A 587300 PUTNAM A BRIEP HISTORY EASTERN ASIA BY HANNAH DS 511 H24 NON CIRCULATING ARTES LIBRARY VERITAS SCIENTIA OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN GUALMS PENINUJAAMANCERAN PRESENTED BY RICHARD HUDSON PROFESSOR OF HISTORY 1888-1911 ! DS 511 .H24 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA M A Brief History of Eastern Asia Tam Campbe By Hannah, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge (Formerly Master of the English School at Tien-Tsin) London T. Fisher Unwin Paternoster Square 1900 [All Rights reserved.] 24 Nov-11-CP.OB.OP. PREFACE THE object of this little book is to give a clear but concise account of the history of the vast continent of Asia, taking in the islands off its coasts, but omitting Persia, Mesopotamia, Arabia, Syria and Asia Minor, countries whose history belongs more properly to that of Europe and the Mediterranean. The work was projected in my mind before I started for the East, and collecting materials for it was my chief occupation in spare time during the two years I was at Tien-Tsin. Every effort has been made to ensure accuracy, but in a work of the kind it is hardly possible that mistakes have been altogether avoided. I should consider it a great kindness if any reader would bring to my notice whatever blunders he or she may 223665 vii PREFACE detect. I shall not have altogether failed in my task if the perusal of this sketch induces anyone to consult larger works or books of reference on the same subject. A list of some of these, all of them used to a greater or less extent in compiling the present work, is given at the end of the volume. My best thanks are due to my friend, the Rev. E. S. Saleebey, for helping me revise the proofs. viii I. C. H. } CONTENTS CHAPTER I PREHISTORIC TIMES The Stone Age-The Bronze Age-Early Races of Siberia-The Aryans The Semites-The Turanians-The Akkadians- Settlement of China-Restlessness of the Tribes of Central Asia, CHAPTER II EARLY HISTORY OF CHINA The First Emperors-The Aborigines-Kingdoms of Indo-China -Yu the Great-Hsia Dynasty-Chang Dynasty-Chow Dynasty-Confucius-The Wall-Builder, CHAPTER III EARLY HISTORY OF INDIA Aryan Immigration-The Vedas-The Aborigines-Life and Teaching of the Buddha-The First Two Councils-Jainism -Alexander's Invasion of India, CHAPTER IV THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM Chandragupta-Asoka-Third Buddhist Council-Ceylon-Cam- bodia-Siam-Burmah-Malay Archipelago-Central Asia, CHAPTER V THE HAN DYNASTY IN CHINA AND CONTEMPORARY EVENTS IN CENTRAL ASIA AND INDIA Kaotsou founds the Han Dynasty-The Huns-The Su Tatars overthrow the Greek Kingdom of Bactria-Scythians in India-Kanishka, King of Kashmir-Vouti-Hoty-The Sienpi, PAGE I 6 14 21 27 ix CONTENTS CHAPTER VI EARLY HISTORY of coreA Chosen-Foundation of Kokorai, Hiaksai and Shinra-Buddhism introduced,. PAGE 33 1 CHAPTER VII EARLY HISTORY OF JAPAN Divine Age-Legends-Early Mikados-Queen Jingo's Invasion of Corea-The Emperor Nintoku-Buddhism introduced- Early Chronicles, 35 CHAPTER VIII THE TANG DYNASTY OF CHINA M Small Dynasties-Kaotsou, Founder of the Tang Dynasty— Taitsong The Tibetans The Moslems Council of Ephesus-The Nestorians-The Empress Wou--The Parsees -War with Japan-The Khitans-Rebellions-The 'Five Dynasties,' . 40 CHAPTER IX UNITED COREA AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SHOGUNATE IN JAPAN Wangken becomes King of the Whole of Corea-Noble Families of Japan-Taira and Minamoto Clans-Taira no Kiyomori Battle of Dannoura-Yoritomo becomes the First Shogun, CHAPTER X MOSLEM INVASIONS OF ASIA Decay of Buddhism-Chinese Pilgrims-Mahmud of Ghazni -Mohammed Ghori-The Slave Dynasty at Delhi-The Afghans-Chinese Jews Central Asia - Kotaiba-The Khalifate-The Turks, G CHAPTER XI THE TIBETANS, THE SUNGS AND THE KINS Kings of Tibet-Lamaism-The Sung Dynasty-Taitsou-State of Hea-Weakness of the Empire-The Niuche Tatars- The Kin Empire, } 49 • 54 62 X CONTENTS CHAPTER XII THE MONGOLS Genghis Khan-Conquests in the East-Kushlek and the Khitans -War with Kharezm-Russia overrun-Prester John- Oghatai Khakhan-Jalaluddin-Corea conquered-Chris- tianity-Kuyuk Khakhan-Mangu Khakhan-Holagou in the West, PAGE 66 CHAPTER XIII THE YUEN DYNASTY The Sungs defeated-Kublai Khakhan-Final Destruction of the Sung Dynasty-Prosperity of China-Kublai's Attempts to subdue Japan and Other Islands-Decay of the Mongol Power after His Death-Religious Affairs, . CHAPTER XIV THE EARLY MING EMPERORS Hong Wou drives the Mongols from China and founds the Ming Dynasty-The Ni Dynasty in Corea-Mongolia and Central Asia-Yonglo-Peking, 76 83 CHAPTER XV THE LATER MONGOLS AND TAMERLANE The Kalmucks-The Western Kiptchaks or Golden Horde- Batu-Bereke-Conversion to Islam-Succeeding Khans- Toktamish-Timur or Tamerlane-Indian Affairs-Ala- ud-din Khilji, Sultan of Delhi-The Tughlak Dynasty- Partition of the Empire-Timur in India-Sack of Delhi- War with the Mamluks and the Ottoman Turks—Bayezid the Thunderer-Battle of Angora, • CHAPTER XVI A NEW ERA. THE PORTUGUESE BREAK IN ON THE SECLUSION OR ASIA- Chinese Affairs-The Voyage of Vasco da Gama and its Results-Prince Henry the Navigator-Portuguese Enter- prise-Almeida-The Moslems defeated-Albuquerque- Goa seized and occupied-Other Portuguese Stations in the Far East-Greatness of Portugal-Decline-Revolt of the Natives, 88 • 99 xi CONTENTS CHAPTER XVII THE MOGUL EMPIRE The Uzbegs-Sheibani Dynasty-Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties at Delhi-Deccan Sultans--Baber invades India-Battle of Panipat-Moslem Missions-Humayun-Reign of Akbar -Jehangir, PAGE 108 CHAPTER XVIII THE ASHIKAGA SHOGUNATE IN JAPAN Go-Daigo-Civil Wars-The Ashikaga Shogunate-Portuguese Navigators Francis Xavier Japanese Nobunaga,. Christians- 116 CHAPTER XIX THE CAREER OF HIDEYOSHI Hideyoshi succeeds Nobunaga-The Castle of Osaka-Christian Converts Affairs of China-Wanli - The Coreans- Japanese Invasion of Corea-Second Invasion-Death of Hideyoshi,. 120 CHAPTER XX THE SPANIARDS, DUTCH, ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN THE INDIES Magellan Legaspi - The Philippines Cornelius Houtman- Dutch Settlements-Pieter Both, Governor-General-War with the Portuguese-Coen-Batavia-Fort Zealandia- Van Diemen-Colony at the Cape-Dutch Rule and Policy -The Ternatees The Achinese-Francis Drake-The British East India Company-Early Voyages-The Portu- guese defeated at Surat-British Settlements-The Massacre of Amboyna-French and Other India Companies-Pondi- cherri, 126 CHAPTER XXI THE RUSSIAN CONQUEST OF SIBERIA Khan Kutchum-Yermak-Siberia occupied by the Russians- Treaty of Nertchinsk-Russian Colony in Peking, . 136 xii CONTENTS Nikan Wailan CHAPTER XXII RISE OF THE MANCHUS Nurhachu Battle of Goolo Hill. - Yeho annexed-War with the Chinese-Tingbi-Other Chinese Commanders-Death of Nurhachu, CHAPTER XXIII THE CONQUEST OF CHINA Taitsung-China invaded by the Dangan Pass-Miserable Con- dition of the Country-The Regent Dorgun-Peking captured by Rebels under Li Dsuchung-Wu Sangwei-The Ta Tsing Dynasty-Six Later Ming Emperors-The Queue, • PAGE 140 146 CHAPTER XXI V THE REIGN OF KANGHI Koshinga-Formosa-The Pirates subdued-Revolt of Wu Sangwei-Reforms-The Jesuits - The Mongols - Ordu Hordes The Khalkhas-The Kalmucks - Tibet-The Dalai Lama-Galdan-Rabdan, 154 CHAPTER XXV THE REIGNS OF YUNG CHING AND CHIENLUNG Peaceful Measures-Increase of Population-Chienlung succeeds -Amursana-Massacre of the Kalmucks and their Territory annexed to China-The Torgods-Tibet-The Gurkhas- Revolts in Formosa, etc.-Signs of Decay, 162 CHAPTER XXVI ì. THE INDO-CHINESE PENINSULA Burmah-Wars with Peguans-Alompra-Wars between Burmah and Siam-Phra Naret-Phra Narai-Phaulkon-Ayuthia captured and destroyed by the Burmese-Bangkok founded -Cambodia-Annam and Tong King-A Warlike Bishop -Gia Long-The French in Indo-China, • 168 xiii CONTENTS * ! CHAPTER XXVII RISE OF THE MAHRATTAS AND SIKHS. BREAK-UP OF THE MOGUL EMPIRE Battle of Talikote Shah Jehan-Aurungzebe — Sivaji-The Mahrattas-The Sikhs-Nanak Shah-The Gurus-Ranjit Singh-Mogul Provinces become Independent-Afghanistan -Nadir Shah-Plunder of Delhi-Ahmed Khan-Battle of Panipat, PAGE 174 CHAPTER XXVIII THE WAR BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN INDIA Madras-Bombay-Calcutta-Dupleix-Clive-Peace of Aix-la- Chapelle-Arcot-Surajah Dowlah-Battle of Plassey- Battle of Wandewash-Hector Munro-Clive's Adminis- tration, 182 CHAPTER XXIX THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA Warren Hastings-The Rohillas-Nuncomar-First Mahratta War-First Mysore War-Cheyti Sing-Botany Bay-Lord Cornwallis-Second Mysore War-Lord Wellesley-Third Mysore War Second Mahratta War-Lord Minto- Marquis of Hastings-War with Nepal-Pindarees-Lord Amherst, 187 CHAPTER XXX THE INDIAN EMPIRE OF ENGLAND EXTENDED OVER NEIGHBOUR- ING COUNTRIES Stamford Raffles - The Malay Peninsula-Java-Sumatra- Singapore Malacca-Borneo-First Burmese War-Lord William Bentinck-Dost Mohammed-Lord Auckland- Afghan Wars-Lord Ellenborough-Lord Hardinge-Sikh Wars-Lord Dalhousie-Second Burmese War-Ceylon- Other Islands, 194 CHAPTER XXXI THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE IN JAPAN Ieyasu founds a New Shogunate-Yedo-Hideyori-Dutch at Hirado Adams-The Four Classes of the Population- The Christians-Arima Rebellion, . 204 xiv CONTENTS 1 1 CHAPTER XXXII DECAY OF CHINA. FIRST, WAR WITH ENGLAND Chiaching-Pirates-Foreign Trade-Lord Amherst's Embassy -Taokwang-Central Asia-The Opium Dispute-War breaks out-Treaty of Nanking-Hong Kong-Treaty Ports-Missions, CHAPTER XXXIII SECOND WAR AND TAI PING REBELLION Hienfung-Hung Siu-tsuen-Capture of Nanking-Attack on Tien-Tsin-The Arrow Incident-Canton captured-Re- pulse at Taku-Tien-Tsin and Peking taken-Treaties ratified Chinese Gordon-The Ever-Victorious Army- The Tsungli Yamen-Reforms-The Customs Service, CHAPTER XXXIV THE INDIAN MUTINY AND THE BRITISH IN CENTRAL ASIA Rising at Meerut-Nana Sahib Cawnpore Havelock-Sir Colin Campbell-Reforms-Afghan Affairs-Lord Roberts Kashmir-The Dogras-Hunza-Nagar-British Policy, . CHAPTER XXX V THE RUSSIANS IN CENTRAL AND NORTH-EASTERN ASIA Khanates of Central Asia-Russian Policy-Peter the Great- Conquest of Turkestan Trans-Caspian Railway-The Amur Siberian Railway — Saghalien Alaska, CHAPTER XXXVI Kamchatka THE OPENING OF JAPAN AND ITS RESULTS Commodore Perry-Ports opened-Treaties-Discontent in Japan -Foreign Complications-Satsuma and Choshu Clans- Restoration of the Mikado's Power-Abolition of the Daimi- ates-Westernisation of the Country-Satsuma Rebellion, CHAPTER XXXVII INDO-CHINA AND BORNEO • French Colonies-Saigon-Annam-Tong-King-War between France and China-Siam-Third Burmese War-Rajah Brooke Sarawak-British North Borneo Company Keeling Islands, PAGE 209 217 224 230 236 245 2 XV CONTENTS 1 CHAPTER XXXVIII PAGE THE LOO CHOO ISLANDS AND COREA The Loo Choo Islands annexed to Japan-Formosan Expedition -Christianity in Corea-French Expedition-American Expedition-Japanese Expedition—Riots in Seoul, CHAPTER XXXIX RECENT EVENTS IN CHINA AND THE WAR WITH JAPAN The Panthays-Yakub Beg-Kwang Su-Russians at Kuldja- Tien-Tsin Massacre-Murder of Margary-Convention of Chefoo-Chino-Japanese War-Russian Interference- Formosa Corea-The Independence Club-Kiao Chow— Port Arthur-Wei Hai Wei-Kwang Chow Bay-Kang Yü Wei-Reforming Edicts-The Empress seizes the Government-The Americans in the Philippines, CHAPTER XL THE PRESENT POSITION OF AFFAIRS IN THE EAST Conquest of Asia by Europe-Decay of Asiatic Powers-Partition of China-Commercial Importance of the Chinese-Other Asiatic States-European Rule of Asia-Present Position of the Different Foreign Nations interested in Asia-Portugal Holland-The Six Great Powers-England-Russia- America-Japan-France-Germany- Open Door' and 'Spheres of Influence' Policies in China, CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, . INDEX, LIST OF BOOKS, . 250 · 254 265 277 283 301 1 xvi A Brief History of Eastern Asia CHAPTER I PREHISTORIC TIMES The Stone Age-The Bronze Age-Early Races of Siberia-The Aryans-The Semites-The Turanians-The Akkadians- Settlement of China-Restlessness of the Tribes of Central Asia. TOWARDS the end of the Tertiary or at the beginning First Appear- of the Quaternary Epoch, when for untold ages dif- ance of Man. ferent forms of vegetable and animal life had existed on the earth, man seems first to have appeared. Everything points to the cradle of our race having been Asia. A careful study of the ancient caves of Germany, the kitchen-middens or shell-mounds of Denmark, the barrows on our own Downs, the lake-dwellings of Switzerland and similar antiquities in all parts of Europe has taught us far more about the conditions under which our remote ancestors lived than we might perhaps have expected. The earliest peep of prehistoric man which these The First Stone ancient records allow us to obtain, shows him a Age. dweller in caves, which he seems to have shared with the beasts, using for all purposes either implements of bone, some of them human, or flints roughly shaped by chipping, in each case frequently adorned by A I The Second Stone Age. 2000 B.C. The Bronze Agc. A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA rude sketches. He appears to have lived by hunting, and to have had some idea of cooking his food, for traces of fire are found in several of the caves. To this early period the name of Paleolithic, or First Stone Age, has been given. The Neolithic or Second Stone Age would appear to have succeeded the first after a long interval; somewhat meagre traces have been found of a transi- tion period, to which it has been proposed to apply the term Mesolithic or Miolithic. Men had now learned to fish and to build very primitive canoes, roughly hewn out of logs which are left square at either end. Large mounds of shells and bones testify that some sort of village communities had by this time been evolved. The stone implements are now far more carefully made, and they are polished instead of being left rough, though no sketches on them have hitherto been discovered. During this age also pottery was first invented, animals were tamed, a rude agriculture was introduced, the dead were carefully buried, and large mounds began to be erected over the resting-places of those whom their comrades wished specially to honour. The lake-dwellings, built with incredible labour on huge piles over shallow water, without axe or knife of any material but stone, belong to the same period. Their peculiar position was pro- bably for purposes of defence. The Neolithic Age seems to have continued in Europe till about two thousand years before Christ, when in various other parts of the world metals had been introduced and a considerable degree of civilisa- tion had been attained. The first metal used to any considerable extent appears to have been bronze- curious fact considering its compound nature and the superior hardness of iron, but the necessity of temper- ing copper by mixing it with tin if it was to be of any practical use must have been perceived almost at once. Some of the American Indians, however, used pure 2 -a PREHISTORIC TIMES copper, which they merely hammered into shape, find- ing it in a wonderfully pure state; while the highly- civilised empires of Peru and Mexico knew nothing of the use of iron when they were discovered by the Spaniards. Asia is very rich in remains of the stone and bronze ages. They have not been studied as carefully as have those of Europe, but they do not seem to differ from them very much, the primitive condition of mankind having been apparently almost exactly the same all the world over. The wide steppes of Siberia, which, unlike most of Early Races of the rest of Asia, have never been the seat of great and Siberia. populous empires, are very rich in remains of prehistoric times, more especially in the valley of the Yenisei. The Yeniseians themselves have left large quantities of Neolithic implements, the Ugro-Samoyedes, who dis- placed them, probably themselves hard pressed by the Tatars, about the third century before Christ, have left numerous articles of bronze, while the Khagasses, who invaded the country from Turkestan several centuries later, have left implements of iron and quantities of pottery. That the Yenisei valley was in early days considerably more advanced in civilisation than it was when conquered by the Russians is attested by abun- dant grave-tumuli, inscriptions and sketches on the rocks, and by bronze articles of all kinds, some of them ornamented with patterns in enamel, which are found along the whole course of the stream. Long before the dawn of any authentic history, The Aryans. when we first get a glimpse at our own Aryan ancestors, they seem to have been in the bronze age. These primitive Aryans, destined to found the most vigorous nations of the earth, lived a peaceful, pastoral life, ruled by their tribal patriarchs, each father of a family priest for his own household. They worshipped the powers of nature, and their chief God was the all- embracing sky, the Heaven-Father. 3 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Their Original Home. The Semites. The Turanians. Where was the original seat of the undivided Aryan tribes will in all probability never be decided with cer- tainty. Most authorities would place them either on the banks of the Oxus, in what is now Turkestan, or in some part of Persia, but others would prefer to place them in Europe, on or near the shores of the Caspian or of the Baltic. In any case two main streams appear to have issued from the cradle of the Aryan race; one, crossing the Hindu Kush and invad- ing India from the north-west, became the Hindus, the other passed on into Europe and apparently introduced the bronze age into that continent. While in Persia itself, however they got there, the Aryans absorbed or exterminated whatever aborigines there may have been, in Europe and India they were content to divide the land with them, not being sufficiently numerous to occupy the whole. The Semitic races, among whom three of the world's great religions-Judaism, Christianity and Islam-were destined to appear, originated apparently in the plains of Mesopotamia, and they seem to have left their original homes before the Aryans. They also lived in patriarchal communities, which are beauti- fully described in the book of Genesis. The course of their migrations was westward, Arabia and Egypt having been occupied by them at a very early period. The general name of Turanians has been given to the numerous other tribes which had spread them- selves over the east of Asia; but as these peoples, unlike the Semites and Aryans, have nothing whatever in common, the name seems meaningless, and, though undoubtedly convenient, it is certainly misleading. The Semitic Arabs, finding their country a desert, burst out in further migrations from time to time, and one branch, entering Mesopotamia, came in contact with the Akkadians, a people who seem to have come originally from the southern shores of the Caspian and to have brought with them a hieroglyphic writing. 4 PREHISTORIC TIMES $ Blending with part of the Akkadians, whom they easily overcame, the prehistoric Arabs formed the ancient Chaldæans, while the more adventurous section of the defeated Akkadians are thought to have fled eastwards and to have become the ancestors of the Chinese. Though it is certain that the Chinese did originally migrate from Western Asia, this theory of their origin is very doubtful; in fact, almost all accounts of the early migrations must be taken as rough outlines. It is highly improbable that the real course of events was by any means so definite as it has to be represented if it is to be described at all. Thus, when the first dawn of history scatters the dim mists of prehistoric antiquity, we find China and India being conquered by slow degrees from aboriginal tribes, by peoples already considerably advanced in civilisation and fated to found the two chief nations of Asia; the Chinese building up what has proved to be the longest-lived of all empires, the Hindus remaining through the centuries scattered communities among an alien people, an easy prey to invaders. Other nations will, in the course of time, be formed round the coastline, deriving their civilisation and religion almost entirely from these two, while the rest of the continent is given up to wandering tribes, for ever migrating, plundering and conquering, constantly founding ephemeral empires, but never fixed govern- ments, and showing little disposition to settle down or to cultivate the arts of peace. After long ages the descendants of the Aryans, who have passed over to the west in search of new homes, return in search of adventure, discovery or commerce, and form the project of imposing settled governments on the restless (and yet unchanging) nations of Asia to preserve the peace of the huge continent and to foster trade for their own advantage. 1 5 CHAPTER II Period. (?) 2332 B.C. EARLY HISTORY OF CHINA The First Emperors-The Aborigines-Kingdoms of Indo-China -Yu the Great-Hsia Dynasty-Chang Dynasty-Chow Dynasty-Confucius-The Wall-Builder. I Semi-Mythical THE first part of their country settled by the Chinese seems to have been what is now the province of Shensi, and a mythical first Emperor, called Fohi, half-dragon and half-ox, is supposed to have extended the Empire to the Pacific. Hwangti, who succeeded to the throne in 2332 B.C., after three or four emperors of whom little is known except the bare names, is said to have regulated the calendar and the weights and measures, besides further increasing his empire. After three centuries, the records of which are about as interesting and probably as authentic as Manetho's account of the first three dynasties of Yao and Shun. Egypt, Yao ascended the throne (2085 B.C.¹), and after him came Shun, these two being regarded by the Chinese as patterns of what sovereignty should be, and their age has, by succeeding generations, been looked back upon as ideal. Both Emperors sought only the good of their people, and the country prospered greatly in consequence. I These dates are very uncertain. Boulger gives the date of Hwangti as 2637 B.C. 1 6 EARLY HISTORY OF CHINA As the Chinese gradually settled ther present Empire, the aborigines were either annihilated or Aborigines of absorbed with wonderful thoroughness, though two China. sections of them, called the Miao-tsze, maintain them- selves to this day, independent of Chinese control, among the mountains, between the provinces of Kwangsi and Kweichow. As the invaders slowly penetrated southwards, which they did not do in any considerable numbers till long after the time of Yao and Shun, other tribes were driven still further south. The most important of these seem to have been the Annam. Giao-chi, who became the ancestors of the Annamese, setting up an empire which lasted, with many vicissi- tudes, till it was taken over by the French. Yet Funan, Cam- further to the south, the Cambodian Empire was bodia. founded by colonists from India, but not apparently until the early centuries of our era, though according to Chinese records there was an independent kingdom called Funan, occupying the same territory at least as early as the twelfth century before Christ. In the same Tong King. century ambassadors from Tong King (Tonquin) or Yueh, whose inhabitants were closely connected with the Annamese, brought to China 'south-pointing chariots.' While these nations were being formed in Central Asia. south-east Asia, Mongolia, Tibet and Turkestan were occupied only by wandering tribes. Even in those early days there must have been a Caravan Trade. certain amount of trade carried by caravans across Asia. About 1830, Rosellini, the Pisan archeologist, found a sort of smelling-bottle, evidently of Chinese porcelain, and with characters to all appearance Chinese, in an ancient Egyptian tomb, which he supposed to have been placed there in the days of the Pharaohs. Similar bottles have been brought from Egypt by other explorers, but it now appears that the inscriptions on some of the bottles cannot be older. According to another version they received these early compasses from the Chinese, not being able otherwise to find their way home. 7 A BLIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA than the ighth or ninth centuries of our era, and that the objecs were probably placed in the tombs by the Arab workmen. I During the reign of Shun the Yellow River burst its banks and flooded many miles of country, causing Yu the Great. widespread distress. Yu the Great was accordingly appointed to restore the river-banks and to drain off the floods; this, after two or three years, during which time he is said to have been so busy that he did not even enter his house, though he several times passed its doors, he accomplished with complete success, and as a reward he was made Emperor. He was the last monarch elected on account of his fitness for the post, and the empire became hereditary, Yu being the founder of the Hsia Dynasty. The Chinese still have a saying, 'The Empire is hereditary, but office is not.' The literati, or scholars, whose duty it is to study the ancient sacred books and to explain them to the people, have from the earliest times been held in high honour. Gradually all offices in the State came to be filled from among their number by means of com- petitive examinations, and now, though the Emperor himself was no longer chosen for his own merits, it was at least the theory that everyone else in authority was so appointed. About this time (circ. 2000 B.C.) the mythical or semi- mythical period of Chinese History ends. Hsia Dynasty. The Hsia Dynasty ruled China for more than four centuries. One of its emperors, named Taivou, received embassies from some of the tribes in Tibet and Koko Nor, an evidence of the respect which China was beginning to inspire in Central Asia. Its last emperor, Kia, was, however, a tyrant and completely lost the favour of the people; he was dethroned, after a reign of about fifty years, by Chin Tang, who became the founder of the Chang Dynasty. See Sir Gardner Wilkinson's Ancient Egypt. Edited by Samuel Birch (1878). Vol. II., pp. 153, 154. 8 EARLY HISTORY OF CHINA During the Hsia period the capital constantly changed. Chowsin, the last sovereign of the Chang' the accounts of whose emperors are extremely. also ruled very badly and ill-treated several literati; one of them, named Ki-Tsze, fled to and founded the state of Chosen (p. 33). Wou W headed a popular rising and dethroned Chowsin, a which he was himself proclaimed emperor, the first the Chow Dynasty, which lasted more than eight centuries. It was on the whole a prosperous time. Several of the Emperors received embassies from the surrounding tribes and sent expeditions, both military and peaceful, to different parts of Central Asia. But the Tatars were constantly pressing on the frontiers Tl. and the Chinese were only moderately successful in repelling their attacks. One of the emperors, Ping (Circ. Wang, in order to avoid them, actually moved his B.C.) capital from the west to Loyang in the province of Honan. The authority of the Emperors during the early centuries was slight, the country being partitioned among feudal princes or dukes, often at war with one another, and many of them at times more powerful than their sovereign-lord. Thus Honan, which was under the direct rule of the Emperor, was the only province in which his authority was much felt, though as Son of Heaven he was the High Priest of the nation, the only lawful medium between Heaven and the people, and in theory the divinely-appointed ruler of the whole world, to whom all other monarchs are tributary. The result of this system was that the country was in a chronic state of civil war, the central authority being far too weak to maintain order among the turbulent dukes; and things were in an extremely disturbed state when, in the sixth century before Christ, I There is thus a tolerably close analogy between the early Emperors of China and the sovereigns of the mediaval Holy Roman Empire. 9 IEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA ao-Tsze. eat Chinese religious teachers, Lao-tsze and tsze (Confucius) were born. age was one of religious revival all over the Besides themselves in China, Pythagoras in e, Ezekiel and Daniel among the Jews, Gaut- in India and possibly Zoroaster in Persia (though was probably earlier) were proclaiming new igious and philosophical doctrines destined to in- uence in no small degree the thought of mankind for all time. Confucius, though regarded as the wisest of mortals by succeeding generations, was not very much reverenced by his own contemporaries, and his life was spent in wandering from one court to another. He was intensely devoted to the Dynasty of Chow, and on one occasion, when on a visit to its capital, Loo, he met Lao-tsze, who was his senior by about fifty years. The two men seem not to have got on well together, though they did not actually quarrel. Lao- tsze founded a religion or philosophy of his own called Taoism, the 'tao' which he took as his starting- point being a very complicated, metaphysical con- ception which may be roughly defined as the 'Reason' or the 'right course of conduct.' His followers, however, soon forgot his moral maxims and substituted for them a vague mass of superstitions founded to a great extent on Chinese Buddhism. The system, though it has survived to the present time, has never had much attraction for the Chinese, who are by nature averse to philosophical speculations. It may well be that Lao-tsze himself foresaw as much, and so was jealous of his younger rival. At length one of the dukes was induced to make Confucius a magis- trate. Reforms were instituted and great prosperity resulted, but the only effect was to provoke the jealousy of the other states, and the Sage was displaced by an intrigue-by no means an uncommon fate of Chinese reformers. Much of his time subsequently was spent ΙΟ EARLY HISTORY OF CHINA in the state of Wei in Shantung, not many miles his birthplace. The teaching of Confucius was not origina aim being merely to restore the ancient religion the Chinese; he had little to say about a WO beyond the grave, and he gave only the vaguest hint as to the existence of a God. Filial piety was de- clared to be the highest duty of man, and the great object of a sage should be to make the Empire peace- ful and happy. The system is, on the whole, more a philosophy than a religion; the true follower of Con- fucius is one who studies the sacred books and practises the virtues about which he reads. The books are the Wu King or Five Classics and the Ssû Shu or Four Books, all edited or written by the Sage himself and his famous disciple Mencius, who lived more than Mencius. a century later. No inspiration of any kind is claimed (d. circ. 285 B.C.) for them, but no Hindus, Christians or Moslems ever treated their scriptures with greater reverence than is shown by the Chinese to their classics. The literati still feel themselves bound to defend the literal truth of every sentence. Things did not mend after the death of Confucius; on the contrary, they went from bad to worse, and the Empire enjoyed no peace till Ch'in (or Tsin), which had long been the most powerful of the feudal states, asserted its authority over the rest, under the leadership of Chowsiang, who in 225 B.C. became Emperor of China, the first of the Ch'in Dynasty. His grandson The Ch'in was the famous Ch'in Chi Hwangti, builder of the Dynasty. Great Wall, and the first Emperor who made his (255-202 B.C.) authority felt by the whole nation. Under an able builder. minister named Lisseh great reforms were carried out, ceremonies were cut down, roads were made, the Government was centralised and a national arsenal was Reforms. established at Hienyang. The literati offered the most determined opposition, and at a National Council held in the palace, one of their number actually pro- The Wall- I I BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA the partition of the Empire as more in accord- with the principles of the Sage. This led to an that all books, except those on medicine and griculture, should be burned, and some of the terati were executed. The Empire, thus reorganised at home, was ex- tended into Central Asia, and most of the Indo- Chinese peninsula was also conquered; it was more extensive, and probably, on the whole, more prosper- ous than ever before. The Great Wall, in many ways the most remarkable of all the works of man, was built towards the end of the reign. It did not keep off barbarian invasions very effectually, but it made a definite frontier to the Empire on the north, and it must have protected the Chinese from number- less petty plundering expeditions on the part of the restless tribes beyond the border. Starting from the Gulf of Pechili the Great Wall runs westward for about sixteen hundred miles to the province of Kansuh in Central Asia, being carried straight over the tops of the mountains and down to the bottoms of the valleys. At its eastern extremity the wall runs out into the waters of the gulf like a modern breakwater for about a hundred yards, and this part of it is of solid granite, some of the blocks being five feet long. They are clamped together with iron, little or no cement apparently having been used; a reef of rocks partly protects it from the violence of the waves. Crossing the maritime plain it consists of a compact earthen rampart faced on each side with brick, covered on the top by a pavement of the same material, protected on the north by a battlemented parapet eighteen inches thick, and by a fairly wide moat, and strengthened at intervals by low, solid towers containing small vaulted chambers. About half-way between the sea and the granite mountains it forms one side of the defences of the city of Shan Hai Kwan (‘Mountain-Sea-Boundary'), and its first gate, above which rises a tower of brick I2 EARLY HISTORY OF CHINA I and timber, opens into the town. Several streams are crossed by arches, most of which have been broken down. Ábout five miles from the sea it reaches the mountains and is carried straight up their rocky sides; here the width is considerably reduced, the earthen core being omitted. The courses of brickwork, instead of being kept horizontal, simply follow the slope of the hill-side, which is in places so steep that the top of the wall consists of a series of steps. After it has ascended a few hundred feet it stops against a precipice, on the top of which it is again continued, but there is no stair of any kind to keep the connection between the two sections.2 The rest of the work is of very similar character, except that for the last two or three hundred miles towards the west it degenerates into a mere earthen embankment. The height varies from about twenty to thirty feet, and the thickness from about six to sixteen feet. The structure has, however, been frequently re- paired, and in all probability comparatively little of the present building goes back to the time of the founder. Its general appearance at the present time is that of a picturesque ruin overgrown by shrubs, grass and wild flowers. In 209 B.C. the Emperor who built it breathed his last. ¹ One of these streams has washed away about two hundred yards of the wall, and the Tientsin-Newchwang Railway runs through the gap thus formed. One of the engineers showed me some of the original piles, which are of oak, each sharpened by three cuts; the wall was built on them without any layer of concrete. 2 Similarly there is no communication between the top of the Great Wall and that of the city walls of Shan Hai Kwan, or between the walls of the Tatar and Chinese cities at Peking. 13 : CHAPTER III Circ. 2000- 1500 B.C. EARLY HISTORY OF INDIA Aryan Immigration-The Vedas-The Aborigines-Life and Teaching of the Buddha-The First Two Councils-Jainism— Alexander's Invasion of India. THE Aryans pouring into India through the mountain passes found a fertile and beautiful country ready to be colonised by them. The valley of the Indus was soon occupied, and it was here that their religion was developed, the Vedas were composed, the castes were gradually formed and consecrated by the sanction of religion, the old tribal organisation was lost and the people took to dwelling in towns. The later swarms of Aryan invaders would appear to have been driven out of Persia by the Zoro- astrian Reformation, and in their new homes they found themselves free to practise rites which were being interdicted in Persia. After a long struggle the Brahmans, or priestly families, established their supremacy, largely through their monopoly of a knowledge of the national religion, and secured recognition of their claims to form the highest of the castes. Hymns to the different nature-gods form the bulk of the contents of the Vedas. By far the most important of these sacred writings is the Rig-Veda, which contains more than a thousand mantras or hymns; the Yajur-Veda and the Sama-Veda contain very much the same hymns, but they are adapted to be sung at services, and some 'rubrics' in prose are added. Much later than these, and quite different in 14 EARLY HISTORY OF INDIA character, is the Atharva-Veda, many of whose hymns. address demons and goblins; it seems likely that it represents the religious ideas of the aborigines, and it was probably admitted into the canon to absorb them into Hinduism. This spirit of compromise has characterised the religion ever since. Their common religion was the only bond of union that the Hindu Aryans had, for from the very first their scattered communities appear to have enjoyed complete political independence. The tribal patriarchs seem to have developed gradually into rajahs, each ruling over a few miles of territory and recognising no central authority whatever. A prince more power- ful than his neighbours now and then succeeded in ex- tending his authority over them, but such power was not long retained by his successors. This state of affairs naturally increased the influence of the priests, and in many ways it was analogous to the condition of England under the Heptarchy. The aborigines are divided into three main stocks— Aborigines of the Dravidian, the Dasyu or Tibeto-Burman, and the India. Kolarian. Of these the Dravidians are by far the most important, and they still form the bulk of the population of southern India, while the Dasyus were more influenced by Buddhism than any of the other races. In the north the original inhabitants were for the most part driven from the best lands and had to take refuge among the hills, but they still form a con- siderable proportion of the population. Nearly all the tribes have legends about their forefathers having migrated originally from the north. The most scorn- ful epithets are applied to the aborigines in the early Vedas; among other things they are called Dasyu (enemy) and Dasas (slave), and the former word came in time to mean devil. Later on, the relations between the two races became less strained. The aborigines adopted the religion and much of the civilisation of the Aryans, and many of the most famous temples in 15 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Buddha. (Circ. 560-480 B.C.) India, the Kylas at Ellora itself probably included, were their work. Gautama Buddha was the son of a Rajah of Kapilavastu, one of the numerous small states in the north of India, situated in what is now Nepal.¹ His mother died while he was a baby, and so he was cared for by her sister; while still quite young he married his cousin, and a son, called Rahula, was born to him. Heir to a well-ordered state, respected by his country- men for his skill in the use of arms, and fortunate in his domestic relations, nothing seemed to be wanting to the happiness of the young prince; but sympathy for the intense sorrows of suffering humanity constantly haunted him, and while he was doubting what to do, an Angel is said to have appeared to him four times, once as a mortal broken by age, once as a sick man, once as a decaying corpse, and once as a hermit. He could no longer enjoy his regal luxury, and so, in his twenty-ninth year, he made his Great Renunciation ; and, leaving his royal state and the succession to his kingdom, and his beloved wife and child, to whom he dared not give a parting kiss lest he should be tempted to remain, he retired among the woods to become a hermit, a poor and despised student. The evil angel is fabled to have hung over him, tempting him back, promising him the empire of the world if he remained-all in vain. He sought peace among the Hindu teachers of his national religion, but though he underwent severe penances, and for several years lived a life of the most extreme asceticism, he found none, and at length, breaking away from the Hindu Church, he decided to think out a way of salva- tion for himself, and he soon came to the conclusion that a moral life was superior to any amount of ritual practices and ceremonial observances. He spent the The Times of December 28th, 1896, contains an account of the dis- covery in Nepal of the exact site of Buddha's birth, and one of Asoka's pillars recording the fact. Kapilavastu was the chief city of the Sakhya tribe, whence Gautama is sometimes called Sakhya-Muni. 16 EARLY HISTORY OF INDIA rest of his days travelling about northern India on preaching tours and instructing his disciples, of whom the chief was Ananda. The way The state of highest blessedness, he taught, was The Teaching Nirvana, a sort of absorption of self into the divine of Buddha. essence, for self seemed to him to imply selfishness, and so the idea of it was to be overcome. to Nirvana was the Noble Eight-fold Path, a middle course between Hindu asceticism, which is 'painful, vain and useless,' and sensual indulgence, which is 'degrading, vulgar, sensual, vain and profitless,' summed up in eight principles-1. Right Belief. 2. Right Feelings. 3. Right Speech. 4. Right Actions. 5. Right Means of Livelihood. 6. Right Endeavour. 7. Right Memory. 8. Right Meditation. He also framed careful rules for social life. The doctrines which Buddha taught soon got cor- rupted. He himself was deified by his followers, and in process of time an elaborate ritual was invented, or adopted, which became more important than the moral maxims of the founder of the religion, while the celibate priesthood and monastic system which he himself instituted have not kept themselves purer than they have done in other religious systems having the same features. On the death of Gautama, perhaps about 480 480 B.C. B.C.,¹ to keep the Order together and to discuss future work, a council was held in a cave in the Vaihara Hill at Rajagriha, one of the towns in Magadha. About five hundred attended and things seem to have gone smoothly enough. At the second Buddhist Council, that of Vaisali, held about a century after the first, a large party of monks wanted to relax the rules of the Order, and they accordingly proposed Ten In- < This date is calculated from one of Asoka's inscriptions, but it is very doubtful. Professor Rhys Davids, in Ancient Coins and Measures of Ceylon, decides that Buddha died within a few years of 412 B.C., while Dr Fergusson, in his History of Indian Architecture, places the same event about 543 B.C. B 17 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Jainism. Persia. dulgences' which their more orthodox brethren vetoed. The malcontents, however, held another council of their own, more numerously attended than the original one, and called for that reason the Great Council. The result was that Buddhism got divided into the northern and southern churches, the former repre- senting the heretics and the latter the orthodox party. Though by far the most celebrated, Buddha was by no means the only reformer that arose about this time among the Hindus. Other leaders were constantly springing up, preaching new systems more or less hostile to the national religion. Of these the most famous was Vardhamana, the founder of Jainism, mentioned in the sacred books of the religion by the title of Maha-vira. He was born about 600 B.C., and his father was the Rajah of Vaisali. The Jains used to be considered merely a sect of the Buddhists; their separate origin has now been established, but as their founder was contemporary (or nearly so) with Buddha, and lived in the same part of India, it does not seem probable that the two religions are altogether inde- pendent of one another, especially as their doctrines have very much in common. The Jains have sur- vived to the present day; almost all the other sects that were started, Buddhism itself included, have been gradually re-absorbed by judicious compromises into Hinduism. Cyrus the Great, the celebrated founder of the Persian Empire, made Bactria in Central Asia (the cradle of the ancient Persian religion and the birth- place, apparently, of Zoroaster himself) one of the satrapies of his empire. About 490 B.C. one of his successors, Darius, the warlike king whose forces were defeated at Marathon, seems to have made some in- significant conquests in north-west India, which, however, must have been almost immediately lost. ¹ Balkh, a still existing city and district of Afghanistan, is a corruption of Bactria. 18 EARLY HISTORY OF INDIA B.C.) In Europe, about a century and a half later, Alexander in Alexander the Great was uniting Greece under the India (327-324 Macedonian supremacy, and having destroyed the empire of Persia, by that time in full decay, on the fields of Issus and Arbela, he invaded India through the satrapy of Bactria. Trade between India and the Mediterranean, by way of the Red Sea or by caravans across Persia, had been carried on from immemorial antiquity, but it had not led to much intercourse between the Hindus and the nations further to the west, so that in many respects this invasion was the first opening of a door between the West and the Far East, which was, however, practically closed again almost immediately afterwards. A certain amount of commerce, nevertheless, continued to exist, carried on chiefly by the Arabs and for a time by the Ptolemies. Alexander entered India in 327 B.C. The country was, as we have seen, divided up into numerous small kingdoms, and he consequently met with little resist- ance, only one monarch, Phoor or Porus by name, venturing to dispute the passage of the Hydaspes i 326 в.c. (Jhelum), the principal river of Kashmir (Cashmere). He was defeated and taken prisoner, but afterwards he was reinstated in his kingdom by the conqueror, who, according to his custom, founded several cities along his line of march. There was no power in India capable of checking Alexander's further advance, but on the banks of the Hyphasis (Sutlej) his soldiers absolutely refused to proceed, demanding to be led back to their homes. I So the retreat began. At Multan a battle was fought and the city fell into the hands of the Greeks. At a spot near the confluence of the Indus with the Hydaspes and several smaller streams a new city called Alexandria was built, which is now represented. by Uchh. Here a considerable Greek colony was left behind, which became the nucleus of the Greek 1 Srinagur, the present capital of Kashmir, stands on its banks. 19 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA kingdom of India, about which so little is known. The rest of the army marched down the banks of the Indus, near the mouth of which Alexander built. another town, Patala, now Hyderabad. Thence he himself led part of his army through the deserts of Beluchistan to Susa, while the rest sailed to the Persian Gulf under his admiral, Nearchus. 20 CHAPTER IV THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM Chandragupta-Asoka-Third Buddhist Council-Ceylon-Cam- bodia-Siam-Burmah-Malay Archipelago-Central Asia. A HINDU rebel from Magadha (afterwards called Kingdom of Behar from the number of its monasteries), at that Magadha. time the most powerful of the states of Northern India, took refuge in Alexander's camp; the great conqueror almost decided to put him to death, but he seems to have spared him in contempt. This man, however, on the departure of the invaders, raised an army in his own interests from the Punjab tribes, and when, about 316 B.C., the Rajah of Magadha was slain, Chandragupta. he was able to step into the vacant place and to found (Circ. 316-291 B.C.) a new dynasty the Maurya-himself, taking the name of Chandragupta (Greek Sandrocottus) and fix- ing the capital of his empire at Palibothra, on the site of the modern Patna. On the death of Alexander, India and Bactria fell to India and Seleucus Nicator, who became satrap of Babylonia, Bactria. and war soon broke out between him and Chandra- gupta, in which the Greeks were worsted; but peace was made and Megasthenes was sent as ambassador Megasthenes. to the court of Magadha. It was from this man's writings (which, unfortunately, have not come down to us) that the later Greeks derived their most reli- able information about India. The grandson of Chandragupta was Peyaddassi, or The Emperor Asoka, who secured his throne only by the murder of Asoka (263- 226 B.C.) 2 I A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Council of his brothers, but who is well known as the Constantine of Buddhism. In 256 B.C. he made a formal alliance with Antiochus Theos, the grandson of Seleucus Nicator. Asoka greatly extended his dominions, and succeeded in establishing his authority over the greater part of Northern India and Afghanistan. In 244 B.C. he summoned the third Buddhist Council, Asoka, 244 B.C. which, however, is not recognised by the Northern Church. It met at Palibothra, and the Emperor himself presented an address to the assembled monks, which, in its lay spirit of toleration and desire to avoid any controversy if it could possibly be avoided, greatly resembles the letters of Constantine to the Christian Bishops just before the Council of Nicæa, preserved by Socrates, the Church historian. King Peyaddassi of Magadha, greeting the council, wishes it health and happiness. You know, reverend sirs, how great is my respect and reverence for the Buddha, the Law and the Church. All those things, reverend sirs, which were spoken by the Blessed Buddha were well spoken; by looking upon them, reverend sirs, as autho- rity, the true law will long endure,' etc. Special officers were appointed to watch over the purity of the religion, and to see that the aborigines were not ill- treated. The sacred books were collected and copied. Edicts extolling the Buddhist faith were engraved on stone pillars and set up in all parts of the empire, while missions to outside nations were also organised. Early History of Ceylon. (Lanka.) I ' The most important of these was that sent to Ceylon or Lanka. The conquest of this beautiful island is a favourite subject of the Hindu epics, and the Ramayana tells how Rama, with his allies, the apes, conquered Ravana, the demon-king of Lanka, with his army of black fiends. In the middle of the sixth century before Christ the island was subjugated by an an Indian prince, Vijaya, who established a I The three gilded figures nearly always seen in Buddhist Temples in China and Corea are said to represent this same triad. 22 THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM I kingdom there which long survived. Asoka's own Buddhism in son, Mahinda (who, as Buddhists still boast, was the Ceylon. only Imperial crown prince who ever gave up his throne to become a simple missionary ¹), went himself to convert Ceylon, and he was well received by Tissa, the king of the island, who, with many of his people, became a Buddhist. Under his care monas- teries were built both for monks and nuns. Mahinda and his sister remained to look after the new church, and the island has continued Buddhist ever since. After Tissa's death Ceylon was invaded by Dravidians 2 or Tamils from the mainland, who twice conquered the island, though eventually Tissa's descendants re- gained power and still protected Buddhism. In later days, as swarms from the mainland continued to arrive, and the Hindu rulers of Ceylon were unable to expel or to subjugate them, the country became partitioned into several independent states. Buddhism, having taken a firm root in Ceylon, was spread thence to the countries further east, and it did much to civilise their inhabitants and to give them governments more or less stable and permanent. The Cambodians in early times occupied all Indo- Cambodia. China south of Annam, but they probably enjoyed their period of greatest material prosperity after they had lost a great part of their original territory, sub- sequently to the tenth century of our era, under a line of powerful monarchs who have left magnificent architectural remains. The chief of these is the Angor Wat (Nakhon Wat), a huge temple close to the extensive ruins of one of the ancient capitals, Angor Tam, whose towering city gates are of granite richly carved, and which stands in what is now Siamese territory. The Cambodians seem originally to have I See Vol. VII. No. 3. (1898) of the Journal of the Maha-bodhi Society, which has recently been founded to make known to all nations the sublime teachings of the Buddha.' 2 Like the Hindus further north the Dravidians were divided into a great many small kingdoms. 1 23 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Siam. Burmah. been Serpent-Worshippers, but gradually they were converted to Buddhism, though, according to Dr Fergusson, their chief temples were not originally erected for the service of Buddha. Their empire is said, when at the height of its power, to have had twenty vassal kings, an army of over five millions, with seventy thousand war elephants, and an inex- haustible treasure.¹ The Siamese came originally from the north and followed the course of the Meinam, on whose banks they built the successive capitals of their kingdom, each one further south than the last. Thus they were constantly encroaching on Cambodian territory, and for a long time they were tributary to its monarchs, but in the sixth or seventh century after Christ, Arunnaret, becoming king of the Siamese city of Satxanalai as Phra Ruang, is said to have made Siam independent; most of its people had by this time become Buddhists. Their southward migrations continued unchecked, and by 1160 A.D., when Malay colonists founded Singapore, some of them had reached the south end of the Malay Peninsula. 2 From the earliest times there was considerable inter- course between India and Burmah, and the Burmese civilisation was in consequence greatly influenced by that of the Hindus. Pegu, one of the oldest towns which still exist 3 in Burmah, and for several centuries the capital of the Empire, was founded about 573 A.D. About a century before this time missionaries from Ceylon had firmly established Buddhism among the Burmese, and there were Indian teachers earlier still, Thaton, a very ancient city between the estuaries of the Tsitang and the Salwin having been one of the chief centres of a mission sent by Asoka himself. ¹ Archdeacon Gray (of Hong Kong), Journey Round the World. 2 Phra is a Siamese word which originally meant God, and afterwards, from exaggerated notions of respect, was applied to the king. 3 The Burmese have a curious habit of abandoning old cities and founding new ones to take their places. 24 THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM The East Indian Islands were settled at a very early Malay Archi- period by Malays, who now form the bulk of the pelago. population, though they have not exterminated the aborigines. The origin of the Malays is extremely obscure. They differ very much among themselves, some of them being mere savages, while the majority are fairly advanced in civilisation. From the fourth century after Christ, Hindu adventurers, in constantly- increasing numbers, crossed to Java and Sumatra and founded numerous small kingdoms (for political unity never was characteristic of the Hindu civilisation), which, as in India itself, were constantly changing. The most important of them seems to have been Madjapahit in Java, which, however, was not founded till about 1300 A.D. During the sixth and seventh centuries Buddhist missionaries kept arriving from India, and Buddhism gradually became the prevalent religion in the Hindu kingdoms, and spread to a certain extent among the other islands. Huge and magnificent ruins still testify to the wealth and re- finement of these kingdoms, the chief one being the Bara Budur (or Boro Buddor), a great temple in Java, whose sculptures show a curious mixture of Buddhist and Brahman subjects. Celebes and Borneo seem to have been inhabited merely by tribes up to the time of the introduction of Islam. Some of them, however, advanced to a primitive civilisation, building in stone or coral, and recognising the authority of kings, who often ruled over considerable tracts of country. A few of the tribes, the Minahassers of North Celebes for instance, had very elaborate mythologies.¹ While the missions of the Southern Church were Buddhism in spreading Buddhism through the tropical regions of Central Asia. Asia, and among the islands of the sea, a less pure form of the same faith was being propagated in ¹ For a full account of the mythology of the Minahassers, see Hickson's Naturalist in North Celebes. 25 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Tibet. Central and Eastern Asia by the Northern Church. The earliest monuments of any fixed civilisation throughout Central Asia are Buddhist, but the in- troduction of Buddhism does not appear at any time to have done much to curb the natural violence of its restless inhabitants. In Tibet, the numerous tribes were first brought under one government by Seger-Sandilutu-Kagan- Tul-Esen about 310 B.C., and it was during his reign that Buddhism was introduced. One of his successors in 630 A.D. founded Lassa (see p. 62), and introduced what is now known as the Tibetan alphabet. Other countries of Central Asia, however, remained divided among nomad tribes, and Tibet itself was afterwards partitioned. 26 1 CHAPTER V THE HAN DYNASTY IN CHINA AND CONTEMPORARY EVENTS IN CENTRAL ASIA AND INDIA Kaotsou founds the Han Dynasty-The Huns-The Su Tatars overthrow the Greek Kingdom of Bactria-Scythians in India -Kanishka, King of Kashmir-Vouti-Hoty-The Sienpi. THE dynasty founded by the wall-builder in China Han Dynasty. did not last long. Only about ten years after his (202 B.C.-190 death the Empire was again split up, and anarchy naturally ensued, but order was soon restored by Kaotsou, who, in 202 B.C., seized the throne and founded the Han Dynasty. Under his care the roads were repaired, trade was encouraged, and the Empire was thoroughly reorganised. The capital was fixed at Loyang, later on at Si-ngan-fu, and a magnificent palace was built. But this prosperity was not destined to be long-lived. Meanwhile, among the Hiongnou Tatars-the The Huns. ancestors of the Huns-a chief named Mehe, after obtaining the sovereignty by the murder of his father, Teuman, had united several tribes under his authority, welded them into an empire, and taken the title of Tanjoo, Son of Heaven.' He soon invaded China with considerable success, for its Emperor himself was taken prisoner, had to conclude a most ignominious peace with his barbarian captor, and a little later even to give him his own daughter in marriage. While thus hard pressed by ever-encroaching tribes from without, the Chinese Empire was torn by discord and disturbed by constant revolts within. At length 27 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 162 B.C. Kingdom of Bactria. I the southern provinces split off altogether, and became for a while independent. A series of rather weak Emperors followed, and for some years the country was ruled by an Empress-Regent named Liuchi. The aggressive Hiongnou or Huns were all the time extending their power, and when hard pressed by them the Yuchi or Su tribes of Tatars, who occupied Koko Nor and the surrounding districts, turned to the Empire for succour. A small force of about a hundred men was all that could be sent, and so nothing whatever was done. The baffled Su turned westward and overthrew the Greek kingdom of Bactria. This state had been founded, not very long after the time of Alexander the Great, by Theodotus or Diodotus, who, about 255 B.C., successfully revolted against the Seleucidæ 2 and took the title of King. His son, another Diodotus, made an alliance with Tiridates (Arsaces II.), the Parthian King, and pro- bably helped him to make his country independent of Syria. Under the warlike monarchs, Eucratides, a military usurper, and Menander, the greatest of the Bactrian kings, who made conquests in Northern India, the borders of Bactria had been greatly ex- tended, and the whole of its territory now fell into the hands of the invaders. The triumphant Su then divided, some of them, remaining in Bactria, set up the kingdom of Indo-Scythia (p. 58), while others, too Indo-Scythia. restless to wish to settle down, joined other Scythian (Circ. 130 B.C.) hordes which were pouring over the valleys of the Indus and the Ganges, no Hindu ruler being able, apparently, to offer any effectual resistance. Kingdom of Several Scythian kingdoms 3 were thus established in north, and especially in north-west India, and one of their kings, Gondaphorus, is said, by a very ancient I The form Diodotus appears on his own coins. 2 Successors of Seleucus Nicator. 3 An attempt has been made to prove that even Buddha himself was really of Scythian extraction. 28 THE HAN DYNASTY IN CHINA I legend, to have received the Apostle St Thomas ¹; in any case Christianity was probably introduced among the Scythians in the west of India not very long after the death of Christ, and the ancient Malabar Church claims St Thomas as its founder. IO Of the Scythian conquerors by far the greatest was Kanishka. Kanishka. His father, Huvishka, had originally been (Came to his throne, circ. King of Kabul, but, driven out from his kingdom 10 A.D.) about the time of the birth of Christ, he had won for himself a new empire in Kashmir,2 which was rapidly extended, and Kanishka ruled over a greater extent of country than any Indian ruler between Asoka and the Moguls, the whole district between Agra and Yarkand acknowledging his sway. The country further south was in the hands of the Andra Dynasty, which had begun to rule about 30 B.C. Little is known of it except that its monarchs were zealous Buddhists, and that for several centuries Brahmanism was completely eclipsed. India was thus practically a Buddhist country when, about 40 A.D., Kanishka called a council which Kanishka's drew up commentaries forming materials for the canon Council. (Circ. 40 A.D.) of the Northern Church (the Mahayana or Greater Vehicle ³); but his council is not recognised by the Southern Church, and the two rival forms of Buddhism in northern India seem to have done much to help Hinduism to recover its lost ground. Kanishka's empire was dissolved on his death, as usually happened in those times. The princes among whom it was partitioned mostly favoured Hinduism, but at the beginning of the second century there was another King of Kashmir, Megha-vehana, who conquered (104-144 A.D.) much of the Ganges valley and favoured Buddhism. 3 I The legend is given at considerable length in Dr Salmon's Intro- duction to the New Testament. 2 Kashmir had from very early times been the seat of a Hindu king- dom, the annals of which are recorded in the Raja Tarangini, an ancient metrical history. 3 So called in contrast with the Little Vehicle, or Canon of the Southern Church, on account of its greater liberality of sentiment. 29 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Fall of the doms. The vast Scythian hordes were never expelled from Scythian King- north India, but their power was broken at the battle of Korûr, during the early part of the sixth century, by a King of Ujjain, named Vikramaditya, and they seem to have been gradually absorbed into the mass of the population. Vikramaditya was a restorer of Brahmanism, and he did much to promote the worship. of Siva and Vishnu; his liberal patronage of literature and art made his name famous throughout India. His successor, Siladitya,' however, seems to have returned to Buddhism. Obscure Indian Dynasties. Vouti. The period of Indian history from the overthrow of the Scythians to the invasion of the Moslems is very obscure. Three Hindu dynasties-the Gahs, the Guptas and the Velabhis-appear to have been more important than the rest, but comparatively little is known of them. The Gahs had their power in the neighbourhood of Bombay, and it does not seem to have been at any time very extensive; the Guptas, ruling in Magadha, inherited the Buddhist traditions of the Mauryas, and seem to have extended their rule for a considerable distance on all sides; the Velabhis held Malwa and some surrounding districts. Meanwhile, the Tatars on the Chinese frontier had (140-86 B.C.) been as usual in a state of commotion and civil war. After a time the Han rulers of the Empire carried on war against them with greater success, and the re- nowned Emperor Vouti, who reigned fifty-four years, considerably extended the frontiers of the empire. Many of the Tatars (including the Huns) submitted to him, and the Chinese sway was acknowledged (at least according to Chinese historians) by all the tribes up to the Caspian Sea. During the childhood of Christ, China was ruled by I Not to be confounded with another Siladitya, also a Buddhist, whose reign is described by Hwen Tsang (see p. 55). Of course these events. in India happened subsequently to the fall of the Han Dynasty of China, but this seemed the most convenient place to relate them. 30 THE HAN DYNASTY IN CHINA several weak emperors and by a famous usurper called Wang Mang, whom the Tatars refused to Wang Mang. recognise, and who was eventually defeated in battle (6-23 a.d.) and slain. On the restoration of the Han Dynasty the capital was moved from Si-ngan-fu to Loyang, from which circumstance the Han Emperors before the usurper are often called Western Hans, and those after him Eastern Hans. Constant civil wars still disturbed the Empire and caused subject nations to revolt. Among the rest the Giao-chi of Annam, who, as we Annam. have seen (p. 12) had been conquered by the wall- builder, rose in arms, and under a strong-minded woman named Chingtse, whom they made their queen, they expelled the Chinese troops. They were subjugated, after a spirited resistance, by Mayuen, a Chinese general, who was afterwards employed against the Sienpi (a people who seem to have originated in the western part of Liao-Tung), and various other Tatar tribes. The Emperor Mingti, guided by a dream, sent to (58-76 A.D.) India in 62 A.D. to fetch the sacred books of Buddhism, some of whose missionaries had long before penetrated Introduction of into China. The books, accompanied by a supply of Buddhism. relics, duly came, and thus strengthened by Court support, the religion rapidly spread among the people. the Roman In Central Asia the Empire was extended by a Central Asia. general called Panchow, who led a Chinese army to Panchow and the shore of the Caspian and even meditated crossing Empire. it. He is said to have opened negotiations of some sort with the Great Thsin, as the Chinese called the Roman Empire, which at that time extended to the western shores of the Caspian. Hoty, succeeding in Hoty. 89 A.D., had some intercourse with the west, and, (89-106 a.d.) whether or not in consequence of this, it seems to have been in his reign that eunuchs in the palace first became influential. It is probable that they had existed from the first. About this time a war broke out between the Huns and the Sienpi, in which the latter 31 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 93 A.D. Break-up of the Hans. were victorious. The Huns got split up; some of them, joining the Sienpi, made war on China and were defeated, while others fled to the west, and a part of them eventually (374 A.D.) reached Europe, and in the next century, under their great king, Attila, took a share in the destruction of the Roman Empire. The last Han emperors were very weak, and re- bellions breaking out on all sides, the Empire was once more partitioned. Szechuan was held by a feeble dynasty known as the Later Hans, the other southern provinces became the kingdom of Ou, while Loyang became the capital of a new kingdom of Wei. 32 ! CHAPTER VI EARLY HISTORY OF COREA Chosen-Foundation of Kokorai, Hiaksai and Shinra-Buddhism introduced AMONG other vassal states to take advantage of this weakness of the Empire, and to repudiate their allegiance to it, was Kokorai, one of the three king- doms which foreign immigrants had planted in the Corean peninsula, and which eventually asserted its rule over the whole territory, absorbing numerous small principalities. Chosen (Morning Calm'), the state founded, as has been mentioned (p. 9), by Ki Tsze, included the Liao-Tung peninsula as well as the adjacent parts of Corea. It had had constant wars with Yen,¹ one of the Chinese kingdoms founded on the death of the wall-builder, and later on had been annexed to the Empire. In very early days, according to Chinese tradition, The Three there existed near the site of Kirin, in what is now Kingdoms. the north of Manchuria, a highly-civilised state whose people lived in walled cities and worshipped Heaven like the Chinese themselves. Emigrants from it, wandering to the south, founded a new State in Corea called (from its first king, Ko) Kokorai. It became Kokorai. tributary to China, but from about 70 A.D. (when in the west Jerusalem was being besieged by Titus) its people became aggressive and conquered the whole ¹ These wars are fully described in Dr Ross's History of Corea, a book compiled almost entirely from Chinese sources. C 33 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA north of Corea and: Liao-Tung, thus putting an end to the independent existence of Chosen. This natur- ally caused the Chinese to send a force up the Yalu, by which Kokorai was completely subdued and its king had to take refuge in flight. On the over- (Circ. 200 A.D.) throw of the Han Dynasty, however, it not only became independent again but vigorously attacked its neighbours, and in the fifth century its armies pene- (580-617 A.D.) trated nearly to Peking. The Emperors of the Suy Dynasty afterwards made great efforts to subdue the country, but in vain (p. 41). Hiaksai. Introduction of and Buddhism. Another of the three Corean Kingdoms was founded by a prince named Kijun, who had been driven from the throne of Chosen, and it became known as Hiak- sai, a name that had originally belonged to a small clan which formed the nucleus of the new state. (The modern Corean name for Hiaksai is Baiji.) · The third kingdom, Shinra (Sinlo), which occupied the southern part of the Corean peninsula, was settled by Chinese refugees forced to fly from their homes during the troubles that followed the death of the wall-builder. It soon became the most civilised part of the peninsula. I In the early part of the fourth century Confucian- Confucianism ism was introduced into Hiaksai, and later in the century Tibetan missionaries ¹ brought Buddhism into the same state, Marananda, one of the chief of them, arriving in 384 A.D. From Hiaksai both systems spread over Corea and Japan.