
without shutting his eyes. To Mitra bring the offering
' with ghi !
'O Mitra! that man who troubles himself to keep thy
´order (rule), O son of eternity (âditya)! shall have abun-
'dance; he, protected by thee, shall neither be slain nor
'defeated; no distress befalls him, neither from near, nor
'from far.'
In comparing these verses with the extracts given above
from the Mihir Yasht, one may easily be convinced of the
complete identity of the Vedic Mitra and the Persian Mithra.
<<
Another Vedic deity, Aryaman, who is generally asso-
ciated with Mitra and Varuņa (Rv. i. 136, 2), is at once.
recognised in the angel Airyaman of the Zend-Avesta.
Aryaman has in both scriptures a double meaning, (a) “ a
friend, associate" (in the Gâthas it chiefly means а
client"); (b) the name of a deity or spirit who seems
particularly to preside over marriages, on which occasions
he is invoked both by Brahmans and Parsis (see p. 142).
He seems to be either another name of the sun, like Mitra,
Savitri, Pûsḥan, &c., or his constant associate and repre-
sentative. In the Bhagavad Gîta (x. 29) he is mentioned
as the head of the pitaras, " manes, or ancestral spirits."
Bhaga, another deity of the Vedas, belonging to the
same class as Mitra and Aryaman (to the so-called
Adityas), is to be recognised in the word bagha of the
Zend-Avesta, which word is, however, not employed
there as a name of any particular divine being, but con-
veys the general sense of "god, destiny "1 (lit. "portion").
1 This word is to be found in the
Slavonic languages (Russian, Polish,
&c.) in the form bog as the common
name for "God." The ancient Slav-
onic mythology knew a biel bog or
white god, and a czerny bog or black
god.
$
274 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BRAHMANICAL
That the Vedic god Bhaga (compare the adjective baghô-
bakhta, "ordained by fate," which is to be found in both
the Veda and the Zend-Avesta) was believed to be a deity,
presiding over the destiny and fortune of men, may be
clearly seen from some passages in the Rigveda, of which
Rv. vii. 41, 2, is here quoted: 'Let us invoke the victor
' in the morning (ie., the sunlight which has defeated the
darkness of night), the strong Bhaga, the son of Aditi
(imperishableness, eternity), who disposes all things (for
during the night all seemed to be lost). The poor and
'the sick, as well as the king, pray to him, full of trust,
'saying: Give us our portion.'
(
(
<<
""
Aramati, a female spirit in the Vedas, meaning: (a)
devotion, obedience" (Rv. vii. 1, 6; 34, 21), (b) "earth
(x. 92, 4, 5), is apparently identical with the archangel
Armaiti, which name has, as the reader will have learned
from the third Essay, exactly the same two meanings in
the Zend-Avesta. In the Vedas, however, her name is of
rare occurrence, being found in some hymns of the Rigveda
only.¹ She is called a virgin who comes with butter offer-
ings in the morning and evening to Agni (Rv. vii. 1, 6), a
celestial woman (gna, see p. 170) who is brought by Agni
(Rv. v. 43, 6).
Narâshansa (see Yâska's Nirukta, viii. 6), an epithet of
several Vedic gods, such as Agni, Pûsḥan, and Brahman-
aspati (but especially of Agni), is identical with Nairyô-
sanha (Neryosangh), the name of an angel in the Zend-
Avesta, who serves Ahuramazda as a messenger (see
Vend. xxii.), in which capacity we find Agni and Pûshan
in the Vedic hymns also. The word means "one praised
by men," i.e., renowned.
The Vedic god Vâyu (wind, especially the morning
wind), “who first drinks the Soma at the morning sacri-
fice," is to be recognised in the spirit Vayu of the Zend-
Avesta, who is supposed to be roaming everywhere (see
1 See, about Aramati and Armaiti, the German Oriental Society, vol.
the author's article in the journal of viii. (1854) p. 769–771.
AND ZOROASTRIAN RELIGIONS.
275
the Râm Yasht above, p. 214). He is the only Vedic deity
who is mentioned by name (ray) in the Gâthas (Yas. liii.
6), but, of course, not called a deva, which word has always
a bad meaning in the Zend-Avesta.
((
""
Vṛitrahâ, “killer of Vṛitra (a demon)," one of the most
frequent epithets of Indra in the Vedic books, is to be
recognised in the angel Verethraghna (Behrâm, see the
Behrâm Yasht above, p. 213). It looks rather strange at
the first glance, that we should find one and the same
Vedic god, Indra, with his proper name
Indra " entered
in the list of demons, and with his epithet “Vṛitrahâ
worshipped as a very high angel. But the problem is very
easily solved if one bears in mind that Vṛitrahâ is applied
in the hymns of the Rigveda not exclusively to Indra, but
also to another deity, Trita, who occupied in the most
ancient times the place of Indra as thunderer and killer of
the demons of the air (Rv. i. 18, 71). That this Trita is
identical with Thraêtaona (Frêdûn) in the Iranian legends,
we shall soon see.
A very remarkable coincidence, as to the number of
divine beings worshipped, is to be found between the
statements of the Vedas and the Zend-Avesta. In the
Vedas, especially in the Atharvaveda and the Brahmanas,
the gods number thirty-three (trayas-triñshad devâḥ) in
all. Although the passages do not vary as to the number,
they do not throughout agree as to the names of the indi-
vidual gods by which the number is made up. In the
Aitareya Brâhmaņam (iii. 22, p. 67, of the author's edition)
they are enumerated in the following order: eight Vasaras,
eleven Rudras, twelve Adityas, one Prajâpati, and one
Vashaṭkára.¹ Instead of the last two we find Dyârâ-
Prithivi (heaven and earth) enumerated in the Shatapatha
Brahmanam (forming part of the white Yajurveda), iv. 5,
7, 2. In another passage (xi. 6, 3, 5) of the same work,
1 This is a personification of the
formula Vaushat, "may he (Agni)
carry it up!" which is pronounced
with a very much lengthened sound
by the sacrificial priest, when throw-
ing the offering into the fire. When
personified, the efficacy of the sacri-
fice is to be understood.
1288
276 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BRAHMANICAL
we find Indra and Prajâpati mentioned as the last two.
In the Râmâyana (iii. 2, 15) the two Ashvins are men-
tioned instead of them.1 In the Atharvaveda (x. 7, 13,
22, 27), all the thirty-three gods are said to be included in
Prajapati (Brahma) as his limbs.2
With these thirty-three Devas of the Vedas we may
compare the thirty-three ratus, or chiefs, for maintaining
the best truths, as they are instituted by Mazda, and pro-
mulgated by Zarathushtra (Yas. i. 10). From their not
being expressly enumerated according to their several
classes, as the thirty-three Devas are in the Vedas, we may
gather, with some certainty, that the "thirty-three ratus
was only a time-hallowed formula for enumerating the
divine existences, the bearing and import of which was no
longer understood by the Iranians after their separation.
from the Brahmans.
2.-NAMES AND LEGENDS OF HEROES.
""
There is not only a great similarity between, and even
identity of, names of divine beings in both the Veda and
Zend-Avesta, but a similar close resemblance extends also
to the legends of heroic feats related in both scriptures.
But, at the very outset, we can discover, notwithstanding
this similarity, a striking difference between the Iranian.
and Brahmanical notions regarding these legends. The
Brahmans attribute them generally to gods, the Iranians
partly to great heroes and partly to angels. The following
are some of the most striking resemblances :—
Yima khshaéta (Jamshed) and Yama raja. The names
now.
2 This tendency towards establish-
ing a kind of monotheism is, now
and then, to be discovered in the
ancient Vedic hymns. Compare, for
instance, the celebrated passage, Rig-
veda i. 164, 46, where it is said that
1.The later tradition, as laid down deplorable state in which we find it
in the Purânas, has increased the
Vedic number of thirty-three deities
to thirty-three koțis, or 330 millions.
This fact is a striking instance how
unscrupulously and ridiculously the
statements of the Vedas have been
expanded and exaggerated in later
times, which has contributed to-
wards bringing Hinduism into the
the wise men understand by the
different gods only one being."
AND ZOROASTRIAN RELIGIONS.
277
and epithets are the same; Yima is identical with Yama,
and khshaéta means "king," the same as rûjû. The family
name of both is the same: Vîvanhão or son of Vivanghvat
in the Zend-Avesta (see the second fargard of the Vendidad
above, p. 231), and Vaivasvata or son of Vivasvat in the
Veda. In the Zend-Avesta Yima gathers round him men
and animals in flocks, and fills the earth with them; and
after the evils of winter had come over his territories, he
leads a select number of the beings of the good creation to
a secluded spot, where they enjoy uninterrupted happiness.
According to the hymns of the Rigveda, 'Yama, the king,
'the gatherer of the people, has descried a path for many,
'which leads from the depths to the heights; he first
'found out a resting-place from which nobody can turn
' out the occupants; on the way the forefathers have gone,
the sons will follow them' (Rigveda x. 14, 1, 2). Yama
is here described as the progenitor of mankind; as the
first mortal man he first experienced death, and first went
up from the low valley of this earth to the heights of
heaven, where he gathers round him all his descendants,
who must follow in his track by the law of nature, and
rules over all who have entered his dominions, which are
full of bliss and happiness. This happy ruler of the
blessed in paradise has been transformed, in the modern
Hindu mythology, into the fearful god of death, the
inexorable judge of men's doings, and the punisher of the
wicked. In the legends of the Iranians, as extant in the
Zend-Avesta and Shâhnâmah, he was the king of the
golden age and the happy ruler of the Iranian tribes.
Thrita, Thraétaona (Frédún) and Trita, Traitana.
Thrita, one of the Sâma family (from which the great hero
Rustam sprang), is in the Zend-Avesta (see p. 257) the
first physician, the curer of the diseases created by Ahri-
man; an idea which we find also attached to Trita in the
Vedas. He is said, in the Atharvaveda (vi. 113, 1), to
extinguish illness in men, as the gods have extinguished it
in him; he must sleep for the gods (xix. 56, 4). He
<
278 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BRAHMANICAL
<<
grants a long life (Taittirîya Sañhitâ, Black Yajurveda,
i. 8, 10, 2). Any evil thing is to be sent to him to be
appeased (Rigveda viii. 47, 13). This circumstance is
hinted at in the Zend-Avesta by the surname Sama, which
means appeaser." He is further said to have been once
thrown into a well, whence Brihaspati rescued him (Rv. i.
105, 17). The Indian tradition makes him a Rishi, and
ascribes several hymns of the Rigveda to him (as for
instance Rv. i. 105). There are some traits discoverable
in the ancient hymns which make him appear rather like
a god than a mortal man. He drinks Soma, like Indra,
for obtaining strength to kill the demon Vritra (i. 187, 1),
and, like him, he cleaves with his iron club the rocky cave
where the cows (the celestial waters) are concealed
(i. 52, 5).
Thraétaona (Frédûn) is easily recognised in the Vedic
Traitana, who is said to have severed the head of a giant
from his shoulders (Rv. i. 158, 3). His father is called
Athwyo, which corresponds exactly with the frequent sur-
name of Trita in the Vedas, viz., Aptya. Trita and
Traitana seem to have been confounded together in the
Veda, whereas originally they were quite distinct from
one another. Trita was the name of a celebrated physician,
and Traitana that of the conqueror of a giant or tyrant;
the first belonged to the family of the Sâmas, the latter to
the Aptyas. In the Zend-Avesta the original form of the
legend is better preserved (see about Thraêtaona, p. 178).
Kava Us (Kaikâûs in the Shâhnâmah) and Kâvya
Ushanas. He is one of the great heroes of the Iranians,
and believed to have been a ruler over Iran. In the later
Indian literature, he is identified with Shukra, the planet
Venus, and said to have been during his lifetime the Guru
(prophet or teacher) of the Daityas or Asuras, the enemies
of the gods. But he is not viewed in this light in the
ancient Vedic hymns. There he is associated with the god
Indra, who calls himself Kavya Ushaná (Rv. iv. 26, 1),
and is invoked by the name Kavi Ushand (Rv. i. 130, 9).
AND ZOROASTRIAN RELIGIONS.
279
This Kavya Ushanâ (meaning "Ushand, son of Kavi")
installed Agni as a high-priest for mankind (Rv. viii. 23,
17); he led the heavenly cows (the clouds) to pasturage
(Rv. i. 83, 5), and made Indra's iron club, by which the god
killed his enemy Vritra. In the Bhagavad Gita (x. 27) he
is considered as the first of the poets, wherefore Krishna,
who calls himself the first in every particular branch,
identifies himself with Ushanas. According to the Mahâ-
bhârata (i. 2544) he has four sons, who offer sacrifice to the
Asuras. In the Iranian legend he does not appear as
blameless; he is said to have been so proud and self-
conceited as to endeavour to fly up to heaven, for which
arrogance he was then severely punished.
The name Dânava is given, both in the Vedas and
Zend-Avesta, to enemies with whom wars are to be waged.
Compare Yt. v. 73, and Atharvaveda iv. 24, 2. In the
Rigveda it is often a name of the archdemon Vṛitra, with
whom Indra is fighting.
In the legend of Tishtrya (see p. 200) some of the par-
ticulars relating to Indra and Brihaspati in the Vedas may
be recognised. Tishtrya cannot bring the rain from the
sea Vouru-kasha over the earth, if not assisted by the
prayers of men. In the same way Indra cannot release
the celestial cows (the clouds) from the rocky cave, whither
they have been carried by demons, without the assistance.
of Brihaspati, who is the representative of the prayers sent
up by men to the gods, and the personification of their
devotion and meditation.
3.-SACRIFICIAL RITES.
Although sacrifices are reduced to a few rites in the
Parsi religion now-a-days, we may discover, on comparing
them with the sacrificial customs of the Brahmans,¹ a great
1 Most of the Vedic sacrifices are
still in use. Those Brahmans, who
perform all the sacrifices required for
going to heaven, according to the
Vedic system, are called Agnihotris.
Their number was very large at the
time of the Peshwas, and is even now
considerable in some of the native
states, as for instance, in the do-
minions of the Gaikwar at Baroda.
F
280 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BRAHMANICAL
similarity in the rites of the two religions. Some of the
most striking of these resemblances will be here pointed
out.
At the very outset the attentive reader of the Vedas
and the Zend-Avesta will observe the identity of a good
many terms referring to priestly functions. The very
name for "priest" in the Zend-Avesta, dthrava, is to be
recognised in the atharvan of the Vedas, by which term a
priest of Fire and Soma is meant. The Vedic words ishți
(a series of invocations of several deities, accompanied by
the offering of the sacrificial cakes, the so-called Puroḍâsha)
and âhuti (the invocation of one deity with the offering,
within the limits of the ishți) are to be recognised in the
îshti and ázûiti of the Zend-Avesta, where the original
peculiar significations are lost, and only the general mean-
ings "gift" and "invocation or praise" have survived.
The particular names of several officiating priests, at the
time of performing a solemn ceremony, are the same in
both religions. The Hotâ, or reciter of the mantras of the
Rigveda, is identical with the Zaota priest, while the
Adhvaryu or managing priest, who has to prepare every-
thing for the Hotâ, is the same with the Rathwi (now
called Raspi), who is only the servant of the Zaota or
chief priest. In the Sraoshavareza, who represents the
angel Srosh, the Pratiprasthâtâ of the Brahmanical sacri-
fices may be recognised, because this priest holds in his
hand a wooden sword, during the time of sacrifice, to drive
away the evil spirits, which weapon is constantly ascribed
to Srosh for the same purpose (see p. 190). In the
Atarevakhsho, who has charge of the vessel in which the
The performance of the manifold
sacrifices enjoined to the Agnihotris,
or the strict followers of the Vedic
religion, entails too much expense
upon an individual to be performed
by many without public support.
The Peshwas used to support them.
Among all the Agnihotris (about
twelve or fifteen) who presented them-
selves at the Dakshina meeting at
Poona, between the 15th November
and 15th December 1861, only one
could be found (and he was from
Satâra) who had performed all the
numerous sacrifices, some of which
require from six to twelve days for
their performance and an outlay of
many thousands of rupis.
AND ZOROASTRIAN RELIGIONS.
281
fire is, we find the Agnîdhra (who holds the fire) of the
Brahmans.
The Yajishn or Ijashne ceremony, as performed by the
Parsi priests now-a-days (see p. 139), contains all the ele-
ments which constitute the different parts (four or seven) of
the Jyotishṭoma cycle of sacrifices, the prototype of all the
Soma sacrifices. The Agnishtoma (ie., praise of Agni, the
fire), which is the opening sacrifice of this cycle and indis-
pensable for every Agnihotri to gain the object wished for,
viz., heaven, bears a particular resemblance to the perform-
ance of Ijashne. Of course, the whole ceremony is much
shortened, and the rites changed in accordance with the
more enlightened and humane spirit of the Zoroastrian
religion. In the Agnishtoma four goats must be killed
and their flesh is partly offered to the gods by throwing it
into Agni, the fire, who is the mediator between gods and
men, and partly eaten by the sacrificer and the priests.
During the Ijashne ceremony no animal is killed; only
some hair of an ox is placed in a small vessel and shown,
together with the other things, to the fire. This is now-a-
days the only remnant of animal sacrifice on this occasion,
but formerly they used a piece of meat besides. The
Purodásha of the Brahmans, or the sacrificial cakes, which
must be offered to different deities in a certain order,
during the recital of two mantras for each deity, is changed
into a flat kind of bread (similar to a very small pancake),
called Darún. The fresh milk, required at the time of
performing the Upasad ceremony (see p. 270), is to be
recognised in the gâush jîvya (see p. 139). Ghî, butter,
&c., required for less important ceremonies at the time of
the Agnisḥtoma (when making the so-called Prayâjas for
the six seasons) are represented by the gâush hudhâo (see
p. 139). The Zaothra or consecrated water is required at
the commencement of the Brahmanical sacrifices also,
where it is called udaka shânta.
The most important part of the offerings in both the
Jyotishtoma sacrifices and the Ijashne ceremony, is the
1
282 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BRAHMANICAL
juice of the Soma plant. In both the twigs of the plant
itself (the Brahmans use the stalks of the Pûtika, which is
a substitute for the original Soma, and the Parsis use the
branches of a particular shrub which grows in Persia) in
their natural state are brought to the sacred spot, where
the ceremony is to take place, and the juice is there ex-
tracted during the recital of prayers. The contrivances
used for obtaining the juice, as well as the vessels em-
ployed, are somewhat different, but, on closer inquiry, an
original identity may be recognised. The Brahmans beat
the stalks of the plant, which are placed on a large flat
stone, with another smaller stone till they form a single
mass; this is then put into a vessel and water is poured
over it. After some time this water, which has extracted
the greenish juice, is poured through a cloth, which serves
as a strainer, into another vessel. The Parsi priests use,
instead of stones, a metal mortar with a pestle whereby
the twigs of the Homa plant, together with one of the
pomegranate tree, are bruised, and they then pour water
over them to obtain the juice, which is strained through a
metal saucer with nine holes. This juice (Parahaoma) has
a yellow colour, and only very little of it is drunk by one
of the two priests (the Zaota) who must be present, whereas
all the Brahmanical priests (sixteen in number), whose
services are required at the Jyotishṭoma, must drink the
Soma juice, and some of the chief priests (such as the
Adhvaryu and Hotâ) must even take a very large quantity.
The Parsi priests never throw any of the juice into the
fire, but the Brahmans must first offer a certain quantity
of the intoxicating juice to different deities, by throwing
it from variously-shaped wooden vessels into the fire, before
they are allowed to taste "the sweet liquor." The Parsi
priests only show it to the fire, and then drink it. After-
wards the juice is prepared a second time by the chief
priest (Zaota) and then thrown into a well. These two
preparations of the Homa juice correspond to the morning
libation (prátaḥ savana) and mid-day libation (madhyandina
AND ZOROASTRIAN RELIGIONS.
283
savana) of the Brahmans; for the third, or evening liba-
tion, there was no opportunity in the Parsi ritual, because
no sacrificial rites are allowed to be performed in the
evening or night time.
The Barsom (Baresma), or the bundle of twigs which is
indispensable at the time of reciting Ijashne, is to be traced
to one of the sacrificial rites at the great Soma sacrifices.
It has hitherto been erroneously identified with the Barhis
or sacred grass (Kusha grass is used) of the Brahmans,
which they spread at their sacrifices as a seat for the gods.
who are expected to come. But the close connection of
the Barsom with the Ijashne ceremony, and the circun-
stances that wood (branches of a particular tree) and not
grass is taken, and that these branches are laid on a stand,
not spread on the floor, lead to the conclusion that it does.
not represent the seat for the divine beings, as the Kusha
grass does. It refers, in all likelihood, to a peculiar rite.
at the great Soma sacrifices, which is as yet little known,
but about which the author had an opportunity of obtain-
ing oral information. At the time of the Soma libation
(called Savana), which is to be performed three times on
the same day, from 8–12 A.M. (morning libation), 1–5 P.M.
(mid-day libation), 6-11 P.M. (evening libation), the three
Sâmaveda priests, the Udgâtâ, the Prastotâ, and the Prati-
hartâ, require a certain number of wooden sticks to be placed
in a certain order when chanting the sacred Sâmans (verses
of the Sâmaveda). They use for this purpose the wood of
the Udumbara tree, and call them kusha, which name is
generally given to the sacred grass. In the Agnishtoma
fifteen such sticks are required at the morning libation,
seventeen at noon, and twenty-one in the evening; in
other sacrifices, such as the Aptoryâma, even a much
larger number of such sticks is required. The three
singers must then chant successively, one by one, in a
very solemn manner, the five parts, into which every
1
1 Such Sâmans are called pancha- viz.: Prastáva (prelude), Udgitha
bhaktika, i.e., divided into five parts, (the principal part, to be chanted by
284 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BRAHMANICAL
Sâman or verse adapted for singing is divided at certain
sacrifices, while putting some of the sticks into a certain
proper order. This ceremony is considered to be most
essential, and unless observed and properly performed, all
the effect of the Sâmans (which are believed to carry the
sacrificer up to heaven, the most important of all being
called Rathantaram, " carriage") is lost.
At the same time there is another peculiar custom to be
observed, which may be traced in the Yasna also. As soon
as the singers have chanted their verse, one of the Hotâs
must repeat a series of mantras from the Rigveda (not in
the usual way of repetition, but in one approaching the
recital of the Yajurveda), in order to praise and extol the
Sâman, which ceremony is called Shastram. At the end
of the different Hâs of the Yasna, especially its Gâtha
portion, verses of these hymns are often invoked as divine
beings, and in Yas. xix. 6 (p. 186) we have seen that it is
considered very meritorious to worship the Ahuna-vairya
formula after having repeated it.
With regard to the division of the Sâmans into five
parts, it may be remarked that the Ahuna-vairya formula,
which is as important for the Parsis as the Rathantaram
Sâman was for the Vedic Brahmans, was also divided into
five parts (see p. 188).
In the Afringân ceremony of the Parsis (see p. 224)
there may be discovered a trace of the Brahmanical Apri
ceremony (see Aitareya Brâhmaņa, ii. 4, p. 28, of the
author's edition), which is preparatory to the killing and
offering of the sacrificial goats. The name is the same:
a-prî in Sanskrit, d-frî in the Avesta (the formula used
being afrînâmi), which literally means to "invite;" with
which invitation the name of the being or beings, in whose
honour the ceremony is being performed, must always be
mentioned. The Parsis mention the name of a deceased
person, or of an angel; the Brahmans insert the names of
the Udgâta), Pratihara (response), (great finale), to be chanted by all
Upadrava (little finale), and Nidhana three.
AND ZOROASTRIAN RELIGIONS.
285
different deities 1 (there are eleven invocations), who are
expected to come and enjoy the meal prepared for them.
These solemn invitations being accompanied with a bless-
ing, the Parsis understand by this ceremony a benediction,
which form it seems to have assumed at a very early
time.
The Darsha purnama ishți (new and full moon sacrifice)
seems to correspond with the Darûn ceremony of the Parsis.
Both are very simple; the Brahmans use chiefly the Puro-
dâsha, or sacrificial cakes, the Parsis the sacred bread
(Darûn), which corresponds to the Purodâsha.
The Châturmasya ishti, or the sacrifice offered every four
months or two seasons, corresponds to the Gahanbâr cere-
mony of the Parsis, which is celebrated six times a year.
Sacrificing animals was essential for the proper performance
of these ceremonies among the Parsis until recent times; so it
is with the Brahmans also. But as to animal sacrifice, there
is always a great difference between the Brahmanical
and Zoroastrian rites. The Brahmans must throw some
parts of the slaughtered animal, such as the vapâ (peri-
toneum), into the fire; while the Parsis simply consecrate
the flesh and eat it as a solemn meal, without throwing
anything into the fire. On such occasions even the Brah-
mans now-a-days also eat some of the flesh.
4.—RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCES, DOMESTIC RITES, AND
COSMOGRAPHICAL OPINIONS.
Although there are a good many similarities to be dis-
covered in respect to observances, domestic rites, &c., we
must confine our remarks to a few of the most striking
points of coincidence.
The great purification ceremony (see p. 241), by means
of cow's urine (called gomez), as practised by the Parsis to
this day, may be compared with a similar observance of
the Brahmans. The latter use, in order to remove all
¹ See Yâska's Nirukta, viii. 4-21, and Max Müller's "History of Ancient
Sanskrit Literature," pp. 463-467.
1
286
TRACES OF THE ORIGIN OF
1
inward impurity from the body, the so-called Pancha-
gavyam, or five products of the most sacred animal, the cow,
one of which is her urine. This custom comes from the
most ancient times, when this liquid was regarded as a
very effective remedy against any disorder of the bodily
organs. Such remedies as cow-dung and cow's urine have
been used even on the continent of Europe by peasant.
physicians down to our times.
To the Parsis, as well as to the Brahmans, the investi-
ture with the sacred thread (called kustî by the Parsis,
aiwydonhanem in the Zend-Avesta) is enjoined as a reli-
gious duty. As long as this ceremony has not been per-
formed, one is no real member of either the Brahmanical
or Zoroastrian community. The time for performing it
lasts among the Brahmans from the eighth to the sixteenth
year (see Yajnavalkya, i. 14, 37); the Parsis are invested
with the Kustî in their seventh year.
With regard to the funeral rites of both religions some
similarities may be pointed out. After the death of a
man, Brahmans as well as Parsis must pray to raise the
soul of the deceased up to heaven, which is the so-called
third-day's ceremony of the Parsis. On the tenth day
after the death, the Parsis perform a certain ceremony
(Ijashne is read), and the Brahmans use the important
ceremony of Kakasparsha, that is, they expose a ball of
rice to be taken by a crow.
As to cosmographical opinions the Brahmans divide the
whole world into seven dvipas, the Parsis into seven késh-
vars (karshvare in the Avesta), i.c., zones or regions. Both
acknowledge a central mountain, which is called by the
former Meru, by the latter Alborz (Haro berezaiti in the
Avesta).
II. ORIGIN OF THE ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION.-SPITAMA
ZARATHUSHTRA AND HIS PROBABLE AGE.
After having established, in the preceding section, the
fact that a close and intimate connection once existed
THE ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION.
287
between the religion of the Parsis and that of the Brah-
mans, we may now proceed to trace the origin of the
Zoroastrian religion, and characterise the period at which
it must have arisen.
1.—TRACES OF THE ORIGIN TO BE FOUND BOTH IN THE VEDAS
AND ZEND-AVESTA.
In the Vedas, as well as in the older portions of the
Zend-Avesta (see the Gâthas), there are sufficient traces to
be discovered that the Zoroastrian religion arose out of a
vital struggle against the form which the Brahmanical
religion had assumed at a certain early period. Both
creeds are known as diametrically opposed to one another
in both their scriptures. One is called the belief of the
Asuras (Ahura in the Avesta), the other that of the Devas.
This circumstance cannot be merely accidental, the less so,
as we find the word Asura used in the older Vedic hymns
(see p. 268) in a perfectly good sense, and as a name of
several Devas themselves, which fact clearly shows that
there must have been once a vital struggle between the
professors of the Deva and those of the Ahura religion, in
consequence of which the originally good meaning of Asura
was changed to a bad one.
Although it is, therefore, impossible to deny the exist-
ence of the original close connection between the Deva
and Asura religions, some might still be inclined to doubt
whether the adherents of the Deva religion were actually
the direct ancestors of the present Brahmans. It is true
the word deva¹ and the cognate word dyaus are found in
most of the Aryan languages with the meaning of "heaven,"
"divine being," and the Deva-worshippers, combated
by the Zoroastrians, might be another kindred tribe of the
Aryan stock, different from the Brahmans. But the fact
that several of the Brahmanical Devas are mentioned by
1 Best preserved in the Lithuanian and the name of an ancient Teutonic
diewas, "god," and in Latin deus. god Tius, preserved in the word
The cognate dyaus, "heaven," is ex- "Tuesday" (in Anglo-Saxon: Tives
tant in the Greek Zeus, gen. Dios, dæg).
or "
!
im
Mira com the rain & over, Jusilo plowing. With other forts were sent in
the driveling old mm; thon, & Tuica, lisanud de disfrv. is
thirt / Sh
Man Hees, sor
$
ރ
fir
قييم
2.4.
}
288
TRACES OF THE ORIGIN OF
name in the Zend-Avesta, leaves no doubt whatever that
the opponents of the Ahura religion actually were the
ancient Brahmans; for the names of the Devas, mentioned
in the Zend-Avesta, such as Indra, Sharva, Nâsatya, are
purely Brahmanical, and unknown to any other nation of
the Aryan stock.
We have seen above that the names of the Indian Devas
or gods were not all entered in the list of the Zoroastrian
Devas or demons, but some of them retained their old
dignity by being transformed, in accordance with the
new spirit of the Zoroastrian religion, from gods into
angels (Yazatas). The names of these are also identical
with those of some Vedic deities, such as Aryaman, Mitra,
Aramati, &c.
Some of the ancient gods occur with one name in the
list of angels, and with another in that of the demons.
Thus, for instance, the Zoroastrian demon, Indra, has
become, under his other name, Verethraghna (Vṛitrahâ),
one of the mightiest angels, as has been shown above
(p. 275).
These facts throw some light upon the age in which that
great religious struggle took place, the consequence of
which was the entire separation of the ancient Iranians
from the Brahmans, and the foundation of the Zoroastrian
religion. It must have occurred at the time when Indra
was the chief god of the Brahınans. This was the case at
that early period to which we must assign the composition
of the majority of the Vedic hymns, before the Brahmans
had immigrated into Hindustan Proper. In the post-Vedic
period, whose events called into existence the great epic.
poems Mahâbhârata and Râmâyana, we find Indra's place
at the head of the gods occupied by the Trimûrti of Brahma,
Vishnu, and Shiva, which idea is utterly foreign to the
Vedic hymns. The Trimûrti never being alluded to in the
Zend-Avesta, we must assign to the religious struggle a
much earlier date.
Before proceeding to fix the probable age of the origin
THE ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION.
289
of the Zoroastrian religion, some facts derived from pas-
sages in the Vedas and Gâthas may be adduced, which
throw much light upon this difficult subject.
The priests and prophets of the Devas are mentioned by
the names kavi, karapan, and usikhsh in the Gâthas (see
Yas. xxxii. 14; xliv. 20; xlvi. II; xlviii. 10; li. 14). The
first is of very frequent occurrence in the Vedic hymns,
the third is also occasionally met with there, and the verb
(kalpayati) 1 and noun (kalpa) connected with the second
name are very frequently employed. Kari, which means
"poet" in the classical Sanskrit, is the name of seers and
priests in the Vedic hymns (Rv. i. 128, 8; 142, 8; 188, 1);
by drinking the "delicious," but intoxicating, Soma juice,
the power of Kavi is attainable (Rv. i. 91, 14); the term is,
therefore, applied to the Soma priest (Rv. ix. 37,6; 72,6);
these Kavis or seers, being believed to be in possession of
divine revelation and secret wisdom, were consulted as
prophets (Rv. i. 164, 6; vii. 86, 3). The gods themselves,
especially Agni, are called by this name (Rv. ii. 23, 1; iii.
14, 1), which circumstance clearly shows that it was a high
title, which could be given only to the heads and spiritual
guides of the ancient Brahmanical community.
(C
Synonymous with this name is ushij, which exactly cor-
responds to usikhsh (nom.) in the Gâthas (Yas. xliv. 20),
It means a wise, intelligent man," as one may see from
such passages as Rv. ii. 21, 5; x. 46, 2, and Shankhâyana's
Grihya Sûtra vi. 12, 19, where it changes places with kari,
as is the case in Yas. xliv. 20, also.
By the karapano, who are mentioned together with the
kâvayas in the Gâthas, we must understand specially the
sacrificial priests, the performers of the sacrifices, those
men who are known nowadays to the Brahmans by the
name of Shrotriyas. As to its grammatical formation, this
word is derived from a root karap, which corresponds
exactly with the Sanskrit root kalp, "to perform a cere-
1 The sound 7, being completely unknown in the Avesta language, is there
always represented by r.
T
290
TRACES OF THE ORIGIN OF
mony," whence the word kalpa, "the ritual, or the doctrine
of the ceremonies," is derived. Karapand, therefore, means
really "performers of sacrificial rites.”
These two names, kavi and karapan, designate in the
fullest sense all the spiritual guides of the professors of
the Deva religion, who tried to put down the adherents of
the Ahuramazda religion, and we necessarily find, there-
fore, a bad meaning attached to them in the Gâthas. This
appears the more strange, as the word kavi itself forms
part of the names of highly celebrated personages of
Iranian antiquity, such as Kavi Husrava (Kai Khusro),
Kavi Kavâta (Kaî Kabâd), Kavi Vîshtâspa (Kaî Gushtâsp),
&c., and has become, in its derived adjectival form "Kaya-
nian," the designation of a whole dynasty of the ancient
Bactrian rulers.
Here the question naturally arises, how could a desig-
nation, which distinguished the bitterest enemies of the
Zoroastrian religion, be applied to kings who were, like
Kavi Vishtâspa, believed to be its staunchest friends and
protectors? The only reasonable answer is, that before
the outbreak of the schism, when the Iranians and Brah-
mans lived peacefully together, the Kavis were at the
head of both communities; and that, on account of their
violent opposition to the religious and social reforms which
were adopted by some of the Aryan tribes, such as the
Iranians, their very name was branded, and became a
word of abomination with the Zoroastrians. But the
designation having been already closely connected with
their ancient history, and having become the constant
epithet of some of their greatest heroes and kings, it was
difficult, nay, impossible, to expunge it entirely in its good
and high sense from the language. The adversaries of the
Kavis, therefore, had to rest satisfied with a slight change
of the hateful word when they wished to use it with a
good meaning. Thus we actually find this word in the old
texts, when forming part of the names of the great Iranian
heroes and kings, changed from its only true and original
THE ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION.
291
form Kavi into Kava, as, for instance, Kava Vishtâspa,
instead of Kavi Vishtaspa.¹
Now this word Kavd became a party name, denoting the
opponents of the Deva religion. And in this sense we find
it unmistakeably employed in the ancient Vedic hymns.
Kavásakha or Kavári or Kavatnu, which all mean “fol-
lowers of Kavâ or adherents of Kava," are names, given to
the enemies of Indra and the despisers of his sacred drink
(Soma). In one passage (Rv. v. 34, 3) Karâsakha is even
called a maghavâ, by which name the disciples and earliest
followers of Zarathushtra are denoted in the Gâthas (see
p. 169). Indra is there said to turn out the Maghava, who
follows the Kava party, from his possession, which refers
to the settlements (gaethas) of the Iranians.
That Zarathushtra's attacks were really directed against
the Soma sacrifices of the Brahmans, undeniably follows
from several passages of the Gâthas (see Yas. xxxii. 3;
xlviii. 10). This is not to be wondered at, if we bear in
mind that the Indian tribes, as described in the ancient
hymns of the Vedas, never engaged themselves in their
frequent predatory excursions for stealing cows, horses,
sheep, &c., without having previously secured the assist-
ance of Indra by preparing for him a solemn Soma feast.
The Karapans dressed it in due manner, and the Kavis
composed or applied those verses which were best calcu-
lated to induce Indra to accept the invitation. The Kavis
were believed to recognise by certain signs the arrival of
the god. After he had enjoyed the sweet beverage, the
delicious honey, and was supposed to be totally inebriated,
then the Kavis promised victory. The inroads were under-
taken, headed by those Kavis who had previously intoxi-
cated themselves, and they appear to have been in most
cases successful. The Iranian settlers, who had to suffer
so much from these attacks (see p. 173), ascribed the
success to those Soma sacrifices, which, therefore, must
1 See further particulars in the author's work on the Gâthas, i. p. 179, 180,
and ii. p. 238-41.
292
TRACES OF THE ORIGIN OF
Ihrings Evolution
have been objects of abomination and horror to them.
But the belief in the great efficacy of such a ceremony, as
the solemn squeezing and preparing of the Soma juice,
being too deeply rooted in the minds of the Iranians, as
well as in those of the ancient Indians, the Iranians for-
sook only the old Aryan fashion of preparing the sacred
drink, and invented one of their own, which was more in
accordance with the spirit of their new religion (see p. 282).
As we have seen, Spitama Zarathushtra himself never
mentions this reformed Homa (Soma) ceremony in the
Gâthas; it is doubtful, therefore, whether it existed in
his time, or, if so, whether he approved of it. It is true,
legends were afterwards circulated, to the effect that he
himself had given his sanction to this ceremony, as the
reader will have learned from the Homa Yasht (see p. 176).
Having established now, beyond any reasonable doubt,
the fact that the Zoroastrian religion arose in consequence
of a serious conflict of the Iranians with those other Aryan.
tribes which emigrated into Hindustan Proper, and whose
leaders became in later times the founders of Brahmanism,
the questions as to the cause of this religious schism, the
leader of the seceding party, and the time at which this
great event happened, have to be decided.
2.-CAUSES OF THE SCHISM.
yll myan 274 The causes, which led to the schism, may be readily
learned from the more ancient parts of the Zend-Avesta,
especially from the Gâthas. They were of a social and
political as well as of a religious nature.
The Aryan
tribes, after they had left their original home, which was
in all likelihood a cold country (see the allusions to it in
the first and second Fargards of the Vendidad), led mainly
a pastoral life, and cultivated only occasionally some
patches of land for their own support. In this state we
find the ancient Aryan community throughout the earlier
Vedic period, and the Brahmanical tribes were given to
this nomadic life as long as they occupied the upper part
THE ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION.
293
of the Panjab, whence they afterwards emigrated into
Hindustan Proper. Some of these tribes, whom we may
style the Iranians proper, became soon weary of these
constant wanderings, and after having reached such places
between the Oxus and Yaxartes rivers and the highland of
Bactria as were deemed fit for permanent settlements, they
forsook the pastoral life of their ancestors and their brother
tribes, and became agriculturists. In consequence of this
change the Iranians estranged themselves from the other
Aryan tribes, which still clung to the ancestoral occupa-
tion, and allured by the hope of obtaining booty, regarded
those settlements as the most suitable objects for their in-
cursions and skirmishes. How frequent these attacks of
the Deva-worshippers upon the property of the Mazda-
yasnians must have been, the reader can learn from the
formula, by which the Deva-worshippers abjured their
religion, and entered the community of the Iranians (see
p. 173), and from some verses of the Gâthas (especially
Yas. xxxii. and xlvi.).
The success of the attacking Deva-worshippers was, as
we have seen, mainly ascribed to spells (mantras) and
sacrificial skill. Their religion, therefore, must have be-
come an object of hatred in the eyes of the Iranians,
although the latter were well aware that it was closely
related to their own, or even to a certain extent identical
with it. Their own religion, therefore, had to be totally
changed, in order to break up all communication whatever
with the devastators of their settlements. The Deva reli-
gion was branded as the source of all mischief and wicked-
ness, and instead of it, the Ahura religion of agriculture
was instituted, which separated them thenceforth for ever
from their Brahmanical brethren.
If we ask who instituted this Ahura religion, we can
hardly believe that it was the work of a single man only,
though it is not to be denied that the peculiar form which
it assumed was mainly due to one great personage, Spitama
Zarathushtra.
1
2
The Feder
1
294
TRACES OF THE ORIGIN OF
164
p.16
3.-SPITAMA ZARATHUSHTRa.
In the Gâthas we find Zarathushtra alluding to old
revelations (Yas. xlvi. 6), and praising the wisdom of the
Saoshyañtô, "fire-priests" (Yas. xlvi. 3; xlviii. 12). He
exhorts his party to respect and revere the Añgra (Yas.
xliii. 15), i.e., the Angiras of the Vedic hymns, who formed.
one of the most ancient and celebrated priestly families of
the ancient Aryans, and who seem to have been more
closely connected with the ante-Zoroastrian form of the
Parsi religion than any other of the later Brahmanical
families. These Angiras are often mentioned together
with the Atharvans or fire-priests (which word, in the
form âthrava, is the general name given to the priest caste
in the Zend-Avesta), and both are regarded in the Vedic
literature as the authors of the Atharvaveda which is
called the Veda of the Atharvângiras, or the Atharvâna,
or Angirasa veda, i.e., the Veda of the Atharvans or Angiras.1
This work was for a long time not acknowledged as a proper
Veda by the Brahmans, because its contents, which consist
chiefly of spells, charms, curses, mantras for killing ene-
nies, &c., were mostly foreign to the three other Vedas,
which alone were originally required for sacrifices. On
comparing its contents with some passages in the Yashts
and Vendidad, we discover a great similarity.
Although a close connection between the ante-Zoroas-
trian and the Atharvana and Angirasa religion can hardly
be doubted, yet this relationship refers only to the magical
part, which was believed by the ancient Greeks to be the
very substance and nature of the Zoroastrian religion.
In all likelihood, as the names Atharvana and Angirasa,
or fire-priests, indicate, the worship of fire was a charac-
teristic feature of this ancient religion.
The Saoshyantô, or fire-priests, who seem to be identical
with the Atharvans, are to be regarded as the real prede-
cessors of Spitama Zarathushtra, who paved the way for
¹ See Max Müller's History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 448.
THE ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION.
295
the great religious reform carried out by the latter. It is
distinctly said (Yas. liii. 2) that the good Ahura religion
was revealed to them, and that they professed it in opposi-
tion to the Deva religion, like Zarathushtra himself and
his disciples (Yas. xii. 7; see p. 173). We must, therefore,
regard these ancient sages as the founders of the Ahura
religion, who first introduced agriculture and made it a
religious duty, and commenced war against the Deva reli-
gion.
The struggle may have lasted for several centuries before
Spitama Zarathushtra appeared in Iran, professedly by
divine command, to strike a death-blow at idolatry, and
to banish it for ever from his native soil. But however
this may have been, the decisive step of completely sepa-
rating the contending parties from one another, and estab-
lishing a new community governed by new laws, was taken
by Spitama Zarathushtra. He has, therefore, many claims
to be regarded as the founder of the true Mazdayasnian or
Parsi religion, which absorbed the old Ahura religion of
the ancient fire-priests. He himself was one of the
Saoshyantô or fire-priests, because we find him, when
standing before the sacred fire, delivering his speeches and
receiving answers from Ahuramazda out of the sacred
flames.
The events of his life are almost all enshrouded in dark-
ness, to dispel which will be for ever impossible, should no
authentic historical records be discovered in Bactria, his
home. The reports regarding him, given by the Greeks
and Romans (see the first Essay), are as unhistorical and
legendary as those found in the majority of the Avesta
books themselves. In the Vendidad and the Yashts (see
p. 212) he is represented to us not as a historical, but ast
a dogmatical personalty, stripped of nearly everything that
is peculiar to human nature, and vested with a super-
natural and wholly divine power, standing next to God
himself and being even elevated above the archangels.
The temptations of the devil, whose whole empire was
1
A912
296
TRACES OF THE ORIGIN OF
threatened by the great prophet, form a favourite subject
of the traditional reports and legends. He was the con-
centration of all wisdom and truth, and the master and
head of the whole living creation (see p. 211).
The only source whence we may derive some very scanty
historical facts is the older Yasna. In this part of the
scriptures only, he appears before our eyes as a real man,
acting a great and prominent part in the history of his
country, and even in the history of the whole human race
in general. He was a member of the Spitama family,
which name is given to the Haéchaḍaspas also (Yas. xlvi.
15), who seem, therefore, to have been his nearest relations.
His father's name was Pourushaspa, according to the later
Yasna and Vendidad. Of his children only his daughter
Paouruchista (Yas. liii. 3) is mentioned by the two names
Haéchaḍaspând Spitâmî, which can be interpreted only as
"belonging to the Spitama family of the Haêchadaspa
lineage." He was distinguished by the surname Zara-
thushtra, which the Greeks corrupted to Zarastrades or
Zoroastres, and the Romans to Zoroaster, by which name
alone he is known to Europeans, while the Persians and
Parsis changed it to Zardosht. Although the original
meaning of this name is uncertain,¹ yet it can hardly be
doubted that it was not merely the proper name of the
founder of the Parsi religion, but denoted a certain high
dignity, that of the high-priest of the country. This fol-
lows clearly from Yas. xix. (see p. 188), where the Zara-
thushtra is mentioned as the fifth chief, in those countries
where there are four others of an inferior order, and as the
fourth, where there are only three others below him; and
it is also evident from the title Zarathushtrôtemô. This
1 See the author's work on the
Gâthas, ii. p. 245-46, note 1, where
the different explanations of the
name hitherto given are mentioned
and refuted. The most probable
meaning of "Zarathushtra" is not
"the most excellent poet," as the
author suggested formerly, but
"senior, chief" (in a spiritual sense),
and the word may be traced to the
Sanskrit jarat, which means in com-
pounds "old;" ushtra is then equi-
valent to uttara, "superior, excel-
lent."
