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THE POPULAR ENCYCLOPEDIA; BEING A GENERAL DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCEs, LITERATURE, BIOGRAPHY, HISTORY, A lº- AND # & & & º: “...... ... . . . **** -** .. ** * } ~ * * *** , **, - **, *, “…, , POLITICAL ECONOMY. “sº 4, *** REPRINTED FROM THE AMERICAN EDITION OF THE “ CONVERSATIONS LEXICON,” WITH CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS, So AS TO RENDER IT suitABLE To This COUNTRY, AND BRING IT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME, WITH D ISS E R T ATIONS O N T H E R IS F, AND PROGRESS OF LITE RATURE, BY SIR. D. K. SANDFORD, A. M. Oxon., D.C. L. ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE, - BY THOMAS THOMSON, M.D., F.R.S.L. & E., &c. &c. AND ON THE PROGRESS OF THE FINE ARTs, BY A L L A N C U N N IN G H A M, Esq. VOLUME II.—PART II. G L A S G O W: B L A C K I E & SON, 38, QUEEN STREET, AND 5, SOUTH COLLEGE STREET, EDINBURGH, A E. , P33 V, 4 .GLASGOW: PRINTED BY W. G. BLACKIE, & co., WILLAFIELD, * Şıxº~A" * † * *-a-sv, * º * ** l/~ & -52. | COTTON MANUFACTURE Fº ware ºr | ||||| H | III - - | milliºl|| H H i. | | | - | - | | - | | = || | tº: H || || || | | | | - ||| | || || | | | º | | || | || - || || || | || | || || | || || || | | | | | | | | | | | || | || || || | | | | | | | | | | | | | |*||E|| || | | I III| * H | | | | | | | H- HT | . | | | ||||||| |Hºt+H: | |H FTTH Hiſtºl H| |ill H H IETTH+=Hºº- | | -º- ºil-ºº: º ºr Tºº-T | HE- Hºmº-== º ºliº *_|| || | ||||||| TH Tie- =- - T | *i-lº -º-º-º- - Fºllº " - ſºm of Sculching wº / º: ºl. |*|| | º | - º | 7 | - | | * . - ===Nº. | | ºlº ( ºf lºsiºi Tºm | P- - HE |.S. iſ ſº "|| º --- º º |*||lº | ºl ||| | |H|| | | | | | | | - º | | | | | | | |/ Hill | V – N. W 2. 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A |TW= =#" b| - ºl- - F. –º TUBE FRAME scale ; of an inch to the Foot | - º * | | * = \s. | DTD - innºn - H Eleva |-E = - -i. - - – * - *= | - - | - - ET - - == = - HT |HºlliſDHIIII |a|||||||||||||||||| ºlº H. --~~ º - - - --- - º - - ºn-Hº- - | ſ - | | º m - | - | - =(e) | |N | | | || | "Iſ || || | | | | || | | | | | | - | | | Published by Blackie & Son Glasgow T º |T º | - | º Fºllºs - T T | | º º | | | It is --- - Drawn by wRosa. º Hº Page Missing in Original Volume Page Missing in Original Volume Published bººkies sºlº prºn º º º º | | | Published by Blackie & Sºn,Glasgow. a Aºz_17"a Y.Y. Pr - ºº ºrrº. a/, Aza wºn. DIVING APPARATUS. b b | º, º: -\º |- a * | Fly Z. minini milliºn milli llllllllllllllllllllllllll . - #| || |||| |º º__ - | - - - - * ºf - | | | || mºm === s = - Published by a --- º | . ; i. | ||||| ºr-º- | | | === | li *|| T ‘S’ | | *T 4. | ||||| |\ | w | E. - - | | | |||| || || |||||| H|| | | - | | º | | | | | | | º | : º #FF Wººd º fºll | | | | | | | | | || º |||}} | | Eſº | |||| - rºy. A Tº Ettºry |) RED GIN G MACHINE. - Published by Blackie & Son Glasgow. - - - - - - - - - - - - - º BO 75 70 º 60 - - | - - - 3. - 78. 77 º * Mary - - - - --- s º,0 - - S …Tallahass | | *// - w// ºf - | . ( sº. ºr ºl '!" (, al Y (/, / ( º | ºil- - - º s. - - - n sº. | Nº. º sº sº º º - J Aºyſ. 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Fe & - -º- ºn - º nºn- ". . . - **do - "Sºsſº H.A. - A N.A. ºr " -*. - Cºacarº sº -º-º-º-º-º-º-º: * - ---------nº---- dºº-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º: tºº-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º: --------- º ºut tº ºr -º-º- - - - | 85 - - R. lºgº - 13 º º - L O w ºf M º, * Sh 75 Longitude West 70 from Greenwich. G5 - --- -------- PUBLISHED BY BLACKLE & SON GLAS GOW. *3. CONGRESS—CONGRESS SPRING. which the judicial power given by the constitution extends. Congress has also power to declare the punishment of treason; but no attainder works any corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except for the life of the person attainted. The crime of treason is ex- pressly defined, by the constitution, to consist in levying war against the United States, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. Con- gress has also power to prescribe, by general laws, the manner in which the public acts, records, and ju- dicial proceedings of the states shall be proved, and the effect thereof, the constitution declaring that full faith and credit shall be given in each state to them. Congress has also power to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and also to admit new states into the union; and also to propose, by a majority of two-thirds of both houses, amendments to the constitution ; or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, to call a convention for proposing amendments. But such amendments, to be binding, must be ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the states, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode may be proposed by congress. But no state, without its consent, can be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. There are also certain restrictions upon the powers of Con- gress; the most material of which are, that the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be ºil. unless, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety require it. No bill of attainder, or ea post facto law, shall be passed. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration before taken. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. No preference shall be given, by any regula- tion of commerce or revenue, to the ports of one state over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one state be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of all receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever from any king, prince, or foreign state. These restrictions are found in the original constitu- tion. Certain other restrictions and rights are secured by amendments made soon after the constitution was adopted. Among the most material are these :-- Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assem- ble and petition the government for a redress of grievances. The right also is secured to the people to bear arms, to be #. from having soldiers quar- tered upon them in time of peace, or in war, in any other manner than prescribed by law :—to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects against unreasonable searches and seizures, and to be liable to search and seizure only upon warrants on probable cause supported by oath or affirma- tion; to answer for capital or otherwise infamous crimes only upon a presentment or indictment of a grand jury:-to be exempted from being twice put in jeopardy of life or limb for the same offence ; not to be compelled, in any criminal case, to be witness against themselves; nor to be deprived of life, liberty or property, without due process of law; nor to have 40 I private property, taken for public use, without just compensation. In criminal prosecutions, too, the ac- cused enjoys the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the state or district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law; and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favour; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy exceeds 20 dollars, the right of a trial by jury is preserved; and no fact tried by a jury is to be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. Excessive bail is not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel or unusual punishments inflicted. The enumeration in the con- stitution of certain rights is not to be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people; and the powers not delegated to the United States . by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the peo- ple. For other provisions of the constitution, see the titles Constitution (America), Courts of the United States, President of the United States, &c. &c.” CONGRESS SPRING ; a medicinal spring at Sa- ratoga, in the state of New York. Its water is pur- gative; its specific gravity, compared with pure water, is as 1012 to 1000; the taste very Saline, brisk, and pungent. Several chemists have given analyses of the water of this fountain ; but in their results exist some discrepancies. See Manual of Materia Medica, by Edwards and Vavasseur, Paris; translat ed 1829, Philad. Doctor Steel classes the Safatoga spring among the acidulous saline chalybeate. AC- cording to him, one gallon, just taken from the spring, contains the following ingredients, viz.:- Muriate of soda, . te 227.3 grs. Hydriodate of soda, 3 ** Carbonate of soda, e e & 19.21 << Carbonate of lime, © tº a 92.4 “ Carbonate of magnesia, 23.1 tº Oxide of iron, tº e & ge 5.39 tº Silica and alumine (probably), 0.6 tº Carbonic acid gas, Atmospheric, Doctor Steel observes, that iodine may exist in a mineral water, in the state of iodic or hydriodic acid, combined with either of the alkalies, potassa or Soda, forming the iodate or hydriodate of the alkali with which they are united. The following table contains the ingredients of the water of Congress spring, the public well at Ballston, and the Albany water, given by Mr Meade:– 316 cubic inches. 4 & & § { congress SPRING. Muriate of soda, 51# grs. 3 & & Carbonate of lime, . . . . . 13: Magnesia, is e e * 83 tº Muriate of lime, . § º * * . 