² I There is still a Corean proverb as muddy as a Tibetan road,' evidently a reminiscence of these missionaries. If the Tibetan roads are really worse than those of Corea they must be muddy indeed. 2 Chinese and Japanese have never found much difficulty in holding two faiths at the same time, even when they were more or less antagon- istic. Christian missionaries in China complain that their people never can be made to see that two dogmas may mutually exclude one another. To this day Buddhist sermons in Japan itself are chiefly exhortations on Confucian ethics. 34 CHAPTER VII EARLY HISTORY OF JAPAN Divine Age-Legends-Early Mikados-Queen Jingo's Invasion of Corea-The Emperor Nintoku-Buddhism introduced- Early Chronicles. THE island-empire of Japan is in many respects the most remarkable country of all Asia of all Asia ; no other nation of anything like equal importance has kept, on the whole, so isolated from the rest of the world. The ancestors of the Japanese must have settled the archipelago by successive swarms from the south, the aborigines being gradually driven to the north, where, in Yezo, a considerable number of them yet remain the Ainos. The present Japanese race was undoubtedly developed in the country, for there is nothing like it elsewhere, and it possesses many qualities unknown in any other part of Asia, an intense patriotism being the most conspicuous of them. Of what races the original immigrants must have been can only be conjectured. Malays and Chinese seem to have been among them. According to its own annals, the Japanese Empire was for long ages ruled by the gods, but in 660 B.C. 660 B.C. a mortal named Jimmu became the first Mikado or Emperor, and the dynasty which he founded has lasted to the present day, the reigning Emperor being the 122nd of the line. The accounts of the early Mikados must, however, be largely mythical, several of them being stated to have lived more than a century; but from the time of the introduction of writing from China in 284 A.D. their reigns become 284 a.D. quite moderate in length. The Japanese islands are fabled to have been 35 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Shintoism. created by the heavenly pair, Izanagi and Izanami, acting under directions from the gods; the first part formed was Awaji and some smaller islands in its neighbourhood, at the east end of the Inland Sea. Their method of creation was to plunge their spears into the sea, then to drag them up again so that parts of the bottom came up and remained above the surface of the water, thus becoming islands. Some of the legends about the divine age are very curious, especially those connected with the Sun- Goddess, whose children the Mikados were and who was by far the most popular of the numerous deities. On one occasion, disgusted with all her companions, she shut herself up in a dark cave and was only got out by a stratagem with the utmost difficulty. There gradually grew up an indigenous religion called Shintoism, a sort of mixture of nature-worship and ancestor-worship, affirming the divinity of the Mikado. It has no code of morals at all, the Japanese professing to believe that a virtuous people do not require one. Its temples are numerous and very simple in style, though always picturesque ; sacred animals, generally white ponies, are kept in the larger ones. There are no idols. Even in the earliest times the government was feudal. The Japanese were ever warlike, and the tribal chief gradually and naturally developed into the feudal baron or (as he was afterwards called) daimio. Culture, and almost everything belonging to peace- ful civilisation, was introduced from the Continent, largely, if not entirely, by the Buddhist missionaries. A total absence of bigotry and an eager desire to appropriate what is best from the institutions of other I I On this account the attendants at Shinto temples will sometimes seek to enlist the sympathy of English visitors for themselves against the Buddhists. My guide at the Osuwa Temple, Nagasaki, was careful to explain to me that the sanctuary had 'nothing in it, all same English Church. Most of the more important Shinto temples are now adorned by shells, etc., captured from the Chinese during the recent war. 36 EARLY HISTORY OF JAPAN peoples has from the earliest times been one of the non-Asiatic characteristics of the Japanese. Jimmu, the first mortal emperor, was the leader of 660 B.C. an invasion from the mountains of Kiusiu to the Main Island, of which he conquered a part, and fixed his capital in Yamato. Each succeeding emperor chose a new capital, until, in 709 A.D., Nara¹ became the first 709 A.D. permanent metropolis of the country. In those early days the capital meant no more than the residence of the sovereign. The palaces were merely wooden build- ings with thatched roofs, and their form is to a certain extent still preserved in the Shinto temples of to-day. The eleventh emperor, Suinin, was on the throne at the time of the birth of Christ. His reign was dis- turbed by a short civil war, and it was he who abolished the custom which the Japanese had had in common with the Scythians and several other nations of antiquity, besides savage tribes at the present day, of putting to death their chief attendants and horses on the decease of royal princes, images of clay being henceforth buried with the illustrious dead instead of live human beings. The Empire was constantly being extended towards the north-east. Prince Yamato-dake, about whom legends are told very similar to those of the heroic ages of other peoples, penetrated to the site of Tokyo in one of his expeditions against the aborigines, but as he died before his father he was never emperor. Rebels in Kiusiu, probably of Corean extraction, gave constant trouble, and the Emperor Chuai, in order to act against them more effectively, actually fixed his capital in that island. His wife was the Empress Jingo-Kogo, famous for her invasion of Corea, which she Jingo's Inva- carried out after his death. Her forces landed in the terri- sion of Corea. I Nara is a beautiful city standing at the edge of a small plain under thickly-wooded hills, and adjoining an unenclosed park with lovely avenues of ancient conifers and picturesque temples, all of timber. One of them contains a bronze Buddha, fifty feet high, cast in the eighth century, and the largest in Japan. Large herds of tame deer wander about everywhere unmolested. 202 A.D. 37 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 284 A.D. 313 A.D. 1 tory of Shinra and found the Coreans quite unprepared, so that all the three kingdoms submitted quietly and paid tribute. Japan learned something of civilisation from Corea, and taught her something of the art of war. Soon after her return, the Empress gave birth to a son, who afterwards ascended the throne under the title of Ojin, and became the Japanese God of War, appropriated by the Buddhists as Hachiman, or the eight-bannered Buddha. It was during his reign that tribute-bearing envoys from Corea brought Chinese writing and literature into Japan. Chinese scholars were employed to teach his son, who afterwards became the Emperor Nintoku, with excellent results, and the taste for learning rapidly spread. Public records were now kept for the first time, and conse- quently the history becomes a good deal more reliable. Nintoku, when he came to the throne, proved him- self in every way an admirable Emperor, and greatly endeared himself to his subjects. On one occasion, according to a beautiful legend, he noticed, when looking over a plain from the hills, that no smoke was rising from the cottages, and, on inquiring the cause, he learned that the people were so heavily taxed that they could not even afford fuel. He promptly re- mitted all taxes for three years, with the result that the palace itself became dilapidated and he had to go about in ragged clothes; but at the end of the time the country recovered, the people voluntarily repaired the palace and paid their taxes. On ascending the same hill at the end of the time, the Emperor was delighted to see well-cultivated fields, and smoke curling up from the cottages. The official records of these early Emperors are ex- ceedingly meagre; occasionally there were disputed successions to the throne, sometimes the people were oppressed. The tributary kingdoms of Corea, on more than one occasion, repudiated their allegiance, but they were always without much difficulty resubdued. 38 EARLY HISTORY OF JAPAN Japan. During the reign of Kimmei Tenno, Buddhism was (540-571 A.D.) introduced into Japan from Corea. An epidemic Buddhism in breaking out at the time, and being attributed to the presence of the new gods, delayed the spread of the religion for a time; but in the next reign a priest with some companions came over, temples were built, and a foreign faith obtained a firm footing. The hostility of those in the Court who clung to the old religion was, however, aroused, and a civil war broke out, in which Moriya, the champion of Shintoism, was de- feated and slain; Umako the champion of Buddhism, consequently held undisputed sway, and temples and monasteries were rapidly increased. The chief bene- factor to Japanese Buddhism was Shotoku Taishi, a royal prince who practically managed the government of the country for nearly thirty years, and who, besides his religious reforms, gave a great impetus to learning. Soon after his death, officials called 'Sosho' and 'Sozu' were appointed as superintendents of the Buddhist communities. Weaving and sewing, with other industries, were introduced about the same time as Buddhism, and a little later the Chinese calendar was adopted. Thus a Chinese civilisation and an Indian religion were firmly planted in Japan, and both together, modified and developed on a new soil, gradually moulded the present Japanese nation. In the reign of Tenji (r. 668-671 A.D.) public schools were first started, and in that of Mommu (r. 697-707) a university was founded with depart- ments of literature, medicine and astronomy. Early in the eighth century, the first two Japanese histories, the Kojiki, or Record of Ancient Things, and the Nihongi, or Chronicles of Japan, were compiled. The former is simply a collection of ancient traditions committed to writing lest they should be lost, and has little or no literary style; the latter, published only eight years later, shows strong Chinese influence. 39 CHAPTER VIII THE TANG DYNASTY OF CHINA Small Dynasties-Kaotsou, Founder of the Tang Dynasty-Tait- song-The Tibetans-The Moslems-Council of Ephesus- The Nestorians-The Empress Wou-The Parsees-War with Japan-The Khitans-Rebellions-The 'Five Dynasties.' MEANWHILE China, partitioned after the fall of the Han Dynasty, was convulsed with wars. The period (265-290 A.D.) of the Three Kingdoms' (p. 32), as it was called, 402 A.D. I 2 ended when Vouti, whose father had taken a con- siderable part in the wars, seized the throne and founded the western Tsin Dynasty. A bridge was thrown across the Yellow River, a magnificent undertaking which had before been considered impos- sible, but the Empire was in a state of confusion, and the Sienpi, having relieved themselves of the presence of the Huns, were making serious encroachments on the north. Some of the Tatars of Central Asia, under the leadership of an ex-Chinese governor, who took the title of Prince of Han, set up a powerful kingdom, which, with many vicissitudes, lasted for about eight centuries. The Juju Tatars also appeared to threaten the Empire on the north-west, and in 402 their chief, Chelun, assumed the title of Kohan or Khakhan I Several emperors took this title, probably from its having been borne by the great Han Emperor who for a time broke the power of the Tatars. Similarly the founders of the Han and Tang Dynasties bore the same title, Kaotsou. 2 All traces of this structure have unfortunately disappeared, and the Yellow River has now to be crossed by means of very ancient and dilapi- dated ferry-boats-a work of danger and difficulty. 1 40 THE TANG DYNASTY OF CHINA (Grand Khan), which was afterwards appropriated by the Mongols. The eastern Tsin, Song, Tsi, Leang and Chin Dynasties, which, after the fall of the western Tsin Dynasty, rapidly followed one another on the Imperial Throne, were exceedingly feeble. Another Vouti, the founder of the Leang Dynasty, reigned nearly fifty years, and was a strong Buddhist, spending much of his time in monasteries. He tried the experiment of abolishing capital punishment, but was very soon forced to restore it; he seems to have done what he could to promote the happiness of his people, but his rule was not too vigorous, and it never extended over the whole empire. When, however, Kaotsou Wenti, originally a vice- (580-601.) roy in the north, founded the Suy Dynasty, the dignity of the Empire was in some measure reasserted, although two expensive expeditions which he de- spatched to subdue Kokorai were badly defeated. (605-617.) A few years later the Emperor Yangti was murdered because he insisted on wasting the resources of the Empire on these fruitless attempts to extend it (p. 34). It was during his reign, however, that the Loo Choo islands were definitely made tributary, and he did much for education, restoring the public schools which had been closed by his father and predecessor, and instituting the degree of doctor, still the highest granted at the competitive examinations. The magnificent palace which Yangti had built at his capital, Loyang, was destroyed by Kaotsou, the (618-627.) founder of the great Tang Dynasty, which was to raise China to as high a pitch of prosperity as she had ever before enjoyed after two or three centuries of decay and general wretchedness. Si-ngan-fu again became the capital. The wars which were necessary to pacify the country and its dependencies were undertaken by one of Kaotsou's sons, named Lichimin, who, at the end of them, was magnificently fêted at 4I A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA (627-650.) Tibet. 634. Kokorai. Christianity and Islam. 628. the capital. Taxes were reduced, there was a general amnesty, and the Empire once more, after its long years of anarchy, enjoyed internal peace. Lichimin succeeded his father under the throne- name of Taitsong, and besides the title of Emperor of China he took that of Khan of the Tatars, thus, practically for the first time, claiming overlordship of the tribes of Central Asia. It is comparatively easy to take a title, but to get it acknowledged is quite another matter, and though Taitsong was one of the greatest rulers China has ever had, the frontier tribes were still a constant source of trouble, being too numerous and too unsettled ever to be effectually subdued, and too high-spirited to recognise a foreigner as their suzerain. The The Tibetans, however, were defeated in a war, and their ruler, in 634 A.D., sent envoys bearing tribute, and became a vassal to the Emperor, marrying a Chinese princess. About the same time Kashgaria was brought under direct Chinese administration. Kokorai, nevertheless, under a usurper who had murdered its king, repudiated its allegiance to China altogether, and the Emperor, marching against it in person, had only a certain measure of success, failing to capture the important town of Anchoo, a repulse which greatly preyed on his mind and cast a gloom over his declining years. About this time Christian missionaries in the country began to attract attention, and it was also during Taitsong's reign that Mohammedanism was first introduced. For a long time the Arabs had carried on trade by sea, not only with India, but also with the whole south coast of Asia as far as Canton. According to a tradition (and there seems no special reason to discredit it), Wang-ke-che, probably Wahb abu Kabcha, an uncle of the Prophet himself, came to Canton to preach in 628 A.D., and, visiting the Emperor at Si-ngan-fu, got leave to spread his faith. 42 THE TANG DYNASTY OF CHINA Before the end of the century there was a mosque in Canton, and by 742 there was another in Si-ngan-fu itself. Later on another stream of Islam flowed into China across Central Asia. I Nestorian The introduction of Christianity was owing to Council of a schism in the Church, the circumstances of which Ephesus, 431. it may be interesting to recall, though it does not Missions. strictly fall within the scope of the present sketch. In the year 431 the Third General Council was sitting at Ephesus. The chief business before the assembly was the case of Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, who, after beginning his episcopate as a staunchly orthodox churchman, declaring to the Emperor that if he would clear the Empire of heretics he could promise him success in war, had, in the opinion of St Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria, himself lapsed into heresy. The point on which he erred concerned the person of Christ. He had objected to the expression Theotokos' applied to the Blessed Virgin, on the ground that she was in no sense Mother of God, but only mother of a man with whom the Son of God was connected; later on he had accepted the word as she was mother of Christ, and there is but one Son of God. Cyril, however, refused to accept the compromise-he was anxious for a controversy-and the Council of Ephesus was summoned. Bringing a crowd of Egyptian monks, famed at that time throughout the Mediterranean for their warlike qualities quite as much as for their piety and learning, Cyril opened the Council before John, Patriarch of Antioch, could arrive, in spite of the protests of Nestorius and his friends. Amid violent scenes the Patriarch of Constantinople was con- demned and deposed. A few days later John arrived, and finding Cyril absolutely unwilling to re-open the I The substance of this account is taken from Prof. Gwatkin's Lectures on Early Church History. 43 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA The Nestorian Tablet. 781. question, he held a rival council, which was attended by Nestorius and his partisans. Cyril was himself deposed, and for some weeks the rival councils were sitting together and anathematising each other. The Roman Emperor at first tried to ratify both, but when the impossibility of his doing so was pointed out to him a compromise was arranged. Cyril was allowed to retain his office, and he made his peace with John. Nestorius remained deposed, and was branded heretic, the bishops who adhered to him being persecuted. Such was the cause of the first preaching of the Gospel in China,' for the Nestorians, driven out of the Catholic Church, turned to the East, and carried on a magnificent missionary work, covering a large part of Asia with their stations. The history of their Church is unfortunately very obscure, hardly a trace of it having survived to the present day east of Persia. Most of the missionaries must have been monks, and their stations gradually spread eastwards; they seem to have first arrived in China rather less than a century after the Council. In doctrine they differed from the rest of the Church only in making too clear a distinction between the divine and human natures in the person of Christ; their ritual and services probably differed little from those of the Eastern Church at the present day. In 551 Nestorian monks brought the silkworm from China to Constantinople. Their metropolitan see for Central Asia seems to have had its seat at Samarcand, the old capital of Sogdiana, a city that had risen on the ruins of a very ancient town, Marcanda, destroyed by Alexander the Great. Near the Tang capital of China, Si-ngan-fu, stands Though in the Malabar Breviary St Thomas himself is fabled to have reached China. It was to the Nestorians of Persia and the adjacent parts of Turkey- in-Asia that our own 'Archbishop's Mission to the Assyrian Christians' was sent. 44 THE TANG DYNASTY OF CHINA I C the famous Nestorian Tablet, a slab of stone about eight feet high, three and a half feet wide, and eight inches thick, similar to those generally found in all the larger temples. Its top is carved with sphinx-like animals and a little human head, under which is a cross; the rest is occupied by the inscription, which is very long. It begins, Behold the unchangeably true and invisible,' and after some sentences about God, the Creation, Fall, Redemption, Baptism, etc., it states that a priest named Olupun came from Syria and was well received by the Emperor Taitsong, who, in a guarded way, recommended Christianity, and ordered a church to be built in the capital. Kaotsong, his successor, had more churches built, and one subsequent Emperor even had Christian services performed in his palace. A priest, Issu, apparently a Buddhist, was a great benefactor, 'even among the most pure and self- denying of the Buddhists such excellence was never heard of. The tablet is dated 781, and signed by 'Adam, Deacon, Vicar-episcopal and Pope of China' in Syriac, the names of a great many priests and other Church officials being appended. Near it are several Christian fonts, but no other remains of the Nestorian Church are known to exist in China. Taitsong was himself a strong Confucian, but he was evidently extremely tolerant in matters of religion. His son, Kaotsong, succeeded him, and married one (50-684.) of his father's concubines, the Empress Wou, who The Empress soon usurped all authority and showed herself in every Wou. way a capable ruler. Some of the Tatars of Central Foreign Rela- Asia were defeated, and Chinese authority was ex- tions. tended; but the Tibetans, under a young and warlike king, gained considerable advantages over the Imperial troops sent against them. The Persians, hard pressed by the Saracens, then in the zeal of their first con- version to Islam, asked help from China, but it was A full translation is given in Dr Williams's Middle Kingdom. In one place it states incidentally that Persians came to visit the Infant Christ. 45 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 670. defeated, 670. I refused, and they were unable permanently to resist the invaders. In Corea, Kokorai was conquered by a Chinese army, which captured the strongly-fortified city of Pingan. Hiaksai was also subdued for a time, but in 670 a Buddhist priest raised the flag of revolt, and much of the country was recovered. The heir to the throne, who was an exile in Japan, was sent back with troops and ships, and restored to his kingdom. This aroused the Chinese, and a force was sent which The Japanese conquered the country and inflicted a disastrous defeat on the Japanese, whose navy was burned. Hiaksai was completely desolated by the war, and most of its territory passed to Shinra, a state always more or less loyal to the Chinese, whose influence now became paramount throughout Corea. Many of the people of Hiaksai settled in Japan, where they did much to civilise the country, still very backward compared to China and Corea. Kaotsong received peaceful em- bassies from several states in India, and from the Arabs. After his death the Empress Wou continued to rule, and the prestige of the Empire was fully maintained. Though nominal emperors were set up, she offered the sacrifices to Heaven herself. The war with the Tibetans continued, and the Chinese were on the whole unsuc- cessful, failing to prevent their enemies annexing Poulin, or Little Tibet. Meanwhile, a new and formid- The Khitans. able power had arisen in north-eastern Asia in the shape of the Khitans, whose constantly-shifting empire stretched at its greatest extent from Lake Baikal to the Pacific. By these brave Tatars the Chinese were constantly defeated. I The greater portion of the nation joined their conquerors and em- braced Islam, but those who clung to the ancient religion of Zoroaster mostly fled to India, which they reached about 720. They greatly prospered, and devoted themselves to trade, Bombay eventually becoming their chief headquarters. They are now known as Parsees, and com- pute their era from the fall of Yazdagird, the last monarch of the Sassanean Dynasty, overthrown by the Moslems. A few Zoroastrians, however, still remain in Persia. 46 THE TANG DYNASTY OF CHINA After the death of Wou,' the throne was occupied by several feeble rulers, and the dynasty decayed, rebellions breaking out and becoming more and more frequent. The Emperor Soutsong, who succeeded in 756, however, showed some vigour. His father had 756. abdicated in despair on the outbreak of a formidable revolt in the south, raised by an adventurer named Ganlochan, and when the young Emperor had re- covered the south, the insurgent leaders fled to the north, where the rebellion was kindled anew and rapidly spread. Taiyuen, the strongest fort of Shensi, was bravely defended by the Imperialists, cannons, or possibly only some sort of catapults, being used at the siege. The capital cities of Loyang and Si-ngan-fu themselves, however, fell into the hands of the insur- gents, and were only recovered with the help of Turkish and Arab mercenaries (for before this, as we shall presently see (p. 59), the Arabs had found their way to the Chinese frontiers across Central Asia), and eventually the rebellion was crushed by the foreign troops. The Government was, however, so weak that the Tibetans made an incursion, and even burned the capital, though they were eventually defeated by Kwo Tsey, a brave general who had done much to put down the rebellion in the north, and who is inci- dentally mentioned in the Nestorian Tablet erected in 781. the year of his death. But, in spite of some temporary successes, the Empire enjoyed no permanent repose. The eunuchs had secured almost complete control of the Court, and sometimes they even set up Emperors. One of their nominees ² persecuted the Christians and 2 ¹ A square pillar erected by the Empress still remains in the court of a ruined Buddhist temple at Yung Ching in the Metropolitan Province (Chihli). Wou herself is represented in rather low relief at the top of each side. The inscription is very long and mostly about the Buddhists, but it is unfortunately too much weather-worn to be satisfactorily made out. 2 Voutsong, or Wootsung, 841-847. I 47 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 907. Circ. 760. The Five Dynasties. (907-954.) I the Buddhists; a later one, however, reversed this policy and sent to India for a Buddhist relic. To- wards the end of the dynasty Arab trade greatly lan- guished, owing to the unsettled state of the country, and for a time the tottering throne of the Tangs was actually propped up by a Turkish chieftain named Likeyong. China was in a most pitiful state when, in 907, an ambitious general murdered the Emperor, and, after setting up and removing a puppet, founded the Later Leang Dynasty, taking the title Taitsou. The towns were ruined, the country was desolate, the capital was in ashes, national feeling was dead. On the whole, however, the Tang Dynasty had been a time of great prosperity. Literature had greatly flourished, and it received a powerful impulse when the Emperor Sout- song founded the Hanlin College, an institution corre- sponding to the French Academy, which still exists. The next half-century was a period of unexampled decay. Five miserable dynasties--the later Leang, the later Tang, the later Tsin, the later Han and the later Chow-rose and fell by a series of intrigues, murders and civil wars. One Emperor even acknow- ledged himself the vassal of the Khitan king, though the Khitans were afterwards defeated. These wretched Houses are called by the Chinese historians the Wu Tai, or Five Dynasties. It was during this period that the Moslems first attracted attention in China. Ytsong, or Etsung, 860-874. 48 CHAPTER IX UNITED COREA AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SHOGUNATE IN JAPAN Wangken becomes King of the Whole of Corea-Noble Families of Japan-Taira and Minamoto Clans-Taira no Kiyomori- Battle of Dannoura-Yoritomo becomes the First Shogun. DURING the fifty years that China was being misruled United Corea. by the Five Dynasties, Corea was united for the first time. Its three kingdoms had been constantly at war with one another-Shinra generally in alliance with China, and Hiaksai in alliance with Japan. These states had all been founded by foreigners, and the first impetus to national unity likewise came from beyond. the frontiers. At the opening of the eighth century there arose, in what is now Manchuria, the kingdom of Puhai, of which the capital was Kirin. It was on friendly terms with Japan, and defied with success the Tang rulers of China; but after existing for two centuries it was conquered by the Khitans, and many of its inhabit- ants fled to Corea. Among these was an ambitious Buddhist monk, who, in 912, raised an army, seized Kaichow, and got himself proclaimed king. He was murdered by Wangken, who had for a Wangken, time served under him, but who, being a member 912. of the old royal house of Kokorai, considered that he had a better right to be king than the upstart priest, and accordingly he seized the crown. At first Kaichow and Pingan were made the capitals of the new kingdom, but Shinra, having become hopelessly effeminate after many years of peace, and China being in no position to interfere in the affairs of D 49 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Corea, Wangken soon saw his way to establish his authority over the whole peninsula, and the capital of the united country was fixed at Kai Seng or Songdo, a beautiful city among the mountains, which still exists, though it ceased to be the metropolis in 1392. During the previous century, about five hundred years before the art was known in Europe, printing had been invented by the Chinese, and it was now introduced into Corea. Buddhism was formally established as the national religion, and the monasteries, most of them among the remote moun- tains of the interior, consequently increased both in numbers and wealth. Wu, the son and successor of the unifier of Corea, made an alliance with the Chinese. The new kingdom had originally included The Khitans. the Liao-Tung peninsula, but this was wrested from it by the Khitans, who, however, were kept on their own side of the Yalu, being driven back when they invaded Corea itself in 1015. Japan. 709. 794. Little is recorded in the early annals of Japan beyond the names of the emperors. The numerous immigrants from Corea were encouraged in every possible way, their taxes being entirely remitted for the first few years of their residence. Buddhism continued to spread rapidly, and it seems to have been largely owing to its influence in those early days that the Japanese people took to the vegetarian- ism which has characterised them for so many cen- turies. During the reign of the Empress Gemmyo the capital was permanently fixed at Nara, and in that of the Emperor Kwammu it was moved to Kyoto,¹ which continued to be the Mikado's residence till 1868. I I Kyoto stands close to a range of wooded hills, on the banks of the Kamo-Gawa, a broad, babbling stream. The streets are all at right angles to one another, and their arrangement is almost as regular as that of an American town; beautiful old temples and palaces make it on the whole the handsomest as well as the most interesting of Japanese towns. At the present time, however, foreign buildings in almost every street, including a railway station with a clock-tower, close to the 50 THE SHOGUNATE IN JAPAN Believing, as to a certain extent they still do, in the divine origin of their Emperors, the Japanese people have always had the greatest reverence for noble blood, and as early as the seventh century different powerful families began gradually to usurp all the highest offices in the state, completely overshadowing the Emperors, who were told that, as children of the gods, it was unseemly for them to mingle too much in the affairs of men. (Circ. 650- 1050.) One of the earliest of these families was the Fujiwara Fujiwara, which for about four hundred years-till Family. the middle of the eleventh century-held complete control of the government, and if any Emperor showed signs of independence it was suggested that he had better retire into a monastery. Their mon- opoly of all the high offices reached such a point that when Michizane, a member of a rival family (the Sugawara), became counsellor to the Emperor, and exerted an excellent influence at Court, he was promptly banished by the Fujiwara to Dazaifu, at that time the seat of government for Kiusiu, and the only port to which any foreign vessel ever came. Thus The earlier families practically confined themselves to civil offices. The constant wars naturally threw all authority into the hands of soldiers, for, though they had nothing whatever to fight about, the Japanese (like most other nations at that time) were perpetually quarrelling among themselves. there arose two great military families-the Taira Taira and and Minamoto clans-each of them sprung from an Minamoto Emperor. At first the Court sought to restrain them by playing one off against the other, but eventually their rivalry plunged the country into a bloody civil war, which brought untold sufferings on the people. middle of the city, and electric trams running down the ancient thoroughfares, have almost completely destroyed its Oriental character. It is curious to note the exactly similar position taken in history by the Buddhist monasteries of the East and the Christian ones of medieval Europe. Clans. 51 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Taira no Kiyomori. 1156. Islands. 1180. Yoritomo. + + A disputed succession to the Imperial Throne was the immediate cause of the first hostilities, which re- sulted in making Taira no Kiyomori dictator of Japan. All his opponents were banished, and one of them, The Loo Choo Tametamo, fled to the Riu Kiu (Loo Choo) Islands, and, waging a successful war against a rebel dynasty which had seized the throne, he became the ancestor of their later line of kings, who, like the rulers of Corea, had usually to pay tribute both to China and Japan. Tametamo's brother, Yoshitomo, though of the Minamoto clan, had supported Kiyomori, but, dis- gusted with the tyranny of his rule, he now took up arms against him. He was speedily overcome and murdered, with most of his relations, but his son, Yoritomo, then a boy, was spared, and one of his wives, named Tokiwa, saved herself and her children by giving herself up to Kiyomori. The youngest of the children, Yoshitsune, was brought up in a mon- astery, but at the age of sixteen, despite the protests of the monks, he left it to become a soldier. When Yoritomo was grown up he summoned the people to rise and dethrone the tyrant, but the few that ven- tured to respond to the call were easily defeated and dispersed, so that he became a fugitive. At Kama- kura, on the sea-coast, near the entrance to Yedo Bay, he collected his scattered forces, and a large town rapidly grew up there. Towards the end of Kiyomori's life clouds were gradually thickening round him, and after his death the cause of Yoritomo rapidly triumphed. When, however, his victory seemed complete his cousin Yoshinaka, who had reduced the capital in his interests, suddenly rose against him, and got himself made shogun or general. Yoritomo sent against him his half-brother, Yoshitsune, who, at a battle near Lake Biwa, was completely suc- cessful; the rebel, naturally ashamed of his defection, and not daring to expect any mercy, committed suicide. The defeated Tairas, with the reigning Emperor 1180. 52 THE SHOGUNATE IN JAPAN 1188. Antoku, a mere child, fled to Sikoku, and, on the approach of Yoshitsune, to Kiusiu. A battle was Battle of Dan- fought on the sea at Dannoura, near the Straits of noura. Shimonoseki, over a thousand junks taking part in the engagement. The Taira clan was completely defeated; a remnant only escaped, and fled to the mountains of Kiusiu. The victors put to death every prisoner that they took, and attempted to exterminate finally the Taira clan; fortunately for the new government, the boy - emperor himself had been drowned in the battle. Yoshitsune returned in triumph to Kamakura, but Yoritomo was so envious of his success that he would not even permit him to enter the city; indeed, he actually had to flee for his life, and after spending some time among the Ainos, he was assassinated. Yoritomo punished his murderers, but it was probably only to save appearances.¹ The government was now entirely reorganised; Dual Govern- while each Emperor continued to live at Kyoto, ment. Yoritomo, as shogun, resided at Kamakura, and the real power was entirely in his hands, though he did nothing without the authority of the Mikado. The country was well governed, and, the first time for centuries, enjoyed internal peace. The fact that monks were absolutely forbidden to bear arms shows the influence they had gained among the people, and the turbulent habits they had acquired. Thus was established the dual government which so long man- aged the affairs of Japan; though the actual power was wielded entirely by the shoguns, the emperors remained throughout nominally supreme, and every- thing was done in their name. A Japanese writer, K. Suyematz by name, has, however, striven to prove that Yoshitsune fled to the mainland, acquired influence among the Mongol tribes, and was the same person as Genghis Khan. 53 CHAPTER X Mohammed. (570-632.) Spread of Islam. Decay of Buddhism. MOSLEM INVASIONS OF ASIA Decay of Buddhism-Chinese Pilgrims-Mahmud of Ghazni- Mohammed Ghori - The Slave Dynasty at Delhi- The Afghans Chinese Jews-Central Asia — Kotaiba — The Khalifate-The Turks. MEANWHILE, in Arabia, a new power had arisen, destined to exercise a tremendous influence over the affairs of Asia, An illiterate camel-driver had pro- claimed a new faith which has become the religion of many millions in three continents, and whose immediate effect was to spread the Arabs as conquerors over the surrounding countries, animated by a fiery zeal, which was in many cases communicated to the vanquished. We have seen that Islam was early introduced into China. There is no country¹ in Asia where it has not (or at any rate has not had) at least a few adherents, except Japan and Corea, though it has nowhere on the mainland, east of the Brahmapootra, become politically supreme. While it had been spreading elsewhere, Buddhism had long been decaying in India itself, and by the time of the Mohammedan conquests it had become weak and corrupt, not only in India, but over a considerable part of Central Asia as well. Two well-known Chinese Buddhist pilgrims have left accounts of the condition of Buddhism and of Brahmanism in (Circ. 400 A.D.) their days. Fa Hian, himself a monk, travelled at the end of the fourth and the beginning of the fifth centuries, and he found Buddhism vigorously flourish- ing, though, in most parts of India, Brahmanism. Except a few very insignificant little states, such as Bhutan. Fa Hian. ร 54 MOSLEM INVASIONS OF ASIA existed beside it. Hwen Tsang, travelling in the Hwen Tsang. seventh century, found the two religions still dividing (629-645.) the allegiance of the people between them, but by that time Buddhism was in a state of decay, and the Hindu Temples were much more numerous than its own. At Kanyakubja (Kanauj) he found a Buddhist monarch, named Siladitya, ruling over a large part of India, who, about 634, summoned a council; but even this was not exclusively Buddhist, the Brahmans and Jains being also represented and arguing with their opponents. There were also controversies between the northern and southern Buddhists. Both pilgrims visited the site of Kapilavastu, then, as now, ruined and deserted. Thus, when the Moslems began to pour into India, Brahmanism, profoundly modified by its struggle with Buddhism, had almost recovered its old position, though, as we have seen (p. 18), there were other dissenters besides the Buddhists. India, 711. In 711 (the year that the Saracens, under Tarik, First Moslem crossed the Straits of Gibraltar into Europe, and, defeat- Invasion of ing Roderic, the last King of the Goths, firmly established Islam in Spain) Sind was conquered by some Arabs, under Mohammed Kasim, on behalf of Walid I., one of the Omiad Khalifs of Damascus. Kasim was tolerant and conciliatory, and there seemed every prospect of a strong Moslem state being founded; his successors, however, proved very inferior to him, and in 750 the Arabs were expelled from the country by a rising of the people. Before India was again seriously threatened by Mahmud of Mohammedans, the military ardour of the Saracens Ghazni. had passed to the Turks, and the next Moslem invader (997-1030.) of the country was the famous Mahmud of Ghazni, a Turk by extraction, who, succeeding to the throne of Afghanistan in 997, took the title of Sultan, the first Moslem ruler in Asia who did so, though the word is an ancient Arabic term for king. Two years 55 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1001. later, taking advantage of the death of Ilak Khan, the vigorous ruler of Bokhara, he added both that city and Samarcand to his dominions, thus putting an end to the Samani Dynasty, to which his father had owned allegiance. This House, Persian by race, had begun in 873 when Ismael Samani, a viceroy for the Abbassid Khalif, assumed the title of king, though he did not altogether repudiate his allegiance to the throne of Baghdad. Mahmud's father, Subuktigin, originally a slave, had been chosen by the nobles of Ghazni as their ruler, and under his able leadership the Ghazni- vides had made several incursions into India and forced the Punjab to become tributary to them. Mahmud himself was recognised as an independent ruler by the Khalif Al Kadir Billah, who sent him a robe of honour and urged him to invade India in the interests of Islam. Thus encouraged, he first entered the country in 1001, and taking prisoner Jaipal, the Rajah of Lahore, and defeating a new army raised by his son, Anandpal, he secured the frontier city of Peshawar, the possession of which enabled him to make many other expeditions into India. In one of them, marching through Gujarat, he reached the sea at Somnath, where he plundered the magnificent Temple of Siva, which at that time was probably the richest in all India. The territory he conquered was left in the hands of Mohammedan viceroys, and on the whole it was ruled well, industry and literature being fostered. At his own court of Ghazni, men of letters received every encouragement; among those who visited it was the famous Persian poet, Firdousi. The city itself, hardly more than an encampment when he came to the throne, was greatly extended and adorned with palaces, colleges and mosques of granite and marble. In 1030 Mahmud died and was buried in the These plundering expeditions across the border can hardly be said to have constituted an invasion. 56 MOSLEM INVASIONS OF ASIA I Ghori. suburbs of Ghazni, where a magnificent tomb was erected. The empire he founded lasted until 1152, 1152. when a native Afghan prince, Ala-ud-din of Ghor, overthrew Bahram, the last of the Turks of Ghazni, and even destroyed his capital. Bahram's son, Khusru, founded a new empire at Lahore, but it was quickly destroyed by Mohammed Ghori, the successor of Mohammed Ala-ud-din, who at the end of the twelfth century conquered most of northern India, playing off two rival Rajput kingdoms, Delhi and Kanyakubja (p. 55), against each other. These kingdoms, both of which had been conquered, but not definitely annexed, by Mahmud nearly two centuries before, were in a state of decay at the time; in earlier days they had ruled considerable territories, those of Kanyakubja having for a time included Nepal. During a subsequent campaign the Afghans sacked the sacred city of Benares itself, though all these successes were not gained without serious reverses. Thus, on the downfall of the Turks of Ghazni, the Afghans of Ghor succeeded to their power. The seat of his government being in The Slave Afghanistan, Mohammed appointed a favourite slave, Dynasty. Kutab-ud-din, who was also one of his generals, viceroy of his Indian possessions. This man's name was given to a huge red sandstone column which still exists, erected to commemorate the victory over the Rajputs. He afterwards proclaimed himself Sultan 1206. of Delhi, founding the Slave Dynasty, which lasted about a century, and asserted its authority over the greater part of Northern India. One of its monarchs was a queen named Rizia Begum, probably the only woman who ever bore rule over a Moslem state. She was not, however, allowed to finish her days in peace. A powerful Moslem kingdom was thus established with its capital in India. The new faith had obtained a firm foothold in the peninsula. The Afghans, who The Afghans. As early as the time of Buddha, Benares was regarded by the Hindus as their most sacred city. It was for centuries a stronghold of Buddhism. 57 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA had done so much to introduce it, claim, in some of their own records, to be descended from King Saul, and they are very proud of having accepted Islam at a Jews in China. very early date. That they really have any Hebrew blood in their veins is highly improbable, though, during the Captivity, five or six centuries before Christ, a colony of Jews may very well have passed through their territory, for the descendants of such a colony exist to this day at Kai-fung-fu in China, and believe that their fathers entered the country more than two millenniums ago. They are called by the Chinese 'Sinew-pickers' (See Genesis xxxii. 32), a name which they have now accepted for themselves, though their old name for their faith was 'Tienchu Kiau,' or the 'Religion of India,' from their route into China. They still have ancient Hebrew MSS. which they are unable to read, and owing to their extreme poverty the last remaining synagogue has been lately destroyed. The Moslems are making efforts to absorb them; they have no longer any bond of union, and they seem on the verge of extinction.¹ History of Afghanistan. Central Asia. 676. The whole of Afghanistan was at one time ruled by the Greek Kingdom of Bactria, and later on by its conquerors, the Su, some of whom, as we have seen (p. 28), set up the kingdom of Indo-Scythia there (that is in Sogdiana, on the frontiers of Afghanistan) about 130 B.C. The religion of these people was Buddhism, and their kingdom enjoyed great prosperity for many years; but by the time of Hwen Tsang it had been par- titioned among numerous Indian and Persian princes. In the tenth century, as we have seen, Afghanistan was reunited under the rule of the Ghaznivide Turks. The Moslem conquest of Central Asia had begun as early as 676, when a son of the Khalif Othman, who had been made Governor of Khorasan, marched against Samarcand, though a few years before the 1 An extremely interesting account of a visit to the Chinese Jews will be found in Dr Martin's Cycle of Cathay. 58 MOSLEM INVASIONS OF ASIA Arab army which reduced Khorasan itself had made a plundering expedition into Transoxiana, occupied at that time by wandering tribes of Turks. Of these Turks, the most important division was The Seljuks. the Ghuzz, whose power was afterwards consolidated. by Togrul Beg, grandson of Seljuk, who, in 1038, was 1038. proclaimed Sultan by the soldiers. Massud, the son of Mahmud of Ghazni, was driven from his throne, and the victorious Seljuks, turning westward, protected and overawed the Abbassid Khalifate, their Sultan being declared the temporal lieutenant of the Vicar of the Prophet. Their empire for many years continued to expand and Iconium became their capital. Togrul Beg was succeeded in 1063 by his nephew, the re- nowned Alp Arslan, who raised the Seljuk Turks to the highest pitch of greatness, subjugating the whole of Turkestan, and inflicting disastrous defeats on the Fatimites of Egypt and on the Byzantine Empire. On the death of his son, Malik Shah, however, in 1092, 1092. there was a disputed succession to the throne; the Empire of the Seljuks was partitioned and the Abbassid Khalifs recovered some shadow of independence. In the reign of the Khalif Walid I. (p. 55), Kotaiba Kotaiba. ibn Moslim, another Governor of Khorasan, conquered Central Asia up to the frontiers of China with wonderful thoroughness and speed. The Chinese, under the Tang Emperors, were quite unable to defend any portion of their Turkestan possessions; the different tribes were far too disorganised to offer any united resistance. Samarcand, which was entered in 712, came in time to be regarded as a sacred city by 712. the Moslems. As usually happened, the majority of the conquered peoples were converted by degrees to the religion of their conquerors: Kashgaria had become Mohammedan by the end of the tenth century. Kotaiba himself revolted against Walid's successor, Solaiman, and was murdered by his own troops. The Omiads had transferred the seat of the The Khalifate. 59 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA The Turks. I Khalifate from Medina to Damascus. When, in the middle of the eighth century, they gave place to the Abbassids, the capital was again moved to Baghdad, a new city on the Tigris, founded in 762 by the Khalif Abu Jaffar, surnamed Al Mansur, or the Victorious. The Arabs, as was inevitable, proved unable to retain the vast Empire their valour had won; the remoter parts gradually became independent, and numerous Moslem principalities, Turkish for the most part, sprang up. The most important of these in Central Asia were the Khanate of Bokhara (p. 56), and the kingdoms that succeeded one another in Afghanistan (pp. 56, 57). Islam, thus firmly planted in Central Asia by the sword as a political power, spread to the Pacific along the trade routes, and by means of peaceful immigra- tions as a missionary religion. It stopped, however, on the west of the Yalu. It is curious to speculate what would have happened if it had got further and obtained a footing in Japan, with whose warlike people it has so many characteristics in common. The name of Turk was originally a general term for those Tatars who had settled in Bokhara and the surrounding districts. Like the Huns before them, they were driven to leave their original homes in Central Asia and so to form settlements elsewhere, and eventually to thrust themselves into Europe itself, owing to their having been conquered by their neigh- bours. The warlike tribes that were subdued by the Arabs soon recovered their independence, and adopted the civilisation and the social customs, as well as the religion of their masters, who, when their military spirit was rapidly waning, employed Turkish troops in the body-guard of the Khalif. The result might have been foreseen; the rough soldiers completely got the upper hand in the state, and (like the Prætorians at Rome, only still more insolently) they set up and re- 1 Or rather Kufa, which Ali, the last of the elected Khalifs, had made his capital. 60 MOSLEM INVASIONS OF ASIA moved their nominal sovereigns. Then, when otherwise the Fatimites, who were of the Shia sect, would have overthrown the Abbassides, and the Khalifate have passed into the hands of heretics, they wrested province after province from their conquerors, defended Palestine with success against the Crusaders, and eventually, destroying the effete Byzantine Empire, appropriated as their capital one of the most important cities of The Europe and set up a Khalifate of their own. Osmanli or Ottoman Turks, who have established their authority over all other branches of the same race, are descended chiefly from some of Jalaluddin's soldiers dispersed after his death (p. 72), and so it is to the Mongols rather than to the Saracens that we actually owe the presence of the Turks in Europe. 61 CHAPTER XI THE TIBETANS, THE SUNGS AND THE KINS Kings of Tibet-Lamaism-The Sung Dynasty-Taitsou-State of Hea-Weakness of the Empire-The Niuche Tatars-The Kin Empire. WHEN, however, Islam destroyed whatever remained of Buddhism after centuries of decay over most of the rest of Central Asia, Tibet remained true to the old faith. About the beginning of the tenth century a Moslem prince named Darma invaded the country and set on foot a violent persecution of the Buddhists, but on his death the movement came to an end; the Moslems were driven out and their faith has never since had any effect on the Tibetans. According to its own annals, the early kings of Tibet were Hindus, while their queens were descended Circ. 630 A.D. from the gods. The founder of Lassa, Srongbdzan- sgambouo by name (p. 26), is supposed to have ruled over an Empire extending to the Tibetan Sea (Bay of Bengal), but this was soon lost by his successors. Under their kings, the Tibetans carried on constant wars with China, in which, as we have seen, they were often successful. One of these rulers, struck by the miseries of the poor, tried to enforce on his people an equal division of property, and other socialistic ideas, but his legislation proved a complete failure, and he had to give up the attempt. The last of the line persecuted Buddhism and was assassinated. A period of decay and civil war followed; the country was divided into eastern and western kingdoms with several smaller states. One of the kings, hoping, apparently, to gain some advantage for himself by con- ciliating the priests, invited into the country the Indian 62 THE TIBETANS, THE SUNGS AND THE KINS Buddhist, Atisha, who became very influential, and afterwards, when Kublai Khan was settling the affairs of Tibet, his nephew, Phagspa, a Lama of the Sakya Monastery, was entrusted with the temporal power over the whole country. Lamaism, the form of Buddhism now prevalent Lamaism. over Tibet and Mongolia, was developed chiefly by the growing power of the priesthood, and it is a system entirely antagonistic to primitive Buddhism; the theory of the successive incarnations of Buddha, which is a dogma of Lamaism, being the chief point in which the competing forms of the faith differ. I of China. 960. The fifty years of utter decay during the period of Sung Dynasty the Five Dynasties in China ended when, in 960, a general named Chow Kwang Yn was proclaimed Emperor by the soldiers, and took the title of Taitsou, founder of the Sung Dynasty. All China submitted to him, except that Shensi and Kansuh formed the independent kingdom of Hea. A general Hea. amnesty was granted, learning was encouraged, and a time of great prosperity for literature, and especially history, began. The Emperor's authority over the provinces was considerably extended, and the provin- cial governors were deprived of their power of life and death. The Prince of Han (p. 40), making war with the help of the Khitans, was defeated; some of the Tatars, including the ancestors of the Kins, made a voluntary submission to the Empire, but from the Khitans themselves the Chinese suffered disastrous defeats, and a humiliating peace was made. Owing, however, to the earnest entreaties of the Coreans for succour against the common foe, the war was renewed, but the result was much the same, and the Chinese had to pay an indemnity to the Khitans, though they received some towns in exchange. I These incarnations are usually called Living Buddhas' by Europeans. While I was in China the local papers were much exer- cised over one of them in Siberia having learned to ride a bicycle. 63 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA (998-1023.) sect. Chintsong, who did much to reform the adminis- tration during the early part of his reign, afterwards gave himself up more and more to the Taoist priests (p. 10), and granted a large tract of land near the Lung-hu mountain to their high priest or pope, thus greatly strengthening the position of the (1023-1064.) During the reign of his successor, the boy Emperor Jintsong, the Empress-Dowager administered the government and ruled well; salt and tea exempted from taxation, fortune-tellers and other im- postors, who had naturally increased during the previous reign, were rigorously suppressed. An attempt to improve the condition of the people by putting com- merce, agriculture and other industries under state control, suggested by the Minister Wanganchi, a historian and a scholar, was a conspicuous failure. The Kins. were The Sung Emperors, indeed, had more pressing matters to attend to than the internal administration of the country. With such warlike neighbours as the Khitans it was impossible long to remain at peace, and even the state of Hea, which was also at war with the Tibetans, on one occasion occasion inflicted a disastrous defeat on the Chinese troops and exacted tribute from the Empire. Meanwhile, among the among the Niuche Tatars (the ancestors of the present Manchu rulers of China), Akouta, having raised himself by his skill in arms, took the title of Emperor under the dynastic name of Kin (gold). The Khitans, attacking him, suffered a defeat, but renewed their victories over the Chinese. (1101-1126.) Reduced to desperate straits, the Emperor Hweitsong asked the assistance of the Kins in expelling the Khitans from his territory. The help was readily given, the intruders were completely driven out of northern China and the Kins captured Peking, I I In very early times Peking was the chief town of the little Chinese state of Yan; later on it formed part of the wall-builder's Empire, and it was first captured by the Khitans about the year 936 A.D. I 64 THE TIBETANS, THE SUNGS AND THE KINS which had been the southern capital of the Khitan Empire. But naturally enough (like our own Saxon Decay of the ancestors) they were in no hurry to abandon the fine Sungs. country their arms had won to the unwarlike Chinese, and they settled it themselves instead. The Sungs were compelled to be content with the south, but even there the Kins would not leave them unmolested, and, crossing the Yellow River under their general, Walipou, they captured Kai-fung-fu, the Sung capital, 1127. and took the Emperor Kingtsong prisoner. They then retired, and agreed to divide the country with the Chinese. The Sungs transferred their seat of government to Nanking, and, though literature con- tinued to flourish among them, their power was a mere shadow of what it had once been. China has ever conquered her conquerors, and the Kins soon adopted Chinese civilisation, Chinese customs and Chinese institutions. Peking became the capital of their Empire. War between the two nations settled in China was constant. Kaotsung, the first of the Southern (1127-1163.) Sung Emperors, who succeed Kingtsong, carried captive by the Kins, even removed his capital to Yangchow, near the sea, to provide for his own safety. This city was, however, captured by the enemy, and eventually the Sungs became tributary to the Kins, though under one or two able generals they gained several victories over them, and they were always superior on the sea. One of the Kin Emperors, Ticounai, formed the design of conquering the whole of China, Hea and Corea, but he was murdered, and the power of the Kins began to wane soon after his time, though the Sungs were quite unable to inflict a decisive defeat on them. But meanwhile a new power was rising, destined to expel both and to subjugate almost the whole of Asia. E 65 CHAPTER XII 1 THE MONGOLS Genghis Khan-Conquests in the East-Kushlek and the Khitans -War with Kharezm-Russia overrun-Prester John- Oghatai Khakhan— Jalaluddin — Corea conquered Chris- tianity-Kuyuk Khakhan-Mangu Khakhan-Holagou in the West. I THE Mongols were originally a small tribe of Tatars descended from the Hiongnou, and so related to the Huns. They dwelt in tents on the grassy banks of the Onon and the Kerulon, tributaries of the Amur, in the district south-east of Lake Baikal. Their name was probably derived from a root 'mong,' meaning brave. A semi-mythical hero named Budantsar had first consolidated their power, and by successful wars over the neighbouring tribes they gradually made their authority felt over a considerable area. Yesukai, the eighth in descent Genghis Khan. from Budantsar, was the father of Genghis or Jenghiz; he was away on a campaign when his son was born, probably in 1162, and on his return he named the child Temuchin, after the chief with whom he had been fighting. When on his father's death, Temuchin, at the tender age of thirteen, succeeded to his power, many of the tribes of Mongols refused their allegiance; but his mother, Yulun, displaying the national ensign, the cow-tail banner of the 1162. I Dr Ross, however, in his History of Corea, prefers the translation, silver. 66 THE MONGOLS I Mongols, won back about half of them. As the boy grew up he showed himself in every way well qualified to maintain the position he had inherited, and, after having distinguished himself in numerous wars, he was, in 1206, proclaimed Genghis Khan (Most Mighty Khan) at a great meeting of the Mongol Confederacy held on the banks of the Onon. Many titles and honours were at the same time showered on his subjects. Shortly afterwards he overthrew in battle the Naiman Khan and other chiefs, who by this time were the only Mongols that refused to recognise his authority. His next cam- Mongol paign was against the Heas, whom he also defeated. Conquests. Meanwhile, his Mongol enemies reorganised their forces, but only to receive a still more crushing defeat, and Kushlek, the Naiman chief, fled to the Khitans, by whose Emperor he was well received. Thus freed from domestic enemies, Genghis decided to extend his dominions towards the east. His forces soon broke through the Great Wall, overran the pro- vinces of Chihli and Shansi, and penetrated with little opposition to the Liao Tung Peninsula, the Kins being able to offer no effectual resistance. In 1213 1213. three separate expeditions were sent out to the con- quest of Eastern Asia-one, under Genghis himself and his son Tule, marching towards the south-east; another, under his sons Jugi, Jagatai and Oghatai, towards the south; the third, under his brothers, taking a due easterly direction to the China Sea. The great con- queror himself marched in triumph to the treeless hills of the Shantung promontory, and halted probably not far from the site of Wei Hai Wei. The other leaders were equally successful, easily able to overcome what- ever resistance was offered them. Genghis Khan, though at times as cruel and brutal Some of the Turkish tribes in Central Asia originally used yak tails for their banners; the Osmanlis, when established in Europe, substituted horses' tails, yaks not being very easy to obtain. 67 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA The Naiman Khan, Kharezm. as most great conquerors have shown themselves, had sparks of a better feeling, and he now wrote a magna- nimous letter to the Kin Emperor, saying that Heaven had seen fit to transfer to him the whole Kin Empire, with the exception of the city of Peking. He was, nevertheless, ready to relinquish it if the Emperor were willing to offer suitable presents to the Mongol chieftains. This offer of peace was accepted at once,. and Genghis returned to Karakoram, the old capital of the Mongol Confederacy. The Kin Emperor, how- ever, apparently thinking Peking too near Mongolia to be safe, transferred his capital to Kai-fung-fu, and this circumstance was made an excuse by Genghis for returning. I Meanwhile, Kushlek, the Mongol fugitive, had obtained permission from his host, the Khitan Em- peror, to collect the scattered remnants of his army in order to renew the war. When this was done, basely betraying the Khitans, he made an alliance with Mohammed, the Shah of Kharezm (Khiva), who was engaged in subjugating the Moslem princi- palities of Central Asia to his own kingdom on the Oxus, thus brought into prominence for a very short time. Together they defeated the Khitans, but before Kushlek could establish himself in his new conquest,. so basely won, he was attacked, defeated and taken prisoner by Genghis, who thereupon wrote a letter to Mohammed, proposing peace and pointing out the advantages to both for the purposes of trade if their respective Empires remained on friendly terms. treaty was made and Genghis might have devoted himself to the peaceful task of organising and de- veloping his already huge Empire had not the Shah of Kharezm forced on a war which eventually caused A 1 Kharezm was a Turkish kingdom, one of those which became inde- · pendent when the power of the Saracens was declining. For some years it had formed part of the Seljuk Empire. It was attacked by Mohammed Ghori (p. 57), but with the help of the Khitans he was repulsed and Kharezm became a powerful state. 