THE ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION.
297
title must mean, according to grammar (tema being the
superlative suffix), "the greatest or highest Zarathushtra,”
which denomination can be understood only if we assume
the existence of several contemporaneous Zarathushtras,
at whose head he was placed. The name "Zarathushtra"
must, therefore, have conveyed in ancient times nearly the
same meaning as the word "Dastur" does nowadays: it
must have meant the spiritual guide and head of a whole
district, or even province. The Zarathushtrôtemó is, there-
fore, to be compared with the Dastur-i-Dasturân or chief
high-priest. Even according to the notions of the modern
Parsis, a Dastur occupies a very high rank among them;
he is a ratu or chief in the living creation, and in his praise
and honour even ceremonies may be performed.
A clear proof that the word "Zarathushtra" itself was
not alone deemed sufficient to distinguish the prophet
from other men, is that his family name "Spitama" is
generally prefixed¹ when he is spoken of. This circum-
stance implies distinctly that there were other Zarathush-
tras besides the one who was distinguished by the name
"Spitama," and who alone was regarded as the real founder
of the Mazdayasnian religion.
His home seems to have been in Bactria, which is called
Berekhdha armaiti in the Gâthas, and Bakhdhi (a corrup-
tion of the former) in the Vendidad. In his own works he
calls himself a mathran, "reciter of mantras," a dûta,
"messenger," sent by Ahuramazda, a speaker (maretan);
he listens to the oracles given by the spirit of nature
(gēush urvâ), and sacred words are revealed to him by
Ahuramazda through the flames.
His doings are best learned from the Gâthas, extracts
from which have been given above (see pp. 149–170), so we
1 In a similar manner each of the
present Dasturs introduces the title,
Dastur, between his own name and
that of his father, so that his own
name is prefixed to the title, as, for
instance, Peshotan Dastur Behramji
Sanjana (see the title-page of that
learned Dastur's edition of the Dîn-
kard).
7
3
298
TRACES OF THE ORIGIN OF
may here confine ourselves to a few remarks as to the
probable age in which he lived.
4. THE AGE WHEN SPITAMA ZARATHUSHTRA LIVED.
The accounts given of the time when he is said to have
flourished, differ so widely from one another, that it is impos-
sible to fix exactly the era when he was living. The Greeks
and Romans make him very ancient. Xanthos of Lydia
(B.C. 470), the earliest Greek writer who mentions Zoroaster,
says that he lived about 600 years before the Trojan war
(about B.C. 1800). Aristotle and Eudoxus place his era
as much as 6000 years before Plato, others say 5000 years
before the Trojan war (see Pliny, Historia Naturalis, xxx.
1-3). Berosos, the Babylonian historian, makes him a
King of the Babylonians, and the founder of a dynasty,
which reigned over Babylon between B.C. 2200 and B.C.
2000.
The Parsis believe that their prophet lived at the time
of Darius's father, Hystaspes, whom they identify with the
Kava Vishtâspa of the Zend-Avesta, or Kaî Gushtâsp of
the Shâhnâmah, and place his era accordingly about B.C.
550. But the groundlessness of this supposition may be
seen on comparing the names of the predecessors of Hys-
taspes with those of the ancestors of Vishtâspa. The
lineage of Vishtâspa or Hystaspes, according to the Bisutûn
cuneiform inscription of Darius, and the statements of
Herodotus, is as follows:-Hakhâmanish (Achæmenes),
Chaishpish (Teispes), Ariyârâmna (Ariaramnes), Arshama
(Arsames), Vishtâspa (Hystaspes), Dârayavush (Dareios).
But the lineage of Vishtâspa or Gushtâsp, according to
the Avesta and Shâhnâmah, is as follows:-Kavi Kavâta
(Kaî-Kabâd), Kava Usa (Kaî-Kâûs), Kava Husrava (Kaî
Khusrô), Aurvaḍaspa (Lahurâsp), Kava Vishtâspa (Kaî
Gushtâsp). From these genealogies it will be seen that.
the names of the ancestors of the Vishtâspa mentioned in
the cuneiform inscriptions (called Hystaspes by the Greeks),
are totally different from those of the ancestors of the
THE ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION.
299
7-
Vishtâspa celebrated in Zoroastrian tradition (the Gushtâsp
of the Shâhnâmah). We must, therefore, conclude that
the Vishtâspa of Iranian tradition was a totally distinct.
person from the Hystaspes of the Greeks, the father of
Darius. That the Persians themselves, in the time of the
Sasanians, were quite uncertain as to when the former
Vishtâspa lived, appears clearly from the testimony of the
historian Agathias, quoted in p. 11.
On comparing the accounts of the Greeks about the
early era of Zoroaster, with the researches into the original
texts of the Parsi scriptures, we must believe their con-
current testimony to be much more trustworthy and reli-
able than the opinions held by the modern Parsis. There
can be no doubt whatever that Spitama Zarathushtra,
the founder of the Parsi religion, lived at a very early
period, because the great religious movement, of which he
was the chief leader, is even alluded to in the earlier
portions of the Vedas. Of his high antiquity at least two
significant traces may be discovered in the present Zend-
Avesta. Firstly, as we have seen in the fifteenth section
of the third Essay, his writings stand at the head of the
extensive Avesta literature, which required centuries for
its growth, and which was already complete about B.C.
400. Secondly, he is expressly called "the famous in
Airyana vaêjô” (Yas. ix. 14), which means, "the famous
in the Aryan home," whence the Iranians and Indians
emigrated in times immemorial. This title would cer-
tainly not have been given to him had his followers not
believed him to have been living at that early time.
Under no circumstances can we assign him a later date
than B.C. 1000, and one may even find reasons for placing
his era much earlier and making him a contemporary of
Moses. Pliny, who compares both Moses and Zoroaster,
whom he calls inventors of two different kinds of magic
rites, goes much further in stating that Zoroaster lived
several thousand years before Moses (Historia Naturalis,
Xxx. 2). The confusion of opinions regarding his age was,
X
р
300
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.
no doubt, mainly caused by his appellation " Zarathushtra ”
or high-priest, which was afterwards taken as the proper
name of the prophet. The assertion that he was born at
Ragha (Raî near Teheran) is owing to the circumstance
that, according to Yasna xix. (see p. 188), this large town
seems to have been governed by the Zarathushtras them-
selves; it was, therefore, pre-eminently the Zoroastrian
country.
III.—SPITAMA ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY,
AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PARSI RELIGION.
Having shown in the preceding section the historical
origin of the Zoroastrian religion, we may proceed next
to consider the new ideas, theological and philosophical,
which Spitama Zarathushtra introduced into the world,
and in consequence of which he may be said to have
become the founder of a new religion, and to have exer-
cised a lasting influence on the history of the human
mind.
His real doctrines, untouched by the speculations of
later ages, can be learned only from the older Yasna, chiefly
from the Gâthas. The leading idea of his theology was
Monotheism, i.e., that there are not many gods, but only
one; and the principle of his speculative philosophy
was Dualism, i.e., the supposition of two primeval causes
of the real world and of the intellectual; while his moral
philosophy was moving in the Triad of thought, word, and
deed. Having regard to the early period at which he
must have lived, long before the Greeks were acquainted
with anything like philosophical speculation, we cannot
expect him to have established a complete and developed
system of philosophical thoughts, which cannot even be
said of Plato; but the few philosophical ideas which may
be discovered in his sayings, show that he was a great and
deep thinker, who stood far above his contemporaries, and
even above the most enlightened men of many subsequent
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.
301
centuries. The great fame he enjoyed, even with the
ancient Greeks and Romans who were so proud of their
own learning and wisdom, is a sufficient proof of the high
and pre-eminent position he must once have occupied in
the history of the progress of the human mind.
I. ZARATHUSHTRA'S MONOTHEISM.
That his theology was mainly based on monotheism,
one may easily ascertain from the Gâthas, especially from
the second (see pp. 155-166). His predecessors, the Saosh-
yantô, seem to have worshipped a plurality of good spirits,
whom they called Ahuras, "the living ones," who were
opposed to the Devas. Spitama, not satisfied with this
indistinct expression of the Divine Being, reduced this
plurality to unity. The new name, by which he called
the Supreme Being, was Ahurô mazdão, which means, "the
Ahura who is called Mazdâo." Mazdão, which has been
compared with the Vedic medhas, "wise" (or when applied
to priests, "skilful, able to make everything "), means
either "joint creator," or "creator of all." Those Ahuras
who were regarded as creative powers might have been
already called by the name mazdão (we find the plural,
mazdáonho, in Yas. xlv. 1) by the Saoshyantô; but these
old fire-priests had no clear conception of the nature and
working of this creative power. Although Spitama com-
bined the two names (which were formerly used sepa-
rately, and not intimately connected with one another)
into one appellation, Ahurô-mazdão, yet they were still
not considered as a compound, because we find both con-
1 That mazdao is phonetically iden-
tical with Sans. medhâs, is not to be
denied, but its original meaning is
not "wise." Were this the case, we
ought to suppose it to be a contrac-
tion of maiti-dhão, "producing wis-
dom;" but maiti, "thought, wisdom,"
(Sans. mati) is generally affixed, not
prefixed, to another word, as in tarô-
maiti, "perverse thought, disobedi-
ence."
But the word maḍ, “with,”
1
is very frequently prefixed to other
words; and if prefixed to dhâo,
creating," the compound must be
changed, according to phonetical laws,
into mazdão. The general meaning
of mad being "together with, all"
(see Visp. xiv. 1), the word mazdŵo
must mean either "joint creator,” or
"creator of all," as may be clearly
seen from Yas. xlv. 1.
302
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.
2
stituent parts subject to inflection (e.g., ahurâi mazdâi in
the dative, not Ahura-mazdái); one part, Mazdão, was the
chief name; the other, ahura, was an adjectival epithet.
But in consequence of their being jointly employed to
express the name of the Supreme Being, they were after-
wards considered a compound, as we may distinctly see
from the cuneiform inscriptions of the Achæmenian kings,
where the Supreme Being is generally called Auramazda,
and only the latter part of the word is subject to inflection,
except in a few instances where both words are inflected.
In the Sasanian times the name was changed to Aûhar-
mazdî, and in modern Persian to Hôrmazd or Ormazd,
which forms are used by the Parsis nowadays. In the
Gâthas we find the two words frequently separated, and
indiscriminately employed to express the name "God," as
no difference of meaning is attached to either. In trans-
lating them, Ahura may best be rendered by "living"
or "lord," and Mazdão by "wise" or creator of the
universe."
Spitama Zarathushtra's conception of Ahuramazda as
the Supreme Being is perfectly identical with the notion
of Elohim (God) or Jehovah, which we find in the books
of the Old Testament.. Ahuramazda is called by him.
"the Creator of the earthly and spiritual life, the Lord of
the whole universe, in whose hands are all the creatures."
He is the light and source of light; he is the wisdom and
intellect. He is in possession of all good things, spiritual
and worldly, such as the good mind (vohu-manó), immor-
tality (ameretâḍ), health (haurvatâḍ), the best truth (asha
vahishta), devotion and piety (ârmaiti), and abundance of
every earthly good¹) (khshathra vairya). All these gifts
he grants to the righteous man, who is upright in thoughts,
words, and deeds. As the ruler of the whole universe, he
not only rewards the good, but he is a punisher of the
wicked at the same time (see Yas. xliii. 5). All that is
created, good or evil, fortune or misfortune, is his work
1 See especially Yas. xlvii. 1 (P.-167).
1
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.
303
(Yas. xlviii. 4. p. 167, and li. 6, p. 169). A separate evil
spirit of equal power with Ahuramazda, and always
opposed to him, is entirely foreign to Zarathushtra's
theology; though the existence of such an opinion among
the ancient Zoroastrians can be gathered from some of the
later writings, such as the Vendidad.
2.—ZARATHUSHTRA'S TWO PRIMEVAL PRINCIPLES.
The opinion, so generally entertained now, that Zarathush-
tra was preaching a Dualism, that is to say, the idea of
two original independent spirits, one good and the other
bad, utterly distinct from each other, and one counter-
acting the creation of the other, is owing to a confusion of
his philosophy with his theology. Having arrived at the
grand idea of the unity and indivisibility of the Supreme
Being, he undertook to solve the great problem which has
engaged the attention of so many wise men of antiquity,
and even of modern times, viz., how are the imperfections
discoverable in the world, the various kinds of evils,
wickedness, and baseness, compatible with the goodness,
holiness, and justice of God? This great thinker of remote
antiquity solved this difficult question philosophically by
the supposition of two primeval causes, which, though
different, were united, and produced the world of material
things, as well as that of the spirit; which doctrine may
best be learned from Yas. xxx. (see pp. 149-151).
The one, who produced the "reality" (gaya), is called
vohu-manô, “the good mind," the other, through whom the
"non-reality" (ajyditi) originated, bears the name akem
mano, “the evil mind." All good, true, and perfect things,
which fall under the category of "reality," are the produc-
tions of the "good mind;" while all that is bad and
delusive, belongs to the sphere of "non-reality," and is
traced to the "evil mind." They are the two moving
causes in the universe, united from the beginning, and
therefore, called "twins" (yemá, Sans. yamau). They are
present everywhere; in Ahuramazda as well as in men.

304
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.
These two primeval principles, if supposed to be united
in Ahuramazda himself, are not called vohu-mano and
akem manô, but speñtô mainyush, "the beneficent spirit,"
and angrô mainyush, "the hurtful spirit." That Angrô-
mainyush is no separate being, opposed to Ahuramazda, is
to be gathered unmistakeably from Yas. xix. 9 (see p. 187),
where Ahuramazda is mentioning his "two spirits," who
are inherent in his own nature, and are in other passages
(Yas. Ivii. 2, see p. 189) distinctly called the "two creators"
and “the two masters" (pâyû). And, indeed, we never
find Angrô-mainyush mentioned as a constant opponent of
Ahuramazda in the Gâthas, as is the case in later writings.
The evil against which Ahuramazda and all good men are
fighting is called drukhsh, "destruction, or lie," which is
nothing but a personification of the Devas. The same
expression for the "evil" spread in the world, we find in
the Persian cuneiform inscriptions, where, moreover, no
opponent of Ahuramazda, like Angrô-mainyush is ever
mentioned. God (Aúramazdá), in the rock records of
King Darius, is only one, as Jehovah is in the Old Testa-
ment, having no adversary whatsoever.
Spentô-mainyush was regarded as the author of all that
is bright and shining, of all that is good and useful in
nature; while Angrô-mainyush called into existence all
that is dark and apparently noxious. Both are as insepar-
able as day and night, and though opposed to each other,
are indispensable for the preservation of creation. The
beneficent spirit appears in the blazing flame, the presence
of the hurtful one is marked by the wood converted
into charcoal. Spentô-mainyush has created the light of
day, and Angrô-mainyush the darkness of night; the
former awakens men to their duties, the latter lulls them
to sleep. Life is produced by Spentô-mainyush, but ex-
tinguished by Angrô-mainyush, whose hands, by releasing
the soul from the fetters of the body, enables her to rise
into immortality and everlasting life.
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.,
305
3.-DEVELOPMENT OF ZARATHUSHTRA'S DOCTRINES OF THE SUPREME
BEING. THE TWO SUPREME COUNCILS; SROSH AND Bound-
LESS TIME.
Such is the original Zoroastrian notion of the two crea-
tive spirits, who form only two parts of the Divine Being.
But in the course of time, this doctrine of the great
founder was changed and corrupted, in consequence of
misunderstandings and false interpretations. Spentô-
mainyush was taken as a name of Ahuramazda himself,
and then, of course, Angrô-mainyush, by becoming entirely
separated from Ahuramazda, was regarded as the constant
adversary of Ahuramazda; thus the Dualism of God and
Devil arose. Each of the two spirits was considered an
independent ruler endeavouring to destroy the creation of
the other, and thus both waged constant war. This
Dualism is best perceived in the first fargard of the
Vendidad. After the sovereignty and independence of
these two spiritual rulers was once acknowledged by some
of the most influential leaders of the congregation founded
by Spitama Zarathushtra, each of them was then supposed
to have, like terrestrial rulers, his own council and court.
The number of councillors was fixed at six, who were
regarded as the actual governors of the whole universe,
each ruling over a separate province assigned to him by
his spiritual ruler. To Ahuramazda, or Spentô-mainyush,
no other power was left but to preside over the celestial
council. We often find him even included in the number
of the celestial councillors, who are then called “the seven
Ameshaspentas" (now corrupted to Amshaspends), i.e.,
immortal benefactors.
The several names, by which we find the Ameshaspentas
called, viz., Vohu-manô, Asha-vahishta, Khshathra-vairya,
Spenta-Armaiti, Haurvatâḍ, and Ameretâḍ, are frequently
mentioned in the Gâthas, but they are, as the reader may
clearly see from the passages (see Yas. xlvii. 1) as well as
from etymology, nothing but abstract nouns and ideas,
U
ㅓ
​306
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.
!
representing all the gifts which Ahuramazda, as the only
Lord, grants to those who worship him with a sincere.
heart, by always speaking truth, and performing good
actions. In the eyes of the prophet they were no person-
ages; that idea being imported into the sayings of the
great master by some of his successors.
VOHU-MANO (Bahman) is regarded as the vital faculty
in all living beings of the good creation. Originally, his
name was nothing but a term for the good principle, as
emanating from Ahuramazda, who is, therefore, called the
father of Vohu-manô. He pervades the whole living good
creation, and all the good thoughts, words, and deeds of
men are wrought by him.
ASHA-VAHISHTA (Ardibahisht) represents the blazing
flame of fire, the light in luminaries, and brightness and
splendour of any kind whatever, wherever it may exist.
The first part of the name, asha (plural of ashem), has
various meanings, such as "rectitude, righteousness, truth,"
and its epithet vahishta means originally "most splendid,
beautiful," but was afterwards used in the more general
sense of "best." Light being of the nature of Ahuramazda,
and being believed to pervade the whole good creation,
Asha-vahishta represents the omnipresence of the Divine
Being. Light maintaining the vitality of the whole crea-
tion, animate and inanimate, and being the cause of all
growth, Asha-vahishta is the preserver of all life and all
that is good. He represents, in this respect, God's Pro-
vidence.
KSHATHRA-VAIRYA (Shahrivar) presides over metals and
is the giver of wealth. His name means simply "posses-
sion, wealth," afterwards it was applied to metal and
money. Wealth is considered as a gift from Ahuramazda.
SPENTA-ARMAITI (Spendarmad or Isfendarmad), "the
bountiful Armaiti," represents the earth. The original
meaning of Armaiti, as we have seen above (see p. 274),
however, is "devotion, obedience." She represents the
pious and obedient heart of the true worshipper of Ahura-
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.
307
mazda, who serves God alone with body and soul. When
the name is applied to the earth, it means that she is the
servant of men, who, if well treated (i.e., cultivated), will
yield abundance of food.
HAURVATAD and AMERETAD (Khordâd and Amardâd)
preside over vegetation, and produce all kinds of fruits;
but this is very likely not their original meaning. As the
names indicate (Haurvatâd means "completeness, health,"
and Ameretâd, “immortality"), they represent the preser-
vation of the original uncorrupted state of the good crea-
tion, and its remaining in the same condition as that in
which it was created by God. They are generally both
mentioned together, and express, therefore, a single com-
pound idea.
Quite separate from the celestial council stands SRAOSHA
(Srosh), who is, however, regarded as an archangel vested
with very high powers. While the Ameshaspentas in
Zarathushtra's eyes represented nothing but the qualities
and gifts of Ahuramazda, Sraosha seems to have been con-
sidered by him as a personality. He is the angel who
stands between God and man, the great teacher of the
good religion who instructed the prophet in it. He shows
the way to heaven and pronounces judgment on human
actions after death (for further information see the Srosh
Yasht, p. 189). Originally his name meant "hearing" (from
the root sru to hear), which, taken in a religious sense,
means the sacred tradition. In this respect we may best
compare the word with the Sanskrit Shruti, by which
name the Brahmans understand the sacred tradition, as
laid down in the various parts of the Vedas, especially in
that which treats of sacrificial rites. All that is said of
Srosh, in the Srosh Yasht, fully agrees with this meaning
of his name. We must, therefore, regard him only as the
personification of the whole divine service, including the
prayers as well as the sacrificial rites. When he is said
to be the guardian of the whole creation, and that without
his protection the world would fall a prey to the demons,
308
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.
A
$
it is meant that men must offer up prayers to God and
worship him; and should they fail to do so, the good mind.
(Vohu-mano) within them becomes powerless, and the bad
mind (Akem-mano) takes entire possession of them, insti-
gating them to commit sins and crimes, in consequence of
which they will become utterly cast away, both in this
life and in that to come. Srosh fights chiefly against the
Devas. This means, that the Zoroastrian divine service is
destined to counterbalance the mischief which the Indian
Devas were supposed to be doing to the good creation.
66
Like Ahuramazda, his adversary Angrô-mainyush was,
in later times, supposed to be also surrounded by a council.
This idea is completely foreign to the older texts, and is
evidently only an imitation of the celestial council. The
number of councillors of the infernal kingdom was like-
wise fixed at six (not in the Avesta texts, but only in the
Bundahish), who were called pre-eminently Devas and
headed by Angrô-mainyush, who, for this reason, was
called Daêvanām Daêvó, or archdemon. The first in rank
after Angrô-mainyush was AKEM-MANO, which means the
evil mind," and is nothing but Zarathushtra's philoso-
phical term of the second principle, the "non-reality."
He produces all bad thoughts in men, and makes them
utter bad words and commit sins. His influence is
checked by Vohu-manô, the good mind. The second seat
in the infernal council is occupied by the King of the
Vedic gods, INDRA; the third place is assigned to Saurva,
the Shiva of the Hindus. Fourth in rank is NAONHAITHYA,
the collective name of the Indian Ashvins (Dioskuri); the
fifth and sixth places are occupied by two personifications,
DARKNESS and POISON (see the Bundahish, edited by
Westergaard, p. 5).
There are a good many other names of Devas to be
found in the Zend-Avesta; but almost all are nothing but
personifications of vices and evils. Thus, for instance,
Aéshema means "rapine, attack," Driwish is "poverty,"
Daiwish, "deceit," &c. While the celestial council is
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.
309
always taking measures for promoting life and spreading
truth, the infernal councillors are constantly plotting de-
signs for the destruction of life, and endeavouring to spread
lies and falschood everywhere. The Zoroastrian idea of
the Devil and the infernal kingdom coincides entirely with
the Christian doctrine. The Devil is a murderer and father
of lies according to both the Bible and the Zend-Avesta.
In consequence of this entire separation of the two parts.
of Ahuramazda, and the substitution of two independent
rulers governing the universe, the unity of the Supreme
Being was lost, and Monotheism was superseded by Dual-
ism. But this deviation from, and entire change of, the
prophet's doctrine could not satisfy the minds of all the
divines and philosophers in ancient Persia. It was very
likely only the innovation of an influential party or sect,
probably that which was called Zendik, i.e., following the
interpretation (Zend), and which was opposed to that of
the Magi (see p. 14). That Dualism was actually the doc-
trine of the Zendiks, we best learn from the commence-
ment of the Bundahish, which book purports to expound
the lore of this party. The Magi seem still to have clung
to the prophet's doctrine of the unity of the Supreme
Being. But to refute the heretical opinions of the Zendiks,
which were founded on interpretations of passages from
the sacred texts, a new and fresh proof of the unity of the
Supreme Being was required. This was found in the term
Zarvan akarana, "boundless time," which we meet with
occasionally in the Zend-Avesta. The chief passage, no
doubt, was Vend. xix. 9 (see pp. 24 and 254); but the in-
terpretation for proving that Zarvan akarana means the
Supreme Being, out of whom Ahuramazda and Angrô-
mainyush are said to have sprung, rests on a grammatical
misunderstanding, as we have seen above (p. 24). This
interpretation, however, must be very old; for all the pre-
sent Dasturs believe in it as an incontrovertible fact.
That this doctrine of Zarvan akarana was commonly
believed in Persia, during the times of the Sasanians, may
1
310
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.
be distinctly seen from the reports quoted above (pp.
12-14). The true meaning of the expression, that "the
beneficent Spirit made (them) in boundless time," is that
God (Ahuramazda) is from eternity, self-existing, neither
born nor created. Only an eternal being can be indepen-
dent of the bounds of time to which all mortals are subject.
4.-THE TWO INTELLECTS; Two LIVES; HEAVEN AND HELL;
RESURRECTION; AND PALINGENESIS.
In the Gâthas we frequently find "two intellects"
(khratu) and "two lives" (ahu) spoken of. These notions,
therefore, formed undoubtedly part of Spitama Zarathush-
tra's speculation. The two intellects are distinguished as
the "first" and "last." From the passages where they are
mentioned (Yas. xliv. 19, xlviii. 4), their meaning cannot
be ascertained with certainty. But happily we find them
mentioned in later Avesta writings (see Yt. ii. 1) by more.
expressive names; one of the intellects is called âsnó
khratu, "the original intellect or wisdom," which we can
best identify with the "first" in the Gâthas; the other is
styled gaoshô-srútô khratu," the wisdom heard by the ear,"
which corresponds to the "last." Another name of the
"first" is mainyu khratu (minó khird), "spiritual or hea-
venly wisdom." Now we cannot be mistaken as to the
meaning of these two intellects. The "first intellect" is
not from earth, but from heaven; not human, but divine.
The "last intellect" represents what man has heard and
learned by experience. The wisdom gained in this way is,
of course, inferior to the heavenly wisdom. Only the latter
can instruct man in the higher matters of life, as we see
from a later book called "Mînôkhird," which is written in
Pâzand (see p. 105).
The "two lives" are distinguished as astrat, "bodily,"
or parâhu, "prior life," and as manahya, "mental," or
daibitya, "the second" (see Yas. xxviii. 3; xliii. 3; xlv. 1;
xlvi. 19). Their meaning is clear enough, and requires no
further comment; they express our idea "body and soul."
{
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.
311
To be distinguished from these "two lives," are the "first"
and the "last lives," which mean this life and that here-
after.
The idea of a future life, and the immortality of the
soul, is expressed very distinctly already in the Gâthas,
and pervades the whole of the later Avesta literature.
The belief in a life to come is one of the chief dogmas of
the Zend-Avesta. See the passages about the fate of the
soul after death, translated in the third Essay (pp. 220, 254).
Closely connected with this idea is the belief in HEAVEN
and HELL, which Spitama Zarathushtra himself clearly
pronounced in his Gâthas. The name for Heaven is Garó-
demâna (Garotmân in Persian), "house of hymns," be-
cause the angels are believed to sing hymns there (see
Yas. xxviii. 10; xxxiv. 2), which description agrees en-
tirely with the Christian idea as founded on Isaiah vi. and
the Revelation of St. John. Garô-demâna is the residence
of Ahuramazda and the most blessed men (Yas. li. 15).
Another more general name for Heaven is ahu vahishta,
"the best_life," afterwards shortened to vahishta only,
which is still extant in the modern Persian bahisht, "para-
dise."
Hell is called Drûjô demâna, “house of destruction,” in
the Gâthas. It is chiefly the residence of the poets and
priests of the Deva religion, the Rishis of the Brahmans
(Yas. xlvi. 11). The later name is Duzhanha (Yasht xix.
44), which is preserved in the modern Persian Dûzakh,
"hell."
I
Between Heaven and Hell is CHINVAT PERETU (Chin-
vad pûl), “the bridge of the gatherer," or "the bridge of
the judge" (Chinvat can have both meanings), which the
soul of the pious alone can pass, while the wicked fall
from it down into Hell. It is mentioned, as we have seen,
already in the Gâthas (Yas. xlvi. 10, 11).
The belief in the RESURRECTION of the body at the time
of the last judgment also forms one of the Zoroastrian
dogmas, as the reader will have learned from the passage

312
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.
11249
quoted above (p. 217), In consequence of Burnouf's in-
quiries into the phrase yavaêcha yavatâtaêcha (which had
been translated by Anquetil "till the resurrection," but
which means nothing but "for ever and ever"), the exist-
ence of such a doctrine in the Zend-Avesta was lately
doubted. But there is not the slightest reason for doubt-
ing it, as any one may convince himself from the passage
quoted in p. 217, where it is clearly stated that the dead
shall rise again. That the resurrection of the dead was a
common belief of the Magi, long before the commencement
of our era, may be learned from the statement of Theopom-
pos (see pp. 8, 9). Now the question arises, had Spitama
Zarathushtra already pronounced this doctrine, which is
one of the chief dogmas of Christianity, and of the Jewish
and Mohammedan religions, or is it of later, perhaps
foreign, origin?
Though in the Gâthas there is no particular statement
made of the resurrection of the dead, yet we find a phrase
used which was afterwards always applied to signify the
time of resurrection, and the restoration of all life that has
been lost during the duration of creation. This is the
expression frashem kerenaon ahúm (Yas. xxx. 9,¹ see p.
150), "they make the life lasting," ie., they perpetuate
the life. Out of this phrase the substantive frashô-kereti,
"perpetuation” of life, was formed, by which, in all the
later Avesta books, the whole period of resurrection and
palingenesis at the end of time is to be understood. The
resurrection forms only a part of it. That this event was
really included in the term of frashô-kereti one may dis-
tinctly infer from Vend. xviii. 51, where Spenta-Armaiti
(the earth) is invoked to restore "at the triumphant reno-
vation" of creation, the lost progeny, in the form of one
knowing the Gâthas, knowing the Yasna, and attending
to the discourses" (see p. 249).
((
According to these statements, there can be no doubt
¹ A full explanation of it is to be found in the author's work on the
Gâthas, vol. i. pp. 109-112.
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.
313
that this important doctrine is a genuine Zoroastrian
dogma, which developed itself naturally from Spitama
Zarathushtra's sayings. There is not the slightest trace of
its being borrowed from a foreign source. Besides these
direct proofs of its forming a genuine and original part of
Zoroastrian theology, it agrees completely with the spirit
and tendency of the Parsi religion. All life of the good
creation, especially that of man, bodily as well as spiritual,
is a sacred pawn intrusted by God to man who must keep
his body free from impurity, and his soul from sin. If
death destroy the body (in the natural course),1 it is not
the fault of man who falls to an inexorable fate; but it is
considered as the duty of God, who is the preserver of all
life, to restore all life that has fallen a prey to death, to
destroy this arch-enemy of human life, and so make life
everlasting. This is to be done at the time of the resur-
rection.
A detailed description of the resurrection and the last
judgment is contained in the 31st chapter of the Bun-
dahish (see pp. 70-77 Westerg.), which is, no doubt,
founded on original Avesta sources which are now lost. In
it an old song is embodied, the purport of which is to show
that, though it appears to short-sighted mortals impossible
for the body (when once dissolved into its elements, and
those elements scattered in every direction) to be restored
again, yet nothing is impossible for the hand of the
Almighty, who created heaven and earth, endows the trees
with sap, gives life to embryos in the womb, &c.
For awakening the dead bodies, restoring all life de-
stroyed by death, and holding the last judgment, the great
prophet Sosyosh (Saoshyãs in the Avesta) will appear by
order of Ahuramazda. This idea is already to be found in
the Avesta texts, only with the difference, that sometimes
several (see p. 217), sometimes only one Soshyâns is men-
1 Suicide is, according to the Zoro-
astrian religion, one of the most hor-
rible crimes, belonging to the class of
marg-arzân, or "deadly "sins. To the
same class belongs adultery. The
committal of such sins leads straight
down to hell, whence no Ijashne can
release the soul.
217
314
ZARATHUSHTRA'S THEOLOGY.
tioned (see p. 254). The later Parsi legends distinguish
three great prophets who will appear before the end of the
world. These are the men who will perpetuate life (who
will produce frashô-kereti), men of the same stamp as the
ancient prophets and fire-priests, and bearing the same
name, viz., Saoshyantô. They will be commissioned to
check the influence of the devil, which increases at the
time when this world is verging towards its end, by restor-
ing truth and faith and the good Zoroastrian religion.
Their names are poetical and imply a simile; the dark.
period of wretchedness and sin, in which they appear,
being compared to night, and the era of eternal bliss, they
are endeavouring to bring about, being likened to the bril-
liant day. The first of these prophets is called Hukhsha-
thra Mão (Hushêdar-mâh), “ the moon of happy rule;"
the second is Hukhshathra Bâmya (Hushêdar-bâmî), "the
aurora of happy rule;" and the third and greatest is called
Saoshyãs (Sosyosh). He is believed to be a son of Spi-
tama Zarathushtra, begotten in a supernatural way. This
means, that just as Spitama Zarathushtra was the greatest
prophet and priest in ancient times, so will Sosyosh be the
greatest of those to come. Therefore, he alone brings with
him a new Nask of the Zend-Avesta, which was hitherto
unknown, and reveals it to mankind.
(315)
APPENDIX.
SOME further translations from the Zend-Avesta, prepared at
various times by the author, but not hitherto published, together
with his notes descriptive of the mode of performing some of the
Parsi ceremonies, are here added in the form of an Appendix to
the foregoing Essays.
I. TRANSLATIONS FROM THE ÅVESTA.
These translations, which were written by the author in Ger
man, supply the following additions to the passages already given
in the third Essay :--
1.-Vendidad, Fargard III. 1-23, and 34, 35.
1. Creator of the settlements supplied with creatures, righte-
ous one! Where is the first most pleasing (spot) of this earth?¹
Then said Ahuramazda: Wherein, indeed, a righteous man shall
pray,2 O Spitama Zarathushtra! holding the firewood, holding
the Barsom, holding the milk-offering (gaush jivya), holding the
Homa-mortar. [(Pâzand) Recite the words containing akhshti ³
1 Or "Where is the first (spot) most
pleasing to this earth," according to
the Pahlavi translator.
2 So understood by the Pahlavi
translator, who uses the word frand-
méd; compare also Yas. Ixii. 1. This
Pahlavi word can, however, also be
read fravâmêḍ, "goes forth."
3
3 This appears to refer to the word
akhshti in the Afrîngân Dahmân (see
Yas. lx. 5). The passage containing
this word is the most sacred part of
the Afrîngân, during the recital of
which some sandal-wood is thrown
into the fire, and it must occur in all
Afrîngâns.
1
316
VENDIDAD, FARGARD III.
with religion; they may invoke both Mithra, ruling over wide
fields, and Râmna-qâstra].¹
1
2, 3. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Where is the second most
pleasing (spot) of this earth? Then said Ahuramazda: Wherein,
indeed, a righteous man has built a house provided with fire,
with cattle, with a wife, with a son, with plenty. Thencefor-
ward the cattle of this house are in abundance, the righteousness
in abundance, the pasture 2 in abundance, the dog in abundance,
the wife in abundance, the child in abundance, the fire in abund-
ance, the whole good creation in abundance.
4. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Where is the third most pleas-
ing (spot) of this earth? Then said Ahuramazda: Wherein,
indeed, one cultivates, O Spitama Zarathushtra! the most corn,
and pasture, and fruit-bearing trees; either where one provides.
water for unwatered (land), or where one provides drainage for
watery (land).
I
5. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Where is the fourth most
pleasing (spot) of this earth? Then said Ahuramazda: Wherein,
indeed, cattle and draught beasts are born most.
6. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Where is the fifth most pleasing
(spot) of this earth? Then said Ahuramazda: Wherein, indeed,
cattle and draught beasts void most urine.³
7. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Where is the first most un-
pleasing (spot) of this earth? Then said Ahuramazda: What is
on the ridge of Arezûra, O Spitama Zarathushtra! on which the
demons congregate out of the pit of destruction (hell).
4
8. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Where is the second most un-
pleasing (spot) of this earth? Then said Ahuramazda: Wherein,
indeed, both dead dogs and dead men are most lying buried:
9. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Where is the third most un-
i
This passage is here taken either
as a Pâzand interpolation, or as an
Avesta quotation in the Pahlavi tran-
slation. It has reference to the Dir-
Mihir or Agiari, where Mithra and
Rama-qâstra (the angel Râm, sce p.
214) are supposed to dwell, and where
they must be invoked. Some MSS.
have "I will invoke," in which case
the passage may perhaps be taken as
an exclamation of the righteous man.
2 Some MSS. and the Pahlavi tran-
slation have "clothing."
3 The five most pleasing spots on
the earth (or most pleasing to the
spirit of the earth, if we accept the
Pahlavi interpretation) are, therefore,
the fire-temple, the house of a pious
Zoroastrian, cultivated lands, stables,
and pastures.
4 A mountain said to be situated at
the gate of hell.
VENDIDAD, FARGARD III.
317
pleasing (spot) of this earth? Then said Ahuramazda: Wherein,
indeed, vaulted tombs 1 are most constructed, in which dead men
are deposited.
10. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Where is the fourth most un-
pleasing (spot) of this earth? Then said Ahuramazda: Wherein,
indeed, there are the most holes (of the creatures) of Angrô-
mainyush.
11. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Where is the fifth most un-
pleasing (spot) of this earth? Then said Ahuramazda: Wherein,
indeed, O Spitama Zarathushtra! the wife or child of a righte-
ous man shall travel the devious 2 path, (and) he brings forth
wailing words coupled with dust and with sand.
12. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Who first rejoices this earth
with the greatest joy? Then said Ahuramazda: When, indeed,
he most digs up where both dead dogs and dead men are lying
buried.
I
13. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Who secondly rejoices this
earth with the greatest joy? Then said Ahuramazda: When,
indeed, he most demolishes the vaulted tombs in which dead
men are deposited.
14. No one is carrying alone what is dead. For if he should
carry alone that which is dead, the Nasush would indeed defile
(him) from the nose, from the eye, from the tongue, from the
chin, from the sexual part, from the anus.4 This Drukhsh
Nasush falls upon them (on such carriers), on their speech,5
(and) afterwards they are impure for ever and ever.
1 Covered tombs are forbidden to
the Zoroastrians, as the corpse must
remain exposed to the light of the
sun, and not be laid in any closed
sepulchre.
2 The Dasturs understand by vara-
ithîm pañtām the forbidden or peril-
ous path of death, and consider this
passage as a direct prohibition of all
lamentations and outward signs of
mourning for the dead. The Pahlavi
commentary is obscure, but appears
to describe the path as grievous, but
to return upon it as still more gloomy
or impracticable.
than two men, according to the reli-
gious laws of the Zoroastrians.
4 The drukhsh yá nasush, or demon
of corruption, issues from the corpse
and settles upon the man who is
carrying it improperly.
It seems
likely that the text means to state
that the Nasush issues from all the
nine openings of the body, but in that
case the doubtful word paitish-qarena
must be "ear" (not "chin" or "jaw");
it is equivalent to a Sanskrit form
pratisvaraṇa, which would not be an
impossible term for an "ear."
>>
5 This is the traditional explana-
3 No corpse can be carried by less tion, which seems probable enough.
318
VENDIDAD, FARGARD III.
I
1
15. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Where should be the place of
this man who is an iristô-kasha ¹ (single carrier of the dead)?
Then said Ahuramazda: Where there may be the most waterless
and treeless (spot) of this earth, with the most ground fit for the
purification ceremony and the most dry land; and the cattle
and draught beasts shall go least forth on the paths, and (there
are least) fire of Ahuramazda, and Barsom rightly arranged, and
men who are righteous.
16. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. How far from fire, how far
from water, how far from the Barsom to be arranged, how far from
righteous men?
17. Then said Ahuramazda: Thirty steps from fire, thirty
steps from water, thirty steps from the Barsom to be arranged,
three steps from righteous men.
18, 19. There the Mazdayasnians should enclose for him an
enclosure of this earth. Then for victuals they who are Mazda-
yasnians shall provide-then for clothes they who are Mazdayas-
nians shall provide-(some) among the very hardest and foulest.
These victuals let him eat, these clothes let him wear, always
till when he shall become an aged man, elderly or impotent.2
20, 21. Then when he shall become an aged man, elderly or
impotent, the Mazdayasnians should afterwards, in the most
effectual, most rapid, and most skilful manner, strip the extent
of the skin, the support of the hair,³ off his head. To the most
voracious of the beneficent spirit's carnivorous creatures, the birds
(and) vultures, one should deliver over the body, speaking thus:
These depart with him, all (his) evil thoughts, and evil words,
and evil deeds. And if other wicked deeds were perpetrated by
him, his atonement is through patita (renunciation of sin);
moreover, if other wicked deeds were not perpetrated by him,
the patita of that man is (completed) for ever and ever.
22. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Who thirdly rejoices this
1 The iristô-kasha is one who car-
ries the dead in an improper manner,
and must be carefully distinguished
from the nasu-kasha (Vend. viii. 11,
13), who is the lawful carrier.
2 According to the Pahlavi transla-
tion, and the Farhang-i Oîm-khadûk
(p. 5, ed. Hoshangji), the hanô, “aged
man," is one seventy years old; the
I
66
zaururô, elderly man," is one of
fifty; and the pairishtâ-khshudrô,
"impotent or decrepit man,” is one
of ninety years.
te
3 The Pahlavi ranslator says: He
is detained on a summit, on the top
of a hill," till they scalp or behead
him.
VENDIDAD, FARGARD IV.
319
earth with the greatest joy? Then said Ahuramazda: When,
indeed, he most destroys the holes of (the creatures) of Angrô-
mainyush.
23. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Who fourthly rejoices this
earth with the greatest joy? Then said Ahuramazda: When,
indeed, he cultivates, O Spitama Zarathushtra! the most corn,
and pasture, and fruit-bearing trees; either where he provides
water for unwatered (land), or where he provides drainage for
watery (land).
24-33 [See the translation in pp. 235-237.]
34, 35. Creator, &c. [as in ver. 1]. Who fifthly rejoices this
earth with the greatest joy? Then said Ahuramazda: When,
indeed, O Spitama Zarathushtra! he shall labour on this earth,
(and) gives with righteousness and goodness to a righteous man.
When, indeed, O Spitama Zarathushtra! he shall labour on this
earth, (and) gives not with righteousness and goodness to a
righteous man, one should thrust him out of the bountiful earth
(Armaiti) into darkness, and distress, and the worst existence,
and he must submit to all thorns.
36-42. [Not translated.]
2.-Vendidad, Fargard IV. 44-55.
44-46. And¹ when men of the same (Mazdayasnian) religion
should come here, either brothers or friends, seeking property,
or seeking a wife, or seeking wisdom; if they should come seek-
ing property, they may acquire their property here; if they
should come seeking a wife, you may let a woman marry; if
they should come seeking wisdom, you may recite the beneficent
text 2 both early in the daytime and late, both early in the night-
time and late, for the increase in wisdom of the learner 3 for the
1 Ver. 44 has been already tran-
slated in p. 240, but it is so closely
connected with the following verses
that it is necessary to repeat it here.
2 The Pahlavi translation adds:
"That is, its words are to be
taught."
3 The Pahlavi version is: "When
it may have increased his wisdom
(that is, when it may be made quite
easy to him) and he may have re-
peated (?) it through righteousness
(that is, he may have quite under-
stood what is declared by it)." The
Avesta word vîdrvânahê (“of the
learner") occurs nowhere else, and is
here explained by barâ daráḍ in Pah-
lavi, which is equally obscure, but
the general sense indicated by the
Pahlavi is that of "learner or pupil.”
It may, however, be remarked that if
vîdrvânahê be traced to vi-dru we ob-
320
VENDIDAD, FARGARD IV.
sake of righteousness; and with righteousness and reverence he
sits at home for increase in wisdom.1 In the middle of both day
and night he may sleep, by day and by night, always till when
they should recite those sayings which the Herbads had previ-
ously recited.2 They (the sayings) are adapted for men (who
are) like boiling water (through zeal). Not for meat, not for
clothes, (but) unrewarded, must he (the teacher) utter the chap-
ters (Hâs).3
47. And, moreover, I tell thee thus, O Spitama Zarathush-
tra! verily the priest (magava) 4 must recite from it sooner for
the married man than for thee, for him with a house than
for him without a house, for him with a son than for him
without a son, for him with property than for him without
property.
48. And of these two men be shall be more possessed of the
good mind (Vohu-manô) who shall promote the growth of meat
(or cattle) than he who does not. So he being dead, he is as
much as an asperena,5 he is as much as a young animal, he is
as much as a draught beast,
a draught beast, he is as much as a man (in
weight).6
tain a meaning ("of the fugitive or
refugee") which would also suit the
passage, as the men seem to have
come as exiles from their own homes.
The anomalous Pahlavi word daraḍ
can also be read girikht, which sug-
gests girikht, “fled" (although this
is generally written virîkht); and the
Pahlavi phrase would then mean:
"and he may have fled on account of
righteousness." The explanatory
phrases of the Pahlavi translation,
given above in parentheses, are pro-
bably later interpolations. The
phrase "to make easy" is a Pahlavi
and Persian idiom for "to learn by
heart."
1 The Pahlavi version is: "In awe
of God and thankfulness towards God
that wisdom increases which is made
easy to him, (and) he is constant in
exertion that he may retain it by
labour and the grace of God." That
yaonem (which is here rendered by
Pahl. ayûjishn, "exertion") means
"home, place," is plain from the pas-
sage, Vend. xxi. 4: hãm yaêtâoṇhô
yaonemcha avi zamcha, zamcha avi
yaonemcha, "(the waters) striving to-
wards home and the earth, towards
the earth and home (in the sea Vouru-
kasha).”
2 The Pahlavi version adds the
name of Adarpâd Mâraspendân.
3 The Pahlavi version is: "Thou
shouldst not speak of the non-giving
of meat nor of clothes which should
be thine; always say: No! and after-
wards even, at the time, say: A
little!"
..
4 The Pahlavi version renders yatha
magavô fravakhshôiḍ by: as (one)
who has progressed in the Maghi (the
Barashnom ceremony), that is, has no
wife;" alluding to the fact that a
man undergoing that ceremony must
live separate from his wife.