1; * Muriate of magnesia, . e * 2# “ Oxide of iron, © a º e . . # “ Total, & e e 783 Carbonic acid gas, 33 cubic inches. # It will not be uninteresting to our readers if we add here a statement of the expenses of congress for the session of 1829–30. The expense of this session is set down, in the estimate of the treasury department, at 665,050 dollars (£149,634.) The session is estimated to last 175 days, or nearly six months; so that the pay of each member will amount to 1400 dollars, (£3.15), or 375,800 dollars (£84,555), for the whole number of members and delegates, besides the round sum of 120,000 dollars (£27,000) for travelling ex- penses. The stationery, fuel, printing, &c., for the senate, are estimated at 35,000 dollars, (£7,875,) and for the house of representatives, 100,000 dollars (£22,500.) It is worth while to compare these expenses with those of the cham- bers of France and the two houses in Britain. 2 C 402 PUBLIC W E I, L, BALLSTON. Muriate of soda, ë wº * º * 21 grs. Carbonate of lime, e * © & 4: “ Carbonate of magnesia • Muriate of lime, Muriate of magnesia, Oxide of iron, 5 & § { 3 & g l: # 6& e 4. # “ 34% & & Total, * @ 343 . 30% cubic inches. Carbonic acid gas, . e ALBANY WATER. Muriate of soda, & tº 59 grs Carbonate of soda, . 5 * * Carbonate of lime, . 4 * * Carbonate of magnesia, . 1; “ Carbonate of iron, . l tº Muriate of lime, e # “ Total, e Carbonic acid gas, CONGREVE, WILLIAM ; a celebrated British dramatist, was descended from an ancient English family, in the county of Stafford; born in 1670. His father held a command in the army. Young Con- greve was educated in Ireland, at the free school of Kilkenny, in the neighbourhood of which his father had been led in the course of service. From Kil- kenny he removed to Trinity college, Dublin, and thence to the Middle Temple, London, to prepare himself for the legal profession. Like many men who are placed in a similar situation, he soon desert- , ed the law, and abandoned himself to the pursuits of polite literature. At a very early age, he wrote a novel, entitled the Incognita, which is sprightly, in- tricate, and not natural. This was followed, at the age of twenty-one, by his comedy of the Old Bache- lor, pronounced by Dryden the greatest first play that he had ever beheld. Its success acquired for the author the patronage of lord Halifax, who im- mediately made him a commissioner for licensing hackney-coaches; soon after gave him a place in the pipe office; and finally conferred on him a very lucrative place in the customs. His next play, the Double Dealer, was not very successful in represen- tation ; but his third, the comedy of Love for Love, proved extremely popular. Not content with his fame in comedy, he now essayed tragedy; and in 1697, produced his Mourning Bride, the reception of which was extremely favourable. The composition of four such plays, before he had attained the age of twenty-eight, is a remarkable proof of early genius in a line of composition demanding great observation and experience. He soon after closed his dramatic, career, with the Way of the World, considered by many critics, as the most perfect of his comedies; but which was, notwithstanding, received so coldly, that he resentfully determined to relinquish a species of writing in which, upon the whole, he had been eminently successful. A masque, entitled the Judg- ment of Paris and Semile, an opera, the latter of which was neyer represented, close the list of his la- bours for the stage. He, however, continued to write occasional verses on public subjects; and, in 1710, published a collection of his plays and poems, which he dedicated to his early patron, lord Halifax, to whose person and party he remained attached in all fortunes. The remainder of the life of Congreve was spent in polished intercourse and literary lei- sure ; and amidst the fierce party contention which divided almost all the other wits of the day, he pur- sued a dignified neutrality, and was praised and com- plimented on both sides. Steele dedicated to him his Miscellanies, and Pope his translation of the Iliad. On the return of his friends to power, he re- ceived the additional sinecure of secretary to the island of Jamaica; and, thus rendered affluent, seemed desirous of dropping the character of a man of letters altogether. When Voltaire, in a visit, alluded to his writings, he affected to regard e º 7 1 26 cubic inches. CONGREVE. them as trifles beneath him, and hinted that he only expected to be visited as a gentleman. Voltaire re- plied, that, had he been merely a gentleman, he should never have been desirous of seeing him. His latter