68 THE MONGOLS the Mongols to carry their victorious arms into Europe itself. Some Mongolian traders sent by Genghis into Conquest of Transoxiana were seized and murdered by the Kharezm. governor, and Mohammed not only refused to make any reparation, but beheaded one of the envoys sent to remonstrate and insulted the others. This amounted to a declaration of war, and the Mongol armies started from Karakoram in two divisions, to attack the recently-extended Empire of Kharezm, on an expedi- tion which was to far outshine everything they had previously achieved. Mohammed had no troops capable of withstanding their advance, and he hastily retreated to Samarcand, one of the strongest fortresses of his Empire. Bokhara, Tashkend and other cities of his dominions, many of them conquered by himself, successively fell into the hands of the Mongols, by whom they were ruthlessly pillaged and destroyed, though most of the chief mosques were spared. Unable pernianently to hold even Samarcand itself against the Mongols, the Shah fled westwards to the Caspian, on whose shores, de- serted by almost all his subjects, he died. His son and successor, Jalaluddin, or Gelaleddin, a man of Jalaluddin. the highest courage and ability, collected the remains of his forces, and after fighting several battles not altogether without success, he retreated into India, apparently hoping that there he would be safe from Mongol pursuit. But he was mistaken. The Mongols came pouring in through the mountain passes, and on the banks of the Indus he had again to give battle, only to receive an overwhelming defeat. His soldiers were completely scattered, he himself with difficulty escaped and fled to Delhi, where he was received by Áltamish, one of the Sultans of the Slave Dynasty. The victorious Mongols, having plundered the territories of Lahore and Peshawar, retired to Ghazni, and an expedition was sent to destroy Herat, which 69 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA The Russians. Egypt. had been conquered and then had revolted. Before the advance into India a force (under Chepe and Sabutai) had been dispatched, by way of Astrakhan, into Europe. The Empire of Vladimir the Great, who in the tenth century made Russia a Christian country, had been partitioned after his death, and the chief cities became the centres of semi-independent states, whose dukes, though nominally bound together by a con- federacy and under the common suzerainty of the Grand Prince or Czar, waged constant wars with one another. Among the most powerful of these cities were Novgorod, Kiev, Vladimir and Moscow, the last of which, though only founded in 1147, was destined, during the fifteenth century, to become a rallying point for the reunion of the nation. The Russians, thus hopelessly disunited and disorganised at home, were in no position to withstand a foreign invasion. Knowing little of the affairs of Asia, they had no reason to expect an attack from that quarter, and they had never even heard of the Mongols. By murdering the envoys sent to treat with them they destroyed whatever small chance there might have been of a friendly understanding. A hastily-collected force was easily routed by the invaders on the banks of the Kaleza, and the Russians were forced to offer tribute. With the Ayubite rulers of Egypt the Mongols established more or less friendly communications, and sold to the Sultan Es-Salih (a grand-nephew of the great Saladin) a number of slaves, most of them Turks, who became the nucleus of the Mamluk cavalry.¹ From Ghazni, Genghis returned to Mongolia and annexed almost the whole of the Kin Empire, at the same time inflicting another disastrous defeat on the I Only a few years later the foreign troops seized the government of Egypt and founded the famous Mamluk Dynasties, which lasted till 1517 (p. 74). The Mamluk Regiment continued to exist as part of the Egyptian Army till it was massacred in 1811 by Mohammed Ali. 70 THE MONGOLS Heas. In 1227, on the banks of the Sale, a little river Death of in Mongolia, the great conqueror died, leaving a huge Genghis. but almost entirely unorganised Empire. On his deathbed he exhorted his followers to complete the conquest of China by the overthrow of the Sungs and by the final extinction of the Kin Empire, which no longer commanded their allegiance. 1227. According to some accounts, one of the countless Prester John. petty princes conquered by Genghis Khan was a Nestorian Christian, Prester John, ruler of the Karu Kitai Tatars in North China; but according to other accounts, his Empire was not in Asia at all but in Abyssinia. The precise location of Prester John's country is a much-vexed question. He was eagerly sought after by the early Portuguese explorers, but it seems quite probable that in reality no such monarch ever existed. In any case, many fabulous details are related about him. On the other hand, he is men- tioned by Marco Polo and by Montecorvino (p. 82). His title of Prester John is said to have been assumed by him after a service in church by which he was so much impressed that he declared he would rather be known as a priest than as an emperor. Khakhan. 1227. Oghatai or Ogdai, the eldest son he had by a Ogdai. Mongol wife, succeeded Genghis as Khakhan or Grand Khan; Batu, son of Juchi (the oldest of Genghis's children, who was born of a Chinese wife, and who did not survive his father), received the government of Kharezm, and some other districts in its neighbourhood; Jagatai received Bokhara, etc.; while to Tule were committed the home country, and the care of the national archives. The new khakhan began his reign, as was usual, by sacrificing to the Sun (p. 74) and offering maidens and horses to the spirit of his father. The great extension of the Empire compelled him to adopt some- thing of the civilisation of the subject nations, and a more or less formal code of laws was promulgated, an 71 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Overthrow of the Kins. Overthrow of Kharezm. institution which had not been known among the Mongols before. The Kins had retained Kai-fung-fu and a few other cities when Genghis seized the rest of their Empire. Oghatai refused to grant any terms of peace, and so the war was rekindled. At first the Kins gained some successes, but they could offer no effectual resistance to the overwhelming forces of their foes, and Kai-fung-fu itself was taken. The Emperor Ninkiassu, who had tried in earlier days to make a league with Hea and the Sungs for mutual protection against the Mongols, retired to Jooningfu with his court. The city was held with the most desperate bravery, non-combatants being slain to make the provisions last longer by reducing the number of mouths, but at last it was taken, and the Emperor committed suicide by burning his palace over his head. A small remnant of the defeated Kins fled to the country north of the Great Wall, where they greatly prospered, and some of their descendants in the seventeenth century once more emerged from their obscurity and conquered China (p. 140). Meanwhile, Jalaluddin, with the support of the Sultan of Delhi, whose daughter he married, had collected a new army, carved out a principality for himself in India, and recovered his kingdom of Kharezm, which he even extended westward as far as Tiflis. On receipt of the news, Oghatai dispatched a huge army, which overthrew the recently-restored kingdom with startling rapidity. The authority of the Mongols was completely re-established, Jalaluddin once more became a fugitive, and this time he sought safety among the remote mountains of Kurdistan, where he was murdered by a peasant. The Mongol army, flushed with victory, pressed forward into Europe. In 1235 the khakhan sent out three new armies- -one to the west, another against the Sungs, the third against Corea. 72 THE MONGOLS The Sungs had for a short time been in alliance 1235. with the Mongols against the Kins. When these The Sungs. were expelled the allies soon quarrelled, and the Mongols conquered and annexed Honan; the expedi- tion of 1235 inflicted many defeats on the Chinese, but it was not strong enough to stamp out all opposi- Corea. tion. The Corean King had in 1218 acknowledged himself the vassal of Genghis Khan. The murder of some of their envoys caused the Mongols to invade Corea in 1231, and on that occasion they had left officials of their own nationality to manage the government; some of these, probably owing to their intolerable cruelty and oppression, were murdered by the Coreans, and this was the immediate cause of the invasion of 1235, by which the country was laid waste and a heavy tribute was imposed on the people. The expedition which Oghatai sent to the west Russia. under Batu carried pillage and slaughter into the very heart of Europe. Riazan, Moscow, Vladimir, Kiev and many other cities of Russia were successively captured and ruthlessly destroyed-men, women and children being massacred and sometimes tortured. At Vladimir the Imperial family perished under the ruins of the Cathedral, burned like everything else by the pitiless barbarian conquerors. Continuing their victorious march into Hungary and Poland, whose inhabitants made a brave but futile resistance, the Mongols inflicted the same fate on many more flourishing cities, including Pesth, Gran and Cracow. In Silesia their further progress to the west was pre- vented by the timely arrival of news that Oghatai had drunk himself to death in his palace, which caused Batu, in accordance with Mongol custom, to return to Karakoram with as little delay as possible. The next khakhan was Kuyuk, who had consider- Kuyuk able sympathy with Christianity, and, although he Khakhan. never became a convert, he seems to have maintained Matters. Religious 73 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Mangu Khakhan. Career of Holagou. 1258. some sort of a Christian chapel. There were still Nestorian Christians scattered through China and Central Asia, though probably they were not so numerous as they had been a century or two before. Papal missionaries, too, were just beginning to arrive. But though the Mongol Empire gave free toleration to Islam, Christianity and Buddhism, its national religion was still Shamanism, a barbaric form of worship which survives to this day among some of the Siberian tribes. The god it recognises is supposed to inhabit the sun, and there are extraordinary rites con- nected with it which, to a certain extent, resemble those of the Dervishes. The early simplicity and tent-life of the khans gradually gave place to more luxurious living. The khakhan's palace at the capital, originally a tent, was by this time a solid structure of masonry, containing numerous courts, pillared halls and fountains. The next Grand Khan of the Mongols, Mangu, son of Tule, secured his position only after a short civil war. Some disturbances in Persia, fomented by the Ismailites or Assassins, caused him to send his brother Holagou or Hulayu to restore order there. The Mongol arms met with their usual success. The people, innocent and guilty alike, were massacred. The country was so devastated that there were serious famines. The thirst for conquest was at this time as strongly implanted in every Mongol as the thirst for drink, and Holagou pressed right on to Baghdad, which he captured and sacked. The Khalif¹ was cruelly put to death, the surrounding country was made a desert; the Mongols, however, did something to replace the civilisation they were destroying, and at Maragha founded an observatory. In the midst of * For about three centuries after this time the Khalifate was held by an Abbassid family, living, but not ruling, in Egypt, and then it passed in 1517 to Selim I., the ninth Sultan of the present Ottoman Dynasty, who conquered Egypt from the Mamluks. 74 THE MONGOLS 1 these triumphs Holagou suddenly conceived the design of wresting Jerusalem from the Moslems and restoring it to the Christians. He captured Aleppo and Damascus on the way thither, but before he could reach the Holy City itself he was recalled, by the news of his brother's death, to Mongolia. As a reward for his victories, Holagou received the govern- ment of the countries he had conquered, in which he founded the Empire of the Ilkhans, a dynasty which ruled Persia and some adjacent territories for about a century and a-half, and then was dissolved by the feuds of various Tatar and Kurdish chieftains. 75 CHAPTER XIII Conquest of the Sungs. Kublai Khakhan. 1260. THE YUEN DYNASTY The Sungs defeated-Kublai Khakhan-Final Destruction of the Sung Dynasty-Prosperity of China-Kublai's Attempts to subdue Japan and Other Islands-Decay of the Mongol Power after His Death-Religious Affairs. MEANWHILE Mangu and his brother Kublai had been carrying out their grandfather's last wishes about the conquest of the Sungs. The war was not character- ised by the ferocious savagery that had hitherto attended the progress of the Mongol arms. On the contrary, captured cities were treated with considera- tion, prisoners were generally spared, and everything was done to secure the goodwill of the people. Mangu died during the campaign in Szechuan, leaving Kublai to complete the conquest. Yunnan, which at that time had become divided into several independent states, was conquered without much difficulty. After the capture of Tali-fu, one of its most important towns, Kublai himself returned to the north, leaving his lieutenant, Uriang-Kadai, in charge of the forces he left behind. The advance of the Mongols was not checked. The Tibetans were defeated, and parts of Indo-China were subdued, the object probably being to surround the Sungs as far as possible, and thus facilitate their final conquest. At a council of the Mongols, held near Peking, Kublai was himself elected Grand Khan, but another brother, named Arikbuka, had taken the same title at Karakoram, and so a civil war ensued, in which the 76 THE YUEN DYNASTY latter was defeated and taken prisoner; he was, how- ever, generously treated by his conqueror. Kublai, now sole master of the Mongol Empire, though there were parts of it in which his authority was not securely established, fixed his capital at Peking, and the city became known to the Mongols as Khanbalik, or Cambaluc, the City of the Khan. Its position was shifted a little to the north-east, and new walls were built on a magnificent scale, occupying the site of the present Tatar city, though Kublai's city extended nearly two miles further north. His northern wall still remains, reduced to a mere bank of earth, over- grown with grass and trees, almost all traces of its original brick facing having disappeared. Sungs. The war with the Sungs went on. Their Emperor Final Over- Litsong (1225-1265) at first agreed to be a vassal to throw of the the Mongols, but quarrels soon arose, and he adopted a defiant attitude, actually daring to murder the envoys sent to announce the fact that Kublai had been pro- claimed Grand Khan. It was not till after Litsong's death that the important city of Sienyang was invested 1268. by the Mongol hosts; a large force was sent to its relief, but engines of war had been brought from Persia, and its twin city, Fanching, which is separated from Sienyang only by the Han River, a tributary of the Yang-tsze, was taken by their means. Four years later, Sienyang itself was forced to capitulate, and its brave defender, Lieouwen Hoan, transferred his allegi- ance to the Mongols. The slackness of the Sung Government in prosecuting the war alienated its sup- porters, who joined the invaders in large numbers. Bayan, who had had experience of war in Persia, now received the chief command, and, with the help of Lieouwen Hoan, he captured city after city, and victories were gained on land and sea. In 1276 the 1276. Sung capital, Hang-Chow, or, as it was then called, Linggan, fell into his hands, and the young Emperor Chaohien, with his mother, was sent to Cambaluc. 1 77 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1278. The Yuen Dynasty. Kublai's Policy in Religion. The Chinese troops were rallied by other members of the Imperial family, and some slight advantages being gained, Foochow was made the capital of a new Empire. The advancing Mongols, however, carried everything before them. Foochow was soon taken, and in a naval battle near Canton the Emperor Tiping perished. Chang Chikie, one of the defeated Chinese, escaped to Tong King, and, gaining succours from its turbulent people, he attempted to attack Canton by sea, but a storm destroyed his fleet, and thus the last remains of the Sung Dynasty were extinguished. Kublai Khan became ruler of the whole of China, the first Emperor of the Yuen Dynasty. It was but natural that he should soon become more Emperor of China than Khan of the Mongols; he took the Chinese title Chitsou, adopted Chinese customs, sup- ported Chinese institutions, patronised Chinese litera- ture. A magnificent Court was kept up, an elaborate post system was established, the country enjoyed pros- perity unknown for ages, the Chinese settled down to trade and industry, and almost forgot for the moment that a foreigner sat on the Imperial Throne. Adven- turers from Persia, Armenia, the Greek Empire, Venice and elsewhere, who came to the country, were eagerly welcomed, and some of them received appoint- ments under the Government. Of these by far the best known was Marco Polo, the Venetian, who has left an account of the condition of the country at the time. Like several other great conquerors, Kublai was eclectic in matters of religion, and he is said to have originally believed in four prophets-Moses, Buddha, Christ and Mohammed. He built temples to his ancestors, and ordered prayers to be offered for him- self throughout the Empire. During his later years he inclined more and more to Buddhism, giving some measure of support to its priesthood, and, as we have seen (p. 63), making one of its lamas ruler of Tibet. The influence of the Bonzes at the time must have 78 THE YUEN DYNASTY been very considerable, and the Mongol Emperor evidently hoped to consolidate his heterogeneous Empire by conciliating them. bitions. Kublai Khan, already lord of a more extensive Further Am- domain, at least in name, than had ever before ac- knowledged the sway of any single man-for his Empire, besides including almost the whole of Asia, stretched towards the west up to the frontiers of Poland-was unfortunately impelled by the thirst for conquest inborn in every Mongol, to seek to extend it still further, and his attempts to accomplish this unreason- able desire had a very moderate measure of success. Corea had been gained over by conciliation, and its Japan. king was his personal friend, but the Japanese islands beyond had been unaffected by the wars on the main- land, and Kublai set his heart on their subjection. Since the death of Yoritomo (p. 53), Japan had been in a deplorable condition. The powerful Hojo family controlled both the Emperor and the Shogun; incompetent youths, chosen for that very reason, were generally appointed to both offices, and both courts were hopelessly effeminate. The patriotism of the people was, however, roused by the idea of their sub- jection to a foreign power, and when the khakhan's embassy, demanding submission, came to the shogun's court at Kamakura it was indignantly dismissed. A large force, chiefly consisting of Chinese and Coreans, 1274. was sent to Tsushima,' but it was defeated by the Japanese, though not without heavy loss. A new embassy was sent to Kamakura, but the Japanese were now roused, and the envoys were murdered on the shore. An enormous fleet, manned by Mongols, as well as by Chinese and Coreans, was sent to invade Kiusiu, but it was shattered by a tempest, and the Japanese completed the destruction, sparing the lives of Chinese and Coreans, killing all Mongols. ¹ Tsushima is the name of a couple of islands situated in the strait between Corea and Kiusiu, and in sight of both. 79 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Loo Choo Islands. Java. Tong King. Burmah. 1284. Kublai Khan, indignant, began to fit out a new expedition to avenge this disaster, but the heavy exactions which he was forced to make to pay for his numerous armaments caused great discontent, and he had to abandon the attempt. Another of his expeditions was directed against the Loo Choo Islands, and it also failed; another, intended to achieve the conquest of the distant island of Kuava (Java), met with no better success. Wars with Tong King and Annam were on the whole disastrous. Though several battles were won, the invading armies were eventually defeated, and both countries practi- cally continued to be independent, though a nominal. tribute was sent to China. The only one of these ill-advised expeditions to suc- ceed was that against Mien, or Burmah, then a small but flourishing kingdom under a line of Buddhist monarchs. The first victory was gained by means of the Mongol archers, who threw the Burmese elephants into confusion. After six years the whole country was subdued, and its capital, Pagan, a city founded in the middle of the ninth century, and long the rival of Pegu, was burned. The king agreed to become a vassal of the Chinese Empire. The Chinese have never shown themselves fond of military expeditions, especially not when they have to pay for them, and all these wars, causing as they did a severe drain on their resources, greatly reduced their loyalty to the Mongol Emperor. Besides his warlike expeditions, Kublai Khan sent out many peaceful missions to distant states, including, The Imperial it is said, even Madagascar. Of the public works he Canal. carried out, the most important and most useful was the reconstruction of the ancient Imperial Canal, con- necting Tien-Tsin and Hang Chow. It is about a thousand miles long, and still forms the chief highway of the Empire; it is, however, carried the whole way over a series of flat plains, and there were no consider- 80 THE YUEN DYNASTY able engineering difficulties to be overcome. The Emperor's old age was disturbed by a rebellion got up against him by his cousin Kaidu, joined by another kinsman, Nayan, who was, perhaps, a Christian. With some difficulty the latter was conquered by Bayan; the war with Kaidu smouldered on. 1294. In 1294 the Great Khan died. As in the case of Death of many another famous conqueror-Nebuchadnezzar, Kublai. Alexander, Attila, Charlemagne, Tamerlane-no one was found capable of taking his place, and under his feeble successors the Mongol Empire rapidly declined. His grandson, Timur, succeeded him as khakhan and 1295. Emperor, and took the Chinese title of Chingtsong. Floods, famines and similar disasters devastated parts of the country, and, as always happens in China when the Central Government is weak, rebellions kept breaking out. On land they were put down with comparatively little difficulty, but on sea the Mongol Government had no force capable of coping with the pirates who infested the coasts. The native corsairs, for the most part, confined their operations to the south. The shores of North China and of Corea were constantly ravaged by Japanese pirates, more insolent than ever after the destruction of Kublai Khan's fleets. I None of the succeeding Emperors were remark- Religions dur- able for anything but vice and incompetence. One ing the Yuen of them persecuted Buddhism, a great departure from Dynasty. the usual tolerance of the Mongols; another tried to force his Court to kotow to the Grand Lama of Tibet. The president of the Hanlin College (p. 48)- an institution falling very much into neglect at the time-refused to do so, affirming that Confucius was in no way inferior to Buddha, and that it would be improper for the representative of one to bow down to the representative of the other. Taoism (p. 10) was by this period at a very low ebb, its priests spend- ing most of their time in attempting to discover I A Chinese word meaning to prostrate oneself. F 81 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Decline of the Mongols. certain medical herbs which were supposed to bring immortality. Islam was all the time slowly increas- ing. The Nestorians were rapidly dwindling, and it was probably before the end of the dynasty that their Church died out in China. Under what circumstances this happened is very obscure, but the spread of Mohammedanism in Central Asia must have cut them off almost entirely from their Mother Church, and they probably were gradually absorbed by the Buddhists, at that time extremely vigorous. A mysterious iron cross worshipped at a temple in Fukien, which is described at length in Père Favier's recent book on Peking, may possibly be a relic of their work, but it does not seem very probable. The Roman missionaries, especially in the north, were carrying on an active propaganda, the Emperors for the most part giving them every encouragement; the most famous of them was John of Montecorvino, for many years Bishop of Peking, who had violent controversies with the Nestorians. Another was Oderic, a Lombard friar, from whose accounts of the Chinese and others our own Sir John Mandeville seems to have borrowed largely in writing his books on the Holy Places of Jerusalem, India and Cathay. The Roman Mission. seems to have come to an end, at any rate to have dwindled almost to vanishing, when the Mongols were expelled from China. Towards the end of the dynasty, famines and other disasters greatly increased (in one famine alone thirteen millions are said to have perished), while the Emperors gave themselves up more and more to pleasure. Toghon Timur or Chunti, the last of the line, was especially unworthy of his position; insurrec- tions broke out on all sides and rapidly spread, a comet appeared, the Temple of the Imperial Ancestors at Peking was wrecked by an earthquake, the khakhan, overcome by superstitious terrors, lost heart, and a most feeble resistance was offered to the Chinese. 82 CHAPTER XIV THE EARLY MING EMPERORS Hong Wou drives the Mongols from China and founds the Ming Dynasty-The Ni Dynasty in Corea-Mongolia and Central Asia-Yonglo-Peking. AMONG many others who had left their homes to join Hong Wou. the insurgents was a Buddhist priest, Choo Yuen Chang, who soon raised himself to prominence by his military skill, and gained the confidence and affection of the people by his moderation and humanity. He did all he possibly could to prevent massacres and pillaging during the war. In 1356, after many smaller successes, Capture of he captured Nanking and at once set about organising Nanking, 1356. a firm government in the territory he had conquered. The most powerful of the pirate-chiefs, Fangkue Chin, submitted to him, but afterwards revolted and had to be conquered; other Chinese aspirants also gave him considerable trouble by their rivalry, but not one of them had a tithe of his ability.. After a time the south enthusiastically espoused his cause, and this made him strong enough to dispatch a force against Peking itself. The Imperial city was taken by a stratagem, and the khakhan fled in haste to Koko Nor. Little further resistance was offered by the Mongols, and the whole country was pacified by the Chinese. After considerable hesitation, Choo Yuen Chang himself assumed the Imperial Yellow. He had not at first aspired to the Empire, but no 83 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Corea. other course was now open to him and it was amid the hearty acclamations of the people that he ascended the throne. He took the style of Hong Wou, the first of the Ming (Illustrious) Dynasty. It may well be doubted whether any former Emperor of China had ever enjoyed a greater popularity among the people than their new ruler, who had delivered them from a hated foreign yoke and had once more restored the prosperity of the Empire under a native monarch. Reforms were at once set on foot; Nanking was made the capital, the expenses of the Court were considerably reduced. The Hanlin College was re- stored and every encouragement was given to litera- ture; public libraries in the chief cities were provided, and free education was granted; the law-courts were improved and the laws were once more codified. Buddhism was naturally favoured, though complete religious freedom was allowed. Aliens settled in the country, Mongols, for the most part, were given every protection, and many of them received appointments under the new Government. The general welfare of the people was promoted in every possible way. The Coreans had taken advantage of the rottenness of the Yuen Dynasty to repudiate their allegiance, and Wangken's successors having become hopelessly degenerate (p. 49), a popular soldier named Taijo, born near the modern town of Gensan, was made king. He was the first of the Ni Dynasty which still rules Corea. But though they had strong objections to the Mongol barbarians, the Coreans had the greatest respect for the Chinese Empire, and the new king voluntarily became a vassal of the Ming Dynasty. As in China, many reforms followed the change of government. Buddhism was disestablished ¹_Corea ¹ At the present time there are hardly any Buddhist Temples in Corea except the monasteries. These have practically become poorhouses, the peasants crowding into them during bad seasons and coming out again when agricultural prospects are better. Hardly any take the yellow robe from religious conviction. 84 THE EARLY MING EMPERORS had for many years been a rather priest-ridden country- Confucianism took its place and competitive examina- tions for civil and military appointments, modelled on those of China, were established. A box, into which petitions for the king could be dropped, was set up at the palace gate. Han Yang (Seoul), a beautiful city standing in a cup-shaped depression among the moun- tains at the bottom of a winding valley, became the capital, and a wall was built round it, being carried, as is usual in Corea, over the tops of the rocky hills in the neighbourhood, so that it is in places a long way out from the city and more than a thousand feet above the streets. defeated. Hong Wou was not content with having driven The Mongols the Mongols from the sacred soil of China, his armies were sent to attack them in their own country. These were very successful, and one of his best generals, Suta, who had distinguished himself, among other things, by the capture of Peking, after worsting his enemies in several less important engagements, inflicted a crush- ing defeat on them near the western extremity of the Great Wall (p. 12). For a time the Keraits, who had vigorously supported the Naiman Khan in his opposition to Genghis (p. 67), maintained some sort of supremacy over the Mongols, but practically this battle destroyed the Mongol Empire, for, though khakhans continued to be elected, their authority was a mere shadow of what it had been. Nevertheless, for many years several independent Mongol kingdoms played a very important part in the politics both of Europe and Asia. The wars with the Mongols having thus been brought to a triumphant conclusion, the victorious Chinese generals were received in audience at Nanking I Seoul is the Corean word for capital, which has come to be used as a proper name, A great distinction is made by the Coreans between the metropolis and the provinces, the inhabitants of the former being exempt from taxation. 85 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Central Asia. Death of Hong Wou, 1398. (1403-1425.) Siam and Cambodia. 1421. and publicly thanked by the Emperor, who conferred on them suitable rewards, warning them at the same time against luxury. Szechuan and Yunnan, still ruled by officers appointed by the Mongols, were conquered after a short war, and Liao Tung was like- wise subdued with little difficulty. Attempts made to subjugate remote parts of Mon- golia and Central Asia, however, failed. The Chinese gained some victories, but out in the wilds they were unable to inflict a really decisive defeat on the Mongols. Turkestan and Tibet, each divided up at the time into several states, likewise maintained their independence of China. The empire was thus far from being at its greatest extent, but it was thoroughly contented and prosperous, while there was little to disturb its internal peace, except that the coasts con- stantly suffered from the ravages of Japanese pirates. In 1398 Hong Wou died and was buried at Nanking, where his magnificent tomb still remains. He was succeeded by his grandson, Wenti, but a civil war broke out owing to the ambition of one of the new Emperor's uncles, named Yen, an active and unscrupulous man, who, being eventually successful in the war, made himself Emperor as Yonglo, Wenti retiring into a monastery. Yonglo seems to have been a vicious and cruel ruler, but he fully main- tained the dignity of the Empire. Owing to some insults having been offered to some Chinese repre- sentatives, he sent an expedition by sea to chastise Siam and Cambodia, which was completely successful, and even brought back a royal captive, who was after- wards released. In Tong King a usurper, Likimao, had seized the throne, and that country was, in con- sequence, conquered and definitely annexed to China, but as it proved (even then) very difficult to govern, it was relinquished after a few years. During this reign Peking again became the capital, a dignity which it has ever since retained. It was 86 THE EARLY MING EMPERORS Yonglo who built the colossal walls which still enclose the Tatar city,' almost a perfect square in shape, for, like many other tyrants, he was a great builder. The celebrated porcelain pagoda at Nan- king, destroyed by the Tai Ping rebels, was likewise his work, and he also cast the great bell of Peking, the largest in the world except one in the Kremlin at Moscow. It was probably owing to the fame of his military exploits that, in the reign of his successor, the rulers of Bengal and Malacca sent tribute, or at any rate presents, to the Court of Peking. Yonglo was buried at the Ming Tombs, among the moun- 1435. tains to the north-west of Peking. His successor was Ching-tung, a child of eight, and the government of the Empire unfortunately fell into the hands of a eunuch, Wangchin, who proved hopelessly incom- petent, and, largely owing to his mismanagement, a war broke out with the Kalmucks, who inflicted a very severe defeat on the Imperial troops, and even took the young Emperor captive. I These walls are about forty feet high, and much more massive than the Great Wall itself. Their circuit is about fourteen or fifteen miles ; there are nine gates surmounted by lofty towers and protected by huge enceintes. Peking, with its filthy, crowded streets, dilapidated houses, ruinous temples and long processions of camels and Chinese carts, is still almost exactly as it was in the Middle Ages-a great contrast to the cities of Japan. 87 1 CHAPTER XV THE LATER MONGOLS AND TAMERLANE The Kalmucks-The Western Kiptchaks or Golden Horde-Batu -Bereke-Conversion to Islam-Succeeding Khans-Tok- tamish-Timur or Tamerlane-Indian Affairs-Ala-ud-din Khilji, Sultan of Delhi-The Tughlak Dynasty-Partition of the Empire-Timur in India-Sack of Delhi-War with the Mamluks and the Ottoman Turks-Bayezid the Thunderer -Battle of Angora. The Kalmucks. THE Kalmucks were a Mongol tribe who had established themselves in Kashgaria. About the time of the establishment of the Ming Dynasty in China, one of their khans, named Toghon, had con- solidated their power and founded a strong state. It was his son, Yessen, who took prisoner the Chinese Emperor. The war continued, and on one occasion the Kalmucks even besieged Peking, but, suffering several defeats from the Chinese, they had at last to restore their royal captive, and for some centuries their power greatly declined (p. 159). Batu, The Golden Horde. As a reward for his victories, Batu (p. 73) had, in accordance with the usual custom of the Mongols, received the government of some of the countries he had conquered. His subjects were the Western Kiptchaks, one of the most important divisions of the later Mongols. The capital of his Empire he fixed at Sarai on a branch of the Volga, not far 2 I This seems the best word to express his power, but he was, of course, subject to the khakhan. 2 This town is mentioned in Chaucer's 'Squire's Tale.' The word seraglio, a palace, is derived from it. 88 THE LATER MONGOLS AND TAMERLANE from Astrakhan, and here he set up a tent of golden cloth, from which his followers became known as the Golden Horde. Needless to say, plundering expeditions were sent in all directions, and pene- trated far into Europe. Batu's son, Sartach, was Sartach. appointed to the command of the troops on the western frontier, and the sainted King of France, Louis IX., hearing, while on a crusade, that this man was a Christian, sent an embassy to him. The French legates, however, found that, though he kept a few Nestorian clergy about him, Sartach was himself a pagan. The Mongol khans had on several occasions received missions from the Pope, urging them to become Christians, and to treat the towns they captured with more humanity. They had invariably received the envoys-usually, if not always, monks—in a friendly spirit, but replied to them that they already worshipped God; that the prosperity of their Empire showed they had the favour of Heaven, and so they saw no reason for changing their religion. In 1255 Batu was succeeded by his brother, Bereke, 1255. as leader of the Golden Horde, and the new khan became a convert to Islam, a step which some of his subjects had already taken, and, encouraged by the example of their sovereign, the Western Kiptchaks now became Mohammedans as a nation. This cir- cumstance tended to draw them closer to the kingdoms of Western Asia and Northern Africa. The ties which bound the people of the Golden Horde to their brethren further east were already becoming loosened, and their conversion to Islam naturally caused them to denounce the other Mongols as idolaters and to refuse obedience to them. It was not, however, till the death of Kublai (1294) that all pretence of allegiance to the khakhan was given up. On the other hand, their increased intercourse with the West, by intro- < 89 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA ducing all sorts of luxuries, greatly lessened their warlike ardour. The Kiptchak Mongols began to leave their tents and to build cities to dwell in, and Decline of the their military power consequently began to decline. Golden Horde. The process, however, was not sudden, and suc- ceeding khans continued to wield a very considerable amount of power. The Eastern Kiptchaks. Toktamish. Mangu Timur carried on wars with the nations of Eastern Europe, and dispatched the usual plundering expeditions into their territory; but he made an alliance with the Genoese and protected their trade, for which, in his own dominions, he established a monopoly. Uzbeg Khan gave one daughter in marriage to one of the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt, and another to one of the vassal Russian dukes. The last match made him friendly to the Christians, and he was careful to protect the Greek churches in his Empire; but he nevertheless made a raid into Europe, plundering and destroying as far as Poland. Another of the succeeding khans, Janibeg, saw the advantage to himself of protecting trade, and made a treaty with Venice and Genoa, fixing definite custom dues to be paid to him from their trans- actions with his subjects. The Black Death, which in the fourteenth century was ravaging Europe and Asia, greatly thinned the ranks of the Golden Horde, and in the reign of Berdibeg their Empire practically ceased to be. Their power passed to their cousins, the Eastern Kiptchaks, who, under Orda, Batu's elder brother, and his successors, had retained their old warlike habits, far removed from the enervating influences of the Western Courts. One of the successors of Orda, named Urus Khan, found a rival in Khan Tuli Khoja, who was, however, murdered; and his son, Toktamish, to escape his enemies, fled to the renowned Tamerlane, by whom he was well received. After a few years, armed with the powerful support } 90 THE LATER MONGOLS AND TAMERLANE of the great conqueror, Toktamish was able to seize the khanate, not only of his own people, the Eastern Kiptchaks or White Horde, but of the Golden Horde as well. The Russians, underrating his power and imagining that the Mongols had now lost their warlike ardour, thought it a good opportunity to assert their independence, and refused any longer to pay tribute. tribute. But they were soon undeceived; their country was once more invaded and laid waste by the barbarian hordes. In 1382 Moscow was 1382. taken, plundered and burned, while Vladimir and many other cities suffered the same fate at the hands of their pitiless conquerors. Puffed up by these victories, so easily gained, Toktamish adopted a somewhat haughty air to Tamerlane, and asked for the cession of Kharezm, which was, of course, refused. Madly plunging into war with his former host, the Khan of the Kiptchaks actually advanced against Tabriz, which he captured and destroyed. Tamerlane lost no time in advancing to punish his ungrateful guest, who retreated at his 1390. approach, but was overtaken at Kandurcha and defeated. The victor ravaged the country, and having destroyed Astrakhan and Sarai, which from mere clusters of tents had grown into prosperous cities, returned to Samarcand. Toktamish was defeated but not subdued, and he was able to collect his scattered forces and to do something to restore his Empire, only to suffer a new and more disastrous defeat from Tamerlane, who again destroyed his cities. Toktamish became a fugitive and eventually perished in Siberia; the kingdom of the Kiptchaks never recovered the blow, though it long lingered on, eventually splitting up into several independent khanates. Its last remains, the Khanate of Astrakhan, was overthrown by Ivan III. of Russia in 1480. Another branch of the Mongols, the Krim Tatars, The Krim 91 Tatars. A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Tamerlane. 1336-1405. 1358. who became independent early in the fifteenth cen- tury, made an alliance with the Russians against the Kiptchaks, but afterwards had wars with their former allies, and in 1571, during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, captured and burned Moscow itself. Their khan was long a vassal of the Ottoman Sultan; their name is preserved in the Crimea. The celebrated conqueror, Timur, or, as he is more usually called by English writers, Tamerlane (a corruption of Timur i Leng, 'Timur' the Lame), was born in 1336 at Kesh, near Samarcand. His father, Teragai, was chief of the Berlas, an insignificant Turkish tribe, and a descendant of one of Jagatai's ministers (p. 71), and though Timur claimed to be himself descended from Genghis Khan, and to be restoring the old Mongol Empire by his conquests, he seems to have been in reality, partially at least, of Turkish extraction. Teragai had become a convert to Islam (the first of his family who did so), and he belonged to the Shia sect. Timur in his youth was deeply religious, and is said to have been gentle in disposition, but in later years his wild ambition rooted out whatever noble traits his character may ever have possessed; and though he built plenty of mosques, and at times showed himself some- what ostentatiously pious, he figures in history as perhaps the most ruthless and barbarous of all con- querors. The destruction he wrought was stupendous ; he built up exceedingly little that was lasting or good. At about the age of twenty-two, urged on, probably, by the love of adventure implanted in all his race, Timur joined the service of Kurgan, one of the Mongol khans who had, after the death of Kublai, partitioned the old Empire of Genghis between them, and in his interests he led a successful invasion of Khorasan. Kurgan was murdered and disorders followed, in the middle of which Tughlak Timur, the Kalmuck Khan of Kashgaria, a descendant of Genghis 92 THE LATER MONGOLS AND TAMERLANE himself, invaded the land. Timur was sent to negotiate with the aggressor, but preferred to join his service, and received the government of Transoxiana from him. About the same time, on the death of his father, he became chief of the Berlas as well. Transoxiana was almost immediately taken away again, and Tughlak sent his own son to rule it; but Timur was not to be so easily turned out, and in a pitched battle he defeated and expelled the intruder, though with far inferior forces. He thus became an independent ruler, and he fixed his capital at the ancient city of Samarcand-the most sacred spot in 1370. Central Asia-which under his care grew into a large and flourishing town. Some years were spent in organ- ising his newly-won dominions, and then Timur started on those expeditions which were to make his name dreaded and hated through Asia for several generations, and infamous in the annals of history for all time. His first campaigns took him towards the West, and two of them, as we have seen, were directed against 1380 seq. the Golden Horde; their net result was the complete. desolation of the country round the Caspian, and of almost all Persia right up to Baghdad. Then in 1398, hearing of the incessant civil strife India, 1398. and consequent weakness of India, he decided to turn his steps towards that defenceless land. The Slave Dynasty at Delhi had lasted nearly a The Slave century, but none of Kutab's successors were specially Dynasty. remarkable, except that, as we have seen (p. 57), one of them was a queen. The last of them, having become an object of contempt to his subjects, owing to his shameless debaucheries, had been displaced by 1290. Firoz, an Afghan prince who only enjoyed his ill- gotten throne for five or six years ere he was removed in his turn by his nephew, Ala-ud-din Khilji,' who Ala-ud-din was already renowned for his warlike talents (having of Delhi. Khilji, Sultan The Khiljis were a Tatar tribe who had gradually made their way 1296. to India from their original seat in the Jaxartes valley. 93 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA I Conquests. Moslem India. Tughlak Dynasty. 1321-1413. overrun the Deccan with his armies) as well as for his unbridled voluptuousness and cruelty. Once estab- lished on the throne of Delhi he sought to carry his arms over the whole peninsula. One expedition was sent into Gujarat, which conquered the territory and captured the chief town, Patan, driving out its last Rajput sovereign. The Sultan himself led a force into Rajputana and stormed the rock fortress of Chitor, in which the populace had taken refuge. A more important expedition was dispatched to the south under a vicious favourite named Kafur, who, having abandoned Hinduism for Islam, practised the observances of neither religion and steeped himself in every kind of crime. The whole country was conquered and plundered as far as Madura, capital of the Dravidian State of Pandya, whose ruler, Parakrama, was expelled. These distant conquests, however, were not occupied. The desolated country after a time fell into Hindu hands and was maintained as an independent state until the eighteenth century. Thus by far the greater part of India was subjugated to Islam, but there was little attempt to give the conquered districts any bond of union; they remained subject to the throne of Delhi only while they could be held down by military force, and this, considering the constant upheavals at the capital, was not likely to be for long. In 1321, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlak, governor of the Punjab, but originally a slave, rose against the Sultan, entered Delhi and founded a new dynasty called after his family name, the Tughlak. He ruled well, but in 1325 he was accidentally killed, and his son, Mohammed Tughlak, who, from the follies related of him, can hardly have been of sound mind, revived the vicious administration of the former dynasty. During his reign the Mughals or Moguls, as the hordes that obeyed Timur were called (though in all probability I Mogul is the Indian and Persian form of the name Mongol. I ་ 94 THE LATER MONGOLS AND TAMERLANE 1 pendent. hardly any of them were true Mongols), began to pour into the country and the Sultan had to bribe them to retire. In spite of this, however, he formed ambitious plans of conquering China and Persia, but though armies were levied for each purpose, both schemes fell through. Indeed, the Sultan had pressing matters to engage his attention nearer home, for the provinces. took advantage of the follies and cruelties of his rule to assert their independence. In the Deccan, Ala- The Provinces ud-din, a Brahman convert to Islam, founded the become inde- Bahmani Kingdom, which had its capital first at Gulbargah and subsequently at Bidar. Zafar Khan seized Gujarat and founded the Ahmadabad Dynasty there, while Bengal also asserted its independence under a line of Afghan princes. In 1351, Mohammed 1351. Tughlak died. His cousin, another Firoz, who succeeded him, was a very different kind of ruler. Under his benevolent sway the people were contented and happy, and the arts of peace revived, colleges, mosques, bridges and reservoirs being founded on a considerable scale. This prosperity, however, came to an end at his death. the South. In the south, besides Pandya, which was founded Kingdoms in probably in the fourth century before Christ, taking its name from its first monarch, and which appears to have had a more or less unbroken succession of kings, until, as we have seen, the last of them was over- thrown by Malik Kafur, there had been several other fairly stable Dravidian kingdoms, of which Chola and Chera were the most important. The kingdom. of Chola seems to have come into existence about 1000 A.D., on the banks of the Canvery. Chera was considerably older, and at first occupied the southern portion of Mysore, from which it was subsequently spread over the neighbouring districts, and the Kylas at Ellora seems to have been the work of its people. In the twelfth century there had arisen a powerful Hindu Empire, Narsingha or Vijayanagar, which I 95 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Timur's In- gradually absorbed almost the whole of the southern part of the peninsula. There were, of course, many more sovereign states in India, which were frequently at war with one another and constantly changing. Such was the divided state of India when Timur vasion, 1398. led his forces through the mountain passes and swept down on the defenceless Punjab. On his way to the Imperial City he was received at Multan by his grandson, Pir Mohammed, who had shortly before led the advance-guard of the army into India and made himself master of that ancient stronghold (p. 19). The Tughlak Sultan, Mahmud, hastily collected what forces he could and prepared to defend his capital. By bringing forward only an insignificant portion of his army, the invader induced him to give battle just outside the walls of Delhi. He was com- pletely defeated and the conquerors entered the city, which, it need hardly be said, was ruthlessly plundered. There was no power in India capable of withstand- ing Timur's further advance had he wished to pene- trate to the south; but having easily made himself master of the most powerful state in the peninsula, he did not think it worth his while to attack the smaller ones, and, having collected all the spoil that he could lay hands on, he left the smoking ruins of Delhi and returned to his own city by way of Afghan- istan. Mahmud Tughlak, who had fled after the battle, now returned to his desolated city and attempted in vain to restore its prosperity. Timur, after spending some time in his palace at Samarcand, decided to complete the humiliation of the Moslem states in Western Asia which had taken the place of the Baghdad Khalifate, and so he again turned his steps westward. Persia and Mesopotamia were soon subdued; Syria and North Arabia were wrested from the Mamluks; but in Egypt itself they were still able to defy him. Returning to the East again, Timur erected a huge pyramid of skulls amidst the deserted 96 THE LATER MONGOLS AND TAMERLANE ruins of Baghdad, and vigorously recruited his army, which had been sadly reduced by the conflict with the Mamluks. With some hesitation he now formed the design of The Osmanli crushing the rapidly-growing power of the Ottoman Turks. Turks, whose Sultan, Bayezid (Bajazet), surnamed the Thunderer from the rapidity of his warlike move- Bayezid the ments, had subjugated to the Osmanli yoke all the Thunderer. smaller Turkish states, and was extending his con- quests over the greater part of Asia Minor, Macedonia, Servia and Greece. Sigusmund, the brave King of Hungary, with the Knights of St John of Jerusalem, and some Polish and French allies, undertook a new crusade to drive the Moslems from Europe, and laid siege to Nicopolis. Bayezid, who was in Asia at the time, hastened to come to the rescue, and, owing to the folly of the French nobles, who refused obedience 1396. to Sigusmund and charged wildly into the enemies' lines, the Christians sustained a crushing defeat under the walls of the city they were attacking. The victor now meditated the capture of Con- stantinople, to which city, with a few miles of adjacent territory, the Byzantine Empire was reduced; but in the midst of his preparations for the siege he was called away by the news that the subduer of Asia, having declared war on the Ottoman Empire by capturing Siwas (Sebaste), was advancing to attack him. The two conquerors met at Angora. The Otto- Battle of man Turks were routed by the Tatars and their Angora, 1402. Sultan became a prisoner. Timur overran all the possessions of the Osmanlis in Asia, and to under- mine their power he restored to independence the Turkish kingdoms which Bayezid had annexed. He wished to carry his victorious standards over the Bosphorus into Europe, but, though master of the greater part of Asia, he had not a single ship, and the Turks and the Byzantines united for once in refusing to lend him any. Thus Europe was saved by a G 97 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1405. narrow strait, less than a mile across, from a barbarian inroad which must have inflicted on her greater suffer- ing than she had known since the days of Attila. I Bayezid died in captivity, but his youngest son, Mohammed or Mahomet 2 I., in spite of a civil war with his brothers, recovered his power and even shifted his capital to a city (Adrianople) in Europe itself. Timur had effected nothing permanent; he had merely checked for a short time the power of the Turks, and probably lengthened the life of the Greek Empire by about half a century. After his return to Samarcand, in 1404, he prepared to invade China, and it is toler- ably certain that Yonglo could have offered little effectual resistance to the conqueror of the Turks, but happily the invader died on the way and China was saved. Timur had contented himself with the title of Sultan, or Amir, though some of his subjects bore the more honourable one of Khan. Turkestan con- tinued to be ruled by his descendants, but their mutual animosities plunged them into endless civil wars, and the country enjoyed no prosperity. The rest of his Empire, if the word can in any sense be extended to his rule over the wide territories which he had desolated, speedily broke off. It may be doubted whether, in the whole course of history, any one man ever inflicted so much suffering on his fellow-creatures as Timur the Tatar. On the other hand, it is only fair to add that he was much beloved by his own soldiers, that his own territory was, during his lifetime, quiet and orderly, if not contented, and that he was not by any means entirely devoid of intellectual tastes. I The story of the Sultan having been carried about in a cage by his captor, which is a prominent feature of Marlow's famous play, has long been discredited. 2 Mahomet is the Turkish form of the Arabic word Mohammed. 98 CHAPTER XVI A NEW ERA. THE PORTUGUESE BREAK IN ON THE SECLUSION OF ASIA Chinese Affairs-The Voyage of Vasco da Gama and its Results- Prince Henry the Navigator-Portuguese Enterprise-Almeida -The Moslems defeated-Albuquerque-Goa seized and occupied-Other Portuguese Stations in the Far East-Great- ness of Portugal-Decline-Revolt of the Natives. AFTER the defeat of the Kalmucks (p. 88) the Chinese Empire continued on the whole to enjoy considerable prosperity, though there were constant frontier wars, and it was impossible to get a fixed boundary against the restless tribes without. To secure the north the Great Wall was anxiously repaired and strengthened by loop lines in several important places. Hami in Turkestan, which for about a century Central Asia. had been garrisoned as an outpost by the Mings, was captured by a Tatar chief of Turfan, named Hahema, who was, however, eventually expelled. Owing to corruption in the government there was also a disturbance in Hainan about the year 1500. Hainan. The island had been annexed for the Han Dynasty, III B.C. in III B.C., by Lupoteh, but the Chinese were content to administer the sea-coast, leaving the different tribes of Lis practically independent in the interior. Some of these aborigines, distinguished as the Shu-li, have adopted a certain measure of civilisation, and carry on trade with the Chinese. The Sheng-li are still savages. On the present occasion the revolt was put down by native levies without much difficulty. Circ. 1500 A.D. According to a census taken about the same time, the population of China was then only about fifty- 99 UorM A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1516. three millions. In 1516 Rafael Perestrello, a Portu- guese navigator, landed in China, the first who ever sailed thither under a European flag. I This was the beginning of an entirely new phase of Asiatic history. Hitherto the sea has been but little heard of; the largest and most important cities. had almost always been well inland, powerful empires. had possessed no navies, and although small Arab vessels and Chinese junks had coasted along the southern shores of the continent for trade, and occasionally for war, and piracy had been common in almost every sea, the ocean as a political factor hardly existed. When, in 1498, Vasco da Gama Gama, 1498. doubled the Cape of Good Hope all this was changed. The ocean became a highway of commerce, seaside cities obtained an importance they had never known before, large and flourishing ports grew up on what had been desolate shores; many islands off the coasts, hitherto little noticed, sprang into prominence. Vasco da The more adventurous spirits of Europe, incited by stories of untold wealth, began to seek a new outlet for their activities in the East in ever-increasing numbers. Trade between the countries round the Mediterranean and Southern Asia, begun by the Phoenicians before the days of Solomon, had never entirely ceased, but its amount was inconsiderable, and on the establishment of the Turkish Empire it had dropped almost to vanishing point. Commerce with Europe now began to become important and its increase was rapid. The easier intercourse and largely-augmented trade between Europe and Asia would have been in any case fraught with important consequences to both continents, but the new mari- time activity of Europe was to bring about still more significant results. I Their superiority on the sea availed the Sungs nothing in their con- test with the Kins. Genghis Khan and Timur did not possess fleets at all. Kublai Khan's naval armaments only brought him much disaster. 100 A NEW ERA The relations of alien nations to one another, when European Con- anything brings them face to face, have seldom or quest of Asia. never been peaceful for any considerable period of time; a trial of strength becomes inevitable, and in this case the result was not long doubtful. Almost as soon as they landed in India the Portuguese set in motion a wave of foreign conquest which has steadily rolled on, and which seems destined to subside only when no independent native Government survives on the mainland of Asia. But, as in the case of all new movements which have affected the course of history, no sudden changes were produced in Asia when the Cape was doubled; on the contrary, for many years, the course of its history went on as if nothing of the kind had happened, and indeed the most powerful Empire which has ever established itself in India had not begun to exist at the time. One of the first to inspire the Portuguese nation Prince Henry with a zeal for distant explorations was the famous the Navigator. Prince Henry the Navigator, son of John I. of Portugal, and grandson of John of Gaunt. He first distinguished himself by his bravery at the siege of Ceuta, on the coast of Morocco in 1415. Subse- quently establishing his headquarters on the rocky promontory of Sagres, he dispatched expeditions to the south by which Madeira and the Azores were discovered, and the African coast was explored about as far as Sierra Leone. By improving the rig of his vessels and training efficient crews, he paved the way for much longer voyages. In 1460 he died. It was during the reign of King Emmanuel the Portuguese Fortunate (1495-1521), who was himself chiefly taken Colonies. up with attempts to unite the crown of Castile to his own, that the Portuguese began to build up a vast colonial empire in America, Africa and Asia. Vasco da Gama, having doubled the Cape of Good Vasco da Hope, landed at Calicut in 1498, and although the Gama. Arabs, unwilling to lose their monopoly of trade, did 1498. ΙΟΙ A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Cabral. 1500. 1503. what they could to oppose him, he was well received by the people, and carried back a friendly letter from the Zamorin, or Sea Rajah, of Malabar to the King of Portugal. Two years later, Pedro Alvares Cabral was sent to conquer and convert the Malabar coast; on his way out he was driven by stress of weather to the coast of America, and became the discoverer of Brazil, but eventually he arrived safely in India. In Albuquerque. 1503, Alfonso d'Albuquerque the greatest and perhaps the best of all the officers the Portuguese have sent out to the East-rendered valuable assist- ance to the King of Cochin, in Travancore, and got leave in return to build a fort on the shore, thus laying the foundation of the Portuguese power in the country. A couple of years later, to secure the per- manence of the position already won, Francisco d'Almeida was appointed by the King first Viceroy of the Portuguese possessions in India. Cabral, on his arrival, had declared war against the Arab traders by the destruction of some of their shipping, though they themselves are accused by the Portuguese of having provoked the attack. The Mamluk Sultan of Egypt took up their cause, and in 1508 dispatched a fleet under Emir Husain to expel the Christian intruders from Asia. After gaining a victory over Almeida's son, Lourenco, who was killed in the action, the united Egyptian and Arab fleet was, in Destruction of 1509, routed off Diu by Almeida himself. Almeida. 1505. 1508. the Mamluk Fleet, 1509. 1509. This victory secured the control of the Indian Ocean to the Portuguese, for though the Turks, after their conquest of Egypt (p. 74), sent their fleets to restore Moslem supremacy in the Eastern seas, and penetrated as far as Malacca, they were never able to effect anything permanent against the Christians. To secure the control of the whole Indian Ocean, Almeida seized and fortified a line of stations down the east coast of Africa. In 1509, Albuquerque himself was appointed to 102 A NEW ERA supersede him. He had, in the meantime, been cruis- ing round the coasts of Persia and Arabia; in 1507 he reduced Socotra, and a few months later he re- ceived the submission of Ormuz in the Persian Gulf, though he was not able permanently to retain it. For some time Almeida refused to relinquish his authority, but on the arrival of a new fleet from Europe, under a high noble, Fernando Coutinho, he was compelled to do so, and Albuquerque, as soon as he had established his power, set about putting the Government on a firm basis. He sent a force to seize 1510. Calicut. Coutinho insisted on taking command of the expedition, and proved his incompetency for the post; his army was routed, and he himself was slain. The new governor, who had himself been wounded in the action, now turned his attention to Goa, which was at Goa. that time probably the most important trading centre on the whole west coast. In 1469 it had been 1469. captured by the Bahmani Empire (p. 95), and when that fell had passed into the hands of the Bijapur kingdom (p. 109). When Albuquerque's fleet ap- peared in the harbour the people did not dare to resist and he entered the city in triumph; but he was soon driven out again by the Sultan of Bijapur, who, how- ever, could not hold his conquest for long, and Goa was recaptured by the foreigners. Albuquerque, by conciliating the natives, and by always taking the part of the Hindus against the Moslems, firmly secured his position. Goa was made the capital of the Portuguese Empire in India, and it became one of the richest and most magnificent cities in the East, far surpassing Lisbon itself. The power of his country in India being successfully provided for, Albuquerque hastened to secure it further east as well, and took possession of Malacca, which was bravely defended by the Malays; the Sultan, driven from his kingdom, fled to the south end of the peninsula and became the ancestor of the Rajahs or Sultans of Johor. 103 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Red Sea. 1513. 1512 1515. 