5 A weight equivalent to a dirham.
6 Probably referring to the weight
of his good works.
VENDIDAD, FARGARD IV.
321
49. For this man, on meeting, fights with Astô-vîdhôtu.¹
Whoever fights an arrow shot by himself, whoever fights Zemaka
(the Winter demon, and) wears scanty clothing, whoever fights
a wicked man, a tyrant, and (strikes him) on the head,2 whoever
fights an unrighteous apostate (and) starvation; (any) of these
deeds being performed a first time, is not (to be done) a second
time.
4
3
50. That such as are in this material world may here under-
stand (the agony) of this exploit there, one should cut away to
the bones with iron knives; verily, it is greater than any such
(agony) of his mortal body.5
51. That such as are in this material world may here under-
stand (the agony) of this exploit there, one should tear away to
the bones with iron pincers; verily, it is greater than any such
(agony) of his mortal body.
52. That such as are in this material world may here under-
stand (the agony) of this exploit there, one should fall involun-
tarily into a pit (deep as) a hundred men; verily, it is greater
than any such (agony) of his mortal body.
53. That such as are in this material world may here under-
stand (the agony) of this exploit there, one should stand involun-
tarily on an extreme verge (of a precipice).6
1 The demon of death, who is said,
in later writings, to cast a halter
around the necks of the dead to drag
them to hell, but if their good works
have exceeded their sins they throw
off the noose and go to heaven. Per-
haps the grammatical difficulties of
this sentence may be best overcome
by the following translation :-"For
this one, Astô-vîdhôtu, on meeting
men, fights."
thesis is not found in the oldest MSS.
In the Pahlavi each clause of the sen-
tence is also wound up by stating that
"his fight is with Astô-vîdhótu," that
is, at the risk of death.
4 That is, of the conflict of the soul
with Astô-vîdhótu in the other world.
Possibly aêtadha (here translated
"here") may be taken as the missing
noun agonies;" compare aêithúhu,
"through terrors," Yt. xxii. 25, see
2 The Pahlavi version says: "A p. 222.
beheader like Zarhûndâd.”
3 If asha be taken in its primitive
sense of
right," this phrase may
merely mean: "whoever fights mis-
chievous and unusual hunger." The
Pahlavi version, instead of "starva-
tion," has: a tyrant like Mazdak(-i
Bâmdâdân who ate his own liver, and
it was given to him in anguish and
death);" but the passage in paren-
''
66
5 The translation of this difficult
passage has been much revised, so as
to correspond more closely with the
text without introducing additional
words, which are always hazardous
suggestions.
6 The Pahlavi translator misunder-
stands this verse as referring to sexual
enjoyment.
I
322
VENDIDAD, FARGARD V.
54. That such as are in this material world may here under-
stand (the agony) of this exploit there, one knowing a lie should
drink up the beneficial, golden, intelligent water with denial of
the truth (Rashnu) and breach of promise (Mithra).¹
55. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. Whoever knowing a lie should
drink up, &c. [as in ver. 54]; what is his punishment? Then
said Ahuramazda: One may strike seven hundred blows with a
horse-goad, seven hundred with a scourge.2
3.—Vendidad, Fargard V.
•
1. A man dies there in the depths of the valleys; thereupon
a bird flies aloft from the summits of the hills into the depths
of the valleys; it feeds upon the body of the dead man. Then
the bird flies aloft from the depths of the valleys to the summits
of the hills; it flies on to a tree, either of the hard or of the soft
(kinds). It (the nasush, "dead matter ") is vomited on it, is
matter")
voided on it, is dropped on it.
2. A man goes forth there from the depths of the valleys to
the summits of the hills; he goes up to the tree where that bird
was; he wants faggots for the fire; he fells it, he hews it, he
splits it, he kindles it in the fire, the offspring of Ahuramazda.
What is the punishment for this?
3. Then said Ahuramazda: No dead matter (nasush) brought
by a dog, none brought by a bird, none brought by a wolf, none
brought by the wind, none brought by a fly, pollutes a man.
1 This refers to an ordeal in which
a cup of water is drunk after solemnly
invoking curses upon one's head if
one has not told the truth. The
water is prepared with great solem-
nity, and contains various sacred sub-
stances, among them some Homa
juice, which is referred to in the
Pahlavi version by the epithet gokard-
homand for saokeñtavaitîm, "bene-
ficial;
" and a little gold is added,
which accounts for the second epithet
in the text. See the Saugand-
námah.
2 The Pahlavi.version adds: "Who-
ever performs an ordeal (var) his
punishment-says a voice-is this.”
3 The additional words, dâyata
daityâ-pairishta, “it was kept law-
fully inspected," appear to be merely
an Avesta quotation in the Pahlavi
translation. This inspection is after-
wards more fully noticed in the long
Pahlavi commentary to ver. 4, where
it is stated that firewood must be re-
jected if contaminated with dead
matter, or if decayed, or from a gal-
lows, or mixed with grease, or pol-
luted by a menstruous woman, except
in case of death or distress; the burn-
ing of such firewood is a tandpûhar
sin, but burning greasy wood is a
mortal sin.
1
VENDIDAD, FARGARD V.
323
4. If, indeed, the dead matters which are brought by a dog,
and brought by a bird, and brought by a wolf, and brought by
the wind, and brought by a fly, are the dead matter (which)
would be polluting a man, speedily my whole material world
would overthrow (its) essential righteousness (or regularity, and
be) distressing the soul (and) ruining the body, through the mul-
titude of these dead matters which have perished upon this
earth.
5. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. A man pours water on to a
corn-field; he shall go into the water-channel (vaidhim) 1 through
it, into (it) a second time, into (it) a third time, and after the
fourth time they drag dead matter in, (be they) dog, or fox, or
wolf. What is the punishment for this?
6. Then said Ahuramazda, &c. [as in ver. 3]
7. If, indeed, the dead matters, &c. [as in ver. 4].²
Ι
3
8. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. Does the water destroy a man?
Then said Ahuramazda: The water does not destroy a man.
Astô-vîdhôtu binds him; the flying demon (Fayô) ³ conveys him
bound; the water carries (him) up, the water carries (him)
down, the water casts (him) away; the birds (vayo) then de-
vour him. There he then proceeds, through fate he then
departs.
9. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. Does the fire destroy a man?
Then said Ahuramazda: The fire does not destroy a man.
1 In Pahlavi jót, a rivulet."
2 The Pahlavi commentary on this
passage states: "It is declared by
the Avesta, the dry channel of a
rivulet (jôî khúshk vurú, Pers. buru)
is to be inspected for dead matter.
Yêzi vasen Mazdayasna zām raodh-
ayen ('If the Mazdayasnians wish
they may irrigate the land")." It
then proceeds to say that a man be-
fore admitting the water must de-
scend three times into the channel
and inspect it carefully, to see that
it is free from impurity, and after a
fourth inspection he may allow the
water to enter. Further provisions
are made in case of the inspection
being impracticable, and as to the
merit acquired by diverting the water
Astô-
from any impurity in its way. Most
of this commentary is omitted in
Spiegel's edition of the Pahlavi text,
but will be found in the old MS. at
the India Office Library in London,
mentioned in p. 95.
3 Vyê-i sarîtar, "the evil Vyê,” in
the Pahlavi version; this is the Vaè
i-vatar of the Mainyô-i-khard (ii. 115),
where he is one of the demons who
oppose the soul's progress towards
heaven.
4 That is, to the other world. The
Pahlavi version has : When he sets
out back from thence (that is, shall
come) fate will convey him back (that
is, she is in the leading path when he
shall come)."
324
VENDIDAD, FARGARD V.
vîdhôtu binds him; the flying demon (Vayo) 1 conveys him
bound; the fire consumes the bones and vitality. There he
then proceeds, through fate he then departs.2
10. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. They pass out of summer, then
in winter how should they act, they who are Mazdayasnians?
Then said Ahuramazda: In every dwelling, in every neighbour-
hood,³ they shall erect three Katas for any one when dead.
11. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. How large are these Katas for
any one when dead? Then said Ahuramazda: So that he may
not strike his head against the upper part,4 nor the further end
with the feet, nor across with the hands; verily, this is a lawful
Kata for any one when dead.
1 The Pahlavi version adds: "That
is when, as some say, the good Vâyâ
will ever receive him." This refers
to the Vac-i-veh of the Mainyô-i-
khard (ii. 115), where he is one of the
angels who assist the soul's progress
to heaven. He is identical with the
angel Râm, the Vayu of the Râm
Yasht, see p. 214.
2 The Pahlavi commentary on this
passage is: "Worldly (benefits are
acquired) through fate, spiritual
through action; some say that wife,
child, wealth, authority, and life are
through fate, the rest through action.
The happiness which is not destined
for a man he never attains to; (this)
is evident from the passage (begin-
ning): gairi-masô anhô aêtahê ("thou
mightest be mountain-sized of this");
that which is destined for him, and
which will come before him through
exertion, is anyó arcdvô zeñgô qarenô
("the other persistent glory"), and
it was through his sinfulness when
trouble happens to him. Aad qa-
reno frapairyêiti (“then glory de-
livers ") and the misfortune destined
for him he is able to avert by proper
exertion; pouru-qarenanḥo ashava
Zarathushtra ("full of glory (he is)
O righteous Zarathushtra !"); and his
sinfulness ever anew destines it (mis-
fortune) for him. Alshamcha naram
("and of these men ") one man, when
through the destiny of another man it
was necessary for him, had died when
through the destiny of that dead one
it was still improper, but he (the first
one) was able to do it so that, through
the slaying of that innocent one, jus-
tice (radîh) should well deal with
this quarrel." This commentary is a
fair specimen of the mode in which
Avesta quotations are used in the
Pahlavi version of the Vendidad. In
the above quotations the word qarena,
glory, brilliance," is probably used
for bakhta, "fate, destiny," which
would obviously be more appropriate
in meaning. Both these words would
be equivalent to the same Huzvârish
logogram, gadman, and this fact
might lead to the one word being
substituted for the other, provided
we assume that the Avesta quotations
had been, at one time, written in
Pahlavi.
3 The oldest Pahlavi MSS. have
merely, Man vis khanak khadak dast
kadlo, explaining man by khanak,
house," and vis by dast-i kado, "group
of huts."
а
4 The Pahlavi MS. version has :
"So much as, when standing (that
is, living) the head strikes not against
the limits (ahan), nor when the foot
is forth (that is, when the foot is ex-
tended), nor when the hand is un-
moved (that is, his hand is held
back).”
VENDIDAD, FARGARD V.
DAD,
325
12. There shall they deposit his lifeless body for two nights,
or three nights, or a month long, until the (time) when the birds
shall fly forth, the plants shall shoot out, the descending (floods) 1
shall run off, (and) the wind shall dry up the ground.
13. Then when thus the birds shall fly forth, the plants shall
shoot out, the descending (floods) shall run off, (and) the wind
shall dry up the ground, the Mazdayasnians should now set his
body viewing the sun.
14. If the Mazdayasnians should not set this body viewing
the sun for the length of a year, thou shalt order as much punish-
ment as for murdering a righteous man (a Zoroastrian), in order
that the corpses (be) attended to, the Dakhmas attended to, the
impurities 2 attended to, and the birds gorged.
15. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. Wilt thou, who art Ahura-
mazda, release the water from the sea Vouru-kasha, together with
the wind and clouds?
16. Wilt thou convey (it) to a corpse, thou who art Ahura-
mazda? Wilt thou convey (it) on to a Dakhma, thou who art
Ahuramazda? Wilt thou convey (it) on to impurity, thou who
art Ahuramazda? Wilt thou pour (it) forth on a bone, thou who
art Ahuramazda? Wilt thou conduct (it) forth unnoticed, thou
who art Ahuramazda? With those (impurities) wilt thou con-
duct (it) forth to the sea Pûitika?
17. Then said Ahuramazda: Verily it is so, O Zarathushtra !
as thou sayest, O upright one! I who am Ahuramazda will re-
lease the water from the sea Vouru-kasha, together with the wind
and clouds.
18. I will convey (it) to a corpse, I who am Ahuramazda ; I
will convey (it) on to a Dakhma, I who am Ahuramazda; I will
convey (it) on to impurity, I who am Ahuramazda; I will pour
1 What are "lying low" or "di-
rected downwards," as implied by the
word nyâoñchô, must be guessed from
the context, and floods, streams,
icicles, and snow might be suggested.
The Pahlavi equivalent of nydoñcho
is ambiguous, even in the old MSS.,
and may be read either vashayingunîh,
a clearing off, an open sky," or nish-
ayingunîh, "solidification, congela-
tion;" the latter might be preferred,
as the Pahlavi translator adds, "the
adversity of winter shall depart; "but
these readings are too irregular in
form to be relied on.
2 The term hikhra, "impurity," is
applied to any bodily refuse or ex-
cretion from mankind or dogs, in-
cluding saliva, skin, hair, nail-parings,
&c. In this passage it appears to
refer to exudations from a corpse.
326
VENDIDAD, FARGARD V.
(it) forth on a bone, I who am Ahuramazda; I will conduct (it)
forth unnoticed, I who am Ahuramazda; with those (impurities)
I will conduct (it) forth to the sea Pûitika.
19. There exist streaming currents 1 in the inner part of the
sea for purifying, (and) the waters flow from the sea Pûitika to
the sea Vouru-kasha,2 to the tree Hvâpa ;3 here grow all my
trees of every kind.4
20. I rain these down together,5 I who am Ahuramazda, both
as food for the righteous man and fodder for the well-yielding
Man shall eat my corn, and fodder is for the well-yield-
OX.
ing ox.
21. This is better, this is more excellent, than thou, upright
one! sayest. By this speech the righteous Ahuramazda rejoiced
him, the righteous Zarathushtra: Mayst thou purify for man the
best (things) for procreation. This which is the Mazdayasnian
religion is pure, O Zarathushtra! He who purifies himself by
good thoughts and good words and good deeds.7
22. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. How much greater, better, and
more excellent is this Zarathushtrian Provision against the
1 Or perhaps "splashing waves;"
the Pahlavi translation is obscure,
but seems to say: "they remain in a
water-skin (av khâîk, Pers. khîk) and
bucket (dúlá) kept full.'
""
2 The Pahlavi version adds: "To-
wards the southernmost side, and it
(the water) stays behind in mist
(pavan hir, or khir), and the blue
(kavud) body of (the sea) Satavaêsa
stays behind around it. Pûitika
stands away from the shore of Sata-
vaêṣa, this is a fact, but from which
shore it stands away is not clear to
me. The water comes to Satavaêsa
through the bottom (pêkh); some say
that it traverses a fissure (kâfak).”
3 The Pahlavi version adds: "Afarg
says the root of a tree; Mêdôk-mâh
(says) a forest."
4 Some MSS. add the Avesta: "by
hundreds, by thousands, by myriads
of myriads;" and the Pahlavi version
adds:
among species, chaiti henti
urvaranăm saredha (“how many are
the kinds of trees?") that is the prin-
cipal species." Either a list of spe-
cies is omitted, or chaiti here merely
means "many," as the Pahlavi chand
often does.
5 That is, both waters and plants.
The Pahlavi commentary ascribes this
to Tishtar, according to the later tra-
dition, thus: he who is Tishtar
takes the water (that) they may take
it in the wells of waters it comes
to."
This is a quotation from the
Speñta-mainyû Gâtha (Yas. xlviii. 5)
which continues as follows:- for the
ox mayst thou nourish that of those
labouring for our food." It forms
part of an address to Armaiti, the
spirit of the earth. The disconnected
phrases which follow are probably
also texts quoted from the Scrip-
tures.
7 The Pahlavi version adds the note
that, “aṇhvām (life, self) and daênãm
(intuition, religion, self) are both the
same.
VENDIDAD, FARGARD V.
327
Devas¹ above the other traditions in greatness and goodness
and excellence.
23. Then said Ahuramazda: Verily, one may consider, ()
Spitama Zarathushtra! this Zarathushtrian Provision against
the Devas above the other traditions in greatness and goodness
and excellence, as the sea Vouru-kasha is above the other
waters.
24. Verily, one may consider, &c. [as in ver. 23], as the greater
water overpowers the lesser waters.2 Verily, one may consider,
&c. [as in ver. 23], as the greater tree overshadows the lesser
trees.3
25. Verily, one may consider, &c. [as in ver. 23], as it has been
both on and around this earth.4
Let the judge (ratu) be nominated, let the executor of the
sentence (sraoshavareza) be nominated, on a Draona (consecrated
cake) being uplifted or not uplifted, on a Draona being offered
or not offered, on a Draona being delivered or not delivered.5
26. Afterwards this judge is able to remit for him a third of
this punishment. And if other wicked deeds were perpetrated
by him, his atonement is through patita (renunciation of sin);
moreover, if other wicked deeds were not perpetrated by him,
the patita of that man is (completed) for ever and ever."
1 The Vendidad, which is a corrup-
tion of vîdaêvô-dûtem, see p. 225.
2 The Pahlavi version has :
as the
great water when it advances upon the
little water, bears (it) away when it
falls into the chitha" (perhaps equiva-
lent to chah, a pit").
3 The Pahlavi adds an obscure
phrase which may perhaps, in the
old MSS., be: sarvân malkâ áb-akhê-
zak-aê, "the king of cypresses is one
(growing) in a marsh."
4 The Pahlavi version in old MSS.
has: "as it will travel (barâ bâmined)
to this earth and over the sky, that
is, ever in all (places)." Then follows
a commentary which seems to refer
to the succeeding sentence, thus:
some say this about Nasush, and
that in the eighth (fargard) about de-
cision and judgment, is that in the
Hûspârum (Nask) about the formula
(nirang) of worship." There is evi-
dently a change of subject here.
5 The Pahlavi commentaries on this
passage are:
"The Dastur considers.
(the Sraoshâvareza) accuses of sin."
And with reference probably to the
offender, the Dastur considers: "what
was in his thoughts but not com-
mitted, and not in his thoughts but
committed; what was promised him
was not brought, and not promised
was brought; what was his intention
but not performed, and unintended
but performed." This, however,
throws little light into the obscurity
of the Avesta text.
6 This passage has occurred also in
iii. 21, and perhaps "his punishment
is abandoned" might be substituted
for "his atonement is through pa-
tita,” and acquittal" be read in-
stead of the second "patita." The
328
VENDIDAD, FARGARD V.
27. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. When men happen to be in
the same place, on a rug together, or on a mat together, and
others are on it; there may be two men, or five, or fifty, or a hun-
dred; (and) the same of women; 1 (and) then one of these men
shall die; how many among the men does this Drukhsh Nasush
(the destroyer, Corruption) reach with impurity and rottenness.
and filth?
28. Then said Ahuramazda: If he be a priest (who dies),
verily, O Spitama Zarathushtra! this Drukhsh Nasush rushes
forth; if she reaches the eleventh she pollutes indirectly to the
tenth. If, however, he be a warrior, verily, O Spitama Zara-
thushtra this Drukhsh Nasush rushes forth; if she reaches the
tenth she pollutes indirectly to the ninth. If, however, he be a
husbandman, verily, O Spitama Zarathushtra ! this Drukhsh
Nasush rushes forth; if she reaches the ninth she pollutes in-
directly to the eighth.
29. Moreover, if it be a shepherd's dog (pasush-haurva), verily,
&c. [as in ver. 28]; if she reaches the eighth she pollutes in-
directly to the seventh. If, however, it be a house-dog (vish-
haurva), verily, &c. [as in ver. 28]; if she reaches the seventh
she pollutes indirectly to the sixth.
30. If, however, it be a bloodhound (vohunazga), verily, &c.
[as in ver. 28]; if she reaches the sixth she pollutes indirectly
to the fifth. If, however, it be a young (tauruna) dog, verily,
&c. [as in ver. 28]; if she reaches the fifth she pollutes indirectly
to the fourth.
31. If, however, it be a sukuruna 2 dog, verily, &c. [as in
ver. 28]; if she reaches the fourth she pollutes indirectly to
drift of the sentence being that no
offender can be tried or punished for
an older offence than the one for
which he has been already condemned.
The Pahlavi version adds; "that is,
when the Dastur considers and de-
plores the sin, and they shall perform
good works uncomplainingly, it will
be allowable for the judge (ratu, i.c.,
Dastur) to remit one-third of the
soul's sin; this is declared where the
decision is among the judges [as in
cases of appeal or joint decisions], not
the judges' own; when it shall be the
judges' own it will be allowable to re-
mit the whole of it.”
1 The Pahlavi version misinterprets
hãm nâirinẩm by "in fellowship
(and) in contact."
2 What description of dog or animal
is meant by this epithet, or any of the
three succeeding, is quite uncertain.
The Pahlavi version merely tran-
scribes the Avesta words, and owns
that the last three are not intelli-
gible.
VENDIDAD, FARGARD V.
329
1
the third. If, however, it be a jazhu dog, verily, &c. [as in
ver. 28]; if she reaches the third she pollutes indirectly to the
second.
32. If, however, it be an aiwizu dog, verily, &c. [as in
ver. 28]; if she reaches the second she pollutes indirectly
the first. If, however, it be a vizu dog, verily, &c. [as in
ver. 28]; if she reaches the first she pollutes indirectly the
first.
33. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. If, however, the dog be a fox
(urupi), how many of the creatures of the beneficent spirit does
the dog which is a fox pollute directly? how many does it pol-
lute indirectly?1
34. Then said Ahuramazda: This dog, which is a fox,
does not pollute directly (any) of the creatures of the bene-
ficent spirit, nor does it pollute indirectly, any other than
he that smites and kills (it). To him it adheres for ever and
ever.
35. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. Moreover, if he (who dies) be
a miscreant, a two-legged unbeliever (drvđo),² as an unrighteous
apostate is, how many of the creatures of the beneficent spirit
does he pollute directly? how many does he pollute in-
directly?
3
36. Then said Ahuramazda: Like any toad dried up (and)
over a year dead; for living, O Spitama Zarathushtra! a mis-
creant, a two-legged unbeliever, as an unrighteous apostate is,
pollutes directly (any) of the creatures of the beneficent spirit;
living he pollutes (them) indirectly.
37. Living it (the toad) spoils the water, living it quenches
the fire, living it drives the cattle mad, living it strikes the righte-
ous man a blow depriving of consciousness (and) cutting off life;
not so (when) dead.
38. So, living, O Spitama Zarathushtra! a miscreant, a two-
legged unbeliever, as an unrighteous apostate is, plunders the
1 Hãm raêthwayeiti means that it
contaminates or communicates con-
tagion by direct contact, and paiti-
raêthwayêiti means that it infects or
spreads infection through an inter-
mediate person or thing.
2 Or
serpent."
a two-legged, unbelieving
3 Strictly speaking, vazagha is a
poisonous lizard.
330
VENDIDAD, FARGARD V.
righteous man of a profusion 1 of food and clothing and wood and
carpet 2 and iron; not so (when) dead.
39. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. When we bring together, O
righteous Ahuramazda !, in the dwellings in this material world,
the fire and Barsom and cups and Homa and mortar, (and) after-
wards either a dog or a man of this dwelling shall die, how should
they act, they who are Mazdayasnians?
40. Then said Ahuramazda: Off from these dwellings, O
Spitama Zarathushtra! they should carry the fire and Barsom
and cups and Homa and mortar, off from (them) the dead one.
They may think of it as the lawful man (that) is both brought
to the lawful (place) and devoured.³
41. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. How should these Mazdayas-
nians bring the fire back again to this dwelling where the man
had died?
42. Then said Ahuramazda: Nine nights should they who are
Mazdayasnians hesitate in winter, but in summer a month long;
afterwards these Mazdayasnians may bring the fire back again to
this dwelling where the man had died.
43. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. And if these Mazdayasnians
should bring the fire back again to this dwelling where the man
had died within the space of the nine nights, (or) within the
space of the month long, what is the punishment for this?
44. Then said Ahuramazda: One may inflict on the vitiated
body of such a one two hundred blows with a horse-goad, two
hundred with a scourge.
When in this Mazdayasnian
child for one month, or two
45. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1].
dwelling a woman shall go with
months, or three months, or four months, or five months, or six
months, or seven months, or eight months, or nine months, or
1 The word anheush, "of the world,"
although it would suit the sense well
enough, appears to be a corruption
since the time of the Pahlavi tran-
slation. Some MSS. have hanhush,
others hanheush, and the Pahlavi
version translates the word by asarth,
"endlessness" (sar, "head," is always
applied to the "end" in Pahlavi, bûn,
"root, origin," being the "begin-
ning"). In Yas. liii. 4, hanhush is
re-
translated in Pahlavi by sêrîh,
pletion," which is an approximation.
to the meaning of asarîh, while
neither word can be used for "world."
2 In Pahlavi namaḍ, Pers. namad.
3 Alluding both to the dead body
being taken to the Dakhma to be de-
voured by birds, and also to the
Homa juice, considered as a creature
to be consumed by a righteous man
in the consecrated place.
VENDIDAD, FARGARD V.
331
ten months, and then this woman shall be delivered in child-
birth of something lifeless, how should they act, they who are
Mazdayasnians?
46-48. Then said Ahuramazda: Where there is in this Maz-
dayasnian dwelling especially the most ground fit for the puri-
fication ceremony, and the most dry land, &c. [as in iii.
15-17].
49. There the Mazdayasnians should enclose for her an en-
closure of this earth. Then for victuals they who are Mazdayas-
nians shall provide, then for clothes they who are Mazdayasnians
shall provide.
50. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. What food should this woman
first eat?
51. Then said Ahuramazda: Ashes with bull's urine, three
draughts, or else six, or else nine; these she should pour (by
drinking)¹ on the receptacle of the dead within the effusing
womb.
52. Then, afterwards, (she may swallow some) of the warm
milk of mares and cows and sheep and goats, of (the fruits) with
rind (and) without rind, and cooked meat undiluted, and true
corn undiluted, and honey undiluted.
53. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. How long should they hesi-
tate? how long does she remain in seclusion, eating meat and
corn and honey?
54. Then said Ahuramazda: Three nights they should hesi-
tate; three nights does she remain in seclusion, eating meat and
corn and honey. Then, moreover, after the three nights she
should wash over (her) body, freed from clothing, with bull's
urine and water, on the nine stones (magha); so they should
purify (her).
55. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1]. How long should they hesi-
tate? how long does she remain in seclusion after the three
nights, in a separate place, with separate food, with separate
clothing, apart from the other Mazdayasnians?
56. Then said Ahuramazda: Nine nights they should hesi-
tate; nine nights does she remain in seclusion after the three
1 So understood by the Pahlavi
translator and modern Parsis, but
the Avesta may perhaps refer here
rather to outward purification, pre-
paratory to drinking the milk, than
to drinking itself.
332
VENDIDAD, FARGARD V.
nights, in a separate place, with separate food, with separate
clothing, apart from the other Mazdayasnians. Then, moreover,
after the nine nights she should wash, &c. [as in ver. 54].
I
57. Creator, &c. [as in iii. 1], Are those clothes, set apart
after purifying (and) washing, for the Zaota, or for the Hâvanân,
or for the Atarevakhsha, or for the Frabaretar, or for the Aber-
eta, or for the Asnâtar, or for the Raêthwishkara, or for the
Sraoshâvareza,¹ or for the priest (who is) a man, or for the war-
rior, or for the husbandman?
58. Then said Ahuramazda: Those clothes, set apart after
purifying (and) washing, are not for the Zaota, &c. [as in ver.
57, but substituting everywhere "not" for "or"].2
59. When in this Mazdayasnian dwelling there shall be a men-
struous woman, or when there is a place marked by defloration
(and) stained by intercourse, here she remains in it, and a rug
and mat should cover (her) up, always so that she may frequently
put out (her) hands together.
60. For I, (who am) Ahuramazda, allow no defiling of unused
clothes, not the size of an asperena, not even so much as the in-
finitesimal quantity 3 this damsel would defile.
1 These appear to be names of eight
officiating priests in the ceremonies of
ancient times, of whom only two are
now employed, the Zaota, who is the
chief officiating priest, and his assis-
tant, the Rathwi, who takes the place
of the remaining seven. These seven
are now considered as spirits who are
summoned by the Zaota when begin-
ning to recite Visp. iii. (after finish-
ing Yas. xi.), and the Rathwi answers
in the name of each as he stands suc-
cessively in their proper places. Ac-
cording to a diagram, given in some
MSS., the Zaota's station being near
the northern end of the Arvis-gåh, or
ceremonial space, as he looks south-
wards towards the fire he has one of
the spiritual priests facing him from
beyond the fire, and a line of three of
them stationed along each side of the
Arvis-gah. The stations of the eight
priests, real and ideal, are as follows:
I, Zaota, on the north side; 2, Hâva-
nân, at the north-west corner; 3,
Atarevakhsha, at the south-west
corner; 4, Frabaretar, at the north-
east corner; 5, Abereta, at the south-
east corner; 6, Asnâtar, on the west
side; 7, Raêthwishkara, on the east
side; 8, Sraoshâvareza, on the south
side. From the word mashyai, “mor-
tal, man," being put in apposition
with athaurunê, the general term for
"priest" which follows the enumera-
tion of the officiating individuals in
the text, it may be suspected that
these latter were not considered as
mortals even at the time this text was
written.
2 The meaning is that such clothes
cannot be used by any respectable
person, but only by the very lowest
classes.
3 What is immeasurably small, an
indivisible atom; the word is a-vimẩm,
not avi-mām. An asperena is a dir-
ham.
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XIX.
333
•
61. And if these Mazdayasnians should cast over the dead one
an infinitesimal quantity, such as the infinitesimal quantity this
damsel would defile, none (of them) living shall be righteous,
none (of them) dead has a share of the best existence (paradise).
62. He shall have that life of the wicked which is gloomy,
originating in darkness, and dark. Verily, the wicked, through
their own deeds, through their own tradition, shall depart that
life for the worst existence (hell).
4.— Vendidad, Fargard XIX. 10-26, and 40–47.
10.1 Zarathushtra recited the Ahuna-vairya (formula, thus):
As a (heavenly) lord is to be chosen, &c.2 The righteous Zara-
thushtra uttered (the hymn): That I shall ask Thee, tell it me
right, O Ahura ! 3
11, 12. Zarathushtra asked Ahuramazda: O Ahuramazda!
most munificent spirit, creator of the settlements supplied with
creatures, righteous one! (I am) waiting for (what are) to be
fixed on the roof 4 (as protection) for 5 Ahuramazda, for the good
well-thought (Vohumanô), for perfect rectitude (Asha-vahishta),
for suitable wealth (Khshathra-vairya), for bountiful devotion
(Spenta-armaiti). How shall I defend them from that Drukhsh,
from the evil-doing Angrô-mainyush? How shall I exorcise the
direct pollution, how the indirect pollution, how the corruption
(nasush), from that Mazdayasnian home? How shall I purify
the righteous man? How shall I bring the righteous woman
purification?
1 For verses 1-9, see pp. 253, 254.
2 See p. 141, note 2.
3 Yas. xliv., see pp. 158-161.
4 This refers to what is mentioned
in Zarathushtra's address to Ahura-
mazda in ver. 4 (see p. 253), which
would be better translated as fol-
lows:-"Where dost thou keep (any)
of this (asûnô?) on this wide, round,
far-compassed earth, to be fixed on
the roof of the dwelling of Pouru-
shaspa?" The word paiti-zbarahi
can only be the locative of paiti-
zbaraṇh, equivalent to Sans. prati-
hvaras, which would mean a curving
towards, a lean-to," a significant term
for a roof which is actually used, in
the latter form, in English technical
language; and in Sanskrit prati-hvara
(Rv. vii. 66, 14) is a term for the
vault of the sky. Darcjya has been
mistaken for the river Daraja men-
tioned in the Bundahish (pp. 53, 58,
W.) as having the house of Pouru-
sbaspa on its bank; but it is evidently
only a gerund of the verb darcj=
darez, to fix." Some Dasturs
understand by asûnô (in ver. 4) the
naugirah, or nine-jointed" staff
used by Zarathushtra as a defence
against the demons; they also under-
stand zbardhi as the same weapon
(comp. Pers. zibar, a shield ").
5 Or " Resting-places (are) to be
fixed on the roof for," &c.
334
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XIX.
13. Then said Ahuramazda: Do thou invoke, O Zarathushtra !
the good Mazdayasnian religion. Do thou invoke, O Zara-
thushtra! that the Ameshaspentas may keep guard over the
seven-regioned earth. Do thou invoke, O Zarathushtra! (the
spirits) of the self-sustained universe, of boundless time, of the
upper-working air (vayu). Do thou invoke, O Zarathushtra !
the mighty wind created by Mazda, (and) the bountiful one
(Armaiti), the lovely daughter of Ahuramazda.
14. Do thou invoke, O Zarathushtra! the Spirit (fravashi)
of me who am Ahuramazda, that which is the greatest and best
and most excellent, and strongest and wisest and most beautiful,
and most pervaded by righteousness, whose soul is the beneficent
text. Do thou thyself invoke this creation of Ahuramazda.
15. Zarathushtra proclaimed my word (thus): I invoke the
rightful creation, created by Ahuramazda. I invoke Mithra of
the wide cattle-pastures, the well-armed, with most glorious mis-
siles (rays), with most victorious missiles. I invoke Srosh the
righteous, the handsome, holding a sword in both hands against
the head of the demons.
16. I invoke the beneficent text (mãthrô speñtô) which is very
glorious. I invoke (the spirits) of the self-sustained universe,
of boundless time, of the upper-working air. I invoke the
mighty wind created by Mazda, (and) the bountiful one (Armaiti),
the lovely daughter of Ahuramazda. I invoke the good Mazda-
yasnian religion, the Zarathushtrian Provision against the Devas
(Vendidad).
17. Zarathushtra asked Ahuramazda: O giver of good,¹
Ahuramazda! with what ceremony shall I reverence, with what
ceremony shall I propitiate, this creation of Ahuramazda ?
18. Then said Ahuramazda: Thou shalt go, O Spitama Zara-
thushtra to (one) of the growing trees, a handsome, full-grown,
strong (one, and) recite this saying: Reverence (to thee) O good
tree, created by Mazda (and) right! righteousness is the best
good, &c. [as in p. 141, note 2].
19. One may carry off the Barsom (twigs) from it, a span
long, a barley-corn thick. Thou mayst not clip its clipped Bar-
1 The reading dâtô-vanhen is doubt-
ful; it has been altered to dûtô anhen
in the old MSS., and is rendered in
66
the Pahlavi version by dâḍâr avâ¿şl
hômande, Creator, mayst thou be
(or may they be) prosperous!"
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XIX.
335
som, they should be righteous men (priests who do that). (One
should be) holding (it) in the left hand, reverencing Ahuramazda,
reverencing the Ameshaspentas, and the golden-hued Homa, the
exalted,¹ and the handsome (spirits), and the gifts of Vohumanô
(saying to the Barsom): O good one, created by Mazda (and)
right! (thou art) the best.
20. Zarathushtra asked Ahuramazda: Omniscient Ahura-
mazda! thou art sleepless, unstupefied, thou who art Ahura-
mazda! a good-minded man pollutes himself directly, a good-
minded man pollutes himself indirectly, from a person who is
stricken by a demon, he pollutes himself directly with a demon;
may the good-minded man become purified?
21. Then said Ahuramazda: Thou shouldst procure, O Zara-
thushtra bull's urine lawfully formed by a young entire bull.
Thou shouldst bring out the purified things 2 on the ground
created by Ahura. The man who is a purifier (priest) should
score around (it) a surrounding furrow.
22. He should mutter a hundred praises of righteousness
(thus): Righteousness is the best good, &c. [as in p. 141, note 2].
Twice (as often) he should recite aloud the Ahuna-vairya (thus).
As a (heavenly) lord is to be chosen, &c. [as in p. 141, note 2].
With four washings he should wash with bull's urine of (that)
supplied by the bull, twice with water of (that) created by
Mazda.
23. Purified shall they be, the good-minded man; purified
shall they be, the man (who polluted him). The good-minded
man shall draw on (his clothes) with the left arm and the right,
with the right arm and the left. Then thou shouldst expose the
good-minded man to the power-formed luminaries, that (some)
of the stars appointed by destiny may shine upon him, always
till when his nine nights shall elapse.
24. Then after the nine nights thou shouldst bring consecrated
waters (zaothra) to the fire, thou shouldst bring (some) of the
hard firewoods to the fire, thou shouldst bring (some) of the
benzoin incense to the fire, (and) the good-minded man should
have himself fumigated.
1 Perhaps the grammatical irregu-
larities would be diminished by taking
this as a verb, and assuming that the
priest's speech is addressed to the
Homa, and not to the Barsom.
2 Or, perhaps, "the purifier," if we
suppose the nominative to have been
substituted for the accusative, which
is not an unusual irregularity in this
fargard.
336
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XIX,
7
25. Purified shall they be, &c. [as in ver. 23, to] and the left.
The good-minded man shall exclaim: Reverence to Ahuramazda !
reverence to the Ameshaspentas ! reverence to the other righteous
ones !
26. Zarathushtra asked Ahuramazda: O omniscient Ahura-
mazda! shall I arouse the righteous man? shall I arouse the
righteous woman? shall I arouse the frontier of the turbulent
Deva-worshipping men? (that) they may consume the land
created by Ahura, (that) they may consume the flowing water,
the crops of corn, (and) other of its superfluities? Then said
Ahuramazda: Thou mayst arouse them, O righteous Zara-
thushtra !
27-39. [See the translation in pp. 254-257.]
40. Srosh the righteous, prayed to (and) invoked, is pleased
(and) attentive, the handsome, triumphant Srosh, the righteous!
Thou shouldst bring consecrated waters (zaothra) to the fire, thou
shouldst bring (some) of the hard firewoods to the fire, thou
shouldst bring (some) of the benzoin incense to the fire. Thou
shouldst propitiate the fire Vâzishta, the smiter of the demon
Spenjaghra. Thou shouldst bring cooked victuals (and) plenty
of sweetmeats.¹
41. Thou shouldst propitiate Srosh the righteous, (that) Srosh
the righteous may destroy the demons Kunda (stupidity?), Banga
(drunkenness, and) Vibanga 2 (dead-drunkenness). He attacks
the frontier of the wizards, the turbulent Deva-worshipping men,
from the nearest 3 country having the purification ceremony.
One should persevere in the practice, (and) should cultivate
sheep's food (and) food for cattle in the pastures.
42. I invoke the Kara 4 fish (which is) in the water at the
66
1 Very probably gravy;" the
idea of sweetness is based upon the
Pahlavi version, which is not, how-
ever, altogether unambiguous.
2 The Pahlavi version explains
vibanga as drunk without wine,"
or inherently drunk; vi must be used
here as an intensive prefix.
3 From this point to the name
Angrô-mainyush in ver. 44, both text
and Pahlavi translation are omitted
in all MSS. of the Vendidad with
Pahlavi, except one or two which
seem to have been amended from the
Vendidad Sâdah. The word daêvô,
which occurs in the MSS. before
nazdishtaḍ, belongs to the Pahlavi
version of the preceding clause.
4 The chief of the water creatures.
Ten of these fish, according to the
Bundahish, are constantly employed
in guarding the Hom tree, in the
midst of the sea Vouru-kasha, from
the assaults of a poisonous lizard
sent by Angrô-mainyush to injure
it.
VENDIDAD, FARGARD XIX.
337
bottom of deep lakes. I invoke the primeval self-sustained
boundary, most resisting the creatures of the two spirits. I
invoke the seven illustrious in fame, they are aged men, sons,
(and) descendants.
3
1
43. He shouted (and) countershouted, he considered (and) re-
considered, (did) the deadly Angrô-mainyush, the demon of
demons, (with) Indra 2 the demon, Saurva 2 the demon, Nâon-
haithya 2 the demon, Tauru, Zairicha, Aêshma 4 the impetuous
rusher, Akatasha the demon [(Pâzand) he causes frost produced
by the demons, deadly decay, (and) old age ill-treating the
fathers], Bûiti5 the demon, Driwi the demon, Daiwi the
demon, Kasvi the demon, Paitisha the demon, the most de-
moniacal demon of the demons.7
8
44. Thus shouted he who is the evil-causing Angrô-
mainyush, the deadly: Why do the demons, the turbulent
evil-originators, assemble in an assembly on the summit of
Arezûra ? 9
45. The demons rushed, they shouted, the turbulent evil-
originators; the demons howled, they shouted, the turbulent
evil-originators; the demons displayed an evil eye, the turbulent
evil-originators: We must assemble in our assembly on the sum-
mit of Arezûra.
46. Born, indeed, is he who is the righteous Zarathushtra, at
the dwelling of Pourushaspa. How shall we procure his death?
he is the smiter of the demons, he is the opponent of the demons,
he is the destroyer of destruction (or falsehood); downcast is
1 This appears to be a fragment of
an old hymn in octosyllabic metre,
which, with some irregularities, can
be traced through the greater part
of verses 43-45; it begins as fol-
lows:-
Fradavata vidavata
Framanyata vimanyata
Ayrô mainyush pouru-mahrk6.
2 See pp. 272 and 308.
3 The demons of disease and decay,
compare Sans. tura = âtura, "dis-
eased," and jaras, "decay." (See
Darmesteter's Haurvatât et Amere-
tât, pp.33, 34)
(khashm in Persian). This Aeshmû
daêvô appears to be the Asmodeus
of the Apocryphal book of Tobit
iii. 8.
5 Compare Sans. bhuta and the ver-
nacular bhút, the general name for
goblins or evil spirits in India.
6 These three demous are respec-
tively Poverty, Deceit, and Dwarfish-
ness; see Vend. ii. 29, p. 234.
7 The word daêrô is taken as the
last of this verse, and not as the first
of the next one.
8 Here ends the omitted passage
mentioned in p. 336, note 3.
9 The mountain said to be situated
The demon of Anger or Wrath at the gate of hell.
Y
338
PAHLAVI YASNA XXVIII.
the Deva-worshipper, (with) the impurity (nasush) produced by
the demons, lying, (and) falsehood.
47. The demons shouted, they rushed, the turbulent evil-
originators, to the bottom of the world of darkness which is the
raging hell.
II. TRANSLATIONS FROM THE PAHLAVI VERSIONS.
Excepting the first fargard of the Vendidad, these translations
were written by the author in English. In revising them use
has been made of collations of Spiegel's edition of the texts
with Dastur Jamaspji's old MS. of the Pahlavi Yasna (see p. 96),
with the London and Teheran MSS. of the Pahlavi Vendidad
(see p. 95), and with Dastur Hoshangji's unpublished edition of
the same.
The Pahlavi versions of the Avesta throw but little light upon
the obscure passages in the original text, which are generally
rendered by a slavishly literal translation, or even transliteration,
with some faint attempt at explanation, more or less unfortunate
in its result. The chief value of these versions consists in the
longer commentaries which are often interpolated, especially in
the Vendidad. They also indicate how the original Avesta was
understood in the later Sasanian times,¹ and how it is under-
stood by the present Dasturs, who rely almost entirely upon the
Pahlavi version.
1.-Pahlavi Yasna XXVIII.
Happy was the thought, happy the word, and happy the deed,
of the righteous Zarathushtra. [On account of proper thought
and word and deed he was estimable in virtue.] 2 The Amesh-
aspends held forth the Gâthas, [that is, they were kept forth in
the world by them]. Devotion to you, O righteous Gâthas!
1. (a) I beg the reward of him who is Aûharmazd himself,
through devotion, when I make intercession (with) God (for) the
1 To which the last thorough re-
vision of the Pahlavi texts may pro-
bably be referred, whatever date we
may assume for their original compo-
sition.
2 Explanations interpolated by the
Pahlavi translators are enclosed in
brackets, to distinguish them from
the words inserted by the present
translator, which are given in paren-
theses.
PAHLAVI YASNA XXVIII.
339
1
good, uplifting the hand (and) the mind also with its own joy.
(b) In spirituality Aûharmazd is first, in the Gâtha-lore ¹ is the
increase of righteousness which (should) be in every action, [that
is, actions are all to be performed through the Gâtha-lore]. (c)
In that which is His wisdom, in the original wisdom, is the
satisfaction of Gôshûrûn,2 [that is, the care of cattle is to be
undertaken with judgment].
3
2. (a) When I shall attain unto you, O Aúharmazd! through
good thought (Vohuman), [that is, perfect in rectitude I shall
have come unto your own possession]; (b) give ye to me in both
lives, (that) which is material and (that) which is spiritual, the
happiness which is here (in this world) and that also which is
there (in the other world). (c) Prosperity is owing to the assist-
ance of righteousness, [that is, you give me through rectitude
the abundance which you give to that gladdener], and it is
necessary to cause glory through joy.
3. (a) When I shall be your own, O Ashavahisht (and)
Vohuman, who is first! [that is, I shall remain in your posses-
sion]; (b) and I shall be also Aûharmazd's own, through whose
unweakened acquisition is their dominion, [that is, his sovereignty
over the Ameshaspends is strict]; (c) and of her also who is the
giver of increase, Spendarmad, I shall be her own, she comes to
me with joy through calling; when I shall call unto you, come
on towards me with joy.
4. (a) Whoever gives (his) soul into paradise (garôḍmanô, it
is) through the assistance of good thought (Vohuman), [that is,
every one who gives has given it through the assistance of Vohu-
man]. (b) And his respect for the doers of deeds who do for
him what is proper, is evidenced by that of Aûharmazd and the
religion of Aûharmazd. (c) As long as I am a supplicant and
wealthy, so long I have learned 5 the requirements of righteous-
ness, duty and good works.
5. (a) O Ashavahisht! When do I see thee through the in-
1 Or "psalmody" or "hymnology,"
but gâsânîkîh can hardly mean Gâtha-
chanting here.
Gâthas; "ye" or "you" always refers
to the whole celestial council of the
Ameshaspends, including Aûhar-
2 The Pazand term for gēush urvâ, mazd.
"the soul of the ox or earth.