years were clouded with sickness and infirmity, and he died in January, 1728–9, in his sixtieth year, in London. Congreve stands high on the list of Brit- ish writers of comedy, for which distinction he is in- debted less to a lively and humorous delineation of natural character, than to a perpetual reciprocation of wit in his dialogue, united to originality of plot, and to new combinations of factitious manners. He drew little from common life; and if his portraits of Sharpers and coquettes—men without principle, and women without delicacy—are just portraitures of the fine gentlemen and ladies of the day, the reign of Charles II. must have operated most dreadfully on the national character. His Love for Love still occa- sionally appears; but none of the other pieces can be sufficiently pruned of their licentiousness for mo- dern representation. The Mourning Bride is well constructed; but the florid elevation of the language is in the highest degree unnatural. It has, how- ever, some fine poetic passages. The poetry of Con- #. is below mediocrity, with the exception of a ew songs and short effusions of gayety or satire. CONGREVE, SIR WILLIAM, bart. ; inventor of the rockets called by his name; was born in the county of Middlesex, England, in 1772; and co-operated ac- tively in the improvements introduced into the Bri- tish army by the duke of York. He was a member of parliament, general of artillery, inspector of the royal laboratory, &c. In 1816–17, he accompanied the grand prince Nicholas, now emperor of Russia, on his tour through England. In 1824, a company was formed for lighting the principal cities of Europe with gas, of which Congreve was at the head. He wrote an Elementary Treatise on the Mounting of Naval Ordnance (London, 1812), and a Description of the Hydro-Pheumatic Lock (London, 1815). He died at Toulouse, in France, May 16, 1828. The Con- greve rockets, first used in the attack of Boulogne, 1806, are of various dimensions, and are differently armed as they are intended for the field or for bom- bardment. Those of the first sort carry shells or case- shot ; the others are armed with a very combustible material, and are called carcass rockets. Their form is cylindrical, and they are composed of strong me- tallic cases. The sticks employed for regulating their flight are of different lengths, according to the size of the rocket. The carcass rockets are armed with strong iron, comical heads, pierced with holes, and containing a substance as hard and solid as iron itself, which, when once inflamed, is inextinguish- able, and scatters its burning particles in every direc- tion. When this substance is consumed, the ball ex- plodes like a grenade. The rocket is projected hori- Zontally, and whizzes loudly as it flies through the air. The ammunition is divided into three classes— heavy, medium, and light; the heavy including all above forty-two pounds, the medium, those from forty-two to twenty-four pounds, and the light from eighteen to six pounds inclusive. The British have used them in the field at Leipsic, at the passage of the Adour, &c., and for bombardment at the siege of Copenhagen, &c. They were at first considered a very important invention, but experience has shown that they are made to deviate from their direction by the wind and other causes, and that they sometimes recoil upon their employers. In the field, they are much less efficient than the common artillery, and, in sieges, do less injury than red-hot shot and bombs. Their composition is not so entirely a secret as is commonly supposed, since they have been imitated by the Austrian, Saxon, and other artillerists, and CONIC SECTIONS-CONNECTICUT. 403 have even received some improvements from the first Ilamed. CONIC SECTIONS. See Come. CONJUGATION. See Perb, Grammar, Language. CONJUNCTION, in astronomy. See Aspect. CONNANICUT, or CANONICUT ; an island be- longing to the state of Rhode Island, in Narraganset bay, on the west side of the island of Rhode island : eight miles long, about one in average breadth. It is a beautiful island, of a fertile soil, producing good crops of grass and grain. . It contains the town of Jamestown. On the South end, at a place called Beaver Tail, there is a light-house. CONNAUGHT; one of the four provinces of Ire- land. It is bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the river Shannon, on the north by the Atlantic and part of Ulster, and on the South by the province of Munster. It contains five coun- ties, Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, and Sligo; forty-two baronies, and 276 parishes, subject to the control