1517. Albuquerque's next care was to secure the com- mand of the entrance to the Red Sea, and in 1513 he attacked Aden but was repulsed by the Arabs, though he successfully explored part of the sea and then re- captured and fortified Ormuz. His countrymen afterwards took possession of Muscat and other towns in the same neighbourhood. Albuquerque was in constant fear of the Turkish fleet, though in point of fact there was little reason for his alarm. To deal a death-blow at Islam he formed the wild plan of diverting the Nile from Egypt, and so destroy- ing the prosperity of that country for ever, and also of making a raid on Medina and desecrating the very tomb of the Prophet itself. In 1515 he died in Goa, and for many years the natives made pilgrimages to his tomb, imploring his spirit to protect them from the tyranny of his successors. The tide of Portuguese enterprise flowed rapidly onwards; all Moslem fleets were practically annihilated, the whole coast-line of Southern Asia lay open to the attacks of the Christians. In 1512 Francisco Senao discovered the rich Spice Islands or Moluccas, which were occupied at once, and a governor was appointed for them. In 1515 Lopes Soares built a fort at Colombo, leave having been obtained from the King of Kotta, one of the petty princes of Ceylon, in whose territory it lay, to establish a trading station there; when the foreigners had once intrenched their position the Sinhalese tried to expel them in vain. A couple of years later, Fernando Peres Andrada established himself at Canton, and several fruitless embassies were sent to Peking. Trading stations. were soon established at Amoy and Ningpo, and a firm position was secured on the Chinese coast. In 1517, under the excuse of drying some goods damaged in a storm, which had been intended as presents for the Emperor, the Portuguese landed on the island of Macao, and seized and fortified part of a small 104 A NEW ERA peninsula. Finding themselves unable to get rid of the barbarians, the Chinese authorities, some years later, built a wall across the peninsula to shut out the Portuguese Settlement. Japan was first visited by the Portuguese in 1542, 1542. the earliest arrivals being shipwrecked on the coast of Kiusiu. The strangers gained the favour of the people by their medical knowledge, and by giving them a matchlock gun, which served as a model to the Japanese in the manufacture of many more. Portugal was now in the zenith of her power. In Greatness of America she ruled the vast territory of Brazil; in Portugal. Africa she claimed the whole coast outside the Mediterranean from Morocco to the Red Sea; the shores of Asia and its islands were dotted with her settlements from Arabia to China; the Eastern trade, of which she had a monopoly for many years, brought with it untold wealth. But in the midst of this extraordinary prosperity signs of decay were only too apparent her home government was rotten and corrupt; the population of Portugal itself was so reduced that slaves had to be imported to do the field work; there was no attempt to govern the Empire with any other object than that of enriching the mother country. With the honourable exception of Dom Joas de De Castro. Castro, an intimate friend of Francis Xavier, who 1545. was appointed Viceroy in 1545, the successors of Albuquerque made the Portuguese rule more and more detested by the natives. The Portuguese more than any other European Eurasians. race, with the possible exception of their near neigh- bours, the Spaniards, have ever shown themselves willing to intermarry with the natives of other continents. This circumstance caused a large popula- tion of half-castes to spring up in their Eastern settlements, and more especially in Goa. The Eurasians, having no fixed occupation, and being 105 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Religious Per- secutions. Native Rising. 1567. but slightly controlled by the Portuguese officials, who by this time had become hopelessly corrupt- for indeed the highest positions in the Government were openly sold-took to piracy as a profession, and they soon made the Indian Ocean unsafe for native But what was still more ruinous- commerce. everyone outside the fold of the Church of Rome was treated as an enemy to Christ and to Portugal; no effort was spared, and almost any method likely to succeed was used to convert the natives. An Inquisition was established at Goa, on the advice of St Francis Xavier himself, with the primary object of rooting out Judaism; the Christians of the ancient Malabar Church (p. 29) were forced into com- munion with the Papacy, while in Ceylon a famous Buddhist relic,2 one of the teeth of Gautama, was solemnly cast into the sea by the Archbishop of Goa. The Moslems had shown more tolerance, and were far less hated by the Hindus. I About 1567 matters came to a crisis. The Portu- guese had rendered themselves equally odious to Moslem and Hindu, and there was a simultaneous rising of their subjects all over the East. The princes of Western India, under the leadership of Adel Khan and Nizam- ul-Mulk, two of the Mogul viceroys, made a league to expel the hated foreigners, and were joined by the Achinese (p. 132) and the Ternatees (p. 131). The movement, however, resulted in a triumph for European arms. Almost everywhere the Portuguese defeated armies many times larger than their own. More than one enormous force sent by the Sultan of Achin to attack Malacca was practically annihilated, though the Ternatees recovered their freedom. This was effected by the Synod of Diamper in 1599, which de- nounced Nestorius, extinguished for a time the Malabar Church, and ordered its sacred books and ecclesiastical ornaments to be burned. 2 This relic has since been miraculously restored, and is still shown in the Temple of the Tooth at Kandy. 106 A NEW ERA These victories, however, did nothing to support a Decay of falling cause; no attempts were made to improve the Portugal. Government. The home country was too small to stand the enormous drain on its resources, and the sixty 1580-1640. years' captivity during which Portugal remained subject to Spain, beginning in 1580, when Philip II. of Spain seized the neighbouring state and all its colonies, gave a fatal blow to the Eastern Empire of Portugal. 107 CHAPTER XVII THE MOGUL EMPIRE The Uzbegs Sheibani Dynasty-Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties at Delhi-Deccan Sultans-Baber invades India-Battle of Panipat -Moslem Missions-Humayun-Reign of Akbar-Jehangir. I WHEN the Empire of the Kiptchaks was declining The Uzbegs. (p. 91), the Uzbegs, another branch of the Mongols, who occupied the country east of the Caspian, rose into prominence. Abulkhair, in the fifteenth century, united their tribes and laid the foundations of their power; his grandson, Sheibani Khan, about the year 1500, by a series of conquests, won for himself an Empire extending from the Caspian to the frontiers of China. He wrenched Samarcand itself, with Herat, Kandahar and other cities, from Baber, the fifth in descent from Timur, who, in 1494, had succeeded to what remained of his conquests, and this ruler was unable to gain any permanent advantage over the aggressor. Unfortunately for himself, however, Shei- bani next made a raid on Khorasan, thus provoking Shah Ismael, the powerful ruler of Persia, who inflicted a crushing defeat on his forces near Merv. Baber was thus able to recover his lost possessions, and the Uzbeg Empire was reduced to narrow limits, with its head- quarters at Bokhara. 1598. A little later its power was again increased to some extent by Abdullah Khan, but in 1598 Baki A very ancient city, believed to have been founded by Alexander the Great. 108 THE MOGUL EMPIRE Mohammed, Khan of Astrakhan, and a descendant of Timur, overthrew the Sheibani Dynasty altogether, and established that of the Astarkhanides in its place; he also succeeded in defeating the Persians, under Shah Abbas. Later on, the territory of Khiva became an independent khanate, but the Astarkhanide Dynasty retained Bokhara itself for about a century. The expedition of Timur had shown to the world the extraordinary weakness of the Delhi Sultanate, just as the expedition of Cyrus the Younger had exposed the rottenness of the Persian Empire nineteen centuries before; and Baber, like another Alexander, dissatisfied with his own kingdom, determined to take advantage of the fact to found a new empire for himself. He had established his capital at Kabul, and extended his power over most of Central Asia, includ- ing Kashgar, but he intended to shift his own residence into India, and in 1525 he marched on Delhi. Mahmud Tughlak, whom we left disconsolate Sayyid among the ruins of Delhi (p. 96), was succeeded by Dynasty. the Sayyid Dynasty, which, for about forty years, maintained a feeble rule over Delhi and a few miles of the surrounding country; then Beloli, an Afghan Lodi Dynasty. of the Lodi tribe, seized the government and made himself Sultan, the first of the Lodi Dynasty. His successors transferred the capital from Delhi to Agra, but their authority did not extend very far beyond the two cities and their territories. Meanwhile, the Bahmani Kingdom (p. 95), torn by Deccan constant civil wars between its Sunni and Shia in- Sultanates founded. habitants, was falling into decay, and on its downfall (1484-1512.) the Deccan became partitioned among five small Moslem states, all of them set up by adventurers from without between the years 1484 and 1512. The first established was the Imad Shahi Dynasty of Berar, with its capital at Ellichpur, founded by a Hindu from Vijayanagar; the next the Adil Shahi Dynasty, with its capital Bijapur, founded by a son of 109 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1525. The Mogul Empire. 1526. Moslem Missions. the Ottoman Sultan Amurath II.; next the Nizam Shahi Dynasty, with capital Ahmadnagar, founded by another Hindu from Vijayanagar, next the Barid Shahi Dynasty, with capital Bidar, founded by a slave ; and lastly the Kutab Shahi Dynasty, with capital Golconda, founded by a Turkoman. The Deccan Sultanates, though sometimes at war with one another, were bound together by a loose confederation, and they acted together against their external foes. At the battle of Panipat, in which cannon were used, Baber defeated Ibrahim, the last Sultan of the Lodi Dynasty, and seized the government for himself. Hoping probably to be able to found a new Hindu Empire, the Rajputs of Chitor made war on him. The Turkish invader was in great danger, but he had known adversity before, and he showed himself fully equal to the occasion. Though he had formerly been a somewhat lax Mohammedan, he now called. on all true Moslems to join him in a holy war against the infidels; this gained him considerable support. The Rajputs were routed at Sikri, near Agra, and Baber, now undisputed master of a large part of Northern India, proclaimed himself Sultan of Delhi, founder of the Mughal or Mogul Empire, which lasted, in name at any rate, until the Indian Mutiny. Thus, after a series of bloody wars, in many of which Moslem princes had fought with each other, Islam had obtained political supremacy over most of Central Asia and India. New centres of learn- ing grew up, among which Bokhara and Samarcand were pre-eminent, and from them mullahs went forth to preach the faith in all directions. Although no ruler east of Persia claimed to be himself the successor of the Prophet, the authority of the Khalif in those parts was but nominal, and they practically formed a separate Mohammedan world, much as North Africa and (until 1492) Spain did in the West. By the missionary efforts of the Arab traders and IIO THE MOGUL EMPIRE others, the islands off the south and east coasts of Asia were also becoming Moslem. The Malays, who are now mostly Mohammedans, began to accept Islam in the ninth century. Ibn Khafif (as the Moorish traveller of the fourteenth century, Mohammed Ibn Batuta, records) introduced the religion into Ceylon in the tenth century, and founded the pilgrimage to Adam's Peak, a mountain which is also a sacred place to the Buddhists. A mullah from Mecca, Ismael, preached in Sumatra, and in the thirteenth century the Achinese (p. 132), the most warlike of its people, were converted. In Java, Rahmat, son of an Arab by a Siamese woman, built the first mosque, and about 1470 Islam became 1470. politically triumphant there; so much so that in 1479 the Moslems attacked, and altogether destroyed, the Hindu kingdom of Madjapahit (p. 25). By the end of the sixteenth century Mohammedanism had reached Ternate, the Moluccas, Celebes and other islands; the Spaniards succeeded in expelling it from the Philippines. The new religion introduced a certain amount of civilisation, and more settled governments than had existed before were in some places estab- lished, but it gave the islands no bond of political union, and they continued to be divided up into countless petty kingdoms, some of whose rulers now assumed the title of Sultan. The great bulk of the savage tribes were not affected by the movement at all. In many places Islam is at present very corrupt, Java. having been curiously grafted on to old native super- stitions. This is especially the case in Java, whose inhabitants exchanged Buddhism for Mohammedan- ism without any very perfect knowledge of either system. There was no outburst of fanaticism and no wholesale destruction of images; the Buddhist temples. were neglected but not destroyed. That the Javanese were never very fervent Moslems appears from the 11 I A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1530. Humayun. Sher Shah. 1542. 1556. Akbar. 1560. fact that, though their Buddhist and Hindu temples are hardly second to any in the world, their mosques are the plainest wooden sheds. Baber died in 1530, leaving his newly-won Empire to his son, Humayun, but the new Sultan, though he began his reign by a glorious campaign against some of the Rajputs, soon showed himself unequal to the task of maintaining order among his turbulent subjects. The Afghans, under Sher Shah, a native of Bengal, rose against him, and after suffering a disastrous defeat at their hands, he had to flee ignominiously into Persia, whose Shah (Tamasp), however, received him well. Sher Shah himself ascended the throne of Delhi and ruled well for several years. It seemed as if the descendants of Timur had been permanently driven from India, but in 1542, during Humayun's exile, which lasted more than twelve years, his son Akbar, destined to be the second founder of the Mogul Empire, was born. Furnished by his Persian host with a new army, Humayun at length succeeded in restoring his power in Afghanistan by the capture of Kabul and Kanda- har, and towards the end of his life, when Sher Shah was dead, Bairam Khan, a warlike Turkoman noble, who had joined the service of the Mogul Empire, recovered some part of the Indus valley for him. He was thus able to return to India, but in 1556, only a few months after his restoration, he died by an acci- dent. Akbar, a boy of fourteen, was in camp at the time, serving against enemies in the Punjab with Bairam, who, having saved the state from destruc- tion, naturally became regent of the Mogul Empire. As he grew up, however, Akbar showed himself in every way a worthy successor of his grandfather, and while still very young, in 1560, he took the govern- ment into his own hands. The regent resisted, but found himself powerless. After an abortive attempt to carve out for himself an independent kingdom in I 12 THE MOGUL EMPIRE Malwa, he threw himself on Akbar's mercy and was well treated, but to prevent his being politically dangerous he was sent on a pilgrimage to Mecca. He had, however, made a good many enemies, and he was murdered on the way. Once firmly seated on the throne, Akbar began the series of conquests which have made his name famous. Conquests of After establishing his authority over the Punjab he Akbar. made war on the brave Rajputs and captured their stronghold, Chitor-not the first time it had been. stormed by Moslem soldiers. Oudh and Gwalior were next subdued and annexed by his lieutenants. Then, himself leading an army into Gujarat, he de- feated the last Ahmadabad Sultan (p. 95) and took possession of his territory. Bengal, whose Afghan government was in a state of decay (p. 95), next fell 1576. into his hands. Afghanistan, which had revolted, was secured by the capture of Kabul, then, as now, its chief town, and of Kandahar. Kashmir, which had passed under Moslem dominion at the end of the thirteenth century, and whose sovereign in the time of Timur (and one of the smaller rulers who sub- mitted to the great conqueror) had been Sikandar the Idol-breaker, a persecutor of the Hindus, was likewise annexed, while the mouth of the Indus was secured by the conquest of Sind. Towards the end of his life, Akbar turned his attention to the petty Sultans of the Deccan, and wrested from them the state of Berar. The vast Empire thus built up, larger, probably, than had ever before existed in India, was most care- Policy of fully organised. Amirs, absolutely responsible for all Akbar. their actions to the Sultan-or Great Mogul, as the sovereigns of this Line are usually called-v -were set over the conquered provinces; while, to minimise the hatred between Moslem and Hindu, a feudal system was instituted to include them both on an equal foot- ing, Amir being the title of the highest grade. 1 H 113 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Religion of Akbar. The land was accurately surveyed and public roads were constructed; the taxes were carefully arranged so as not to be oppressive; a uniform system of weights and measures was established for the whole Empire; the marriage laws were reformed, sixteen and fourteen being fixed as the minimum ages for men and women respectively to marry. The use of wine was per- mitted though drunkenness was severely punished. To conciliate his Hindu subjects, the Sultan forbade the slaughter of cattle, but he attempted to prevent the practice of widow-burning. Order was main- tained by an efficient police. The capital was fixed at Agra. The most famous of Akbar's ministers was Abulfazl (murdered in 1602), who has left an admirable ac- count of his sovereign and his work in two books, Akbar Nameh, or Book of Akbar, and Ayin i Akbari, or Institutes of Akbar. Much was done to foster learn- ing, and schools were established for children of all classes. The care which Akbar took to promote the welfare of all the nations subject to him, led him to take an interest in other religions than his own. Jesuits from Goa were invited to visit him, and he also studied the teachings of Hinduism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism. He had always been very broad-minded, in no way sympathising with the fanatical intolerance of Islam, and the result of his researches was that he tried to establish a new religion of his own, embracing what- ever seemed best in all the others; it was a pure theism with a simple ritual, the sun being adored as an emblem of the Deity. But the new system was a failure and never spread among the people, while the Sultan's apostasy caused, or at any rate formed a convenient excuse for, several risings under his own son, Jehangir, and Akbar at last returned to Moham- medanism. In 1605 he died, probably poisoned at the instigation of his son. 114 THE MOGUL EMPIRE Jehangir, on succeeding to the throne, removed Jehangir. the capital to Lahore. His reign was short, and he 1605. did no more than maintain the Empire unimpaired; one of his wives gained so great an influence over him that even the coinage was struck in her name. 115 Go-Daigo. 1318. 1333. 1334. CHAPTER XVIII THE ASHIKAGA SHOGUNATE IN JAPAN Go-Daigo-Civil Wars-The Ashikaga Shogunate-Portuguese Navigators-Francis Xavier-Japanese Christians-Nobunaga. AFTER the repulse of Kublai Khan's expeditions (p. 79) the internal condition of Japan had not im- proved. In 1318 an active man of thirty, Go-Daigo, became Emperor, and he resolved to destroy the power of the insolent Hojo family by force of arms. Almost at once he was taken prisoner by his enemies and sent to the Oki Islands, but after a time he found means to escape, and raising an army he marched on Kyoto. Nitta Yoshisada, a commander in the Hojo army, refused to bear arms against his sovereign, and even went over to his side. The people readily joined their Emperor, and he was able to capture and burn Kama- kura, the city of the Shoguns (p. 52), thus destroying the power of the Hojo. A chance seemed to present itself of restoring the Emperor's power, but the court was hopelessly corrupt and a new war soon broke out between Nitta and Taka-uji-Ashikaga, another of the generals who had helped Go-Daigo. The latter was successful and the Emperor had to flee to a monastery. More bloody wars followed, in which Nitta fell. The Ashikaga family gained complete control of the government. Taka-uji set up a new Emperor and got himself made Shogun, his heirs succeeding him in the 116 THE ASHIKAGA SHOGUNATE IN JAPAN office. One of the Ashikaga Shoguns, Yoshimitsu, (1368-1393.) made himself for ever infamous in the eyes of his countrymen by accepting the title of King of Japan from the Emperor of China. During this period the country was indeed in a most deplorable state. There was a double succession of Emperors, one dynasty, the Northern, living in the palace at Kyoto, the other, the Southern, embracing the successors of Go-Daigo, living practically in exile and in a state of great poverty, but nevertheless holding the regalia of Japan, and considered by its historians as the lawful line The constant wars had desolated the country; the farmers hardly dared to sow their crops, so great was the general feeling of insecurity. The feudal daimios ruled their districts almost like independent sovereigns, and constantly waged war with one another. Native pirates swarmed in every sea of the Japanese archi- pelago, and attacked foreign lands as well. Some of these even penetrated as far as Siam, in which country a considerable number of Japanese settled (p. 170). Things were at their worst in Japan when the Portuguese Portuguese navigators began to arrive. The foreigners Navigators. were welcomed on the whole, and a flourishing trade soon grew up. One of the earliest of them, Pinto, took on board his vessel two Japanese fugitives, Hansiro (called by the Portuguese, Anger) and his servant, whom he conveyed to Malacca. Here he met Francis Xavier, who had lately come out to the Francis Xavier. East as a missionary. Xavier was a Spaniard, but he had studied in Paris, and, coming under the influence of Ignatius Loyola, he joined the new Jesuit order. Animated by a new zeal, he soon formed the design of proceeding to Palestine to convert the Moslems, but, war breaking out between Venice and Turkey, he was prevented, and so he went out to India instead, landing at Goa in 1542. Here he was well received 1542. by the Archbishop, and he preached with considerable success in India, Ceylon, the Spice Islands and 117 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1552. 1573. Nobunaga. Malacca. The Japanese whom he met in the latter place made him very anxious to carry the Gospel to their country also, and they themselves were sent to Goa, where they duly became converts. Xavier afterwards sailed with them to Japan and landed in Kagoshima, where he preached and gained some adherents, though he soon removed to Firando. He visited many other places in Japan, including Kyoto itself, and succeeded in founding a native church. When he thought he could safely leave it he returned to Goa and then to Malacca. It was his earnest desire to visit China next, but he had to put up with long delays, and when he did at length manage to start thither he died on the voyage at Chang-chuang (Sancian), a small island near Canton. Thus ended the career of the best known and perhaps the noblest of all the Jesuits. In 1622 he was canonised, and miracles are attributed to him, but in his letters he nowhere claims them. His work went on. Jesuit missionaries were sent all over the earth, and did far more than any others to secure the position of the Church of Rome beyond Europe. In Japan, Kosmé de Torres took up the work. The Christians under his care became a factor to be reckoned with in the politics of the country, and so greatly did their numbers increase that when, in 1573, Nagasaki, which, on account of its magnificent harbour, had become the headquarters of the foreign trade, was given over to the Portuguese, it was a Christian city with many churches, some of them built on the sites of Buddhist temples. The person who was to put an end to the disgrace- ful anarchy of the Ashikaga Shogunate, and to restore some sort of peace to Japan, came from among the daimios, who at the time, as we have seen, paid no attention to the wishes either of the Emperor or of the Shogun in the government of their territories. Ota Nobunaga, whose grandfather had been a Shinto 118 THE ASHIKAGA SHOGUNATE IN JAPAN priest, was descended from the Taira clan, and he inherited a small estate in the province of Owari. Realising the disorders of the country, he soon set about extending his authority, and with the help of his able lieutenant, Hideyoshi, he conquered several of his neighbours and appropriated their lands. Then a disputed succession to the Shogunate, the holder of the office having been murdered, gave him a chance 1567. of interfering in the central government, and he got Yoshiaki, a younger brother of the murdered man, re- cognised as Shogun, at the same time securing the office of Vice-Shogun for himself, and appointing Hideyoshi Hideyoshi. commander-in-chief of the troops in the capital. This man, overcoming the suspicions caused by the presence of an army in Kyoto, made himself very popular by putting the city in order and restoring its dilapidated buildings. But Nobunaga's enemies in the state were many and powerful, and he was occupied in ceaseless wars with them. On one occasion, when some of them ventured to march against Kyoto itself, they received every encouragement and help from the turbulent monks of the Enriaku-ji monastery among the moun- tains near Lake Biwa, who were highly dissatisfied with the strong government which so curtailed their freedom. Their attack on the capital was repelled, and the incident, with a good many similar ones, caused Nobunaga to favour the spread of Christianity, and he even sent an embassy to the Pope. In 1573 Yoshiaki, the last of the Ashikaga Shoguns, who had shown himself restless on account of the very sub- ordinate position in the government he was obliged to take, was deposed. Shortly afterwards, Nobunaga was assailed by some of his own adherents, apparently merely because of an insult he had offered in jest to one of them during a banquet, when he was probably drunk, and he had to commit suicide. : 119 7 • CHAPTER XIX THE CAREER OF HIDEYOSHI Hideyoshi succeeds Nobunaga-The Castle at Osaka-Christian Converts-Affairs of China-Wanli-The Coreans-Japanese Invasion of Corea-Second Invasion-Death of Hideyoshi. NOBUNAGA's grandson, a child named Samboshi, suc- ceeded him, but the real power, as might have been expected, fell into the hands of Hideyoshi, who, how- ever, was not able to establish his authority without a severe struggle. Owing to his lowly birth, it was impossible for him to become Shogun, but he received the title of Kwambaku, or regent. The internal peace of the country was secured under a vigorous administration, and the princes who refused to submit to it were warred down. The most prominent of these was Shimazu, head of the famous Satsuma clan in Kiusiu. Against him a great expedition was dispatched, and gradually all his territory was taken from him except the castle of Kagoshima itself; instead of partitioning his lands among his own soldiers, however, Hideyoshi restored a large part of them on condition that they should be held as a grant from the Emperor. Hojo Ujimasa, who continued to defy the central government at Odawara, was likewise defeated, and his castle taken; his lands, comprising about eight provinces, were taken from him and given to Hideyoshi's brother-in-law, Ieyasu, who was requested to make Yedo (the modern I20 THE CAREER OF HIDEYOSHI Tokyo), then a town of little importance, his place of residence. For himself, Hideyoshi built the magnificent castle The Castle of of Osaka, which still remains, although the wooden Osaka. superstructure was burned during the war of the Restoration of 1868. It lies in a plain some miles from the hills, and in order to obtain the necessary building material it is said that a very valuable prize was offered for the largest single block of stone that could be quarried and conveyed to the site. A great many stones of all sizes were thus forthcoming, which were used in the building, but no one except the man who brought the largest of all received any payment. Whether true or false, the story illustrates well the stinginess which in some matters characterised Hideyoshi. Japanese castles are quite unlike those of any other country. They are surrounded by colossal moats, whose sides are faced with granite or stone walls, and the earth dug from them is used to raise the level of all the ground enclosed. This is usually very considerable in extent, for, as there never were any walled cities in Japan, the castles were the only fortified places in the land till quite lately. There is usually an inner moat enclosing the central part of the castle, in which is the keep-tower surrounded by a third moat, and itself merely an earth core faced with stone. The gates are double, the inner opening being at right angles to the outer one, and instead of draw- bridges they are approached by solid causeways across the moat. The superstructures which are built over the inner wall of the moat are picturesque wooden towers, often several storeys high, and with widely overhanging roofs. These timber towers, so easily set on fire, are a great contrast to the solid granite walls on which they stand. There being good grounds to suspect the missionaries of political designs-suspicions which were naturally not weakened by the experiences of other countries- 12 I A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1 Chinese Affairs, Wanli. all foreign teachers were ordered to leave Japan, and on their failing to do so, six Franciscans and three Jesuits were put to death at Nagasaki, to which city foreign trade had been restricted. In 1591 Hideyoshi surrendered his title of Kwambaku and took the new one of Taiko, by which he is generally known; the whole of the Japanese Empire having been forced to recognise his authority, he formed the ambitious pro- ject of subjugating Corea and then China. China (p. 100) had meanwhile been pursuing the even tenor of her way under Emperors who were neither very good nor very bad. The Tatars made constant incursions, and one of their chiefs, Yenta, even laid siege to Taiyuen, though he afterwards submitted; the Miao-tsze (p. 7), too, rose in rebellion, and the coasts were harried by Japanese corsairs, who made an alliance with the native pirates, built a fort on the shore of Chekiang, which they held for some time, and on one occasion even besieged Nanking. But in spite of all these disturbers of her peace, China was on the whole quiet and prosperous, for it is one of the most deeply-rooted characteristics of the people that so long as his own district is not disturbed by war the ordinary Chinese does not care what is going on elsewhere, and while one city of the Empire may be given over to the flames, another only a few miles off may be totally unaffected by the disorders. In 1573 Wanli succeeded to the throne, and it was (1573-1620.) during his long reign of forty-seven years that the Japanese invasion of Corea took place, and that the Manchus (p. 140) first began seriously to encroach on the northern frontier of the Empire. Corean Affairs. The embassy which the Coreans had been accus- tomed to send to Japan had been for some years discontinued, and when a new one was at last sent it was very coldly received at Kyoto; the envoys plainly saw that Hideyoshi intended to invade their country. The Coreans hastily made what preparations they I22 THE CAREER OF HIDEYOSHI could, but their nation having been at peace for a couple of centuries, whatever military ardour they may ever have possessed had greatly decayed; their fortresses were in ruins, firearms, which had been rapidly multiplied in Japan (p. 105), were almost un- known among them, and they were quite unable to put into the field any troops capable of opposing the trained legions of Japan. The invading army was divided into two sections, The Invasion. under leaders who were independent of one another and who had little in common. Konishi Yukinaga was a young man and a Christian; many of the soldiers under him were of the same religion, and a Portuguese priest named Cespedes accompanied the expedition. Kato Kiyomasa (vir ter execrandus, in the opinion of the Jesuit writers of the time) was a strong Buddhist and a veteran soldier; but neither the Christianity of the one leader nor the Buddhism of the other pre- vented the most inhuman cruelties being perpetrated on the defenceless Coreans. Both armies landed in 1592. Fusan, which for many years had been a Japanese trading-station, and raced one another to the capital by different routes, meeting with no opposition to speak of from the natives. They entered Seoul on the same day, but by different gates. The royal family had meanwhile fled in the utmost trepidation to Ping-an, and on their way thither they had been short even of food. The invading armies continued their march northwards, and Ping-an was taken with as little difficulty as Seoul. The Japanese navy was now ordered to sail round the west coast so as to co-operate with the land forces, but it was met by the Corean fleet and defeated. The Chinese were at last roused and sent a small force to the defence of Corea, which was practically annihilated at Ping-an. This defeat caused them to send a proper force under Li-yu-sung, with the result that, though Kato's army gained an indecisive victory, Ping-an 123 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Second In- vasion. was delivered and the invaders were forced to make a hasty and inglorious retreat to the south. They concentrated at Seoul, and, ejecting all the inhabitants, they strengthened the walls and prepared to defend the city; the Chinese, attacking, were beaten off, but both sides lost heavily. Negotiations for peace followed, and were long pro- tracted; the Coreans, having no efficient army to protect their interests, were not consulted at all. The Chinese proposed that Japan should hold the southern part of Corea, and that the Taiko should receive investiture from their Emperor as King of Japan and Corea. Konishi, being a Christian, had no bonze with him, and the other Japanese were too illiterate to read the document, and so the terms were accepted in the belief that Wanli was treating the Taiko as an equal. Later on, when the proposed treaty was read in Japanese by a bonze at Kyoto, before a large assembly, Hideyoshi burst into a paroxysm of rage. The negotiations were angrily broken off, and the war was rekindled. A second invasion of Corea was the result. The same generals were reappointed, and Hideaki, a lad of sixteen, of noble birth, was set over them as nominal commander-in-chief. But the Chinese were now thoroughly aroused. Their fleet gained a victory over that of Japan. On land their forces were on the whole successful, and the invaders were forced to retreat to Urusan, a village a few miles from Fusan. There a castle, more than three miles in circuit, was hastily erected and prepared to stand a siege. The Ming general advanced to attack it, and the defenders suffered the greatest hardships; still they bravely held out, and eventually were relieved by a new force sent from Japan. After this nothing decisive was effected on either side, and on his death-bed Hide- yoshi, struck with remorse, ordered the removal of all the Japanese troops from Corea. Ieyasu, who 1 124 THE CAREER OF HIDEYOSHI succeeded to his power, had been all along opposed to the war, and the withdrawal was soon effected. Hideyoshi died in 1598. The war had brought little but disaster to all con- cerned in it. Corea was devastated in such a way that she has not even yet recovered from the blow. The hatred which her people have from very early times felt for the Japanese was increased tenfold, and the feeling survives undiminished to-day. The Japanese themselves gained nothing at all comparable to what they lost; their settlement at Fusan was shifted to a better site than it had before occupied, and many of their prisoners were settled in different parts of Japan, where they introduced useful indus- tries, fusing with the native population after a generation or two. I In Kyoto, between the Daibutsu Temple (p. 204) and the Kamo-Gawa (river), there still remains a grass mound with a stone pillar on top, under which the ears of many of the Chinese and Coreans killed in one of the last battles are buried-a ghastly monument of a savage warfare. I A number of his prisoners were settled by Kato Kiyomasa in his own town of Kumamoto (p. 244). Their descendants still make a sweetmeat resembling Turkish delight, which, though unknown (or at least very uncommon) elsewhere in Japan, is exposed for sale at every street corner in Corea. 1598. • } 125 Magellan. 1521. 1519. CHAPTER XX THE SPANIARDS, DUTCH, ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN THE INDIES Magellan Legaspi - The Philippines Cornelius Houtman Dutch Settlements Pieter Both, Governor-General - War with the Portuguese-Coen-Batavia-Fort Zealandia-Van Diemen Colony at the Cape-Dutch Rule and Policy-The Ternatees-The Achinese-Francis Drake-The British East India Company-Early Voyages-The Portuguese defeated at Surat-British Settlements-The Massacre of Amboyna- French and other India Companies-Pondicherri. THE Spaniards broke in on the Portuguese mon- opoly of the Empire of the East when, in 1521, Magellan's fleet appeared in the Indian Archipelago, having sailed thither by America, passing through the straits which still bear the great navigator's name. Magellan was by birth a Portuguese, and he had been at Malacca and other places in the East in the service of his own country, for which he had also fought in Morocco, where he received a wound which caused permanent lameness. On his return to Portugal, however, he was badly treated by the king, and in consequence transferred his allegiance to Spain. In 1519 he set out on his memorable voyage; at Zebu, one of the Philippines, he was killed in a battle with the natives. After his death the fleet went to the Moluccas and found them already occupied by the Portuguese. The Portuguese claimed sovereignty over all the islands by virtue of several Papal bulls 126 THE COLONISATION OF THE INDIES and by right of discovery, though they had done extremely little to occupy, practically nothing to rule, them. In 1493, Pope Alexander VI., himself of Spanish descent, had issued a bull fixing a boundary-line in the Atlantic between the territories of Spain and Portugal. To the latter were granted all countries east of the line not already occupied by any Christian prince, and to the former all similarly unoccupied lands to the west. But the bull ignored the fact that the earth is a sphere, and now both Spain and Portugal were right in claiming the Spice Islands under its terms, for to Spain the islands were in the far west, to Portugal in the far east. After several engagements with the new-comers, however, the Portuguese agreed to make a division, 1545. and a boundary was fixed between the respective spheres of influence of Portugal and Spain, about which there was afterwards much dispute. The Spaniards at different times exercised some sort of jurisdiction over the east peninsula of Celebes, with parts of the Sangi and Molucca groups and other islands, but the first territory they permanently occupied was the Philippines. The conquest of these The islands was begun by the famous admiral, Legaspi, in Philippines. the middle of the sixteenth century. His first step Legaspi. was to found the town of San Miguel on Zebu, an 1565. island that had been several times visited by Spanish sailors. Later on he conquered part of Luzon, founding Manila (which was built on the plan of a 1571. fair-sized city in Spain and surrounded by a wall) as the capital of the whole archipelago. There can be little doubt that the Spaniards, at that time in the height of their prosperity, had ambitious projects of repeating in the old world what they had so successfully carried out in the new, and that the Philippines were intended as a base of opera- tions against China and Japan as Cuba had been in 1 127 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA " 1580. 1580. Cornelius Houtman. 1596. 1602. the conquest of South and Central America. Legaspi himself was the first governor. The work of the missionaries greatly facilitated the subjugation of the natives, but the authority of the Government was never extended over the more remote tribes. Shortly after the annexation of the Philippines, Philip II. seized Portugal, and her vast colonial possessions consequently passed under Spanish rule; but they remained to some extent distinct from the Spanish colonies, and when in 1640 Portugal again became an independent nation, her colonies, or rather such of them as had not by that time been appropriated by other maritime nations, were restored to her. In 1580 an embassy, at the head of which was Martin Ignatius, was sent by Philip II. to the Emperor of China (Wanli), but it was not permitted to get further than Canton. In 1596 a Dutch fleet, under Cornelius Houtman, doubled the Cape and came to Sumatra and Java. Other expeditions followed, and the Dutch, having obtained their own independence, soon formed the design of building up for themselves a colonial empire. The East was not the only scene of their adventures; they made numerous settlements in the West Indies and on the American Continent, the most famous of which was New Amsterdam on the site of New York. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company was formed by the amalgamation of several private trading corporations, which were treated generously though the amalgamation was compulsory. The Portuguese and Spaniards had never founded companies, their foreign conquests being treated as the personal pro- perty of the king. In the same year a fleet, under Van der Hagen, captured the Portuguese fort of Amboyna in the Moluccas, which at once became the headquarters of the Dutch settlements in the East, and it was not long before many of the other 128 THE COLONISATION OF THE INDIES islands of the group were occupied. The Dutch policy was to make alliances with powerful native rulers whose authority over their neighbours they helped to extend on condition of their own supremacy being recognised. The most famous of these subject allies was the Sultan of Ternate, who, as we have seen (p. 106), had with difficulty thrown off the yoke of Portugal. By 1609, when Pieter Both was appointed first 1609. governor by the States-General, Dutch factories had been established in Gilolo, Ternate, Banda, Java, Sumatra and other islands, as well as in India and Ceylon, and on the coasts of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. In accordance with the custom of the age, and from necessity, almost all these were fortified. The war against the Portuguese and Spaniards was carried on with brilliant success, most of their settle- ments being captured by the Dutch. In 1602 an 1602. alliance was made with the King of Kandy, anxious to see the obnoxious Europeans driven from Ceylon, even if it was only by the help of another European power, and the Portuguese forts, one after another, fell into the hands of their enemies. In 1603 Goa itself was attacked, but the Dutch were beaten off. 1619. Batavia was founded by Jan Pieterszoon Coen, the J. P. Coen. greatest of all the builders of the Dutch Empire, who Batavia. was appointed governor in 1619, and it took the place of Amboyna as the capital of the Dutch East Indies. The growth and prosperity of the city have amply demonstrated the wisdom of its founder, who did more than anyone else to extend Dutch influence from the Red Sea to the Pacific. A considerable European population gradually grew up; Dutch ladies were sent out as wives for the settlers, so as to prevent their intermarrying with the natives. In 1622 Macao was attacked, but being repulsed the 1622. Dutch established themselves on the Pescadores,¹ I These islands were first annexed to China in the time of the Yuen (Mongol) Dynasty. I 129 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1630. Van Diemen. I where they erected a fort, forcing the Chinese to do the work and treating them with great cruelty. They were at length induced by the officials of the Ming Government to move to Formosa, where they built Fort Zealandia, not far from the spot where the Chinese city of Tai-wan afterwards grew up. Attempts were made to extend European rule in the island and to establish Protestant missions, but the latter scheme was objected to by Specx, the Governor of Batavia, on the ground that it was likely to arouse the suspicions of the Japanese, who at this time were persecuting the converts to Christianity in their own country. His object was to open a trade with Japan, which he succeeded in doing. Van Diemen was governor from 1636 to 1645, (1636-1645) and his term of office was signalised by conspicuous successes over the Portuguese, including the capture of Malacca itself in 1641, and also by the memorable voyages of Tasman, whom he sent to explore the coasts of the Great Southern Continent (Australia), and who, besides doing so, discovered New Zealand and the island which he called after his patron, Van Diemen's Land, but which is now called after him- self, Tasmania. The flag of the Republic was hoisted as an emblem of sovereignty over the newly- discovered lands. Cape of Good Hope, 1651. 1656. 1658. Dutch Rule. In 1651 the Dutch founded a colony at the Cape of Good Hope as a port of call for their vessels on the way out to the East. Five years later they captured Colombo (p. 104), and after two more years Jaffnapatam, the last stronghold of the Por- tuguese in Ceylon, fell into their hands. Thus the people of Holland became supreme in the East, and through the seventeenth century they were the first naval power in the world. Their rule was more enlightened than that of their predecessors, and for 2 Fort Zealandia is now a picturesque ruin; over the main gateway on the north is the inscription, Te Castel Zeland, ge bowed anno. 1630.' 130 THE COLONISATION OF THE INDIES many years they really were what they claimed to be-the deliverers of the oppressed Asiatics from the tyranny of Spaniards and Portuguese, and this gained them great popularity among the natives. Later on, when the memory of their own oppression by the Spaniards was fading from their minds, they them- selves learnt to be oppressive, and their popularity declined in consequence. They were better traders than the Portuguese, and distributed the products of the East throughout Europe themselves, instead of leaving other nations to come and fetch them. Their rule of subject nations was selfish and occa- sionally cruel; they put on unreasonable restrictions about the cultivation of cloves and spices of all kinds, hoping to increase their value by creating monopolies, and their alliances with native rulers were usually made and dissolved entirely from the point of view of their own interests. As time went on, however, their rule was gradually ameliorated, and they sought to promote the well-being of their Asiatic subjects. The native kingdoms in the islands were very The Native numerous and very unstable; for instance, the island Kingdoms. of Great Sangi was in early times ruled by two kings; towards the close of the seventeenth century these were split up into six, while the King of Siauw, a neighbouring group of islands, had asserted his authority over a seventh district; subsequently they were reduced to three, the King of Siauw's district remaining. Some of these Sangi kings also bore rule. over the Talaut Islands. The Siauw Islands were afterwards converted and conquered by the Spaniards, who were driven out by the allied Dutch and Ternatees. The Sultans of Ternate, though their The Ternatees. island is only a volcanic rock off the coast of Gilolo, were among the most powerful sovereigns of the East Indies, and their fleet, which was at one time commanded by the brave and warlike Kaitsjil Ali, rendered valuable help to the Dutch in their wars 131 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA The Achinese. Drake. 1577. 1579. English East India Com- pany. 1600. 1602. 1604. with the Portuguese and Spaniards. It was with their assistance that the Hollanders made themselves masters of the districts round Menado, in Celebes, and of the adjacent islands. But by far the most powerful of the native king- doms in the Malay Archipelago was Achin, which, during the early part of the seventeenth century, under its warlike sultan, Iskandar Muda, was at the height of its power; its influence extended over the coast of Sumatra from Padang to Aru, over the southern part of the Malay Peninsula, and over several of the adjacent islands. Almost alone among the native races its people waged war with the Europeans on equal terms, and with some measure of success. The first English navigator to reach the Far East was Francis Drake, who, in the course of his voyage round the world in 1577, touched, among other places, at Ternate, and was well received by the Sultan. Two years later, Thomas Stephens, an English Jesuit, landed in India, and his glowing accounts of the wealth of the country did much to promote the foundation of the East India Company, to which Queen Elizabeth gave a formal charter in 1600. In the interim three English adventurers had gone to India by the old overland route. The English were thus in the field earlier than the Dutch, but for many years their East India Company was a private venture, often in struggling circumstances, while that of the Dutch was a national enterprise, vigorously supported by the Government. The first voyage undertaken by the agents of the British Com- pany set sail in 1602. It was commanded by James Lancaster, who established trade with the Achinese and with some of the Spice Islands; a factory was also built at Bantam, on the coast of Java, and a richly-laden Portuguese vessel was captured. The next expedition, dispatched two years later under 132 THE COLONISATION OF THE INDIES Henry Middleton, established a depot on the Dutch island of Amboyna. Captain Hawkins, one of the leaders of the third voyage sent out by the English 1607. East India Company, took a letter to the Emperor Jehangir (p. 115), and got leave for his countrymen to establish a factory at Surat. A little later Sir Thomas Roe was sent as ambassador to his Court by James I. During subsequent voyages trading stations were planted in all parts of the East Indies, and along the south coast of Asia, from China to the Red Sea. In 1614. 1614, at Surat, which was at that time the most important of their settlements on the Indian coast, the English, under Downton, were attacked by the Portuguese, under the Viceroy of Goa, Dom Jeronimo de Azevedo, himself. Though their forces were very unequal to those of their foes the British were vic- torious, and this greatly reduced the prestige of Portugal in the eyes of the natives, especially as a Mogul army happened to witness the engagement. Four years later the British occupied Mocha, and in 1622, with the help of the Persians, they expelled 1622. the Portuguese from Ormuz. The British left most of their stations unfortified, for, unlike the earlier arrivals, they came merely as private traders, feebly supported by their Government, and not seeking to acquire territory. The first places over which they obtained sovereign rights were the little islands of Pularoon and 1616-20. Lantor (Banda), on the outskirts of the Moluccas, but these possessions were very soon seized by the Dutch. the Dutch. From the first the English and Dutch quarrelled War between with one another in the East, but their forces were the English and fairly well matched, and a number of engagements led to no decisive result. In many places British merchants lived in Dutch stations, and their position was made well-nigh intolerable. Negotiations in Europe did little to mend matters. In 1619 James made a treaty 1619. which conceded almost everything to the Dutch; but 133 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Massacre of Amboyna. 1623. 1629. 1654. 1635. 1642. French Com- pany. 1604. 1674. Danish Com- pany. 1612. the English residents in the East were worse off than before, and peace did not ensue. At length, in 1623, when Coen himself was Governor-General, Herman van Speult, Governor of Amboyna, put to death all the English residents at the port, after an unfair trial, on a charge of conspiracy. This circumstance, known as the Massacre of Amboyna, caused the East India Company temporarily to retire from the islands, and to confine its operations to the mainland; but only six years later-in 1629-the station at Bantam was reoccupied. One most important consequence was that the Company's settlements in India grew much more rapidly than they would otherwise have done. Cromwell, when Protector, exacted compensation. from the Dutch for the outrage, which James and Charles had failed to do. In 1635 some English vessels, under Captain Weddell, anchored off Macao, but they were not welcomed by the Portuguese, and a collision occurred with the Chinese, one of whose forts was captured by the sailors, but they failed for the time to establish any trade. Seven years later the Company began to build factories on the Hooghly, settlements from which the British capital of India was afterwards to spring, though they were not at first on the site of Calcutta itself. The first French East India Company was founded as early as 1604, but it was a long time before any- thing of a permanent nature was effected, and for years it carried on operations on a very small scale. Several of the earlier expeditions wasted their resources on fruitless attempts to establish trading-stations on the island of Madagascar. Later on settlements were made at different places round the Indian coast, but they had to be abandoned one after another, and the chief French depot and stronghold, Pondicherri, was not occupied until 1674. In 1612 the Danes founded an East India Com- pany, and four years later they established a factory 134 THE COLONISATION OF THE INDIES at Serampur (near Calcutta), a town which they retained until it was purchased by the British Government in the middle of the present century (1845). They had several other trading stations. panies. The Ostend Company (Austrian) was founded in Austrian and 1723, and the Swedish Company in 1731, but these Swedish Com- -the last India Companies founded had no very 1723 and 1731. conspicuous success, and never led to any permanent conquests. 135 1558. CHAPTER XXI THE RUSSIAN CONQUEST OF SIBERIA Khan Kutchum-Yermak-Siberia occupied by the Russians- Treaty of Nertchinsk-Russian Colony in Peking. WHILE the maritime nations of Europe were thus winning for themselves Eastern empires in the tropical seas of Asia, the Russians were gradually absorbing the less favoured regions of the north. As early as the eleventh century traders from Novgorod (at that time the capital of a powerful state (p. 70), and one of the greatest trading centres in Europe) had occasionally penetrated into Siberia. At the opening of the sixteenth century there was a Turkish migration into the district east of the Urals, the fierce new-comers easily subduing the aborigines. In 1558 Ivan the Terrible made an incursion into the same country, defeated a few Tatar tribes, and took the empty title of 'Lord of Siberia.' In less than a year the Russians were driven back into Europe by Khan Kutchum, a Mongol chieftain descended from Sheibani, a brother of the celebrated Batu (p. 88), who had conquered Western Siberia and explored the Obi and Yenisei. The suzerainty of Kutchum was recognised by almost all the petty chiefs of Siberia, and his capital was a stockade at Sibir, on the Irtish, a tributary of the Obi. But, meanwhile, trade was being extended, and 136 THE RUSSIAN CONQUEST OF SIBERIA Russian caravans regularly went to Bokhara and Persia. These were constantly stopped and plun- dered by the Don Cossacks, who were, however, defeated and dispersed by a force sent out from Russia for the purpose. One of the fugitive Cossack chiefs, Yermak Timofief, with only a few followers, who Yermak. rapidly dwindled in numbers owing to the hardships they had to endure, invaded Siberia in 1580, and at 1580. Tiumen on the Tura (a small tributary of the Irtish) he defeated Kutchum, and immediately afterwards captured Sibir, where he was installed Prince of Siberia by the few soldiers that remained to him. Feeling unable permanently to maintain himself against so determined an adversary as Kutchum, he made his submission to Russia, and begged the Czar for help. Five hundred European soldiers were sent, as well as a golden suit of armour for Yermak himself. In spite of these succours he was completely defeated a little later at a battle on the Irtish, and while trying to escape he was drowned in the stream, being unable to swim owing to the weight of his golden armour, which, somewhat foolishly, he insisted on wearing. The garrison of Sibir, hearing of this disaster from the sole survivor, who succeeded in fleeing to them, retreated into Europe, and Kutchum recovered the independence of his country. Siberia. The Russians, however, now aroused, were not long Russian Occu- in avenging their defeat, and by successive expeditions pation of the whole of the north of Asia was subjugated, com- pletely and rapidly, the few scattered tribes who formed its entire population being quite unable to make any permanent resistance to their arms. Tobolsk, on the Obi, was one of the first places they fortified, and as they advanced across the continent, wherever they found convenient sites they built stockades, which in time grew into towns. Thus, in 1619, they founded Yeniseiek, so named from the 1619. river on which it stands; in 1632 Yakoutsk was built 1632. 137 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Treaty of Nertchinsk. 1689. Russian Colony in Peking. on the banks of the Lena, and in 1639 the Pacific itself was reached. The Yakoutes and Buriats, the former of Turkish and the latter of Mongol race, offered a determined but futile resistance; most of the other tribes in the east submitted quietly enough. up. From the valley of the fourth great river of Siberia, the Amur, the Russians were excluded by the Treaty of Nertchinsk,' signed in 1689, after a short war with China, in which neither side gained a decisive victory. The frontier town of Albazin, which had been stormed by the Chinese and then reoccupied by the Russians, was surrendered, and all claim to Manchuria was given Russian agents had visited the Chinese Court long before. In 1567 two Cossacks, Petroff and Yallysheff, arrived in Peking, but failed to get an audience of the Ming Emperor because they had brought no presents. In 1619 Evashko Pettlin had also crossed the desert, but he got nothing except a letter which no one in Moscow could read. A little later, however, trading embassies were received, which eventually led to the war and treaty of 1689. A con- siderable trade in skins and tea gradually grew up. Many of the prisoners taken by the Chinese during the war of 1689 preferred being settled in China to being sent back to the Russians. A small district in Peking was set apart for their residence, and their descendants still remain there, indistinguishable from the ordinary Chinese in practically everything except that they still belong to the Greek Orthodox Church. The nucleus of the colony was the first garrison of Albazin, a fortress which the Russians had built to protect their new frontier, and which they soon re- garrisoned, despite the Treaty of Nertchinsk. In all probability most of the prisoners were not proper Russians at all, but recruits from the Siberian and Mongolian tribes. Their present habitation consists I Nertchinsk is a town on the Shilka or Upper Amur, where a con- ference was held between the Russians and Chinese. It was founded in 1658 by a Russian named Pashkof. 138 THE RUSSIAN CONQUEST OF SIBERIA of a small village among trees, surrounded by a wall, in the north-east corner of the city, almost under the shadow of the towering city walls of Yonglo (p. 87). The colony contains a good library, and just inside the principal gate is a little church, named after the Assumption, which is served by priests sent from Russia, who are also responsible for the services in the Russian Legation Chapel. For many years, in addi- tion to his spiritual functions, the Archimandrite served as the Russian political agent in Peking. But we have now carried down the history of European nations in Asia to a point considerably lower than that at which we left China, to which country it is now time to return. 139 Nikan Wailan. CHAPTER XXII RISE OF THE MANCHUS Nikan Wailan-Nurhachu-Battle of Goolo Hill-Yeho annexed- War with the Chinese-Tingbi-Other Chinese Commanders -Death of Nurhachu. MEANWHILE, in a remote part of Manchuria, the remnants of the Kins (p. 72) were founding a new nation, which was destined to give a new dynasty to China, and to subjugate no inconsiderable part of Asia. The rise of the Manchus is almost as remarkable as that of the Romans. In each case, from beginnings absolutely insignificant, a power was born which grad- ually absorbed its neighbours, and set up a great and lasting Empire; in each case the subject nations conquered their conquerors, and Manchu civilisation became as essentially Chinese as Roman art and litera- ture became essentially Greek. There is, however, a very important difference. Rome founded an entirely new Empire of her own, where none had existed before; the Manchus found one already existing, though in a state of decay, which continued, not essentially changed but enormously strengthened and extended, after it had passed into their hands. Nikan Wailan, ruler of Tulun, one of the petty princes who, in the latter part of the sixteenth century, divided what is now Manchuria between them, asked and received Chinese help against a small city named Koshagi, which was easily taken. The victors then. turned their arms against Goolo, which also fell, and 140 RISE OF THE MANCHUS I the grandfather and father of Nurhachu, a man fated to be the chief founder of Manchu greatness, were murdered. Nikan was recognised by the Chinese as ruler of the whole country; but Nurhachu would make no terms with the murderer of his father, and, collect- ing what scanty forces he could, he determined to take vengeance for the outrage. With only a hundred and thirty men he succeeded in capturing the city of Tulun itself, and his power gradually grew. The Chinese, never very famous for feelings of chivalry, found it easier to give up Nikan than to defend his cause, and he was accordingly put to death by his enemy. In 1587 Nurhachu built Laochung, a town a few miles 1587. to the west of Mukden, as his capital, and protected it by a triple wall. He ruled his small state honestly and well, the justice of his laws became notorious, and his authority was rapidly extended in consequence. His growing power naturally alarmed neighbouring states, and a confederacy was formed to crush him; but in a Battle of Goclo great battle at Goolo Hill the allies were routed and Hill. the new kingdom was enormously strengthened. Nurhachu himself was so elated by his success that he refused any longer to pay tribute to the Chinese, and devoted himself to the task of annexing the territory of his neighbours. In 1603 he founded 1603. Hingking, a city some miles east of Mukden, and made it his capital instead of Laochung. By this time Yeho was the only Nujun 2 State that War with did not acknowledge his sway. He had before attempted China. its reduction, but the Chinese, with whom it was in close alliance, forming as it did a buffer state between their empire and the Manchus, had sent an army to its relief. Drawing up a list of seven grievances, which formed his casus belli, he now boldly declared war on 1618. the Mings and invaded Yeho. An enormous force I It was Confucius's advice not to live under the same heaven with the murderer of one's parent. 2 This was a general name for the descendants of the Kins who fled into Manchuria. 