>>
3 Observe that "you" and "thou"
are not used indiscriminately in the
4 Reading paḍikhvîh=Paz. padîqî,
see Mainyo-i-khard ii. 2, xlix. 6.
5 Or "taught," or am taught."
340
PAHLAVI YASNA XXVIII.
struction of good thought (Vohuman)? this I (would) know,
[that is, I see thee at the time when every one is intelligent
through rectitude, when will it be?] (b) When do I see also
the place of Aûharmazd, who is a seeker of worth? that place
is known through Srosh, [that is, when they have a Dastur he
ought to know what happiness is from that place]. (c) That is
the greatest text; he whose understanding is confounded by its
belief and maintenance, he also whose understanding is con-
founded by the tongue, for him this one thing is excellent, when
they shall form a priestly assembly (aêrpatistân).
6. (a) Grant the coming of good thought (Vohuman) to the
body of others (and) the giving of long life to me, O Ashava-
hisht! [that is, may he not grant that thing which, in the future
existence, they would require again to destroy]! (b) Through
the true word he has shown thee, O Aûharmazd! to Zaratûsht ;
it is owing to him who is Thy powerful Vishtâsp that I am Thy
delight, [that is, I am carrying Thee forth in goodness to the
rulers]. (c) And my people (manîkan) also, O Aûharmazd! my
disciples, are also carrying Thee forth in goodness. The distress.
of the distressers is when they shall thus take injury, [that is, the
distress owing to them becomes inoperative].
7. (a) Grant me, O Ashavahisht! the reverence which is in
plenteousness of good thought (Vohuman), [that is, may he so
grant me reverence which, in the future existence, they shall not
require again to destroy]! (b) And do thou grant me, O Spend-
armad! that which is to be requested from Vishtâsp, the mobad-
ship of the mobads (the high-priesthood); and my people also,
my disciples, grant them the mobadship of the mobads. (c) And
grant me a sovereign praiser, O Aûharmazd! Vishtâsp who when
they chant this your text, [that is, they shall speak your tradi-
tion (dîn)], furnishes the arrangements so that they may make
(it) continuous (they may propagate it).
8. (a) When thy excellence and thy religion, which is the
best of other things, are in the best righteousness (Ashavahisht),
let me enjoy it through rectitude. (b) Let me obtain by
prayer, O Aûharmazd! the man who is Frashôshtar, [that is,
give up Frashôshtar into my discipleship]; give Frashôshtar my
people also in his discipleship. (c) To them also then be liberal
1 Reading ghal ham-doshâné.
PAHLAVI YASNA XXIX.
341
as long as all are in good thought (Vohuman), [that is, ever
cause thereby the happiness of Frashôshtar and the disciples of
Frashôshtar till the future existence].
9. (a) Because of not coming to you, () Aûharmazd! I may
not do this, [that is, I shall not come to you]; and Ashavahisht
too I trouble not about happiness, I ask not even a single happi-
ness which Ashavahisht deems undesirable. (1) Vohuman also,
the excellent, I trouble not him, who is he who gives you this
your infinitude, the praisers, [that is, he will bring Húshédar,
Husbêdar-mâh, and Sôshâns to your conference]. (c) You are
propitious through the prayer of a beneficial sovereignty, [that
is, you will be pleased with a beneficial sovereignty, and will
give].
1
10. (a) When thus I shall be acquainted with righteousness,
and that also which is the gift of good thought (Vohuman), [that
is, I shall have become fully acquainted with truth and recti-
tude], (b) which is proper, O Aûharmazd! may ye fulfil my
desire with them! [that is, cause my happiness thereby]. (c)
When thus, by what is useless to you, food and clothing are
obtainable,2 by that chanting, when it is not useful in your
worship, let him obtain food and clothing.
II. (a) When I shall guard righteousness by observance, and
good thought (Vohuman) also unto everlasting, [that is, I shall
cause the protection of truth and rectitude], (b) teach Thou forth
to me what is Aûharmazd, that is Thyself, in words. (c) Spirit-
uality is the Gâtha-lore which is declared from this by Thy
mouth, and till it is declared by that Thou wilt speak by Thy
mouth, which was the first in the world, [that is, He who was
first, His law became the Gâtha-lore].
2.-Pahlavi Yasna XXIX.
1. (a) To you, O Ameshaspends! Gôshûrûn complained,
[some say 3 the lord Bull spoke towards the direction of Aûhar-
mazd],4 4 thus: To whom am I allotted as to feeding (and) keep-
1 Reading akás hômanânê.
2 Reading vindiniḍak, "caused to
obtain.
"
3 This frequent phrase for intro-
ducing alternative interpretations in
the Pahlavi version is literally:
(6
there is (one) who thus says.
4 The oldest reading is khuâî-gásh
guft val Adharmazd rúno.
342
PAHLAVI YASNA XXIX.
ing? For whom am I formed? [that is, for whom am I created ?]
(b) This is he I (have): Wrath who smites me with anger and is
oppressive, [that is, he harasses me utterly], who is torturing,
[that is, my immoderate beating disfigures me perpetually], and
also a tearer away, [that is, he accomplishes the destruction of
my life], and a plunderer too, [that is, he utterly robs me].
(c) There is no well-wisher (vasnîḍār) for me besides you, [that
is, I know not any one from whom my welfare so (proceeds) as
from you], so let one prepare for me what is good pasture.
1
2. (a) So he who is the former of cattle, Aûharmazd, asked
thus: O Ashavahisht! who is the master of thy cattle? [that is,
how is thy opinion of this as to who is the master of cattle?]
(6) Who is given this authority to feed (and) to keep? who is it
gives them pasture, and is also diligently promoting the cattle
creation? [that is, gives it pasture, and thereby indicates its
one cattle-guardian who will increase cattle]. (c) What is that
lordship with goodness which, when they provide no nourish-
ment, feeds it with authority? Who gives this reply to the non-
Iranian 2 devastation of wicked Wrath, that they may make him
stupefied?
3. (a) To him who (has) the guardianship of the bodies of
cattle Ashavahisht spoke the reply: (He is) not without distress,
for (he is) in distress, [that is, they shall effect his punishment].
(b) They are not aware of the peace of Rashn the just, and may
they not know what (and) how much punishment they shall in-
flict upon the soul of a wicked one! (c) Of beings he is the
more powerful, [that is, the strength of him is that which is
more effectual], who comes into action on calling to him, [that
is, when they call him thus: Perform duties and good works! he
does (them)].
4. (a) Aûharmazd is a computer of words, that he may form
an account as to the sin and good works (b) which were done by
them, demons and men, both formerly and also what they prac-
tise hereafter. (c) He is the deciding Lord, [that is, he deter-
mines action and law], so we are as is His will, [that is, even
(what) is wanted by us is what He (wants)].
1 This is the sin of bóḍôk-zêd, which
is defined in modern times as that of
selling men or cattle, whether stolen
or one's own property, into misery;
also the sin of spoiling good clothes or
food.
2 Or "unmanly."
PAHLAVI YASNA XXIX.
343
5. (a) So (rather) than you, O Ameshaspends! I diligently
reverence, with uplifted soul (and) mental uplifting of hands,
Him (who is) Aûharmazd, [that is, I reverence one thing more
than the Ameshaspends, I reverence the things of Aúharmazd
more, and I do (them)];¹ (b) that my soul may be with the bull
Az, [that is, may I give my soul a reward 2], (and) may I con-
sult him who is Aûharmazd (about) that which is in doubt! [that
is, (about) that of which I may be doubtful may it be possible
for me to inquire of Aûharmazd]! (c) For the upright liver is
no utter ruin, [that is, whoever lives with uprightness, in his
soul is no ruin], nor for the increaser,3 [that is, for the increaser
who possesses anything through rectitude it is not so as (afore-
said], except him who is wicked, for to the wicked one it hap-
pens.
6. (a) Thus with his mouth said Aûharmazd intelligently:
Destruction is to be avoided, [that is, wisely was it said by him
that there is a remedy for the mischief from the evil spirit].
(b) No such lordship is to be admitted, [that is, in that place it
is not possible to effect a remedy because they do not even con-
sider the Lord as lord], no mastership whatsoever, for the sake
of righteousness, is to be given, [that is, a Dastur even, such as
it is necessary to introduce, they do not possess]. (c) So for
him who is an increaser, who is a tiller, thou art destined and
art formed, [that is, for him who is diligent (and) moderate thou
art given].
7. (a) That which is copiousness in the text Aûharmazd
(gives) to that worker who is in friendliness with righteousness,
[that is, they give the reward revealed by the text to him who
shall perform duties and good works]. (b) Aûharmazd makes
the cattle grow, [that is, he will increase them], for the eaters,
that one may eat in moderation; that which is plentiful Aûhar-
mazd taught (one to eat) by the lapful and armful.4 (c) Who
is this good thought (Vohuman) of thine? [that is, this one who
leads to thee], who gives the reciters (and) priests a mouth with
all the Avesta and Zand?
1 This explanatory clause appears
to be in great confusion in all MSS.
2 As the Persian muzd is both "a
reward" and a he-goat," this may
possibly be an attempt to explain Az,
which resembles a Pahlavi word for
"goat."
เ
3 Or cultivator."
4 Literally: "by the bosom size
and arm size.”
344
PAHLAVI VASNA XXIX.
1
8. (a) This my gift he obtained, [that is, that (which is) so,
this one obtained], to that teaching of ours this one is he who was
listening (b) Zaratûsht the Spitaman, for him is our will of
Aûharmazd and righteousness also, [that is, a desire for complete
duty and good works]. (c) He chanted also a counterspell,2
[that is, he uttered a remedy for the destroyer (drúj) in the
world], through which saying one gives unto him a good place,
[that is, on account of the excellence of the saying he utters
they give him there, in heaven, a good place which is excel-
lent].
9. (a) So too Gôshûrûn complained thus: It is owing to the
non-applicant I am powerless, O Zaratûsht! unseemly thinking
(comes) through what is illiberal giving, when they will not
bestow on it copiously, (b) owing to the insufficiency of the
words even of those men, when the religion is not fully current,
whose desire is a demand for our 3 sovereignty, [that is, owing
to them a mobadship of the mobads is necessary for me]. (c)
How does that gift ever exist? [that is, does that time ever
come?] when it is given to him through the aid of powerful sup-
plication, to him who is Zaratûsht.
10. (a) And ye give assistance to them, O Aûharmazd, and
Ashavalisht, and Khshatvêr! that Zaratûsht and the disciples
of Zaratûsht may thereby practise virtue. (b) So also Vohuman,
the good mind which gives him a place of pleasant dwelling
there (in the other world) and likewise joy. (c) I too am he,
O Aûharmazd that Zaratûsht, by him something is first to be
obtained from Thee, [that is, his virtue is first from Thee].
II. (a) Where is the gift, O Ashavahisht, and Vohuman, and
Khshatver! which thus ye send to me, the speech of Zaratûsht?
[that is, (in) what place remains that reward?] (b) Ye reward
me much, O Aûharmazd! by this arch-Magianship, [that is, they
would effect my reward by this pure goodness].4 (c) O Aûhar-
mazd! now our desire is (that) what is liberality towards us
(shall be) from you; now when I know more of your wondrous-
ness, benefits from you are more desired by me; [some said that
1 The word "my" is accidentally
omitted in the old MSS.
2 Literally: "a remedy-making."
3 So apparently in Dastur Jam-
aspji's MS.
4 The mas-magth or arch-Magian-
ship is here explained as "pure good-
ness," and in the Farhang-i Oîm-kha-
dûk (p. 25) magha is also explained
by avêjak, "pure."
PAHLAVI YASNA XXX.
345
now when the religion (has) become quite current, I and the dis-
ciples (have) a desire for benefits and reward from Thee].
3.-Pahlavi Yasna XXX.
1
1. (a) So both those sayings are to be desired, which are the
Avesta and Zand given by Aûharmazd, (by) whomsoever is in-
telligent, [that is, the priestly studies are to be performed by
him (who is) wise]. (b) Which (sayings) are the praise of
Aûharmazd and the reverence of good thought (Vohuman) re-
vealed by those which are the Avesta and Zand. (c) Whoever
is a virtuous thinker through righteousness, even he who thinks
of virtuous things, his good work is as great as a religious cere-
monial (yazishn), (he it is) whose happiness (consists) in looking
into their light,² [that is, when they see their spiritual worship
it becomes their joy].
2. (a) The listening to what is heard by the ears, [that is, the
ear listened to it (and) became glad], they will call the extension
of the best, [that is, his performance of priestly study], and
whatever is not affording him vision (becomes) what is light
through the mind, [that is, the light of the priests is dark to
him]. (6) Desires are to be discriminated by us who are men
(and) women, for our own selves, [that is, proper things are to
be discriminated from those which are improper, and those which
are improper are not to be accomplished by us]. (c) As, be-
sides, in that great performance through the consummation in
the future existence they announce a reward for what is our
teaching, [that is, on account of our teaching proper things they
will provide a reward].
3
3. (a) So both those spirits, Aûharmazd and the Evil one,
first proclaimed themselves (as) those who are a pair, [that is,
they declared themselves (as) sin and good works]. () Of
what is good, and also of what is bad of the thought, speech,
and deed of both, one thinks, speaks, and does that which is
good, and one that which is bad.4 (c) From them choose ye
1 Or perhaps "a priestly assembly plication of the pronouns in many
is to be formed."
places.
2 Or possibly "into the light of the
Yazads (angels)." There is consider-
able doubt about the proper ap-
1
3 This negative is omitted by mis-
take in most MSS.
4 Literally "worse " or "very bad."
346
PAHLAVI YASNA XXX.
out rightly him who is wise in good, Aûharmazd, not him who
is wise in evil, the Evil spirit.
4. (a) So also both those spirits have approached together to
that which was the first creation, [that is, both spirits have come
to Gayomard]. (6) Whatever is in life is through this purpose
of Aûharmazd, that is: So that I may keep it alive; and what-
ever is in lifelessness is through this purpose of the Evil spirit,
that is So that I may utterly destroy it; whatever is thus, is
so until the last in the world, so that it may occur even to men
of another (race). (c) The utter depravity of the wicked¹ and
the devastation owing to Ahriman and the wicked are fully seen,
and so is the righteous perfect thoughtfulness which accompanies
Aûharmazd everlastingly.
5. (a) Of the two spirits that (one) is liked, by him who is
wicked, who is the evil-doing Ahriman, he who was desirous of
evil-doing. (6) Righteousness likes the spirit of righteousness,
the fostering Aûharmazd; by whom 2 also the hard-pot-covered 3
sky likewise is completed around the earth through this purpose,
that is, so that righteousness may become current. (c) Whoever
also satisfies Aûharmazd, and his desire is that of Aûharmazd,
is for Aûharmazd through public action, [that is, he should come
to Aûharmazd with that desire and action].
6. (a) They who are demons do not allow (one) to discrimi-
nate rightly in any way, [that is, the demons would not do any-
thing proper], even (one) whom they deceived; they whom the
demons have deceived can form no right desire. (b) For inquiry
they have come on, [that is, there is a consultation of them with
the demons], (they) by whom the worse in thought is liked.
(c) So they (the demons) have run in together with Wrath, and
the lives of men are weakened by them, [that is, with Wrath
they disfigure men].
1 Of course "the wicked" include
all unbelievers in Zoroastrianism as
well as the mere transgressors.
66
This epithet is evidently based upon
a rather eccentric etymology of the
Avesta word khraozhdishtēñg, which
2 As the Avesta word is ye it is the Pahlavi translator divides into
probable that amat, when," ought three parts, namely, khraozh, which
to be mún, "whom," the substitution he represents by sakht, "hard;"
of one of these words for the other dish by dig, "a pot" and teñg by
being a common blunder of tran- nihaft, "covered;" reminding one of
scribers.
some European attempts at etymolo-
3 Or perhaps "hard-shell-covered." gising the name of Zarathushtra.
PAHLAVI YASNA XXX.
347
7. (a) To him¹ comes Khshatvêr, and Vohuman and Asha-
vahisht also come up to him to work. (b) And so Spendarmad
gives him a powerful body without lethargy, [that is, whilst it
is his he is not stupefied]. (c) They are thine, [that is, they
come thus to that person], whose coming is such as the first
creation, [that is, his desire and action are those of Gayomard].
8. (a) So also hatred comes into the creation, in the future
existence, to those haters and sinners, [that is, they shall execute
their punishment]. (b) So, O Aûharmazd! whoever is for thy
sovereignty Vohuman will give him the reward. (c) Through
their teaching of Aûharmazd, in the religion of Aûharmazd, when
(given) to him who (has) righteousness, [that is, he is instructed
in proper things], the destroyer is given into his haud, and the
mischief (drúj) of infidelity.
9. (a) So also we who are thine, [that is, we are thine own],
by us this perpetuation (frashakarḍ) is to be made in the world.
(b) Also the whole congregation of Aûharmazd and likewise the
bringing of Ashavahisht, [that is, an assembly about the future
existence is always to be formed by them]. (c) Whosever
thought is endless, [that is, thought in priestly authority (dastô
barth) is the life (or guardian angel) which he possesses], his
knowledge is there (in the other world), [that is, he will know
the end of things through rectitude], in (his) place.
10. (a) So in the creation in the future existence he who is a
destroyer, the evil spirit, is in discomfiture, when his things shall
stand still for weakness, and (his) army is shattered. (b) So
they swiftly spring to seize the reward, that which is in the
good dwelling of Voluman, when they have continued in recti-
tude. (c) To Aûharmazd and Ashavahisht too they spring who
establish what is good renown, [that is, that person goes to seize
the reward who is well-famed].
II. (a) Both those benedictions are to be taught which
Aûharmazd gave to men, (b) and whose heedless 2 teaching is
1 The other, who prefers righteous- which runs as follows: munich qin
ness.
2 This is merely a guess. The text
in the Copenhagen MS. (as published
by Spiegel) is here unintelligible, and
the obscurity is only partially re-
moved by Dastur Jamaspji's MS.,
ámukhtishno zak mindaram, &c., with
ahinh written over qin either as a
gloss or as an addition to that doubt-
ful word. It is possible that instead
of Pâzand qin we should read the
similarly written Pahlavi avên,
au-
348
PAHLAVI YASNA XXXI.
the thing that should not be during my celebration of worship;
whose lasting injury also (arises) from such celebration by the
wicked. (c) And (they are) also an advantage of the righteous,
[that is, as it is necessary to perform (them) so afterwards they
are beneficial], when that advantage (has) become complete.
4.-Pahlavi Yasna XXXI.
3
1. (a) Both those benedictions which I recite unto you, the
Avesta and Zand,¹ we teach him who is no hearer of the infidel,2
by speaking; in a doubtful matter (varhômandih) he is to be
told three times, and one time when (one) knows without doubt
(aîvar) that he learns. (b) They who, by benediction ³ of the
destroyer of righteousness, utterly devastate the world, when
they maintain the destroyer by benediction, (c) then even they
may be excellent when they shall be causing progress in what is
Aûharmazd's, [that is, of even those infidels this one thing may
be excellent, when they shall make current the religion of
Aûharmazd].
2. (a) Whoever does not believe through observation is in
what is to him no doubtfulness when he is not even doubtful or
God in anything, [that is, assertion about existence is good
when they exhibit it by an estimate of the world]. (b) So all
come to you, [that is, every one will come into your possession],
when thus they become aware of the mastership of Atharmazd,
[that is, they shall know the miraculousness of Aûbarmazd].
(c) From Aûharmazd, from them (the Ameshaspends) it is to
come when I live with the aid of righteousness; from the
Ameshaspends is this benefit for me, from Atharmazd, when I
live on with the duties and good works which are mine.
seeing, heedless," which suits the
sense very well; the Pâzand gloss
ahinh must then be read awina,
which would be very similar in form,
and would confirm the meaning
"heedless" here adopted.
1 It is not certain from his language
that the Pahlavi translator did not
mean the Avesta and Zand of both
benedictions.
We
MSS. it ought to be translated :
teach him who is no hearer, the in-
fidel," &c.
3 Referring probably to the incan-
tations of sorcerers.
It
4 Dastur Jamaspji's MS. has la-
yazishnîh, "irreverence, non-wor-
ship," instead of nikîzishnîh.
cannot be said that this explanatory
clause throws much light on the
2 As the sentence stands in the old subject.
PAHLAVI YASNA XXXI.
349
3. (a) What 1 the fire and Ashavahisht gave by spirituality,
and was explained by Thee to the disputants, (was) understand-
ing, [that is, the purified and the defiled were made known by
Thee]. (b) And by Thee, who gave a desire of benediction to
the interpreters of numbers (arithmancists), was given the rite
of ordeal (nirangi var); tell it to us intelligibly, O Aûbarmazd!
wisely, that rite of ordeal. (c) Through Thy tongue, in (my)
mouth all kinds of living creatures believe, and afterwards it is
said of it that I speak.
4. (a) When in the creation in the future existence I shall be
an invoker of Ashavahisht and Aúharmazd also, [that is, let me
have such a virtue that it may be possible for me to invoke
Aûharmazd and Ashavahisht]; (b) and I shall be an invoker of
her also who is the submissive Spendarmad, I pray for excellence,
the gift of good thought (Vohuman). (c) (May) the authority of
my people also, my disciples, be from him who is powerful,
[that is, give them sovereignty from Soshâns], through whose
bravery, [that is, through his own resources he is able to do it],
the destroyer (draj) is beaten, [that is, I know this, that at that
time it is possible to make the destroyer confounded].
5. (a) Speak decided to me, speak clear, where is that reward?
how ought one to make (it) one's own? which (comes) to me
through righteousness when duty and good works are performed
by me, the good gift, [that is, the giving of that good reward to
me]. (6) Grant me the gift of understanding through good
thought (Vohuman), [that is, talk wisdom through excellence],
which is mine through the good judgment (hú-vârîh) which is
his, [that is, through the excellence of that wisdom it is possible
for me to give a reply of good judgment]. (c) Aûharmazd
speaks that also which does not exist by means of that which
exists, [that is, by means of the Gâtha-lore which exists he says
where it does not exist].
6. (a) He is the best who would speak intelligently to me
(what is) manifest and clear, [that is, the priest is better than
the disciple], (b) the text which is all-progressive, [that is, all
creatures by way of the text come back into the possession of
Aûharmazd], which when they preserve it with righteousness is
working well, (and) one's immortal progress arises therefrom in
1 Assuming that amat has been substituted for mûn, see p. 346, note 2.
350
PAHLAVI YASNA XXXI.
the fifty-seven years.1 (c) The dominion of Atharmazd is so long
as good thought (Vohuman) grows in one, [that is, his sove-
reignty in the body of a man is so long as good thought (Vohu-
man) is a guest in his body].
7. (a) His promise came first who mingled His glory with the
light, who is the Aûharmazd who did this, [that is, the goodness
which is His here (in this world) is with Him there (in the other
world); this thing has happened to Him so that his Gâtha-lore
may return to Him]. (b) His are the creatures, [that is, the
proper creatures are His own], who possesses righteousness
through wisdom and perfect thinking, [that is, he considers with
uprightness and propriety]. (c) Both those (creations) Aûhar-
mazd causes to grow through spirituality, [that is, he will
increase spiritual and worldly things], (He) who is also now the
Lord for ever.2
8. (a) Thus I thought, O Aûharmazd! regarding Thee, that
Vohuman might be the first among Thy offspring, and when I
saw Vohuman I thought thus, that (he) was Thy child. (b) Art
Thou Vohuman's father? Thou art the father of Vohuman
when thou art taken in altogether by my whole eyesight, [that
is, Thou art seen by both my eyes], so I thought that Thou art
the father of Vohuman. (c) Manifest are the creatures of right-
eousness, (and) clear, [that is, Thy proper creatures are created];
through deeds in the world Thou art Lord, [that is, they shall
form an account with sin and good works].
9. (a) Thine is Spendarmad, [that is, Thine own], with Thee
is that which is the fashioner of cattle, wisdom. (b) Through
spirituality, O Aûharmazd! a path is given to her by Thee, [that
is, the path of that place (the other world) is given to her by
Thee]. (c) Whoever is in activity comes, [that is, his duty and
good works are performed], whoever is no worker is not allowed
by Thee.
10. (a) So both the origin and produce are assigned by Thee
to that (one) of those men who is a worker (and) acquirer of
wealth,³ [that is, the source and produce of cattle are given by
1 In the Bundahish (p. 72) it is also
stated: In fifty-seven years Soshans
(and his companions) prepare all the
dead; all men arise, both (those) who
are righteous and (those) who are
wicked."
2 Reading man kevanich hamar
khadat.
3 The terms used seem to imply
an agriculturist and cattle-breeder."
PAHLAVI YASNA XXXI.
35I
1
Thee to him who is diligent (and) moderate]. () The lord is
righteous whose wealth ¹ (comes) through good thought (Vohu-
man), [that is, they should exercise the ownership of cattle with
propriety]. (c) Aûharmazd does not allot to him who is an
idler, the infidel who is any hypocrite in the sacred recitations.
In the good religion it is asserted that even as much re-
ward as they give to the hypocrite they do not give to the
infidel.2
11. (a) When for us, O Aúharmazd! the world was first
formed by Thee, and religion, (they were) given by Thee through
this wisdom of Thy mind. (b) When life was given by Thee
to the possessors of bodies, [that is, life was given by Thee to
the body of Gayomard], it, too, was given through this wisdom
of Thy mind. (c) When work (and) instruction were given by
Thee, [that is, work (and) proper instruction were given by
Thee], (they), too, were given through this wisdom of Thy mind.
And when (there is one) whose desire is for that place (the other
world), by Thee his desire was granted, [that is, that which he
requires when he shall come to that place, this which is so
required by him is given by Thee, in that way he will come to
that place], it, too, was granted through this wisdom of Thy
mind.
12. (a) There the voices are high, that of the teller of lies,
the Evil spirit, and that of the teller of truth, Aûharmazd,
(b) that of the intellectual Aûharmazd and that of the unintel-
lectual Evil spirit, in the solicitation for the heart and mind of
Zaratûsht, [that is, while we shall solicit them 3], (c) who,
through complete mindfulness as to what the spirit communi-
cated by the religion of the spirit, (has) his abode there (in the
1 That is, wealth in cattle.
2 This appears to refer to a passage
in the Spend Nask, which the Shâ-
yast-la-shayast quotes thus: "As in
the Spend Nask it was shown to Zara-
tûsht, concerning a man, that the
whole body was in torment and one
foot was outside. Zaratûsht asked
Aûharmazd about the matter. Aû-
harmazd said that he was a man
Davâns by name; he was ruler over
thirty-three provinces, and he never
practised any good work, except one
time when he conveyed fodder to
cattle with that one foot." In the
Arda-Vîrâf-nâmak (ch. xxxii.) a simi-
lar tale is told of "a lazy man whom
they called Davânôs," whose right
foot is treated with the same excep-
tional mercy, which is not granted to
the infidel or apostate in ch. xlvii.
There seems little doubt that this
Davâns is a representation of the
davās translated "hypocrite" in the
text.
3 Literally "it" or "him."
352
PAHLAVI YASNA XXXI.
:
other world), [whoever shall quite mindfully perform priestly
studies,¹ his place is there (in the other world)].
13. (a) Whoever converses with what is public must perform
public good works, O Aûharmazd! whoever converses with what
is secret sin may commit much secret sin. (b) Whoever in
what is a small quarrel tries (aûzmayêḍ) that which is great, for
the sake of deliverance, [that is, they would commit a small sin
and, afterwards, they would commit a large one, so that it may
not be apparent], (c) it is he who would be in both (Thy) eyes,
[that is, Thou seest], in that combination Thou art Lord, [in
sin which is mingled with good works], over righteousness Thou
art also Lord,² and Thou seest over everything.
14. (a) Both those I ask of Thee, O Aûharmazd ! what has
come? (and) what yet comes? (b) Whoever gives a loan of
what is from lenders to him who is righteous, (gives) of that
which is such as is necessary to give, O Aûharmazd! (c) And
whoever (gives) to the wicked is as they are, so the settlement is
this, that is; What is the decree? tell me what is the decree?
15. (a) Thus it should be asked him: Would his punishment
in that perdition be well inflicted who would provide a dominion
for him who is wicked, (b) who is evil-doing,3 O Aûharmazd!
who does not announce life even through a reward? [that is,
when they give him a bribe he would not release a man who is
yet alive]. (c) He also persecutes the agriculturist who is avert-
ing destruction among cattle and men, [that is, even a good man
who well preserves mankind and cattle, him he regards with
malice].
16. (a) Thus it should be asked him :4 Would his reward be
1 Or perhaps "form a priestly this and the preceding verse are rarely
assembly."
2 This part of the verse is omitted
in Spiegel's edition.
3 Evidently referring to Ahriman,
who is here represented as incorrup-
tible in his adherence to evil. The
idea of a being wicked enough to be
bribed to betray an evil cause to
which he still remains devoted, ap-
pears to be a refinement in evil of
later date than either Ahriman or the
devil.
4 The forms of some of the verbs in
used, such as púrsî-yáḍ, púrsî hûḍ,
"there should be an asking, or it
should be asked;" yehabûnî-had,
there would be a giving, or it would
be given;" and the form which can
be only doubtfully read vádunyên-ît,
"it would be done or inflicted." This
last form looks like the phrase "there
is a vûdúnyên, or there is a they-
would-do," a clumsy way of saying
"it would be done," if that be the
origin of the form.
PAHLAVI YASNA XXXI.
353
•
well given in whose dwelling (deman) He who is wise in good-
ness is Lord? [that is, Aûbarmazd through spirituality is made
lord within his body]. (b) And in the town which is in His
country he who is (engaged) in the propagation of righteousness
is no chastiser, [that is, in His world that one is lord who, when
they would perform duty and good works, does not chastise].
(c) Such are Thine, O Aûharmazd! in whose actions it is
even so.
17. (a) Which convinces more, the righteous or the wicked?
[that is, does he who is righteous (among) people convince more
thoroughly, or he who is wicked?]. (b) Speak information for
him who is intelligent, and become not him who is ignorant
thereafter while I shall speak to thee. (c) Apprize us, O Aûhar-
mazd! [that is, fully inform us], and mark us out by good
thought (Vohuman), [that is, furnish us with a badge through
rectitude].
18. (a) So no one of you should hear the teaching of the text
from that wicked one, [that is, hear not the Avesta and Zand
from the infidels]; (b) for in the dwelling, village, town, and
country he produces evil proceedings and death, he who is an
infidel; (c) so prepare ye the sword for those infidels.
19. (a) The listening in which is discretion (and) righteous-
ness is thus acquainted with both worlds, O Aûharmazd! [that
is, he in whom is discretion (and) righteousness understands the
working of spiritual and worldly affairs]. (b) Rightly spoken
speech is that which is authorised, which is fearless in tongue
persuasion, [that is, for his speech which is true and proper
(one's) wishes are to be renounced]. (c) This Thy red fire, O
Aûharmazd! will give a decision to disputants, that they
may fully make manifest the certain and the undecided (agi-
raid).1
20. (a) Whoever comes to the righteous with deceit his lamen-
tation is behind him, [that is, it becomes lamentation in his soul],
(b) and long is his coming into darkness, [that is, he must be
there a long time], and bad feeding, [that is, they give him even
poison], and he says (it is) an unjust proceeding, [that is, it has
happened to him unjustly]. (c) To the world of darkness, ye
1 This evidently refers to the ordeal by fire, one form of the nirang-i
var.
เง
354
PAHLAVI YASNA XXXII.
who are wicked! the deeds which are your own religion¹ lead
you, (and) must do (so).
21. (a) Aûharmazd gave Horvadaḍ and Amerôdad the perfect
to him who is righteous, [him by whom duty and good works
are performed]. (b) And His own authority (patîh) is in the
domination (sardarth) of him who is lord, [that is, the sove-
reignty which is His He maintains in the Dastur], (c) whose
munificence is of the good thought (Vohuman), [that is, the re-
ward which Vohuman gives he also gives], which is for him who
is a friend of his own spirit through deeds.
22. (a) Manifestly he is well-informed when he gives (and)
thinks according to his knowledge, [that is, in thought he minds
him who is spiritual lord (ahú) of his Dastur].2 (6) Good is the
lord who would practise righteousness in word and in deed;
(c) he whose body is a conveyer of Thee, O Aûharmazd! [that
is, Thy lodging in the world is in his body].
5.—Pahlavi Yasna XXXII.
1. (a) He who is in possession of his life begged what is its
productiveness together with submissiveness, [that which is a
reward the demons (begged of) Aûharmazd himself in these
(words): That we may be productive and submissive to Thee!
By them it was begged]. (b) They who are his demons are of
my (way of) thinking, [that is, our thinking is as excellent as
Zaratûsht], he who is Atharmazd's delight. [By them it was
begged]: (c) That we may be testifying! [that is: May we
become Thy promoters !] we hold those who harass you, [that
is, we hold them back from you].
2-16. [Not translated.]
1 Probably referring to the tradi-
tional hag who is said to meet the
souls of the wicked on the fourth
morning after death, and is a per-
sonification of their evil religion and
deeds (see Arḍâ-Vîrâf-nâmak, xvii.
12). The original description of this
being in the Hâdokht Nask (Yasht
xxii. 27–33) is lost (see p. 223).
2 So in Dastur Jamaspji's MS.,
otherwise "he minds those who are
his guardian angel and Dastur " would
be a preferable reading.
3 Probably meaning those who are
called demons by Zaratûsht; but this
verse is by no means free from ob-
scurity.
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD I.
355
6.-Pahlavi Vendidad I.1
1. (1) Aûharmazd said to Spîtâmân Zaratûsht: (2) I created,
O Spîtâmân Zaratûsht! the creation of delight of a place where
no comfort was 4 created; (a) this is where man is, the place
where he is born (and) they bring him up seems good to him,
[that is, very excellent and comfortable]; this I created. (3)
For if I should not have created, O Spîtâmân Zaratúsht! the
creation of delight of a place where no comfort was created, (4)
there would have been an emigration of the whole material world
to Aîrân-vêj, (a) that is, it would have remained in the aet, while
their going would have been impossible, for it is not possible to
go so far as from region (kêshvar) to region, except with the per-
mission of the angels (yazadan);5 some say that it is possible to
go also with that of the demons.
2. (4) (b) Asô râmô-dâitîm (“a pleasure-creative place"),
n&iḍ (“not”) aojô-râmishtẩm (“most pleasing in strength "); 6
སྐ
1 For th Pahlavi text of the first
part of the Vendidad we have to rely
upon MSS. which are only second-
rate in point of age, as has been al-
ready noticed in p. 95. This is all the
more to be regretted as the first far.
gard contains many rare words and
obscure phrases which one would wish
to have, as nearly as possible, in their
original form. Fortunately these se-
cond-rate MSS. are still 283 years old,
and were therefore written before the
mania for "improving " old texts set
in (some time last century), which has
induced some copyists to adapt the
text to their own limited knowledge,
in preference to raising their know-
ledge to some comprehension of the
text as they found it.
2 The paragraphs are numbered to
correspond with Westergaard s edi-
tion of the Avesta text and its trans-
lation in pp. 227-230 of these Essays;
but the subdivisions of Spiegel's edi-
tion, which correspond with those of
the Pahlavi MSS., are also numbered
in parentheses. For the further indi-
cation of the Pahlavi commentaries
and their subdivision by the letters
(a), (b), (c), &c., the present editor is
responsible.
3 The meaning appears to be, that
whatever creates delight in a place
was created by Aûharmazd, as more
fully detailed in the sequel.
4 The writer seems to use the usual
present form of this verb for the past.
See "remained" in (4 a).
5 It is doubtful whether yazadan is
to be taken in its original sense of
"angels,
angels," or in its later meaning
"God." In the Bundahish (p. 21 W.)
we are told, "It is not possible for
one to go from region to region ;" and
the Mainyô-i-khard (ix. 6) says, "It
is not possible to go from region to
region otherwise than with the per-
mission of the yazads or the permis-
sion of the demons," which corre
sponds closely with the statement in
the text.
6 This seems to be a critical remark
on the foregoing Avesta text, and im-
plies that there had been some doubt
whether asô râmô-dûitîm (the read-
ing adopted) should not have been
aojô-râmishtām. It may be noted that
the two phrases are more alike when
356
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD I.
"1
the effect would be one (the same), the effect would be "the
delight of a place;" some say it is also (zakoîch) "the delight
which (arises) from industry." (c) Pavirim ("the first") is
bitîm ("the second "); this enumeration is that first the work of
the law was produced at a place, and the second at that place,
till the spirit of the earth arranged the whole in connection,2 is
the work of opposition. The place where he mentions two—
one, that in the original creation, and one, that which is after—
is daḍ ahê paityârem ("thereupon, as an opposition to it").3
(d) Every one of the following places and districts is the joint.
production of both; some say that a "place" (jinak) is that
place whereon mankind do not dwell, and a "district" (rústák)
is that place whereon mankind dwell. (e) Mashamârava shathãm
haitîm ("he has proclaimed the existing destruction"); this is
revealed in this fargard, (and) every place is mentioned. Some
say Aît-hômand ("material") is also a river.5
4
3. (5) The first of places and districts produced perfect by
me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (6) Aîrân-vêj, where the good
Dâîtîh ("organisation") is; (a) and its good Dâîtîh is this, that
the place sends out even our Dâît while they perform work
(agriculture ?) with the avaêpaêm ("stream"); some say that it
comes out in a stream unless they perform the work of the
written in Pahlavi characters than
they are in sound. The remarks
which follow, if their meaning has
been correctly caught, imply that
either phrase would be suitable.
1 Two other readings of this ob-
scure phrase may be suggested: first,
one thing is an army' (hênak), one
thing is the delight of a place;
secondly, "the work is of two kinds
(do aînak), one work is 'the delight
of a place. The reading kola dô for
kûr de is a modern guess.
2 Or
gave up the whole into one
hierarchy," according as we read
khadú-karḍakih, or khaduk raḍakth.
Most of this latter part of the commen-
tary refers to what follows in the text.
3 These are the words which intro-
duce each Avesta account of the evils
produced by the evil spirit, as detailed
in the following verses.
4 Mashamarava is here supposed to
be for mashmráva, which is taken as
the perf. third sing. of a root shmru
mru, "to speak;" compare mar =
Sans. smri. The reading ash marava,
"very deadly," has also been pro-
posed, which would be synonymous
with pôuru-mahrko, the usual epithet
of the evil spirit.
5 This is evidently a later supple-
mentary comment, and refers to the
word ast-hômand, "material," in (4);
this would be aît-hômand in Huzvâ-
rish, and has reminded some commen-
tator of the river thus described in the
Bundahish (p. 52 W.): "The Aîtô-
mand (Hêtumend) river is in Sistân,
and its sources are from Mount Apâr-
sîn; this is distinct from that which
restrained Frâsîyâv." See also p.
229, note 3.
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD I.
357
place.¹ (7) And in opposition to that were formed by the evil
spirit, who is deadly, (8) both the Rûdîk ("river"?) serpent
(which) becomes numerous, and the winter, produced by the
demons, (which) becomes more severe.
4. (9) Ten months are winter there, and two months summer;
(a) and afterwards also hapta henti hämino maonha, pañcha
zayana (“seven are the summer months, five the winter ") is
declared.2 (10) Those, too, have cold water, cold earth, (and)
cold vegetation, those ten months; some say the two months;
(11) adha zimahê maidhîm, adha zimahê zaredhaêm (“then is
midwinter, then is the heart of winter "), («) in that manner the
month Vohûman is the month Shatvêrô, which is the heart of
winter, [that is, it would be more severe (compared) even with
this that is ever severe; and afterwards also, at that time, it
1 This is the traditional interpreta-
tion which describes Dâîtîh as a river;
thus the Bundahish (p. 51 W.) says,
"The Dâîtîk (Dâiti) river is the river
which comes out from Aîrân-vêj, and
goes on by the mountain of Panjastâ;
of all rivers the noxious creatures in
it are most, as it is said, the Dâiti
river is full of noxious creatures." It
may be guessed from the text that
the river came from snowy mountains,
and therefore flowed most freely in
the spring and summer; hence the
idea that its flowing was dependent
upon the tillage of Aîrân-vêj, which
produced either more than the natural
drainage or less, according to the view
taken by the commentator. Tradi-
tionally, avaêpaêm is a "subterranean
channel or drain,” and it can be easily
explained as a stream."
Its identi-
fication with the Pâzand avêbîm,
"fearless," is merely a guess of later
times, ingenious but hazardous. If it
were adopted, and the material river
were idealised into "organisation or
law," we should have to translate
somewhat as follows: "And its good
organisation is this, that the place
sends out even our organisation (or
splendour) while they perform work
(or duty), as it were, fearlessly (stead-
fastly); some say that it comes out,
as it were, fearlessly, unless they per-
form the duty of the place." It is,
however, far safer to assume that the
Pahlavi commentator takes the most
material view of every passage. Many
MSS. have rúd, "the river," instead
of lanman, our;" and it may be
noticed that the latter Pahlavi word,
when badly written, can be easily
read as the former, but the converse
mistake is not so easy.
2 The word ashkare is merely the
Pahlavi úshkûrak, “ declared, mani-
fest," written with the Pâzand termi-
nation -e instead of the Pahlavi -ak.
This commentary on the alteration in
the relative lengths of summer and
winter agrees with the Bundahish (p.
60 W.), which states that the months
from Fravardin to Mitrô (the first
seven months of the year) are summer,
and from Avân to Spendarmad (the
last five months of the year) are win-
ter. It must be observed that the
Persian Parsi calendar has not corre-
sponded with that described in the
Bundahish since the eleventh century
(say A.Y. 400); but as that book de-
scribes the year as always correspond-
ing with the sun, it implies that some
mode of intercalation was employed,
so that it may have been written at
any earlier date.
358
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD I.
becomes more severe].¹ (12) Then when the winter falls off, [that
is, goes], then is the fraêstô vôghnê ("chief disaster "),2 [that is,
the opposition winter ever goes off with it; some say that anni-
hilation enters thereby]
5. (13) The second of places and districts produced perfect
by me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (14) Gavâ, which is the
Sûrîk dwelling, [that is, the plain of the Sûrîk dwelling-place ;
the characteristic thereof is no disturbance]. (15) And in oppo-
sition to that was formed by the evil spirit, who is deadly, (16)
a swarm of locusts (kúruko mêg) which even destroys (yahêḍ-ich)
the cattle, and is deadly; (a) this locust comes forth, (and) corn
that is without blade comes up; to tie up the ox is not neces-
sary, (and) it becomes the death even of the sheep.
6. (17) The third of places and districts produced perfect by
me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (18) Marûv, of resources com-
bined with the work of the law, and active, [that is, they do
much in it]. (19) And in opposition to that were formed by
the evil spirit, who is deadly, (20) inquisition (and) privacy
(gôshak); [inquisition, that is, they would make an inquisition.
of friends there; and privacy, that is, solitary incontinence is
there].
3
!
2 There seems here to be some per-
ception of the disastrous consequences
of a sudden thaw in snowy regions.
But one of the commentators seems to
understand frûêstô vôghnê as “gone
forth to destroy," misled perhaps by
the Persian firistad, “sent.”
1 The meaning is, that the summer of the two months in the text, as
was as cold as winter, and the winter, Vohûman is a winter month, and
still colder. As the months stand in Shatvêrô a summer one, in the Bun-
the text, they would answer very well dahish (p. 62 W.).
for the present time, when the qadîm
month Bahman occurs in June-July,
and Shahrivar in January-February;
but we find the same months given in
MSS. written 283 years ago, when the
Parsi months were seventy days later
in the year, and we have every reason
to believe that they were also given
in MSS. written 553 years ago, when
the months were 138 days later in our
year than they are at present. It
seems hazardous to assume that the
Parsi months were allowed to retro-
grade continuously during Sasanian
times, otherwise we might suppose
that this commentary was written
about 1460 years ago, when the months
would have been in their present posi-
tion. But it is more probable that
come copyist has reversed the position
3 Modern tradition suggests dúshak,
"evil;" but as dûsh,
evil;" but as dûsh, "evil," is al-
ready an adjective, the form dushak is
doubtful. If it were adopted the sen-
tence might be thus translated :
"Commerce (lit. reckoning) and evil
commerce, [that is, the commerce
which friends would practise there is
evil, that is, unnatural intercourse is
there]." This, however, would be
taking advantage of an ambiguity in
the English word "commerce," which
the Pahlavi âmûr does not possess.
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD I.
359
7. (21) The fourth of places and districts produced perfect
by me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (22) Bukhâr¹ the handsome
in appearance, with uplifted banner, [that is, they keep 2 a ban-
ner elevated; some say that they domineer over a multitude,
that is, they overwhelm it³]. (23) And in opposition to that
was formed by the evil spirit, who is deadly, (24) an ant-hill
(which) becomes numerous; [some say that a place furrowed by
a plough till it springs up will become an ant-hill].4
8. (25) The fifth of places and districts produced perfect by
me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (26) Nisáí, which would be
between Marûv and Bukhâr; [I mention that since there is also
the other 5]. (27) And in opposition to that was formed by the
evil spirit, who is deadly, (28) scepticism; [in the concerns of
the angels (or God) they are doubtful whether they exist; some
66
1 Or it may be Bakhar or Bâhl.
2 Some MSS. have come with,"
others "bring.
6
valent to gûl in writing). The Tehe-
ran MS. has gúlak-chakúḍ in one in-
stance, which would lead up to the
3 Some modern MSS. have "they translation "porcupine mound" were
slaughter the enemy."