of the archdiocese of Tuam. The surface is altogether mountainous, and the climate moist, though healthy. Coals and turf are raised in great abundance, and the number and magnitude of the lakes afford easy modes of transportation. The coast abounds with many spacious harbours. The inhabit- ants are said to preserve much of their Milesian origin to this day. Their religion is almost wholly Roman Catholic. CONNECTICUT; one of the United States of America; bounded N. by Massachusetts, E. by Rhode Island, S. by Long Island sound, and W. by New York; lon. 710 20 to 73° 15' W, ; lat. 41° to 42° 2' N. ; eighty-eight miles long, and about fifty-three in average breadth; square miles, 4828; population, in 1756, 130,611; in 1774, 197,365; in 1782, 209,150; in 1790, 237,946; in 1800, 251, 002; in 1810, 261,942; in 1820, 275,248 ; white males, 130,807, white females, 136,374; free coloured persons, 7870; slaves, 97; persons engaged in agriculture, 50,518; in manufactures, 17,541 ; in commerce, 3581; militia, in 1821, 22,100.* Hartford and New Haven are the seats of the state government. The legislature holds its sessions alternately in the two places. There are five incorporated cities in Connecticut—Hartford, New Haven, Middletown, New London and Nor- wich ; and three boroughs—Bridgeport, Stonington and Guilford. There are colleges at New Haven and Hartford; and at the latter place, also, an asylum for the education of the deaf and dumb. The state has a fund, which, in 1821, amounted to 1,858,094 dollars, the interest of which is appropriated to the support of schools. In no part of the world are the common and useful branches of education more gen: erally understood. The inhabitants are distinguished for their habits of industry and sobriety. The present constitution was framed in 1818. The legislature, styled the general assembly, is composed of a senate of twelve members, and a house of representatives, eighty towns sending each two representatives; the other towns founded since the charter of Charles II., in 1662, send one each. The governor, lieutenant- governor, senators, and representatives, are all cho- sen annually in April. The general assembly has one stated session in each year, on the first Wednes- day in May, and such others as they judge necessary. Judges of the supreme and superior courts hold their offices during good behaviour, but become disquali; fied at the age of seventy. No person is compelled to join, or support, or to be classed or associated with * According to a recent account, Connecticut contains 41,416 houses, 2,607,869 acres of land, 1597 mills, 1827° stores and shops, 402 distilleries, 1211 manufactories, 46 fisheries, 33,358 borses, asses, &c., 219,783 neat cattle, 331,058 sheep, 5048 carriages, &c., 21,369 clocks. any congregation, church, or religious association; but every person may be compelled to pay his pro- portion of the expenses of the Society to which he may belong ; yet he may separate himself from the society by leaving a written notice of his wish with the clerk of such society. The principal rivers are the Connecticut, Housat- onic, Thames, Farmington, and Naugatuck. The principal harbours are those of New London and New Haven. The face of the country is greatly di- versified by mountains, hills, and valleys. There are but few level tracts, and no considerable mountains. The greatest elevation is a range of small mountains on the west side of Connecticut river, being a con- tinuation of the Green mountains. The hills are generally of moderate size, and occur in quick suc cession, presenting to the traveller an ever-varying prospect. The soil is generally fertile, though inter. mixed with portions that are comparatively thin and barren, and the whole is well watered. It is gen. erally in a state of good cultivation, resembling, in many parts, a well-cultivated garden. The principal productions are Indian corn, rye, wheat in many parts, oats, barley, buck-wheat, flax in large quanti- ties, Some hemp, potatoes, pumpkins, turnips, pease, beans, &c. Orchards are very numerous, and cider is made for exportation. The state is, however, gen, erally better adapted to grazing than to tillage; and its fine meadows and pastures enable the farmers to feed great numbers of meat cattle, horses, and sheep. The quantity of butter and cheese made annually is great, and of well-known excellence. Beef and pork of Superior quality are also abundant. The state is generally laid out in small farms, from 50 to 300 and 400 acres. It is intersected by numerous roads, which are generally kept in good repair. Though exposed to the