141 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1620. being sent from Peking, which apparently he did not expect, the aggressor had to fall back on his capital, in which his whole army was concentrated. The Chinese commander, Yang Hoa, as incompetent as most of the other Chinese generals were, divided his forces into several divisions, and took no measures what- ever to keep up any connection between them. The first engagement took place at Jiefan, and it resulted in a Chinese defeat; then, by a series of the most extraordinary blunders, a similar fate overtook the other divisions of the Ming army, which was completely dispersed. Yeho was overrun by Nurhachu and annexed to his dominions. Thus, for the first time since the days of the Kin Empire, all the Manchu tribes were brought under a single ruler. Kaiyuen, the most northerly of the cities still remaining to China, was next attacked. Ma Lin, the commander, had tried to guard against an assault from any quarter by placing a part of his army before each gate, but his plan proved a complete failure, and the city was easily taken. After this success, Jiefan, round which the battle had been fought, was fixed on as the Manchu capital. Shortly before his death, Wanli appointed a really competent officer, Hiung Tingbi, to the chief com- mand, and under him everything was done to revive the drooping courage of the soldiers and to allay the fears of the panic-stricken inhabitants of Liao-Tung. The cities were restored and their walls strengthened, more especially Mukden and Liaoyang, which were further protected by trenches and provisioned in case of siege. Nurhachu, realising the changed condition of affairs, remained strictly on the defensive. But the Peking Court was incredibly corrupt, and the eunuchs were able to obtain the dismissal of Tingbi on the most frivolous charges. Yuen Yingtai was appointed his successor, and soon showed his utter incompetence for the post. The inhabitants of Eastern Mongolia, 142 RISE OF THE MANCHUS who were suffering from a severe famine at the time, migrated in numbers across the border, and many of them were received into the Chinese cities, where they did nothing but make disturbances by their insolence and excesses, the result being that many of the peace- able inhabitants went over to the Manchus. Nurhachu was kept supplied with the fullest in- formation about his enemies by means of spies, and, discovering the character of his new opponent, he thought it a good opportunity for assuming the offen- sive, and so he at once marched on Mukden. The city was easily captured, and an attempt on the part of the Chinese to retake it utterly failed. Yingtai now massed all his troops at Liaoyang, but the Manchus took the city almost as easily as they had taken Mukden, and he committed suicide by burning one of the gate-towers over his head. The bulk of the people, tired of Chinese rule and anxious at any cost to be rid of their unwelcome Mongol guests, gave the invaders a hearty welcome, while the other cities of Liao-Tung hastened to open their gates to the conqueror. Nurhachu now fixed on Liaoyang as his capital, and set about organising his new con- quests. To guard against conspiracies, like the Babylonian and Assyrian kings of old, he transported the whole population from one district to another, moving the inhabitants of the seashore inland, the inhabitants of remote mountain valleys to the coast, and so on. China. The obstinate mismanagement of the Ming Govern- Revolts in ment had caused revolts in Szechuan and other parts of South China, necessitating the dispatch thither of many soldiers who might have served against the Manchus. In Liao-Tung a large number of Chinese officers, despairing of the cause of the Mings, deserted to the enemy; among those who refused to take this step the most famous was Mao Wunlung, who for some years maintained himself in the Chinese interests 143 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA at Junkiang, a city on the Corean frontier, and carried on a guerrilla warfare with the enemy. The Coreans, always loyal adherents of the Ming Dynasty, helped him as far as they could. In the midst of the troubles in Manchuria, a new rebellion against the Chinese Government broke out in Shantung, its chief centre being Teng Chow, on the north coast of the province. Reduced to almost desperate straits, the Emperor reappointed Tingbi, but no proper force was entrusted to him, and the eunuchs were able to secure the appointment of Wang Hwajun as his nominal colleague, but really his superior officer. This man, insisting on the old policy of dividing up the army, was completely defeated. A large number of cities, including Chin Chow,' a town among low hills near the head of the Gulf of Liao-Tung, consequently opened their gates. to the Manchus, while of the numerous Chinese fugitives who fled southwards, only a small minority ever succeeded in reaching the Great Wall. The two generals were recalled to Peking, and both were executed, though Tingbi had not even been present at the defeat, which would certainly not have happened had he been in command. The whole course of history records no more insane act than his murder. Wang Dsaijin, the next commander, proposed merely to evacuate all the territory outside the Great Wall, and to fall back on Shan Hai Kwan (p. 12). On this account he was superseded by Swun Chung- tsung, who strengthened the fortifications of Ningyuen Chow and retook several cities from the Manchus, This city stands on the borders of the old Kingdom of Chosen. ancient brick archway in the east suburb is still locally called the Corean Gate. An 2 This city stands, where the maritime plain is interrupted and the hills come right down to the sea, at the end of a mountain pass through which the new railway to Newchwang is at the present time being carried; the hills are, however, so low that it would be comparatively simple to lead an army straight over their summits. The old beacons by means of which communication used to be kept up between Shan Hai Kwan and the outpost forts, solid round towers with no method of reaching their tops except by means of a ladder, are a conspicuous feature of the rocky, treeless landscapes of this part of Manchuria. Ningyuen 144 RISE OF THE MANCHUS but the eunuchs secured his recall, and Gao Di, the next general, wished merely to act on the defensive again at Shan Hai Kwan. The officer in command of Ningyuen Chow, however, Chunghwan by name, refused to evacuate his post, and held the city against the enemy, unsupported by his cowardly superior. Nurhachu himself led the attack, but cannon, cast by the Jesuit missionaries, were mounted on the walls, and did great execution among the crowded ranks of the besiegers, who were repulsed with considerable. loss, and their great leader died soon afterwards. He 1626. was buried near Mukden; his magnificent tomb, situated in a beautiful park, still remains, but it is in a sad state of decay. Chow, though so important a fortress, is only a city of the second rank. Chinese cities are divided into three main classes, as 'Fu,'' Chow,' or Hsien,' words which are sometimes, but not always, written at the end of their names. K 145 Taitsung. Corea. 1627. The Dangan Pass. CHAPTER XXIII THE CONQUEST OF CHINA Taitsung-China invaded by the Dangan Pass-Miserable Con- dition of the Country-The Regent Dorgun-Peking captured by Rebels under Li Dsuchung-Wu Sangwei-The Ta Tsing Dynasty-Six Later Ming Emperors-The Queue. I NURHACHU was succeeded by his son, Taitsung, the fourth Beira, who not long afterwards took the title of Hwangti (emperor). Fruitless negotiations with the Chinese followed, for no permanent peace could be arranged. In 1627 the Manchus invaded Corea, whose people could offer no resistance worthy of the name. Seoul itself was easily taken, and the king was forced to transfer his allegiance to the Manchu Emperor. Finding himself, however, still unable to make any impression on Ningyuen Chow, Taitsung determined to march on Peking, through Mongolia, many of whose tribes were already his subjects. He succeeded in breaking through the Great Wall at the Dangan Pass, and Chunghwan, hastening back from Ningyuen Chow to defend the capital, was murdered, owing to a disgraceful intrigue. Peking itself, with its stupendous fortifications, was able to defy the invaders, who, however, captured many cities within the Great Wall, Beira, a title given to the highest in rank of the Manchu princes, is. properly the name of a bird which soars like the lark. 146 THE CONQUEST OF CHINA I though Changli, about fifty miles south-west of Shan Hai Kwan, was successfully held against them. In 1630 the invaders returned to their own country, 1630. leaving one of the Beiras to hold the cities they had taken. These were recovered one after another for the Chinese by Dsu Dashow, who tried next to build a fort near Chin Chow, but the works were captured by the enemy before they were properly finished. In 1631 the Manchus cast their first cannon, having 1631. previously been without artillery. Finding it impossible to break through the Great Wall at Shan Hai Kwan, Taitsung devoted himself to the reduction of Mongolia in order to secure other approaches to Peking. Most of its tribes willingly submitted, the more readily because the ancient jade seal of the Chinese Empire, which had been carried off by the last Yuen or Mongol Emperor (p. 83), happened to fall into his hands. The possession of Mongolia enabled him to send constant expeditions into China, which was repeatedly overrun and plundered. A great many cities were captured, including Chinanfu, the fashionable capital of the province of Shantung, and one of the chief towns in North China, but the Manchus were unable permanently to hold these con- quests. The unhappy land was further disturbed by fearful famines, which made brigandage exceedingly common, while new revolts were constantly breaking out on every side. During long years of anarchy the country was desolated, the cities fell into decay, the villages were to a great extent abandoned, and the high roads and bridges were utterly neglected. The ruin wrought by that miserable time has never yet been fully repaired. The forts outside Shan Hai Kwan, commanding the maritime roads into Manchuria, were, however, Changli is a small city standing on the maritime plain, close under the mountains. Some very ancient iron cannon are lying about on the walls. One or two of them are built into the solid masonry, so that their fire could take effect only in the direction in which they are fixed. 147 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1643. Li Dsuchung. still held by the Chinese, Dsu Dashow being ably seconded in his efforts by a young officer, Wu Sangwei, who was appointed commander at Ningyuen Chow. But it was impossible for them to maintain their position with no adequate support from their Govern- ment, and the Manchus were constantly encroaching and capturing cities. The Chinese soldiers in their service were so numerous, from incessant desertions from the Imperial armies, that they were formed into eight Banners like the native army. The Mongol auxiliaries also formed eight Banners. In 1643 Tait- sung died and his brother Dorgun succeeded to his power, not as monarch but as regent and guardian of his young son. It was not, however, the Manchus that actually overturned the throne of the Mings. One of the most barbarous and cruel of the robber chiefs who were devastating the country at the time was Li Dsuchung, and this man, after many reverses of fortune, had succeeded in making himself master of half China; his cruelty was unbounded, the ruin he wrought was enormous. A considerable number of the robbers were Mohammedans, and one of their leaders, Hienyung, who several times submitted to the Imperial authority and as often revolted against it again, rendered him some assistance. Between them they captured many hundreds of cities and massacred several millions of the people. After thus shutting the gates of mercy on mankind, Li Dsuchung succeeded in forcing his way to a throne. At the old Tang capital, Si-ngan-fu, he took the title of Wang (king), and a little later, having captured Peking itself, he was proclaimed Emperor, the first of the Tachun Dynasty. The metropolis, well fortified though it was, fell almost without striking a blow, the last Ming emperor (Hoaitsong, 1628-43) proving himself hopelessly incompetent to support his tottering throne. When the rebels were rapidly approaching 148 THE CONQUEST OF CHINA his capital he refused to retire to Nanking, whose people were still attached to his house, or to summon Wu Sangwei to defend Peking, until it was too late. On the capture of the city he committed suicide in 1643. the palace grounds. over to the Manchus. When, in obedience to the orders of his sovereign, Sangwei goes Wu Sangwei evacuated Ningyuen Chow, the Man- chus immediately occupied the stronghold, and pressed on to Shan Hai Kwan. Hearing of the fall of Peking, the Chinese general halted his army. His father had submitted to the robber-emperor, and he had serious. thoughts of doing the same himself, but eventually he decided to go over to the Manchus instead. There was little or no hope of a stable native Government, and for the sake of the Empire it was probably the best thing he could do; but his final decision to take the step was owing to a lady named Yuenyuen, with whom he was in love, and who he now heard had been given by the rebels to another.' Accordingly he marched back to Shan Hai Kwan, where he was joined by the Manchus. Li Dsuchung, with a huge army, advanced to attack him and to seize the fortress, but at a great battle, under the walls of the city, he was routed, and had to retire. To defend Peking was out of the question, and he was compelled at once to fall back on Si-ngan-fu. Even here, however, his army refused to make a stand, and he became a fugi- tive. Pursued by Wu Sangwei, he was driven into the mountains, and ended his miserable career by committing suicide. A part of North China and the capital of the Ta Tsing Empire being now in the hands of the Manchus, Dynasty. their regent Dorgun, or Ama Wang, transferred the national capital from Mukden to Peking, whither his young nephew was brought and proclaimed Emperor of China as Chitsou, the first of the Ta Tsing (or Chitsou. Great Purity) Dynasty. Every attempt was made 1644. However, he afterwards married her himself. 149 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Six later Ming Emperors. 1644-1650. Fu Wang. 2 to conciliate the people and to pacify the country. The ancient institutions of the Empire were, as far as possible, adopted, and the forms of government remained unchanged, as, in fact, they have done throughout Chinese history, for in the long annals of the Empire there has been no attempt to alter the constitution; the patriarchal monarchy, the least des- potic despotism in the world, having remained essen- tially unchanged through every revolution, whether Chinese or Tatar has sat on the Imperial throne. The people of Chihli, the metropolitan province, wearied with ceaseless wars, and eager to snatch at any chance of an enduring peace, cheerfully sub- mitted and consented to wear the queue or pigtail ³ as a symbol of their loyalty to the Manchus. But the southern provinces had not been so impoverished by war, and, in spite of all they had suffered from the degenerate Ming Emperors and from their eunuch- ridden Court, the great bulk of the Chinese people were loyal to the falling dynasty. 3 Fu Wang, a worthless member of the house, was set up as Emperor in Nanking, and his throne was sustained by the minister, Shu Kofa, an eminent scholar and a good soldier. This man nobly refused the favours offered by the Manchus if he would only join them, and proposed that they should agree to ¹ But, as in the case of all federal Governments, centripetal and cen- trifugal forces have always been at work in China. Thus the abolition of feudalism by the wall-builder no doubt did much to consolidate the Empire, but the reform was not permanent. The viceroys of provinces, though appointed by the Central Government itself, have often been nearly as independent as the old feudal dukes, and the amount of power actually wielded by the Emperor has varied greatly from time to time. Similarly, the power of the Central Government in the United States has been enormously increased since the days of Washington, without any regular constitutional change. 2 There is a Chinese proverb which says that it is worse for the Emperor to break the laws than for a subject to do so. 3 The pigtail is not, as usually supposed, a native Chinese fashion, but having been adopted by the Manchus under circumstances which are rather obscure, it was imposed by them on their new subjects. 150 THE CONQUEST OF CHINA divide the Empire with the Mings, as their own ancestors, the Kins, had done with the Sungs. The weak Emperor was, however, swayed by his unscrupu- lous favourite, Ma, and the Court, corrupt from the very first, was so feeble that, like the falling Roman Empire of the West, it was unable to prevent its generals from settling their private animosities by civil war. The chief of these were Gao, who was after- wards murdered, and Duagung, who eventually joined the enemy. Thus the Manchu armies, sent out by the regent, gained an easy triumph. At the siege of Yangchow (for a short time the capital of the Southern Sungs, p. 65) Kofa himself perished, and this blow was soon followed by the capture of Nanking and the suicide of the Emperor. Chang Fang, whom Kofa Chang Fang. had wished to see Emperor at Nanking, reigned a few days at Hang Chow (in Chekiang, close to the sea, p. 80) but very soon had to surrender to the Manchus, who, while making these conquests, wisely secured their communications with Peking by leaving garrisons in the chief cities on the way. Another of the Ming house, Tang Wang, was Tang Wang. proclaimed Emperor at Foochow. He held some authority over the provinces of the extreme south as far as Yunnan, but his strength was chiefly on the sea. His fleets were commanded and his Empire was prac- tically ruled by Jung Julung, a notable pirate leader, wholly untrammelled by scruples of any kind, whose loyalty was at no time very unswerving, and who afterwards joined the Manchus. He is chiefly famous as the father of the celebrated corsair, Koshinga, or Coxinga, whose mother was, however, Japanese. Tang Wang was considerably weakened by the presence of a rival emperor, Lu Wang, at Taichow, Lu Wang. in the adjoining province of Chekiang, though, as the king of the Loo Choo Islands thought it worth his while to send an embassy to him, his power must for a time have been considerable. 151 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Yu Ngao. Wu Sangwei was, meanwhile, subduing and paci- fying the western provinces in the interests of his new masters, to whom he rendered incalculable services, for the task would have been very much harder, owing to the national prejudices of the people, had it been entrusted to a Tatar instead of to a Chinese. In Szechuan he overthrew, among others, Hienyung, the Moslem robber, who had helped Li Dsuchung. When Lu Wang and Tang Wang had been defeated and their territory annexed by the Manchus, two more Ming princes set up new principalities, and called them empires-Yu Ngao at Canton and Gwei Gwei Wang. Wang at Chaoching. In spite of the near approach of the common foe, these two actually fought a bloody battle; the result was that Canton was easily taken by the Manchus, and the kingdom of Yu Ngao speedily came to an untimely end. Siege of Canton. 1650. The rival kingdom of Gwei Wang, however, suc- ceeded in checking the advance of the invaders for some years, and even in temporarily expelling them from some of their conquests. This prosperity was not in any way owing to the ruler, who showed him- self weak and cowardly throughout, but his brave minister, Shushu, who first distinguished himself by his gallant defence of Woochow, was the main support of the state. The rapid extension of the kingdom was owing to the secession from the Manchu ranks of several influential Chinese, whose grievances were not attended to, and at one time it comprised seven provinces. These were never firmly held, and the Manchus gradually recovered their lost ground, Shushu himself falling in a battle at Kweilin. Canton, which had been recovered by the Chinese and added to Gwei Wang's Empire, was retaken in 1650, after a memorable siege, which lasted eight months. As his provinces one after another fell into the hands of the Manchus, Gwei Wang was driven to take refuge in Yunnan, one of whose turbulent 152 THE CONQUEST OF CHINA chiefs, Kowang, had thought it worth his while to make the most nominal of submissions to the Ming Emperor, though he afterwards himself assumed the Imperial rank, and later on made his peace with the Manchus. Gwei Wang, finding himself at length unsafe in Yunnan, fled into Burmah, a country which, in his prosperity, he had thought of annexing. At the capital, Ava, the natives provided him with a thatched palace, but on one pretext or another they put to death nearly all his attendants. After living there two or three years he returned to China, hoping that the people would rise in his favour, but he himself fell into the hands of Wu Sangwei, and had to commit suicide. Thus perished miserably the last of the Mings. The latest attempts at resistance to the Manchus on the mainland had before this been crushed among the remote mountains of Yunnan. On the death of the regent, Chitsou himself ruled the Empire, and among many other reforms the public examinations were purified, and the Neigo, or Great Council of the Nation, consisting of two Manchu members and two Chinese, was instituted. Many of the people preferred death to having their heads shaved, but the queue was The Queue. rigorously enforced in all parts of the Empire, and in course of time it became popular. All Chinese, for- getting its origin, are now extremely proud of their pigtails, and, in spite of their great inconvenience for all practical purposes, they never think of cutting them off-not even those living in the Malay Peninsula, who have to some extent adopted the institutions of other nations, and many of whom cannot even speak their own language. I 6 I The cry of foreign devil,' which the Chinese mob invariably shout after a European travelling in the interior of the country, is frequently supplemented by the remark,' He has no pigtail.' 153 1661. Koshinga. CHAPTER XXIV THE REIGN OF KANG HI Koshinga-Formosa-The Pirates subdued-Revolt of Wu Sangwei -Reforms-The Jesuits-The Mongols-Ordu Hordes-The Khalkhas The Kalmucks Tibet The Dalai Lama- Galdan-Rabdan. IN 1661, Kanghi, a child at the time, ascended the throne, and the Chinese Empire entered on what was perhaps, on the whole, the most prosperous period it has ever enjoyed. All opposition to the Manchus was, however, by no means crushed as yet; during the wars many Chinese had fled to Formosa, or had joined the pirates, and these still defied the new Government. The pirate leader, Julung, who made a nominal submission to the last Ming Emperor, and who, on the capture of Peking by the Manchus, had continued to profess his loyalty to the native dynasty, served Tang Wang (as has been mentioned, p. 151) in the capacity of Admiral, and also acted as a sort of Mayor of the Palace. When afterwards he joined the invaders, his son, Koshinga (Chunggung), like another Hannibal, swore eternal enmity to the Manchus. He declared himself a vassal of Gwei Wang, from whom he received many high-sounding titles, and though the Manchus did everything in their power to secure his adherence, he would neither receive any of the honours they so lavishly offered him, nor take any notice of the letters which they made his father write urging 154 THE REIGN OF KANGHI him to submit. On land he carried on war against the Imperial troops with considerable success, while on the sea there was no Imperial fleet at all capable of engaging his own, and on more than one occasion Kanghi ordered all his subjects to move inland at least ten miles from the sea, and to desolate the coast in order to starve out the pirates. The flight and subse- quent death of his suzerain affected Koshinga but little, and he continued to rule a large but ill-defined part of Fukien, having his headquarters at Amoy, and to make unceasing raids into the territory of the Manchus. At length, however, his forces were badly defeated at Kiangning, and, feeling that his position on the main- land was no longer secure, he determined to expel the Dutch from Formosa, an island that had long been a resort of pirates from Japan, China and the Loo Choo Islands, and to make it the headquarters of an inde- pendent kingdom. The misery caused by the incessant wars in China had, as we have seen, driven large numbers of the peaceful inhabitants to seek a refuge in Formosa, the pirates willingly conveying them over in their vessels. The immigrants found fertile plains ready to be cultivated, and almost un- occupied, for the aborigines of the island, who are of Malay stock and quite barbarous, being divided up into innumerable and often mutually hostile tribes, dwell for the most part among the mountains of the interior. The Dutch authorities, instead of conciliating the new-comers, treated them very badly, a policy which in the end proved most disastrous to themselves. Here, then, was an excellent opportunity for Koshinga to found a new kingdom for himself, and he fitted out his armaments for the invasion at Amoy. The war was carried on with great brutality on both sides, prisoners being invariably massacred. After a long siege, Fort Zealandia was taken by cutting off the 1662. 155 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1674. water supply, and Dutch rule in Formosa ended. Koshinga made himself king of the island-his son, Gin, being stationed at Amoy as viceroy of the part of the mainland subject to his rule. Chinese who were dissatisfied with Manchu rule were invited to settle in the new kingdom, something was done to promote good government, and provision was made for education. On the death of Koshinga, Gin succeeded to his father's power. Overtures were at once made to him by the Manchus, and he declared himself willing to submit on the same terms as Corea, the queue not being enforced on his subjects. Kanghi, however, would be satisfied with nothing less than the complete annexation of Formosa to China, and so the state of war continued. With Dutch¹ help Amoy was cap- tured by the Imperialists, but when the Europeans requested the assistance which had been promised them for an attack on Fort Zealandia, they found that a couple of junks was the utmost succour the Manchus were prepared to place at their disposal in return for their help against Amoy. When, in 1674, Wu Sangwei revolted against the Manchus, he received the hearty support of Gin. Sangwei, having practically set the Emperor on his throne, had been allowed to rule Yunnan and the adjacent provinces more like an independent prince than as a mere viceroy. He lived in royal state in a magnificent palace, keeping up a military establish- ment of his own. At length, having secretly collected a large quantity of warlike stores, armed with the support of some of the Mongol tribes and of the Dalai Lama² of Tibet, he repudiated his allegiance alto- I The Dutch had attempted to take Amoy from the pirates for them- selves, but had been beaten off. 2' Dalai' seems to mean 'Ocean,' as a type of vastness. It was a title conferred by the Chinese on the Grand Lama. Buddhism had been making considerable progress among the Manchus, but it was discouraged by their rulers, and so, apparently, the Grand Lama welcomed the oppor- tunity of supporting a movement against them. 156 THE REIGN OF KANGHI gether, the immediate cause being a summons which he received from the Emperor to go to Peking. After several months, finding his cause extremely pros- perous-for at one time he held practically the whole of China south of the Yang-tsze--he took the title of Emperor himself, fixing his capital at Hung-chow. But this renewal of Chinese national life was destined to be short-lived. Gin quarrelled with Sangwei's representative in Fukien, with the result that the Imperialists rapidly recovered their lost ground in that direction, conquering province after province, while the death of Sangwei himself, in 1679, completely 1679. paralysed the efforts of the insurgents, and, though they refused to submit for some time longer, the result was never in doubt. Gin had to abandon everything on the mainland, and the authority of Kanghi was com- pletely restored. To prevent another rising, Manchu garrisons were placed in Canton, Foochow and other cities of the south. Gin was able to maintain his island-kingdom until his death, but in the time of his son, Koshwai, a fleet was fitted out by the Imperialists, which succeeded in conquering Formosa, and the Manchu queue was enforced on all its Chinese in- habitants, though the Emperor's authority never reached the mountain tribes. The Manchu Government now set itself to restore Reforms. prosperity to a country distracted by long years of anarchy, and the revival brought about was on the whole more permanent in its effects than any previous one had been. The Hanlin College was re-organised and put into a thoroughly efficient condition. Eunuchs were abolished, but only for a time. To keep the Central Administration as far as possible in touch with all the provinces, an excellent post system was in- stituted, relays of ponies being kept at convenient distances along the Imperial highways. Something I I The dispatches were carried by couriers on horseback; it does not appear that for wheeled traffic the roads were made so good as they had been in the more prosperous days of the Ming Dynasty. 157 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA The Jesuits. The Mongols. The C.du Hordes. of the civilisation of Europe was learned from the Jesuits, who, in the reign of Kanghi, received Court support, though there was always a strong party opposed to them. During the wars they had cast cannon, both for Chinese and Manchus, which had often decided the day. Under their direction the ob- servatory on the city walls at Peking was restored and provided with European instruments, made, however, after a Chinese pattern, with dragons, and they were the architects of the Summer Palace, a building in the style of the Renaissance, standing on the slope of the western hills, eight miles to the north-west of the city, which was burned by the Allies in 1860 (p. 220). All semblance of national unity had long before this disappeared from the Mongols, who were scattered over a large part of Asia, gradually losing their individuality among other races, except in districts where they were specially numerous. Many of their tribes had sub- mitted to the Manchus, and been enrolled in their banners with little reluctance before the capture of Peking (p. 147). The Ordu hordes, among the most barbarous of all the Mongols, had made constant incursions into the territory of their neighbours; their raids on Tibet had led to the rapid spread of Buddhism, both among them- selves and some of the other Mongols. The Tumeds, who were a section of the Ordu, had given consider- able trouble to the Ming rulers of China, and one of their chiefs, Altan Khan, had been made a prince of the Empire, after which his territory was flooded with The Khalkhas. Chinese immigrants. The Golden Khan, as the chief of the Khalkhas, another division of the Mongols, was called, became tributary to the Czar early in the 1 From a very early date the Chinese could cast cannon for them- selves, and many of their ancient iron guns remain to this day on city walls, but they were more useful for firing salutes than for damaging the property of an enemy, besides being on the whole considerably more dangerous to the persons who fired them than to those at whom they were fired. 158 THE REIGN OF KANGHI seventeenth century, but subsequently helped the Kirghiz (Buriats) of Siberia in their resistance to the Russian advance (p. 138). This breach was easily healed; but when hard pressed by the Eleuths, a Kalmuck tribe, the Khalkhas made a voluntary sub- mission to Kanghi, the Russians having shown no disposition to protect them. The decaying power of the Kalmucks (p. 88) was Galdan and the restored by one of their khans named Galdan, who, to Kalmucks. satisfy his ambition, sought ordination from the Dalai Lama, a fact which shows how enormous the power of the priesthood had become even among the Mongols. In Tibet itself the priests had become politically Tibet and the - supreme; the country had for years been distracted by Grand Lama. the rivalry between them and the military; but about the middle of the seventeenth century the Dalai Lama succeeded in driving his foes into Bhutan,¹ thus gain- ing permanently for himself the temporal as well as the spiritual power. Galdan was refused ordination owing to his having won his position by the murder of his brother; but nevertheless the Dalai Lama afforded him some measure of support. The position of the Grand Lama at the time can only be compared to that of the Pope in the Middle Ages. His influence through- out Central Asia was very considerable. The petty khans, from an intense respect for his sacred office, were usually willing to pay attention to his wishes; but the feeling did not prevent them constantly setting him at defiance, while the gradual spread of Islam ³ 2 I This little state is still a stronghold of Buddhism, or rather Lamaism. It has a dual government, with spiritual and temporal chiefs, the actual administration being in the hands of the latter. In 1863, owing to insults being offered to some British subjects, the Indian Government sent an expedition into the country, but it does not maintain any repre- sentative there now. 2 But the authority wielded by the Tibetan Lama was, of course, very much less than that of the Pope, even when the Papacy was comparatively weak. 3 Many districts which were once Moslem became Buddhist again owing to the conquests of the Mongols, but Islam has by degrees re- gained nearly all the lost ground. 159 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Rabdan. 1693. undermined his power more than the Reformation decreased that of the Pope. Galdan succeeded in establishing the power of the Kalmucks throughout almost the whole of Turkestan, capturing the cities of Samarcand, Bokhara, Yarkand and many others; but he was unable to keep a firm hold on his conquests, and his kingdom was by no means a well-ordered one. His nephew, Rabdan, whose father he had murdered, was khan of the Songares, a small branch of the Eleuths, and the very natural hostility of this man considerably weakened his position. It was, however, his attacks on the Khal- khas which caused his downfall, compelling Kanghi to declare war in order to protect his new subjects. After two or three battles had been fought, in which the Chinese had the advantage, a treaty was made; but, as Galdan would not refrain from molesting Chinese subjects, hostilities soon recommenced. Hoping to gain support by doing so, he now declared himself a convert to Islam, which was the religion of many of his subjects, though he took care not to offend the Dalai Lama. The Russians refused to send him any aid, and in spite of his conversion he was routed by the Imperial troops at the battle of Chow- modo, and became a fugitive; he died not long after- wards. Rabdan succeeded him as khan of the Eleuths, and established his authority over the greater part of the former possessions of his uncle, gaining some successes over the Prince of Hami, a vassal of the Chinese Empire, by whom the bones of Galdan were given up to him. He also prevented Peter the Great from annexing Eastern Turkestan, which was coveted by the Russians on account of the gold the district was supposed to contain. It was he, too, that drove the Torgod tribes, under their Khan Ayuka, to migrate westward, and to seek a new home in Russian territory (p. 164). I This nation had been founded by a contemporary of Genghis named Ki Wang, who united several tribes of Keraits. 160 THE REIGN OF KANGHI As the priests had sided with his rival (in spite of his having renounced their faith), Rabdan made war on them and invaded their own stronghold, Tibet. Pillaging the country and sacking the rich monasteries on its march, the Eleuth army appeared before Lassa and defeated a Chinese force sent against them, but some Manchu troops soon retrieved the disaster and also recovered Hami. The Eleuths were thus driven back to Songaria, a district of Turkestan, which took its name from Rabdan's original subjects. L 161 CHAPTER XXV 1722. THE REIGNS OF YUNG CHING AND CHIENLUNG Peaceful Measures-Increase of Population-Chienlung succeeds Amursana-Massacre of the Kalmucks and their Territory annexed to China-The Torgods-Tibet-The Gurkhas- Revolts in Formosa, etc.-Signs of Decay. THE death of Kanghi, in 1722, changed the policy of the Chinese Government, for his successor, Yung Ching, insisted on peace, and withdrew all his armies from Central Asia, leaving the different tribes to fight it out among themselves. China continued to enjoy considerable prosperity under her new Emperor. Every care was taken to improve the social condition of the people, and relief was granted by the Government to the aged and infirm. The Jesuits, who were con- tinually interfering in the politics of the country, were suppressed and their converts were persecuted. Embassies from the Pope and the Portuguese were well received, but neither of them got anything but politeness. Peking was visited by an earthquake, which shook the palace, and the Emperor himself had to camp out. The rapid increase of the population, due to peace and comparative prosperity, began about this time, and as it was considered an evil, special privileges were granted to bachelors and widows who refused to change their state. After a reign of a dozen years, which had been fairly peaceful, except for some riots at Canton and. # 162 REIGNS OF YUNG CHING AND CHIENLUNG some floods of the Yellow River, Yung Ching died and 1735. was succeeded by his eldest son, Chienlung, by Chicnlung. whom the Empire was raised to the highest pitch of greatness. The new monarch had been a scholar and a recluse, taking little part in public affairs; but on mounting the throne he gave his whole attention to the government of the Empire. His father's policy in home affairs and in his treatment of the Christians was continued, but for foreign affairs Chienlung decided on an imperial policy and at once took measures to restore Chinese prestige in Central Asia. Meanwhile, in 1727, Rabdan had been murdered; his son, another Galdan, succeeded him and kept the country tolerably quiet, but on his death anarchy began again. One of the numerous aspirants for power, Amursana, who had usurped the principality of Ili, and been driven out again, fled to Peking. Chienlung received him well and sent an army under Panti to restore him to his kingdom. A feeble re- sistance was offered. offered. Yarkand and Kashgar were captured, but Amursana, feeling his position secured, turned on his benefactors, murdered all the Chinese he could find, and had himself proclaimed Khan of the Eleuths. He was speedily overthrown by a new force. sent out from Peking, and, routed in battle, he fled into Russian territory, where he died. Chienlung now abolished the Kalmuck Khanate altogether and set up four vassal princes to rule Turkestan. The plan was a complete failure; the new rulers either proved hopelessly incompetent to manage the turbulent population, or else tried to make themselves independent of China. A new force was sent out, the territory was resubdued and definitely annexed, Chinese garrisons were placed in Kashgar, Yarkand and other cities. A nominal authority was given to the Moslem Begs, but their actions were closely watched by Chinese residents. The Kalmucks themselves were so ruthlessly massacred that a large district became 163 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1771. almost depopulated, and the originally occupied part of it, their old home. Torgods, who had were invited back to Ayuka and his people, driven to the west, as we have seen (p. 160), by the attacks of the Kalmucks, had been goaded into attacking the Russians by the hostility of some of the Cossacks, and had invaded the territory of their new masters as far as Kazan. But at an audience with Peter the Great at Astrakhan, which, since the extinction of its khanate in 1480, had been a Russian city, Ayuka renewed his allegiance and had a definite territory on the Volga allotted to him. His son, Cheren Donduk, succeeded him, and received investiture from the Dalai Lama; but this did not prevent his nephew supplanting him, and the Russians found it easier to recognise the usurper than to overthrow him, though they had acknowledged his uncle. Badly treated by their Russian masters on one side, and exposed to constant inroads of Turkish marauders on the other, the Torgods were only too glad to accept the invitation of the Chinese, and in 1771, under their Khan Ubasha, suffering great hard- ships from want and the attacks of hostile tribes on the way, they returned to Eastern Turkestan, greatly reduced in numbers, and were absorbed in the Chinese Empire. The policy pursued in Central Asia by Chienlung was undoubtedly cruel, but he had received great provocation, and his arrangements have worked wonder- fully well, the absence of any native prince in Turkestan ruling over more than a small amount of territory having prevented serious risings against the Chinese. Few things in the whole course of history are more remarkable than the way in which the decaying Empire of China has maintained its authority over the turbulent inhabitants of Eastern Turkestan. Since the expulsion of the Kalmucks by Kanghi, Tibet had been ruled by its Lamas and by Chinese 164 REIGNS OF YUNG CHING AND CHIENLUNG officials set over them, called Ambans. The high- handed proceedings of some of the latter caused the Tibetans to rise and to massacre all the Chinese they 1749. could find. While strongly condemning the conduct of his representatives, Chienlung sent an army to restore his own authority. The monks of the Capu- chin Order who had succeeded in establishing a mission in Lassa were expelled from Tibet in accord- ance with the Emperor's usual policy. The affairs of the same country, about forty years later, caused Chien- lung's armies to cross the Himalaya and to penetrate victoriously into India to within four hundred miles of Calcutta itself. Originally invited by one of its own petty kings to The Gurkhas. help him in his wars against the others, the Gurkhas had made themselves masters of Nepal, a state which, like Kashmir, has records of its ancient kings from a very early date; one of them, as we have seen, was Buddha's father. The Gurkhas are of Hindu race, and they were expelled from their original settlements in Rajputana by the Moslems. Not satisfied with Nepal they gradually annexed several small neighbour- ing states, and hearing of the wealth of Tibet, and being invited into the country by a Lama who had been deprived of his inheritance, they crossed the 1791. Himalayas into its territory. Monasteries were plun- dered, fields were laid waste, the inhabitants, unable to offer any effectual resistance, fled in all directions and appealed to Chienlung for help. A Chinese army had been occupying the country, but it proved quite incapable of checking the invaders, and instead of making a brave fight, its generals tried to bribe the Gurkhas to retire. A new force was accordingly sent out from Peking, under a general named Kangan or Sund Fo, who had suppressed a rebellion in Formosa and marched an army into Annam, when Chienlung felt called upon to interfere in the affairs of that state. The Gurkhas were defeated in several engagements 165 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Formosa. 1786. Rebellions. and forced to restore the plunder they had taken. The Chinese closely followed up their successes, and pursued the enemy through the mountain passes into Nepal, gaining a final victory over them near Khat- mandu, the Gurkha capital. Peace was made, and they agreed to become tributary to China; in spite of the decay of the suzerain power a small tribute is still paid. They had already a commercial treaty with the English, whose help they tried to get against the Chinese, but the Governor-General at Calcutta de- clined to interfere. This campaign against the Gurkhas took place almost at the end of Chienlung's reign. In 1786 the Chinese Formosans, always very un- willing subjects, rebelled against the Manchus. The rising was put down by Kangan, but only after several armies had been sent across from the mainland and an enormous number of lives were sacrificed on both sides. The reign was also disturbed by insurrections of secret societies, Mohammedans and the Miao-tsze within the limits of China itself. Every province of the Empire has long been honeycombed with secret societies, which the Government is powerless to suppress, and which are always ready to support revolutionary measures. Most of them are very carefully organised. Some are of the nature of religious sects, others are trades unions. The Moslems have ever shown them- selves restless under Chinese rule, though many of them have held high office in the Empire, and the Miao-tsze (p. 7), besides being of alien race, are naturally hostile to the descendants of those who drove out their forefathers from their homes. By the end of the eighteenth century the population of China had risen to about three hundred millions, four or five times what it had been at the beginning of the reign of Yung Ching, and this naturally caused severe famines. Chienlung was a great builder; among many other 166 REIGNS OF YUNG CHING AND CHIENLUNG I works he erected the Hall of the Classics, adjoining the Confucian Temple at Peking, in the quiet cloisters of which are a series of stone tablets containing the standard text of the Chinese Classics; and the elaborately- carved erections of white marble, which he added to two Buddhist temples, are among the most interesting architectural features in the neighbourhood of Peking. China was very prosperous on the whole under his able administration, but signs of decay were already only too apparent. The officials were almost univers- ally dishonest, pilfering the public money whenever they got the chance; the people were often oppressed, and they never forgot that they were ruled by a foreigner and a Manchu. Of all races the Chinese care least about the foreign conquests of their country; the magnificent achievements of his armies, which would have won popularity among any other people, do not seem to have done anything at all to raise Chienlung in the estimation of the great mass of his subjects. Then the relations with European nations. at the ports were very unsatisfactory; though the Emperor cancelled an export duty of ten per cent., and received the embassy of Lord Macartney in a friendly 1792. spirit,² he would not remove the restrictions on foreign trade. In 1796, three years before his death, the last Abdication. great Emperor whom China has had, abdicated, and 1796. ever since that time the Chinese Empire has been declining steadily, though for an Asiatic despotism the process has not been rapid. I The Yellow Temple, a Lamasery in which Lord Elgin took up his quarters in 1860, and the Pi Yen Ssû, a beautiful temple on the first slope of the Western Hills, not far from the Summer Palace. 2 Some of the Chinese officials, however, taking advantage of Lord Macartney's ignorance of their language, affixed a notice to his house-boat, representing him as bringing tribute from the King of England to the Emperor of China. 167 Burmah. 1752. Triumph of Pegu. CHAPTER XXVI THE INDO-CHINESE PENINSULA Burmah-Wars with Peguans-Alompra-Wars between Burmah and Siam-Phra Naret-Phra Narai-Phaulkon-Ayuthia captured and destroyed by the Burmese-Bangkok founded— Cambodia-Annam and Tong King-A Warlike Bishop-Gia Long-The French in Indo-China. AN expedition which Chienlung dispatched to Burmah was unsuccessful; he sent an army to invade the country, apparently with no very good reason, owing to a dispute about the frontiers of Yunnan. I Burmah had long been distracted by civil war be- tween the people of Upper Burmah and the Peguans, which ended in 1752 with the victory of the latter, and the Talaing kings of Pegu asserted their authority over the whole land. A deliverer soon arose for the conquered Burmese in Alompra, who, in 1753, after many smaller successes, captured the city of Pegu itself and built Rangoon, a few miles off, as a monu- ment of his victory. He thus became the founder of the later Burmese Empire. Dupleix (p. 183) had sent two French vessels to succour the Peguans, which did not succeed in effecting anything. The English seem to have rendered substantial help to Alompra, as, when he had established his power, he willingly ceded to them the island of Negrais at the mouth of the Irawady and some land at Bassein on the mainland. ¹ Pegu declined in importance with the growth of Rangoon. 168 THE INDO-CHINESE PENINSULA 1 The wars against the Siamese, which, with in- Wars with terruptions, had gone on for two or three centuries, Siam. were now renewed, and ended in Burmese victories. The Peguans after a time found themselves strong enough to renew the war, but they were defeated by Alompra's grandson, Sembuen (Tshen-byo-yen), and it was against him that Chienlung's expedition was sent. The Chinese army penetrated as far as Ava, but it was surrounded and almost annihilated by the Burmese, who, however, in making a treaty recognised the nominal suzerainty of China. In 1780 Amarapura 1780. was founded as capital of the Burmese Empire; it stands between Ava and Mandalay, the three cities being close together. The power of the Siamese had been extended— Siam. if not founded-by a powerful prince, named Phaja Uthong, who, on coming to the throne, took the title, Phra Rama-Thibodi, and who in the four- teenth century conquered all Southern Siam and a great part of the Malay Peninsula. In 1350 he 1350. founded the city of Ayuthia, which soon became prosperous, and Cambodians, Burmese, Chinese and Indian Moslems resorted to it for trade. During the same century there were wars between the Siamese and the Malays of Malacca, but they do not seem to have led to any special result. Fifteen kings of the same dynasty followed, and there were constant wars with the Peguans, as has been mentioned above; in 1556 these culminated in the triumph of the latter, 1556. who captured Ayuthia itself and took prisoners the king and the royal family. The prince, who after- wards became Phra Naret, was carried off as a hostage, but, taking advantage of some disturbances at Pegu, he escaped and became king of his own country, whose independence he recovered, inflicting a defeat on the Peguans and capturing the important city of Martaban. The Cambodians had for years been overrunning the territory of Siam with impunity, and so they naturally 169 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1583. Phra Narai. 1656. became the objects of the new monarch's attack. They were unable to offer any effectual resistance to his forces, and their capital was taken and burned. Portuguese filibusters at different times helped all parties during these wars. Phra Naret was succeeded by his brother, but the new ruler went mad and was deposed, a Buddhist priest being set up by the nobles in his place. The monarchy soon fell into decay, but a new and vigorous dynasty arose whose fourth monarch was the famous Phra Narai. This king gave every encouragement to European adventurers. who visited his court, and among them was a Greek of Cephalonia, Constantine Phaulkon by name, who became chief minister of the kingdom. Under this man's direction reforms of different kinds were carried out, and fortresses were erected in the foreign style, one of them being on the site of Bangkok. An embassy to Louis XIV. of France, which he himself proposed that the Siamese should send, however, proved his ruin, for the return embassy, owing to the extreme anxiety its members showed to bring over the Court to the Roman Catholic religion, in which Phaulkon seemed to sympathise with them, roused the suspicions of the people, who feared, not without reason, that there was a plot to impose European rule. on their country, and consequently the Greek minister was put to death, and all negotiations with France were discontinued. At the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth centuries there were close relations be- tween the Siamese and the Japanese (p. 117), many of the latter coming to settle in the country, where they were specially valued for their services as soldiers, though afterwards their haughty and overbearing manner caused them to become unpopular and most of them were massacred. At the end of the seven- teenth century there were some hostilities between the Siamese and the servants of the British East India 170 THE INDO-CHINESE PENINSULA Company, which in 1689 led to the massacre of some 1689. Englishmen in the Mergui Islands. Not long after the death of Narai another new dynasty was set up and wars with the Burmese broke out again. This time they were more disastrous to the Siamese than ever before, for in 1767 Ayuthia itself was 1767. captured and burned. Seeing that they could not hope permanently to annex the territory they had conquered, the victorious Burmese sent a representative to Siam with instructions merely to squeeze as much treasure out of the people as he could. Eventually peace was made, the Siamese abandoning all claim to any territory on the Bay of Bengal and ceding the coast province of Tenasserim to Burmah. The defeated and disorganised Siamese were rallied by Phaya Tak, governor of the northern provinces, whose father was Chinese, and Bangkok was founded at the mouth of the Meinam as a capital for the reduced 1768. kingdom. The new town, being a seaport, soon grew and attracted a considerable amount of trade. The present dynasty was founded a few years after the building of Bangkok by a soldier named Yaut Fa, who attempted 1782. the re-conquest of Tenasserim and succeeded in capturing Tavoy, though he was soon compelled to relinquish it. Cambodia, as we have seen, had been in very early Cambodia. days a great and flourishing Empire, ruling practically the whole of the southern part of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, but its annals seem on the whole more obscure than those of any other Asiatic country of equal importance. By the time Europeans first reached its shores the Empire was in full decay, the Siamese encroaching on its territory from the west and the Annamese from the east. Disputes with the Siamese had once been settled by fighting elephants without spilling human blood, but as Cam- bodia declined in power the invaders from the north insisted on annexing its outlying provinces, and at 171 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1702. 1706. Annam. Tong King. 1427. A Warlike Bishop. 1789. length even the ancient capital, Angor Tam, fell into their hands. Thus Cambodia was gradually reduced to very narrow limits, but its present dynasty is believed to have occupied the throne for more than a thousand years. In 1702 Pulo Condore, an island off its coast, was occupied and a factory estab- lished there by Catchpoole, who had been appointed by William III., British Consul for the whole of China, but the settlers were soon murdered and the factory burned by lawless Malays. It appears to have been in 1706 that the Cambodians first recognised the actual suzerainty of the Siamese king. From about the tenth century Annam had been independent of China in everything but name, and though disturbed by endless disorders it was constantly extending its territory. Tong King, sometimes under Chinese administration, sometimes independent of it, but always in a state of civil commotion, became more prosperous than it had previously been when, in 1427, Li Loi usurped the government and established some sort of order. It was he who fixed on Hanoi as the capital and introduced the Chinese system of com- petitive examinations. The country nominally formed a province of Annam, but in the sixteenth century, under Nguyen, it became independent, and about two centuries later Annam itself was invaded and Hue taken, the king, Gia Long, fleeing to Siam. The French bishop of Bangkok, Pigneaux de Betaine, persuaded his sovereign to take up the cause of the exiled monarch, hoping thereby to advance the interests of France and the Church in the peninsula. A treaty was made by which Louis XVI. undertook to restore Gia Long to the throne of Annam, receiving Pulo Condore and Tourane on the mainland in return. The French Revolution, however, effectually prevented him from interfering, and so the warlike bishop himself raised an army from adventurers of all nationalities who happened 172 THE INDO-CHINESE PENINSULA to be in the East at the time. Little resistance could be offered in Annam and Gia Long was restored to his throne. He naturally granted im- portant privileges to the Church of Rome and em- ployed Frenchmen to drill his troops. Afterwards, however, feeling secure on the throne and finding that the French had political designs on his king- dom, he persecuted the Christians and dismissed the foreigners in his service. The French had never- theless done something to secure their position in Indo-China, and the losses they had recently sustained in India itself (p. 185) made them doubly anxious to maintain it. 173 Uor M the Mah- rattas. CHAPTER XXVII RISE OF THE MAHRATTAS AND SIKHS. BREAK-UP OF THE MOGUL EMPIRE Battle of Talikote-Shah Jehan-Aurungzebe-Sivaji-The Mahrattas-The Sikhs-Nanak Shah-The Gurus-Ranjit Singh-Mogul Provinces become Independent-Afghanistan -Nadir Shah-Plunder of Delhi-Ahmed Khan-Battle of Panipat. The Sikhs and WHILE the European settlers had greatly extended their power in Hindostan, and were already scheming to subjugate the whole peninsula, the Empire of Delhi had declined, that of Vijayanagar had come to an end, and two new native powers had arisen, both of them to a certain extent representing religious move- ments. One, that of the Mahrattas, was a last stand of the old Hindu religion for political supremacy in the land of its birth; the other, that of the Sikhs, was the result of a sort of compromise between Hinduism and Islam. 1565. 1627. In 1565 the five Sultans of the Deccan combined to overthrow the Vijayanagar Empire, and at the battle of Talikote they were completely successful. The Hindu state was crushed for ever, but its territory, instead of being occupied by the victorious Moslems, was simply divided up among its former vassals, the Naiks, whose power, however, was never considerable. On the throne of Delhi, Jehangir was succeeded by Shah Jehan, who, though he began his reign by a hideous crime, murdering all the royal family except 174 RISE OF THE MAHRATTAS his own sons, ruled well and vigorously on the whole. The arts of peace were diligently cultivated, and the new sovereign was distinguished, even above the other Emperors of the line, for the magnificence of his build- ings, which, though designed on an enormous scale, were finished off almost like the work of jewellers. Among many other public works of the kind he rebuilt his capital, becoming the founder of the present city of Delhi, and he also erected the famous Taj Mahal at Agra, in which he lies buried by the side of his favourite wife. Shah Jehan, unlike most of the other sovereigns of the line, was a keen Moslem and carefully performed all the prescribed observances of the religion. This gained him considerable popularity among the masses, who were on the whole much more religious than their rulers. His last years were disturbed, as those of several of his predecessors had been, by the rebellion and civil wars of his sons, one of whom, Aurungzebe, having overcome the others, Aurungzebe. dethroned his father, and himself mounted the throne in 1656. Some trifling circumstance caused a breach with the powerful ruler of Persia, Shah Abbas, who pre- pared to invade India in consequence; fortunately, however, for the Mogul Empire, the aggressor died in camp, and its territory was for the time saved from invasion. Aurungzebe thus had leisure to attack. the portions of the Indian peninsula which did not yet acknowledge his authority, and he greatly in- creased the area of his dominions, extending them almost to Cape Comorin by the conquest of the Sultans of the Deccan. However, he took no measures to amalgamate the new acquisitions with the original Empire; his government was corrupt and oppressive; there was little in his personal character to command respect; his Hindu subjects were alienated by his religious bigotry, which impelled him wantonly to destroy several famous temples, and when he died, 1656. 175 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1707. 1712. Sivaji. in 1707, the Empire was in a far weaker state than when he began to reign. His successor, Shah Allum, a man of considerable ability, attempted, during his short reign of five years, to sustain a falling state, but his success was very limited, and from the time of his death, in 1712, its decline was rapid, and no later Emperor, conspicuous for anything but incompetence and weakness, mounted the Mogul throne. It was during the reign of Aurungzebe that Sivaji, a petty chief among the Western Ghauts in the neigh- bourhood of Bombay, raised the standard of revolt against the Sultan of Bijapur (p. 109) and founded The Mahrattas. the Mahratta power. The Mahrattas are an ancient Hindu nation, having, since very early times, occupied the district of Maharashtra, but both in intellect and physique they are markedly inferior to their northern neighbours, the Rajputs. In ancient days there were apparently no important Mahratta kingdoms, and the people offered so feeble a resistance to the Moslems that they got the nickname of 'mountain rats.' 1664. 1674. 1680. Sivaji's power rapidly increased. He made expeditions in all directions, raiding and burning, and in 1664 even ventured to plunder and destroy Surat, at that time one of the richest cities in the world, though the British factory was saved from his violence. Ten years later he was formally installed as Maharajah of the Konkan, a strip of territory between the Ghauts and the sea. Protected by his mountain fortresses he defied the Emperor of Delhi himself when the Deccan Sultans were overthrown by him, and even planned the complete expulsion of the Mohammedans from India. His son, Sambhaji, was betrayed to Aurungzebe, by whom he was executed as a rebel, but the power of the organisation he had founded continued neverthe- less to grow. In 1680 Sivaji died. He had been of low caste, and although his own descendants ruled as rajahs at Sattara, the Mahratta Empire, as it ex- panded, fell more and more under the influence of 176 RISE OF THE MAHRATTAS the Brahmans, and all real authority was wielded by the Peishwa, who had his Court at Poona and who belonged to the highest caste. Mahratta princes soon established states for them- selves and became the allies rather than the subjects. of the central power. In their internal administration they were entirely uncontrolled, in their foreign affairs. there was at least the pretence of referring all import- ant matters to Poona. One of these new states had its headquarters at Baroda, in Gujarat; another held the adjacent province of Malwa; a third comprised Berar and Nagpur; a fourth occupied the country south of Delhi and Agra, and its ruler practically controlled the Great Mogul himself. The power of the loosely-compacted confederacy rapidly grew, and by the middle of the eighteenth century it embraced nearly the whole peninsula. No Hindu state had ever before been so strong. I The Hindus of India had been contented on the whole with the rule of the Moguls, while the reins of government had been held by such liberal princes as Baber and Akbar. The bigotry of Aurungzebe, however, had completely alienated them, and they were consequently anxious for any change of govern- ment, however unpromising it might seem. This feeling was one of the chief causes of the rapid triumph of the Mahrattas. Still there was no civil government worthy of the name, and the so-called Mahratta Empire was really no more than a vast organised system of plunder. Raids were carried into almost every district of India. No native soldiers could withstand its terrible cavalry, but as no attempt what- ever was made to provide for the permanence of the Confederation, still less to conciliate the conquered people, its downfall was only a matter of time. The word Sikh means 'disciple,' and the sect was The Sikhs. founded by Nanak Shah, who was born in 1469. (1469.) This state, ruled by the Sindhia Dynasty, had its capital at Gwalior. M 177 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA He was a Hindu, but he had been much influenced by Mohammedans, and his religious system was a sort of reformed and monotheistic (or more strictly, per- haps, pantheistic) form of Hinduism. The com- munity was called Khalsa, and its highest officer or spiritual guide was the Guru. From quite an in- significant beginning Sikhism gradually spread till it became more a nation than a religious sect. The Guru Ram Das received a grant of land from Akbar, who took a great interest in the new religion. A large tank was dug there, and round it there soon grew up the city of Amritsar, which became the headquarters of the Sikh religion. A temple was built over the tank by the next Guru, Arjum Mal, who also com- piled the sacred book of the sect, called Adi Granth, and substituted a regular tax for the former voluntary contributions of his people. Under the earlier Gurus the Sikhs were distinguished for their religious fanati- cism and intolerance, constantly making holy war against the surrounding infidels. They were much more hostile to the Moslems than to the Hindus, though they had abandoned every Hindu prejudice except the sacredness of cows. As the movement spread the Guru became more and more a temporal sovereign, and Govind Singh (murdered in 1708), who held the office during the reign of Aurungzebe, organised the Sikhs as a military brotherhood, thus laying the foundations of their future power. His successor, Har Rai, was put to death by the same Emperor, and this led the Sikhs to increase the efficiency of their army, to prevent the Court of Delhi from again interfering in their private affairs. The successor of Shah Allum was the feeble Bahadur Shah, who showed himself quite incapable of maintaining the integrity of the Empire he had inherited. The Sikhs helped him in his wars with the Mahrattas, but on the return of their army to the Punjab, after a short period of 178 DECAY OF THE MOGUL EMPIRE anarchy and general disturbance, during which their famous general, Banda, was murdered, they made war 1716. on his successors, and practically became independent. Zaman Shah of Delhi afterwards sought to re-annex the Punjab, and, gaining some successes over the Sikhs, he left one of themselves, Ranjit Singh, as his Ranjit Singh. viceroy. This man proved an energetic ruler, but he speedily made himself independent of the decaying Empire, and extended his power over the adjoining districts, including Kashmir and Peshawar. He did something to organise his kingdom, and employed French officers to drill his troops. In 1809 he made 1809. an alliance with the British, and he kept on friendly terms with them till his death. The Punjab was by no means the only province to assert its independence of the Court of Delhi after the death of Aurungzebe. Nizam-ul-Mulk made 1713. himself practically an independent ruler at Hyderabad (in the Deccan), while a few years later, Saadat Ali Khan, nawab (nabob) of Oudh, virtually ceased to be a vassal of the Empire. Bengal was governed by nawabs descended from Murshid Kuli Khan, who were virtually sovereigns, but it continued to pay taxes to the Imperial treasury. In the south a group of Hindu states was gradually formed, the most im- portant being those of the Carnatic, Tanjore, Mysore and Trichinopolis. These, of course, were in no way controlled by the Court of Delhi, but they were weakened by ceaseless wars among themselves. In Afghanistan, nevertheless, Kabul and its neigh- Afghanistan. bourhood had been retained by the Mogul Empire. Kandahar, after repeatedly changing hands, was in 1640 captured and occupied by the Persians, but they 1640. were very soon afterwards expelled by a native chief- tain, Mir Wais, whose son, Mahmud, succeeded to his power, and even conquered Persia, routing the forces of Shah Husain, who was driven to make an abject submission. 179 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Nadir Shah. 1736. 1738. 1739. The vanquished Persians found a deliverer in Nadir, one of the leaders of some warlike tribes, who dwelt in the highlands of Persia, and who were accustomed to support themselves by becoming shepherds or robbers as occasion might serve. This man, having expelled the Afghans from the country, overthrew the Safawis Dynasty, and himself mounted the throne. Once firmly seated there he began a career of con- quest, which recalls those of Genghis and Tamerlane. Marching an army into Afghanistan, he captured Kandahar, which was held by a brother of Mahmud, and soon afterwards Kabul, which was defended by Sher Khan for the Mogul Empire, fell into his hands. This opened the way into India through Peshawar, and the Punjab was rapidly overrun, the Sikhs, who were not the main objects of attack, not thinking it worth their while to make any strenuous resistance. At the battle of Karnal the forces of Mohammed Shah, the feeble Sultan of Delhi, were easily put to flight, and a massacre of his subjects followed. The extraordinary weakness of the central power was thus exposed to the rest of India, and though the fallen monarch was reinstated by his conqueror, the Empire never recovered the blow. Nadir Shah had joined the orthodox or Sunni sect of Islam (as a Persian he had belonged originally to the Shia), but instead of taking measures to restore the decaying power of his faith in India, he enor- mously weakened it, leaving Delhi more than ever exposed to the attacks of the Mahrattas. On his way back to Persia he conquered Herat, thus secur- ing the possession of all Afghanistan, the bulk of whose warlike people he had already won over to his cause, and many of whom had voluntarily enlisted in his army. Tuining northwards he then attacked Bokhara, which he subdued without difficulty or delay; its Uzbeg ruler (Abu Faiz Khan) was reinstated, though 180 DECAY OF THE MOGUL EMPIRE he had to cede all his territory south of the Oxus to Persia. Having thus annexed a large part of Central Asia and secured the passes into India, Nadir returned to the west and attacked the Turks, over whom he 1743. gained some successes, but got little advantage for Persia, and his life was ended by an assassin. 