4 This clause presents several diffi-
culties to the translator, and the text
is probably corrupted. In all proba-
bility the word nurtu or nurutu (Das-
tur Hoshangji mentions nub), which
ends the Avesta version in the printed
editions, is really a Pâzand word be-
ginning the Pahlavi version, and the
missing equivalent of the Avesta bra-
varem. It might be taken for the Per-
sian navard, "combat," but this is
naparto in Pahlavi. Possibly the t is
a corruption of mú (see p. 357, note
1), and the whole word a blunder for
a Pahlavi form, vurmûn or barmur,
"a bee;" but this is a mere guess.
The word gulchakaḍ (one old MS.
gives dûrchakât as a gloss) is tradi-
tionally understood as an ant which
carries off corn," the môr-i dûn-kash
of Vend. xiv. 14 and xviii. 146 Sp.;
but how tradition arrived at this con-
clusion is not obvious. Here chakâd
is taken in its usual sense of "summit,
hill,” and gúl is assumed to be a cor-
ruption of môr, "ant" (m inverted
being k, an error which sometimes
occurs, and kôr being practically equi-
(6
it not that the porcupine or hedgehog
is specially an animal of the good
creation (because it destroys ants),
and could not have been produced by
the evil spirit. Darmesteter's sug-
gestion (Revue Critique, No. 33 of
1877, p. 90) of járdh-kád for járdák-
kad, "greedy of corn," is hardly ad-
missible, as no old Pâzand writer
would be likely to use dh for a final
d. If we were to throw aside the
tradition altogether, and assume that
the Pahlavi translator was better ac-
quainted with the meaning of the ori-
ginal Avesta word usadhas than the
traditionalists were, we might take
gûl-chakad as the name of some noxi-
ous weed which sprang up all over
the country; gúl or gúlak, “flower,"
being frequently used as the first
member of the name of a plant. The
reading adopted for the phrase,
place furrowed by a plough till it
springs up," is jînák sûlak-dáḍ (or
sûl-kisht) vad barû khûmbêḍ.
5 Or "since it still exists.”
a
6 More literally, "that is, if they
should not be."
360
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD I.
say that they are (so) also in those of the demons whether they
exist].
9. (29) The sixth of places and districts produced perfect by
me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (30) Harîb (or Harâv) the
village-deserting; (a) and its village desertion is this, where we
keep the periods of nine nights and a month,¹ they desert the
house as evil (khanak pavan vaḍak) and go away. (31) And in
opposition to that was formed by the evil spirit, who is deadly,
(32) the mosquito 2 whose cry of long-continued annoyance (dêr-
sêjakih) would be this: I am hungry ! [some say that they may
perform with a drum].
4
3
10. (33) The seventh of places and districts produced perfect
by me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (34) Kâvûl the evil-shadow-
ing, (a) and its (evil) shadowing is this, that the shadow of the
trees on the body is bad; some say that of the mountains.
(35) And in opposition to that was formed by the evil spirit,
who is deadly, (36) a longing for witches, the adoration of idols,
with whom Kereshaspô associated, [that is, he practised it, and.
they also would practise not according to the law].
11. (37) The eighth of places and districts produced perfect
by me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (38) Urê full of pasture
(and) grandees,5 (a) and its full pasturage is this, that there is
1 Dastur Hoshangji observes that
these periods refer to the time which
places once defiled remain unclean,
which varies according to the season
of the year.
2 The word sarcha or sarchakh is
here assumed to mean a gnat or
mosquito," in accordance with the
traditional meaning of the phrase.
It may, however, be only the Pâzand
form sardha, “sort, kind,” in which
case we should have to read a "kind
of long-continued annoyance whose
cry would be this," &c., referring per-
haps to beggars. It is singular that
the Pahlavi translator should have
missed using the Persian word sárashk,
a gnat," for the Avesta sraskem;
and Dastur Hoshangji observes, very
justly, that sarcha-î may be merely a
miswriting of sarchask, which might
well be a copyist's transposition of
sarask-ich.
3 Or "a dagger," according as we
read gushnak or dashnak.
4 It seems singular that a place
when made perfect should still have
an evil shadow, and no doubt we can
read Kâvûl-î vêh-sayako instead of
Kâvûl-i dûsh-sayako, and can tran-
slate as follows: "Kâvûl the well-
shadowing, and its shadowing is this,
that the shadow of the trees is on a
bad body which is called that of the
mountains." But as the Pahlavi
translator found duzhako in the
Avesta text, he could hardly avoid
translating it by dûsh, "evil." As
the Pahlavi version differs here, in its
translation of Av. shayanem, from
(14) and (42) Dastur Hoshangji sug-
gests sayanem as the correct reading.
5 Or we may read mêgân, "fogs,"
(Pers. mêgh); or perhaps vástar-masân.
"forage-gatherers (compare Pers.
masidan, " to gather").
""
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD I.
361
plenty of corn and pasturage in it. (39) And in opposition to
that was formed by the evil spirit, who is deadly, (40) the worst
of residences when its grandees dwell on it.
12. (41) The ninth of places and districts produced perfect
by me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (42) Khnãn, the abode of
wolves, [that is, the Khnan river is the habitation of wolves;
the characteristic thereof is disturbance]. (43) And in opposi-
tion to that was formed by the evil spirit, who is deadly, (44)
the vile sin of those who cannot pass the bridge,2 which is inter-
course with men, [that is, sodomy]; (a) this they should not
perpetrate according to the law of the angels (or God).
13. (45) The tenth of places and districts produced perfect
by me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (46) Harakhmond the
handsome in appearance. (47) And in opposition to that was
formed by the evil spirit, who is deadly, (48) the vile sin which
cannot pass the bridge, which is burying the dead; (a) this is
heathenish (ak-din-hômand), and according to their law.
14. (49) The eleventh of places and districts produced perfect
by me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (50) Hêt-hôm and the illus-
trious (and) glorious; (a) busy and diligent is the spirit which
it subdued,³ some say that of the Vêh river.4 (51) And in op-
position to that was formed by the evil spirit, who is deadly,
(52) that which is vile, [that is, sorcery], which is ever evil; (a)
some say that of the Frâsâyâvân; 5 they were able to perform
that, and were not able to abandon it. (b) Some say that sor-
For whom the bridge Chinvad,
which leads to paradise, is impas-
sable; this is neatly expressed by the
single Pahlavi word andpuhalakún,
"those not for the bridge," or those
whose sins are inexpiable.
1 The old MSS. have dashak, but rivers flow forth from the north part
compare the end of (14).
of the eastern Alborz, one towards
the west, that is the Arang. (and) one
towards the east, that is the Véh
river." The spirits of the two rivers
are also mentioned (Bund. p. 50), and
further particulars are given, thus
(Bund. p. 51): The Vêh river
passes by on the east, goes through
the land of Sind, (and) flows to the
sea in Hindûstân, and they call it
there the Mehrâ river;" and in p. 53
it is stated that the Vêh river is also
called the Kâsak in Sînd.
3 Reading isikast (for î shikast); or
may be û kasist, "the smallest."
Some modern MSS. alter the word
into Sistân because the Hêtumand
river is in Sîstân, see p. 356, note 5.
The whole clause seems doubtful.
4 The Vêh (or good) river is one of
the two chief rivers of the world ac-
cording to the Bundahish, which
states (p. 49 W.) that "these two
5 The descendants of Frâsîyâv the
Turanian, the Afrâsiyâb of the
Shâhnâmak.
362
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD I.
cery is this which although they desire (it) not, yet it happens
easily (narm), then it is said that (it is) in a way not allow-
able.1
15. (53) This also is the token of its manifestation, which I
call the practice of the thing; (54) and this also, its manifes-
tation, is through examination; when they observe it becomes
manifest. (55) As wherever they come (there) is evidently an
outburst (jasto) of sorcery, (56) so also they are most addicted
to extreme sorcery; (57) so also they bring up snow and hail,
[that is, they would occasion even them]; (a) some say that the
snow and hail will so arise from them where sinfulness, through
them, becomes excessive. (58) Whosoever is sick (mudak) and
whosoever is again impotent (are so through the deeds of such
sorcerers).2
16. (59) The twelfth of places and districts produced perfect
by me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (60) Râk of the three races
of Atarôpâtakân; (a) some say Râî; and its triple race is this,
that its priest, warrior, and husbandman are virtuous and belong
to it. (b) Some say Zaratûsht belonged to that place, and it
was his government (patîh) of all these three which was called
Râî 3 its triple race is this, that his union of these three arose
and issued from that place: vaêdhanhô nôiḍ uzôish ("of know-
ledge, not of conjecture"?). (61) And in opposition to that was
formed by the evil spirit, who is deadly, (62) the vilest over-
scepticism,¹ [that is, they are doubtful themselves, and will also
make others doubtful].
•
17. (63) The thirteenth of places and districts produced per-
fect by me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (64) Chakhar of re-
sources, the grand doer.5 (65) And in opposition to that was
i The author's translation of this
fargard ends here.
2 As already noticed (p. 229, note 4),
the whole of this paragraph seems to
be translated from an old commen-
tary in the Avesta language. The
last sentence is translated here as it
stands in the printed text, but it will
probably be discovered hereafter that
the word tún in the Avesta text is
part of the Pahlavi translation; and
that the final words lakhvar atul are
altogether corrupt.
3 This seems to be a pun on the
name Râi, which can be divided, in
Pahlavi, into the two words li 3, "my
three."
4 Perhaps active scepticism" or
"rampant unbelief" would express
the meaning better, though not the
words.
5 Perhaps mazán, taken here as
"grand," may be for mazina, “a
balance," or mazdún, "selling," or
mazdûr, a labourer."
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD I.
363
formed by the evil spirit, who is deadly, (66) the vile sin of those
who cannot pass the bridge, by whom dead matter was cooked;
(a) this is not according to the law of the angels (or God), yet
they cook many (things), such as the fox and weasel.1
3
18. (67) The fourteenth of places and districts produced
perfect by me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (68) Varen the four-
cornered, subduing 2 Mount Paḍashkhvâr, some say Kîrmân;
(a) and its quadrangularity is this, that it stands upon four
roads; some say that its city has four gates. (69) At which
(place) Frêdûn was born for the destruction of Azhi Dahâk.
(70) And in opposition to that were formed by the evil spirit,
who is deadly, (71) both the unnatural menstruation (which) be-
comes more violent, and dwelling on non-Aryan territories,
(during) the winter of (him) who says Mount Paḍashkhvâr (and)
the autumn of (him) who says Kîrmân.4
19. (72) The fifteenth of places and districts produced perfect
by me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (73) (that of those) who are
the seven Hindus (Hindûkân); (a) and its seven-Hinduism is
this, that the chief rulers are seven; yet I do not say this, that
there are not seven, since (it is) from the Avesta hacha ushastara
Heñdva avi daoshastarem Heñdum (" from the eastern Hindu to
the western Hindu ").5 Some say that there is one to each
region (kêshvar).6 (74) And in opposition to that were formed
by the evil spirit, who is deadly, (75) the unnatural menstruation
which becomes more violent, (and) the unnatural heat which is
beyond measure.
20. (76) The sixteenth of places and districts produced per-
fect by me, me who am Aûharmazd, was (77) on the waters of
1 Probably the ichneumon or Indian
mangús.
2 The old MSS. have kîr = gîr,
"seizing;" otherwise we might read
"the chief," meaning the metro-
polis or seat of government of Mount
Padashkhvâr.
sar,
3 According to the Bundahish (p.
23 W.), “the Padashkhvârgar moun-
tain (or range of Mount Padashkhvâr)
is that in Taprîstân and that side of
Gilân."
4 Such appears to be the meaning
of the commentator, as Padashkhvår-
gar being chiefly a cold country, and
Kîrmân chiefly a hot one, it would be
natural for the inhabitants to quit
the former in the winter and the
latter in the autumu or hottest
season.
Perhaps we should read
amat, "when," for mún, "who," and
translate "when it is the winter of
the said Padashkhvârgar, when it is
the autumn of the said Kîrmân.'
""
5 The commentator probably means
to say that the doubt about there
being seven Hindus is not his own,
but is occasioned by an Avesta text
which mentions only two.
6 Of which there are seven.
364
1
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
1
Arangîstân, which is Arûm,2 (78) whose residences are unwalled
(adîvâr), so that they soon retreat; (a) some say they have no
ruler in authority. (79) And in opposition to that was formed
by the evil spirit, who is deadly, (80) even the winter, produced
by the demons, (which) becomes very severe.³
21. (81) There are also those famous places and districts
which remain unmentioned, which are handsome in appearance,
profound in the work of the law, desirable, [that is, suitable],
6
4 [that is, they would appoint many as chiefs], splendid,
[that is, having fame,5 some say flourishing as Fârs the pure is
splendid].
7.—Pahlavi Vendidad XVIII.
1. (1) Many are the men—this way spoke Aûharmazd-O
righteous Zaratûsht! [that is, the men in the world are many;
some say that they who are like these are many] (2) (who) wear
the other mouth-veil 7 (though) unversed in religion, [that
is, he has not performed its ceremonial; some say that he does
not mentally abide by the religion]. (3) Owing to the deceit
which he utters to others, the priesthood is his own, [that is, he
says: O man! I am a good man]. (4) Don't say of that that
1 That is, the country of the Arang
river, one of the two chief rivers of
the Iranian world, see p. 361, note 4.
It is likewise said in the Bundahish
(p. 51 W.): "The Arag (or Arang)
river is that of which it is said that it
comes out from Alborz in the land of
Surak, which they also call (or in
which they also call it) Ami, (and)
it passes on through the land of
Spêtôs which they also call Mesr, and
they call it there the Niv."
mans.
explanation. Some modern MSS.
have, therefore, altered the text to
the following: "inquisitive, [that is,
they make much inquiry]," which is
simply absurd as an epithet of a
place.
The Te-
5 Reading shem-homand.
heran MS. has dam-homand, probably
for bam-hômand; and modern MSS.
improve this into gadman-hômand,
"glorious."
6 This word is doubtfully read
2 The eastern empire of the Ro- vakhsak, for vakhshak, "growing."
In the Farhang-i Oîm-khadûk (p. 6,
ed. Hosh.) we probably have the same
word in the phrase bâmîk chìgún
vêsák, where it may perhaps be com-
pared with Pers. vêshidah, "exalted."
3 The second clause of the Avesta
sentence is not translated by the
Pahlavi commentator, but that it
forms a part of the Avesta text is
shown by the enclitic conjunction
cha occurring in both clauses.
The equivalent of the Avesta
word frashaoscha seems to be omitted
in all old MSS., which give only its
7 See p. 243, note 1. A layman has
to veil his mouth and nose when per-
forming the Abân and Atash Nyâ-
yishes, Patit, or any Namâz.
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
365
(it) is priesthood-this way spoke Aûharmazd-O righteous
Zaratûsht! (a) The mouth-veil (palam) may be of any stuff,
(and) while it keeps back on the mouth it must be two fingers
beyond, (as) is clear from the passage, baê erezu frathanhem
("two fingers' breadth"). (b) The two ties (do-vand) of a
mouth-veil project as ringlets (pavan gurs); it should be double
(đô-bấî) and it should be perfect; some say that one fastening
(dashtår) is behind, [it is said that all there are should be (so)],
(and) it should be stronger ¹ than that which even the kûstî re-
quires. (c) With a mouth-veil once (tied) which is single ² (and)
strong,¹ while it is not allowable to pray for the Darûn yet un-
presented for tasting, it is allowable to perform the ceremony
(yazishn).
2
2. (5) He carries the other vermin-killer [snake-killer] (though)
unversed in religion. (6) Owing to the deceit which he utters
to others is (his) priesthood. Don't say of him that (he) is a
priest this way spoke Aûharmazd - O righteous Zaratûsht!
(a) A mouth-veil may be of any stuff, (and) while it comes back
on the mouth it must be two fingers beyond, (as) is declared by
the passage, baê erezu di ashâum Zarathushtra ("two fingers, O
righteous Zarathushtra !").5 (b) The snake-killer may be of
anything; a leathern (one) is good, (as) is declared by the pas-
sage 7 (beginning with) Vohû mananha janaiti apemchiḍ Anrô
1 Reading tushkûk; compare Pers.
tush, "strength.
""
2 Reading padam 1-vîn-î khadú-vák.
The whole clause is difficult to tran-
slate.
3 The word atafdâḍ (compare Pers.
tavî, "feast") is probably the same as
occurs in the following sentence from
the Farhang-i Oîm-khadûk (p. 38, ed.
Hosh.): “Ataft-dâḍ is that when
one keeps food and drink away (from
him) in whom is hunger and thirst."
4 This sentence is omitted in the
Pahlavi version of the old MS. in Lon.
don, which abbreviates many repeti-
tions in the text.
5 This is evidently clause (4a) re-
peated by mistake, owing to the pre-
ceding sentence being the same in
both places. It contains, however,
some variations from that clause.
6
6 The priests used to recite the fol-
lowing formula as often as they per-
formed the meritorious work of kill-
ing any creature of the bad creation :
Shkanom, vánom, nizâr kunom kál-
bug-i shumâ, dêrân ra drújûn va
jádûûn va faryân, pa hôm va barcsom
va dîn-i râst va durust ke man chûshiḍ
("I break, smite, and make withered
the bodies of you demons and demon-
esses and sorcerers and witches,
through the hôm and barsom and
the true and correct religion which
is taught me"); compare Mainyô-i
Khard lvii. 28.
7 This Avesta quotation is evidently
incomplete, and probably only the
first few words are given, which is
the usual Eastern mode of quoting
passages.
•
366
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
mainyush ("whatever water Angrô-mainyush shall smite, by
Vohumanô," &c.).
3. (7) He carries the other plant [Barsom, some say katino 1]
(though) unversed in religion. (8) Owing to the deceit, &c. (as
in (3) and (4), which are not repeated here in Pahlavi by the old
MS. in London).
4. (9) He uses the goad and the miscreant 2 so that he groans
[and some say that he passes away], (though) unversed in reli-
gion. (10) Owing to the deceit, &c. (as in (3) and (4), which are
not repeated here in Pahlavi by the old MS. in London).
5. (11) Whoever lies 3 ever throughout the night a non-prayer
and a non-chanter, [that is, he does not utter the Avesta residing
in the chanting of the service], (12) a non-reciter, a non-per-
former, speechless, and wishing for his mourning in life ;4 (13)
owing to the deceit, &c. (as in (3) and (4), which are not repeated
here in Pahlavi by the old MS. in London).
6. (14) Say of him that (he is of) the priesthood-this way
spoke Aûharmazd-O righteous Zaratûsht! (15) who all through
the night consults the wisdom of the righteous, [that is, forms a
priestly assembly 5 so that he may learn (or teach) rightful
things], (16) which is preservation from difficulty, the expander
of the intellect, the giver of good existence on the Chinvad
bridge [stout-heartedness on the Chinvad bridge], (17) deserving
spiritual lords (ahúân), deserving the place of righteousness, and
1 Probably the name of some plant
improperly used for the Barsom. It
may be an adjectival form meaning
"made of kit or kard."
2 The reading of the old MS. in
London is ashtar va mar kûned. The
ashtar, "goad," is the usual imple-
ment mentioned in the Vendidad for
the punishment of criminals (see
F. 239), and seems to have been spe-
cially used by the priests and their
assistants.
3 This is the correct meaning of the
Huzvârish verb shckbhúnastan, which
is variously given by different autho-
rities. In Dastur Hoshangji's edition
of the Pahlavi-Pâzand Glossary (p.
15, line 11), the l'azand vindâdan
should be omitted, and then both
shckbhúnastan and khelmûntan would
6
be correctly explained by khúſtan,
"to lie down, to sleep."
4 According to the old MS. in Lon-
dou, which has asakhún afash val
shîvan kamak pavan khayâ. The
writer of a modern MS., not under-
standing that the Panlavi translator
meant to express the Av. chinvaḍ by
kamak, has added the words makhi-
tûnêḍ nadûkîh-i Chinvad pílhal, “de-
stroys the benefit of the Chinvad
bridge."
t
5 Or perhaps performs priestly
studies."
6 Reading i min tangîh. The ol
MS. in London has amúgagîh, "fr«e-
dom from ailment," which would suit
the sense well enough, but is not a
good equivalent of the Av. ãzô, which
is usually translated by tangih.
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
367
deserving the paradise of duty and good works, the reward (and)
recompense in the better world.
7. (18) Ask¹ again of me, O pure one! [that is, the question
was the last, and He hereupon considered whether something
might not yet remain] (19) of me who am the Creator, [that is, I
created the creatures], the most developing, [that is, from one
thing I know 2 many things], the most intelligent, [that is, by
calculation I know much], the best replier to questions, [that is,
of those from whom they would make inquiry I give the best
reply] (20) For so it is good (for) thee, so mayst thou become
prosperous, if thou askest again of me.
8. (21) Zaratûsht inquired of Aûharmazd thus: O Aúhar-
mazd, favouring spirit! creator of the material world, righteous
(one)!³ in whom is the secretly-progressing destruction? [that
is, in whom is its lodging and owing to whom is its progress
most?]
9, 10. (22) And Aûharmazd said to him thus: In him (who
is) the guide of a vile religion, O Spîtâmân Zaratûsht! the in-
fidel who is a deceiver. (23) Whoever does not put on the sacred
string-girdle (for) three spring seasons, [that is, dees not have a
sadarah (and) kûstî 4 (for) three years], (a) some say that who-
1 Here begin a series of disloca-
tions in the text of the old MSS.,
which is fully described and accounted
for in the introduction (p. 4) to Wes-
tergaard's edition of the Avesta texts.
Some MS. from which the oldest now
existing (and through them all later
ones) have descended, must have con-
sisted of bundles of ten folios each;
but the bundle containing most of the
remainder of this fargard had its folios
displaced, so that they stood in the
following order: 3-8, 2, 9, 1, and folio
IO was lost. In Spiegel's edition this
displacement has only so far been
rectified as to put the complete sen-
tences right, while any fragment of a
sentence with which one folio ended
is left (as in the old MSS.) in connec-
tion with the fragment of another
sentence with which the next mis-
placed folio began. Thus, in this
sentence (18) the old MSS. give the
first two words (which Spiegel omits)
here, namely, lakhvár min, but for
the next words we have to turn over
several pages (equivalent to the eight
folios (3-8, 2, 9) to p. 206, line 6, of
Spiegel's text, where we find the rest
of the sentence, namely, li avêzak
púrs, &c. We must then turn back
again to find sentence (19) in its right
place.
2 So all MSS., but a slight altera-
tion in the form of one letter would
give us hankhetûnam, "I place or
dispose."
3 This opening sentence is not given
in Pahlavi by the old MSS. here, as it
has so often occurred in previous far-
gards.
4 The muslin shirt and string girdle
worn by Parsis of both sexes, except
young children, as enjoined by their
religion.
368
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
ever does not put on the sacred string-girdle (for) those three
spring seasons is the third¹ year an outcast, forsaken below and
forsaken above; 2 (it is) according to the law of such that it is
not necessary to have a sadarah (and) kusti. (24) (And whoever)
kûstî.
does not chant the Gâthas (and) does not consecrate the good
water.3 (25) Whoever also has taken him, who is my man, into
confinement, [that is, has taken him (as above) described (nip-
ishtak) into it], (and) delivers him up to liberty, [that is, makes
him an exile], (26) does no better by that act than though he
had forced the extent of the skin (off) his head, [that is, had
cut the head and had made it alive again].
5
4
11. (27) For the blessing of one unrighteous, vile infidel is a
curse the length of his jaw; (28) of a second, the length of a
tongue; of a third, nothing; a fourth progresses himself, [that
is, becomes himself].
6
12. (29) Whoever gives an unrighteous, vile infidel the out-
squeezed Hom-juice, and the priesthood (zôtih), (30) (and) then
the consecrated feast (myazd) [this is said because with him are
the good and worthy of the feast],7 (31) does no better by that.
act than though the enemy's army, having a thousand horse [five
hundred men with two horses (each) from the professed warriors],
should be conveyed by him on to a village of the Mazdayasnians,
(and) he should slay the people (and) they should drive away
8
1 Dastur Hoshangji suggests that
the first two letters of this word have
changed places, and that we should
read tasum, "fourth," instead of the
unusual situm, "third."
2 Reading arajûstô frôbujo avar-
bujo, and taking arajástô as a variant
of arajistô, "most wrong, most err-
ing." The literal meaning is probably
most wrongful, escaping from what
is below, and escaping from what is
above," that is, from both the world
and heaven.
3 The old MSS. add the Avesta
quotation yaish yazaiti ("with which
he performs ceremonies ").
4 That is, has taken such a one as
just described into custody. Most
modern MSS. attempt to alter nipish-
tak, as their writers have failed to see
8
that the word can be taken in its
literal meaning.
5 The old MS. in London has kard
homande aîgh rôêshman, &c.
6 Here we have the second disloca-
tion of the text, as described in p. 367,
note I; and for the remainder of sen-
tence (28) we have to turn to the end
of (98) on p. 205, line 10, of Spiegel's
edition. The additional words in the
old MS. in London are la mindavam,
tasum nafshman sátûnêḍ, aigh nafsh-
man yehevinêḍ. The incoherence in
this sentence is due to the Avesta
original. See p. 245.
7 Or "he would say the good and
worthy are in his feast.'
وز
8 So in the old MS. in London, but
the persons are reversed in Spiegel's
edition.
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
367
the cattle as plunder.
(a) That is, when 2 one gives him the
priesthood (zôtih) (it is) a tandpûhar 3 (sin), and when 2 they
shall do it frequently (it is) a mortal sin (margarjon).
13. (32) Ask again of me, &c. (as in ver. 7 (18-20) above).
14. (33) Zaratûsht inquired, &c. (as in ver. 8 (21) to) right-
eous (one)! who is he (belonging to) Srosh the righteous, the
mighty, the self-subduing, [that is, he keeps (his) body in God's
control], the admirably-armed, the lord (khúḍa) of the bróithrô-
taezhem 5 ("sharp battle-axe") frashusaiti Sraoshô ashyo ("the
righteous Srosh goes forth"), (who is he) the Srôshavarezô?
[that is, who is his stimulator of the world]?
15-17. (34) And Aûharmazd said to him thus: The bird
whose name is Parôdarsh, O Spîtâmân Zaratûsht! (a) This
Parôdarsh would be "prior indication" (pêsh-dakhshakih), and its
prior indication is this, that first it flaps (its) pinions, [that is,
wings], (and) then utters a cry.6 (35) On whom men, in dis-
paragement, bestow the name of fowl, some would say the cock;
(a) though (if) they did not say (so) it would be possible for him
to do better. (36) That bird raises an outcry during the pre-
paration of dawn,7 which arises at midnight,s (37) thus: Rise
up! be men! praise the righteousness which is perfect! and
overthrown are the demons, [that is, when righteousness is
praised by them the demons are overthrown by them]; (38) for
this (one) who has run to you is Bûshâsp the long-talking, [some
say thus: This (one) has run to you, Bûshâsp the long-pawed],9
(39) who by prosy chatting (fraj-gôp-layishnîh) with the whole
1 Or perhaps "in a drove.”
2 Perhaps mún, “ whoever,” should
be read for amat, "when."
3 A sin which prevents the soul
from passing over the Chinvad bridge
to paradise.
4 The author adds here "the ruler
in the Arezahi and Savahi (kêshvars),”
a gloss taken from a modern MS.
Such modern glosses are, however,
mere guesses, of no authority.
5 Mentioned in the Srosh Yasht
(Yas. lvii. 31).
6 The same explanation of parô-
darsh is given in the Pahlavi transla-
tion of the fragment in Westergaard's
Yasht xxii. 41, as follows: afash
9
Parókdarshih aê, aighash fratúm
parun shik@ved, va akhar cùng vú
dûnêḍ.
7 This aûsh afzûr is defined in the
Farhang-i Oîm-khadûk (p. 42) as the
third quarter of the night, in which
the Ushahina Gâh begins.
8 The third dislocation of the text,
as described in p. 367, note 1, occurs
after the first Avesta word in clause
(37); but being in the Avesta text, it
has been properly corrected in Spie-
gel's edition.
9 It is doubtful whether these two
epithets, dêrang-gúbo and dêrang-yúk,
are not both intended to mean "long-
handed" or "long-pawed."
2 A
370
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
material world, when every one ought to be free from sloth
(bushasp), lulls it off to sleep. (40) This she says: Sleep a
long time (daregînîh)! be men! for there is nothing which re-
quires you,¹ [that is, your work of the law 2 will not stop]. (41)
And let not the three perfections be over yourselves, good
thought in the mind, good words in speech, (and) good deeds in
action; [(a) some say that the religion asserts that Bûshâsp
speaks for this reason, lest the three perfections should be over
yourselves, good thought in the mind, good words in speech,
(and) good deeds in action]. (42) But let the three turpitudes.
(vaḍtûmîh) be over yourselves, bad thought in the mind, and
bad words in speech, and bad deeds in action.
18, 19. (43) Then the first third of the night my fire, (who
am) Aûbarmazd, begs the householder of the house 3 for assist-
ance, thus: O householder of the house,³ rise up! (44) put on
(your) clothes! wash (your) hands thoroughly! request that they
may bring me firewood! illumine my molester (patîyarak) 4 with
firewood purified (by) thoroughly-washed hands. (45) For it
seemed to me (it was) Az, produced by the demons, with forward-
gliding coils, who tore out (my) life.5
20, 21. (46) Then in the second third of the night my fire,
who am Aûharmazd, begs the husbandman for assistance, always
(with) the same phrase (hamîshak kâr-1), thus: O husbandman,
rise up! (47) (as in (44) and (45), which are not repeated here,
in Pahlavi, by the old MS. in London).
22. (48) Then the third third of the night the fire of Aûhar-
mazd begs Srosh the righteous for assistance, thus: O Srosh the
righteous, the handsome! (49) then let any firewood of the
material world be brought unto me, purified (by) thoroughly-
6
1 Literally "for (there is) not that
which suits you."
2 The old MS. in London has kar
va dînd, "work and religious duty,"
that is, secular and religious duties.
This phrase is generally written kâr
dînd, and it may be doubted whether
the conjunction va or the relative i is
to be understood as connecting the
two words.
5 The old MS. in London has here
maman barâ li-î âz-î shêdâân-dâd-î
khamih pêsh-tajishno-î ahú bara sed-
kanḍ medammúnast, but in (50) it has
the following variations: li âz-î shê-
daan-dâḍ mayd; aha-î; and medam-
manéḍ.
6 The old MS. in London has ded-
ranyên-yaḍ, but modern MSS. of
course alter the termination to a form
3 The old MS. in London has mano better understood by their writers,
manpat in both places.
without much attention to the mean
4 So in the old MSS., and paqîrak ing.
seems no improvement.
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
371
washed hands. (50) For there seems the water of Az, produced
by the demons, flowing forward on me, which is a tearing away
of life.¹
23-25. (51) Then Srosh the righteous upbraided (fraj-gôp-
layîḍ) the bird whose name is Parôdarsh, O Spítâmân Zaratûsht!
(52) (as in (35) to (42), which are not repeated here, in Pahlavi,
by the old MS. in London).
26, 27. (53) Then speaks a friend to his friend, they who
shall lie on a bed, (54) thus: Do thou rise up! for I am driven
away. (55) Either one who shall rise up beforehand, his pro-
gress is towards the best existence (paradise), (a) so that they
proclaim that even with a good work of three srôshô-charanom 2
it is possible to attain to the best existence. (56) Either one who
(shall have) brought beforehand, up to the fire of Aûharmazd,
firewood purified (by) thoroughly-washed hands, (57) him the
fire blesses, when pleased, uninjured, (and) satisfied, (58) thus:
May the herd of cattle attain (âkhtâḍ) unto thee! [that is, may
it be thine!] (59) besides the full continuance of men [much
progeny]! (60) May a desire in the mind for the will of thy
(heavenly) lord (ahú) attain unto thee! [that is, may that some-
thing be in thy mind which should be thy (heavenly) lord and
high priest !] (61) and may the well-pleased lord (ahu) live in
(thy) life so that the nights when thou shalt live thou mayst
live in joy. (62) This is the blessing which the fire always offers
him, [that is, (it is) ever (for) him], who (has) brought to it fire-
wood which is dry (and) inspected according to rule (rôshanîh),
(63) on account of a wish for rectitude [on account of a desire
for duty and good works], (and) which is purified, [that is, pure].
3
28. (64) Whoever gives that bird of mine, which is Parôdarsh,
O Spîtâmân Zaratûsht! female and male together, to a right-
eous man with perfect rectitude, (65) thinks of it thus: It will
produce me a dwelling; (a) when they give him the reward (and)
recompense, he considers about it thus: When a dwelling like a
1 Translated here differently from
(45), in accordance with the variations
in the old MS. in London, but the
reading mayû, water," for khamîh,
coiling," is very improbable.
2 This is not the scourge or com-
peller of attention, but some very
small weight of the same name, by
which the value of the most trivial
actions is estimated.
3 The old MS. in London has va
aûrvakhsht (or hû-ravakh-dâḍ) ahrô
pavan khayâ zîrâḍ.
372
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
palace¹ shall be given to me it may even be large; (66) (with)
a hundred columns, a thousand corridors,2 a myriad large (and)
a myriad small (rooms).
3
4
29. (67) (Of him) who gives that bird of mine, which is Parô-
darsh, small morsels of meat ³ along with pilav, some say cumin
seed,5 [(a) some say that he gives out meat in that quantity to
a righteous man], (68) of him, the ever-bringing, I who am
Atharmazd would not be an inquirer for his second statement,
[(a) once I shall ask 7 everybody], (69) for he proceeds onwards
to the best existence (paradise).
30. (70) Srosh the righteous asked of the Drûj, of Disgrace,8
[(a) some say that (it is) of Wrath; some, of the evil spirit],
(71) without the accompaniment of a club, [that is, he put down
his club, (a) so that he might intimate that confession (khústûkîh)
through fear is not to be considered as confession], (72) thus:
O Drûj, who art inglorious, [that is, thou hast no benefit what-
ever from it 91, (and) inactive ! [that is, thou doest nothing which
is proper]! (73) art thou thus conceiving without cohabitation of
the whole living creation? [that is, when they do not cohabit
with thee dost thou become pregnant ?].
31, 32. (74) And she who is the demon Drûj exclaimed (in)
reply to him, thus: O Srosh the righteous, the handsome! (75)
I do not conceive without cohabitation of the whole living crea-
""
1 It is assumed here that gun bara
is a corruption of gûnbad, a dome,
which is usually written gumbad.
The reading gûr, "a tomb," is hardly
probable.
2 This is a guess at the meaning of
fras, compare frasp, frasîp, a beam
or lintel."
3 This is translated in accordance
with the view taken of the Avesta
text in p. 247, but a more literal
translation of the Pahlavi would be:
"(Of him) who gives (away) meat the
size of the body of that bird of mine,
&c. The Pahlavi translator evidently
considered the whole passage as re-
ferring to the meritorious work of
charity.
4 The old MS. in London has pildî,
a way of writing pilav, an Eastern
dish in which boiled mutton or fowl
is smothered in rice, and garnished
with hard-boiled eggs, onions boiled
and fried, raisins, almonds, and spices.
5 Assuming that zárak means zîrak.
6 Perhaps akaraz-var should be cor-
rected into akaraz.
7 Or "they have inquiry made of.”
8 Reading khuduk for Pers. khudûk;
a similar Pahlavi form occurs in Vend.
v. 153, where it must be read khúḍak
=Pers. khûdah, "truth," as it is the
equivalent of Av. ashem.
9 Meaning probably from the divine
glory. But the word ajash ought
perhaps to be omitted, as it is an addi-
tion to the text in the old MS. in
London, and we should then read
"thou hast no goodness whatever."
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
373
Ι
tion. (76) There are even (for) me too ¹ four males. (77) They
impregnate me just as any other male, when the semen is in the
females it impregnates, [that is, I become pregnant].
33. (78) Srosh the righteous, &c. (as in (70) to (72), which
are not repeated here in Pahlavi by the old MSS.): Which is
the first of those thy males?
34, 35. (79) And she who is the demon Drûj exclaimed (in)
reply to him, thus: O Srosh the righteous, the handsome! (80)
even that (zak-îch) is the first of those my males, (81) when a
man gives not even a trifle of his hoard of wealth, when he
lived (zîst), [that is, exists], to a righteous man with perfect rec-
titude. (82) He impregnates me, &c. (as in (77) above).
36. (83) Srosh the righteous, &c. (as in (70) to (72), which
are not repeated, in Pahlavi, by the old MSS.): What is a coun-
teraction of the effect of that?
37, 38. (84) And she who is the demon Drûj exclaimed (in)
reply to him, thus: O Srosh the righteous, the handsome! (85)
it is a counteraction of the effect of that, (86) when the man
gives even a trifle of his hoard of wealth, when not alive 2 (lô,
zist), to a righteous man with perfect rectitude. (87) He will
so destroy my pregnancy as a four-legged wolf when it tears out
a son from the womb by tearing. (a) This is evident from the
Avesta: it happens so when the former (valman) is (one) who is
impure (mûn palisht), and the latter (va le-denman) is in want
through dissemination of good; when he gives up such wealth
to such a man he will destroy the Drûj; even when he gives up
the wealth to that man the Drûj is destroyed, although that man
also should give up the same wealth lest (al hat) it should like-
wise be contaminated; some say that she is destroyed after-
wards.3
39. (88) Srosh the righteous, &c. (as in (70) to (72), which
are not repeated, in Pahlavi, by the old MSS.): Which is the
second of those thy males?
1 The most probable reading is
homand-ich li-ch 4 gulshan.
2 Meaning probably that he ar-
ranges by will for a charitable distri-
bution of his property after death,
which appears to be a misunderstand-
ing of the language of the Avesta.
3 This commentary would be hardly
intelligible without the corrections
supplied by the old MS. in London.
The form le-denman is occasionally
used for denman, of which it was pro-
bably an almost obsolete form at the
time when the commentator wrote.
374
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
40, 41. (89) (She) who is the demon Draj exclaimed (in)
reply to him, thus: O Srosh the righteous, the handsome! (90)
even that is the second of those my males, (91) when a man,
through sinfulness, makes water an instep's length beyond the
front of the instep. (92) He impregnates me, &c. (as in (77),
which is not repeated here, in Pahlavi, by the old MSS.).
1
42-44. (93-95) (As in (83-85), which are not repeated, in
Pahlavi, by the old MSS.), (96) when the man, after standing
up three steps (off), [some say beyond the three steps], (97)
having repeated three (praises of) righteousness,2 and two Hu-
matanãms (Yas. xxxv. 2), and three Hukhshathrôtemâis (Yas.
xxxv. 5), recites aloud four Ahunavars (Yas. xxvii. 13, and)
prays aloud the Yênhê-hâtãm (Yas. vii. 27), (98) he will so de-
stroy, &c. (as in (87) above). (a) This is evident from the
Avesta: it happens so when a man, through sinfulness, makes
water an instep's length beyond the front of the instep; for him
(it) is the beginning of a tanâpûhar (sin), and he atones for it
by the Avesta.³ When he makes water standing up it is the
beginning of a tanâpûhar (sin) for him, and he does not atone.
for it by the Avesta. It is in front, it is not backwards. It is
as to that which proceeds from the body 5 (that) chvaḍ yaḍ hê
kasishtahê erezvô fratemem ḍbaêshish (“as much as the extremity
of his smallest finger is an offence"); that amount of distance,
(when) bent together, is suitable for every foul action.6 Gôgô-
shasp 7 said that for the sake of preserving the clothes it is allow-
able to make water far off. (b) When (one) accomplishes the
action lawfully (and) well, when he squats down, one Yathâ-ahû-
vairyô is to be uttered by him. Sôshâns said that, in case of
'
"
1 It appears in the sequel that bard
min must mean "beyond," that is,
more than the three steps off;
but according to its usual meaning
it would be "without" taking three
steps backwards.
MS. in London, but is omitted by
Spiegel and most later MSS.
6 Reading zak-i dûrak amar ham-
khal visp khurak ghal kúnishn vurâz.
There are many difficulties in the
sentence, and the traditional expla-
2 That is, three Ashem-vohû for- nation is different, but decidedly
mulas. See p. 141, note 2.
By reciting the Avesta passages
above prescribed.
4 Probably "in front of the toes"
is meant. The whole of this commen-
tary is difficult to divide correctly
into separate sentences.
5 The word tand is given by the old
erroneous.
7 The name of one of the old com-
mentators who is often quoted in the
Pahlavi version of the Vendidad and
other works.
8 The name of another old com-
mentator.
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
375
haste (aûshtap), when he utters (it) on a road it is also allowable.
(c) And when he stands up the Avesta is all to be uttered by him
within the three steps; some say beyond the three steps, and on
his walking¹ apart, the Avesta is ever to be uttered, [this walk-
ing is that when he goes on from the three steps], or the Avesta
is taken inwardly by him.2 (d) When he accomplishes the
action lawfully (and) well, (but) through sinfulness does not
utter the Avesta, it is not clear to me (whether it is) one (or)
two³ srôshô-charanâms of a tandpûhar (sin). Gôgôshasp said
that when he accomplishes the action lawfully (and) well, he also
(utters) three Ashem-vohûs.4
45. (99) Srosh the righteous, &c. (as in (70) to (72), which
are not repeated, in Pahlavi, by the old MSS.): Which is the
third of those thy males?
46, 47. (100) And she, &c. (as in (89) above)! even that is
the third of those my males, (101) when a man asleep has an
emission of semen, [that is, his semen comes out]. (102) He
impregnates me, &c. (as in (77), which is not repeated, in Pah-
lavi, by the old MSS.).
48-50. (103-105) (As in (83-85), which are not repeated, in
Pahlavi, by the old MSS.), (106) when the man, after arising
from sleep, extols righteousness, [that is, recites three Ashem-
vobûs], (107) two Humatanãms, (and) three Hukhshathrôtemâis,
and prays aloud four Yathâ-ahû-vairyôs (and) Yênhê-hâtãm,5 he
will so destroy, &c. (as in (87) above).
51. (108) Then this (man) speaks to Spendarmad thus: O
Spendarmaḍ! (109) I deliver up to thee this man, and do thou
deliver this man back to me, (110) on the production, by skill,
دو
1 Traditionally, chamishn is "mak-
ing water (compare Pers. chamîn,
"urine"), but here it is otherwise
explained by the commentary itself.
2 That is, it is muttered in a low
tone of voice.
3 So in the old MS. in London.
This mode of translation is in accord-
ance with the idea of "the beginning
of a tanâpûhar" mentioned in (a), as
a tanúpúhar is equivalent to a great
number of srôshô-charanûms.
as described in p. 367, note 1, occurs
after the words ashem vohú (the last
having been the catchword at the
end of a folio in the original MS.);
the remaining words, vohû rahish-
tem 3, are found attached to the first
word (usehishta) of the Avesta of (37)
in MSS., and have been omitted by
Spiegel. The last eight Pahlavi words
added to (98) really belong to (28), as
noticed in p. 368, note 6.
5 The same prayers as those en-
The fourth dislocation of the text, joined in (97).
:
376
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
of the reorganisation in the future existence, (111) knowing the
Gâthas and knowing 1 *
* *
*
*
55. (115) taking (the fourth step), quickly afterwards,
we who are demons, at once we injure him by disease of the
tongue.
2
(116) Khshayamna paschaêta mereghentê gaêthao
astvaitîsh ashahê yatha zanda yatumenta merenchantê gaêthảo
ashahê (“afterwards the possessed ones destroy the settlements
of righteousness, supplied with creatures, as the spells of sor-
cerers destroy the settlements of righteousness"). (a) So that up
to the fourth step it is not more (than) ³ three srôshô-charanâms,
and at his fourth step it amounts to the beginning of a tanâpu-
har, [some say that (he is) within what is permitted him in going
the three (steps)]. When he walks on very many (steps) it is
also not more than a tanâpûhar, all that 4 remains over from the
beginning.
56-59. (117, 118) (As in (83-85), which are not repeated, in
Pahlavi, by the old MSS.), (119) (not given, in Pahlavi, by the
old MSS.). (120, 121). (As in (115, 116), which are not repeated,
in Pahlavi, by the old MSS.).
60, 61. (122) (As in (18-21), which are not repeated, in Pah-
lavi, by the old MSS. to) righteous one! (123) Who persecutes
thee, thee who art Aûharmazd, with the greatest persecution,
and annoys with the greatest annoyance? [that is, (does) all this
another time].5
62. (124) And Aûharmazd said to him thus: The courtezan,
1 The fifth dislocation of the text,
as described in p. 367, note 1, occurs
after the words va akas, where there
is a break in the text owing to the
loss of a folio in the original MS.
This is all the more to be regretted
as it is evident, from the small quan-
tity of missing text, that the lost
folio must have contained a long com-
mentary. The remaining eighteen
Pahlavi words attached to (111) really
belong to (18), as noticed in p. 367,
note 1; the word min being repeated
because it was the catchword at the
end of a folio.
2 There seems little doubt of this
being merely an Avesta quotation be-
longing to the commentary, which
has been accepted as part of the
Avesta text both here and in (121),
see p. 249. It is not translated into
Pahlavi, and the commentary which
follows it belongs to the preceding
sentence in the Avesta text.
3 It is doubtful whether we should
not read "not more than (aî) a srôshô-
charanam."
4
Assuming that we may read mun
instead of amat, see p. 346, note 2.
This phrase seems to mean that he
only completes the tanâpúlhar, already
begun, by walking beyond the fourth
step; but the phrase is obscure.
5 Or perhaps "does all this at one
time."
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
377
O righteous Zaratûsht! who mingles together the seed of the
pious and impious, the idolaters and non-idolaters, the tanapa
har-sinners and also the non-tanapahar-sinners, (a) and it is not
her business; for when cohabitation is three times conceded by
her (she is) worthy of death (marg-arján). Gôgôshasp said that
this is a courtezan who is within bounds (vimand).¹
1
63. (125) Of one-third the waters flowing from the mountains
the power is exhausted by her gazing on (them), O Zaratûsht!