extremes of heat and cold, and to Sud- den changes of temperature, the country is very healthful. The north-west winds, which prevail dur- ing the winter, are keen, but the serenity of the sky, during the same season, makes amends, in some de- gree, for the severity of the weather. In the maritime towns, the weather is particularly variable, changing as the wind blows from sea or land; in the inland country, it is less so. The foreign trade of this state is principally with the West Indies; but its coasting trade is the most considerable. Its exports consist of beef, pork, cattle, horses, mules, butter, cheese, maize, rye, flax-seed, fish, Candles, and soap. Almost all the produce of the western part of the state is carried to New York. The manufacturing industry of Connecticut is greater, in proportion to the popu- lation, than that of any other state in the union, ex; cept Rhode Island. The manufactures consist of cotton and woollen goods, tin-ware, iron, gin, glass, paper, snuff, powder, leather, shoes, clocks, buttons, fire-arms, carriages, &c. Mines of different kinds have been found in this state, but, in general, they have not been wrought to any considerable extent, with the exception of iron ore, which abounds in Sa- lisbury and Kent, of an excellent quality, and is also found in other places. There is a lead mine on the Connecticut, two miles from Middletown, which was wrought during the revolutionary war. Copper mines have been discovered and opened in several places, but, having proved unprofitable, they have been neglected. , Marble is found in Washington, Milford, Érookfield, and New Milford; porcelain clay in New Milford and Cornwall; black lead in New Milford and Marlborough ; cobalt in Chatham ; and excellent free-stone in Chatham, Haddam, and East Hartford. There are several mineral springs, but none of much note, except those of Stafford and Suf- field. The one at Stafford is the most celebrated in | New England. 2 C 2 404 The constitutions of the colony on the banks of the Connecticut, of the years 1638 and 1650, and the most ancient record of the colony of New Haven (q.v.) are of no little historical interest, as indications of the deep feeling of the necessity of laws in the mind of man, and of the stern and Sombre religious spirit of the first settlers of those colonies. The chap- ter of capitall lawes, in the code of 1650, is almost verbally copied from the Mosaic law. It inflicts death, among other offences, for the worshipping of any other God but the Lord God; being a witch, that is consulting with a familiar spirit ; blas- pheming the name of God, the Father, Son, or Holy Ghost; adultery, rape, sodomy, stealing; bear- ing false witness, in order to take away another man's # ; cursing of parents by a child above 16; or on a son who manifests a stubborn and rebellious spirit after having been chastised by his parents, &c. The plantation covenant, recorded in the oldest record of the colony of New Haven, is one of the purest speci- mens of the contrat social of Rousseau. (See New Haven.) A small work, published in 1825 (Hartford, by Silas Andrus), affords a curious illustration of the character of the early settlers of Connecticut. The title is thus:–The Code of 1650, being a Compilation of the earliest Laws and Orders of the General Court of Connecticut; also the Constitution, or Civil Com- pact entered into and adopted by the Towns of Wind- sor, Hartford, and Wethersfield, in 1638–9: to which are added some Extracts from the Laws and Judicial Proceedings of New Haven colony, commonly call- ed Blue Laws. For the blue laws see New Haven. CONNECTICUT; the great river of New Eng- land. It has its source on the north border of New Hampshire, and separates New Hampshire from Ver- mont, passes through Massachusetts and Connecti- cut, and flows into Long Island sound, between Say- brook and Lime. Its general course is S. by W. till it reaches Middletown (Connecticut), after which it has a S. S. E. course to its mouth. Its whole length is 410 miles. It is navigable for vessels drawing 10 feet of water to Middletown, 36 miles ; for those drawing 8 feet, to Hartford, 50 miles; and by means of locks and canals, it has been rendered navigable to the Fifteen Mile falls, Bath (New Hampshire), 250 miles above Hartford. The boats which navigate the river carry from 12 to 20 tons in descending, and about two-thirds as much in returning. The falls which have been rendered passable by artificial means are those at Enfield (Connecticut), the Wille- mantic falls, those at South Hadley, Montague, Wal- pole, Plainfield and Lebanon. Of