1747. One of his officers, the celebrated Ahmed Khan, whom he had left to rule Kandahar, soon made himself independent, and rapidly extended his power. He made several expeditions into India, and at last, in 1761, succeeded in inflicting a crushing defeat on the Mahrattas at the battle of Panipat, which probably Battle of saved the Mogul Empire from extinction. He also Panipat, 1761. captured Lahore-the Sikhs paying a large indemnity to save the city from being sacked-besides other towns. On his death he left to his son, Timur, a wide Empire, embracing Afghanistan, a large part of Turkestan, and the whole of the Punjab. The new ruler proved fully equal to the task of maintaining his dominions, and he fixed his capital at Kabul. On his death, however, there was a new period of anarchy, and the country was distracted by the wars of his sons. 181 A The English Empire in India. 1639. 1661. 1689. 1696. CHAPTER XXVIII THE WAR BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN INDIA Madras--Bombay-Calcutta-Dupleix-Clive-Peace of Aix-la- Chapelle-Arcot-Surajah Dowlah-Battle of Plassey-Battle of Wandewash-Hector Munro-Clive's Administration. THE first part of the mainland of India over which the English actually obtained territorial sovereignty was a small strip of land which they purchased from the Rajah of Chandragiri, a petty sovereign who claimed descent from the Emperors of Vijayanagar. On this site, in 1639, Fort St George was built and garrisoned with sepoys, or native levies, and the city of Madras soon sprang up round the fortress. In 1661 Bombay was ceded by the Portuguese as part of the dower of Catherine of Braganza, the bride of Charles II., and about twenty-four years afterwards it was made the seat of a presidency instead of Surat. In 1689, the better to protect their trade, which suffered much from the wars between the Moguls and the Mahrattas, the Company definitely claimed the status of a sovereign state in the peninsula. Fort William, the nucleus of the present city of Calcutta, was built in 1696 by Job Charnock. These three cities-Madras, Bombay and Calcutta, each the seat of a Presidency-became the chief centres of British influence, but they were at first merely trading stations, fortified only because of the unsettled state 182 WAR BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH of the country, which made such defences absolutely necessary. < The first man who formed the plan of building up Dupleix. a European Empire in the interior of India seems to have been Dupleix, the able, but somewhat un- scrupulous, French governor of Pondicherri. The Portuguese and Dutch had sought to possess them- selves of the seaside towns, and the King of Portugal had taken the title, Lord of India, but they do not appear to have aspired to making their power felt in the more remote interior. Dupleix's policy was to extend the influence of France by taking advantage of the frequent disputed successions to set up creatures of his own as rulers of native states, and to recruit his armies in the country, drilling the Indians after European methods. Both these devices. had been used many years before by the Portuguese, but on a comparatively small scale. There certainly was no native power in the peninsula capable of re- sisting him with success, but his aggression made it impossible to avoid a rupture with the British, who for years had traded side by side with the French on fairly friendly terms. Unfortunately, for the success of Dupleix's schemes, he had to divide his command with La Bourdonnais, the Governor of Mauritius, who happened to be his personal enemy. In 1746 1746. this man sailed to India with a French fleet and captured Madras. The English were reduced to their fort of St David, a small station on the same coast a little further south. Among others who took refuge there was Robert Clive, at that time a clerk in the service of the Company. An expedition to seize the place was sent by Dupleix, but it was intercepted by the nawab of the Carnatic, who was friendly to the English. Meanwhile, a British fleet arrived, and, reinforced by some of the refugees from Fort St David, it attacked Pondicherri; but while the fighting was 183 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1748. 1753. Surajah Dowlah. 1756. going on news came of the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which Madras was restored. Dupleix, unable for the moment to attack the English, extended his power in the interior by setting up nominees of his own on the throne of Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, and of Hyderabad, which at that time was the chief city of the Deccan. His aggression soon led to a renewal of hostilities, and Clive, having volunteered as a soldier, was sent to seize Arcot. Marching thither in spite of a violent thunderstorm, and so taking the garrison completely by surprise, he easily captured the fortress and held it against a large army of French and their allies, though his men suffered fearfully from famine. He had taken great care to secure the good-will of the natives, and his sepoys showed the most extraordinary fidelity to him. The achievement enormously raised the prestige of the British in India, and a Mahratta chief named Morari Rao eventually came to the rescue from sheer admiration of his bravery. He successfully raised the siege, and the Carnatic fell entirely under British influence, the French retaining the Deccan. In 1753 Clive returned to England, but after a couple of years he came out to India again, and soon after his arrival at Madras he heard news which compelled him to go at once to Calcutta. Surajah Dowlah became Nawab of Bengal in 1756, and almost at once he quarrelled with the British. Calcutta was attacked, and, there being no sufficient force to hold it, Fort William fell. Most of the settlers fled; those who did not get away in time were confined in the celebrated Black Hole, which was fatal to more than a hundred of them. Clive, on his arrival, defeated the Bengal army and re-took Fort William, exacting full reparation for the outrage. The matter might possibly have rested there had not Surajah Dowlah-unfortunately for himself-taken the side of the French when war broke out again 184 WAR BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH between them and the English. At the battle of 1757. Plassey he was completely defeated, partly owing to the defection of his chief officer, Meer Jaffier, who had long been plotting against him, and whom Clive had bribed to desert his master during the battle. As a reward he was set up as Nawab of Bengal by the English, with authority from Delhi, but he had to pay large sums of money to the servants of the Company for his promotion. I Wandewash. In 1754 Dupleix had been deprived of his authority, and two years later the brave Thomas Lally, an Irish Jacobite by extraction, was appointed to the command of all the French forces in the Indies. The war with the English was rekindled in the neighbour- hood of Madras, where the French, under their new Battle of leader, were attempting to recover their lost power. In 1760, however, after some minor engagements, 1760. they were completely defeated by their rivals, under Sir Eyre Coote, at Wandewash, and the victors followed up their success by the capture of Pondicherri itself. It was this victory which really established the British Empire in India, henceforth no other European nation was in a position seriously to assert itself there, and no native power in the peninsula was capable for an instant of withstanding European arms. In 1758 Clive had been appointed Governor at Clive, Calcutta, and under his vigorous administration the Governor. French and Dutch settlements in the neighbourhood 1765-67.) (1758-60 and of the rising city were practically reduced to de- pendence. British influence became paramount in Bengal, but during the absence of the Governor in England, war again broke out with the natives, and there was a massacre of foreigners at Patna. A mutiny of the sepoys prevented any action being taken for a time, but the commander, Sir Hector I In 1764 Dupleix died in neglect and poverty, and in 1766 Lally was executed on a charge of cowardice, the injustice of which was acknow- ledged twelve years later. 185 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1764. 1765. Munro (as he afterwards became), succeeded in suppressing it, and at Buxar he gained a great victory over the forces of Oudh, Bengal and the Great Mogul himself. On the return of Clive, a peace was made by which Bengal, Behar (or Magadha, the old kingdom of Asoka) and Orissa practically became British, though a nawab still resided at Moorshedabad -at that time the capital of Bengal-and the criminal jurisdiction was (somewhat unwisely) left in his hands. The internal government of the pro- vince was managed by a powerful minister, who to some extent controlled the nawab. For this office there were two candidates, a Hindu named Nuncomar -for the extremely tolerant traditions of the Mogul Empire made it quite common for non-Moslems to hold the highest positions under it-and a Moham- medan named Mohammed Reza Khan; after a long delay the latter was appointed to the post. Clive's last great work was to purify the Government by securing the officers of the Company larger salaries than they had enjoyed before, and absolutely for- bidding them to accept any presents from the natives, or to engage in trade. 186 CHAPTER XXIX THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA Warren Hastings-The Rohillas-Nuncomar-First Mahratta War -First Mysore War-Cheyti Sing-Botany Bay-Lord Corn- wallis-Second Mysore War-Lord Wellesley-Third Mysore War-Second Mahratta War-Lord Minto-Marquis of Hastings-War with Nepal-Pindarees-Lord Amherst. First Governor- General of THE dual form of government in Bengal proved, as might have been foreseen, a complete failure, and affairs were in a state of chaos when, in 1772, Warren Hastings was appointed governor to succeed Warren Clive, under whom he had served as a soldier, and Hastings, who had fully recognised his ability by making him British Resident at the Court of Meer Jaffier. Two India. years later his authority was extended over all the (1774-85.) possessions of England in India, and he became the first British Governor-General. Pitt had obtained an Act of Parliament to limit the authority of the Governor by compelling him to consult the council (in which he had a single vote with an additional casting-vote in the event of a tie) before taking any important step. Burke had wished to make him more absolute, and it would probably have been better to have done so, as the system actually adopted was hopelessly unsuited to Asiatic politics, and proved a constant source of weakness to the Government. Hastings almost immediately abolished the double administration of Bengal, and the province was ruled 187 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Downfall of Nuncomar. directly by the officers of the Company, a system which was found to work much better than the old one. The new governor soon found himself in the greatest difficulties about money. The directors at home insisted on receiving a much larger sum than could possibly be obtained by honest means, and he accordingly felt justified in taking almost any measures to raise funds. It happened that Sujah Dowlah, the wealthy Nawab-Vizier of Oudh, was bent on an- nexing Rohilcund, a small state inhabited by a brave Afghan tribe, the Rohillas, whom his own army was quite unable to reduce. Besides offering a chance of relieving himself of his pressing financial difficulties, Hastings saw that an alliance with a powerful state like Oudh would be of the greatest advantage as a protection against the Mahrattas, and an agreement was accordingly made. In return for a large sum of money the soldiers of the Company were lent to the Nawab-Vizier to carry out his cherished schemes. Rohilcund was conquered and annexed, and instead of being one of the best-ordered territories in India it became one of the most miserable. Hastings was greatly weakened by the constant quarrels in the council, a majority of whose members were generally hostile, and an agitation against him was set on foot among the natives, instigated chiefly by Nuncomar, who was his determined enemy. It ended, however, in the rapid downfall of the assailant, for the Hindu, in spite of his Brahman caste, was tried for forgery before the Chief-Justice, Sir Elijah Impey, on the accusation of a native, and executed. It seems that Nuncomar had a perfectly fair trial, and that the charge of forgery was sufficiently proved. Whether, however, it was just to try a Hindu by English law is quite another matter. Forgery, which was then a capital offence in England, was, by the natives of India, looked on almost as a fair and 188 THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA legitimate device. The governor's position was greatly improved by the incident, and the natives no longer dared openly to attack him. War, 1775-82. While in America the English were being defeated First Mahratta in the War of Independence, they were extending their influence in India. The first Mahratta War broke out in 1775. The Bombay Government, whose possessions had till then been limited to Surat and the island of Bombay itself, obtained Salsette and Bassein by putting its own candidate on the throne of Poona when the succession was disputed. The more vigorous Mahratta princes were naturally highly indignant at this subordination of the Central Govern- ment of their confederacy to a foreign power, and war ensued. Hastings lost no time in sending troops to the west. Gujarat was conquered and Gwalior was stormed, but by the Treaty of Salbye, in 1782, both were restored to their native rulers. The Madras Government, too, had drifted into war 1782. with the Nizam, and with a Mohammedan adventurer, Hyder Ali, who, rising from the position of an illiterate common soldier, had made himself Sultan 1759. of Mysore, expelling the Hindu rajah. The latter First Mysore invaded the Carnatic, and, strengthened by an War. alliance with France, carried everything before him up to the very suburbs of Madras. suburbs of Madras. His career of victory was at length checked when Sir Eyre Coote, the hero of Wandewash, entrusted with the command by Hastings, defeated his forces in several battles, the first and most famous of which was fought at Porto Novo. Again in desperate straits for money, the governor- 1781. general now forced Cheyti Sing, rajah of the ancient sacred city of Benares, in spite of his having trans- ferred his allegiance from the Nawab-Vizier of Oudh to the Company, to pay an enormous fine. This 1781. caused a serious insurrection against the English, which spread to Oudh, but it was very soon put down. 189 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1788. Lord Corn- wallis. (1786-93.) War, 1791. I In 1785 Warren Hastings returned to England. His famous trial, which dragged on for seven years and ended in his acquittal, began in 1788. During the same year a convict settlement was made at Botany Bay in Australia, close to the spot where Sydney afterwards grew up. The matter was considered quite trivial at the time, but it was in reality an event second only in importance for the English-speaking races to the foundation of the American Colonies, securing a vast continent for their occupation and laying the foundations of a new and vigorous nation, which must in the future exert a great influence over the affairs of the Far East. The next governor-general was Lord Cornwallis, who had surrendered at Yorktown to George Wash- ington in 1781, and who was afterwards Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland. He did much to reform the Indian Government, establishing a new criminal court at Calcutta, and arranging a new and more equitable Second Mysore method of collecting the taxes. The British, now in alliance with the Mahratta Confederation and the Nizam, defeated Tippoo, who, having succeeded his father, Hyder Ali, as Sultan of Mysore, had provoked another war with them. This blood-thirsty tyrant, conspicuous even among Oriental despots for his rapacious cruelty and intolerable oppression, had entered into friendly relations with the French Directory, and planted a Tree of Liberty in his Lord Wellesley. kingdom. It was not till the time of Lord Wellesley, (1797-1805.) the next governor-general, that the tyrant was com- pletely overthrown and his strongest fortress, Seringa- patam, taken. On his downfall the Hindu kingdom of Mysore was restored, and the rest of his territory was partitioned among the British, the Mahrattas and the Nizam. The Carnatic and Tanjore passed under direct British administration about the same time. Third Mysore War. £799. I Botany Bay was first visited by Captain Cook, and it received its name from the naturalists who accompanied his expedition. 190 THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA The final victory over Tippoo was an enormous relief to England, especially as Napoleon was then in Egypt with his head full of ambitious schemes for founding an Eastern Empire. Meanwhile, the authority of the Peishwa over the turbulent Mahrattas was becoming less and less, and at last, in 1802, he was driven from Poona by Holkar, the 1802. Rajah of Indore, who was one of the most powerful of his nominal vassals, though the state which he ruled had only been founded in the middle of the eighteenth century. The English determined to restore him, but Holkar was joined by two other Mahratta chiefs, Sindhia, who had a large army drilled by French officers, and who practically controlled the Court of Delhi (p. 177), and the Rajah of Berar, called the Bhonsla. Arthur Wellesley, afterwards Second the great Duke of Wellington, and brother of the Mahratta War. governor-general, was entrusted with the command, 1803. and he gained a great victory over the forces of Sindhia at Assaye, while Lake won other victories, not without suffering some reverses, and captured Delhi and Agra, which, as we have seen, were completely dominated by Sindhia, thus freeing the Great Mogul from those who had for several generations controlled his govern- ment. The confederates had to sue for peace, and ceded territory to the British, but Holkar himself still remained unsubdued. war. The directors of the Company, disliking the ex- pense of keeping large armies in the field, and more anxious to pay their dividends than to see India pacified, were unwilling any longer to carry on the The result was that Holkar inflicted defeats on the British, which for years remained unavenged, and during the administration of Barlow, the successor of Lord Wellesley, the possessions of the Company actually decreased, while Rajputana and other districts were ravaged with impunity by the forces of both Sindhia and Holkar. · 191 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Lord Minto. (1807-13.) Marquis of Hastings. (1813-23.) War with Nepal. 1814-15. War with the Pindarees. 1817-18. I The next governor-general, Lord Minto, was fully occupied in carrying on the war with the French and Dutch. Over both he was triumphant, capturing Mauritius (which had been held by the Dutch before the French occupied it in 1715) from the former, and Amboyna, Java and many of the other East Indian islands from the latter. During the governorship of the Marquis of Hast- ings, about the time of Waterloo, war broke out with the Gurkhas of Nepal, and at first the British were defeated. Eventually, however, they retrieved their reverses, and, penetrating to within a few miles of Khatmandu, forced the enemy to make peace. appeal for help had been sent to Peking in vain, but the difficulty experienced by the Calcutta Govern- ment in bringing the Gurkhas to terms, though they had a convenient base of operations, sufficiently estab- lishes the reputation of Chienlung's troops, who gained an equally decisive success over the same people, though they had to march two thousand miles, and to cross the Himalaya Mountains. re- Meanwhile, Central India was being disturbed by the Pindarees, a band of mounted robbers who originated as early as the latter part of the seven- teenth century, but whose raids were at first on a comparatively small scale. Their ranks were cruited from the discontented of every tribe, and they did not in any sense form a nation. Amir Khan, the most powerful of their leaders, had an army drilled in the European way, and also possessed several cannon. A force dispatched by Lord Hastings succeeded in Mahratta War. destroying his power, but the Mahrattas, who had all along sympathised with the new tribe of robbers- whose habits so resembled their own-immediately rose. Holkar himself was, however, defeated at the decisive. battle of Mehidpur, and all regular resistance to the Third 1818. The Dutch, it will be remembered, were entirely in the hands of Napoleon at the time. 1 192 THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA British perished with him, though it was some time before all the isolated gangs of robbers who remained could be suppressed. The territory of the Peishwa, who had shown himself so incapable of holding it, was definitely annexed; a descendant of Sivaji was restored to the Government of Sattara, and British administration was spread over the Central Provinces. The next governor-general was Lord Amherst, Lord Amherst. who, in 1816, had been entrusted with the second (1823-28.) British Embassy to China (p. 210). " N 193 Stamford Raffles. 1805. CHAPTER XXX THE INDIAN EMPIRE OF ENGLAND EXTENDED OVER NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES Stamford Raffles-The Malay Peninsula-Java-Sumatra-Singa- pore Malacca-Bornco-First Burmese War-Lord William Bentinck-Dost Mohammed-Lord Auckland-Afghan Wars -Lord Ellenborough-Lord Hardinge-Sikh Wars-Lord Dal- housic-Second Burmese War-Ceylon-Other Islands. THE position of the English in the Malay Peninsula was secured very largely by the labours of Sir Stamford Raffles, one of the greatest and best of all the builders of the British Empire. The Orang Benna, or men of the soil, as the aborigines of the narrow strip of territory are called, are among the lowest and least civilised of all the human race, dwelling largely in trees, and living on berries and roots. The northern part of the peninsula was gradually absorbed by Siam, and many of the Siamese people penetrated towards the south, far beyond the limits of their political influence. From the thirteenth century onwards, Mohammedan Malays from Sumatra crossed the narrow straits and colonised the peninsula, establish- ing several petty states, whose rulers were called sultans or rajahs. One of the earliest cities they founded was Malacca, which, from its position, soon became the most important place in the peninsula. (p. 103). While in the service of the East India Company, Raffles attracted the notice of Lord Minto, and in 1805 he was sent by him to help in the 194 THE EXPANSION OF ENGLAND establishment of a trading-station at Penang, an island which had been acquired by the Company in 1785. When Java was captured from the Dutch (really Java. from the French) he was appointed Lieutenant- Governor of the island, and under his able administra- tion it prospered as it had never done before. The Dutch system of forced labour was abolished, a new arrangement about land-tenure was instituted, and everything was done to promote the well-being of the natives, over whom foreign rule was greatly extended, many tribes who had remained independent of the Dutch being brought under the Government. In spite of his earnest remonstrances, the island was 1816. restored to Holland after the downfall of Napoleon, and Raffles went home to England. He soon returned to the East as Governor of Sumatra. Bencoolen, where he followed much the same policy as in Java, and tried to extend British rule over as much of Sumatra as he could, annexing amongst other places the little island of Nias off the west coast. The immediate object of this latter step was to check the slave trade. Raffles was the first European to realise the advantages of Singapore as Singapore. a trading-station, and in 1819 he secured the pur- 1819. chase of the island by England from the Sultan of Johor (p. 103). Though never occupied by Portu- guese or Dutch, it had long before been settled by the Malays (p. 24). Raffles himself hoisted the British flag there, and took a great interest in laying out the new city, surveying the harbour and provid- ing for the general prosperity of the colony. Singa- pore with its clean streets, large gardens, tropical vegetation, red sandstone cliffs and bright blue sea, is at the present time one of the pleasantest cities in the whole East. Besides his magnificent political work, Raffles pub- lished a History of Java, and prepared materials for other works on Borneo and Sumatra ; these, however, 195 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1825. Borneo. 1811. Burmah. Assam. 1 with the valuable collections he had made during his extensive travels, were destroyed when the ship which was bringing him home was burned off the coast of Sumatra. On his return to England he founded the Zoological Society, of which he became the first President. He always took a great interest in mission work, and many of his intimate friends were missionaries. Bencoolen was afterwards ceded to Holland in ex- change for Malacca, but with the rapid growth of Singapore the latter place steadily declined in im- portance, and it has now sunk into insignificance. In Borneo, which had originally been discovered by the Portuguese, the British tried to make a settlement near Banjermassin during the seventeenth century. They were expelled by the Dutch, who for a time succeeded in holding the position them- selves. In the following century the British at- tempted to establish themselves in the north, making treaties for the purpose with the Sultans of Sulu and Bruni, but they were driven out by a rising of the natives; the Dutch also proved unable to maintain themselves in the island for long. In 1811, however, the Sultan of Banjermassin sent an embassy to the British Government of Java, and a treaty was made by which valuable trading rights were obtained. These lapsed to the Dutch when Java was restored to them, and the English did not get any permanent footing in Borneo till the time of Rajah Brooke. The successors of Alompra, having firmly established their rule over all Burmah, naturally began to encroach on their neighbours. Among other small states which they conquered was Assam, a country which for many centuries had maintained itself as an independent power. In earlier times its warlike kings had con- stantly made freebooting expeditions into the territory of their neighbours, and, secure among their mountains, 196 THE EXPANSION OF ENGLAND had defied all the attempts of more powerful countries to subdue them. During the seventeenth century they adopted Hindu institutions, and their political power declined about the same time. Owing to their in- cursions into his province of Bengal, Aurungzebe sent a force to conquer them, but although the Assam army was defeated, the expedition ended in disaster, and the territory never formed part of the Mogul Empire. Its annexation by the Burmese brought their frontier up to that of British India. Brigands and others fleeing into Chittagong, which had been occupied by the East India Company, soon caused disputes, and the Burmese made repeated incursions into British territory. They evidently had little idea of the resources of the country which they were provoking, and, hitherto unchecked in their career of victory, they refused to make peace or to give satisfaction for their outrages. War was accord- First Burmese ingly declared in 1824 by Lord Amherst, who was War, 1824-26 governor-general at the time (p. 193). Expeditions were sent to invade Burmah both by land and sea, Sir Archibald Campbell being the chief commander. The Burmese could make but a poor resistance, though, during the rainy season, there was a great mortality among the British troops. Rangoon, then, as now, the chief seaport in the country, and the most important town next to the capital, was taken, the more easily, because all the houses were built of wood, a Burmese law having forbidden the erec- tion of stone ones lest they should be held against the Government. At last, finding further resist- ance perfectly hopeless, the king sent an American missionary, Dr Price, to the English camp with the Treaty of Yandabo duly signed. By this document 1826. he gave up all claim to Assam and some small states adjoining it, and ceded the Burmese provinces of Arakan and Tenasserim, the latter including part of the Malay Peninsula. Each contracting party 197 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Lord William Bentinck (1833-35), (Governor of Bengal from 1827). Afghanistan. Dost Mohammed. re- was also to maintain a diplomatic agent at the Court of the other. Thus the Burmese Empire was duced to the valley of the Irawady and its tribu- taries, with an outlet to the sea at Rangoon between the two districts ceded to the English. These had become part of Burmah only by conquest, Arakan having been originally an independent kingdom, and Tenasserim (as has been mentioned, p. 171) having been wrenched from Siam. It was also during Lord Amherst's term of office that the fortress of Bhartpur in Central India, which had successfully defied Lake, was stormed by the British. Lord William Bentinck, the next governor- general, did much to improve the social condition of the people; among other beneficent reforms, carried through in spite of strenuous opposition, Suttee (the practice of burning widows alive on the death of their husbands) and Thuggism (a system of secret assassination) were declared illegal. Á free Press was instituted a little later. The important state of Mysore, with the little adjoining district of Coorg, was definitely annexed. A The chief reason for this ceaseless extension of territory on the part of the Indian Government was the impossibility of getting a settled frontier in any other way; the subjects of neighbouring states were constantly making raids into British territory, and the only method of putting an end to the annoyance was to control the native Govern- ments by keeping residents at their Courts, or to end their existence altogether. Notwithstanding, several districts of India were conquered by the British without any provocation at all, from a spirit of pure aggressiveness. The wars by which Afghanistan was distracted after the death of Timur (p. 181) were, to a cer- tain extent, ended when, in 1826, Dost Mohammed 198 THE EXPANSION OF ENGLAND Khan succeeded in establishing himself on the throne of Kabul, with the title of Amir, though his authority was not recognised throughout the country. George Eden, land. Lord Auckland, who succeeded Lord William Earl of Auck- Bentinck, hearing that the Persians in alliance with (1835-42.) Russia were laying siege to Herat, feared that the 1838. Czar was planning an invasion of India from the north. Accordingly he sent an embassy to Dost Mohammed to secure his adherence in case of a Russian advance, British help being offered him against his rivals in Afghanistan. But the Amir was bent chiefly on recovering the frontier town of Peshawar, which had been captured by the Sikhs a few years before, and, on the British refusing to assist him in the matter, he made an alliance with Russia. This caused Lord Auckland to espouse the cause First Afghan of Shah Shuja, one of his rivals, who happened to be a War, 1839-42. fugitive in British territory at the time. An ex- pedition was sent to Kabul through Sind, the Bolan Pass, Kandahar and Ghazni, and in 1839 Shah Shuja was set up as Amir, Dost Mohammed taking refuge in flight. British garrisons were placed in the chief Afghan towns, but the warlike people soon rose against their oppressors, and the army of occupation consequently received orders to evacuate the country. The retreat was disastrous, almost beyond parallel in history, the army was annihilated among the mountains. by the bitter cold and by sharpshooters concealed 1842. among the rocks overhanging the road. Only one man, Dr Brydon, survived and made his escape to Jelalabad. The women and children who had been given up to Akbar Khan, son of Dost Mohammed, were fairly well treated. A new force was sent from India, not without con- Second Afghan siderable deliberation, for the Persians had some time War, 1842. before abandoned the siege of Herat. The prisoners were recovered, and the gates, which were supposed to 199 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Lord Ellen- borough. (1841-44.) have come originally from Somnath, were carried off from the tomb of Mahmud of Ghazni (p. 56). Dost Mohammed recovered his throne and his position was materially strengthened by so ill-advised an attempt to overthrow him. Lord Ellenborough, who had become governor- general in 1841, annexed Gwalior and Sind, thus extending British influence towards the exposed north- west frontier, whence so many invaders have poured down on the fertile valley of the Indus. These con- quests were not made necessary by any lawlessness on the part of the inhabitants of the districts annexed, and the policy of Lord Ellenborough gave much dissatis- faction in many quarters. In 1844 the directors of the East India Company recalled him without consulting the British Government, and appointed Lord Hardinge. Sir Henry (afterwards Lord) Hardinge to take his (1844-48.) place. In the Punjab a period of lawlessness followed the death of Ranjit Singh (p. 179), and Lahore was torn by the dissensions of different chiefs battling for First Sikh War, supremacy. The disasters the British had sustained 1845-46. in Afghanistan made the Sikh soldiers anxious to measure their strength with them, and they con- stantly carried plundering raids across the Sutlej (a tributary of the Indus), which formed the frontier of their territory. War naturally ensued. The battle of Mudki was indecisive, that of Ferozeshah hardly less so; at Aliwal and Sobraon the British were victorious. A treaty was made by which the Punjab remained practically independent, but an English Resident was stationed at Lahore. The arrangement proved altogether unsatisfactory, and the second Sikh war broke out in the time of the next governor- general, Lord Dalhousie. At Chilianwala an indecisive battle was fought, but at Gujarat the British, under Lord Gough, won a great victory, and Dost Mohammed, who had made common cause with his Lord Dalhousie. (1848-56.) Second Sikh War, 1848-49 200 THE EXPANSION OF ENGLAND former enemies against their mutual foe, escaped only by the fleetness of his horse. The Punjab was annexed and ruled by British officials, of whom the chief were the brothers Henry and John Lawrence (the latter of whom was afterwards the first Viceroy after the Mutiny), and the soldier who afterwards be- came Lord Napier of Magdala. The roads and canals were greatly improved, many excellent reforms were carried out, and the people, gradually losing all traces of their religious fanaticism, soon became entirely reconciled to their new government. Some years later, in 1855, a treaty was made with Dost Mohammed at Peshawar ; in 1863 he recaptured Herat, which the Persians had taken in a subsequent siege. peace 1852. In Burmah, meanwhile, the king who had made Second with Great Britain was overthrown by a usurper, Burmese War. who treated the English Minister so badly that he had to withdraw from the country. Matters were made worse by repeated insults offered to foreigners at Rangoon, and in 1852 the second war with Burmah began. The English suffered considerable loss, but eventually conquered the whole province of Pegu,¹ which they annexed, thus completely shutting out the Burmese Empire from the sea. Lord Dalhousie, on his appointment as governor- 1848. general, vigorously devoted himself to public works. It was he who constructed the first railway in India, while the roads, canals, telegraphs and postal system throughout the country were greatly extended. Realising that the natives under direct British rule were, on the whole, incomparably better off socially than those still under their own princes, he sought by every means in his power to bring the inde- pendent and semi-independent states of the peninsula under his own control. Among other things he claimed that whenever a prince died without direct Rangoon is in the province of Pegu. 201 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Ceylon. The Islands. descendants his territory passed to the British Govern- ment as suzerain of the whole peninsula, and he refused to recognise adoption, which by Asiatic codes. of law stands in exactly the same position as natural sonship. The first place which fell in to him under the new regulations was Sattara itself, and other territories which he annexed were Nagpur (whose native princes, the Bhonslas, formed one of the oldest dynasties in India), Berar, Hyderabad in the Deccan, Tanjore, the Carnatic and Oudh, provinces which together form a large portion of the whole country. They were certainly better governed than they had been before, but this wholesale annexation was one of the chief causes of the mutiny which broke out in the time of Canning, who became governor-general in 1856 (p. 224). By the end of the last century all the Dutch fortresses on the coast of Ceylon had been captured by the English, who gradually extended their power over the interior. The last of the Sinhalese kings was overthrown by a rising of his subjects, and in 1815, by an agreement with the Kandyan chiefs, the whole island became British territory, the ancient laws of the country and the Buddhist religion being at the same time declared sacred and inviolable. Some of the Laccadive Islands had been tributary to Tippo of Mysore, others had before his time been occupied by the East India Company, and on the overthrow of the tyrant the whole archipelago practically became British. The Maldives have long been ruled by a Sultan of their own. In the middle of the seventeenth century an embassy was sent by them to the Dutch Government of Ceylon to ask for protection against pirates. The suzerainty thus established passed to the British on the expulsion of the Dutch from Ceylon. The Nicobar and Andaman Islands are inhabited only by savage tribes, whose ancestors fled from the 202 THE EXPANSION OF ENGLAND mainland during the Aryan conquest of India. The latter were occupied as a convict station in 1789, and, 1789. although the settlement, on account of its unhealthi- ness, was afterwards abandoned for a time, it was subsequently reoccupied. In 1869 the Nicobar group was also definitely annexed. Thus, while England was spreading her rule over India and the neighbour- ing countries on the mainland, the islands off their coasts were also becoming hers. 203 CHAPTER XXXI THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE IN JAPAN Ieyasu founds a New Shogunate-Yedo-Hideyori-Dutch at Hirado -Adams-The Four Classes of the Population-The Christians -Arima Rebellion. On the death of Hideyoshi in 1598 (p. 125) the reins of government fell into the hands of his favourite officer, Tokugawa Ieyasu, a man who, like most distinguished Japanese at that time, had made a good many enemies by his haughtiness. As he soon formed the design of setting up a new Shogunate, which might remain in his own family, he was naturally anxious to pick a quarrel with Hideyori, the young son of the Taiko, who had been committed to his care. Hoping to turn the boy's attention away from politics he urged him to finish in the most sumptuous manner the Daibutsu (Great Buddha) Temple at Kyoto which his father had begun. When, however, the works were approaching completion, he absolutely refused to allow the shrine to be consecrated, taking exception to the inscription on the great bell, which consequently remained unhung until quite lately. Among Ieyasu's opponents were some of the most powerful of the land, and the chief of them was Mitsunari, a Christian convert. The relations be- tween the two factions in the state became more and more strained until they resulted in a civil war. A 204 THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE IN JAPAN decisive battle was fought at Sekigahara, in which 1600. Ieyasu completely defeated his enemies. Among the prisoners were Mitsunari himself and Konishi, both of whom were executed at Kyoto by the victors. Kato Kiyomasa had taken the side of Ieyasu, and he helped to pacify Kiusiu in his interests. The victor behaved with great moderation when he had once established his authority, and he reorganised the government of the country much as Yoritomo had done, obtaining the Imperial sanction for all his actions. Thus began the Tokugawa Shogunate, which lasted till the Restoration of 1868. The Emperor continued to reside in the palace of Kyoto, while the Shogun's Court, the real seat of government, was fixed at Yedo, which became a large and flourishing city, the marshes which had come close up to the original town being filled in with earth dug from the castle moats and then built over. Friendly relations were established with China and Corea, and after being engaged in wars, domestic and foreign, almost without interruption, for centuries, Japan at length entered on a period of comparative peace, although the feudal daimios were still too independent of the Central Government to abstain from settling their private feuds by taking up arms. Hideyori was living quietly in his father's castle at Osaka, but, to remove a possible source of danger to 1615. the new Government, his stronghold was attacked and taken after a long siege, its defenders having been induced to leave the shelter of its walls and risk a battle in the open with the Shogun's army. Hideyori was taken prisoner and basely murdered. During the Tokugawa Shogunate the Japanese were forbidden to leave the country or to hold any intercourse with foreign nations. To enforce the I The foreign settlement in Tokyo, which occupies one of the lowest parts of the city, is called Tsukiji (pronounced 'Skeegy '), 'made land.’ The castle being on a low, natural hill, there was no need to use the earth dug from the moats for raising the level of its enclosure (p. 121). 205 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1620. restriction, no junk was allowed to be built over a certain size. In earlier days, Japanese corsairs had penetrated into almost every sea of Asia, and had even sailed across the Pacific to the western shores of America. The Dutch were, however, still allowed to trade at the little island of Hirado, off the coast of Kiusiu, which had before been occupied by the Spaniards. The British once established a factory there, but after the Massacre of Amboyna they had to withdraw. Later on the Dutch were permitted to live, under oppressive restrictions, at Nagasaki itself, where the little peninsula of Deshima, at the head of the harbour, was assigned to them. Englishman, William Adams, who came out to the East as pilot of a Dutch vessel, and was shipwrecked, lived about the Shogun's Court till his death, and was kindly treated by Ieyasu, to whom he rendered import- ant services. An The population of Japan, at this time, was divided into four classes, the first comprising the military families or Samurai, the second the farmers, including a few yeomen independent of any daimio, the third the artisans, and the fourth the traders. I Iyemitsu, the grandson of Ieyasu, Shogun from 1623 to 1650, suc- ceeded in considerably reducing the power of the nobility, in which he had the hearty support of the people. No later Tokugawa Shogun was specially remarkable. The 'Legacy of Ieyasu,' a document left by their founder for the general guidance of the Shoguns of this line, whose genuineness has, however, been ques- tioned, contains moral maxims, chiefly from the works of Confucius and Mencius, political and legal principles, and some details of his own life. In it he urges tolera- tion for all religious sects except Christianity. I The fact of traders being so lightly esteemed does something to account for the hopelessly unbusinesslike methods of the Japanese merchants, which is notorious all over the East. 206 THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE IN JAPAN The Christian converts, among whom were several daimios, and others who held considerable political power, had not scrupled to forward the cause of their Church by persecuting the Buddhists, and by forcing those under their authority to adopt their own creed. Ieyasu was at first inclined to be tolerant, but finding that many of the Christians favoured the cause of Hide- yori, and that they were disposed to set the Government at defiance, as, for instance, when they celebrated the beatification of Ignatius Loyola in a magnificent manner at Nagasaki, in spite of the strictest prohibi- tions of any such displays, he issued a persecuting edict in 1614. An inquisition was set up with punish- 1614. ments even more savage than those which had been employed by the Christians themselves in Spain. The Japanese Christians, except at Nagasaki, where the persecution was hottest, and where resistance would have been hopeless, were too scattered to rise in arms against their oppressors; but when the misgovernment of the daimio of Arima provoked a rebellion among his subjects, Christians in large numbers joined the malcontents. At length a deserted castle at Hara was occupied, patched up and held by them. The local authorities found themselves quite unable to quell the outbreak, and so Iyemitsu, who was Shogun at the time, had to send troops from Yedo. A large force was collected, but the insurgents defied all their efforts, and an appeal for help was sent to the Dutch at Hirado. Anxious to lose no opportunity of gaining the favour of the Japanese Government, the Dutch settlers immediately dispatched the vessel De Ryp to the scene of action. Her guns, however, produced hardly any effect at all on the solid walls, and she was sent away, the Japanese at length feeling rather ashamed of having called in foreign help to put down a domestic rebellion. Eventually the castle was taken by storm, and its 1638. brave defenders were all put to the sword. The 207 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA daimio, whose misconduct had caused the rising, was obliged to commit suicide. Christianity was practi- cally exterminated, though in the neighbourhood of Nagasaki several families secretly kept their faith and baptised their children in private. 208 CHAPTER XXXII DECAY OF CHINA-FIRST WAR WITH ENGLAND Chiaching-Pirates-Foreign Trade-Lord Amherst's Embassy- Taokwang-Central Asia-The Opium Dispute-War breaks out-Treaty of Nanking-Hong Kong-Treaty Ports- Missions. CHIENLUNG's successor was Chiaching (Heaking), a 1796. hopelessly weak and incompetent Emperor. A vigor- ous administration having given place to a slack one, discontent, long pent up, showed itself in all parts of the Empire, and the country was disturbed by cease- less rebellions, while the coasts were infested by pirates. Pirates. On one occasion these even captured the vessels bring- ing tribute from Siam, though it was recovered for the Chinese by a British ship, the Mercury. After some lame attempts on the part of the Government to restore order on the sea, the pirates merely becoming stronger from the vessels they captured, a war broke out between two divisions of the Corsairs, which were distinguished by the names of the Red and the Black, and the Confederacy was thus dissolved. Most of the survivors submitted, and entered the service of the Emperor, from whom they received high titles of honour. In Peking affairs were in such a state that a plot to murder Chiaching in his own palace was only frustrated by the devotion of the prince, who after- wards became the Emperor Taokwang. European Trade. trade was all the time increasing rapidly, and a new О 209 1816. 1820. 1812. A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA I nation had entered the field in 1784, when an Ameri- can vessel from New York sailed to China under Captain Green. Both mandarins and people did all they possibly could to annoy and ill-treat the foreigners, and matters were made considerably worse when Admiral Drury, after threatening to attack Canton, sailed away without having done so, the Chinese erecting a pagoda to commemorate the repulse of the British. Lord Amherst's embassy (p. 193) was in 1816, the year in which the Gurkhas were defeated by the English, and its object was to induce the Emperor to grant reasonable protection to the merchants. It was a complete failure. Lord Am- herst was escorted to the Summer Palace, but he left it again only two or three hours after he entered it. The Chinese insisted on his performing the kotow to the Emperor, and he naturally refused to do so. In early days, some Dutch envoys had consented to per- form the ceremony, but they got nothing except insults to themselves in return. In 1820 Taokwang began his long but unprosperous reign. From the first the country was disorganised, the people were disaffected. The reign, nevertheless, began with some lame attempts at reform; buffoons were banished from the Court, the forgers of false coin were severely punished, the people were strictly forbidden to have arms in their possession, but the Emperor really cared for little but pleasure, and hardly anything was done to relieve the prevailing distress, or to check the growing lawlessness. In 1812 the Khan of Khokand, Mohammed Ali, had felt strong enough to repudiate his allegiance to China, and he even appointed officers to collect taxes for himself in Chinese territory at Yarkand and Kashgar. Sarimsak, one of the numerous princes who Mandarin is the corruption of a Portuguese word, and is used by foreigners to designate all classes of Chinese officials, from the highest to the lowest. 210 DECAY OF CHINA had been driven from their thrones by Chienlung's armies, had taken refuge at his Court, and Jehangir, one of this man's sons, now collected an army from the Kirghiz tribes, with the support of his host, and marched on Kashgar. He was repulsed by the Chinese garrison, and took refuge among the Thian Shan Mountains, whence he made constant incursions into Chinese territory. On one occasion an Imperial army, which attempted to seize him, was cut to pieces among the mountains, and, encouraged by this success, he again descended to the plains, and making himself master of both Kashgar and Yarkand, he was recog- nised by the inhabitants as Sultan of Kashgaria. A Chinese army, however, soon appeared on the scene, and at the battle of Yangabad it gained a complete victory; the authority of the Emperor was restored, Jehangir himself was taken to Peking, where he was executed as a traitor. Trade with Khokand was pro- hibited, but Mohammed Ali soon recovered his position in Kashgaria. While, however, the Chinese showed themselves able to maintain their authority in Central Asia, their country was disturbed by constant rebellions at home in nearly every province. Formidable insur- rections broke out both in Formosa and Hainan, which 1832. were only suppressed with heavy loss. The Miao- tsze burst forth from their mountains and ravaged Chinese territory. After several battles had been fought with no decisive results, they were at length persuaded to remain quiet. Relations with foreign countries continued all the time to get more and more strained. Lord Napier, a naval officer who had served at the Battle of Trafalgar on the Defence, was sent to Canton as chief superintendent of trade, to try and compose 1834. matters in 1834, but a letter which he sent to the Chinese authorities was refused by them because among other things it was not marked petition. His efforts were a complete failure, and in the same year he died 2 II A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA at Macao, his end being hastened by the worries of his position. One of the chief causes of contention between Chinese and foreigners was opium. The Emperor absolutely refused to legalise it, but the officials were so corrupt that it was impossible for him to enforce the prohibition, while the profits on the sale of the drug were so large that foreigners would not stop importing it. Several conflicts occurred at Canton in consequence of the disputes. Matters got worse from day to day. At length Commissioner Lin¹ was sent by the Emperor, armed with the fullest powers ever conferred on a subject, and after much arguing, by order of Captain Elliot, the agent of the British crown, over twenty thousand chests of opium were surrendered to him and completely destroyed. A little later there were disturbances at Hong-Kong, on which the British were constantly landing to repair their ships but which was not yet formally occupied by them, while opium continued to be imported. War could not in any case have been averted for long, and the Chinese had given abundant provocation; but it is much to be re- gretted that the immediate cause of hostilities was the destruction of the opium chests which the British Government made a casus belli, but which in itself was certainly a justifiable act, and one to which no European nation would hesitate to have recourse in similar circumstances. Except at Canton, however, the Chinese officials themselves were smuggling opium into the country all along the coast, and their professed horror of the drug being imported cannot have been very sincere. The British rightly claimed that their sole object in going to war was to get reparation for insults to traders, to exact compensation for the losses the merchants had sustained, and to obtain security for foreign residents in China. I This man's spirit is supposed still to keep watch over the destinies of Canton, and so is duly worshipped in the City Temple. 212 FIRST CHINESE WAR 1 Tinghai, in the Chusan Archipelago, was soon The War. captured by a squadron under Sir George Bremer 1841. and made a base of operations. Elliot went up to 2 Taku to make a last attempt at negotiation, but it was a complete failure and the war went on. The Bogue forts were captured and Canton was threatened, but the inhabitants ransomed their city for six million dollars,¹ after which trade went on there as usual. The British fleet moved northwards, and Amoy, Ningpo and Shanghai were successively taken. At the Wusung forts, defending the entrance to the Shanghai River, General Chin made a brave but fruit- less resistance. Sailing up the Yang-tsze, the invaders next captured Chinkiang, an important city at the intersection of the river with the Imperial Canal (p. 80), which was gallantly defended by the Manchu garrison and eventually fell amidst frightful scenes of bloodshed. At the neighbouring town of Iching the British were hospitably entertained by the inhabitants (who seem to have felt no resentment whatever towards the slayers of so many of their countrymen), an event which could hardly have happened among any other people than the Chinese. At length, when Nanking itself was on the point of being taken, the Chinese recognised the uselessness of further resistance, and the Treaty of Nanking was agreed to. Its provisions were:- 1. Lasting peace between the two nations. 2. Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shang- hai opened to foreign trade. 3. The island of Hong-Kong ceded to England. 4 to 7. Indemnity of $21,000,000. 8. All English prisoners released. 9. The Emperor to grant a full amnesty to all his subjects who had helped the enemy. I The dollar current in the East is the Mexican, worth about two shillings, or half an American dollar. 2 In 1899 these forts were destroyed to make room for a foreign hotel. Treaty of Nan- king, 1842. 213 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1844. 10. Fair tariff of customs at the open ports. II. Official correspondence on equal terms. 12. Places held by the British to be evacuated as the indemnity is paid. These were of course very generous terms for Great Britain to grant when she might have annexed a province and exacted a very much larger indemnity. The struggle had all along been hopeless for the Chinese, who were entirely unprepared to hold their own against European troops, though they had attempted to build junks on the model of foreign vessels, and had mounted old Spanish cannon on some of their batteries. Opium was not mentioned at all in the treaty, but its introduction was no longer prohibited. A supple- mentary treaty extended the rights granted to English- men to all other nations. Hong-Kong was formally taken possession of in 1843, and Sir Henry Pottinger was made its first governor. Its growth was rapid and it gradually became the most important trading- station in the East, Macao, which for a time during the troubles had formed a refuge for British merchants, decaying as it rose. The Chinese mandarins had in earlier days claimed to exercise authority over all aliens who visited their shores, and one or two foreign sailors had been executed by them for murder; all this was now ended, foreigners being put under the jurisdiction of their own consuls. At each of the new treaty ports a plot of land was set apart for their residence and made independent of Chinese control, though sovereign rights were not surrendered and a small rent was paid for it to the Emperor. This system, which must be extremely galling to a proud nation, is almost necessary if Europeans are to live at all in the territory of Asiatic despots. There was nothing new in the idea. Substantially similar privileges seem to have been granted to Ahab by the King of Syria when he was permitted to make streets for his own subjects in Damascus (1 Kings xx. 34), and similar terms had 214 FIRST CHINESE WAR been imposed by Europeans on Turkey and other states. Foreign residents in China naturally began to increase rather rapidly, and a new stream of Missions. missionaries, both English and American, poured into the country. Their presence has been a great blessing to the Chinese, and they have done much to break down the prejudice against foreigners. Besides direct preaching they have sought to benefit the people among whom they dwell by hospital and dispensary work, and by establishing schools and colleges. Of the four native religions of China at the present time, Confucianism as a philosophy still claims the allegiance of practically the whole nation. Very little of Confucius's teaching is in conflict with the Gospel, and Christian converts generally continue to revere the great Sage, while the Classics are taught in all the Christian schools. Mohammedanism is the religion of thirty to forty millions of the people, and it is in a fairly flourishing state. The Mosques, almost alone among native buildings, are kept in good repair, and their services are regularly performed. Buddhist and Taoist temples are almost universally dilapidated, not to say ruinous, and both religions are in a state of the most profound decay. There are a few districts, especially in the south, where the Bonzes are respected by the people, but the common idea of them may be gathered from the following proverb: 'If your head is not shaven you're not a priest, and if you're not a priest you're not a blackguard.' The Empire recovered from the effects of the war sooner, on the whole, than might have been expected, but there was still widespread discontent among the people. The seas were infested with pirates; secret societies and Moslems were constantly fomenting re- bellions. Governor Amaral of Macao, taking advantage of the general disorder, attempted, in 1849, to make the colony completely independent of Chinese control, but he was murdered in consequence. As soon as 215 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA the news of a Chinese defeat reached Central Asia there were disturbances there also. Mohammed Ali had been assassinated, with the result that his state was plunged into anarchy; the sons of Jehangir tried to reconquer Kashgaria, but after gaining some successes they were defeated, and the Emperor's authority was restored. Taokwang died in 1850. 216 CHAPTER XXXIII SECOND WAR AND TAI PING REBELLION Hienfung-Hung Siu-tsuen - Capture of Nanking-Attack on Tien-Tsin-The Arrow Incident-Canton Captured-Repulse at Taku-Tien-Tsin and Peking taken-Treaties Ratified- Chinese Gordon-The Ever-Victorious Army-The Tsungli Yamen-Reforms-The Customs Service. On the death of Taokwang, Hienfung succeeded to 1850. the vacant throne, and his younger brother was made Prince Kung, a title always borne by one of the members of the Imperial family. About the same time there arose a rebellion in the south, which almost succeeded in expelling the Manchus from China. The Tai Ping leader, Hung Siu-tsuen, had been influenced by the Rebellion. missionaries, and he began by proclaiming a new religion of his own, based to some extent on Christianity; converts were baptised, the Sabbath was strictly observed, opium and spirits were absolutely forbidden, idols were ruthlessly destroyed. Siu-tsuen proving to be a man of some ability, the movement rapidly spread. Open rebellion soon followed, and, after some smaller successes, Nanking itself was captured 1853. and occupied. Hung Siu-tsuen now proclaimed himself Emperor of China, founder of the Tai Ping or Great Peace Dynasty, and he appointed north, south, east and west kings to assist him in the government. Nanking was made the capital of China, and the city was solemnly consecrated. The cause flourished greatly; 217 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1855. 1856. Second War. the people were won over by the moderation the Tai Ping armies showed in the field, and by the slack- ness the Imperialists displayed in their efforts to put down the rising. Town after town fell into the hands of the insurgents. An expedition was at length sent to capture Peking, and at Chinghai-hsien, a small city situated among dreary mud flats on the banks of the Imperial Canal, only twenty miles south of Tien-Tsin, a permanent camp was pitched and pro- tected by an earth-wall which still exists. An attack on Tien-Tsin was, however, repulsed by Manchus, under Sankolinsin, a general who afterwards took the com- mand against the Allies, and in 1855 Chinghai was evacuated. Before this, however, the earlier modera- tion of the rebel troops had given place to the most. fiendish barbarity; the Nanking Court had become a hot-bed of vice-probably it was even more corrupt than the Imperial one-and from this time the fortunes of the Tai Pings began to ebb. The Imperialists were beginning to close in round Nanking itself, when affairs on the coast caused another war between England and China, and gave the insurgents a breath- ing space. The Peace of Nanking had not brought goodwill between Chinese and foreigners, and relations had become almost as strained as they had ever been before. Some American vessels were fired on near Canton, and their crews consequently landed and captured the Barrier Forts; the incident, however, ended there, mutual explanations being given. Other encounters of the same sort were constantly taking place; the Chinese seemed altogether to have forgotten the lessons of the First War. The immediate cause of the second war was the incident of the Arrow, a lorcha which, though she was flying the British flag, was seized by a war-junk on the allegation that her crew were breaking some Chinese law. The British flag was at the same time hauled down and stamped upon. 218 SECOND WAR AND TAI PING REBELLION The Viceroy of Canton, Yeh, supported the act, and the English Government made it a casus belli, for, though investigation showed that the lorcha had no right to be flying their flag at the time, it was im- possible that the Chinese could have known it, and so deliberate an insult to the Union Jack could hardly be passed over. The real object of the war, however, was to force the Chinese Government to admit Foreign Legations in Peking, which seemed to be the only way of putting diplomatic relations on a satis- factory footing. The co-operation of America, France and Russia was invited, and each nation appointed a minister to treat with the Chinese, the British one being Lord Elgin,' the American one, W. B. Reed, the French one, Baron Gross, and the Russian one, Count Poutiatine: only the French and English, however, took part in the actual hostilities. The first English force sent out was called away at Singapore to help to suppress the mutiny which had just broken out in India (p. 225), but it did not make much difference in the war. As Yeh, always violently anti- foreign, besides being fiendishly cruel to his own people, refused their ultimatum, the French and English warships steamed up the river and Canton was vigorously bombarded and captured. The offending 1857. viceroy having been seized and exiled to Calcutta, and arrangements having been made for the temporary government of the city by a mixed board of foreigners and Chinese, the Allies went north to negotiate directly with the court of Peking. The Taku Forts were captured, the vessels steamed up the Pei Ho, and treaties, by which foreign ministers were to be allowed to reside in Peking, were duly signed in a Buddhist Temple at Tien-Tsin. 2 A son of the Lord Elgin who brought the Parthenon marbles to England. He had been Governor-General of Canada, 1846-54. 2 The Hi-Kwan-Ssu-Sea Light Temple-a large monastery attached to a powder-factory, a mile and a half from the foreign settlement. 219 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1859. 1860. When, however, the Allies returned in 1859 to get their treaties ratified, they found the forts rebuilt on an improved plan, and when they attempted to force a passage up the river they were repulsed with heavy loss. It was on this occasion that the American Commodore Tattnall, though nominally neutral, rendered help to the British during the action, ex- claiming that blood is thicker than water. I The Next year a stronger fleet was sent and, instead of attacking the forts from the sea, a landing was effected ten miles up the coast, and they were captured from the land side. Tien-Tsin was taken and occupied, though the Manchu general, Sankolinsin, did his best. to protect it by enclosing both city and suburbs with a mud wall over ten miles in circuit, just inside the south-east corner of which the foreign concessions are now situated. No satisfaction being obtained, the Allies continued their march on Peking; there were several skirmishes and an engagement was fought in which the Chinese were routed, though they treacherously took prisoner Sir Harry Parkes and others who were trying to treat with them. Emperor had fled to Jehol, a remote place among the mountains beyond the Great Wall, where he had a palace, and in order to punish him for his obstinacy, without hurting his people, the Summer Palace was sacked and burned-a lamentable piece of vandalism which has done much to increase the prejudice of Chinese against foreigners, though the Emperor had certainly given abundant provocation for the act. At length, when Lord Elgin, who had taken up his quarters in the Yellow Temple, was on the point of bombarding the city, Prince Kung, who had been left in charge of the capital, consented to treat, and put the Anting Mun, the eastern gate in the north wall, into his hands. The soldiers of England and France. Tattnall, as a young man, had served against the British in the war of He afterwards fought for the South in the Civil War. 1812. 