(126) Of one-third the trees which are growing, graceful, and
golden-hued, the growth is exhausted by her gazing on (them),
O Zaratûsht!
64. (127) Of one-third of Spendarmad (the earth) the freedom
from scarcity (atangîh) is carried off by her walking on (it), O
Zaratûsht! (128) Of one-third the excellent thoughts, the ex-
cellent words, the excellent deeds of a righteous man she
abstracts the strength and dignity (shukûhîh), the success,
fame (khaniḍih), and even righteousness, through agitation
(levatman nafâmishn), O Zaratûsht !
65. (129) Concerning such (females) also I say unto thee, O
Spîtâmân Zaratûsht! that they are more destructive than a dart-
ing serpent (az), [some say a darting snake (már)], (130) than a
raving (shit)2 wolf, (131) than a jungle-bred 3 wolf when it rushes
into enclosures upon the sheep, (132) than a frog spawning
thousands when it plunges into the water, [that is, it drops at
once into the water; some say from the male to the female].
4
66-68. (133) (As in 18-21) which are not repeated, in Pah-
lavi, by the old MSS. to) righteous one! (134) whoever obser-
vantly, [that is, he sees that (she) is menstruous], knowingly,
[that is, he knows that (it) is a sin], (and) risking penalty, [that
is, he would say thus: I will incur the penalty], cohabits with a
woman suffering from any kind of menstruation,5 with that ob-
servation and knowledge and risk of penalty, (135) what is (his)
1 Meaning perhaps "in bondage,"
but the sense is rather uncertain.
The word dhiḍ, which follows in
the old MSS., is probably only the
Pahlavi aît, "is," or had, "would
be," in a Pâzand form, and ought to
end this sentence.
2 Or perhaps yahêd, "who de-
stroys."
3 This epithet is very doubtful;
and "jungle" is to be understood in
its wide Indian meaning of “wilder-
ness," not in its limited European
sense of "forest.”
4 Thereby polluting it.
5 This is merely a free transla-
tion.
378
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XVIII.
penalty in cash (khvastak)? and what is it (at) the bridge 1 with
the goad (and) scourge (srôshô-charanam)? How does he remove
the penalty for the perpetration of that action? [that is, how
should he atone ?].
69, 70. (136) And Aûharmazd said to him thus: Whoever
observantly, &c. (as in (134) above), (137) he should 2 search
out a thousand young (cattle), (138) and of all those cattle, of
those which are suitably decorated,³ and (consecrated) with holy-
water, yaḍ añtare veredhka asma reja, (“what is in the kidneys,
the kidney fat"),4 he should carry forth for the fire with perfect
rectitude; (139) (his) arm should carry (it) forth for the good
water.
5
71. (140) A thousand back-loads of hard firewood, dry and
inspected, he should carry forth for the fire with perfect recti-
tude. (141) A thousand back-loads of soft firewood emitting
fragrance, or benzoin, or aloe-wood, or pomegranate, or any
other of the most sweet-scented of trees, he should carry forth
for the fire with perfect rectitude.
8
6
72. (142) He should (have) a thousand Barsoms arranged in
(their) arrangement. (143) A thousand consecrated waters,
with Hom (and) with flesh, which are purified, [that is, pure],
watched, [that is, they are kept by a chief (priest)]," purified by
a holy man, [that is, prepared by a holy man], and watched
by a holy man, [that is, a holy man kept (it) as chief (priest)],
in connection 9 with which are those plants which are called
fire along with pieces of sandal-wood
and pomegranate twigs.
1 At the Chinvad bridge where the
soul has to account for its actions in
this life.
2 Grammarians should notice that
the conditional in these sentences
(137-149) is formed by prefixing (in-
stead of affixing) the auxiliaries âê, ê,
or hana, to the indicative present.
3 Reading vuraz varáz= Pers. buraz
baraz; this is, however, doubtful, as
the oldest reading is gvâ râz nráz, all
in Pâzand, and may perhaps be some
part of an animal.
4 The words asma reja look more
like "stone and gravel," but the
phrase is traditionally understood as
referring to fat smeared on splinters
of wood which are thrown into the
5 To ascertain that it is free from
impurity.
6 The hadhanaêpata, being classed
here among odoriferous substances,
can hardly have been the pomegranate
shrub, as assumed by tradition.
7 The zaota, or chief officiating
priest at all important ceremonies,
must be intended by sardûr here.
8 That is, by a priest, which must
be the meaning of dûhman here.
9 Assuming that ham-gumih stands
for ham-gamejih. The oldest reading
is ham-ginamth, which might be a
miswriting of ham-ganakih, "the
same manner" (an inverted k being m
in Pahlavi).
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XIX.
379
pomegranate, he should carry (all these) forth for the good water
with perfect rectitude.
73. (144) A thousand serpents who are created erect (laia-
dahîshno)¹ he should destroy, two thousand of those other female
snakes (mar-banûk). (145) A thousand land-frogs he should
destroy, and two thousand of those of the water. (146) A thou-
sand ants carrying off corn (dan-kash) he should destroy, two
thousand of those other venomous ones (dahîrak).²
74. (147) He should throw thirty over-bridges across navigable
water (and) streams containing water, with arches (dahan).3
(148) He is to be beaten with a thousand blows of a horse-
goad, (or) two thousand srôshô-charanáms.
75. (149) That is his penalty at the bridge; 4 that is his
penalty in cash (khvastak), that is his (penalty at) the bridge,
with the goad (and) scourge (srôshô-charanam); and so he should
remove the penalty for the perpetration of that action, [that is, he
should atone].
76. (150) If he removes (it) he gathers 5 for the better world
of the righteous, [that is, his gathering is made for that place].
(151) If he does not remove (it) he gathers 5 for the world of
the wicked, [that is, his gathering is made for that place], (152)
of those deserving gloom, [that is, their desert is for that place],
of gloomy origin, [that is, the Drûj who makes a man wicked
originates from that place], (and) gloomy, [that is, a dark place].
8.-Pahlavi Vendidad XIX.
1. (1) From the northern direction of the directions, from the
northern direction of the place, from the direction of the demons,
the evil spirit rushed forth, the deadly demon of the demons;
(2) and thus exclaimed he, the evil spirit, the deadly: (3) Rush
on, O Drûj! and destroy him, the righteous Zaratûsht. (4) On
to him they rushed, the Drûj, the demon Bût, and secret-moving
Destruction, the deceiver.
1 That is, who stand partly erect
when prepared to strike their prey or
enemy, like the cobra and many other
snakes.
2 Assuming that dahirak (the oldest
reading) stands for zâhirak, "poison-
ous."
3 This is merely a guess.
4 See p. 378, note 1.
This first
clause appears to be superfluous, but
occurs in the oldest MSS.
5 That is, he accumulates a store of
good works, or sin, as the case may
be. The meaning can hardly be "he
is gathered to," although the phrase
might perhaps be so translated with-
out doing much violence to grammar.
380
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XIX.
2. (5) Zaratûsht chanted aloud the Ahuna-vairya (formula),
[those two Yathâ-ahu-vairyôs which stand before hushiti (Yas.
lxviii. 14)], and he consecrated the good water which is of good
creation,¹ and the Mazdayasnian religion was professed by him,
[that is, he uttered the fravaranê, (Yas. i. 23)]. (6) The Drûj
was confounded by that; away they rushed, the demon Bût and
secret-moving Destruction, the deceiver.
3. (7) The Drûj exclaimed (in) reply to him thus: Thou art
a misleader, O evil spirit! this thou art, [that is, anything un-
looked for, which it is not possible for thee to do thyself, thou
orderest us (to do)]. (8) The ruin of him, who is Spîtâmân
Zaratûsht, is not contemplated by us, (9) owing to the full glory
[owing to the great diligence] of the righteous Zaratûsht; (a) so
that they announce that whoever remains in activity, on him less
affliction comes. (10) Zaratûsht perceived in (his) mind thus :
The wicked demons, astute in evil, consult together about my
ruin.
4. (11) Up rose Zaratûsht, forth went Zaratûsht, (12) from
the extinction of evil thought (Akomano) [when the evil thought.
in his body is extinguished] by severely distressing questions,
[by those questions, so severe, which are proposed to it]; (a)
some say that evil thought is extinguished by him when it asks
what is severely distressing.2 (13) And he held a stone (sag) in
his hand, which was the size of a hut, the righteous Zaratûsht !
[the rocky stone,3 some say, is the spirit of the Yathâ-ahu-vairyô],
(14) who thus besought the creator Aûharmazd: (15) Where is
that kept on this wide, round, far-traversed (earth, which) is to
be fixed on the roof in the dwelling of Pôrûshasp? (a) Some
say it is kept on this earth, so wide, round, (and) far-traversed,
and the place which is kept for it is fixed on the roof in the
dwelling of Pôrûshasp.
1 The "good Dâîtî" would pro-
bably be identified, by the Pahlavi
translator, with the river of that
name, see p. 357, note 1.
2 It is not clear whether the Pah-
lavi translator means to personify
Akômanô as a demon existing inde-
pendent of the mind or not.
3 Or "the stone of three kinds," if
we read sag-i 3-gúnd instead of sag-i
sagînó. As sag (not sang) is the usual
""
word for stone in the Pahlavi
Vendidad, there seems little doubt
that a stone is meant, though tradi-
tion prefers to understand the phrase
as "the thrice three," applicable to
the naugirah, or "nine-jointed" staff
of Zaratûsht, see p. 333, note 4.
The words darjik zbûr, being
merely a transcription of the Avesta,
are translated in accordance with the
meaning adopted in p. 333, note 4.
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XIX.
381
5. (16) Zaratûsht proclaimed aloud, [that is, he openly (patdid)
conveyed], to the evil spirit, thus: O evil spirit, astute in evil!
(17) I destroy the creatures produced by the demons, I destroy
the corruption (nasush) produced by the demons, (18) I destroy
the desire for witches, [the worship of idols], until the triumphant
Súd-homand ("beneficial one") is brought forth by the water of
Kashôsâî, [(a) both I destroy and my disciples destroy thee; and
after he arrives he will annihilate thee by his own deeds], (19)
from the eastern direction of the directions. (a) (From) the place
where the sun comes up on the longest day to the place where it
comes up on the shortest day is the east; from the place where
it comes up on the shortest day to the place where it goes down
on the shortest day is the south; from the place where it goes
down on the shortest day to the place where it goes down on the
longest day is the west; and the remainder is the north.
say that the north is an abyss.1
Some
6. (20) (In) reply to him exclaimed the evil spirit, astute in
evil, (21) thus: Destroy not these my creatures, O righteous
Zaratûsht! (22) Thou art the son of Pôrûshasp, and thou art
from the conception of thy mother's womb, I know thee, [(a) some
say that I had the worship of thy ancestors, and do thou also
worship me]. (23) Curse the good religion of the Mazdayas-
nians, (and) obtain happiness as Vôghnô, the king, obtained it.
7. (24) (In) reply to him spoke he who is Spîtâmân Zara-
tûsht, (25) thus: I curse not that which is Aûharmazd's own,
the good religion of the Mazdayasnians; (26) not for love of
body nor life, not for much result and not for good result, not
on account of the parting of body and soul, [that is, although
they cut off my head yet I curse not].
8. (27) (In) reply to him exclaimed the evil spirit, astute in
evil: (28) With what words dost thou smite me? [that is,
wouldst thou make me confounded?] and with what words wilt
thou molest me? [that is, wouldst thou force me apart from the
creatures?] with (what) well-formed implement, (from) these
creatures of me who am the evil spirit ?
9. (29) (In) reply to him spoke he who is Spîtâmân Zara-
''
1 Reading tih-1, a bottom," as
hell is supposed to be in the north.
But the word may be also read tâ-1,
66
a summit," which might refer to
the mountain Arezûra at the gate of
hell, see p. 316, note
hell, see p. 316, note 4, and p. 337,
note 9.
382
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XIX.
tûsht, (30) thus: With the Homa-mortar and dish and Homa, even
the words Aûharmazd pronounced, the Avesta, (31) are my best
implements. (32) With those words I smite thee, [that is, I
would make thee confounded], with those words I molest thee,
[that is, I would force thee apart from the creatures], with those
well-formed implements, O evil spirit, astute in evil! (33) which
were given to me by him, the beneficent spirit, and were given
to him in boundless time, [some say thus: which were given to
me by him, the beneficent spirit, and were given to me by him
in boundless time], (34) and were given over to me by them, the
Ameshaspends, the good rulers and good arrangers, [that is, they
have been assisting in the giving by them].1
10. (35) Zaratûsht chanted aloud the Ahuna-vairya, [that is,
the Yathâ-ahû-vairyô]; (36) the righteous Zaratûsht spoke out
thus: That which I ask of thee Thou tellest to me right, O
Aûharmazd! I am firmly of opinion, [some say thus: Right is
what Thou tellest to me].
11. (37)³ Through what is to be fixed on the roof¹ where
Aûharmazd (and) the good one [Vohuman] of good estimation
are stationed (ahist), [this "estimation" (stands) for Vohuman
again], (38) (with) Ashavahisht, Shatvêr, (and) Spendarmad.
12. (39) How should I act with them (to defend) from that
Drûj who is from the evil spirit, astute in evil? [that is, how
should I make her quite confounded?]. (40) How when it has
become polluted directly, how when it has become polluted in-
directly, how shall I dispossess the corruption (nasush) from the
residence (vis) of Mazdayasnians? (41) How do I purify a
righteous man? How do I bring purification on a righteous
woman?
13. (42) And Aûharmazd said to him thus: Thou mayst call,
O Zaratûsht! upon the good religion of the Mazdayasnians,
1 These words, "by them," lead
one to suspect that the Pahlavi trans-
lator considered "boundless time"
as much an individual as the bene-
ficent spirit," and that we ought to
read "by boundless time" (the Pah-
lavi pavan being both "by" and
"in"). The rare forms minamash,
afamash, and afamshûn (for afam-
shan), in these sentences, are of in-
terest to grammarians, as they show
that two pronominal suffixes can be
added to one particle.
2 Yas. xliv., see pp. 158-161.
3 The Pahlavi translator omits the
usual opening invocation of the
Creator, see the translation of the
Avesta text, p. 333.
4 See p. 380, note 4.
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XIX.
383
[that is, celebrate a Vendidad]. (43) Thou mayst call, O Zara-
tûsht! upon the Ameshaspends in invisible concealment on the
seven regions of the earth, [that is, although thou seest them
not they are to be propitiated]. (44) Thou mayst call, O Zara-
tûsht! upon the self-sustained universe, [its self-sustainment is
this, that through the energy which is within it nothing from
without is wanted within it], and boundless time, (and) the
upper-working air (va). (45) Thou mayst call, O Zaratúsht!
upon the swift wind created by Aûharmazd, and also call Spen-
darmad, the graceful daughter of Aûharmazd.
14. (46) Thou mayst call, O Zaratûsht! upon the spirit
(fravashi) of me who am Aûharmazd, (47) which is (of the
creations) of Aûharmazd the greatest in body, the best in worth,
the most excellent in appearance, the most formidable [strongest],
the most sagacious [wisest], the best-shaped, [that is, the limbs
most adapted one for the other], the highest in righteousness,
(48) the soul of which is the beneficent text.
(49) Thou
shouldst thyself, O Zaratûsht! call these creatures of Aûhar-
mazd, [that is, do not surrender (it) from (thy) hand].
15. (50) Zaratûsht considered¹ my words, [that is, he heark-
ened to them]; (a) some say that Zaratûsht considered my
words, [that is, he believed about them that it would be neces-
sary to keep (and) hear (them)]; (51) (and said): I call upon
the righteous Aûharmazd, the creator of creatures. (52) I call
upon Mitrô of the wide cattle-pastures, the well-armed, glorious
with missiles,2 the most victorious of missiles, [that is, these are
good (and) more (than) those of the angel Vâhrâm]. (53) I call
upon Srosh the righteous, the handsome, when he holds a sword
in (his) hand over the head of the demons, at that time I call
him most.
16. (54) I call upon the beneficent text which is very glori-
ous. (55) I call upon the self-sustained universe, boundless
time, and the upper-working air. (56) I call upon the swift
wind created by Aûharmazd; Spendarmad, the graceful daughter
of Aûharmazd, I also call. (57) I call upon the good religion
1 This sentence is corrected by com-
paring it with (114) further on.
2 Reading zâyâno, arms,
siles," but the word is ambiguous,
and might be read zahishno, “emana-
mis- tion, radiation.”
384
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XIX.
of the Mazdayasnians; the law against the demons,¹ the law of
Zaratûsht, I also call.
17. (58) Zaratûsht inquired of Atharmazd thus: Thou art a
generous creator,2 O Aûharmazd! [that is, the benefit from him
is much]; (59) with what words do I reverence, with what words
do I worship Thee? (and do) my disciples and these creatures of
Aûharmazd?
18. (60) And Aûharmazd said to him thus: When thou
comest up to a growing tree, O Spîtâmân Zaratûsht! (61) which
is fine, well-grown, (and) strong, recite these words: (62) Salu-
tation to the good tree created by Aûharmazd (and) righteous! 3
(a) Righteousness is the best prosperity, [a store of these is
good, duty and good works]; (b) virtuous is righteousness, vir-
tuous is he who is a right-doer through perfect righteousness,
[that is, he performs duty and good works].4
6
7
19. (63) Thou mayst carry off Barsom for that ceremony a
span long, a barley-corn thick. (64) Thou shouldst not cut up
the Barsom with over-attention,5 [that is, thou shouldst leave
(it) to] men become righteous, and it is held by them in the
left hand; (65) and Aûharmazd is prayed to by them, and the
Ameshaspends are prayed to by them. (66) Homa, too, the
golden-hued, the exalted, and they also who are excellent,
Vohuman and good liberality created by Aûharmazd, the right-
eous (and) best, are prayed to likewise by them.
20. (67) Zaratûsht inquired of Aûharmazd thus: Thou art
omniscient, O Aûharmazd! (68) Thou art sleepless, O Aûhar-
mazd! and unintoxicated, thou who art Aûharmazd! (69) A
1 The Vendidad.
2 Or it may be translated as in p.
334, note I.
3 Dastur Hoshangji observes that
when a Parsi priest goes nowadays
up to a pomegranate tree to cut the
urvarām he does not use these words,
but washes his hands and the knife
with consecrated water, thrice recit-
ing khshnaothra Ahurahê Mazdão,
ashem vohú, and cuts a twig from the
pomegranate tree for the urvaram,
and a leaflet from the date tree for
the aiwydonhana, or girdle of the
Barsom. The instructions in the
text, however, refer to the cutting of
the Barsom itself, which is now hardly
ever done, as they generally use metal
wires instead of twigs.
4 This Pahlavi translation of the
Ashem-vohû formula is omitted by
Spiegel, but is given by the old MSS.
5 The word avar-nikîrishnîh is not
a correct equivalent of the Avesta
pairi-keretem, but it is hazardous to
alter it into avar-kurînishnîh.
6 Or "thou shouldst break (it) off
for," if shikan-de be read instead of
shedkûn-de.
7 That is, priests.
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XIX.
385
good-minded man is mingled in direct pollution with him (val),
a good-minded man is mingled in indirect pollution with him
(val) whose body is stricken by the demons and defiled, and the
demons mingle him with it, [that is, they would make (him)
completely defiled]; did the good-minded (one) become purified?
21. (70) And Aûharmazd said to him thus: Seek for bull's
urine, O Zaratûsht! of a young, entire bull, lawfully inaugur-
ated.¹ (71) Thou mayst carry on the purification on the land
created by Aûharmazd, [that is, they may perform (it) in a wild
spot of nava vîbâzva drajô ("nine fathoms length ")]. (72) With
a surrounding furrow he should score (it) around, the man who
is purifying.
22. (73) One hundred praises of righteousness are to be
recited (thus): Ashem vohû, (&c., and) (74) two hundred.
(Yathâ-ahû-vairyôs).2 (75) With four times thorough washing
he is washed over, (by) the man who is purifying, with bull's
urine produced by bulls, twice with water which should be
created by Aûharmazd,³ which should be well-formed.
23. (76) Purified becomes the good-minded man, purified
becomes the man who shall come with him.4 (77) The cloth-
ing of the good-minded (one) is to be taken up by the left arm
with the right, and by the right arm with the left, with the
assistance of one another. (78) Then the good-minded (one) is
to be called out 5 in the light produced by skill, that we may
brighten his star given by destiny, (79) always till those nine
nights shall elapse over the man.
24. (80) After the nine nights thou mayst carry forth conse-
crated water to the fire, thou mayst carry forth the hard
firewood to the fire, thou mayst carry forth sweet-scented
incense to the fire, (81) (and he) who is good-minded should
fumigate his clothes.
1 The bull whose urine is employed
for such purposes has to be once pro-
perly consecrated by a certain cere-
mony, when he becomes dûityô-kerető,
and can then supply lawful urine for
the rest of his life.
2 The words yathû ahû vairyô vad
vâstârem, which have been taken into
the Avesta text (see p. 335), belong,
no doubt, to the Pahlavi translation.
3 Probably meaning pure water.
In the old MSS. the conditional đê
occurs twice, as here translated.
4 Or "who shall come in contact
with him.
>>
5 So all unaltered MSS., but Das-
tur Hoshangji suggests that sharî-
tún shn, "is to be opened or exposed,"
should be read instead of karîtanishu.
2 B
386
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XIX.
25. (82) Purified becomes the clothing of the good-minded '
(one), purified becomes the man who holds the clothing.
(83) The clothing, &c. (as in (77) above). (84) The good-
minded (one) exclaims thus: Salutation to Aûharmazd! saluta-
tion to the Ameshaspends! salutation to those other righteous.
ones! (a) Afarg1 showed from this passage that he whose
hands are not washed should not reverence the sun, and should
not engage in silent prayer (vα)).
26. (85) Zaratûsht inquired of Aûharmazd thus: Thou art
omniscient, O Aûharmazd! (86) Shall I raise the righteous
man? shall I raise the righteous woman? shall I raise the
wicked and the idolaters, the men who are polluters ?2 (87)
The giving up 3 removes away the earth created by Aûharmazd;
the giving up removes away the flowing water, the grown corn,
and the other wealth. (88) And Aûharmazd said to him thus:
Thou mayst raise (them), O righteous Zaratûsht!
!
27. (89) Creator of the material world, righteous one 4
Where are those events 5 in lodgment? where do those events
proceed? [that is, where is the place of their coming and
going?] wherewith are those events in connection? where do
those events come back to the same place for a man whom they
give up to his own soul in the material life of mankind? 6
28. (90) And Aûharmazd said to him thus: After the pass-
ing away of men, after the proceeding forth of men, [that is,
when their proceedings in the world are completed], after the
tearing away of the life from the former body by the demons,
the wicked ones astute in evil, [that is, of everyone they most
tear away that from which unseparated ( abara) he does not
die]; (91) on the complete up-lifting of the third night, when
the dawn glows, the beaming, (92) on the mountain of the
1 The name of one of the old com- resurrection, or to the soul's entrance
mentators.
into its separate spiritual life, as de-
tailed in the following verses.
2 The reading of the old MSS. is
certainly gushno-zahishnân, a misin-
terpretation of the Av. merczujîlîm.
3 Taking bara yehabûntano (which
the old MSS. append to both clauses
of the sentence) as the nominative.
It might be translated "result," but
the passage seems to refer to the
4 This opening sentence is abbrevi-
ated in the old MSS.
5 The traditional meaning of dûsar
is "destiny."
6 As the meaning is not very clear
it is safest to give the literal trans-
lation.
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XIX.
387
glory of righteousness where it¹ arouses Mitro the well-armed,
(93) and the sun rises up there in (its) ascent.
29. (94) The demon Vîzarsh by name, O Spîtâmân Zara-
tûsht! carries off the soul bound, the wicked (and) the idolaters,
the men who are polluters. (a) That is, with a halter (band)
which falls upon the neck of every one when he dies; when
righteous it falls off from his neck (ash min chavarman), when
wicked they will drag him with that same halter to hell.
(95) He comes to the time-worn path, whoever is wicked (and)
whoever is righteous. [(a) Every one will come to that place
to behold Aûharmazd (and) Ahriman; he who is righteous to
offer prayer, (but) he who is wicked is unable to offer prayer
and becomes repentant, and by his repentance they restore the
dead again]. (96) (To) the Chinvaḍ bridge created by Aûbar-
mazd, where they clear away (bara zadênd) the worldly portion
of the consciousness (and) soul, (97) which was given to them
in the material world.
3
4
30. (98) She who is graceful in appearance, well-formed,
[that is, it is not necessary to do anything to her],2 strong, [that
is, powerful], well-developed, [that is, she has grown in excel-
lence], comes (99) with a dog, [that is, protection is with her],
with discrimination, [that is, it is evident who is who and which
is which], with replies, [that is, with goodness and crime],"
willing, [that is, as a man requires], (and) provided with skill.
She supports the soul of the righteous across
Alborz. (101) They pass across by the Chinvad bridge whose
two extremities (2-sarth) are their own heavenly angels; (a) one
stands at Chakâḍ-i Dâîtih,7 and one at Alborz.
(100) 6
1 Probably the dawn.
Literally: "it is not necessary to
perform an operation upon her."
3 Assuming that kik aigh tuban,
the reading of the old MSS. in Lon-
don, stands for takîk aigh túlbûn.
4 The oldest reading is pasukho-
homand, but Dastur Hoshangji sug-
gests reading pusân-hômand, "having
sons."
5 Probably meaning that she has
the replies both of the good and the
bad. The oldest reading is vasîh va
bajak, and vasîh is very like vêhîh;
Dastur Hoshangji suggests reading
vêsh bachak, “many children."
6 The old MSS. omit the Pahlavi
translation of the first clause of this
sentence in the Avesta: "She dis-
misses the sinful soul of the wicked
into the glooms" (see p. 255). This
is, no doubt, a blunder, as there is no
reason to suppose that this clause is
an Avesta quotation introduced by
the Pahlavi translator.
7 The Bundahish (p. 22, W.) states
that the mountain "Chakâd-i Dâîtîh
is that of the middle of the world,
388
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XIX.
31. (102) Vohuman shall rise up from a throne made of
gold, (a) where he transacts the affairs of the dominion of the
eternal ones.¹ (103) Vohuman exclaims thus: How hast thou
come up here? O righteous one! tasting immortality (anôsh-
vashtamûn), (104) from that perishable world which is afflicted,
unto this imperishable world which is unafflicted ?
32. (105) Contented the soul of the righteous goes on from
Vohuman (106) up to Atharmazd and up to the Ameshaspends
and up to the throne made of gold, (107) up to Garôḍmân, the
abode of Aûharmazd, the abode of the Ameshaspends, the abode.
of those others who are also alike (hamîch) righteous ones.
33. (108) Owing to the purified state of that righteous
(one), [owing to the protection 2 of purity in the soul], after
passing away, the wicked demons, astute in evil, are frightened
away by its scent, (109) as a sheep molested by wolves when it
is frightened off by the scent of a wolf.
4
34. (110) The righteous men come together 3 every one;
(a) some say Hushêdar, Hushêdar-mâh, and Sôshyâns; (11
(III)
and Nêryôsang brings them together. (112) The messenger
of Aûharmazd call Nêryôsang; (113) thou shouldst thyself,
O Zaratûsht! call upon these creatures of Aûharmazd, [that is,
do not surrender (it) from (thy) hand].5
I
35. (114) Zaratûsht considered my words, &c. (as in (50)
above); (115) (and said): I call upon Aûharmazd the righteous,
the wise. (116) I call upon the earth created by Aûharmazd,
the water created by Aûharmazd, and the rightful vegetation.
(117) I call upon the sea which is made wide.7 (118) I call
upon the sky, the handsome-formed, [that is, it is formed well-
vaulted].8 (119) I call upon the endless light, the self-sustained,
the height of a hundred men, on
which the Chinvad bridge stands, and
they take account of the soul at that
place."
1 Reading avidamankarano, "those
acting without time," but this is
liable to the objection that avî ought
to be otherwise written.
2 The word pânakîh seems to have
been written by mistake in the old
MS. in London, and to have been
corrected by a marginal gloss into
pûkîh; later copyists give both words
in the text, as here translated.
3 The old MSS. are here, for once,
more corrupt than the modern ones.
4 Traditionally, the friend."
5 This is a repetition of (49), and
the subject now returns to the point.
it left when interrupted by the in-
quiries in (58).
6 This is a misinterpretation of the
Avesta, see p. 256.
7 A free translation of Vouru-
kasha, which is always Farâkhu-kard
in Pahlavi.
8 So in the old MSS., but "vaulted
together" in later ones.
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XIX.
389
[that is, its self-sustainment is this, that they 1 make every one
its own for itself].
36. (120) I call upon the better world of the righteous, of
all-glorious light. (121) I call upon Garóḍmân, the abode of
Aûharmazd, and the abode of the Ameshaspends, and the abode
of those other righteous ones. (122) I call upon the constantly
advantageous place,2 the self-sustained, [its constant advantage-
ousness is this, that when it once became (so) all of it became
thereby ever-advantageous]; the Chinvad bridge, created by
Aûharmazd, I also call.
37. (123) I call upon good-fortune the wishful-eyed, the
favouring, the spirit of favour (ha-chashmih). (124) I call upon
the valiant guardian-angels of the righteous, who benefit all
creatures. (125) I call upon the victorious angel Verebrân
(Behrâm), created by Aûharmazd, who bears the standard of tlie
glory created by Aûharınazd. (126) I call upon the star
Tîshtar, the brilliant, the glorious; at the time when (it is) in
the form of a bull with golden horns I call it most.
38. (127) I call upon the propitious Gâthas, ruling the chiefs
(of the creation, and) righteous; [their rulership of the chiefs
is this, that it is proper to pray to any of the others through
them]. (128) I call upon the Ahunavaiti Gâtha; I call upon
the Ushtavaiti Gâtha; I call upon the Spentâ-mainyû Gâtha ;
I call upon the Vohu-khshathra Gâtha; I call upon the Vahish-
tôishti Gâtha.
39. (129) I call upon the region (kêshvar) of Arezahi and of
Savahi; I call upon the region of Fradadafshu (and of) Vîda-
dafshu; I call upon the region of Vouru-bareshti and of Vouru-
jareshti; I call upon the region of Qaniratha the splendid;
(a) this they assert as they are stationed (ahist) in this (one).
(130) I call upon Hêt-hômand the illustrious, the glorious.
(131) I call upon the good Ashishang. I call upon the most.
rightful (rajistak), the learned, the good. (132) I call upon the
4
1 The fixed stars, which produce works exactly counterbalance their
their own light.
sins, and where they remain in a
stationary state till the final resur-
.rection.
2 This Hamishak-sudak gás appears
to be the place of the Hamîstakân of
the later books, the intermediate
place, between heaven and hell, re-
served for those souls whose good
3 See Vend. i. (50), p. 361.
+ See p. 215.
390
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XIX.
glory of the Iranian countries. I call upon the glory of Jam-
shed the rich in flocks.
40. (133) When Srosh is satisfied with the three nights' 1
worship, and (has) recognised, [that is, completed (its) con-
sideration], and accepted (it), Srosh the righteous! the handsome,
triumphant Srosh, the righteous! (134) consecrated water is to
be carried forth to the fire; thou shouldst carry forth hard
firewood to the fire, (and) thou shouldst carry forth sweet-
scented incense to the fire. (135) The fire Vâzisht is to be
propitiated, which smites the demon Spenjagar. (136) Cooked
food is to be carried forth, full of dried sugar-plums.2
41. (137) Thou shouldst propitiate Srosh the righteous; (138)
Srosh the righteous who destroys the demons, who are stupid,
drunk, and causelessly drunk, [that is, drunk without wine].
(139) He hurls them down to the Drûj of Askân,³ the wicked
(and) the idolaters, the men who are polluters, back to Vîzarsh
the demon.4
44. (140) (The evil spirit exclaimed) thus: Why do we
assemble in an assembly, O wicked demons astute in evil! on
the summit of Arezûr? 5 [that is, when we go back what report
(srôbak) do we carry back?]
45. (141) They rushed and they shouted the cries of demons,
they became worse about the matter, the demons, the wicked
ones astute in evil.6 . . . (142) (For) this we assemble in an
assembly on the summit of Arezûr.
1 Meaning the three nights after a
death, during which ceremonies in
honour of Srosh are to be performed.
After the third day and night cere-
monies commence in honour of the
Ardâî Fravard or righteous guardian
angels. The word meaning "the
three nights " is traditionally pro-
nounced scdôsh or sadis (see Mainyô-
i-khard xxi. 10; lxiii. 7), and is
sometimes confounded with Srosh;
but it seems to be nothing but satûlîh,
a triplet," (compare Pers. satú).
2 The oldest reading looks like bara
khashad shakarpák, but should pro-
bably be read bara khushkid shakar-
réjúk.
66
3 The oldest reading is drúj-i as-
káno, but the meaning is uncertain.
It seems to be merely a transcript of
the Avesta drujaskanām.
4 The word daêvó (which although
in Avesta letters seems to belong to
the Pahlavi text) is omitted by Spie-
gel. A long passage (see pp. 336, 337)
is here omitted in the old MSS. with
the Pahlavi translation. This omis-
sion has evidently been caused by the
loss of a folio in some original MS.,
whence they have all descended.
5 See p. 337, note 9.
6 Two clauses of this sentence (see
p. 337) are omitted in the old Pahlavi
translation.
'PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XX.
391
46. (143) Because the righteous Zaratûsht is born in the
dwelling of Pôrûshasp. (144) Where (can) we procure his
death? for he is the smiter of the demons, and he is the adver-
sary of the demons. (145) He restrains the destroyer from de-
stroying, [that is, he takes away his oppressiveness], he puts
down idolatry, [that is, he makes (it) powerless]. (146) He
proclaims avoidance of the corruption (nasûsh) produced by the
demons; the falsehoods of Mitokht (the liar) he also makes
powerless.
47. (147) The demons shouted, the demons fled, the wicked
ones astute in evil, to the bottom of the world of darkness which
is the grievous¹ hell, and back to constant smoke.
9.-Pahlavi Vendidad XX.
4
1. (1) Zaratûsht inquired of Aûharmazd, &c. (as in Vend.
xviii. (21), p. 367, to) righteous one! Who was the first of the
men who are careful ones,2 [who know well how to take care of
the body, such as Spendyâd; 3 some say that a sword made no
effect upon (him)], (2) (who are) accomplished ones, [sages, such
as Kâî-Us], (3) (who are) willing ones, [such as Jamshêd], (4)
(who are) fortunate ones, [and powerful ones, such as Pâtsrób],5
(5) (who are) brilliant ones, [and skilful ones, such as Zaratûsht],
(6) (who are) valiant ones, [such as Keresâspa], (7) (who are)
those of the early law (pêshdûḍân), [such as Hôshâng; this early
law was this, that he first set going the law of sovereignty], (8)
(and) by whom disease was kept to disease, and death was kept
to death by him, [that is, they could not escape from his con-
trol (band)]; (9) he kept (back) the drawn dagger,7 [that is, it
was stopped by him on the way], (10) and the scorching of fire
was kept by him away from the bodies of men?
1 Reading aîrang; compare Pers.
arang. The Dasturs prefer reading
aîrôg, which they translate "stink-
iug."
2 Said to mean those rendered se-
cure or invulnerable by means of
spells.
3 The Pahlavi form of Isfendyâr, a
son of Vishtâsp, who conquered Ar-
jâsp.
4 Or a battle-axe, according as we
compare tish with Pers. tish, or tishah.
G
5 Traditionally identified with Kaî-
Khûsrô, but this seems only a guess.
It is more probable that Pât-khûsrô
is meant, who is said to have been a
brother of Vishtâsp in the Pahlavi
Shâhuâmah.
6 Reading dasht in all the phrases
(as suggested by Dastur Hoshangji)
instead of the ash dâd of the MSS.;
the Pahlavi letters being the same in
both cases.
7 This is merely a guess.
392
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XX.
2.
(
11) And Aûharmazd said to him thus: Srît 1 was the first,
O Spîtâmân Zaratûsht! of the men who are careful ones, &c. (as
in (1-10) above). (a) That is, Srît of the Sâmâns, not Srît of
the Sêrjâns,2 (at) the place where he had come he was able to
act. (b) Some say that he was Yim, and his Srîtship was this,
that he was the third ruler.3
3. (12) He begged (and) obtained a weapon (vîshchîhar) from
Shahrivar, [(a) some say that it was obtained through Shahrivar,
so that its top (and) bottom might be bound with gold], 4 (13)
for withstanding disease, for withstanding death, for withstand-
ing pain, for withstanding fever, (14)5. . . for withstanding
aghish the putrid, the disfigurer, the malignant eye which the
evil spirit formed in the bodies of men; [every one is good as to
his own (and) evil as to others].
6
4. (15) Then I who am Aûharmazd brought forth healing
plants; (16) many and many hundreds, and many and many
thousands, and many and many myriads; (17) and therewith
one Gôkerenô, the Homa which is white.7
5. (18) The inviter to work of every kind, the commander
(and) Dastur of every kind, the possessor of every kind of bless-
ing, [that is, it provides healthiness of life], for the bodies of
men.8
7. (19) Disease! I say unto thee: Flee away! Pain! I say
" 1 The Avesta Thrita, see pp. 178, angel who has special charge of all
metals.
277.
2 So spelt in the old MS. in Lon-
don; later MSS. alter it into Sêr-
zân. The nearest Avesta equiva-
lent appears to be the sareja of Yas.
xxix. 3; but perhaps the allusion is
to Thritô aêvô-saredhô in Yasht xiii.
125, as Sérjan can also be read ésarján,
and the Pahlavi ch j is a letter of
practically the same form as the Av.
dh.
3 This is an attempt to connect the
name Thrita with Av. thritya, "third,"
As Hôshâng has already been men-
tioned as the first sovereign (see (7)
above) Yima would be, of course, the
third.
4 Because Shahrivar is the arch-
5 The names of eight diseases are
here left untranslated by the Pahlavi
version.
6 The name of this disease or evil is
written, in Avesta characters, agháish
here and in (24), and aghish in (20), in
the old MS. in London.
7 This is the tree of life which is
said to grow in the sea Vouru-kasha,
where it is carefully preserved from
the evil spirit, in order that it may
furnish immortality at the end of the
world. See Bundahish (p. 42, W.).
8 Verse 6, which is a repetition of
(13) and (14), is not trauslated in the
Pahlavi version.
PAHLAVI VENDIDAD XX.
393
unto thee: Flee away! and Fever! I say unto thee: Flee away!
(20)1... Aghish! I say unto thee: Flee away !
8. (21) What is vanquished by the vigour of that Homa is the
Drúj, and the vigour of that Drûj is vanquished (by) its re-
sources. (22) What is the strength of its dominion is I who am
Aûharmazd.2
9. (23)3
I counteract disease, I counteract death, I coun-
teract pain, I counteract fever, (24)4 . . . I counteract aghish
the putrid, the disfigurer, the malignant eye, which the evil
spirit formed in the bodies of men, [every one is good as to his
own (and) evil as to others].
10. (25) I counteract every disease and death, every sorcerer
and witch, and every wicked courtezan.
11. (26) The longing for Aîrmân 5 is for me the arrival of
joy, [that is, it is necessary for thee to come with joy], (and)
they compel (him) to act for the men and women of Zaratûsht.
(27) Vohuman is joyful, [that is, it is necessary for thee also to
come, that they may compel thee to act with joy]. He who is
desirous of religion becomes worthy, with the reward here (in
this world) and that also there (in the other world). (28) The
reverent supplication for righteousness is Ashavahisht, [that is,
my reverence is through him]; may he become the dignity of
Aûharmazd, [the mobadship of the mobads].
12. (29) The longing for Aîrmân destroys every disease and
death, every sorcerer and witch, and every wicked courtezan.
III.-NOTES DESCRIPTIVE OF SOME PARSI CEREMONIES.
These notes were written by the author in German, merely as
memoranda of what he noticed during the performance of the
ceremonies, and of such information as the priests communi-
cated. It is to be regretted that the author confined his notes
almost entirely to the ceremonies connected with the celebration
1 The exorcism of the eight other
diseases is here left untranslated by
the Pahlavi version, as in (14).
2 The Avesta of the latter part of
this verse is a paraphrase of Yas.
xxxi. 40.
3 The names of four other diseases
or evils are here left untranslated by
the Pahlavi version. The concluding
verses (9-12, W.) of this fargard occur
again as the conclusion of each of the
fargards xxi. and xxii.
4 The names of the eight diseases,
omitted in (14) and (20) are here again
left untranslated by the Pahlavi ver-
sion.
5 The angel Airyaman, see p. 273.
394
NOTES DESCRIPTIVE OF
of the Yasna or Ijashne; but he probably relied upon Anquetil's
description of the commoner ceremonies being a sufficient me-
morandum, as he had found his statements quite correct on such
matters (see p. 25).
The editor's revision of these notes has been confined to such
further explanation as seemed necessary for making the rough
memoranda intelligible to the reader. If any Parsi priest should
notice errors in these notes, he will confer a favour by pointing
them out in a letter to the editor through the publishers.
1.- The Ceremony preparatory to Ijashne.
I.
This preparatory ceremony is called pargannah or paragnah,
and commences with the arrangement of the various ceremonial
vessels and materials in the arvîs-gâh or ceremonial area.
arrangement is shown upon p. 395.
This
The ceremonial vessels and apparatus are made of metal,
generally brass or copper, but more valuable metals can be used.
They consist of several round-bottomed cups (about the size of
tea-cups) and saucer-like dishes, besides other vessels of a more
special character.
The fire burns on a bed of ashes in a vase-like vessel placed
on a stone near the southern end of the Arvîs-gâh where the
Rathwi (Râspî) or assistant priest is stationed, facing the Zota
or chief officiating priest, who sits cross-legged on a low stone
platform near the northern end of the Arvis-gâh, but facing
the fire. Both priests wear close-fitting trousers instead of the
usual loose pyjamas, so as to avoid touching any of the appara-
tus with their clothes; they also wear the penôm or mouth-veil
(see p. 243, note 1).
Some spare dêsma or firewood (in the form of chips of sandal-
wood) and bôt or incense (benzoin) are laid alongside the fire to
the Râspî's left; and small fire tongs and an incense ladle are
similarly laid to his right.
The Zota has a supply of water in a large metal water-vessel
to his right, which also contains the pestle and strainer for the
Homa; and before him the remaining apparatus is arranged on
a low stone platform called the takht-i alat. Besides the cups
and saucers mentioned above, the following apparatus (p. 396)
stands on this platform.
SOME PARSI CEREMONIES.
395
ARRANGEMENT OF THE ARVIS-GAH.
SOUTH.
Raspi's station.
Tongs.
Incense
ladle.
Fire in a vase
on a stone.
Spare firewood
and incense.
EAST.
Spare
Homa-juice
in cup with
saucer cover.
Homa
juice cup.
Barsom
Darûn
and butter
Barsom
knife.
Homa
mortar.
laid on
Milk
its stands.
saucer.
saucer.
Zota's seat.
NORTH.
Homa and
pomegranate
twig saucer.
WEST.
Varas cup
Large
with cover.
water
vessel
Zor cup.
Zor cup.
containing
strainer
and pestle.
396
NOTES DESCRIPTIVE OF
The barsom-dan or stand for the Barsom, consisting of two
separate stands with upright stems and crescent-shaped tops,
hence called mah-rú, "moon-faced." The Barsom, when arranged,
is laid resting on the two crescents. The kârd-i barsam-chin, or
knife for cutting the Barsom, &c., is also laid on the takht.
The hâvanîm or Homa mortar is generally shaped like a wine-
glass, with foot and stem, but much larger; and the pestle or
dastah, chisel-shaped at one end, is kept till wanted on one side.
in the large water-vessel. The Homa strainer or tashta ba-
sûrâkh is one of the saucers with nine small holes, arranged
diamond-fashion about half an inch apart, in its bottom; this
also lies on one side in the water-vessel.
The darûn (draona) or ceremonial wafer-bread is a small,
tough, flexible pancake (about the size of the palm of the hand),
made of wheaten flour and water, with a little melted butter (ghî),
and fried. A frasast is a similar pancake marked on one side,
before frying, with nine superficial cuts (in three rows of three
each) made with the finger-nail while repeating the words humat
hukht huvarsht thrice, one word to each of the nine cuts.
Darûn or Frasast that is torn must not be used in any ceremony.
A small piece of butter, called gâush-hudhão, generally accom-
panies the Darûn. Other ceremonial apparatus is sufficiently
explained in the following notes.
Any
The aiwyâonhanem is the girdle or tie with which the Barsom
is to be tied together. It is prepared from a leaflet of the date-
palm, which is cut from the tree by the priest after he has poured
consecrated water over his hand, the knife, and the leaflet.¹
When brought to the Arvîs-gâh in the water-goblet the leaflet is
split longitudinally into thread-like ribbons. Six of these leafy
threads are then laid together, three one way and three the
other,² and are all tied together in a knot at one end. One tri-
plet is then twisted tightly together with a right-handed twist,
and the other triplet with a left-handed twist, so that when laid
together the two triplets twist together into a single string, by
partially untwisting, and they are then secured together by a
1 A twig is cut in the same manner
from a pomegranate bush to form the
urvarām. And the Barsom twigs
were also similarly cut in former
times, before metal wires were used.
2 That is, the ends belonging to the
base of the leaflet are at one end of
one triplet, and at the other end of
the other triplet.
SOME PARSI CEREMONIES.
397
knot at the other end. The Aiwyâonbanem is now ready for
use, and is laid upon the Barsom-dân.
The varasa consists of three, five, or seven hairs from the tail
of a white bull, which are tied to a gold¹ ring, as large as a
thumb-ring. The ring has a gap in its circumference, as the
metal wire of which it is formed does not quite meet. This
Varasa, when once prepared, can be used as long as the bull
lives, whose hair has been taken. But as often as it is used it
must be consecrated by the recital of the 1001 names of God,
that is, by ten repetitions of the 101 names, which are all that
are now known.
The zaothra or Zor is water consecrated in the following man-
ner :-The priest takes two metal cups in his hands, and recites
ashem-vohu thrice, fravaranê (Yas. iii. 24, to) frasastayaêcha,
aiwyô vanuhibyô (as in Frag. vii. 1, p. 333, W. to) frasastayaêcha,
and yathâ ahû vairyô (Yas. iii. 25, omitting W.'s second line).
Then reciting the words frû tê staomaidê he fills both cups with
water, and continues reciting yatha aha vairyô twice, yasnemcha
vahmemcha aojascha zavarecha afrinami (Yasht i. 23), and
aiwyô vanuhibyô (as before, to) tava ahurânê ahurahê. These
last three words must be recited twice, once aloud and once mut-
tered as a baj. The water is now Zor, and the cups are placed
on the takkt, one over the other, with a saucer between them.
The Barsom consists of a number of slender rods or tâî, for-
merly twigs of some particular trees, but now thin metal wires
are generally used. The number of these tâî depends upon
the nature of the ceremony to be celebrated. For Ijashne
(yazishn) alone 21 tâî are required, for Ijashne with Vendidad
and Visparad 33 tai, for Yasht-i Rapithwin 13 tai, for Darûn
Bâj five tâî, or seven when a priest becomes a herbad.2 Besides
these taî, which form the actual Barsom, two other tâî are re-
quired, one to lie across the saucer which contains the milk or
gâush jîvya, and the other to lie on the projecting feet of the
1 Or silver, copper, or brass.
2 According to other information
the Darûn Bâj requires seven tai of
double thickness, or nine if performed
in the house of a king or chief high-
priest. In the Nîrangistân it is stated
that the Barsom twigs may be cut
from any tree whose trunk is sound,
and that they should be from one to
three spans in length and a barley-
corn in thickness, and their number
either 3, 5, 7, 9, 12, 15, 21, 33, 69, or
551, according to the circumstancns of
the ceremony.
398
NOTES DESCRIPTIVE OF
two mûh-rû which form the Barsom-dân; the first of these tâî is
called the jîvâm, the other the fragam. At first the Frâgâm is
laid at one end of the bundle of taî forming the Barsom, so that
it projects beyond the rest, as the priest takes the bundle in his
left hand and the Jîvâm in his right; the Aiwyâoṇhem being
laid upon the two̟ mâh-rû. The priest then recites ashem vohu
thrice, fravaranê (Yas. iii. 24, to) frasastayaêcha, khshathrahê,
&c. (Siroz. i. 4),¹ khshnaothra yasnaicha vahmâicha khshnao-
thrâicha frasastayaêcha, y. a. v.2 (Yas. iii. 25, omitting W.'s
second line, to) mraotú, ashem a. v.,3 y. a. v. twice, yasnemcha
(Yt. i. 23, to) afrinami, khshathrahê, &c. (Sîroz. i. 4), a. v.
thrice, and fravarûnê (Yas. iii. 24, to) frasastayaêcha. Then
while reciting the words Ahurahê mazdão raêvatô qarenanhatô
the priest proceeds to tie the Barsom together with the Aiwyâon-
hanem in the following manner :— -The Jîvâm being held in his
right hand, and the Frâgâm projecting from the Barsom held in his
left hand, he prepares to pass the Aiwyâonhanem thrice round
the middle of the Barsom and to tie it with knots, in the same
way as the kustî or sacred thread-girdle is secured round the
waist of a Parsi man or woman. But, first, the above formulas,
from khshnaothra to mraotú, must be again recited, and then
ashem a. v. thrice.5 Each time the words ashem ashem vohu are
uttered the Barsom must be dipped in water and again taken
out. This water, which is not Zor, and will be used in the Homa
ceremony, is called apem haomyam. The Barsom is now tied
together with two double knots in the Aiwyâonhem, one above
and the other below, while reciting y. a. v. twice; and the two
1 Formerly, before wires were used,
only the words Ahurahê mazdão raê-
vatô qarenanható were used.
2 Henceforth yathâ ahû vairyô will
be contracted into y. a. v., and ashem
vohu into a. v. In all cases the whole
formula is to be understood, when it is
not otherwise stated.
3 Wherever ashem a: v. is used it
indicates that the first word (ashem)
of the formula is spoken twice.
4 This is done as follows:-The
middle of the string, being taken in the
hands, is applied to the waist (outside
the sadarah or muslin shirt) in front,
and the ends passed round the waist
by the hands meeting behind, chang-
ing ends there, and bringing them
round again to the front, so that the
string has then twice encircled the
waist. The long hanging ends are
then tied loosely together in front,
first with a right-handed knot and
then with a left-handed knot; and
the long loose ends are finally passed
backwards, the third time round the
waist, and tied again behind with a
similar double knot.
5 Formerly, four times.
SOME PARSI CEREMONIES.
399
projecting ends are cut to an equal length with the knife, each
time reciting y. a. v., and a single knot is tied in each end; after
these two y. a. v. must follow yasnemcha, &c. (as before). The
priest then says Ahurahê mazdão raêvato aloud, and lays the
properly-arranged Barsom on the two Mâh-rû while muttering
the same words as a Bâj. After the Barsom is thus laid on the
Barsom-dân he takes out the Frâgâm, and lays it upon the pro-
jecting feet of the two Mâh-rû.
These twigs are
The Homa twigs must next be purified.
brought from Iran by traders, and are, therefore, considered
impure until they have been purified, laid aside for a year, and
again purified. The purification is accomplished by water and
formulas. The priest takes the Homa twig (one is sufficient) in
his right hand, holding a copper goblet of water in his left, from
which he pours water, at intervals, over the twig as he thrice
recites khshnaothra Ahurahê mazdâo, &c., and ɑ. v. He then
takes the Jîvâm in his left hand and recites a. v. thrice, frava-
ranê (Yas. iii. 24, to) frasastayaêcha, haomahê ashavazanhô
(Yas. x. 1, but only these two words), khshnaothra, &c. (as in
p. 398, lines 8-10 above, to) mraotú, and ashem a. v. thrice, each
time dipping the Jîvâm and Homa, which he holds one in each
hand, into the water. Then follow y. a. v. twice, yasnemcha
(Yt. i. 23, to) afrinami, and haomahê ashavazanhô; these last
two words must be first spoken aloud, and then repeated in a
low voice as a Bâj. The Homa twig is now laid in its place, in
a metal saucer on the takht.
I,
The priest takes three small pieces of the Homa and one of
the Urvaram (the hadhânaêpatam or pomegranate twig), and
lays them on the Hâvanîm or Homa mortar which is placed,
upside down, upon the takht. When the Varasa is to be laid in
its place, in a cup on the takht, after being consecrated, it must
be held below between the fingers.
1
The Homa juice is now to be prepared. The priest takes the
Varasa and Jîvâm ¹ in his hands, and recites a. v. thrice, frava-
ranê (to) frasastayaêcha, and Zarathushtrahê Spitâmahê (to)
mraotú. He then dips the Varasa into a cup full of water,
utters the word ashem twice (once aloud and once in a low voice
as a Bâj), and then lays the Varasa in its proper place.
1 Some call this the Zor tâî.
400
NOTES DESCRIPTIVE OF
The priest then recites Yas. xxiv. 1-9 as far as the words
manaṇhô shkyañti, but he must omit the clause containing the
words gãm jîvyãm (in vers. 1 and 6), because the milk is not yet
in its place on the takht. He must then recite yãoscha uiti
(Yas. iv. 4-8, to) ramanô gástrahê, and next invoke the angels
of the day and the month in which the ceremony is being cele-
brated; for instance, if the ceremony be performed on the day
of Spendarmad in the month of Ardibahisht, he must recite
speñtayâo vanhuyão armatôish y. v. kh. f. aaḍ dish avaêdhayamahi,
and then ashahê vahishtahê sraêshtahê y. v. kh. f. daḍ dîsh
avaêdhayamahi. Then follow tava athrô (Yas. iv. 17-22, to)
aad dish avaêdhayamahi, Zarathushtrahê (Yas. iv. 23, to) dad
d. a., ashaonam (Yas. iv. 24, to) daḍ d. d., vispaêibyô vanhu-
dhâbyô (Yas. iv. 25, to) vahishtâḍ, and Yas. xxv. 1-3 (omitting
the clause containing the words gãm jîvyam in ver. 1, as before).
While reciting the words amesha speñta (Yas. XXV. 1), the priest
knocks the Hâvanîm thrice upon the takht; at the words imem
haomem ashaya uzdâtem yazamaidê he puts the small pieces of
the Homa twig into the Hâvanîm, and at the words imãmchâ
urvaram hadhanaêpatãm he puts in the small piece of the
Urvaram (the dirakht-i andr or pomegranate twig). He pours
a little of the consecrated water from the upper Zor cup into the
Hâvanîm while uttering the words aiwyo vanuhibyć imao
zaothrão (&c., to) yaz.; and also more water (apem haomyam)
from the large vessel to his right (which contains the pestle and
strainer) while uttering' the words aiwyo vanuhibyô apemcha
haomyãm yaz. After Yas. xxv. 3, there follows Zarathushtrahê
(Yas. xxvi. 5, to) yaz., on the recitation of which the priest bows
to the Varasa. He then takes the strainer out of the water in
the large vessel to his right, and places it upon a cup (the Homa-
juice cup) before him while reciting iristanam urvãnô (Yas.
xxvi. 11, to) fravashayô, followed by yênhê halam (&c., to)
tâoscha yaz.¹ Then, while reciting atha ratush ashâḍchîḍ hacha
frå ashava vîdhvão mraotú, he takes the pestle out of the water,
holding it so as to touch, with the lower part of its side, the
north-eastern part of the rim of the large water-vessel, and
incense lying near the fire is now
thrown into it. This is not done,
however, in the ordinary Ijashne.
1 When Nîrang-dîn (gômêz) or Var-
asa is to be prepared (each of which
requires a formal Ijashne with Homa),
a small piece of the sandal-wood and
SOME PARSI CEREMONIES.
401
passes it all round in contact with the rim (N. W. S. E.) to the
same point again. With the pestle in his hand he recites aêtaḍ
(Yas. xxvii. 1, to) dazdydi ahamcha (he knocks the lower end of
the pestle on the takht) ratamcha (he knocks its upper
end on the takht) yim Alurem mazḍõm (he bows to the fire).
Continuing the recitation of Yas. xxvii. 1, the Devas are
beaten by striking sonorous blows with the pestle on the outside
of the mortar in the following manner :-With a blow on the
eastern side he recites snathai Anrahê mainyëush drvatộ, with a
blow on the southern side he recites snathai Aêshmahê khrvi-
draosh, with a blow on the western side he recites snathái
Mazainyanãm daêvanãm, with a blow on the northern side he
recites snathâi vîspanãm daêvanãm, with three more blows on the
northern side he recites daêvanãm varenyanãmcha drvatãm. The
priest then recites in a low voice, as a Bâj, the Pâzand formula
shikasta Gana-mainyó, &c.,¹ and fradathai ahurahê (Yas. xxvii.
2, to) ashaonam aloud, and then begins to pound the Homa and
Urvarãm in the mortar while reciting y. a. v. four times; dur-
ing the first three he pounds with the pestle on the bottom of
the mortar, but during the fourth he strikes it against the sides,
so as to produce a ringing sound. He continues the same prac-
tice during four recitations of mazda aḍ môi (Yas. xxxiv. 15, to)
ahúm, and four recitations of a Airyēma ishyô (Yas. liv. 1, to)
mazdão, pounding on the bottom during the first three, and
against the sides, with a ringing sound, during the fourth. He
next takes the upper Zor cup in his hand, recites a. v. thrice,
and pours a little Zor into the mortar each time he utters the
word ashem. Then, he recites haoma pairi-hareshyantê (Yas.
xxvii. 6, 7, to) vacham in eleven portions; during the recital of
each portion he passes the pestle once round (N. W. S. E.) in
contact with the inside of the mortar rim. He then takes the
fragments of Homa and Urvaram out of the mortar, and, bolding
them between his fingers and thumb, he touches with them the
Barsom at the word atha (Yas. xxvii. 7), the saucer for the milk
at the words zî nē, the Homa cup at the word humayo, the
Arvîs-gâh at the word tara, and throws them back into the
mortar at the word anhen. He next takes the upper Zor cup in
1 Some Mobads repeat the formulas
for beating Angrô-mainyush and the
Devas without striking blows upon
the mortar; but they strike them
while reciting the formula fradathâi,
&c. (Yas. xxvii. 2).
2 C
402
NOTES DESCRIPTIVE OF
his left hand, and continues to pound the Homa with his right
hand, while reciting four y. a. v. in the following manner :-During
the first y. a. v. at the word atha he pours a little Zor into the
mortar with his left hand, and continues to pound with his
right; at the word yim he passes the pestle once round (as
before) in contact with the inside of the mortar rim; and at
the last word, vastarem, he pours the whole contents of the
mortar (Homa, Urvaram, and water) into the strainer, whence
all the liquid portion of the contents runs through into the
Homa-juice cup below it (see p. 400, line 30). The solid por-
tion remaining in the strainer is then thrown back into the
mortar, and the pounding is resumed while the second y. a. v. is
recited to the word ashaḍ, when more Zor is poured into the
mortar and the after proceedings are similar to those connected
with the first y. a. v. A similar routine is adopted in connection
with the third and fourth y. a. v., the Zor being poured into the
mortar at the word hacha in the third, and at the word dazda in
the fourth. By means of these four successive dilutions, pound-
ings, and strainings, all the properties of the Homa juice are
supposed to be extracted. The solid remains of the twigs, out
of which the liquid has been well squeezed by the fingers in the
strainer, are laid aside to dry thoroughly,¹ and the pestle is
washed and returned to its place.
The priest then takes the strainer off the Homa-juice cup
while reciting yē sevishtô (Yas. xxxiii. 11, to) paitî thrice, and at
the final repetition the last words, âdâi kahyâichiḍ paitî, must be
recited thrice. The strainer is now washed and laid upon the
mortar; the Varasa is put into the strainer so that the knots in
the hairs are upwards, and the priest recites us môi uzâreshvá
(Yas. xxxiii. 12-14, to) khshathremcha, followed by a. v. twice,
once aloud and once in a low voice as a Bâj. He then pours
all the Zor which remains in the upper Zor cup into the strainer,
through which it runs into the mortar; and the upper Zor cup
is then placed near the lower one, instead of over it as hereto-
fore. He next takes the strainer, containing the Varasa, in his
right hand, and the Homa-juice cup in his left, and proceeds to
recite humata hukhta hvarshta in a low voice, as a Bâj. When
1 When thoroughly dry, they are put into the fire at the time of Atash
Nyayish.
SOME PARSI CEREMONIES.
403
he mutters the word humata he pours a few drops of the Homa
juice through the strainer on to the Arvis-gáh; when he mutters
the word hûkhta he pours a few drops, in a similar manner, into
the upper Zor cup, which has just been emptied; when he
mutters the word hvarshta he pours a few drops, in a similar
manner, into the mortar; and he does this thrice. The Homa-
juice cup is now put in its proper place, the strainer containing
the Varasa is placed upon it, all the liquid in the mortar is
poured into the strainer, through which it flows into the Homa-
juice cup, and the mortar is put into its proper place. The
gâush-jîvya or milk-saucer is also put into its proper place near
the two Mâh-rû. The priest then takes the Varasa in his left
hand and recites y. a. v. twice, yasnemcha (Yt. i. 23, tʊ) Ofrî-
nâmi, and Zarathushtrahê Spitâmahê ashaonô fravashëê twice,
once aloud and once in a low voice. He then dips the Varasa
into the Zor, and puts it into its proper place. The strainer is
also put back into the large water-vessel, and the Jîvâm is laid
upon the milk saucer.1 The priest must now leave the Arvîs-gâh
and go outside, reciting a. v. once, ahmâi raêshcha (Yt. i. 33),
hazanrem, jasa mê, and kerfe mozda (Pâz.). He must then per-
form the Kustî ceremony, and the preparatory ceremonial is
complete.
2.-The Ijashne Ceremony.
After the Paragnah is completed, the Zota and Râspî go to the
takht on which all the necessary things (Homa juice, &c.) have
been placed, and each of them repeats a. v. once; that is, they
take the Bâj inwardly in this manner. They then recite y. a. V.
several times, the number depending upon the nature of the
Ijashne. If it be celebrated for Rapithwin, twelve are necessary;
if for Hormazd, ten; if for the Frohars, eight; if for Srosh,
five; and if for all the Yazads, seven.
The Zota then takes the consecrated water in his hand, and
goes to the stone on which the fire-vase stands, where he recites
nemase tê âtarsh (Atash Nyâyish 4, to) yazata, ạ. v., and washes
the stone, walking round it; he then washes his hands (by pour-
ing the water over them) and returns to his place.
He then mutters humata hûkhta hvarshta in a low voice, as a
Bâj, and announces for whom the Ijashne is being celebrated by
1 If any incense happens to be at hand, it may now be thrown into the fire.
404
NOTES DESCRIPTIVE OF
reciting iñ khshnûman (of so-and-so) bē rasûd (&c., to) patit hom.
Then follow frastuyê (Yas. xi. 17, 18), a. v. thrice, and fravarânê,
&c.; then the khshnûman (according to the Sîrozah) of each of
the angels in whose honour the Ijashne is being celebrated; then
y. a. v. (&c., as in Yas. iii. 25, omitting W.'s second line); and
then a. v. thrice, and y. a. v. four times; the last time the final
words, dadaḍ vastarem, must be uttered thrice.
The Zota now takes the Barsom in his hand, and both priests
begin to recite nivaêdhayêmi (Yas. i. 1, 2, to) ameshanãm speñ-
tanăm. The Zota then continues to recite alone Yas. i. 3-23.
Continuing to recite Yas. ii., at the words zaothra ayêsê, &c.
(ver. 1), the Zota takes the Barsom in both hands and holds it
upon the two Mâh-ru; at the words ahmya zaothrê, &c. (ver. 2),
he lays his hand upon the Mâh-rû, and continues to recite as far
as Yas. vii. 25 without further action; but while reciting y. a. v.
twice (in ver. 25) a little sandal-wood and incense are thrown
into the fire by the Râspî.
The Zota continues to recite as far as Yas. viii. 1, and at the
word paiti-jamyaḍ more sandal-wood and incense are thrown on
the fire by the Râspî, who then advances towards the Zota and
says qarata narô (Yas. viii. 2, to) frereticha. The Zota then
continues reciting amesha speñta (Yas. viii. 3, 4, to) jasaiti, and
a. v. thrice. He then takes a very small piece of the Darûn and
eats it, afterwards washing his mouth with water.
The Zota then recites Yas. viii. 5-7, and both priests continue
the recitation of Yas. viii. 8—ix. 1, as far as the word Zarathush-
trem. The Zota then recites the Homa Yasht to the words vish
apãm (Yas. x. 1), when he pours water over the Barsom, and
continues reciting to Yas. x. 20.
Yas. x. 21—xi. 8 is recited by both priests. The Râspî then
pours water over his hand, takes the Homa-juice cup in his hand,
and goes to the fire, into which he throws some sandal-wood and
incense. He then returns to the Zota and says yô nô aêvô (Yas.
xi. 9, to) yaêthma, handing the Homa-juice cup over to the Zota,
who recites pairi-tê (Yas. xi. 10, 11, to) vahishtem astî, and then
drinks the Homa juice, continuing to recite alone as far as
rávascha (compare Yas. viii. 8), whenceforward both priests
recite to the end of Yas. xi. 18.
The recitation is then continued by the Zota alone. From
SOME PARSI CEREMONIES.
405
y. a. v. (four times recited) in Yas. xiii. 7, to the end of yên hê
hatum (ver. 8) he sprinkles the Barsom with some of the milk
(gaush jîvya). At the words sasticha vañtácha (Yas. xv. 1) he
pours half the milk into the cup which he emptied when drink-
ing the Homa juice. And at the words Alurem mazdõm (Ya:.
xvi. 1) he puts the mortar into the large water-vessel standing to
his right.
Both priests recite Yas. xviii. 2, 3 twice, and each time the
Zota sprinkles the Barsom with the milk. He then continues
the recitation alone, and at the words ahunem vairîm yaz. (Yas.
xviii. 9) he stretches out his legs (hitherto crossed), lays the
right toes upon the left, and sprinkles the Barsom with the milk.
While reciting Yas. xxii. 1-3, and 20-27, he again sprinkles the
Barsom with the milk.
When the Zota commences Yas. xxiv. he takes the mortar out
of the large water-vessel, sets it again upon the takht upside
down, and at the beginning of Yas. xxv. he knocks it thrice
upon the takht and turns it right side upwards. At the words
imem haomem (Yas. xxv. 1) he puts a small piece of the Homa
twig into the mortar, and proceeds exactly in the same manner
as in the Paragnah ceremony (see p. 4co, lines 17-29), except
that while reciting the clause containing the words gām jîvyõm
(which is omitted in the Paragnah) he pours a little of the milk
into the mortar. When he recites Yas. xxvi. 7, he takes the
strainer out of the large water-vessel and places it upon the
Homa-juice cup on the takht. Just before Yas. xxvii. comes
athâ ratush ashâḍchîḍ hachâ frå ashava vîdhvâo mraotû (see Yas.
vii. 28), when the Zota takes the pestle into his hand, and pro-
ceeds with the pounding of the Homa and the recitation of Yas.
xxvii. exactly in the same manner as in the Paragnah ceremony
(see pp. 400, 401).
The recitation of the Gâthas is now commenced. The first
verse ahya yasa, &c. (Yas. xxviii. 1, Sp.), is recited twice by
both priests while the Zota sprinkles the Barsom with the milk.
And at the end of each Hâ of the Ahunavaiti Gâtha (Yas.
xxviii.-xxxiv.) the same verse (ahyâ yâsâ, &c.) is again twice
recited while the Zota sprinkles the Barsom with the milk,
When Yas. xxxi. 5 and 22 are recited the Zota pounds the
Homa, also at the words bûmydo haptaithê (Yas. xxxii. 3) and
406
NOTES DESCRIPTIVE OF
yē îsh pâḍ (Yas. xxxii. 13), and at the words nazdishtam drujem
(Yas. xxxiii. 4) and â mâ (Yas. xxxiii. 7); this pounding is of
two kinds, the first time in each Hâ the pestle strikes upon the
bottom of the mortar, but the second time it strikes against the
sides so as to produce a ringing sound. When Yas. xxxiii. 10
is recited, the contents of the mortar are poured into the strainer,
and the liquid runs through it into the Homa-juice cup below.
The mortar is then set down, upside down, and the cup with the
Homa juice (parâhôm) is placed upon it.
In the other four Gâthas the first verse of each Gâtha is re-
cited twice, and again repeated twice at the end of each Hâ the
Gâtha contains. And each time these first verses are recited, the
Zota sprinkles the Barsom with the milk, as in the first Gâtha.
When Yas. lix. 31 is recited by the Zota, he pours some Zor
and milk (gaush jîvya) into the milk saucer standing near the
two Mâh-rû. After the words stavas ashâ, &c. (Yas. lxi. 5), he
takes the Barsom from the two Mâh-rû, and, standing up and
looking at the fire, he recites Yas. lxii. (the atash nyayish). At
the word yaozhdatam (Yas. lxii. 10) he sits down again; and at
the beginning of each of the three a. v. which follow, he pours
a little more Zor into the milk saucer. While reciting Yas.
lxiii. he sprinkles the Barsom with Zor. After the word
avanhê (Yas. lxiv. 3 1. 7) he lays down the Barsom, and after
the words vasna frashôtemem (Yas. Ixiv. 7) he turns the mortar
right side upwards.
I,
=
At the beginning of Yas. lxv. the Zota pours some Zor into
the mortar, at the word perethû-frâkãm he pours in the Homa
juice, and at the word baêshazyãm he pours in some of the milk.
He then stands up, turns towards the large water-vessel, and re-
cites the remainder of Yas. lxv. 1-15 (the âbân nyayish). At the
words yênhê mê ashaḍ (ver. 16) he sits down again, and sprinkles
the Barsom with Zor, and continues to do so while reciting Yas.
lxvi. and lxvii.
The Zota then takes the Zor cup in his hand and waves it
around the mortar during the recitation of Yas. lxviii. 1–19.
While reciting ver. 20, he mixes the water in both Zor cups. The
words vanuhîm idhaḍ (ver. 21, to) apascha vão are recited thrice,
and each time he says apaschá vảo he pours some Zor into the
mortar. At the word jaidhimnão he pours the whole of the
SOME PARSI CEREMONIES.
407
milk (gdush jîvya) into the mortar. At the words nemô Ahurði
mazdði (ver. 22) he stands up and turns towards the east; and
the three phrases, voha ukhshya (ver. 23, to) ushto-tanam, ima
raochão barezishtem barezemanam, and yahmi (to) jusô, are all
recited thrice. At the words nemô vẽ gáthéo (ver. 24) the Zota
sits down again and sprinkles the Barsom with Zor.
The recitation is then continued to Yas. lxxi. 25, where, at the
words gavê adûish, the Zota takes the Barsom in his hand and
touches the takht twice with each end of it. At the words ye
huddo yôi heñtî (Yas. lxxii.) he gives the Barsom to the Râspî, .
recites two y. a. v., yasnemcha, &c., and so gives up the Báj.
The Râspî lays the Barsom on the two Mâh-rú, and both priests
go out of the Arvis-gâh. They perform the hamazôr,¹ and both
give up the Bâj again by reciting yasnemcha vahmemcha (to)
afrinami. They both perform the Kustî ceremony, and the
Ijashne is ended.
1
The Zota goes with the Râspî to a well and pours the Homa
juice and milk out of the mortar into the well. When he does
this he recites one y. a. v. and one ɑ. v.
3.-The Darûn Ceremony.
Any priest who wishes to perform this ceremony must either
undergo the nine nights' purification of the Barashnôm ceremony,
or must still retain some of its purifying influence.
The small flat cakes, called Darûn (draona) and Frasast (see
p. 396) are the chief materials for the ceremony, and are arranged
as shown on p. 408.
The two Darûns are placed by the priest upon the left side of
the low table before him, the nearer one having a small piece of
butter (gaush hudhão) upon it. The two Frasasts are placed
upon the right-hand side of the table, the further one having a
pomegranate twig (urvaram) upon it, and between this and the
further Darûn is placed an egg.
The formulas used in consecrating the Darûns are to be found
in the Darûn-yashtan. First, a dîbája is recited in Pâzand:
humata hukhta hvarshta, &c. ; then comes baresmana paiti-bareta
T
This is a formula for solemn
greetings at festivals, &c., as follows:
the greeter (says): Yazdan panâh
bad! (the greeted answers): Dêr-zîvâ
shad bad! (both say): Hamû zôr
hamâ ashô bêd.
408
NOTES DESCRIPTIVE OF
SOUTH.
Fire
in a vase
on a stone.
Darûn.
Egg.
Frasast
with
urvarām.
Darûn
with
butter.
Priest sitting
with Barsom.
Sandal-wood
and incense.
Water
Frasast
vessel.
(Yas. iii. 1—viii. 4). Variations are introduced according to the
particular object of the ceremony; and the name of him in whose
honour the ceremony is performed must be mentioned after the
khshnumainê, whether he be an angel or a deceased person. After
the consecration, pieces are broken off the Darûns by the officiat-
ing priest, and eaten by himself and those present, beginning
with the priests.
4.-The Afrîngan Ceremony.
At all the great festivals, and on solemn occasions, the Darûn
ceremony is followed by the Afrîngân, but on other occasions the
Afrîngân can be celebrated alone. Like the Darûn ceremony, it
is performed in honour of some angel or deceased person.
A tray containing wine and fruits is placed before the fire, and
flowers are laid to the left of the tray. The ceremony begins
with a dibaja spoken by the Zota: pa-nam-i Izad-i bakhsha-
yandah, &c., followed by y. a. v. several times repeated; if
the ceremony be in honour of Hormazd,¹ the y. a. v. must be
recited ten times; if in honour of Srosh, five times; and
on other occasions in proportion. Then follow a. v. thrice,
In which case the Afrîngân is recited by both the Zota and Râspî.
SOME PARSI CEREMONIES.
409
and the actual Afrîngân (see Westergaard's Zend-Avesta, pp.
318-324). And the Zota concludes the consecration with the
Afrîn: hama zôr ham ashỏ bêd, &c. Afterwards the fruit is eaten
and the wine drunk in the same manner as the Darûn is eaten.
When a person eats or drinks the consecrated objects, he recites
Yas. xxxvii. 1, followed by a. v. thrice. After all is eaten and
drunk there are recited a. v. four times, y. a. v. twice, a. v. once,
and then ahmai raêshcha (Yas. lxviii. 11).
AT
INDEX.
INDEX.
ABÂLISH, 108
Abân nyayish, 98, 224, 364, 406
yasht, 107, 197
Abereta, 332
Abraham, 16
Abu Jafir Attavari, 123
Achæmenes, 298
Achæmenian, 54, 66, 80, 136, 302
Achæmenians, 67
Adam, 15, 211
Adarbaîjân, 79
Adarfrobag-i Farukhzâdân, 55, 101,
104, IIO
Adarpâd-i Adarfrobag-i Farukhzâdân,
55
Admîtân, 55
Mâraspendân, IOI, IIO, III, 320
Adḍarpâdyâvand, 104
Adhvaryu, 193, 270, 280, 282
Aditi, 274
Adityas, 273, 275
Advice of a certain man, 110
Eschylus, 4
Aêshma, 185, 190, 308, 337
Aêsma, 394
Æthiopic, 31
Ætolians, 69
Afarg, 386
Afghanic, 67
Afrâsiyâb, 361
Afrîngân, 134, 139, 284, 408, 409
dahmân, 98, 142, 315
gahanbâr, 98, 225
gatha, 98, 225
rapithwin, 225
Afrîngâns, 224, 225, 262, 315
Afrîn-i dahmân, 99
myazd, 98
tû pêshgâh-i khudâ, 113
Zaratusht, 98, 223
Afsh-chithra, 200
Agathias, 11, 299
Agereptem, 239
Aghish, 392, 393
Agiari, 316
Agni, 145, 268, 269, 274, 275, 279, 281
Agnidhra, 281
Agnihotri, 281
Agnihotris, 270, 279, 280
Agnishtoma, 281, 283
Ahriman, 8, 24, 53, 129, 133, 134, 252,
277, 346, 352, 387
Ahu, 187, 354, 371
Ahuna-vairya, 141, 144, 179, 185-190,
218, 248, 253, 333, 335, 374, 380,
382
Ahunavaiti. See Gatha
Ahura, 71, 141, 144, 149, 152, 155,
158-164, 166, 168, 172, 173, 179,
188, 197, 199, 211, 212, 256, 267,
268, 271, 287, 288, 293, 295, 302,
333, 335, 336
Ahuramazda, 8, 10, 11, 35, 53, 54,
140, 142, 148–159, 162, 163, 165–
174,.185–189, 191–200, 202–211,214-
222, 227-236, 238, 239, 243-247, 249,
250, 253-258, 268, 271, 274, 290,
295, 297, 302-311, 313, 315–319,322–
336
Ahuras, 301
Ahurô mazdân, 30I
Ahuryan, 174, 175, 191, 231
Ahuti, 280
Aîrân, 78. See Iran
Aîrân-vêj, 355-357
Aîrmân, 393
Airyaman, 153, 196, 257, 273, 393
Airyana-vaêjô, 179, 227, 232, 233,
299
Airyēmâ ishyô, 142, 196
Aishkata, 203
Aitareya-brâhmanam (quoted), 270,
271, (referred to) 182, 275, 284
Ait-hômand, 356
Aiwisrûthrema gâh, 159
Aiwizu, 329
Aiwyâonhanem, 286, 384, 396-398
Akatasha, 337
Akem mano, 150, 303, 304, 308,
380
Akhtar, 200
Akhtya, 107
414
INDEX.
Alborz, 5, 190, 197, 203-205, 216,
255, 286, 361, 364, 387
Aldebaran, 182
Alexander the Great, 15, 54, 78, 81,
123-125, 129, 130, 133, 136
Amasis, 7
Amerdåd, 9, 307
Ameretâd, 9, 10, 52, 167, 169, 191,
218, 302, 305, 307
Amerôdad, 354
Ameshâspend, 101, 132
Ameshâspends, 101, 112, 132, 134,
338, 339, 341, 343, 348, 382-384,
386, 388, 389
Ameshaspenta, 259
Ameshaspentas, 9, 53, 167, 169–171,
173, 187, 189, 210, 212, 215, 254-
256, 305, 307, 334-336
Ami, 364
Ammianus Marcellinus, 84
Amshaspends, 9, 24, 150, 194, 305
Anâhid, 197
Anâhita, 6, 10, 43, 197–199, 207, 208,
259, 263. See Ardvi
Anaitis, 6, 10, 11, 43, 197
Anandates, 10
Andarj-i Adarpâd-i Mâraspendân,
III
dânâk mard, 112
Hûdâvar-i dânâk, 108
Khôsrô-i Kavâdân, Iro
Andreas, 88
Angiras, 294
Anglo-Saxon, 287
Angra-mainyu, 53
Angrô-mainyush, 8, 24, 147, 178, 179,
187, 189, 223, 227-230, 234, 252-
254, 272, 304, 305, 308, 309, 317,
319, 333, 336, 337, 366, 401
Anquetil Duperron, 17-26, 28, 35, 38,
44, 45, 47, 48, 50, 78, 105, 312, 394
Ante Zoroastrian, 258, 294
Anushtubh, 175, 252
Aogemadaêcha, 99, 114
Apâ, 214
Apaoshô, 201
Apârsîn, 356
Apem haomyam, 398, 400
Aphrodite, 6, 11, 197
Apistân val yazdân, 121
Apri, 284
Aptoryâma, 283
Aptya, 278
Arah, 6, 80, 123
Arabian, 14, 16
Arabic, 19, 20, 31, 34, 80-82, 84, 85,
93, 113, 125, 128, 152, 181
Arabs, 6, 48
Arachosia, 229
Aramati, 274, 288
Arang, 361, 364
Araṇa, 181
Arangîstân, 364
Aranyaka, 181
Ardai fravard, 390
Ardashîr-i Papakân, 86, 88, 90, 91,
III, 125
Ardavân, 78, 91
Ardâ Vîrâf, 106, 107
namah, 43, 46, 50, 54, 56;
94, 97, 106, 124, 351, 354
Ardibahisht, 9, 148, 195, 196, 225,
306, 400
yasht, 196
Ardvi-sûra Anâhita, 193, 194, 197,
199. See Anahita.
Aredush, 239
Areimanios, 8-10
Arezahi, 256, 369, 389
Arezûra, 316, 337, 381, 390
Arhmen, 13, 14
Ariaramnes, 298
Aristotle, 8, 206, 298
Ariyârâmna, 298
Arjâsp, 109, 391
Arktos, 206
Armaiti, 9, 150-152, 155, 156, 158-
160, 162, 167, 168, 173, 191, 207,
232, 249, 250, 274, 297, 302, 306,
319, 334
Armenian, 39, 40, 67, 79, 139
writers, 12-14
Arrian, 124
Arsacidans, 67, 79, 80
Arsames, 298
Arshama, 298
Arshtâd, 215
Artaxerxes, 7, 263
Arûm, 364
Arvis-gah, 332, 394-396, 401, 403, 407
Aryaman, 273, 288
Aryan, 180, 191, 200, 211, 214, 215,
226, 230, 257, 288, 290, 292, 293
Aryans, 242, 252, 294
Aryas, 69
Asha, 148, 151, 171, 185. 2)
Asha-vahishta, 9, 141, 302, 305, 306,
333, 339-342, 344, 347, 349, 382,
393
Ashem, 217-219
Ashem vahishtem, 172, 191
Ashem-vohu formula, 97, 98, 174,
212, 217, 246, 248, 374, 375, 384,
385, 397-399, 401-404, 406-409;
(translated) 141
Ashi, 215, 256
Ashîrvâd, 113
Ashishang, 215, 389
Ashi-vanuhi, 184, 215, 216
Ashi yasht, 215, 216
Ashkanian, 54
Ashtâd yasht, 215, 215
Ashvins, 272, 276, 308
Asia Minor, 202
INDEX.
415
Askârum, 133
Asmodeus, 337
Asnâtar, 332
Aspandiârji Frâmji, 58
Aspârum, 133
Asperena, 320, 332
Assyrian, 81, 112, 125
Assyrians, 6, 12
Astarte, 6
Asti, 153
Asto-vidhôtu, 321, 323
Astvad-ereta, 213
Asura, 53, 71, 267-269, 271, 287
Asuras, 268-271, 278, 279, 287
Asûristán, IOI
Atarevakhshô, 280, 332
Atarôpâtakân, 362
Atash-gâh, II
Atash-i âdarân, 140
Behrâm, 140
Atash nyâyish, 98, 224, 364, 402, 403,
406
Atha jamyâd, 224
Atharvan, 280, 294
Atharvaveda, 182, 196, 206, 257, 269,
275-277, 279, 294
Athenokles, 12
Athrava, 182, 212, 280, 294
Athwya, 178, 278
Attic dialect, 75
Aûharmazd, 104, 107, 111-113, 127,
129-132, 134, 338-356, 358-367,
369-372, 376, 378, 380-389, 391-
393
yasht, 98
Aûharmazdî, 302
Aûramazdâ, 302, 304
Aurvad-aspa, 298
Avaoirishtem, 239
Avân, 357
Avâraoshtra, 213
Avar chîm-i drôn, 112
Avesta, passim; (defined) 14, 15, 67,
68, 119-121, 226, 239, 262; dic-
tionary, 31, 47, 114; glossary, 49,
99; language, 67-78, 177, 289;
manuscripts, 18, 21, 29, 30, 45;
(ordinary), 65, 72-75, 142, 147, 174,
191; (passages noted), 227-240;
quotations in Pahl. trans., 52, 60,
61, 94, 98-100, 120, 177-179, 227,
229-232, 235, 238, 243, 251, 316,
322, 324, 355-358, 362, 363, 365,
368, 369, 374, 376, 378, 385; studies,
18-42; translations (English) 44,
(French) 18, 51, 52, (German) 20,
34, 41, 42, (Gujrati) 58, 60
Avesta and Zend, 119-122, 124, 125,
134, 135, 343, 345, 348, 353
Avesta-Sanskrit glossary, 46
Avîjeh-dîn, 58, 102
Ayâthrema, 192
Az, 343, 370, 371
Azhi-chithra, 196
Azhi-Daháka, 178, 198, 230, 353
Azi, 246
Azûiti, 280
BABYLON, 298
Babylonia, 3, 4
Babylonians, 6, 12, 197, 298
Bactria, 14, 65, 169, 228, 263, 293,
295, 297
Bactrian, 65, 66, 73, 74, 75, 159,
290
Badakhshan, 66
Bagdad, 15, 108
Bagha, 214, 273
Baghán yasht, 132
Bagh nask, 127
Bagho-bakhta, 274
Bahisht, 311
Bâhl, 359
Bahman, 9, 255, 306, 358
yasht, 43, 107, 108, 124
Bâj, 397, 399, 401-403, 407
Bakân-yastó nask, 132
Bâkhar, 359
Bâkhdhi, 228, 297
Bakô nask, 127, 134
Bakht-âfrîd, 110
Balkh, 66, 208
Balsâr, 45
Bambo, 107
Banga, 336
Barashnôm, 197, 241, 320, 407
Barhis, 283
Barish nask, 129
Baroda, 279
Barsom, 4, 13, 139, 171, 189, 214, 243,
251, 259, 283, 315, 318, 330, 334,
335, 366, 378, 384, 395-399, 401,
404-408
Barsom-dân, 396–399.
Barzu Qiyâmu-d-din, 126, 130
Bavaria, 29
Behistun, 66, 263. See Bisutûn
Behrâm, 193, 213, 214, 256, 275,
389
yasht, 98, 213, 214, 275
Bel, 11, 12
Benfey, 35, 39, 263
Berekhdha armaiti, 297
Berezô-hadhaokhdha, 142
Berosos, 12, 298
Bethlehem, 5
Bhaga, 273, 274
Bhagavad-gîta, 273, 279
Bhroch, 45, 57, 58, 95, 97
Bible, 5, 15, 207, 309
Birma, 123
Bisutûn, 32, 298. See Behistun
Bleeck, 44
Bôdôk-zêd, 342
416
INDEX.
Bog (God), 273
Bôî, 394
Bokhara, 66
Bombay, 17, 21, 31, 32, 44, 47, 50, 56,
58, 59, 61, 95-97, 100, 104, 108,
109, III; government, 45, 46, 48
Bopp, 29, 31
Bör, 147
Boundless time, 12, 15, 24, 53, 382
Brahma, 147, 192, 276, 288
Brahmanam, 181
Brahmanas, 269, 275
Brahmanaspati, 274
Brahmanical, 135, 170, 172, 179, 180,
185, 258, 259, 267, 268, 270-272,
276, 281, 282, 284-289, 292-294
Brahmanism, 206, 272, 292
Brahmans, 15, 21, 22, 39, 44, 69, 73,
76–78, 121, 138, 140, 143, 147, 176,
179-181, 191, 207, 258, 259, 262,
264, 272, 273, 276, 279, 281-291,
294, 307
Brihaspati, 278, 279
British Museum, 87
Brockhaus, 30, 31, 37, 38
Buddha, 208, 263
Buddhism, 22, 23, 208, 263
Buddhist caves, 50
Buddhistic, 211
Buddhists, 15, 123
Bûiti, 253, 337
Bukhår, 359
Bundahish, 30, 33, 42-44, 46-48, 58,
104, 105, 113, 114, 182, 192, 233,
308, 309, 313, 333, 336, 350, 355-
358, 361, 363, 364, 387, 392
Burnouf, 22, 26, 29, 31, 36, 37, 39,
312
Bushâsp, 369, 370
Bushyăsta, 245
Bût, 379, 380
Butal, 128
CALENDAR (Parsi), 57
Cambyses, 7
Caucasus, 67
Celtic, 65
Chaishpish, 298
Ceylon, 123
Chakâd-i dâîtîh, 387
Chakhra, 230, 362
Chaldæo-Pahlavi, 82, 83, 86, 87, 89,
90
Chaldaic, 199
Chaldee, 20, 31, 39, 59, 62, 82, 86-88
Changhraghach-namah, 43
Chanranhach, 192
Chatrang-nâmak, 110
Châturmâsya ishți, 285
Chidak avistâk-i gâsân, 98
Chidrashtô nask, 131
Chinese, 31, 107
Chinvad bridge, 128, 165, 224, 225,
244, 255, 256, 311, 361, 366, 369,
378, 387-389
Christian, 12, 53, 103, 309, 311; era,
67, 73, 137, 263
Christianity, 4, 312
Christians, 12, 15, 104
Churl's wain, 206
Chwolsohn, 14, 15
Cities of the land of Iran, 109
Constantius, 84
Copenhagen, 21, 28-30, 33, 34, 44,
48, 56, 95-99, 104, 105, 108, 109,
III, 127
Cornelius Nepos, 7
Cuneiform inscriptions, 6, 32, 54, 66,
79-81, 169, 206, 298, 302, 304
Curtius, 124
Cyaxares, 15
Cyrus, 4, 136
DâрAK nask, 130
Dâdâr bin Dâd-dukht, 113
Dâd-gâh, 11, 140, 241
Dâdistân-i dînî, 102, 103
Daểnâo, 152
Daêvanam daêvô, 308
Dahmân âfrîngân, 98, 142, 315
Dahmas, 242
Dahmi vanuhi, 142
Dâîtîh, 356, 357, 380
Daityas, 278
Daiwish, 308, 337
Dakhmas, 240, 325
Dakshina, 280
Damascius, 12
Dâmdâd nask, 127
Dânava, 279
!
Danish writers, 20, 21, 32-34, 36, 37
Dâraja, 333
Dârayavush, 298
Darî, 66
Darius, 11, 136, 264, 298, 304
Darmesteter, 52, 53, 337, 359
Darsha purnama ishti, 285
Dârûk-i khursandî, 110
Darûn, 259, 281, 285, 365, 395, 396,
404, 407-409.
bâj, 397
Dastah, 396
See Draono.
Dastur, 18, 46, 96, 103, 131, 132, 134,
139, 297, 327, 328, 340, 343, 354,
392
Aspendiârji Kâmdinji, 58
Dârâb, 17, 45
Edalji Dârâbji, 25, 58
-i dastûrân, 193, 297
Hoshangji Jâmâspji, 46, 48–51,
60, 61, 99, 104, 112, 128, 134, 249,
338, 359, 360, 368, 384, 385, 387,
391
Jâmâsp Asa, 57, 95, 99
INDEX.