220 SECOND WAR AND TAI PING REBELLION marched into the city and the treaties were ratified in the absence of the Emperor, Tien Tsin and several 1860. other new treaty-ports being opened, and Kowloon, the territory on the mainland opposite Hong-Kong, being ceded to England. One of the palaces in Peking was at the same time set apart to serve as British Legation. The allied armies, having accom- plished their mission, quietly retired, paying for all the provisions they used. The Imperial authorities were now able to devote their attention to suppressing the Tai Ping rebels with whom Lord Elgin had at one time almost decided to open negotiations. They had had abundant evidence of the superiority of western modes of warfare to their own, and they requested the services of a British officer to conduct the campaign. Charles Gordon Gordon. was sent, and soon showed himself thoroughly well qualified for the work he had to do. Foreign ad- venturers had already joined the forces, both of rebels and Imperialists. An American named Ward had recruited the Ever - Victorious Army, comprising foreigners of all nationalities, including even a few Greeks and Italians, as well as Chinese,' in the interests of the latter. On his death the command devolved on Burgevine, another American, who proved incompetent and afterwards went over to the Tai Pings. Under Gordon this army was now put into a fairly efficient state, and the insurgent strongholds fell into his hands, one after another, though the treachery of his Chinese colleague, Li Hung Chang, who thought nothing of executing rebels who had sub- mitted on the express condition that their lives should be spared, almost made him resign his command on more than one occasion. After the capture of Chung Chow Fu, the Ever-Victorious Army was disbanded, I The Chinese soldiers were dressed in European uniforms, slightly modified, and in consequence they were called 'Imitation Foreign Devils' by their countrymen. 221 1861. Customs A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA having done all that was necessary, and in 1864 Nan- king itself was retaken by the Imperialists, and Siu- tsuen committed suicide. Thus the rebellion was completely crushed after having caused, it is estimated, the death of fully twenty millions of the people, and laid waste hundreds of square miles of territory which even yet has scarcely been fully restored to cultivation. In spite of the repulse before Tien Tsin and its consequences, there can be little doubt that it would have succeeded had foreigners not interfered, and it might perhaps have been the best thing for China if it had. The Tai Ping Dynasty would almost certainly have been progressive, and the whole system of government must have been reformed; in any case it is not likely that China would now be in her present helpless condition. In 1861 Hienfung had died, and his infant son succeeded under the title of Tungche; during the same year, as official intercourse with Europeans could no longer be avoided, the Tsungli Yamen, or Chinese Foreign Office, was instituted. The two Empresses, Tungche's own mother and Hienfung's principal wife, became regents, while Prince Kung secured most of the real power. He represented a comparatively liberal party, his rival, Prince Tsai, being ultra-conservative and anti-foreign. It was obvious that some reforms must be carried out if the Empire was to maintain itself at all, but they were undertaken as very disagreeable necessities, and foreign institutions were borrowed with great reluctance, and applied without the slightest knowledge of their true principles. Chinese troops were drilled by foreign officers, whose hands, however, were tied by so many restrictions that it was almost impossible for them to make their men really efficient. An Englishman, Mr H. N. Lay, who, with other Europeans, had been entrusted by a tautai with the duty of collecting the I I One of the lower grades of mandarins. 222 SECOND WAR AND TAI PING REBELLION custom dues at Shanghai, in despair of finding honest Chinese to do the work, was commissioned to purchase a fleet of gunboats in England, but when they arrived they were sent away again, owing to various mis- understandings. After Lay the management of the customs was placed in the hands of Mr (now Sir Robert) Hart, under whom the service has reached a high state of efficiency, and it yields the only really reliable revenue the Chinese Government has, about fifteen per cent. only of the taxes collected by native officials ever reaching the Imperial Exchequer. In 1868 a Chinese Embassy was sent to twelve other 1868. Powers under the charge of Anson Burlingame, an American, who, however, died at St Petersburg. 223 10th May 1857. CHAPTER XXXIV THE INDIAN MUTINY AND THE BRITISH IN CENTRAL ASIA Rising at Meerut-Nana Sahib-Cawnpore-Havelock-Sir Colin Campbell-Reforms-Afghan Affairs-Lord Roberts-Kash- mir-The Dogras-Hunza-Nagar-British Policy. THE Indian Mutiny was the result of widespread dissatisfaction with English rule, caused by various actions of the Government, which did not at that time show sufficient respect for the traditions of its subjects. The immediate cause of the rising, how- ever, was the serving out to native soldiers of cart- ridges greased with animal fat, abhorrent to the prejudices of Moslem and Hindu alike, though for different reasons. It was at Meerut, the largest military station in India, that the Sepoys first broke out into open revolt, and they immediately marched to Delhi, whose Moslem inhabitants were not slow to join them. The insurgents placed themselves under the lead of Dandhu Panth or Nana Sahib, who was proclaimed Peishwa of the Mahrattas; the Mogul Emperor, Bahadur Shah, also consented to support the movement, although with some reluct- ance. The flames of revolt rapidly spread. In one station after another the Sepoys murdered their officers and joined their countrymen in arms, while at Cawnpore the English residents were put to death 224 THE INDIAN MUTINY with great cruelty, after having been promised their lives by Nana Sahib. The Governor-General, Lord Canning, showed great energy; troops were collected with all possible speed, a force sent out from England to act against the Chinese being, as has been mentioned (p. 219), dispatched to India instead. On July 7, 1857, General Havelock set out from Allahabad with a small but efficient army. Defeating the Nana's forces in battle he retook Cawnpore, and then hastened to the relief of Lucknow, where Sir Henry Lawrence, foreseeing the disturbances, had fortified and provisioned the Residency, in which, with only a few Europeans, he was holding out against vast crowds of natives. Lawrence was himself killed during the siege, but Havelock succeeded in cutting his way through the besiegers, and got inside the buildings, though the natives again closed round and the siege went on as before. It was raised by Sir 1858. Colin Campbell, afterwards Lord Clyde, who came to the rescue with a new army, having been sent out from England to put an end to the rebellion. The chief stronghold of the insurgents was Delhi, a city round which more than almost any other the traditions of their ancient greatness clustered. It was held by a garrison of about thirty thousand men, but, after a short siege, it was taken by assault, amid scenes of indiscriminate slaughter, a few days before the final relief of Lucknow. Major Hodson, one of the bravest of the English officers, captured the Emperor himself, and shot his three sons with his own hand, The inhabitants of Gwalior and some other places still held out, but they were no match for Campbell's forces, and by January 1859 the war was practically 1859. over, and British authority was restored. Widespread as the mutiny had been it was con- fined to the north, no outbreak occurring among the Sepoys in the Bombay and Madras Presidencies; P 225 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1872. 1877. The Frontier. it was crushed largely by native troops, the Sikhs and Gurkhas especially rendering valuable services, without which the war must have lasted much longer than it did. While any of the natives remained in arms against them the English did not scruple to use any amount of severity, but, order being once restored, every effort was made to improve the government and to remove all just grounds of complaint. The East India Com- pany was finally dissolved, and the whole adminis- tration was taken over by the Crown, the Governor- General consequently becoming Viceroy. To guard against a similar rising in the future the native army was reduced, while the English troops were increased, and Sepoys were no longer entrusted with artillery. Under the later viceroys much has been done to extend education, railways, telegraphs and other appliances of western civilisation over the country, though without making any attempt to denationalise the natives or to overthrow their ancient institutions. Universities, open to all, have been founded in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and other towns; the Hindus have shown themselves on the whole more ready to avail themselves of these advantages than the Moslems, and many of them hold high offices under the Government. In 1872 a Viceroy of India (Lord Mayo) was murdered by a Mohammedan convict during a visit to the Andaman Islands, but on the whole the peninsula has enjoyed greater peace, probably also greater prosperity, since the mutiny than ever before in the long course of its history, though there have been constant famines, and though the plague has more than once visited the large and crowded cities, sometimes causing serious. riots. In 1877, at a darbar held near Delhi, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India, the Prince of Wales having just before made a tour through the country. The ceaseless activity of Russia in Central Asia 226 THE BRITISH IN CENTRAL ASIA has given the native states on the northern frontier of India an importance they did not before possess, and has made it necessary for England in self- defence to establish her influence over them. By far the most important, both politically and strategically, are Afghanistan and Kashmir. In 1878 Sher Ali Khan, who in 1863 succeeded Third Afghan War. (1878- Dost Mohammed (p. 201) as Amir of Afghanistan, 1880. was discovered to be intriguing with the Russians, and a British force was accordingly sent against him. He fled and died in exile, but his son, Yakub Khan, succeeded to his power and made a treaty with the invaders. However, he soon broke it, the British Resident and the other Europeans in Kabul were massacred, and another British expedition was sent against him. He abdicated and fled. His brother, Ayub Khan, took his place and gained some successes, but in 1880 the prestige of the English was com- 1880. pletely restored by the brilliant campaign of Lord Roberts, and a friendly prince, Abdurrahman Khan, a descendant of Dost Mohammed, was recognised as Amir. A treaty was made with him by which Afghanistan, while fully retaining independence in internal administration, was virtually placed under the suzerainty of Great Britain. When the Sikhs were conquered by the English, 1846. Kashmir as well as the Punjab passed under the control of the latter, but Ghulab Singh, a Dogra Rajput, who from a humble origin had been raised to a high position by Ranjit Singh, was recognised as Maharajah of Kashmir. The inhabitants of the country, being cowardly, although they are Mos- lems, were easily kept in check by a comparatively small number of Dogras. Ghulab Singh had already subdued several small neighbouring states, including Ladak or Western Tibet, a Buddhist I I Akbar had such a contempt for the Kashmir Moslems that he made them dress in women's clothes. 227 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Hunza-Nagar. 1891. con- country which had formerly been ruled by a rajah, tributary to China. At Gilgit, however, his forces were defeated by the warlike Dards under Gaur Rahman, who effectually prevented the Dogras from making any further conquests in that direction. After his death, Ranbir Singh, who succeeded Ghulab Singh as maharajah, sent a new expedition, which was more successful. But although they were thus extending their influence, the Dogras ruled their subjects harshly, and there was siderable discontent. To improve the lot of the people of Kashmir and to secure their own position in the country, the British sent officers to reorganise the system of collecting the taxes and to carry out other much-needed reforms. In order, further, to provide against a possible Russian invasion of India, military roads were made among the mountains of the Hindu Kush, outposts being established in con- venient positions. There was considerable opposition on the part of local chiefs, and several expeditions. had to be sent to bring the tribes concerned under British influence, and to prevent them receiving the emissaries of Russia. One of the most interesting states thus conquered was Hunza, a very ancient miniature kingdom whose Thum claimed descent from Alexander the Great, and whose warlike people shared the Kanjut valley with the less warlike Nagars. The two nations, though frequently at war with one another, com- bined to defend their valley against all invaders and to rob caravans: they had inflicted a crushing defeat on a Dogra force sent to subjugate them. As the Thum of Hunza refused to allow any roads. to be made through his territory, a small expedition was sent against him in 1891. It was completely successful, the forts protecting the valley were stormed, the Thum fled to Chinese territory, and his people submitted quietly to the British. 228 THE BRITISH IN CENTRAL ASIA The policy of Great Britain in dealing with these British Policy. tribes has been, as far as possible, to abstain from interfering with their institutions, leaving them as much self-government as can safely be conceded, and while taking every precaution to secure their loyalty and to deprive them of the means of revolt- ing, to keep them strong enough to protect their territory against invaders from without. 229 CHAPTER XXX V THE RUSSIANS IN CENTRAL AND NORTH-EASTERN ASIA Khanates of Central Asia-Russian Policy-Peter the Great- Conquest of Turkestan-Trans-Caspian Railway-The Amur -Siberian Railway-Saghalien-Kamchatka-Alaska. To THE fears of a Muscovite invasion of India were far from being without foundation, for, having once begun to make conquests in Asia, Russia had been rapidly pushing forward her frontiers there. reach the Pacific had been a comparatively easy task, as there was hardly any organised resistance, but to encroach on her new neighbours towards the south, though by no means difficult, was far less simple. The Khanates of Central Asia were, of course, a good deal more powerful than the Siberian tribes, but they were in a state of decay and quite incapable of permanently resisting so determined an adversary as Russia; there were disputed successions and civil wars almost as often as any ruler died, while the different states were constantly at war with one another, and their frontiers were altogether undefined. Russia, instead of directly invading their territory, secured her own interests far more effectually by stirring up and fomenting rebellions, creating parties attached to her own interests, and then interfering to put an end to the anarchy which she herself had done all in her power to increase. At first some friendly prince was usually placed on the throne, but he was not allowed to wield any real authority, 230 THE RUSSIANS IN ASIA and on his death Russian officials were sent to take his place, while everything was done to Russianise the inhabitants, their own laws and institutions being, as far as possible, abolished. Peter the Great was far more concerned with securing for his Empire a position among European states than with increasing her territory in the East, but, nevertheless, he did not by any means lose sight of what had been done by his predecessors in Asia. His chief motive for desiring to enlarge his borders there, seems to have been his idea that Central Asia was rich in gold (p. 160). His efforts were only partially successful, but one of his expeditions secured the control of the Caspian by the erection of forts on its shores, one of which was Krasnovodsk. In 1730 the khan of the Little Horde of the 1730. Kirghiz (p. 159), hard pressed by his other enemies, made a voluntary submission to the Czar, and Russian authority was by gradual steps extended over the other Kirghiz tribes, the Great Horde submitting in 1847. The Jaxartes valley was seized in 1830, and 1830. though nine years later an attempt to capture Khiva ended disastrously, the mouth of the river was reached and secured by a fort (Rainsk, afterwards Aralsk) in 1847. In 1865 Tashkend was captured, and it was 1865. soon afterwards made the capital of Russian Tur- kestan, the subjugation of which from that time proceeded more rapidly than before. In the same year war broke out with Bokhara, and Khojind was wrested from the Amir; when a little later a new war was provoked by an outbreak of Moslem fanaticism, Samarcand itself was captured, and the Amir had to content himself with a mere shadow of sovereignty. In 1873 the Khan of Khiva was 1873. overthrown, the invading army being dispatched from Krasnovodsk, and three years later the Khanate of Khokand (p. 210) was also annexed. In 1883-4 Merv and Sarakhs were conquered and occupied ; 231 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Trans-Caspian Railway. The Amur. I all the Turkoman tribes gradually submitted to the Czar, whose dominions were thus brought up to the frontiers of Persia and Afghanistan. These new possessions were secured to Russia by the construction of the Trans-Caspian Railway, which had been begun in 1880 by General Annenkoff during a campaign against the Tekkes, the most warlike of all the Turkomans. In 1881 the line was completed from Uzan Ada on the Caspian to Kizil Arnat; by 1886 it had reached the Oxus, passing through Merv. The river, over two miles broad, was crossed with considerable difficulty by means of a long wooden bridge on earthen dams. In 1896 Krasnovodsk was substituted for Uzan Ada as the terminus on the Caspian. Samarcand is the present terminus east- ward, Bokhara being passed between it and Merv. Except in the fertile territory of Bokhara, the line crosses sandy deserts for the most part, and saxifrage (a hardy plant which grows naturally in the crevices of rocks and requires very little moisture) had to be planted to keep the sand from drifting on to the rails. The rate of laying down the track was extraordinarily rapid, sometimes as much as five miles a day. The cost has been only about two and a-half million pounds. From Samarcand it is intended eventually to extend it to Tashkend so as to join the Siberian line, and also through Kashgar into China.2 All these territorial extensions of Russia have been pecuniary losses. The greater part of Central Asia is so barren as to be of very little practical use, and there is at least some ground for believing that her conquests there are intended by Russia to serve as stepping-stones to India, to the possession of which she seems to aspire I The Turkomans is a general name for certain Turkish tribes, who, when driven from their homes by the Mongols, settled in the districts east of the Caspian. Many of them had belonged to the kingdom of Kharezm. 12 Most of the above facts were taken from an article in Black and White by Alexis Krausse. 232 THE RUSSIANS IN ASIA just as much as she does to that of Turkey-in-Europe and the northern provinces of China. On the Pacific coast she has not been less energetic. Despite the Treaty of Nertchinsk, Russian adventurers constantly navigated the Amur, defying the Chinese to drive them away; in 1848 the steamer Baikal, cruising 1848. along the Siberian coast, discovered the mouth of the river, and three years later Nikolayevski was founded there. Relations with China-not unnaturally-be- came more and more strained, and war would pro- bably have broken out sooner or later; but in 1859, when the Chinese were exhausted by their conflict with England and the Tai Ping rebels, Russia forced them to make a new treaty, by which they ceded her not only the whole left bank of the Amur, but also the territory between its mouth and that of the Tumen, thus bringing down her own frontier to Corea and completely shutting out Chinese Manchuria from the sea, except on the south. On the large inlet formerly known_as Victoria Bay, but re-christened Peter the Great Bay, the Russians, in 1861, founded a new city called Vladivostock ¹ or 'Dominion of the East,' which has become their chief seaport on the Pacific, and a rail- way connecting it with Europe is now being laid down with all possible speed. The work was begun in 1891. The route proposed is through a corner of Chinese Manchuria and then via Irkutsk and Omsk, thus keeping well to the south, and in the most fertile part of Siberia. The track is very roughly, not to say insecurely, laid, and, to lessen the expense, cuttings and embankments have been as far as possible avoided. It will thus be impossible to run trains at any high rate of speed, but when it is completed it will enormously I In spite of its lovely situation among clear blue waters and low wooded hills, where spiræa grows in profusion under the trees, Vladi- vostock is not a very attractive town; its dirty, ill-paved streets, badly-built houses and untidy open spaces are a great contrast to the well-ordered cities in the neighbouring country of Japan. 233 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Saghalien. Kamchatka. 1855. Alaska. 1741. 1867. strengthen Russia's position in the Far East, enabling her to send out any quantity of troops and warlike stores at a few days' notice. The whole of Siberia has, since its conquest, been completely Russianised, a large number of Russian families having been settled there; a considerable proportion of these came out as convicts, the first convoy of whom were sent across the Urals into Asia during the reign of Czar Alexis (1645-76), the father of Peter the Great. The northern part of Saghalien, which had been annexed by the Chinese in the eighteenth century, was first occupied by the Russians in 1857, and in 1875 the southern part of the island was obtained from Japan in exchange for some of the Kuriles; Russian sovereignty was thus extended over the whole island, which is used chiefly for convicts. There are coal mines in some parts, but the coal is of very poor quality. The Peninsula of Kamchatka was reached at the end of the seventeenth century, and a few Russian towns were founded there; the most important of them, Petropaulovsk, was attacked unsuccessfully by a small British and French squadron during the Crimean War. Alaska was first discovered by a Russian expedition under Behring (a Danish navigator who had entered the service of the Czar) in 1741; the territory was soon taken possession of, and in 1799 it was granted by Paul VIII. to a Fur Trading Company, which established about forty stations, the chief of which was New Archangel on the Island of Sitka. This distant dependency was, however, of very little use to the Russian Empire, and it was at length decided to retire altogether from the American Continent. In 1867, shortly after the Civil War, when the first railway had just been constructed across their country to the Pacific, the United States Government con- sented to buy Alaska and the Aleutian Islands for 234 THE RUSSIANS IN ASIA on $7,200,000. The Americans at the time were bad terms with the English on account of the Alabama and other incidents of the same kind, and they were glad of the opportunity of showing their resentment by cutting off all north-western Canada from the Pacific. The territory has proved to be considerably more valuable than was imagined at the time; its frontier with Canada, never very clearly defined, has led to much dispute on more than one occasion. 235 Commodore Perry. 1853. CHAPTER XXXVI THE OPENING OF JAPAN AND ITS RESULTS Commodore Perry-Ports opened-Treaties-Discontent in Japan- Foreign Complications-Satsuma and Choshu Clans-Řestora- tion of the Mikado's Power-Abolition of the Daimiates- Westernisation of the Country-Satsuma Rebellion. I CONSTANT attempts had been made by foreign nations, especially Russia, to break through the seclusion of Japan, but all were alike unsuccessful until the American Government dispatched Commodore Perry with a small fleet in 1852. The development of California, owing to the discovery of gold there and the desire to establish communications by sea between San Francisco and the newly-opened ports of China, naturally gave the Americans a great interest in Japan. Every preparation being made, the squadron sailed from Norfolk, in Virginia, on November 24th, 1852, and on the 8th of July in the following year it safely entered Yedo Bay. The sight of the foreign ships of war made a great impression on the Japanese, and Commodore Perry was allowed to deliver to an officer of high rank a letter from the President of the United States (Millard Fillmore) to the Emperor of Japan, as the Shogun was then believed to be, after which the fleet left the bay and cruised in Chinese waters² for some months to give the Japanese time to consider I California was formally admitted into the Union as a State in 1850. 2 China was convulsed by the Tai Ping Rebellion at the time so that foreign warships were specially welcome at the ports 236 THE OPENING OF JAPAN AND ITS RESULTS their reply. It was a time of great perplexity for the Yedo Government; the miseries of the people made them more and more disaffected to the Shogunate, and already they were beginning to agitate for the restora- tion of the Mikado's power. The Shogun himself no longer wielded a vast power, the Gorojiu, or Grand Council of State, which consisted of four or five members, having gradually usurped most of the real authority, and the death of leyoshi, the twelfth Shogun of the Tokugawa line, and the succession of his son, during the deliberations, made little or no difference to the policy of the Government. The opinion of the daimios was asked, and they were almost all in favour of refusing to have any dealings with the Americans. Preparations for defence were made, troops being collected and forts built along the shore; but when next year Commodore Perry re- 1854. appeared with a larger squadron than before, he was allowed to land, and, after long delays, a conference was held at Kanagawa near the site of Yokohama. The result was a treaty which made provision for the opening of Shimoda and Hakodate (in Yezo), the United States being allowed to maintain a consulate at the former. The same year Admiral Stirling secured a treaty 1854. granting substantially similar rights to the English, which was signed at Nagasaki. The Russians and Dutch were not slow to follow. These events caused great excitement in Japan, and two parties were formed, one advocating the opening of the country, and the other strenuously opposing any such move. Mr Harris, however, whom the United States Government sent to Shimoda as their consul, made an excellent impression, and he was officially received by the Shogun. The people, always wonderfully free from prejudice compared to any other race of Asiatics (p. 36), soon began to avail themselves of foreign inventions, and their objections to the presence of 237 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA The Satsuma Clan. 1862. Europeans among them died away far sooner than might have been expected. Other nations entered the field, and more treaties followed, by which Niigata, Hyogo (Kobe), Nagasaki, Yedo and Osaka were gradually opened to foreign trade, while Shimoda, which had proved unsuitable, was closed, and Kanagawa (Yokohama) was opened instead. Consular jurisdiction was established as in China; foreign residents were permitted to travel freely in the interior within a certain radius of each treaty port, and a duty of only five per cent. was fixed on all imports, except alcohol, for which the rate was thirty-five per cent. A period of lawless- ness followed; the Shogun's government had become hopelessly weak; there was no longer any authority capable of maintaining order, and murders and riots. became alarmingly common; foreign residents, and even the legations which had been established in Yedo, being not infrequently the objects of attack. The relations between the Courts of Yedo and Kyoto were becoming more and more strained; the former had from necessity become partly reconciled to admitting foreigners to the country, while all the conservative traditions of the nation naturally gathered round the latter. Shimazu Saburo, the powerful head of the Satsuma clan (p. 120), seems to have wished to lead the anti- foreign party, and so, having collected his own forces, and been joined by those of the daimio of Choshu and others, he marched to Kyoto in 1862, and, after hav- ing visited the Emperor, turned his steps towards Yedo, where he was very coldly received by the Shogun. On the return march of the army some foreigners were met near Yokohama, and one of them got killed by a soldier, owing to his having failed to observe the Japanese etiquette, which required all travellers to make way for the troops. An indemnity was demanded by the British Government, and, nego- 238 THE OPENING OF JAPAN AND ITS RESULTS tiations proving fruitless, Kagoshima, the chief city of the province of Satsuma, was bombarded. The daimio of Choshu embroiled himself still more The Choshu Clan. seriously with the western powers. All foreign ships were absolutely forbidden to pass though the Straits of Shimonoseki in his jurisdiction, and the forts commanding the narrow passage consequently fired on vessels of the United States, France and Holland which attempted to do so. The two former powers immediately sent warships (which happened to be in the East at the time) to avenge the insult to their flags, but they did very little, and after a year had been consumed in fruitless negotiations, a strong fleet of English, French and Dutch vessels, with a small steamer, chartered by the United States, whose 1864. navy was by this time fully employed at home in the Civil War, entered the channel, and completely de- stoyed the forts. An indemnity of three million dollars was exacted from the Yedo Government, though it had disowned the action of the daimio and promised to exact reparation if time was allowed. The foreigners on this occasion undoubtedly acted in a very high-handed and unjustifiable manner; their right to navigate the straits was not recognised by treaty, and the Japanese Government could hardly have done more than it did, owing to the disturbed state of the country. A dispatch from the British Government forbidding their vessels to make war on the Japanese, unless it was absolutely necessary, arrived just after the fleet had sailed. In 1883, owing to an agitation on the subject in America, Congress refunded to Japan their share of the indemnity. These incidents, however, proved conclusively to the Japanese the absolute hopelessness of trying to exclude foreigners from their Empire, though the Emperor Komei, who had succeeded in 1847, was 1847. strongly prejudiced against the intruders, and on one occasion even issued an edict ordering their expulsion, 1 239 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1866. tion. which was, of course, a dead letter from the first. In 1865 Sir Harry Parkes (p. 220) arrived in Japan as British Plenipotentiary. He did a magnificent work, and soon gained the goodwill of all classes of the Japanese. It was during the same year that the Emperor was induced to formally sanction the treaties made by the Yedo Government. Next year Hitot- subashi, who had done much to bring about this result, consented, with some reluctance, to become Shogun as Tokugawa Yoshinobu, the last of the line. A few months later, in 1867, the Emperor Komei died, and Mutsuhito, the present sovereign, ascended the throne, while at the close of the year the new Shogun, The Restora- after consulting his vassals on the subject, resigned his office, and the Emperor became once more, after so many centuries of military usurpation, what his ancestors had been in the first days of the Empire-the sole ruler of Japan. Till other arrangements could be made, the Shogun was requested to continue the administration, and for a short time the government of the country went on much as before. The southern daimios, foremost among whom were those of Satsuma and Choshu, were, however, determined to put an end to the Tokugawa Dynasty, and, march- ing on Kyoto, they got complete control of the Imperial Court. By a decree of the Emperor the Shogunate was for ever abolished, and a provincial government was set up, from which the Tokugawa adherents were excluded. The ex-Shogun, who had taken up his residence at the castle of Osaka, where he received the representatives of some of the foreign. powers, whose fleets were lying off Kobe, was invited to the Court, but, whatever his motives may have been, instead of coming as a peaceable visitor, he marched on Kyoto with a large army. The forces of Satsuma and Choshu advanced to meet him, and, though their numbers were inferior, they gained a decisive victory. The ex-Shogun retired to Osaka, 1868. 240 THE OPENING OF JAPAN AND ITS RESULTS and then by sea to Yedo. in a very desultory way. The war still continued Yoshinobu himself con- sented to retire into private life, but his adherents. continued to resist for a short time, the last encounters, including an engagement on the sea, taking place in the north. Whether yielding to necessity, or, as seems far more Tokyo made probable, feeling that it was now for the best interests the Capital. of the country, the Imperial Court had become entirely favourable to foreign intercourse, and envoys from the chief European states were received in the palace. The traditions of Kyoto being anything but vigorous, it was deemed necessary to choose another capital. Osaka was at first suggested, but eventually Yedo was decided on, and the Emperor took up his residence in the old castle of the Shoguns. At the same time the 1869. name of the city was changed to Tokyo (Eastern Capital). A provisional constitution was drawn up, making arrangements for the proper working of the different departments of the Government and re-estab- lishing Shintoism (p. 36) as the State religion, probably because Buddhism had been the faith of the Shoguns. It was obvious that if the restored power of the Feudalism Emperor was to be a reality, the daimios must be abolished. abolished; but to do this by force throughout the country was far beyond the power of any army the sovereign might hope to raise. The difficulty was got over by the patriotism of the feudal princes themselves, for, following the example of the most powerful of their number, including the daimios of Satsuma and Choshu, they all, with some insignificant exceptions, consented to lay down their power, de- livering their lands and revenues into the hands of the sovereign, from whom they and their retainers received The Japanese Government has recently declared that the rites. of Shintoism may be regarded merely as historical state ceremonies, with no religious significance, thus making it possible for Christians to take part in them. Q 241 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Reforms. suitable pensions. On August 7, 1869, the Emperor was able to issue a decree for ever abolishing all the daimiates, and to take their places the country was divided into new prefectures, whose officials were, of course, directly under the control of the Central Government. Feudalism being thus abolished, the westernisation of Japan went on at a pace unheard of before. The Shoguns and several of the daimios had purchased foreign arms and war vessels, and the people had not been slow to avail themselves of European inventions, but, now that the Court had shown marked favour to foreigners, a perfect rage for everything western set in. In an incredibly short space of time the country was equipped with railways, telegraphs, a postal system, a customs service, a regular currency, an army and navy provided with the newest weapons, a Parliament, with more or less organised political parties, and the other institutions of a well-ordered modern state. These reforms have been carried out in a very different spirit from those in China. They were not forced on a reluctant people by stress of circumstances; they were eagerly embraced by a nation always accustomed to borrow whatever seemed useful from its neighbours. Young Japanese were sent to study in the most famous schools of Europe and America, and colleges, some of them equal in effici- ency to almost any in the world, were soon established in Japan to teach all branches of Western science. The Japanese proved apt pupils, and the institutions of the West were not adopted without a good know- ledge of their principles and uses. Whatever faults the new reforms have, they are certainly not on the whole superficial. Japan has, in fact, been transformed into a great power, almost completely westernised so far as her government is concerned, though the social life of the people remains much as it was before. The Government buildings are almost 1 242 THE OPENING OF JAPAN AND ITS RESULTS all in foreign style; the people are in increasing numbers adopting foreign dress, and the general aspect of a Japanese city is not very unlike that of a European one. In the country districts it is different; the landscapes are still, on the whole, thoroughly oriental, though Western features, such as railways and telegraphs, constantly intrude themselves, and the general air of dilapidation so general on the mainland of Asia is almost entirely absent. Natur- ally enough, grotesque combinations between the old and the new are constantly met with, as when some historic hillside¹ is disfigured by a huge advertisement, or a bluejacket, in European dress, is seen performing his devótions in a Shinto or Buddhist temple. lower classes of Japan are still, on the whole, fervent Buddhists; the temples are kept clean and in good repair; most of them have a constant stream of worshippers coming in and going out all through the day; the upper classes, however, have been greatly influenced by the free thought of Europe. Among the students of the Imperial University of Tokyo there are said to be eighty per cent. Agnostics, eleven per cent. Infidels, five per cent. Buddhists and four per cent. Christians. On the other hand, during the last three or four years, missions, and especially those of the Church of England, have been making greater progress than ever before. The new order of things naturally did not take the Satsuma place of the old with the unanimous approval of the Rebellion. people, and there were several small rebellions. Though it had taken a leading part in bringing about the Restoration, it was in the Satsuma clan itself that the chief conservative elements of the I The mountain above Moji, overlooking the beautiful Straits of Shimonoseki, is adorned by an advertisement, with letters about twenty- five feet high, calling attention to the merits of some mineral waters. The inscription is visible several miles out at sea. Formerly some of the mountains round the sacred city of Kyoto itself were similarly disfigured, but their placards were recently removed by request of the Emperor himself. 243 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1877. nation were found. At the head of the party opposed to the reforms was Shimazu Saburo, who had already shown his hostility to foreign influences, and Saigo Takamori. Under the leadership of the latter a large and well-equipped army was collected at Kagoshima, in the island of Kiusiu, and in February 1877 he started on an expedition against Tokyo. The strong castle at Kumamoto, built after the Corean war by Kato Kiyomasa, was, however, held by the Government troops, and Saigo thought it necessary to reduce it before proceeding. He suc- ceeded in burning the wooden towers, but on the walls themselves no impression could be made, and so several months were wasted. The Government thus gained time to collect its forces, and an expedi- tion was sent to Kiusiu, by which the siege of the castle was raised and the Satsuma army was dispersed. The insurrection was of great service to the new administration in giving it an opportunity of showing its strength, and there has never since been an attempt to overthrow it. 244 CHAPTER XXXVII INDO-CHINA AND BORNEO French Colonies-Saigon-Annam-Tong King-War between France and China-Siam-Third Burmese War-Rajah Brooke-Sarawak-British North Borneo Company-Keeling Islands. Annam. On the death of Gia Long in 1820 the anti-foreign French party in Annam got complete control of the Govern- Colonies. ment, and though their missionaries continued to labour with considerable success, the French did little or nothing to extend their political power there until 1858, when, in revenge for the murder of a 1858. French subject and of numbers of the native Chris- tians (who had appealed to Napoleon III. for pro- tection), an expedition was sent under Admiral Rigault de Genouilly, which seized Tourane. Finding this place unsuited to their purposes, however, the French moved southwards, and, sailing up the Donnai, took 1859. possession of Saigon, the capital of the southern part of Annam, which thenceforth became the chief centre of their power in Indo-China. The Court of Huè were powerless to resist, and ceded three of their southern provinces to the invaders; five or six years later another war was provoked, and the French gained possession of three more provinces. The reports of the mineral wealth of Tong King Tong King. had long made it an object of desire to the French, and in 1873, owing to the representations of an 1873. 245 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1 1882. adventurous trader named Dupuis, an expedition under Garnier was sent thither. The Tongkingese, with the help of the Black Flags (irregular bands of soldiery, consisting of the remnants of the defeated Tai Pings, who had fled across the frontier, and various adventurers who had joined their ranks), made a vigorous resistance; the French were de- feated with heavy loss, Garnier himself being among the slain. A treaty was made with Annam, by which they agreed to retire from Tong King, retaining only their trading rights at Hanoi, the capital. In 1880 the King of Annam, having for several years paid his tribute with a regularity quite unknown before, sent an embassy to Peking to seek Chinese help against French aggression. His dispatch was published in the Peking Gazette, the official organ of the Chinese Government, but no expedition was sent to his help. Two years later Rivière was sent by the Governor of Saigon to renew the war against Tong King. He gained a few successes, but eventually he was defeated and slain after a campaign closely resembling that of Garnier, nine years before. The war, however, still dragged on, and the capture of Sontag, part of whose garrison was Chinese, hastened a breach with China, which could not in any case have been averted for long. Formosa was War between invaded, and the French tried to seize some coal- mines there, but the Chinese flooded them, and they were unable to effect anything of importance in the island. In Tong King they captured Langson and other towns, and gained some victories, but not with- out sustaining several severe defeats. On the sea they defeated the Chinese in the neighbourhood of Shapu and in the harbour of Foochow. At length, in 1885, when victory had not declared decisively for either side, both Governments accepted the peace proposals of Sir Robert Hart (p. 223), and it was agreed that 1883. China and France. 246 INDO-CHINA AND BORNEO Tong King should be under the protection of France, but that Formosa should be evacuated. During the war, in 1884, the French had forced the King of Annam to recognise their suzerainty. In 1864 Siam had been compelled practically to Siam. abandon all claim to Cambodia, which also passed under the protection of France, a fate which Siam herself escaped in 1893, only owing to the interfer- ence of England. Thus France asserted her supre- macy over all the eastern half of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. The part of Burmah which still remained inde- Third pendent was so badly ruled by King Thebaw that Burmese War. 1885. the country was reduced to anarchy, and in 1884, to protect their own trade, the Chinese were forced to occupy Bhamo. Next year the English, advancing from the south on Mandelay, which had become the Burmese capital, dethroned the tyrant and annexed the whole of his dominions, including some of the Shan States, which had acknowledged his authority. The Chinese consented to withdraw from Bhamo, though their right to tribute from the Burmese was (somewhat foolishly) recognised. The position of England in Borneo was secured Rajah Brooke. very largely by the efforts of Sir James Brooke, well known as the first European Rajah of Sarawak. He was born in 1803. His family were connected with the East—his father having held office under the Bengal Government-and early in life he travelled much in India, China and the islands, being for some time in the service of the East India Company. During his cruises in the Malay Archipelago he formed the design of improving the social condition of the natives, who endured untold misery from the un- ceasing tribal wars on land and the unchecked piracy on sea. Inheriting a fair fortune on his father's death, he fitted out a yacht in England, and, after making a preliminary trip in the Mediterranean, he sailed to 247 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1841. 1857. I Sarawak in 1838. Several tribes of Dyaks-the head- hunting aborigines of Borneo-were in revolt against the Sultan of Bruni at the time, and Mada Hassim, the Sultan's uncle, had been sent to restore order. Brooke offered him his services, which were accepted, and the rebels were completely defeated. Mada Hassim, in gratitude, made the Englishman Rajah of Sarawak, and with some hesitation the Sultan con- firmed the appointment in 1841. Rajah Brooke now applied himself with vigour to the organisation of his new kingdom. Kuching, a seaport, was fixed on as the seat of Government; a new and more equitable system of taxation was devised; a Civil Service was instituted; the Church of England was invited to send missionaries; the pirates who had infested the coasts from time immemorial were annihilated with the help of the British; all classes of the natives were conciliated as far as possible, and the country attained a prosperity which it had never known under its former Moslem rulers. In 1857, however, the Chinese, who formed the most industrious part of the population, rose in revolt and burned the rajah's palace, but the other natives remained loyal, and they were easily suppressed and severely punished. The rajah was supported through- out by his own nation ; he was appointed British Consul-General for the island of Borneo, and for four years was also Governor of Labuan, which had been acquired by England from the Sultan of Bruni by purchase in 1846. In 1863, after a long controversy on the subject, the English Government recognised the independence of Sarawak, which had been already acknowledged by the United States, and a consul was appointed to reside at Kuching. Sir James Brooke died in England I The city of Bruni, like many other Malay towns, is built on piles over a stretch of shallow water at the mouth of a river. Its streets consist of rows of thatched wooden huts, and its general arrangement is precisely similar to that of the ancient lake dwellings of Switzerland. 248 INDO-CHINA AND BORNEO in 1868, and was succeeded as rajah by his nephew, the present ruler, Charles Johnson, who had already taken the name of Brooke. Under his care Sarawak continued to prosper. In 1888 both Bruni and Sarawak were placed under British protection. 1881. A royal charter was granted in 1881 to the British British North North Borneo Company, whose territory, obtained in Borneo Com- 1879-80 from the Sultans of Sulu and Bruni, com- pany. prises over thirty thousand square miles in the extreme north of the island, Sandakan, on the east coast, being the chief town. Labuan was added to their jurisdiction in 1890. In 1886 the Keeling, or Cocos, Islands, a small Keeling group of coral atolls, where a Scotchman named Ross Islands. had played much the same part as Brooke in Sarawak, but on a far smaller scale, were annexed to the Straits Settlements, which in the previous year had been defined by letters-patent as consisting of Singapore, Malacca, Penang, Province Wellesley and the Din- dings. Keeling Islands had been under the protec- tion of Great Britain since 1856, and had for some years been attached to Ceylon. I I Besides these possessions of Great Britain in the Malay Peninsula there are several protected native states, of which the most important are Johor (p. 103), Perak, Selangor and Pahang. 249 1 CHAPTER XXXVIII Islands. THE LOO CHOO ISLANDS AND COREA The Loo Choo Islands annexed to Japan-Formosan Expedition- Christianity in Corea-French Expedition-American Ex- pedition-Japanese Expedition-Riots in Seoul. The Loo Choo THE Loo Choo Islands had for centuries paid tribute both to China and Japan. Hideyoshi forced them for a time to repudiate their allegiance to the former and to pay tribute only to him. After his death, however, they put themselves again under Chinese protection and received signal favours from Kanghi. They seem to have been perfectly satisfied with their dual allegiance, but though their royal house was of Japanese extraction (p. 52) they were especially attached to China, and it was very unwillingly that, in 1874, yielding to pressure from the new Govern- ment of Japan, they consented to repudiate Chinese suzerainty altogether. 1874. Formosan Expedition. Their affairs nearly caused a war between the two rival powers. A Loo Choo vessel having been wrecked on the shores of Formosa, the sailors were murdered by some aboriginal tribes, and despairing of obtaining redress from the Court of Peking the Japanese themselves sent an expedition and chastised the murderers. This contempt for their territory naturally roused the indignation of the Chinese Government, but, owing to the mediation of Sir 250 THE LOO CHOO ISLANDS AND COREA Thomas Wade, the British Minister at Peking, they agreed to pay an indemnity for the cost of the expedi- tion and to acknowledge the Loo Choo Islands as part of the Japanese Empire. Corea had for over two centuries been as effectually Corea. closed against all foreigners as Japan had been during the same period. A stretch of neutral ground, which no one was permitted to settle on or to cultivate, completely isolated the peninsula from Manchuria, and the only regular intercourse it had with the outside world was the periodic tribute embassy which travelled by the high road from Seoul to Peking. By one of the return embassies some Christian tracts from China got introduced into Corea, and falling into the hands of some of the literati, led to the formation of a quasi-Christian sect. Hearing of this the Roman Catholic missionaries contrived to send some of their number into the country across the northern frontier, and a flourishing native Church was secretly founded. When it attracted the attention of the Government there was a fierce persecution of the Christians, who endured their sufferings with a noble constancy. 1866. At length some French missionaries were murdered French Expedi- with the rest, and in 1866 the French Chargé tion. d'Affairs at Peking, acting on his own responsibility, sent an expedition under Admiral Roze to exact reparation. The city of Kang-Hwa, on the island of the same name at the mouth of the Han River, was taken and burned, but at Chen Tung Sa, a fortified Buddhist monastery-in which the archives of the kingdom are preserved-garrisoned by tiger-hunters,' also on the island, the French were repulsed with considerable loss, and they left the country without having retrieved the disaster. The Corcans were triumphant, and the persecution of the Christians was I Tigers in Corea are so numerous, and do so much harm, that the Government keeps a special body of men, who must necessarily be pos- sessed of considerable bravery, to keep down their numbers. 251 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA American Ex- redoubled, while the news spreading all over the Far East caused a general feeling of insecurity to foreign residents; it is even supposed to have been one of the causes of the Tien-Tsin massacre (p. 256). In 1870 the American Government determined to pedition, 1870. open up Corea to the trade of the world. A small squadron was sent which captured the forts command- ing the entrance to the Han River, most of them on the island of Kang Hwa, but eventually the vessels returned to Chefoo, having accomplished nothing. The Coreans were convinced of their own strength and became more determined than ever to keep all foreign vessels at a distance from their shores. Japanese Ex- pedition, 1876. provoked attack on Only six years later, however, owing to an un- the gunboat Ūnyokan, the Japanese sent an expedition to Corea under General Kuroda, which was a complete success. The Coreans had a wholesome fear of their warlike neighbours, and besides paying an indemnity they agreed to open the ports of Chemulpo, Gensan and Fusan to foreign trade and to allow Japanese to live in their country on precisely the same terms as Europeans resided in Japan. Japanese towns soon grew up at Chemulpo and Gensan similar to that which had for centuries existed at Fusan (p. 125). Thus the last of the hermit- nations which have a seaboard was thrown open to the commerce of the world, and the European powers lost no time in making treaties for themselves and establishing legations in Seoul. The presence of foreigners in Corea, as in other countries of Asia, caused a good deal of restlessness among the native population, and in 1882 there was a revolutionary outbreak at the capital. The Japanese, always extremely unpopular with the Corean people (p. 125), became the objects of attack by the mob, and their Legation was burned, those of its inmates who escaped having to fly to the coast. The affair was settled by negotiation, and besides an indem- 252 THE LOO CHOO ISLANDS AND COREA nity, the Japanese got the right of keeping a per- manent guard of soldiers at their Legation. Two or three years later there were more riots in Seoul, and the reformers and conservatives fought one another in the streets, the Japanese Legation being again attacked. Both China and Japan sent troops to restore order, and for a time there was a danger of a rupture between the two powers, but again the matter was settled peaceably, Russia, however, made the disturbed state of the country an excuse for a move towards the frontier, and it was to maintain the balance of power that the British fleet seized Port Hamilton, one of the numerous islands off the south coast of Corea. In 1887, order having been fully restored and Russia having promised never to annex any part of Corea, the station was abandoned. ! 253 CHAPTER XXXIX Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan. 1855. RECENT EVENTS IN CHINA AND THE WAR WITH JAPAN The Panthays-Yakub Beg-Kwang Su-Russians at Kuldja— Tien-Tsin Massacre-Murder of Margary-Convention of Chefoo-Chino - Japanese War-Russian Interference-For- mosa -Corea-The Independence Club-Kiao Chow-Port Arthur-Wei Hai Wei-Kwang Chow Bay-Kang Yü Wei- Reforming Edicts-The Empress seizes the Government- The Americans in the Philippines. 'TEN Moslems, nine thieves' is a proverb frequently heard among the non-Mohammedan Chinese, and whether the opinion they thus express about the followers of the Prophet is true or false it is certain that in many parts of the country they find it very difficult to live on good terms with them for any considerable length of time. The Moslems, for their part, find it very trying to be thrown into close con- tact with infidels and to have to obey magistrates who are for the most part hostile to their religion, and the result is that there are constant disturbances. 1 The Panthays of Yunnan, always more than dis- affected to the Peking Government, rose in revolt in 1855. The local Chinese authorities, who had pro- voked the rebellion by trying to massacre all the Moslem inhabitants, proved powerless to suppress it, and the insurgents made themselves masters of the whole province, capturing the important cities of 254 RECENT EVENTS IN CHINA Talifu and Yunnanfu. Their ruler took the title of Sultan Suleiman, and having firmly established his authority, he sent his adopted son Hassan on an embassy to England to try and get himself recognised as an independent sovereign by the Queen. Up to this point the Peking Government, caring little what happened in so distant a province, had prosecuted the war without energy, but it was now thoroughly alarmed, and in 1867 several armies were sent with 1867. all haste into Yunnan to restore the Emperor's authority there. These, after long and bloody cam- paigns, were successful; the rebels were repeatedly defeated, and at length Talifu, their last stronghold, was taken; the garrison was ruthlessly massacred, despite express pledges to the contrary. A still more formidable rebellion of their Moslem Kansah subjects was provoked by the cruelty and mismanage- Rebellion. ment of the Chinese mandarins in the provinces of Shensi and Kansuh. Owing to some quarrels among the Imperial troops, the Emperor was persuaded to issue a decree ordering the slaughter of all the Mohammedans. Besides the Moslem Chinese, the restless tribes of Central Asia were not slow to take up arms, and Buzurg Khan, the last surviving son of Central Asia. Jehangir (p. 216), took advantage of the general confusion to set up his own standard in Kashgaria. With the help of his able lieutenant, Yakub Beg, he made himself master of a great part of the country, but, on his proving his general incapacity to rule, he was deposed by Yakub Beg himself, who succeeded to his position. Famine and war devastated the land, and the general anarchy spread into Russian territory. This caused the Czar, in self-defence, to occupy the valley of the Ili, setting up a temporary Government at Kuldja in 1871. Shensi and Kansuh were at 1871. length, after a good deal of fighting, pacified by Tso Tsung Tang, and not long afterwards the Emperor Tungche died, very likely murdered. There being Į 255 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Kwang Su. 1875. 1877. 1870. 1875. now no direct heir to the throne, the infant son of the Prince of Chun, a younger son of Taokwang, was set up by the Empresses to rule as: Kwang Su (Illustrious Succession) in 1875. The war against Kashgaria was soon continued. A cautious plan of campaign was devised and carried out in an extremely leisurely fashion, the invading troops getting their supplies by cultivating the ground and waiting for the corn to ripen. Eventually they were completely successful; Yakub Beg died in 1877; civil war broke out among his successors, and Chinese authority was easily restored. After long negotiations, during which the Imperial Government refused to ratify a treaty made by Chung How, their Minister at St. Petersburg, by which they were to cede a large strip of territory, including the important city of Yarkand, the Russians consented to restore the greater part of Ili on payment of an indemnity for the cost of occupying it. Thus was Chinese prestige restored in Cential Asia, but the Empire continued to be disturbed by petty revolts, floods and famines, while the hatred of foreigners was constantly finding expression and causing complications with Western powers. Thus in 1870 occurred the Tien-Tsin massacre, when some Roman Catholic sisters and the French Consul were brutally murdered by the mob, which also burned the mission buildings, and was only prevented from attacking the foreign settlement by a timely shower of rain. Five years later an English consular officer named Margary, who had travelled across China from Shanghai to Bhamo in Burmah, to meet an exploring expedition under Colonel Brown, dispatched by the Indian Government, was murdered on his return journey at Manwyne in Yunnan. These outrages were by no means isolated instances. As compensation for the death of Margary the Chefoo. 1876. Chinese Government was forced to agree to the Convention of 256 RECENT EVENTS IN CHINA Convention of Chefoo, by which valuable trading privileges were conceded to England. Seriously alarmed at the naval activity of Japan, Chino-Japanese China had meanwhile been seeking to strengthen War, 1894-95. her position by the purchase of a fleet of European war-vessels, far superior to that of her neighbour on paper, though in reality not nearly so well equipped, as the interest of the high officials in the matter was practically confined to the squeezes they could get for themselves from the money set apart for the navy. Japan and China have seldom been on good terms with one another for long, and a collision between them could probably have been averted permanently only by the constant armed interference of foreign states. In 1894 a dispute about their respective rights in Corea-always a fruitful subject of controversy-led to a rupture, and Japan declared war by sinking the Kowshing, a British steamer chartered by the Chinese Government to carry troops to Corea. On land the Japanese carried all before them from the outset, their armies, marching through Corea and into Manchuria, gaining easy victories over the Chinese wherever they ven- 1894. tured to give battle. On sea it was at first different, Sept. 17. an engagement off the mouth of the Yalu River being indecisive. Had the Chinese fleet been skilfully commanded and the vessels provided with sufficient ammunition, the Japanese must have suffered a disastrous defeat. But, as it was, the Chinese were demoralised, while the Japanese pushed on their operations with redoubled vigour, and the capture of Port Arthur and Wei Hai Wei,' at both of which the Chinese made a poor defence, secured them the command of the Gulf of Pechili. There was certainly no force in China capable of preventing the ¹ Here the bulk of the Chinese navy, some of whose best vessels had been little damaged in the Yalu fight, was captured or destroyed, the brave Admiral Ting committing suicide after he had arranged the surrender. R 257 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1895. Japanese from entering Peking, but after the battle of Tien Chwang Tai (a town on the Liao Ho, twenty miles from Newchwang) the Government sued for peace, and terms were eventually arranged by which China ceded the island of Formosa and agreed to pay a large indemnity. The Liao Tung peninsula would also have passed to Japan had not Russia interfered to prevent it. This action was probably taken because she hoped soon to be able to occupy the territory herself. Vladivostock being closed by ice in winter, she had long looked to Port Arthur, or some place in Corea, as a second terminus. for the Siberian Railway. All these hopes would have been frustrated if a strong power like Japan had once been allowed to get a footing on the mainland. I The prestige of Japan was greatly increased by the war, the issue of which was a surprise to most people not intimately acquainted with the affairs of the Far East.2 It has raised her to the rank of a first-class power, the only one out of Europe except the United States, while it has given her people an intense confidence in their own powers, and con- siderably increased their patriotism. The Chinese indemnity has been spent chiefly on new war-ships, and both army and navy have been brought up to a high state of efficiency. The possession of Formosa has, however, so far proved a very questionable ¹ Port Lazaref, only about two miles north of Gensan, was surveyed by Russian engineers for the purpose, but the Czar's Government were not able to secure it. It was probably in the hope of ultimately possessing Corea that Russia had some years before occupied the Japanese islands of Tsushima (p. 79), but, owing to the timely arrival of a British fleet, she had to evacuate them after a few months. 2 Residents in China, who had some knowledge of the incredible corruption and mismanagement in that country, hardly expected a different result. The Chinese troops were armed with every conceiv- able form of rifle, and miscellaneous ammunition was served out with no reference to the weapon each soldier carried. Several regiments were provided only with bows and arrows, while many of the soldiers. who passed through Tien-Tsin on their way to the front were leading little dogs by strings or holding tame birds on their fingers. 258 RECENT EVENTS IN CHINA advantage. Efforts have been made to develop its resources and to build railways, but the people are restless under Japanese rule, and the island is in a very disturbed state, while trade has declined since the sovereignty was transferred.* 1894. Corea was declared an independent country by Japan Corean Affairs. before the war was over, but it is at present quite incapable of self-government. For a time, while under American influence, the administration had been almost revolutionary, and reforms which might have done much to improve the condition of the country were inaug- urated, but, as we have seen (p. 252), riots were the result, and now it is very conservative again, the officials being quite as corrupt as they are in China. Great improvements have, however, been made in Seoul (chiefly owing to the exertions of an energetic Englishman, Mr M'Leavy Brown, who was for some years Financial Adviser to the Government), ex- cellent roads through the city having been formed, and police in foreign uniforms having been instituted to keep order. In September 1896 the queen, who was opposed to any reforms, was murdered in the palace by some Japanese miscreants, and shortly afterwards her husband fled to the Russian Legation, circumstances which for a time ruined the supremacy of Japan, and Russian influence, which showed itself hostile to the reformers, became paramount. There have been several riots since, the last one being con- nected with the Independence Club, a society whose members are Coreans, who have come under foreign influence, and which is suspected of having republican sympathies. It assembles in a pavilion just outside Seoul, on the high road to Peking, where formerly the king used to meet the Imperial Chinese Com- missioners when they came to receive his homage. I Under the energetic administration of the new governor, Baron Kodama, important reforms have been inaugurated, and the outlook at the present time is said to be more promising. 