417
Dastur, Jamáspji Minochiharji, 34,
56, 61, 96, 97, 109-111, 338, 347,
348, 354
134
Jamásp Wilayati, 56, 57, 99
Kai-Khusro Dâráb, 45
Minochihar Yüdân-damán, 102
Nôshirvanji Jamáspji, 99, 126,
Peshotanji Behramji, 58, 59, 100,
102, 108, 110-113, 297
Sohrabji Rustamji, 102
Dasturs, 17, 18, 24-26, 33, 36, 42, 43,
45, 53, 55, 57, 61, 76-78, 104, 112,
113, 126, 129, 131, 139, 147, 176,
197, 215-217, 297, 333, 338, 391
Davans, 351
Deinon, 7
Delphi, 211
Denmark, 28
Dêva, 201, 267, 268, 275; religion,
149, 174, 211, 268, 287, 290, 291,
293, 295; worshipper, 173, 338;
worshippers, 287, 293; worship-
ping, 255, 336
Dêvas, 150, 152, 153, 161, 168, 172,
*
173, 184, 185, 190, 204, 205, 217,
227, 230, 258, 259, 261, 268-272,
276, 287-289, 301, 304, 308, 327,
334, 401
Dêvasârm, IIO
Dêvî-drukhsh, 190
Devil, 4, 53
Dêvîs, 184
Dharmashâstra, 260
Dîbâja, 407, 408
Dimishqi, 15
Dînî vajarkard, 126-134
Dînkard, 54, 55, 59, 60, 97, 99–101,
104, 114, 123, 126, 128, 131, 132
Dînkhard, 104, 105
Dînûr, 66
Dîn yasht, 215
Dio Chrysostomos, II
Diodorus, 124
Diogenes of Laerte, 8
Dioskuri, 272, 308
Dirakht-i Asûrîk, 110
Dirham, 320, 332
Dir Mihir, 316
Dorians, 69, 70
Draonô, 259, 327, 396, 407.
See
Darún
Dreñj, 143
Driwish, 308, 337
Drûj, 349, 372-374, 379, 380, 382, 390,
393
Drûjô-demâna, 311
Drukhsh, 213, 247-249, 252, 253, 304,
333
nasush, 241, 317, 328
Drvâspa, 202
Dualism, 53, 300, 303, 305, 309
Dübásrûd or Dûbâsrújḍ, 132
Dughda, 132
Duncker, 43
Dushmata, 223
Dúta, 297
Dutch, 70
Duzhaka, 228
Duzhanha, 311
Duzhukhta, 223
Duzhvarshta, 223
Dvásrub or Dvásrûzd, 133
Dvásrújad or Dvásrúnjad, 132
Dvázdah hámást, 127
Dvipas, 286
Dyaus, 287
Dyává-prithivi, 275
EDDA, 147
Eliseus, 13, 14
Elohim, 199, 302
England, 16, 18-21, 32
English, 5, 32, 44, 50, 65, 67; trans
lation, 33, 44, 49, 50, 59, 102, 106,
107, III, 338
Erlangen, 30
Etymander, 229
Eudemos, 12
Eudoxos, 8, 298
Europe, 16, 18, 23, 29, 30, 32, 44, 49,
77, 114, 135, 196, 213, 286
European, 17, 18, 25, 44, 45, 51, 52,
58, 59, 67, 68, 108, 115, 138, 270,
346, 377; researches, 16-53
Europeans, 17, 21, 45, 115, 119
Ewald, 39.
+
Ezekiel, 4
Eznik, 13, 14
FARÅKHÛ-KHARD, 388
Fargard, 225, 227, 230, 235, 237, 239-
243, 252, 257, 315, 319, 322, 327,
333, 338, 355, 356
Farhang-i oîm-khadûk, 99, 114, 120,
236, 245, 318, 311, 364, 365, 369
Fârs, 78, 80, 102, 364
Farsang, 233
Fârsî, 80, 86
Firdausi, 34, 48, 66, 78, 80, 81, 85, 86
Five dispositions of priests, IIO
Form of marriage contract, 110
Forms of letters to kings, 110
Formula for destroying demons, 365
Frabaretar, 332
Frabda, 248
Fradadhafshu, 256, 389
Frågâm, 398, 399
Frâmji Aspendiârji, 31
Framru, 143
France, 18, 20, 21, 28
Frasast, 396, 407, 408
Frâsâyâvân, 361
Frashakard, 347
2 D
418
INDEX.
Frashaoshtra, 146, 158, 166, 167, 169,
174, 213, 258
Frashô-kereti, 312, 314
Frashôshtar, 340, 341
Frâsîyâv, 356, 361
Frasravay, 143
Fravardigan days, 129
Fravardin (month), 225, 357
yasht, 44, 206–213, 263
Fravartish, 206
Fravashi, 168, 171, 206, 334, 383
Fravashis, 170, 172, 194, 203, 206,
256
Frêdûn, 178, 198, 202, 223, 230, 275,
277, 278, 363
French, 17-19, 51, 52; translation,
18, 51, 105
Frôhars, 129, 203, 206, 403
Fryâna, 165
Fshûsho-mathra, 142, 190
GAÊTHAS, 152, 165, 178, 199, 291
Gahanbâr, 58, 128, 129, 285
Gahanbârs, 140, 192, 193, 225, 260
Gâhs, 134, 139, 159, 225, 262
Gaikwar, 279
Ganj-i shâîgân, III
Gaochithra, 200
Gaotema, 208, 263
Garô-demâna, 2.5, 3II, 339, 388, 389
Garô-nemâna, 255, 256
Gâtha, 4I, I37, I4O, I4I, I43-149, I5I,
152, 154, 167, 222, 258, 271, 272,
406; (defined) 143; dialect, 65, 69,
72-75, 140-142, 147, 170, 172; lore,
339, 341, 349, 350; metres, 143-
146
ahunavaiti, 142, 144, 146–154,
256, 271, 338-354, 389, 405
days, 112, 225
Gâthảo, 175
Gâthas, 23, 28, 38, 41, 42, 65, 72-75,
98, 106, 141, 167, 168, 170, 171, 177,
183, 186, 221, 244, 249, 257-261,
263, 264, 267, 273, 275, 287, 289–
294, 296, 297, 300-302, 304, 305,
310-312, 338, 368, 376, 389, 405,
406; described and translated, 140,
142-170; (the five) 34, 41, 140, 141,
171, 190, 256, 257
Gâtha speñta-mainyû, 142, 145, 167–
169, 256, 272, 389
ushtavaiti, 142, 144, 145, 154-
166, 220, 222, 256, 272, 389
vahishtôishti, 142, 170, 256, 389
vohû-khshathra, 142, 169, 170,
256, 272, 389
Gâu, 203, 227
Gáush, 173
407
hudhao, 139, 281, 396, 407
jîvya, 139, 281, 315, 397, 405-
Gautama, 208, 263
Gavâ, 358
Gayatrî, 144
âsurî, 271
Gayô-marathan, 211
Gayomard, 15, 101, 211, 346, 347,
35I
Genâ, 170
German, 19, 20, 28, 29, 31, 47, 70,
146, 147, 154, 167, 393; translation,
20, 30, 34, 41-44, 47, 105, 106, 108,
315
Germans (ancient), 180
Germany, 20, 21, 23, 28, 29, 31, 46,
48
Geush tashâ, 147, 151
urva, 147-149, 165, 168, 202,
297, 339
Ghena, 193
Ghîlân or Gilân, 230, 363
Gnâ, 274
Gôgôshasp, 374, 375, 377
Gôkerenô, 392
Gômêz, 285, 400
Gôsh, 202; yasht, 201, 202
Gôsht-i Fryânô, 50, 56, 107
Gôshûrûn, 147, 339, 341, 344
Gotama, 208
Gothic, 68.
Grantha, 181
Greece, 8, 202
Greek, 5, 12, 16, 21, 40, 65, 68, 69,
86, 87, 123, 124, 143, 148, 188, 194,
206, 211, 287, 298; dialects, 69;
(Homeric) 70, 75; writers, 6-12
Greeks, 5, 8, 11, 54, 66, 79, 123, 124,
135-138, 197, 205, 272, 294, 295,
298-301
Gujrât, 32, 33, 45
Gujrâti, 31, 55, 58, 59, 61, 139;
translation, 58-60, 93, 102, III
Guru, 278
Gushtâsp, 108, 130, 298, 299
HÁ, 140, 152, 167, 405, 406. See
Has
Hades, 8
Hadhânaêpata, 139, 251, 378, 399
Hâdôkht nask, 46, 50, 51, 56, 97, 133,
134, 139, 217-224, 354
Haechadaspas, 296
Haêtumat, 229
Hafiz, 197
Hâjîâbâd, 33, 87
inscriptions, 87-89
Hakhâmanish, 298
Hamadân, 66, 79
Hakhedhrem, 200
Hamaspathmaêdaya, 192, 210
Hamâzôr, 407
Hamistakân, 389
Handareza, 241
INDEX.
419
Haṇhaurvat, 213
Haoma, 70, 259
Haoshyanha, 198, 202, 214
Haptan yasht, 98, 195
Haptóiring, 206
Harakhmond, 361
Haraqaiti, 229
Harauvati, 229
Harib, 360
Hariva, 228
Harlez, 51, 61
Haro berezaiti, 5, 190, 203-205, 216,
255, 286
Harôyu, 66, 203, 228
Hás, 146, 153, 170, 320
Hâthra, 233
Haurvatâd, 9, 52, 167, 169, 191, 196,
197, 218, 302, 305, 307
Hâvanân, 332
Hâvanî gâh, 159, 176
Hâvanîm, 396, 399, 400
Havirdhâna, 270
Hebrew, 4, 5, 31, 80, 175, 199
Hêchadaspa Spitama, 166
Hellenes, 6, 69
Hendva, 201
Heracles, II
Herat, 66, 203, 228
Herbad, 213, 397
Herbads, 129, 197, 205, 320
Hermann, 39
Hermippos, 7-9, 33, 123, 136
Herodotus, 4-7, 298
Hêt-hômand, 361, 389
Hêtumand, 356, 361
Hêtumat, 256
Hikhra, 325
Hilmand, 229, 256
Hindu, 215, 230, 268, 269, 277, 363
Hinduism, 276
Hindu-kush, 201
Hindus, 70, 205, 268, 363
Hindustan, 288, 292, 293, 361
Hiñdvô, 205
Hiriwî, 66
Homa, 22, 139, 146, 171, 176-185,
193, 219, 251, 254, 259, 292, 330,.
335, 336, 378, 382, 384, 392-396,
399-405; juice, 139, 140, 174, 176,
177, 185, 245, 282, 322, 368, 395,
399, 400, 402-407; mortar, 315,
330, 382, 395, 396, 399, 401-403,
405-407; twigs, 191, 282, 399, 400,
405; yasht, 175-185, 292, 404
Homâst (herbad), 94
Honovar, 185. See Ahuna-vairya
Hormazd, 8, 10, 11, 24, 268, 302, 403,
408; worshipper, 260, 268; yasht,
195
Hormisdas, 12
Horvadad, 354
Hôshang, 198, 202, 39I, 392
Hotá, 193, 280, 282
Hotri ritual, 179
Hukhshathrótemái, 248, 374, 375
Hukhta, 221
Humata, 221
Humatanăm, 248, 374, 375
Hunus, 213
Hushédar, 341, 388
bámí, 314
máh, 314, 341, 388
Hushkyaothna, 213
Húspáram nask, 99, 133, 327
Huvarshta, 221
Huzvárish, 42, 49, 59, 85, 86, 92, 112,
122, 324, 356
Hvápa, 326
Hvare khshaéta, 199
Hyades, 182
Hyde, 16, 123
Hystaspes, 11, 264, 298
IBN FOZLAN, 15
Haugal, 80
Muqaffa, 84, 85
Idhâfat, 89, 90, 94
Ijashne, 139, 140, 174, 281, 283, 286,
313, 394, 397, 400, 403-407
Incense, 335, 336, 385, 394, 403, 404,
408
India, 3, 16-18, 32, 33, 45, 55, 79, 94,
96, 97, 99, 100, 105-110, 112, 114,
205, 230, 255
Indian, 107, 110, 182, 192, 213, 214,
272, 278, 288, 291, 377
Indians, 292, 299
Indo-Iranian, 53
Indra, 145, 213, 268, 272, 275, 276,
278, 279, 288, 291, 308, 337
Indus, 107, 230
Injunctions to bahdîns, 110
Ionians, 69, 70
Iran, 65, 76-79, 88, 203, 295, 399;
(western) 78
Iranian, passim; antiquities, 51;
construction, 49, 81-83; dastur,
56; equivalents, 42, 49, 82, 85;
languages, 27, 39, 65-67, 73, 77,
206
Iranians, 53, 70, 82, 165, &c.
Iristô-kasha, 318
Isaiah, 4, 311
Isfendarmad, 9, 306
Isfendyâr, 391
Ishti, 280
Ispahân, 66, 79, 104
Istakhar, 66
Istûdgar nask, 126
Izads, 194.
Izhâ, 170
See Yazads
Jâmâspa, 108, 146, 167, 174, 213,
258
420
INDEX.
Jâmâspas, 166, 169
Jâmâsp namah, 43, 1o8, IIO, II4
Jamshed, 23, 177, 198, 202, 230, 276,
391
Javid-dev-dâd, 133
Javid-shêda-daḍ, 133, 225
Jazhu, 329
Jehovah, 302, 304
Jeremiah, 3
Jerusalem, 3, 5
Jesus, 5
Jewish religion, 16, 312
Jews, 4, 5, 15, 78, 103, 104, 135, 136,
264
Jirasht nask, 131
Jîvâm, 398, 399, 403
Jones (Sir W.), 19
Jud-dêv-dâd, 133
Jupiter, 53
Justi, 47, 48, 105, 114
Jyotishtoma, 281, 282
KABISAH controversy, 58
Kâbul, 228
Kadmi sect, 102
Kâh-i kashân, 217
Kahrkatâs, 245
Kai Gushtâsp, 198, 290, 298
Kabad, 290, 298
Kâûs, 223, 278, 298
Kavus, 198
Khusri, 198, 223, 290, 298, 39,
Us, 391
Kakasparsha, 286
Kâmah Bahrah, 126
Kambay, 95, 96
Kambâyat, 56
Kãm nemôi zãm, 222
Kandahår, 229, 254
Kanheri, 50
Kava, Kavâ, or Kavi, Vîshtâspa, 156,
166, 169, 173, 198, 202, 212, 215,
223, 258, 290, 298
Kavâri, 291
Kavâsakha, 291
Kâvasji Edalji Kanga, 60
Kavatnu, 291
Kavis, 216, 290, 291
Kâvûl, 360
Kavya Ushanas, 278, 279 ¦
Kayânian, 80, 290
Kayân race, 107
Kayomars, 211
Kayomarthiyah, 15
Keresâni, 182
Keresâspa, 178, 179, 228, 391
Kereshaspô, 360
Kêsh-i Ibrâhîm, 16
+
Kêshvars, 198, 256, 286, 355, 363,
369, 389
Khasht nask, 130
Khnan, 361
Khnathaiti, 228, 254
Khneñta, 229
Khordâd, 9, 53, 307
yasht, 196
Khorehe vehijak, 58
Khowaresmia, 203
Khrafstraghna, 243
Khshaotha, 201
Khshathra, 167
vairya, 9, 191, 302, 305, 306,
333
Kant, 19
Kapamajân, 128
Kara fish, 336
Karapan, 289–291
Kârnamak-i Ardashîr-i Pâpakân, 59,
78, 90, III
Karshipta, 235
Karshvare, 205, 256, 286
Kashkasîrah, 130
Kasak, 361
Kashkîsrôbô nask, 130
Kashôsâî, 381
Kashsrôb, 130
Kǎsôya, 254
Kasvi, 337
Kata, 324
Katyayana, 76
Kaus, 18
Kava, Kavâ, or Kavi, 289–291
Husrava, 198, 290, 298
Kaváta, 290, 298
Usa, 198, 278, 298
Khshatvêr, 344, 347
Khshnûman, 404, 408
Khurdah Avesta, 98
Khurshêdji Rustamji Kâmâ, 60
Khurshed ngâyish, 98, 224
yasht, 98, 199, 217
Khushkand, 101
Khusro-i Anôshak-rûbân, 110
Kavâdân, IOI, IO9, IIO
Nôshirvân, III
Khûstô nask, 130
Khûzî, Khûzistân, 80
Khvêtûk-das, 103, 133
Kirmân, 97, 100, 102, 103, 114, 230,
363
Kleuker, 20
Krishânu, 182
Krishna, 279
Krittika, 182
Kronos, II
Ktesias, 7
Kunda, 336
Kusha, 283
Kusti, 244, 249, 286, 367, 368, 398,
403, 407
Lahurâsp, 298
Lakshmi, 215
Lassen, 43
INDEX.
421
Latin, 21, 40, 41, 65, 68, 69, 71, 154,
287
Leipzig, 30
Letto-Lithuanian, 65
Lithuanian, 27, 152, 287
London, 29, 30, 48, 56, 95, 106,
338
Louvain, 51
Mâdîgân-i Gujastak Abalish, 108
Gosht-i Fryânô, 107
112
-
haft ameshaspend, 112
mâh Fravarḍîn rój-i Horvadad,
sî rôj, 110-112
sî yazaḍân, 112
Magavas, 166, 169
Magha, 331, 344
Maghava, 14, 291, 320
Magi, 3-8, 10-12, 14-16, 18, 20, 80,
166 169, 309, 312 ·
Magic rites, 11, 299
Mahabharata, 79, 279, 288
Magush, 169
Mahâbhâshya, 182
Maharashtra, 181
Mâh nyâyish, 224
Mâh-rũ, 396, 398, 399, 403, 404, 406,
407
Mahvandâd Narimahân, 10I
Mâh yasht, 98, 200
Maidhyâirya, 192
Maidhyô ishâdha, 213
mâoņha, 212
shema, 192
zaremya, 192
Mainyô-i khard, 51, 55, 104, 105, 323,
324, 339, 355, 365, 390
Mâmûn (khalîf), 108
Manes, 207
Manichæans, 104
Manjerj, 18
Mantras, 293, 297
Manu, 79, 211
Mânsarspend, 141
Mar (to recite), 143
Marathi, 44
Marburg, 47
Mardan-farukh-i Aûharmazd - dâd,
104
Maretan, 297
Marg-arjân, 313, 369, 377
Mârîk-nâmak-i Asûrîk, 112
Marutas, 180
Marjpân Frêdûn, 102
Marv, 66, 203, 228
Masudi, 14
Marúv, 358, 359
Mãthra, 182, 195-197
Mathran, 297
Mãthra-spenta, 140, 211, 334
Matthew, 5
Mázanían dévas, 190
Mazda, 88, 141, 144, 146, 148, 149,
151-153, 155, 156, 158-162, 164,
166-169, 172, 182, 186-190, 195,
211, 215, 213, 219, 254-256, 276,
334, 335
Mazdak-i Bámdálán, 321
Mazdakyahs, 15
Mazdão, 301, 302
Mazdayasnian, 101, 105, 107, 127,
133, 171, 173, 174, 182, 201, 235-
237, 240, 245, 253, 254, 295, 297,
319, 332-334, 380
Mazdayasnianism, 53
Mazdayasnians, 105, 109, 173, 212,
293, 318, 323-325, 330-333, 368,
381, 382, 384
Mazdian, 184
Mâzenderân, 190
Medes, 12
Medhâs, 301
Media, 14, 65
Median, 194
Mêdyômâh, 100
Mehrâ, 361
Meiners, 20
Mercury, 200, 256
Meru, 286
Mesr, 364
Metres, 144, 145, 176, 196, 199, 237,
252, 253, 337
Mihirâpân-i Kaî-Khusrô, 56, 94-96,'
109, 114
Mihir nyâyish, 224
Mihiryâr-i Mâhmâdân, 104
Mihir yasht, 43, 202–205, 273
Milky-way, 202, 217
Mînôkhird, 43, 310
Mînôk-i khard, 105
Mithra, 7, 177, 193, 194, 202-204,
207, 209, 211, 217, 224, 255, 259,
263, 272, 273, 316, 334; (promise)
164, 202, 238, 261, 322
Mithrô-drukhsh, 7, 202
Mîtôkht, 391
Mitra, 6, 272, 273, 288
Mitrô, 357, 383, 387
Mobad, 108, 132
Mobads, 76, 77, 129, 197, 401
Mog, 14
Mohammed, 16
Mohammedan conquest, 54, 55, 81,
94, 107, 124; religion, 312; writers,
14-16, 84
Mohammedans, 12, 14, 16, 57, 124,
125
Monotheism, 149
Monotheists, 53
Mosaic, 4, 135
Moses, 135, 136, 299
Môuru, 203, 228
Mrigashiras, 182
ms.
422
INDEX.
Mujizât-i Zartosht, 25
Mujmilu-t-tawârîkh, 80
Mullâ Bahman, 102
Fîrûz, 58, 102, 104, 114
Müller (Max), 285, 294
(M. J.), 29, 30, 121
Mumbaî, 108
Muncherjee Hormusjee Cama, 44
Munich, 29, 43, 50
Murdâd, 53
Musalmâns, 15, 107
Myâzd, 112, 368
Myazda, 139
Mylitta, 6, 197
Nådar or Nâdûr nask, 128
Nairyô-sanha, 210, 256, 257, 274
Nakshatras, 182
Namaz, 364
Nâonhaithya, 272, 308, 337
Narâshañisa, 274
Naremanâo, 179
Narîmân Hôshang, 126
Nasatya, 272, 288
Nask, 97, 125-135, 314, 35I
Nasko, 181
Nasks, 54, 100, 101, 106, 121, 125,
135, 137; (contents of) 126-134
Nasupâka, 241
Nasush, 241, 317, 322, 327, 333, 381,
382
Nawsari, 45, 46, 57, 95, 99
Nebuchadnezzar, 3
Neryôsangh, 22, 26, 41, 42, 51, 55, 90,
104, 106, 120, 257, 274, 388
New Testament, 5
Nidhana, 284
Nihâvand, 79
Nîkâdûm nask, 132
Nikhshâpûr, 106
Nineveh, 81
Nirang, 327; dîn, 400; i var, 349,
353
Nîrangistân, 46, 47, 99, 107, 114, 397
Nirukta, 274, 285
Nirvana, 263
Nisæa, 228
Nisai, 228, 359
Niv (Nile?), 364
Nîv-Ardashîr, 110
Niyârum, 132
Non-Aryan, 363
Iran, 88
Zoroastrian, 46
Norris, 263
Nôshirvân, rOI, IO9-III
Nyâyish, 134, 139, 224
ODHIN, 180
Old Testament, 4-6, 20, 135, 175, 302,
304
Olshausen, 28, 30
Omanes, 10
Onkelos, 199
Ordeal, 322, 349, 353
Orion, 182
Ormasdes, II
Ormazd, 53, 302
Ormizt, 13, 14
Oromasdes, 8, 9
Ossetic, 67
Oxford, 16, 29, 30, 47
Oxus, 293
PADA, 181
Padâm, 243, 365
Padashkhvâr, 363
Pahlav, 66, 78, 79
Pahlavânî, 66
Pahlavâs, 79
Pahlavi, passim; (explained), 20, 49,
78-86; âshirvâd, 112, 113; charac-
ters, 86, 87, 356; commentaries,
355; dictionary, 61; farhang or
glossary, 47-50, 59, 60, 112, 366;
grammar, 33, 51, 59, 112; inscrip-
tions, 80 (see Sasanian); litera-
ture, 93-113; manuscripts, 21, 30,
45, 46, 48, 56, 94-114; rare forms,
352, 370, 378, 382; rivâyat, 43, 46,
106; shâhnâmah, 56, 109, 391;
suffix -man, 87; texts, 42, 43, 46,
47, 50, 55, 59, 60, 97–114; transla-
tions, 25, 26, 30, 34-36, 42, 68, 85,
94-98, 100, 113, 119, 120, 178, 179,
318-328, 338-393; Vendidad, 94-
96, 99, 107, 113, 114, 338, 355–393 ;
Visparad, 96, 97; Yasna, 96, 114,
338-354
Pairika, 195, 201, 228
Paitiparshtô-sravaṇhem, 142
Paitisha, 337
Paitish-hahya, 192
Pâjak, Pâjan, or Pâjî nask, 128
Pâli, 143
Panchagavyam, 286
Pandnamak-i Aḍarpâd Mâraspend,
47, IIO, III
Vajûrg-Mihir, III
Zaratûsht, III
Pânini, 76
Panjab, 293
Panjastâ, 357
Pankti âsurî, 271, 272
Paoiryô-tkaêshô, 259
Paouruchista, 296
Pâpak, 78, 88, 90, 91, III
Paradise (pairi-daêza),
Paragnah, 394, 403, 405
5
Parahaoma, 139, 191, 282, 406
Paris, 18, 21, 28-30, 108
Paris, 195. See Pairika
Parmenides, 206
Parô-darsh, 245-247, 369, 371, 372
INDEX.
423
Parsi, passim; calendar, 57, 58, 112,
192, 357, 358; libraries, 34, 45, 57,
97, 99, 100, 102, 108, 109, III, 126,
134; writers, 58-61, 181
Pârsi (language), 33, 34, 40, 66, 86,
93, 147; (grammar of), 33, 106
Parsîism, 167, 169
Parsis, passim
Parthava, 203
Parthia, 79, 203
Parthian, 49
Parthians, 54, 79, 80
Parthva, 79
Pashtû, 67
Pasush-haurva, 328
Patanjali, 76, 182
Patit, 364
Patita, 318, 327
Patit i Adarpâd Mâraspend, 112
khud, 112
Pât-khusrô, 391
Pâtsrôb, 391
Paurvas, 182
Pausanias, 10, II
Pâzand, 47, 51, 55, 60, 90, 92, 93,
100, 104-109, 112, 113, 147, 239,
348, 357, 359, 360, 377, 401, 407;
(defined) 14, 33, 34, 85, 86, 122,
226, 262, 264; grammar, 51; pas-
sages, 182, 186, 231, 232, 235-239,
253-255, 316
Penôm, II, 243, 394
Pentateuch, 135
Persepolis, 32, 54, 66, 80, 87, 124
Persia, 3, 14, 16, 32, 33, 54-57, 65,
66, 79-81, 90, 94, 95, 99, 102, 104,
106, 109, 114, 122, 176, 202, 282,
309
Persian, passim; calendar, 57; cus-
toms, 5-16; empire, 19, 66, 123,
135, 138, 175, 264; rivâyats, 106;
words in Bible, 5
(ancient) 49, 66, 80, 81, 105, 206
Persians, 4-7, 10-15, 79, 80, 83, 84,
124, 136, 296, 299; (ancient) 19, 76,
80, 123, 138, 197
Persis, 80
Peshdâdian, 80
Peshô-tanu, 242
Peshwas, 279, 280
Peshyôtan Râm Kamdin, 97
Photios, 12
Phraortes, 206
Pitaras, 207, 273
Plato, 11, 206, 207, 298, 300
Pleiades, 182
Pliny, 8, 123, 298, 299
Plutarch, 8, 9, 192
Polish, 273
Polytheism, 149
Pomegranate, 139, 251, 282, 378, 379,
384, 396, 399, 400, 407
Poona, 44, 46, 99, 126, 134, 267, 280
Portuguese, 108
Pourushaspa, 179, 253, 254, 296, 333,
337, 380, 381, 391
Pouruta, 203
Póryódkéshán, 101
Prajapati, 192, 275, 276
Prakrit, 76
Prastáva, 283
Prastota, 283
Pratihára, 284
Pratihartâ, 283
Pratiprasthátá, 280
Pravargya, 270
Prayájas, 281
Puitika, 325, 326
Puranas, 135, 269, 276
Puranic, 262, 268
Purodásha, 259, 281, 285
Pushan, 273, 274
Pûtika, 282
Qâdaêna, 213
Qadîm reckoning, 57, 358
Qadmi. See Kadmi
Qaêtu, 153
Qairizem, 203
Qandahar. See Kandahar
Qaniratha, 219, 256, 389
Qanvat, 201
Qarenô, 216
Qaretem, 139
Quatremère, 79
Raêthwishkara, 332
Ragha, 66, 188, 229, 300
Raghuvansha, 182
Raî, 66, 79, 300, 362
Râk, 362
Râm, 2I4, 316, 324
Râma-qâstar, 193, 316
Râmâyana, 276, 288
Râm yasht, 2I4, 275, 324
Rânyô-skereti, 159
Rapithwin, 397, 403
Rapithwina gâh, 159, 232
Rashnu, 204, 205, 207, 210, 322, 342
yasht, 205, 206
Rask, 21, 22
Rasmi reckoning, 57
Râspî, 193, 280, 394, 395, 403, 404,
407, 408
Rathantaram, 284
Rathwi, 193, 280, 332, 394
Ratôshtâîtî nask, 129
Ratu, 175, 187, 191, 192, 297, 327,
328
Ratus, 276
Ratushtâi nask, 129
Resurrection, 5, 162, 216, 311
Revelations, 311
Rhode, 20
> Hibbert Lucanos 246
424
INDEX.
Ribhus, 148
Richardson, 19
Rigveda, 39, 40, 143, 148, 258, 268-
271, 274, 275, 278-280; (quoted)
145, 273, 274, 276, 277; (referred
to) 178, 182, 183, 206, 268, 269,
273-275, 278, 279, 289, 291, 333
Riksha, 206
Rishi, 206, 269, 278
Rishis, 269, 272
Ritus, 271
Rivayat, 100; (Pahlavi) 43, 46, 106
Rivayats (Persian), 93, 106, 126-134
Rohini, 182
Roman, 16, 79, 81; characters, 31,
41; type, 47, 51
Romans, 8, 79, 135, 137, 207, 295,
298, 301, 364
Rome, 202
Rudra, 269, 275
Rum, 78
Russian, 273
Rustam, 277
Rustam-i Mihirâpân, 56, 94, 96, 127
SABEANS, 15
Sachau, 51
Sadarah, 25, 249, 367, 368
Sad-dar Bundahish, 43, 113
Sadis, 390
Sajastan, 66, 228. See Sistan.
Sakadûm nask, 133
Sakzi, 66
Salsette, 25
Sâma, 277, 278
Sâman, 284
Sâmans, 283, 284
Samaritan Jews, 135
Sâurva, 272, 308, 337
Savahi, 256, 369, 389
Savana, 282, 283
Savitri, 269, 273
Sayaṇa, 69
Scandinavians, 147, 180
Scythic, 79
Sedôsh, 390
Semitic, 5, 42, 49, 59, 81-86, 89, 90,
92; ideograms, 83-85, 90
Sêrjāns, 392
Sfend nask, IZI
Shahanshahî reckoning, 57
Shahnamah, 80, 93, 190, 194, 202,
226, 277, 278, 298, 299, 361
Shahpahar I., 86–88, III
II., 84
Shahrastani, 15
Shahrivar, 9, 306, 358, 392
Shahryarji Dadabhâî, III
Shankhayana grihyasûtra, 289
shrautasûtras, 182
Shapurji Edalji (Revd.), III
Sharva, 272, 288
Shastras, 135
Shatapatha brâhmaṇa, 206, 275
Shatrôvair, IOI
Shatver, 357, 358, 382
Shayast-la-shâyast, 56, 106, 351
Shayast-nashâyast, 43
Shikand-gumânî, 46, 55, 60, 104, 105,
114
Shiva, 269, 272, 288, 308
Shloka, 144, 175, 212, 252
Shrotriyas, 289
Shruti, 307
Shukra, 278
Sîmaêzhi, 213
Samarkand, 203
Sâmas, 178, 278, 392
Samaveda, 73, 143, 258, 283
Sandal-wood, 378, 404, 408
Sandes, II
Sañhitâ, 181
Sanskrit, passim; (classical) 22, 68-
70, 72, 75, 76, 206, 289; manu-
scripts, 45; sîrôzah, 46; transla-
tion, 22, 26, 38, 41, 42, 46, 51, 55,
93, 100, 106, 120. See Vedic
Saoshyâns, 213, 313, 314
Saoshyafitô, 258, 294, 295, 301, 314
Sâsân, III
Sasanian, 54, 59, 67, 78, 80, 81, 86,
87, 89, 90, 121, 122, 125, 302, 338,
358; characters, 59; inscriptions,
49, 59, 80, 82, 86-89; Pahlavi, 82,
86-90
Sasanians, 12, 15, 25, 33, 125, 299,
309
Satan, 12
Satâra, 280
Saugand-nâmah, 322
Simakos, 12
Sîmrâ, IOI
Sînd, 361
Sindhavas, 205, 230
Sirius, 9
Sirozah, 10, 46, 98, 134, 139, 225,
404
Sistân, 94, 356, 361. See Sajastan.
Slavonian, 65.
Slavonic, 273
Smritis, 260
Sogdiana, 66, 203
Soma, 22, 70, 168, 176, 180, 182, 185,
258, 259, 269, 272, 278, 280-283,
289, 291, 292
Sôshans, 101, 341, 349, 350, 374.
Sôshyâns, 254, 313, 388
Sôshyañtô, 174, 177, 209, 217
Spendarmad, 306, 339, 340, 347,
349, 350, 357, 375, 377, 382, 383,
400
Spend nask, 131, 351
Spendyâd, 391
Spenjaghra, 336, 390
INDEX.
425
Speñita armaiti, 191, 305, 306, 312,
333
Speñta-mainyû. See Gatha
Speñito mainyush, 24, 179, 187, 189,
304, 305
Spêtos (Gpêtos?), 364
Spiegel, 29-31, 33-38, 41-44, 51, 95–
97, 106, 108, 323, 338, 347, 352,
355, 367–369, 375, 384
Spitama, 36, 138, 166, 176, 177, 188,
209, 258, 263, 296, 297, 301
Spîtâmân, 355, 367, 369, 371, 377, 380,
381, 384, 387, 392
Spitama Zarathushtra, 35, 136, 138,
141, 146–148, 165, 186, 190, 207,
209, 212, 218, 223, 227, 235, 236,
244-246, 250, 253-255, 257-264,
292-295, 298-300, 302, 305, 310-
317, 319, 320, 327-330, 334
Sraosha, 155-160, 184, 189, 193, 204,
205, 210, 307
Sraoshâvareza, 245, 280, 327, 332,
369
Sraoshô-charana, 251
Srâvay, 143
Srît, 392
Srôsh, 141, 174, 189, 191, 195, 200,
245-249, 255, 280, 307, 308, 334,
336, 340, 369-375, 383, 390, 403,
408
369
bâj, 164
yasht, 46, 189–191, 200, 257, 307,
hâdôkht, 98, 205
Srôshô-charanãm, 371, 375, 376, 378,
379
Srvara, 178
Stâyishn-i drôn, III
Strabo, 4, 10
Studgar nask, 126
Stud-yasht nask, 134
Stuttgart, 97, 99, 107
Sud-homand, 381
Südkar nask, 107, 126
Sughdha, 203, 228
Sughdi, 66
Suicide, 313
Sukuruna, 328
Sura, 269
Surâk, 364
Sûrîk, 358
Surat, 17, 45, 48, 57, 59, 100, 102
Syriac, 31, 80
Taittirîya brâhmaṇa, 182
sañhitâ, 278
Takhma urupa, 214
Takht, 394, 397, 399-401, 405
Talmud, 135, 226
Talmudic literature, 136
Tâmûk or Tânak, 109
Tanâpûhar, 322, 369, 374-377
Tanuperethas, 242
Tanúra, 5
Tapristán, 363
Tauru, 52, 337
Tauruna, 328
Teheran, 95, 109, 300, 338, 359, 364
Teispes, 298
Ten admonitions, 110
Teutonic, 52, 65, 148, 287
Thais, 124
Themis, 205
Theodoros, 12
Theopompos, 7, 8, 33, 312
Thomas, 87, 88
Thorah, 135
Thraétaona, 178, 198, 202, 215, 216,
230, 275, 277, 278
Thrita, 178, 257, 277, 392
Tighrish, 200
Tir, 256
yasht, 200
Tishtar, 9, 256, 389
Tishtrya, 9, 194, 200, 201, 263, 279
Traitana, 277, 278
Trimurti, 288
Trishtubh, 145
Trita, 275, 277, 278
Trojan war, 298
Turanian, 361
Turkish, 31
Turnour, 123
Tychsen, 20
Udaka shânta, 281
Udgâtâ, 283, 284
Udgîtha, 283
Udra, 242
Udumbara, 283
'Ulamâ-i islâm, 43
Upadrava, 284
Upasad, 270, 271, 281
Uranos, 272
Urê, 360
Ursa major, 206
Urupi, 329
Urva, 228
Urvâkhshaya, 178
Urvãnô, 168
Urvaram, 396, 399–402, 407
Urvâsna, 251
Urvatad-narô, 235
Urvâtas, 151
Usaghanas, 213
Ushahina gâh, 159, 369
Usham surâm, 245
Ushanas, 278, 279
Ushidarenem, 216
Ushidhâo, 216
Ushnih âsuri, 271
Ushtavaiti. See Gatha
Usikhsh, 289
Uzayêirina gâh, 159
426
INDEX.
Vâchak aêchand, 110
Vadhaghana, 254
Vaê-i vatar, 323
veh, 324
Vaêkereta, 228
Vaĉtha nask, 46
Vahirâm-i varjâvand, 107, 110
Vahishta, 31I
Vahishtem ahûm, 186
Vahisht-mânsrah nask, 127
Vahishtôishti. See Gâtha
Vâhrâm, 383
Vaivasvata, 277
Vajarkard-i dînî, 43, 59, 100, 110,
112, 126
Vâjasaneyi sañhitâ, 182
Vajûrg-mihir, 110, III
Valkhash, 54
Vâmadeva hymns, 148
Vanant, 217; yasht, 217
Vandîdád, 133. See Vendidad
Vapâ, 285
Varasa, 139, 395, 397, 399, 400, 402,
403
Varâza, 214
Varena, 230, 363
Vareshan, 213
Varshtamânsar nask, 127
Varuņa, 53, 268, 272, 273
Vasavas, 275
Vashatkâra, 275
Vashti nask, 130
Vasishthas, 178
Vayu, 274, 275, 324, 334
Vâyu, 214, 274
Vayush, 214, 215
Vazagha, 329
Vâzishta, 336, 390
Vazra, 205, 217
Veda, 20, 41, 53, 70, 73, 170, 180,
274, 276-278, 294
Vedangas, 181
Vedas, 21, 22, 27, 39, 40, 69–71, 77,
135, 138, 155, 182, 193, 205, 206,
213, 216, 230, 260, 267-269, 273-
280, 287, 289, 291, 299, 307
Vedic, 27, 40, 44, 69, 70, 77, 145,
176, 192, 194, 214, 270, 272-276,
278-280, 284, 288, 292, 294, 308;
hymns, 28, 137, 143, 206, 272, 274,
276, 278, 287-289, 291, 294; Sans-
krit, 40, 68, 70, 72, 75, 147
Vêhîjakîk, 58
Vêh river, 361
Vehrkâna, 229
Vendidad, 22-24, 28, 30, 34, 35, 37,
38, 43, 46, 50-52, 58, 60, 61, 94-96,
99, 107, 109, 113, 114, 127, 133-135,
137, 139, 141, 142, 199, 211, 225-
257, 260-264, 268, 277, 292, 294-
297, 303, 305, 315-338, 355, 374,
383; 384, 397; sâdah, 22, 28, 30,
46, 52, 235, 336; (Pahlavi) 46, 56,
61, 127, 336, 338, 355-393; (Sans-
krit), 46; xii. (modern Pahl.), 95,
96
Venus, 197, 278
Verehrân, 389
Verethraghna, 213, 275, 288
Verezēna, 153
Vîbanga, 336
Vîdadhafshu, 256, 389
Vienna, 34, 95-97
Vik-dev-dâd nask, 133
Vîk-shêda-dâd, 133
Vish-haurva, 328
Vishnu, 288
purâņa, 213
Vishtâsp, 101, 109, 130, 340, 391
Vishtåspa, 146, 156, 158, 167, 298, 299
Vishtâspâd, 130
Vishtâsp nask, 139
sâstô, 130, 134
shâh, 130
yasht, 97, 224
Visparad, 22, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 51,
96, 97, 134, 135, 139, 141, 142, 191–
194, 260, 397; with Pahlavi, 46
Vivanghana, 231-234
·
Vîvanhâo, 177, 277
Vizareshô, 255, 387, 390
Vizu, 329
Vôghnô, 38r
Vohu-gaona, 251
kereti, 251
khshathra. See Gatha
Vohumanô, 9, 10, 151, 158, 167, 171,
190, 222, 255, 302-306, 308, 320,
333, 335, 339-341, 344, 345, 347,
349-351, 353, 354, 357, 358, 366,
382, 384, 388, 393
Vohunazga, 328
Vohunemanh, 213
Vologeses, 54
Vouru-bareshti, 256, 389
jareshti, 256, 389
kasha, 197, 200, 201, 205, 208,
256, 279, 320, 325-327, 336, 388,
392
Vritra, 275, 278, 279
Vritraha, 213, 275, 288
WEBER, 271
West, 50, 51, 105
Westergaard, 24, 32-34, 36-39, 44,
47, 51, 60, 77, 87, 97, 105, 114,
139, 140, 194, 217, 223, 308, 355,
367, 369, 409
Western India, 16-18, 33, 44, 55
Wilson (Rev. Dr.), 32, 45
(Prof. H. H.), 213
Windischmann, 43, 47, 105
Wodan's heer, 180
Wonders of the land of Sîstân, 109
INDEX.
427
XANTHOS of Lydia, 298
Xenophon, 4
Xerxes, 124
Yadkar-i Zarirân, 109
Yajamâna, 270
Yajishn, 139, 281. See Yazishn
Yajnavalkya, 286
Yajurveda, 143, 206, 259, 271, 272,
275, 278
Yama rajâ, 276, 277
Yasht, 174-177, 185, 189, 194
Yashts, 6, 14, 38, 43, 51, 98, 134, 139,
224, 262–264, 294, 295; (translated)
175-185, 189-191, 194-217; (Pahl.
translations) 98
Yâska, 274, 285
Yasna, 22, 23, 26, 27, 30, 31, 34, 36-
38, 41, 43, 46, 47, 50, 51, 55, 58,
97-99, IOI, 109, 134, 135, 137, 139-
143, 146, 171, 174, 175, 177, 190, 191,
249, 258-260, 394; (described) 139-
142; haptanhaiti, 140-142, 170-
172, 190, 258, 259; (later) 140, 142,
171, 174-191, 259, 260, 262, 264,
296; (older) 73, 140-142, 174, 242,
296, 300; (Pahlavi) 56, 96, 114, 120,
338-354
Yatha ahu vairyô, 50, 54, 98, 126-
134, 174, 252, 374, 375, 380, 382,
385, 397-399, 401-405, 407-409;
text, 125; translation, 141
Yaxartes, 293
Yazads, 112, 345, 403
Yazamaidê, 171, 186
Yazatas, 194, 200, 272, 288
Yazd, 114
Yazdah, 14
Yazdân, 194
Yazishn, 345, 365. See Yajishn
Yênhê hâtãm, 98, 141, 174, 248, 374, 375
Yima, 23, 177, 202, 214-216, 226, 230-
235, 257, 277, 392; khshaêta, 177,
198, 276, 277
Yôishto yo Fryananam, Io7
Zâbulistân, 66
Zâd-sparam-i Yûdân-damân, 102
Zairicha, 52, 337
Zamyâd yasht, 216
Zand, 85. See Zend
Zand-âkâs, 104
Zandîk, 108
Zaota, 193, 280, 282, 332, 378
Zaothra, 139, 189, 214, 251, 281, 335,
336, 397
Zarades, II
Zaradusht, 14, 16
Zarastrades, 12, 296
Zarathushtra, 24, 35, 35, 41, 53, 74'
101, 121, 122, 138, 146-151, 153,
154, 156, 157, 161, 163, 165-170,
173, 175-177, 179, 125, 188, 189,
195-198, 202, 207-209, 211, 212,
214, 215, 218, 219, 222, 223, 230,
231, 233, 238, 243-246, 249, 250,
252-254, 276, 291, 294-297, 300,
393, 397, 325, 325, 333-338, 345,
365; Spitama, 148, 170, 172, 202,
211
Zarathushtras, 226
Zarathushtrian, 188, 211, 325, 327, 334
Zarathushtrótemó, 142, 193, 258, 261,
296, 297
Zaratûsht, 101, 107, 111, 112, 127,
130, 132, 338, 344, 351, 354, 355,
362, 364-357, 369, 371, 377, 379-
388, 391–393
námab, 43
Zardosht, 295
Zaremaya, 222
Zarhûndád, 321
Zarouam, 12
Zarvan, 13
akarana, 12, 15, 24, 309
Zâûlî, 66
Zavârish, 84, 85
Zemaka, 321
Zend, 19, 21, 47, 50, 52, 124, 125, 134,
135, 177, 239 (see Aresta); (defined)
14, 15, 67, 68, 119-122, 226, 262,
309; (original) 174, 177, 227, 229,
235, 362; (passages noted) 207–210,
212, 213, 227–230, 232–238, 250, 253
Zend-Avesta, 18, 36, 68, 119, 120,
123, 194, 195, 224, 257, 262, 264,
267, 268, 271-280, 287, 288, 292,
294, 298, 299, 308-310, 312, 314,
315, 409
Zendik, 14, 15, 309
Zendist, 235
Zend-Pahlavi glossary, 47-49, 99
Zeruan, 13, 14
Zervanits, 15
Zeus, 6, 8, II, 53, 287
Zohak, 183, 198
Zor, 395, 397, 398, 400-403, 406, 407
Zoroaster, 3, 9, 11, 19, 29, 46, 51,
123, 137, 138, 171, 216, 296; (his
age) 15, 298, 299; (his writings)
123, 257
Zoroastrian, passim; studies, 43
Zoroastrianism, 44, 103, 346
Zoroastrians, 14, 23, 46, 54, 57, 74,
121, 123, 125, 168, 170, 258, 262,
287, 290, 303
Zota, 394, 395, 403-409
Zvârish, 42
PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO.
EDINBURGH AND LONDON
DEC 7
1917

5,210, 212, 232, 241, 244, 249, 390
fire, 159
indacations, 165, 193, 229.238
pastoral v. agricultural, 170, 292
fire ceremonial, 190, 281, 394, 404
house, 210, 242, 246
trees for the fire, 257, 283, 397
succe of the saind plant, 282
urine of the cow, 286, 385

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