259 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 1898. Decay of China. In 1898 the king declared himself an Emperor, and built a Temple of Heaven (exactly like a band- stand) just outside his palace gates, thus claiming for himself the same status as his late suzerain, the Emperor of China. About the same time the Japan- ese recovered their old position in Seoul, the Russians. having gradually lost the influence they gained two years before. The chief effect of the war of 1894 was, however, to expose to the world the almost incredible weakness and rottenness of the Chinese Empire. When peace was concluded it was generally expected that at last reforms really would be seriously taken in hand, but the officials were, with a few honourable exceptions, far too intent on making what they could for them- selves to care about the good of their country, and practically nothing has been done since the war either to purify the government or to strengthen the national defences, though railways, mines and educational establishments have been considerably extended. These, however, in almost every case, have prospered only when the entire direction has been in the hands of foreigners.2 I China being in this helpless condition, it was im- possible that foreign nations would abstain from laying Germany. violent hands on her territory. Germany set the example in the end of 1897 by seizing Kiao-Chow, Even now, despite all that has happened, a large number of the Chinese people still fondly imagine their Emperor to be the most powerful monarch on earth, to whom all others are tributary. During the late war, when the Japanese were believed to be marching on Peking, and the Chinese had no force whatever capable of checking their advance, a rustic, living at a place only a short day's journey from the capital, said, when discussing the situation with a friend of my own, 'But the Japanese robbers will never dare to go to the Great Capital of Great China.' 2 The Imperial University at Tien-Tsin, founded in 1895, has done excellent work and there is an efficient Naval School in the same city, but several other educational establishments belonging to the Chinese Government have been conspicuous failures. Many of the most prosper- ous schools are in the hands of the missionaries; one of the best is St. John's College, Shanghai, supported by the American Episcopalians. 260 RECENT EVENTS IN CHINA which she hoped would prove a convenient port for developing the mineral wealth of Shangtung, the murder of some of her missionaries in the same province forming a convenient pretext for the action. Other nations immediately stepped in to restore the balance of power-Russia seizing the long-coveted Port Arthur and the neighbouring Port of Talienwan, which she hoped would eventually secure to her the possession of all Manchuria, England taking Wei Hai Wei to prevent Russia getting the complete control of the Gulf of Pechili, and France occupying Kwang Chow Bay in the extreme south. Italy, as if her attempts at colonisation had not already brought her enough disasters, soon afterwards made an absurd attempt to seize Sanmun Bay in Chekiang, but she was unable to enforce her demands. Russia has not Russia. been slow to make use of her new possessions, and a branch of the Siberian Railway, down the Liao Tung peninsula to Port Arthur, with an additional line to Newchwang, is being pushed on with all possible speed. Wei Hai Wei can never be of the slightest use for England. commerce as it is cut off from the interior by barren mountains, but efforts are being made to render it a strong naval station, and a regiment of Chinese is being trained as part of its permanent garrison. The harbour at Kiao Chow is not as convenient as was at one time thought, but when the projected railways into the interior are actually constructed it may become an important centre of trade. 1 I Shortly after the German flag had been hoisted The Reformers. there, the Kaiser's own brother, Prince Henry, was sent out to the East and he was well received at Peking. It was probably to a great extent this visit which impressed on the mind of the young Emperor of China the imperative need there was for taking immediate action in the cause of reform; already he I There has for years been an efficient force of Chinese artillery in the British service at Hong-Kong. 261 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Kang Yu Wei. was surrounded by ministers, many of whom were enthusiastically in favour of the most drastic measures. The one who most gained the ear of his sovereign was a Cantonese, named Kang Yü Wei, a man thoroughly in earnest, but of no great ability, and who, though unable to speak any language except Chinese, had imbibed a great many Western ideas; his proposals for the most part met with the approval of the Emperor, and China was startled by a series of edicts truly revolutionary in their character. They permitted practically anyone to memorialise the throne, and provided for the abolition of all superfluous officials, the introduction of foreign subjects into the public examinations, the foundation of a university in Peking and of new schools in every province by the confisca- tion of the property of Buddhist and Taoist temples, the establishment of a patent office and other reforms of the same sort. It was even proposed to make the reform paper-Chinese Progress-the official organ of the Government. It is possible enough that these measures were ill- considered and that they could not have been carried out at the bidding of an Emperor whose authority was little more than nominal, but they were unquestion- ably well meant and they could hardly have done much harm. The conservative instincts of the nation, or at anyrate of the Court, were, however, aroused, and in September 1898 the Empress Dowager (the mother of Tungche, p. 222), setting the Emperor aside, took the administration once more into her own hands and almost all the reforming edicts were at once rescinded. Kang Yü Wei himself escaped to a British war-ship,* but his younger brother, Kang Kuangjen, a Censor I * Kang Yu Wei is at present the guest of the English Government. I had the good fortune to travel with him from Montreal to Liverpool in the s.s. Vancouver (May 1899), on my way home from the East, and we had an interesting conversation about the future of reform in China. 262 RECENT EVENTS IN CHINA named Yan Shen-hsiu, three Hanlins, Lin Hsio, Yang Jui and Liu Kuangti, and Tan Tze-tung, a son of the ex-governor of Hupeh, were executed, while other re- formers, including Chang Yin-Hwan, who was special. envoy to the Queen's Diamond Jubilee in 1897, and who was knighted on that occasion, were banished to Central Asia. Many of the younger literati through- out the country undoubtedly sympathised with the Emperor, but although the Government was weakened by several small rebellions, notably one in the neigh bourhood of Canton at the time, there was no armed resistance to the Empress's usurpation. 1898. Spain's possession of the Philippines had been dis- Spanish- turbed by the capture of Manila by the English in American War, 1762, during the war which was ended by the Peace of Paris and by numerous revolts of the natives. The Government and Administration of Justice in the islands had become extremely corrupt when, in 1898, war having broken out between Spain and America, owing to a revolt in Cuba which the Spaniards were powerless to quell, an American squadron, under Commodore Dewey, sailed from Hong-Kong to attack the Spanish fleet lying in Manila Harbour. The Spaniards were utterly unpre- pared, and all their vessels were sunk and the land forts were taken by the Americans without the loss of a single man. The natives, under Aguinaldo, had already risen in revolt, and a considerable part of the island of Luzon was in their hands. Thus the Spanish garrison at Manila was between two fires, and it had soon to surrender to the Americans, who thereupon occupied the town. After an armed neutrality which lasted several weeks, the rebels and Americans came to blows, and the war between them is still in progress. In 1899 the Sultan of Sulu (p. 249) made a treaty 263 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA formally acknowledging the suzerainty of America, but whether the United States is permanently to retain her distant Asiatic dependencies will not, in all probability, be decided for some years. A large portion of the American people would gladly be rid of them at once, but to make a dignified retreat from Manila may be found to be a very difficult matter. 264 CHAPTER XL THE PRESENT POSITION OF AFFAIRS IN THE EAST Conquest of Asia by Europe-Decay of Asiatic Powers-Partition of China-Commercial Importance of the Chinese-Other Asiatic States-European Rule of Asia-Present Position of the Different Foreign Nations interested in Asia-Portugal- Holland-The Six Great Powers-England-Russia-America -Japan-France-Germany-Open Door' and 'Spheres of Influence' Policies in China. It was pointed out on an earlier page that when Conquest of Portugal made her first permanent settlement in Asia by India a conquest of Asia by Europe began which Europe. seems likely in the course of time to become complete. But practically this has happened already. China, Persia, Corea, Siam and a few other states of very trifling importance are still more or less independent in their internal administration, but they do not exercise the slightest influence over international politics, and they are all to a greater or less extent controlled by the different European nations with which they are brought in contact—indeed, they may be said to exist as sovereign states merely on suf- ferance; with their own forces they could not even maintain their neutrality if war was to break out among their more vigorous neighbours. At the present time there happens to be no nation Decay of of any importance on the mainland of Asia which is Asiatic Powers. not in a state of decay, more or less profound. The rulers of China, with a homogeneous population of 265 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA Partition of China, four hundred millions, a rich and fertile country second to none in the world in natural advantages, enormous resources immediately available, besides untold quantities of unexplored wealth in the mines, have gradually rendered their government an object of contempt to foreign powers, and even to a large pro- portion of their own subjects. This phenomenon is matched at the other end of Asia by Turkey, whose Sultan, possessing the most advantageously-situated capital in Europe, and ruling over the whole eastern shore of the Mediterranean, whose warlike inhabitants are secured in their loyalty by their devotion to him as the head of their religion, and strengthened by the moral support of nearly three-quarters of the Moham- medan world, is unable even to maintain the integrity of his dominions. Indeed, not in Asia only, but in the whole world, the vigorously-flourishing Empire of Japan is the only state not of European race which seems destined to exert any influence on the future politics of the planet, with the possible exception of Abyssinia, which has lately shown an unexpected vitality. Morocco, the only other independent native state in Africa of any importance, is more decayed even than Turkey; while in America the two great empires of Peru and Mexico fell at the first contact with Europeans. The division of China virtually began when the Germans seized Kiao Chow, if not before, and it does not at present seem probable that the final partition can be delayed for more than a certain number of years. Whether the ancient Empire will be finally extinguished or not is, however, a different matter. The southern Chinese have, on the whole, far more race feeling the nearest approach to patriotism. Asiatics possess-than their countrymen in the north. The Kins failed altogether to conquer them; while the Mongols and the Manchus only did so after long years of war, and they are at the present time even 266 PRESENT POSITION OF AFFAIRS IN THE EAST more disaffected to the Manchu Government than the northerners. It is thus quite possible that they might maintain an independent state after the rest of the country had passed under foreign rule. L But though it does not seem probable that the Commerial Chinese as a nation will exercise very much, if any, the Chinese. Importance of influence over the politics of the world-at any rate for many years to come- —their position in commerce is a very important one-trade being the most popular occupation among them, and their merchants being in consequence far ahead of those of any other Eastern race. The troubles in their own country, and the good prospects for labour in others less thickly populated, have caused Chinese coolies to emigrate in enormous numbers to all the countries bordering on the Pacific, and even to the eastern shores of Africa. In many ways they have been a great advantage to the places in which they have settled; for instance, the railways in the Western States of America could hardly have been built without them, but the impossi- bility of European labourers competing with them has naturally made them extremely unpopular, and laws of varying stringency now either altogether forbid their further immigration into the United States, Canada and Australasia, or permit it only on payment of heavy capitation fees. Compared with the huge Empire of China, the Other Asiatic other states on the mainland which still maintain their States. independence are unimportant. The present King of I Siam ¹ is entirely in favour of Western methods, and he has even travelled in Europe and sent his sons to be educated there; but the corruption of his officials and the indolence and indifference of his people render it extremely difficult for him to carry out his wished-for reforms, though he has undoubtedly done a great deal for his country. The independence of Corea seems likely to be long preserved, owing to the position of • Khoulalonkorn, who succeeded to the throne in 1868. 267 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA European Rule of Asia. Present Posi- tion of the different Foreign Nations interested in Asia. Portugal. the peninsula as a buffer-state between Japan and Russia, neither of which is likely to permit the other to hold it, while no third power has any special reason for desiring it. Nothing but a complete reform of their whole system of government, more or less on the lines so successfully followed in Japan, can, however, secure the permanent independence of these ancient, but seemingly effete, nations, and under present conditions not one of them seems to have any reasonable chance of carrying out such reforms. How long Europe may retain the possession of Asia, it is, of course, impossible to say, but, as matters stand at present, everything seems to point to the period being long protracted. The Asiatics are un- questionably far better off on the whole under European rule than they ever were under their native princes, and many of the most intelligent of them fully realise the fact. There must always, of course, be a feeling of repugnance to a foreign yoke, but this is not one-tenth part so strong among Orientals as it is among ourselves. In India, at any rate, which is by far the most important of the countries in Asia now subject to European rule, a foreign Government has at least two advantages over any that might have its headquarters in the peninsula-first, it is able to maintain a complete neutrality towards Moslem and Hindu, which would hardly be possible for any native rulers; and secondly, it is unaffected by the process of degeneracy and decay which seems destined to over- take every dynasty which establishes itself in India, even more than in other parts of Asia. Portugal, the first nation of Europe to break in on the seclusion of the East, retains but a small fragment of her once great Empire there. In India she still rules Goa, Daman and the little island of Diu; in the Malay Archipelago she retains part of the island of Timor, and in China she has Macao. Goa is but a 268 PRESENT POSITION OF AFFAIRS IN THE EAST faint shadow of its former self, and it is distracted by frequent rebellions. Delli, the chief town of Portu- guese Timor, has a certain importance as being a port of call for some of the Australian steamers; many of the tribes in the interior of the island are entirely independent of Portuguese rule. Macao has, since the suppression of the scandalous coolie traffic, sunk to complete insignificance. I There Holland still holds the great bulk of the Malay Holland. Archipelago, and under a strong and vigorous govern- ment, undoubtedly oppressive though it is to the natives, most of the islands are prosperous. was a long struggle with the Javanese from 1825 to 1830, when, under Dipa Negara, they made a last effort to recover their independence, but it ended in the complete triumph of the Dutch, and most of the island is now under their direct administration. In most of the other islands their rule is practically con- fined to the seaports and some of the surrounding territory; in New Guinea they have not even any settlements, and they practically assert their sovereignty in no other way than by collecting a small tribute from the coast tribes and inducing some of the chiefs to hoist their flag. Here, however, as elsewhere in the archipelago, the Dutch Reformed Church has very successful missions. Their circumstances forbid either Portugal or Hol- land to look for any increase of territory, and their political interest in the Far East is therefore confined to protecting the possessions which they already hold there. The future of the East is in the hands of six great powers-England, Russia, Germany, France, America and Japan-each of which is vitally interested in the matter and has sufficient force at its command to make its wishes respected by the others. * Chinese coolies were shipped off to Cuba and other places to work on the plantations. Though nominally free labourers, they were slaves in all but name. 269 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA England. Russia. Of these, England is by far the most important. Besides her own possessions in Asia and the Mediter- ranean, which include almost all the chief ports- of-call on the the way out to the East, she has a trade far exceeding that of any other country, while all the treaty ports are predominantly British, and English is the Lingua Franca all over the East. Her position is further strengthened by the possession of Canada on the east and Australia on the south, both of which countries are gradu- ally becoming more and more closely connected with the Orient. But while English influence is thus dominant on the coast, in the interior it is very different. Her long frontier with China has gradually given Russia almost complete control over the affairs of the decaying Empire, and on land England is powerless to check her advance. Realising this, the Russians have taken every oppor- tunity of impressing on the Chinese that they are far more to be feared than the British, and this idea has been greatly strengthened by their seizure of Port Arthur, in spite of England's declared intentions of maintaining the integrity of the Chinese Empire. Hence English prestige at Peking is far from being what it once was.' England and Russia differ in race, religion, institutions, language, government and laws -indeed, it would hardly be possible to find two nations more diametrically opposed-and hence no agreement between them is likely to be anything but. temporary; and as it appears that no amount of negotiation can permanently settle the momentous questions at issue, war at some future time seems by no means an impossibility, though it is earnestly to be hoped it may be avoided. It is not easy to see how England can prevent Russia gradually annexing the whole of Manchuria, and even the adjacent province I Much interesting matter on this subject will be found in Lord Charles Beresford's new book, The Break-up of China. 270 PRESENT POSITION OF AFFAIRS IN THE EAST of Chihli, an event that would probably be ruinous to her trade. America, which has the second largest trade with America. China of any foreign country, is bound to England. by the strongest possible ties. In race, religion, laws, customs, language and institutions the two nations are practically the same, while their commercial interests are almost identical. Until a few months ago, the United States, faithful to the advice of Washington, had consistently abstained from interfering in the affairs of any country outside her own continent, except to protect her own citizens or commerce; but circumstances have now compelled her to change this policy, and the possession of the Philippines and other islands in the Pacific gives her a considerable political interest in the Far East, while the number of Americans resident there is very large and steadily increasing. In the case of a war breaking out, true to their tradi- tions, the Americans would in all probability attempt to remain neutral; but many things might happen to force them out of their neutrality, and if the British arms were to sustain serious reverses, it is very unlikely that they would be content to remain spectators. Japan has of late years shown herself extremely Japan. anxious to get rid of her eastern traditions and to enter the comity of nations on the same footing as the great powers of the West. Her claim to do so has now been recognised, the revision of the treaties having at length been agreed to, so that, from July 1899, treaty ports and consular jurisdiction in Japan have been things of the past, and foreigners now reside there on exactly the same terms as they do in any European state. Japan is by no means free from the dangers of in- ternal dissension, her warlike people not being slow to rise in rebellion if they are dissatisfied with their Government; in fact, the recent war with China was undertaken largely to divert attention from home affairs. But, in spite of their factiousness, her people 271 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA France. have public spirit and patriotism amply sufficient to carry her through any dangers that may arise, and she seems destined to play a very important part in the future history of the East. She is, from her geo- graphical position, more vitally interested in the future of the Chinese Empire than any other power, and, in case of war, she has the advantage of having her base of operations on the spot; but in the event of a naval reverse, this advantage would be turned into a very serious drawback. The possession of a chain of islands extending from Kamchatka to the south of China, with a powerful fleet to guard them, makes her strategic position very strong, and in war-time she could to a certain extent control the whole western Pacific. Her recent reforms have brought her very much into sympathy with England and America, while she has every reason for disliking Russia. The majority of the Japanese people at the present time would certainly welcome an alliance with England. France has for centuries been anxious to possess a colonial empire, but she has never shown any real apti- tude for colonisation. Of her possessions in the East, Cochin China is fairly well governed, though it is not nearly so prosperous as the adjacent territories of England; while Tong King, in spite of the efforts of Paul Bert, the well-known scientist, who was French Resident for a few months in 1886, has been in a state of ferment ever since the French took over its administration. France certainly aspires to the possession of the two Kwangs and Yunnan, but it is difficult to see what benefits would accrue either to them or to her if she got them. What part France might take if a war broke out in the East would pro- bably depend on the circumstances of the time, but her interests there are hardly as large as is commonly supposed, the French residents are not very numerous, and a large portion of them are Roman Catholic missionaries; her trade is comparatively small. 272 PRESENT POSITION OF AFFAIRS IN THE EAST It was part of Prince Bismarck's policy to strengthen Germany. the newly-united Germany by the creation of a colonial empire. About the year 1885 the north- east part of New Guinea, called Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, and some groups of small islands off its coast,' were accordingly secured and placed under the care of a German New Guinea Company. More recently, as we have seen, a port in China has been seized, which it is hoped will be a centre of German power in that country. So far, however, German colonies have not been a success; in spite of all that the Government can do, emigrants from the Fatherland insist on going to the British colonies or to America. Indeed, it may well be doubted whether Germany is wise in attempting this policy of colonial expansion. Her merchants have already secured for themselves a very considerable and ever-increasing part of the trade all over the East, in the British and French posses- sions as well as in the treaty ports, and they have ac- complished this by their own unflagging diligence and especially by taking great pains to suit the tastes of their customers; and though their Government has given them every encouragement, there are no ports where German goods are specially favoured. Hitherto, German residents have shown themselves quite con- tent to live in British settlements at the treaty ports and to co-operate in developing them.2 The future of their trade is well secured, but whether it is likely to be benefited by their colonial expansion seems ex- tremely dubious. If war were to break out, German 'The Bismarck Archipelago, the Marshall Isles, and part of the Solomon group. The Carolines were added in 1899. 2 In Tien-Tsin a German concession has recently been obtained and laid out, but the German residents, their consul included, are perfectly satisfied with the British concession and refuse to move out of it. For many years a German, Mr Detring, was chairman of the British Muni- cipal Council. The desire for colonial expansion-settlements at the treaty ports are to a great extent of the nature of colonies-seems to come almost entirely from the Government at home. German residents in the East are, on the whole, certainly not in favour of it. S 273 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EASTERN ASIA 6 'Spheres of Open Door' Policies. policy would almost certainly be to remain neutral at any cost, in which case her carrying trade, which has greatly developed of late, would be much increased at the expense of that of the belligerents. Two policies for the Chinese question are at present Influence' and being discussed. The 'Spheres of Influence' policy practically means the partition of the Empire among the several European states; the 'Open Door' policy frames a somewhat vague proposal to maintain the integrity of the Empire, allowing all nations equal trading rights. At the present time events seem rather to be tending to the former; from the point of view of British commerce the latter is certainly very much to be preferred, though China being un- able adequately to protect foreign trade (her rivers being infested by pirates and her roads by brigands), and unwilling even now to throw the whole Empire open to the commerce of the world, it is not easy to see how it is to be carried out. In any case, the present state of affairs is deplorable and cannot possibly go on much longer. But any detailed discussion of the matter would be entirely out of place in a work like the present.¹ I The recent efforts of the U.S. Government to secure the adoption of the Open Door' policy show that the Americans at any rate are fully alive to the danger of trade with China being interfered with, but the new crisis in the Palace at Peking (Jan. 1900) seems to mark another triumph for the party opposed to reforms, while lawlessness in China has been increasing rapidly of late. 274 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 275 B.C. Chronological Table ? 2332. Hwangti becomes Emperor of China. Circ. 2080-1950. Age of Yao and Shun in China. The Vedes composed, after the Aryan Circ. 2000-1500. ? 1122. immigration into India. Ki-Tsze founds the State of Chosen. Chow Dynasty of China founded by Wou Wang. Circ. 660. Jimmu becomes the first Mikado of Japan. Circ. 550. Birth of Confucius. Circ. 560 (? 490). 327. Circ. 310. Birth of Buddha. Alexander invades India. The tribes of Tibet first consolidated into a nation. Circ. 316 Chandragupta becomes Rajah of Mag- ? adha. 263. Asoka succeeds to the throne of Magadha. 255. Kingdom of Bactria founded. 244. Council of Asoka at Patna. 214-209. Great Wall of China built by Ch'in 202. Chi Hwangti. Kaotsou founds the Han Dynasty in China. 104-86. Vouti, Emperor of China. Repulse of the Huns. 277 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE A.D. Circ. 10. 89-106. 190. 190-580. 202. Kanishka becomes King of Kashmir. Hoty, Emperor of China. Intercourse with the West. Eunuchs become influential. End of the Han Dynasty of China. Six unimportant dynasties rise and fall in China. The Empire in a state of decay. Queen Jingo's invasion of Corea. 313-399. The Emperor Nintoku in Japan. ? 573. Pegu founded. 580. Wenti founds the Suy Dynasty of China. 622. Flight of Mohammed. (The Hejra.) 627-650. Taitsong the Great (Tang Dynasty), Emperor of China. Period of great prosperity. 709. Nara becomes the first capital of Japan. 711. First Moslem invasion of India. 762. Baghdad founded by the Khalif Al Mansur. 781. The Nestorian Tablet erected in China. 790. Kyoto becomes the capital of Japan. 905. End of the Tang Dynasty of China. 914. Corea united for the first time. 960. Taitsou founds the Sung Dynasty of China. 997. Mahmud of Ghazni succeeds to his throne. 1152. The Afghans of Ghor overthrow the Turks of Ghazni. 1156. Taira no Kiyomori becomes Dictator of Japan. 1162. Birth of Temuchin (Genghis Khan). 1180. Battle of Dannoura, establishing the Sho- gunate in Japan. 1192. Yoritomo appointed first Shogun. 1206. Slave Dynasty of Delhi founded. 1227. Oghatai succeeds Genghis as Khakhan of the Mongols. 278 A.D. Circ. 1255. 1258. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE The Golden Horde embrace Islam and gradually break away from the other Mongols. Holagou (Hulayu) destroys Baghdad. 1260. Kublai becomes Khakhan of the Mongols and Emperor of China, founder of the Yuen Dynasty. 1321. Tughlak Dynasty of Delhi founded. 1334. The Ashikaga Shogunate founded in Japan. 1336. Birth of Tamerlane (Timur) near Samarcand. 1350. Ayuthia founded by Phra Rama-Thibodi. 1368. Hong Wou drives the Mongols from China. and founds the Ming Dynasty. 1398. 1402. Tamerlane invades India. Battle of Angora. 1427. Li Loi usurps the throne of Tong King. 1435. Peking besieged by the Kalmucks. 1498. The Cape doubled by Vasco da Gama. 1505. Almeida appointed first Portuguese Viceroy in India. 1509. Alberquerque Governor. Goa seized and made his capital next year. 1525. Battle of Panipat. Mogul Empire founded by Baber. 1560. Akbar becomes Sultan (Great Mogul) of Delhi. 1567. Nobunaga becomes the real ruler of Japan. 1571. Manila founded by Legaspi as the capital of the Spanish Empire in the East. 1580. Yermak invades Siberia in the interests of Russia. Portugal and her colonies seized by Philip II. of Spain. 1583. The Cambodians defeated by the Siamese. 1585. Hideyoshi becomes Regent of Japan. 1592. The Japanese invade Corea. 279 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE A.D. 1596. The Cape doubled by Cornelius Houtman. 1600. English East India Company chartered. Battle of Sekigahara, founding the Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan. 1605. Death of Akbar. Jehangir succeeds. 1609. Pieter Both appointed first Dutch Governor- General in the East. 1614. The Portuguese defeated by the English at Surat. 1618. The Manchus first make war on China. 1619. Batavia founded by J. P. Coen. 1523. Massacre of Amboyna. 1630. Fort Zealandia built by the Dutch. 1634. The Pacific first reached by the Russians. 1644. The Manchus found the Ta Tsing Dynasty of China. 1656. Aurungzebe mounts the throne of Delhi. 1661. Kanghi becomes Emperor of China. 1674. Sivaji, founder of the Mahratta Power, pro- claimed Maharajah of the Konkan. Pondicherri occupied by the French. 1689. Treaty of Nertchinsk (between China and Russia). The British assume the status of a sovereign state in India. 1735. Chienlung becomes Emperor of China. 1741. Behring discovers Alaska. 1748. Peace of Aix la Chapelle. 1753. Rangoon founded by Alompra. 1757. Battle of Plassey. 1760. Battle of Wandewash. 1767. Ayuthia burned by the Burmese. 1768. Bangkok founded by Phaya Tak. 1774. Warren Hastings becomes first English Governor-General of India. 280 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE A.D. 1775-82. First Mahratta War. 1781. Hyder Ali (of Mysore) defeated at Porto Novo. 1782. Yaut Fa founds the present dynasty of Siam. 1788. Settlement at Botany Bay. The trial of Warren Hastings opened. 1792. Lord Macartney's Embassy to China. 1799. Tippoo Sahib overthrown. 1803. Second Mahratta War. 1815. Ceylon finally becomes British. 1816. Lord Amherst's Embassy to China. Holkar and the Pindarees defeated. 1818. 1819. 1824-26. 1829. Singapore founded by Sir Stamford Raffles. First Burmese War. Suttee in India abolished by Lord William Bentinck. 1839-42. First Afghan War. 1841. Sir James Brooke becomes Rajah of Sarawak. 1842. Treaty of Nanking, ending the first war between England and China. 1845-49. Sikh Wars. 1852-54. Commodore Perry's Expedition. 1855-72. Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan. 1857-59. Indian Mutiny. East India Company dis- solved during the latter year. 1859. Saigon seized by the French. 1860. Treaty of Tien-Tsin ratified at the close of the second war. 1861. The Tsungli Yamen instituted. 1864. End of the Tai Ping Rebellion. 1865. Samarcand occupied by the Russians. Mutsuhito becomes Emperor of Japan. 1868. The Restoration in Japan. 1870. Tien-Tsin Massacre. 281 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE A.D. 1877. Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India. Satsuma Rebellion in Japan. 1880. Campaign of Lord Roberts in Afghanistan. 1881. Trans Caspian Railway begun; charter granted to British North Borneo Com- pany. 1883-85. War between China and France about Tong King. 1891. Siberian (Vladivostock) Railway begun. 1894-95. War between China and Japan. 1897-98. Chinese Ports seized by the Western Powers. 1898. Manila captured by the Americans. + 282 A ABBASSIDS, 56, 59, 60, 74. Abdullah Khan, 108. Abdurrahman Khan, 227. Abu Faiz Khan, 180. Abulfazl, 114. Abulkhair, 108. Abyssinia, 71, 266. Achinese, 106, 111, 132. Adam, 45. Adam's Peak, III. Adams (William), 206. Adel Khan, 106. Aden, 104. Adi Granth, 178. Adrianople, 98. INDEX Afghanistan, Afghans, 18, 22, 55- 58, 93, 96, 109, 112, 113, 179- 181, 198-200, 227. First Afghan War, 199. Second Afghan War, 199. Third Afghan War, 227. Agra, 29, 109, 114, 175, 177. Aguinaldo, 263. Ahmadabad Dynasty, 95, 113. Ahmadnagar, 110. Ahmed Khan, 181. Ainos, 35, 53. Aix la Chapelle, Peace of, 184. Akbar (Sultan), 112-114. Akbar Khan, 199. Akkadians, 4. Akouta, 64. Alaska, 234. Ala-ud-din (Bahmani Empire), 95. Ala-ud-din (of Ghor), 57. Ala-ud-din (Khilji), 93. Albazin, 138. Albuquerque, 102-104. Aleppo, 75. Aleutian Islands, 234. Alexander the Great, 19. Alexander VI. (Pope), 127. Alexis (Czar), 234. Aliwal, 200. Al Kadir Billah, 56. Allahabad, 225. Al Mansur, 60. Almeida, 102-103. Alompra, 168, 196. Alp Arslan, 59. Altamish, 69. Altan Khan, 158. Amaral, 215. Amarapura, 169. Ambans, 165. Amboyna, 128, 133, 134, 192. America, 206, 218 seq., 234-239, 252, 263, 271. American Indians, 2. Amherst (Lord), 193, 197, 210. Amir Khan, 192. Amoy, 104, 155-156, 213. Amritsar, 178. Amur, 66, 138, 233. Amursana, 163. Ananda, 17. Anandpal, 56. Anchoo, 42. Andaman Islands, 202, 226. Andra Dynasty (India), 29. Andrada, 104. Angora, 97. Angor Tam, 23, 171 Angor Wat, 23. 283 INDEX Annam, 7, 31, 80, 165, 172-173, 245. Annenkoff, 232. Anting Gate (Peking), 220. Antiochus Theos, 22. Antoku, 53. Arabia (Arabs, Saracens), 4, 5, 19, 42, 45, 47, 54-61, 102. Arakan, 197-198. Aralsk, 231. Arcot, 184. Arikbuka, 76. Arima, 207. Arjum Mal, 178. Arrow, 218. Arsaces (Tiridates), 28. Arunnaret, 24. Aryans, 3, 14. Ashikaga Shoguns, 116-119. Asia Minor, 97. Asoka, 21-23. Assam, 196-197. Assaye, 191. Assyrian Christians, 44. Astarkhanide Dyn. (Bokhara), 108. Astrakhan, 70, 89, 91, 108, 164. Atharva Veda, 15. Atisha, 63. Attila, 32. Lord Auckland, 199. Aurungzebe, 175-176. Australia, 130, 190, 270. Ava, 153, 169. Awaji, 36. Ayubites, 70. Ayub Khan, 227. Ayuka, 160, 164. Ayuthia, 169, 171. Azevedo, 133. Azores, 101. BABER, 108-112. B Bactria, 18, 19, 21, 28, 58. Baghdad, 56, 60, 74, 93, 97. Bahadur Shah, 178. Bahadur Shah (2), 224. Bahmani Empire, 95, 103, 109. Bahram, 57. Baiji, 34. Bairam Khan, 112. Lake Baikal, 46, 66. Baki Mohammed, 108. Balkh, 18. Baltic, 4. Banda, 129, 133, 179. Bangkok, 170, 171. Banjermassim, 196. Bantam, 132, 134. Bara Budur (Boro Buddor), 25. Barlow, 191. Baroda, 177. Barrier Forts, 218. Bassein, 168; (2), 188. Batavia, 129. Batu, 71, 73, 88-89. Ibn Batuta, III. Bayan, 77, 81. Bayezid (Bajazet), the Thunderer, 97-98. Behring, 234. Beira, 146. Beloli, 109. Beluchistan, 20. Benares, 57, 189. Bencoolen, 195. Bengal, 87, 95, 113, 184, 186 seq., 197. Lord William Bentinck, 198. Berar, 109, 113, 177, 191, 202. Berdibeg, 90. Bereke, 89. Berlas, 92. Paul Bert, 272. Bhamo, 247, 256. Bhartpur, 198. Bhonsla, 191, 202. Bhutan, 54, 159. Bidar, 95, 110. Bijapur, 103, 109, 176. Bismarck Archipelago, 273. Lake Biwa, 52, 119. Black Death, 90. Black Flags, 246. Black Hole of Calcutta, 184. Bogue Forts, 213. Bokhara, 55, 60, 69, 71, 108, 110, 137, 160, 180, 231. Bolan Pass, 199. Bombay, 30, 46, 176, 182, 189. 284 INDEX Borneo, 25, 195-196, 247-249. British North Borneo Co., 249. Botany Bay, 190. Pieter Both, 129. Catherine of Braganza, 182. Brahmans, Brahmanism, 14, 25, 29, 54-55. Brahmapootra, 54. Brazil, 102. Bremer, 213. Bronze Age, 2. Brooke (Rajah), 196, 247. M'Leavy Brown, 259. Bruni, 196, 248-249. Dr Brydon, 199. Budantsar, 66. Buddha, Buddhism, 16, 21-26, 30, 31, 34, 39, 48, 50, 54-55, 62- 63, 78, 84, 111, 114, 158, 202, 215. Burgevine, 221. Buriats, 138, 159. Burke, 187. Burlingame, 223. Burmah, 24, 80, 153, 168-171, 196-198, 201, 247. Buxar, 186. Buzurg Khan, 255. Byzantine Empire, 59, 61, 97. CABRAL, 102. C Calcutta, 134, 166, 182 seq. Calicut, 101-103. California, 236. Cambaluc, 77. Cambodia, 7, 23, 86, 171-172, 247. Campbell, Archibald, 197. Campbell, Colin (Lord Clyde), 225. Canada, 235, 270. Canning, 202, 225. Canton, 42, 104, 128, 152, 162, 210, 212, 219. Cape of Good Hope, 100, 128, 130. Capuchins, 165. Carnatic, 179, 183, 189, 202. Carolines, 273. Cashmere, see Kashmir. Caspian, 4, 30, 31, 69, 93, 108, 231. De Castro, 105. Catchpoole, 172. Cawnpore, 224-225. Celebes, 25, 111, 127, 132. Cespedes, 123. Ceuta, 101. Ceylon, 22, 104, 106, 111, 129, 202. Chaldæans, 5. Chandragupta, 21. Chandragiri, 182. Chang Dynasty (China), 8, 9. Chang Chikie, 78. Chang-chuang, 118. Chang Fang, 151. Changli, 147. Chang Yin Hwan, 263. Chaoching, 152. Chaohien, 77. Charnock, 182. Chefoo, 252, 257. Chekiang, 122, 151, 261. Chelun, 40. Chemulpo, 252. Chen Tung Sa, 251. Chera, 95. Cheren Donduk, 164. Cheyti Sing, 189. Chiaching, 209. Chienlung, 163-167. Chihli, 67, 150. Chilianwala, 200. Chin, 213. Ch'in Dynasty (China), 11. Chin Dynasty (China), 41. Ch'in Chi Hwangti (Wall-Builder), II. China, Chinese, 5, 6-13, 27-32, 35, 40-48, 59, 63-65, 67, 72-73, 76-88, 95, 98, 99-100, 104, 122-125, 130, 140-169, 209- 223, 250-263, 265-267. First Chinese War, 212-214. Second Chinese War, 218-221. Chinanfu, 147. Chin Chow, 144, 147. Chinkiang, 213. 285 INDEX Chinghai hsien, 218. Chingtse, 31. Chingtung, 87. Chin Tang, 8. Chintsong, 64. Crimea, 92; Crimean War, 234. Cromwell, 134. Cyril, 43. Cyrus the Great, 18. Chitor, 94, 110, 113. Chitsou (Mongol), 78. Chitsou (Manchu), 149-153. Chittagong, 197. Chola, 95. Choo Yuen Chang, 83. Chosen, 9, 33, 144. Choshu, 238-241. Chow Dynasty (China), 9, 10. Chow Kwang Yn, 63. Chowmodo, 160. Chowsiang, 11. Chowsin, 9. Chuai, 37. Chung Chow Fu, 221. Chung How, 256. Chunghwan, 145-146. Chunti, 82. Chusan, 213, Clive, 183-186. Cochin, 102. Cocos Island, 249. Coen, 129, 134. Colombo, 104, 130. Commercial Importance of the Chinese, 267. Compasses, 7. Cape Comorin, 175. Confucius, Confucianism, 10, 34, 85, 206, 215. Constantinople, 43, 97. Convention of Chefoo, 256. Council of Asoka, 22. Council of Ephesus, 43. Council of Kanishka, 29. Coolie Traffic, 269. Coorg, 198. Coote, 185, 189. Cornwallis, 190. Corea, 9, 33-34, 37, 46, 49-50, 63, 73, 79, 84, 122-125, 144, 146, 251-253, 257-260, 265, 267. Cossacks, 137, 164. Coutinho, 103. Cracow, 73. D DAIBUTSU TEMPLE at Kyoto, 125, 204. Dalai Lama, 156, 159, 164. Lord Dalhousie, 200-202. Daman, 268. Damascus, 55, 60, 75. Dangan Pass, 146. Daniel, 10. Danish Kitchen middens, 1. Dannoura, 53. Dards, 228. Darius, 18. Darma, 62. Dasas, 15. Dasyu, 15. Ft. St David, 183. Dazaifu, 51. Deccan, 94, 113, 175, 184. Deccan Sultans, 109, 174. Delhi, 57, 69, 93-96, 109, 174, 177, 180, 224-226. Delli, 269. De Ryp, 207. Deshima, 206. Dewey, 263. Synod of Diamper, 106. Van Diemen, 130, Diodotus, 28. The Dindings, 249. Dipa Negara, 269. Diu, 102, 268. Dogras, 227, Donnai, 245. Dorgun, 148-149. Dost Mohammed, 198-201, 227. Downton, 133. Drake, 132. Dravidians, 15, 23. Drury, 210. Dsu Dashow, 147-148. Duagung, 151. Dupleix, 168, 183-185. Dupuis, 246. 286 INDEX Dutch (Holland), 128-134, 155- 156, 185, 192, 195, 206-207, 237-239, 269. Dyaks, 248. E EGYPT, 4, 7, 96, 102, 104. Eleuths, see Kalmucks. Lord Elgin, 219-221. Lord Ellenborough, 200. Ellichpur, 109. Elliot, 212. Ellora (Kylas at), 16, 95. Emmanuel the Fortunate, 101. English (British), 132-135, 168, 170, 182-203, 209-216, 218- 229, 237-239, 261, 270. Enriaku-ji Monastery, 119. Es-Salih, 70. Eucratides, 28. Eunuchs, 31, 47, 157. Eurasians, 105. Ever Victorious Army, 221. Examinations (Chinese), 8, 41, 85, 172, 262. Ezekiel, 10. FA HIAN, 54. F Fanching, 77. Fangkue Chin, 83. Fatimites, 59, 61. Ferozeshah, 200. Feudalism, 9, 36, 113, 150, 242. Filial Piety, II. Firando, 118. Firdousi, 56. Firoz, 93; (2), 95. Five Dynasties (China), 48, 63. Fohi, 6. Foochow, 78, 151, 213, 246. Formosa, 130, 154 seq., 166, 211, 246, 250, 258. French, 97, 134, 183-186, 192, 195, 219 seq., 239, 245-247, 261, 272. Fujiwara, 51. Fukien, 82, 155. Funan, 7. Fusan, 123, 125, 252. Fu Wang, 150. GAHS, 30. G Galdan Khan, 159-160. Galdan (2), 163. Ganges, 28, 29. Ganlochan, 47. Gao, 151. Gao Di, 145. Garnier, 246. Gaur Rahman, 228. Gautama (Buddha), 10, 16, 17. Gemmyo, 50. Genghis Khan, 66-71. Genoese, 90. Fort St George (Madras), 182. Rigault de Genouilly, 245. Gensan, 84, 252. Germany, 260, 273. Ghauts, 176. Ghazni, 55, 56, 69, 199. Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlak, 94. Ghulab-Singh, 227. Ghuzz (Turks), 59. Gia Long, 172, 245. Giao-chi (Annam), 7, 31. Gilgit, 228. Gilolo, 129, 131. Gin, 156-157. Goa, 103 seq., 114, 117, 129, 267. Go Daigo, 116. Golconda, 110. Golden Horde, 89-91, 93. Golden Khan (Khalkhas), 158. Gondaphorus, 28. Goolo Hill, 141. Charles Gordon, 221. Gorojiu, 237. Lord Gough, 200. Govind Singh, 178. Gran, 73. Great Council, 18. Great Renunciation, 16. Great Thsin (Roman Empire), 31. Great Wall, 12, 67, 85, 99, 144 seq., 220. 1 287 INDEX Greece (Greeks), 19, 21, 97, 221. Captain Green, 210. Baron Gross, 219. Gujarat, 56, 94-95, 113, 177, 189, 200. Gulbargah, 95. Guptas, 30. Gurkhas, 165-166, 192, 226. Gurus (Sikhs), 178. Gwalior, 113, 177, 189, 200, 225. Gwei Wang, 152, 154. HACHIMAN, 38. Hagen, 128. Hahema, 99. Hainan, 99, 211. Hakodate, 237. H Hall of the Classics (Peking), 167. Hami, 99, 160. Han Dynasty (China), 27-32, 99. Han, Prince of, 40, 63. Han River (Corea), 251. Hang Chow, 77, 80, 151. Hanlin College (China), 48, 81, 84, 157. Hanoi, 172, 246. Hansiro, 117. Han Yang, 85. Hara, 207. Lord Hardinge, 200. Har Rai, 178. Sir Robert Hart, 223, 246. Harris, 237. Hassan, 255. Hastings, Warren, 187-190; Marq. of, 192. Havelock, 225. Hawkins, 133. Hea, 63, 67, 71. The Heaven Father, 3. Prince Henry the Navigator, 101. Herat, 69, 108, 180, 199. Hiaksai, 34, 46, 49. Hideaki, 124. Hideyori, 204. Hideyoshi, 119-125, 204, 250. Hienfung, 217-222. Hienyang, 11. Hienyung, 148, 152. Hi Kwan Ssu (Tien Tsin), 219. Himalaya, 165. Hindu Kush, 4, 228. Hindus, 4, 5, 14-20, 24, 62, 114. Hingking, 141. Hiongnou, 27. Hirado, 206, 207. Hitotsubashi, 240. Hoaitsong, 148. Major Hodson, 225. Hojo Family, 79, 116. Hojo Ujimasa, 120. Holkar, 191, 192. Honan, 9, 73. Hong Kong, 2I2-214, 26I. Hong Wou, 84-86. Hooghly, 134. Hoty, 31. Houtman, 128. Hsia (Hea) Dynasty (China), 8. Huè, 172, 245. Hulayu (Holagou), 74. Humayun, 112. Hungary, 73, 97. Hung-chow, 157. Hung Siu-tsuen, 217-222. Huns, 27, 32, 66. Hunza, 228. Husain, 102. Huvishka, 29. Hwangti, 6. Hweitsong, 64. Hwen Tsang, 30, 55, 58. Hydaspes (Jhelum), 19. Hyderabad (Indus), 20. Hyderabad (Deccan), 179, 184, 202. Hyder Ali, 189. Hyogo (Kobe), 238. Hyphasis (Sutlej), 19, 200. IBRAHIM, I10. Iching, 213. Iconium, 59. I Ieyasu, 120, 124, 204-206. Jeyoshi, 237. Ilak Khan, 56. 288 INDEX Ili, 163, 255. Ilkhans, 75. Imperial Canal (China), 80, 213. Impey, 188. Independence Club (Corea), 259. India, 4, 14-22, 28-30, 31, 54- 57, 69, 93-96, 100-107, 109- 115, 132-135, 174-203, 224- 229. India Companies, Dutch, 128; British, 132, 226; French, 134; Danish, 134; Austrian, 135; Swedish, 135. Indore, 191. Indo-Scythia, 28, 58. Indus, 14, 19, 28, 69, 112. Inland Sea (Japan), 36. Inquisition, 106, 207. Irawady, 168, 198. Irkutsk, 233. Irtish, 136. Iskandar Muda, 132. Islam, 42, 54-61, 82, 89, 94, 110, 111, 114, 148, 166, 215, 254. Ismael, 111. Ismailites, 74. Issu, 45. Italians (Italy), 221, 261. Ivan the Terrible, 92, 136. Iyemitsu, 206. Izanagi, 36. Jehangir (Mogul), 114-115, 133, 174. Jehangir (Central Asia), 211, 216, 255. Jehol, 220. Jelalabad, 199. Jerusalem, 75. Jesuits, 114, 117-118, 145, 158. Jews in China, 58. Jiefan, 142. Jimmu, 35, 37. Jingo-Kogo, 37. Jintsong, 64. Johnson (Brooke), 249. Johor, 103, 195, 249. Jooningfu, 72. Juchi, 71. Jugi, 67. Juju Tatars, 40. Jung Jalung, 151, 154. Junkiang, 144. K KABUL, 29, 109, 112-113, 179, 199, 227. Kafur, 94. Kagoshima, 118, 120, 239, 244. Kaichow, 49. Kaidu, 81. Kai-fung-fu, 58, 65, 68, 72. Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, 273. Kaitsjil Ali, 131. Izanami, 36. J Kaleza, 70. JAFFNAPATAM, 130. Jagatai, 67, 71, 92. jains, 18, 55. Jaipal, 56. Jalaluddin, 61, 69-72. James I., 133. Janibeg, 90. Japan, 35-39, 46, 50-53, 79, 105, 116-125, 130, 170, 204-208, 236-244, 250-253, 257-259, 271. Japanese Castles, 121. Java, 25, 80, 111, 128, 192, 195- 196, 269. Jaxartes, 231. Kaiyuen, 142. Kalmucks, 87, 88, 92, 159, 163. Kamakura, 52-53, 79, 116. Kamchatka, 234, 272. Kamogawa, 50, 125. Kanagawa, 237-238. Kandahar, 108, 102-103, 179, 199. Kandurcha, 91. Kandy, 106, 129, 202. Kangan, 165. Kanghi, 154-162. Kang Hwa, 251. Kang Yü Wei, 262. Kanishka, 29. Kanjut Valley, 228. Kansuh, 12, 63, 255. Kanyakubja (Kanauj), 55, 57. T 289 INDEX Kaotsong, 45. Kaotsou (Han Dynasty), 27. Kaotsou (Suy Dynasty), 41. Kaotsou (Tang Dynasty), 41. Kaotsung, 65. Kapilavastu, 16, 55. Karakoram, 68, 69, 73, 76. Karnal, 180. Karu Kitai Tatars, 71. Kashgaria, 42, 59, 88, 92, 211, 216, 255. Kashmir, 19, 29, 113, 179, 227. Kasim, 55. Kato Kiyomasa, 123, 205, 244. Kazan, 164. Keeling Islands, 249. Keraits, 85, 160. Kesh, 92. Khagasses, 3. Ibn Khafif, 111. Khalifate, 59, 74, 110. Khalkhas, 158, 160. Khalsa, 178. Khan Kutchum, 136-137. Khan Tuli Khoja, 90. Kharezm, 68 seq., 91. Khatmandu, 166, 192. Khitans, 46, 48, 49, 50, 63-65, 67-68. Khiva, 68, 109, 231. Khojind, 231. Khokand, 210-211, 231. Khorasan, 59, 92, 108. Khusru, 57. Kia, 8. Kiao Chow, 260-261. Kiangning, 155. Kiev, 70, 73. Kijun, 34. Kimmei Tenno, 39. Kingtsong, 65. Kins, 64-65, 67-68, 70-72, 140. Western Kiptchaks (Golden Horde), 88-90. Eastern Kiptchaks (White Horde), 90-91. Kirghiz, 159, 211, 231. Kirin, 33, 49. Ki Tsze, 9, 33. Kiusiu, 37, 51, 79, 105, 120, 205, 244. Ki Wang, 160. Kizil Arnat, 232. Kobe, 238. Kodama, 259. Kojiki, 39. Kokorai, 33, 41, 42, 46, 49. Koko Nor, 8, 28, 83. Kolarians, 15. Komei, 239. Konishi Yukinaga, 123-124, 205. Konkan, 176. Korûr, 30. Koshagi, 140. Koshinga (Coxinga), 151, 154-156. Koshwai, 157. Kosmé de Torres, 118. Kotaiba-ibn-Moslim, 59. Kotta, 104. Kowang, 153. Kowloon, 221. Kowshing, 257. Krasnovodsk, 231, 232. Krim Tatars, 91, Kublai Khan, 63, 76-82, 116. Kuching, 248. Kuldja, 255. Kumamoto, 125, 244. Prince Kung, 217, 220, 222. Kurdistan, 72. Kurgan, 92. Kuriles, 234. Kuroda, 252. Kushlek, 67, 68. Kutab-ud-din, 57, 93. Kuyuk, 73. Kwambaku, 120. Kwammu, 50. Kwang Chow-Bay, 261. The two Kwangs (Kwangsi and Kwangtung), 7, 272. Kwang Su, 256. Kweilin, 152. Kwo Tsey, 47. Kyoto, 50, 53, 116, 119, 125, 205, 238. L LA BOURDONNAIS, 183. Labuan, 248. 290 INDEX Laccadives, 202. Ladak, 227. Lahore, 56, 69, 115, 181, 200. Lake, 191. Lally, 185. Lamaism, 63. Lancaster, 132. Langson, 246, Lanka (Ceylon), 22. Lantor, see Banda. Laochung, 141. Lao-tsze, 10. Lassa, 26, 62, 161, 165. Later Chow Dynasty, 48. Later Han Dynasty, 48. Later Hans, 32. Later Leang Dynasty, 48. Later Tang Dynasty, 48. Later Tsin Dynasty, 48. H. N. Lay, 222. The Lawrences, 201. Henry Lawrence, 225. Leang Dynasty (China), 41. Legacy of Ieyasu, 206. Legaspi, 127. Lena, R., 138. Liao Tung Peninsula, 31, 33, 50, 67, 86, 142, 261. Liao Yang, 142 seq. Lichimin, 41. Li Dsuchung, 148. Lieouwen Hoan, 77. Li Hung Chang, 221. Likeyong, 48. Likimao, 86. Li Loi, 172. Lin, 212. Linggan, 77. Lis (Hainan), 99. Lisseh, 11. Literati, 8, 11, 263. Litsong, 77. Liuchi, 28. Living Buddhas, 63. Li-yu-sung, 123. Lodi Dynasty (Delhi), 109. Loo, 10. Loo Choo Islands, 41, 52, 80, 151, 250-251. Louis IX., 89. Louis XIV., 170. Louis XVI., 172. Lourenco, 102. Loyang, 9, 27, 31, 32, 41, 47. Lucknow, 225. Lupoteh, 99. Lu Wang, 151. Luzon, 127. MA, 151. M Macao, 104, 129, 134, 212 seq., 269. Macartney (Lord), 167. Macedonia, 97. Madagascar, 80, 134. Mada Hassim, 248. Madeira, 101. Madjapahit, 25, 111. Madras, 182 seq. Madura, 94. Magadha (Behar), 17, 21, 30, 186. Magellan, 126. Maha-bodhi Society, 23. Maharashtra, 176. Maha-vira, 18. Mahinda, 23. Mahmud (Afghanistan), 179. Mahmud of Ghazni, 55-56. Mahmud Tughlak, 96, 109. Mahomet I., 98. Mahrattas, 176-177, 188 seq., 224. First Mahratta War, 189. Second Mahratta War, 191. Third Mahratta War, 192. Malabar Church, 29, 44, 106. Malacca, 87, 102, 106, 117, 130, 169, 194, 196, 249. Malays, 24, 25, 35, 103, 111, 155, 172, 247. Malay Peninsula, 153, 169, 194 seq., 249. Maldives, 202. Malik Shah, 59. Ma Lin, 142. Malwa, 30, 113, 177. Mamluks, 70, 74, 90, 96, 102. Manchuria, 138, 140 scq., 251, 257, 261, 270. Manchus, 122, 140-169. 291 INDEX Mandalay, 169, 247. Mandarins, 210. Mandeville, 82. Mangu, 74, 76. Mangu Timur, 90. Manila, 127, 263. Manwyne, 256. Mao Wunlung, 143. Maragha, 74. Marananda, 34. Marcanda, 44. Marco Polo, 71, 78. Margary, 256. Marshall Islands, 273. Martaban, 169. Martin Ignatius, 128. Mauritius, 183, 192. Mauryas, 21, 30. Massud, 59. Lord Mayo, 226. Mayuen, 31. Mecca, 111, 113. Medina, 60, 104. Meer Jaffier, 185, 187. Meerut, 224. Megasthenes, 21. Megha-vehana, 29. Mehe, 27. Mehidpur, 192. Meinam, 24, 171. Menado, 132. Menander, 28. Mencius, 11, 206. Moguls, 94, 110-115, 133, 224- 226. Mohammed Ali (Khokand), 210- 211, 216. Mohammed Ghori, 57, 68. Mohammed Reza Khan, 186. Mohammed Shah, 180. Mohammed Shah of Kharezm, 68. Mohammed Tughlak, 94. Mohammedanism, see Islam. Moji, 243. Moluccas, 104, 111, 126-127, 133. Mommu, 39. Mongolia, 7, 63, 70, 142, 146 seq. Mongols, 66-83, 88-92, 108, 156, 158-161. Montecorvino, 71, 82. Moorshedabad, 186. Morari Rao, 184. Moriya, 39. Morocco, 101, 126, 166. Moscow, 70, 73, 91, 92. Mudki, 200. Mukden, 141 seq. Munro, 186. Multan, 19, 96. Murshid Kuli Khan, 179. Muscat, 104. Indian Mutiny, 224-226. Mutsuhito, 240. Mysore, 95, 179, 189, 198. First Mysore War, 189. Second Mysore War, 190. Third Mysore War, 190. Mercury, 209. Mergui Islands, 171. Merv, 108, 231, 232. Mesopotamia, 4, 96. Mexico, 3, 266. Miao-tsze, 7, 122, 166, 211. Michizane, 51 Middleton, 133• Minahassers, 25. Minamoto Clan, 51. Ming Dynasty (China), 83-87, 140-153. Mingti, 31. Lord Minto, 192. Miolithic or Mesolithic, z. Mir Wais, 179. Mitsunari, 204-205. Mocha, 133. N NADIR SHAH, 180-181. Nagar, 228. Nagasaki, 118, 122, 207-208, 237- 238. Nagpur, 177, 202. Naiks, 174. Naiman Khan, 67, 85. Nakhon Wat, 23. Nanak Shah, 177. Nana Sahib, 224. Nanking, 65, 83, 84, 86, 122, 150, 213, 217, 218. Lord Napier (of Magdala), 201. 292 INDEX 1 Lord Napier (China), 211. Napoleon, 191. Nara, 37, 50. Phra Narai, 170. Phra Naret, 169. Nayan, 81. Negrais, 168. Neigo, 153. Neolithic Age, 2. Nepal, 16, 57, 165, 192. Nertchinsk, 138, 233. Nestorius (Nestorians), 43, 74, 82, 89. Nestorian Tablet, 45, 47. New Archangel (Sitka), 234. Newchwang, 13, 144, 258. New Guinea, 269. New York, 128, 210. New Zealand, 130. Nguyen, 172. Ni Dynasty (Corea), 84. Nias, 195. Nicobar Islands, 202. Oderic, 82. Oghatai, 67, 71- Ojin, 38. Oki Islands, 116. Olupun, 45. Omiads, 55. Omsk, 233. Onon, 66. 'Open Door,' 274. Opium, 212-214. Orang Benna, 194. Orda, 90. Ordu Hordes, 158 Orissa, 186. Ormuz, 103, 133. Osaka, 121, 205, 240. Osmanlis (Ottomans), 61, 97-98 266. Ostend Company, 135. Ou, 32. Oudh, 113,179, 186, 188, 189, 202. Owari, 119. Oxus, 4, 68, 181, 232. Nicopolis, 97. Nihongi, 39. Niigata, 238. Nikan Wailan, 140-141. Nikolayevski, 233. Ningpo, 104, 213. Ningyuen Chow, 144 seq. Ninkiassu, 72. Nintoku, 38. Nirvana, 17. Nitta Yoshisada, 116. Niuche Tatars, 64. Nizam ul Mulk (Dynasty at Hyderabad), 106, 179, 189. Noble Eightfold Path, 17. Nobunaga, 118-119. Norfolk, 236. Novgorod, 70, 136. Nujun, 141. Nuncomar, 186, 188. Nurhachu, 141-145. OBI, 136. Observatory at Peking, 158. Odawara, 120. PADANG, 132. Pagan, 80. Pahang, 249. P Palæolithic Age, 2. Palibothra, 21, 22. Panchow, 31. Pandya, 94, 95. Panipat, 110, 181. Panthays, 254-255. Panti, 163. Parakrama, 94. Parkes, 220, 240. Parsees, 46. Parthians, 28. Pashkof, 138. Patala, 20. Patan, 94. Patna, 21, 185. Gulf of Pechili, 12, 257, 261. Pegu, 24, 168-169, 201. Pei Ho, 219. Peishwa, 176, 191, 193, 224. Peking, 13, 34, 64, 68, 76, 83, 86- 87, 104, 138, 146 seq., 162, 219. 293 INDEX Penang, 195, 249. Perak, 249. Perry, 236. Persia, 4, 18, 45, 74, 93, 95, 103, 108, 112, 137, 179-185, 265. Peru, 3, 266. Pescadores, 129. Peshawar, 56, 69, 179, 180, 199, 201. Pesth, 73. Peter the Great, 160, 164, 231. Peter the Great Bay, 233. Petroff, 138. Pettlin, 138. Petropaulovsk, 234. Peyaddassi, 21, 22. Phagspa, 63. Phaja Uthong (Phra Rama Thi- bodi), 169. Phaulkon, 170. Phaya Tak, 171. Philip II. (of Spain), 107, 128. Philippines, 111, 126-127, 263. Phœnicians, 100. Phra, 24. Pigneaux de Betaine, 172. Pigtail, 150, 153. Pindarees, 192. Pingan, 46, 49, 123. Ping Wang, 9. Pinto, 117. Pirates, 81, 117, 122, 154 scq., 209, 248. Pir Mohammed, 96. Pitt, 187. Pi Yen Ssu (Peking), 167. Plassey, 185. Poland, 73, 90. Poona, 176, 189, 191. Pondicherri, 134, 183 seq. Port Arthur, 257, 261. Port Hamilton, 253. Port Lazaref, 258. Porto Novo, 189. Portuguese, 100-107, 117, 126 126 seq., 268-269. Porus (Phoor), 19. Pottinger, 214. Poulin (Little Tibet), 46. Count Poutiatine, 219. Prester John, 71. Dr Price, 197. Printing, 50. Ptolemies, 19. Puhai, 49. Pularoon, 133. Pulo Condore, 172. Punjab, 21, 56, 94, 96, 112, 113, 179, 200-201. Pythagoras, 10. R RABDAN, 160-163. Rafael Perestrello, 100. Raffles, 194-196. Rahmat, III. Rahula, 16. Railways, Tientsin-Newchwang, 13, 144. Indian, 201. Trans-Caspian, 232. Siberian, 233, 258, 261. Japanese, 242. Rajagriha, 17. Raja Tarangini, 29. Rajputana, 94, 110, 113, 165, 191. Ramayana, 22. Ram Das, 178. Ranbir Singh, 228. Rangoon, 168, 197, 201. Ranjit Singh, 179, 200. Ravana, 22. Red Sea, 19, 104, 129. Reed, 219. Restoration in Japan, 240. Riazan, 73. Rig Veda, 14 Rivière, 246. Rizia Begum, 57. Lord Roberts, 227. Sir Thomas Roe, 133. Rohillas, 188. Roman Missions, 82, 117, 172, 251. Rosellini, 7. Ross, 249. Adm. Roze, 251. Phra Ruang, 24. Russia, 70, 73, 91, 136-139, 160, 199, 219, 226, 230-235, 237, 253, 258, 261, 270. 294 INDEX S Saadat Ali Khan, 179. Saburo, 238, 244. Safawis Dynasty (Persia), 180. Saghalien, 234. Sagres, 101. Saigon, 245. Saigo Takamori, 244. Sakhya, 16. Salbye (Treaty of), 189. R. Sale, 71. Salsette, 189. Salwin, 24. Samani Dynasty (Bokhara), 56. Samarcand, 44, 58, 59, 69, 93, 96, 98, 108, 110, 160, 231, 232. Sama Veda, 14. Sambhaji, 176. Samboshi, 120. Samurai, 206. Sandakan, 249. Sangi Archipelago, 127, 131. Sankolinsin, 218, 220. San Miguel, 127. Sanmun Bay, 261. Sarai, 88. Sarakhs, 231. Sarawak, 247-249. Sarimsak, 210. Sartach, 89. Satsuma Clan, 120, 238, 243-244. Sattara, 176, 193, 202. Satxanalai, 24. Sayyid Dynasty (Delhi), 109. Scythians, 28, 30. Secret Societies (China), 166. Seger - Sandilutu-Kagan-Tul-Esen, 26. Sekigahara, 205. Selangor, 249. Seleucus Nicator, 21, 28. Seljuks, 59. Sembuen, 169. Semites, 4. Senao, 104. Seoul, 85, 123, 146, 251, 259. Serampur, 135. Seringapatam, 190. Servia, 97. Shah Abbas (1), 109; (2), 175. Shah Allum, 176, 178. Shah Husain, 179. Shah Ismael, 108. Shah Jehan, 174-175. Shah Shuja, 199. Shamanism, 74. Shanghai, 213, 256. Shan Hai Kwan, 12, 144 seq. Shansi, 67. Shan States, 247. Shantung, 11, 67, 144, 147, 251. Shapu, 246_CON Sheibani (brother of Batu), 136. Sheibani Khan, 108, 109. Shensi, 6, 47, 63, 255. Sher Ali Khan, 227. Sher Khan, 180. Sher Shah, 112. Shia sect, 61, 92, 109, 180. Shilka, 138. Shimazu, I2O. Shimoda, 237. Shimonoseki, 53, 239, 243. Shinra (Sinlo), 34, 38, 46, 49. Shintoism, 36, 241. Shotoku Taishi, 39. Shu Kofa, 150. Shun, 6, 8. Shushu, 152. Siam, 24, 86, 117, 169-172, 194, 247, 265, 267. Siauw, 131. Siberia, 3, 91, 136-138, 233. Sibir, 136-137. Sienpi, 31, 40. Sienyang, 77. Sierra Leone, 101. Sigusmund (Sigismund), 97. Sikandar the Idol-breaker, 113. Sikhs, 177-181, 199, 200-201, 226. First Sikh War, 200. Second Sikh War, 200-201. Sikoku, 53. Sikri, 110. Siladitya (Ujjain), 30; (Kanauj), 55. Silesia, 73. Sind, 55, 113, 199, 200. Sindhia Dynasty (Mahrattas), 177, 191. 295 INDEX Sinew-pickers, 58. Si-ngan-fu, 27, 31, 41, 43, 44, 47, 148-149. Singapore, 24, 195, 219, 249. Sinhalese, 104, 202. Sitka, 234. Siu-tsuen, 217-222. Sivaji, 176. Siwas (Sebaste), 97. Sixty years captivity (Portugal), 107. Slave Dynasty (Delhi), 57, 69, 93. Soares, 104. Sobraon, 200. Socialism in Tibet, 62. Socotra, 103. Sogdiana, 44, 58. Solomon Islands, 273. Somnath, 56, 200. Songaria, 161. Songdo, 50. Song Dynasty (China), 41. Sontag, 246. Sosho and Sozu, 39. Soutsong, 47. Spain, 126-128, 263. “ Specx, 130. Speul*, 134. Spheres of Influence,' 274. Spice Islands, see Moluccas. Srinagur, 19. Srongbdzan-sgambouo, 62. Ssu Shu, 11. Stephens, 132. Stirling, 237. Straits Settlements, 249. Su, 28, 58. Subuktigin, 56. Sugawara, 51. Suinin, 37. Sujah Dowlah, 188. Sultan, 55. Sultan Suleiman, 255. Sulu Islands, 196, 249, 263. Sumatra, 25, 111, 128, 194 s:q. Summer Palace, 158, 210, 220. Sund Fo, 165. Sung Dynasty (China), 63-65, 73, 76-77. Sun Goddess, 36. Surajah Dowlah, 184. Surat, 133, 176, 182. Suta, 85. Suttee, 198. Suy Dynasty (China), 34, 41. Swiss Lake Dwellings, 1, 2, 248. Swun Chungtsung, 144. Szechuan, 32, 76, 86, 143. TABRIZ, 91. T Tachun' Dynasty (China), 148. Taichow, 151. Taijo, 84. Taiko, 122. Tai Ping Rebellion, 217-218, 221- 222. Taira Clan, 51-531 119. Taira no Kiyomori, 52. Taitsong, 42. Taitsou (Later Leang Dynasty), 48. Taitsou (Sung Dynasty), 63. Taitsung, 146. Taivou, 8. Tai-wan, 130. Taiyuen, 47, 122. Taj Mahal, 175. Taka uji Ashikaga, 116. Taku Forts, 213, 219. Talaing Kings (Pegu), 168. Talaut Islands, 131. Talienwan, 261. Talifu, 76, 255. Talikote, 174. Tamasp, 112. Tamerlane (Timur i Leng), 90-98. Tametamo, 52. Tamils, 23. Tang Dynasty (China), 40-48, 59. Tang Wang, 151 Tanjoo, 27. • Tanjore, 179, 190, 202. Taoism, 10, 64, 81, 215. Taokwang, 209, 210-216. Tasman, 130. Tashkend, 69, 231-232. Tatars, 3, 9, 30-31, 42, 45, 63, 122. Ta Tsing Dynasty, 149-169. Tattnall, 220. Tavoy, 171. 295 INDEX Teaching of Buddha, 17. Teaching of Confucius, 11. Tekkes, 232. Temuchin, 66. Tenasserim, 171, 197-198. Teng Chow, 144. The Ten Indulgences, 17-18. Tenji, 39. Teragai, 92. Ternatees, 106, 111, 128, 131. Teuman, 27. Thaton, 24. Thebaw, 247. Theodotus, 28. Thian Shan Mountains, 211. S. Thomas, 29. 'Three Kingdoms,' 32, 40. Thuggism, 198. Tibet, 7, 8, 26, 34, 42, 45, 46, 47, 62-64, 76, 86, 158-161, 164-166. Tibetan Sea, 62. Tibeto-Burman, 15. Ticounai, 65. Tien Chwang Tai, 258. Tien-Tsin, 13, 80,218 seq.,252,256. Tiflis, 72. Tiger Hunters, 251. Timor, 268. Timur (son 181, 198. of Ahmed Khan), Timur (Yuen Dynasty), 81. Tingbi, 142, 144. Tinghai, 213. Tiping, 78. Tippoo, 190. Tissa, 23. Tiumen, 137. Tobolsk, 137. Toghon, 88. Togrul Beg, 59. Tokiwa, 52. Toktamish, 90-91. Tokugawa Shogunate, 204-208, 240. Tokyo (Yedo), 37, 121, 205, 238, 241. Tong King (Tonquin), 7, 78, 80, 86, 172, 245-247, 272. Torgods, 160, 164. Tourane, 172, 245, Transoxiana, 59, 69, 93. Travancore, 102. Treaty Ports, 214. Trichinopolis, 179. Prince Tsai, 222. Tsi Dynasty (China), 41. East and West Tsin Dynasties (China), 41. Tsitang, 24. Tso Tsung Tang, 255. Tsukiji, 205. Tsungli Yamen, 222. Tsushima, 79, 258. Tughlak Dynasty (Delhi), 94-96. Tughlak Timur, 92. Tule, 67, 71, 74. Tulun, 140. Tumeds, 158. Tumen, 233. Tungche, 222, 255. Turanians, 4. Turfan, 99. Turkestan, 3, 4, 7, 86, 99, 160, 163, see also Kashgar, Bok- hara, etc. Turkomans, 110, 112, 232. Turks, 47, 55-61, 70, 92, 97, 110, 136, see also Kharezm, Otto- mans, Mamluks, Mongols, etc. UBASHA, 164. Uchh, 19. U Ugro-Samoyedes, 3. Ujjain, 30. Umako, 39. Universities, 39, 226, 260. Unyokan, 252. Uriang-Kadai, 76. Urusan, 124. Urus Khan, 90. Uzan Ada, 232. Uzbeg Khan, 90. Uzbegs, 108-109, 180. V VAIHARA HILL, 17. Vaisali, 17. 297 INDEX Vardhamana, 18. Vasco da Gama, 100-102. Vedas, 14. Velabhis, 30. Venice, 90, 117. Victoria Bay, 233. Vijaya, 22. Vijayanagar, 95, 109, 174, 182. Vikramaditya, 30. Vladimir, 70, 73, 91. Vladimir the Great, 70. Vladivostock, 233, 258. Volga, 88, 164. Vouti (Leang Dynasty), 41. Vouti (Han Dynasty), 30. Vouti (Tsin Dynasty), 40. WADE, 251. W Walid I., 55, 59. Walipou, 65. Wall-Builder, 12. Wandewash, 185. Wanganchi, 64. Wangchin, 87. Wang Dsaijin, 144. Wang Hwajun, 144. Wang-ke-che (Wahb abu Kabcha), 42. Wangken, 49. Wang Mang, 31. Wanli, 122, 128, 142. Ward, 221. Weddell, 134. Wei, 11, 32. Wei Hai Wei, 67, 257, 261. Arthur Wellesley, 191. Lord Wellesley, 190. Province Wellesley, 249. Wenti, 86. Westernisation of Japan, 242. White Horde, 91. William III., 172. Ft. William, (Calcutta), 182, 184. Woo Chow, 152. Wou, 45, 47. Wu King, 11. Wu Sangwei, 148 seq., 156-157. Wusung, 213. X XAVIER, 105, 117-118. Y YAJUR VEDA, 14. Yakouts, 138. Yakoutsk, 137. Yakub Beg, 255-256. Yakub Khan, 227. Yallysheff, 138. Yalu, 34, 50, 60, 257. Yamato, 37. Yamato-dake, 37. Yandabo, 197. Yangabad, 211. Yangchow, 65, 151. Yang Hoa, 142. Yangti, 41. Yang tsze, 77, 157, 213. Yao, 6. Yarkand, 29, 160, 163, 211, 256. Yaut Fa, 171. Yazdagird, 46. Yedo, see Tokyo. Yeh, 219. Yeho, 141. Yellow River, 8, 40, 65, 163. Yellow Temple (Peking), 167, 220. Yen, 33. Yenisei, 3, 136. Yeniseiek, 137. Yenta, 122. Yermak, 137. Yessen, 88. Yesukai, 66. Yezo, 35. Yokohama, 237-238. Yonglo, 86, 139. Yoritomo, 52-53. Yoshiaki, 119. Wou Wang, 9. Wu, 50. Yoshimitsu, II, * 298 INDEX Yoshinaka, 52. Yoshinobu, 240. Yunnan, 76, 86, 152, 156, 254. Yunnanfu, 255. Yoshitomo, 52. Yoshitsune, 52. Yu the Great, 8. Yuchi, 28. Yueh, 7. Yuen Dynasty (China), 76-82, 147. Yuen Yingtai, 142. Yulun, 66. Ngao, 152. gching, 162-163 Ꮓ Zafar Khan, 95. Zaman Shah, 179. Zamorin of Malabar, 102. Fort Zealandia, 130, 155. Zebu, 126. Zoological Society, 196. Zoroaster, 10, 14, 18, 46, (114). 299 List of Books Dr Wells Williams Middle Kingdom (2 vols.). Prof. Douglas. China (S.P.C.K.). D. C. Boulger's History of China (3 vols.). J. F. Davis. The Chinese. Chautauqua Text Books. No. 34. Asiatic History. China, Corea and Japan, by W. E. Griffis. Lord Charles Beresford. The Break-up of China. N. B. Dennis. The Folk Lore of China. Treaty Ports of China and Japan. Edited by N. B. Dennis. Articles by Dr Edkins, Dr Martin, Dr Bushell and others in Journals of the Peking Oriental Society. Sir William Hunter. A Brief History of the Indian Peoples. History of British India. Vol. I, etc. Mountstuart Elphinstone. History of India. Hugh Murray. History of British India to end of 1854. James Fergusson. History of Indian and Eastern Archi- tecture. W. E. Griffis. The Hermit Nation (Corea). Dr Ross. The Manchus. History of Corea. B. H. Chamberlain. Things Japanese. Manjiro Inagaki. Japan and the Pacific, and a Japanese View of the Eastern Question. Wm. Mesmy. Tungking. Sir John Bowring. Kingdom and People of Siam. Eugene Schuyler. Turkistan. Geo. Kennan. Siberia and the Exile System. 301 LIST OF BOOKS H. de Windt. Siberia as It is. E. G. Ravenstein. The Russians on the Amur. Josef Popowski. The Rival Powers in Central Asia. Hon. G. N. Curzon. Problems of the Far East. Japan, Corea, China. Story of the Nations Series. China. Prof. Douglas. Japan. Dr Murray. Vedic India. Z. A. Ragozin. Turkey. S. Lane Poole. The Saracens. A. Gilman. Russia. W. R. Morfill. Edward Gibbon. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Prof. Seeley. The Expansion of England. Canon Rawlinson. Manual of Ancient History. Allen and Myers. High Schools. Ancient History for Colleges and Lord Macaulay's Essays on Clive and Warren Hastings. Robert Mackenzie. The Nineteenth Century. Wm. Herbert. Attila and His Predecessors. E. H. Palmer. A History of the Jewish Nation (S.P.C.K.). Dr Legge. The Religions of China. Maj.-General Alexander. Confucius the Great Teacher. Non-Christian Religious Systems (S.P.C.K.). Confucianism and Taouism. Prof. Douglas. Buddhism in China. S. Beal. Buddhism. T. W. Rhys Davids. Hinduism. Prof. Monier Williams. Islam. T. W. H. Stobart. Islam as a Missionary Religion. C. R. Haines. R. G. Latham. The Varieties of Man. Abel Hovelacque. Science of Language. Edward Clodd. The Story of Primitive Man. Sir John Lubbock. Origin of Civilisation. Prehistoric Times. 302 LIST OF BOOKS The Dawn of History. Edited by C. F. Keary. Dr Martin. A Cycle of Cathay. Major Bower. Diary of a Journey across Tibet. E. F. Knight. Where Three Empires Meet. Archdeacon Gray. Journey Round the World. A. Tracy. Rambles through Japan without a Guide. S. J. Hickson. Naturalist in North Celebes. Clarke Abel. China in W. R. Carles. J. Doolittle. Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of 1816 and 1817. Life in Corea. Social Life of the Chinese. B. C. Henry. Lingnam or Interior Views of Southern China. A. Hosie. Three Years in Western China. Encyclopædia Britannica. Articles on China, India, the Mongols, Japan and about a hundred others. Dictionary of National Biography. Numerous Articles on Englishmen who have been connected with the East. The Cyclopædia of Names. Fisher Unwin. Chronicle and Directory for China, Corea, Japan, etc. Directory of the Anglican Church in the Far East. THE END 303 EDINBURGH COLSTON AND COY. LTD. PRINTERS зовж UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 3 9015 03193 2760 JUL 3 1911 Ar : 1 #