these, Bellows falls, at Walpole, are the most remarkable. Accord- ing to a survey made in 1824, the falls in the Con- necticut, between Hanover (New Hampshire) and |Fnfield (Connecticut), measure 371 feet. On these falls were locks measuring 218 feet, viz., at South Hadley, 50 feet; Nuter's falls 71 feet; Bellows falls, 48%; Waterqueechy, 12% ; and White river, 36 feet. The Connecticut flows through a fine country. The land bordering upon it is generally of an excellent quality; and there are upon its banks many beauti- ful and flourishing towns; among which are Haver- hill, Hanover, Charlestown, and Walpole, (New Hampshire;) Newbury, Windsor, and Brattleborough (Vermont); Greenfield, Hadley, Northampton, and Springfield (Massachusetts); Hartford, and Middle- town, &c. (Connecticut). CONON, an Athenian commander; was one of the generals who succeeded Alcibiades in the command of the fleet in the Peloponnesian war, and, engaging Callicratidas, was defeated; but afterwards gained a victory, in which the Spartan commander lost his life. On the subjugation of Athens, B. C. 405, he remained at Cyprus, forming plans for the restora- CONNECTICUT-CONQUEST, tion of the prosperity of his country. By persuading Artaxerxes, king of Persia, that the superiority of the Lacedaemonians was injurious to the safety of his dominions, and that they could only be checked by rendering the Athenians able to oppose them, he procured the command of a Persian fleet, B. C. 398, attacked the Spartan admiral Pisander near Cnidos, and, killing him with his own hand, defeated the Spar- tans, who josſ the greatest part of their fleet. The empire of the sea was immediately transferred, and the power of the Lacedæmonians in Asia Minor im- mediately ceased. Conon then returned to Attica, and employed his sailors and workmen in restoring the fortifications of Athens. He fell a prey to the hatred and envy of the Lacedæmonians, who, in a treaty of peace with the Persians, accused him of plotting the delivery of Æolia and Ionia to his coun- trymen, and of the misappropriation of the king's money and forces. He was accordingly apprehend- ed, and, as some writers relate, was put to death at Susa ; others say that he made his escape ; but the event is doubtful. CONQUEST. By conquest is now generally un- derstood the right over property acquired in war, or by superior force. In the feudal law, it had a some- what different sense, meaning any means of acquiring an estate out of the common course of inheritance. (2 Bl. Comm. 243.) The right of conquest has been deduced as an inference of natural law, from the right to weaken our enemy, to compel him to make compensation for injuries, to force him to an equitable peace, and to deter or prevent him from future injuries. It presupposes a just war. and a right of appropriation growing out of it. It is now generally admitted as a part of the law of nations. If a war be unjust, it is plain that it can receive no Sanction from the law of nature or the law of nations; and, therefore, no just acquisitions can arise from it. But who is to decide whether the war be just or un- just? If neutral nations attempt to decide the ques- tion without consent, they draw themselves into the quarrel, and may be involved in the war. The par- ties who wage war never avow that they are acting unjustly, and will not admit any Superior, who has a right to decide such questions for them. Nations claim a perfect equality and independence, and therefore will not submit to the decision of any other sovereign. The only answer, in a practical view, that can be given to the question is, that every free and sovereign state must decide for itself, whether it is carrying on a just war, and what are the duties re- quired of it in such a war. With a view to public safety and repose, neutral nations are understood to be bound to act upon certain rules, which may be called the voluntary law of nations. Among these rules the following are universally admitted:—1. that every regular war, as to its effects, is to be deem- ed, by neutral nations, just on both sides ; 2. that whatever is permitted to the one to do, in virtue of the state of war, is also permitted to the other; 3. that the acquisitions made by each belligerent in the war are to be held lawful, and to be respected ; 4. that Teutral nations are bound to impartiality in their con- duct to each of the belligerents. . . Many questions are discussed by jurists, in re. spect to the rights of conquest, some of which are of great nicety and subtilty. To enumerate them, without adverting to the various shades of opinion, would itself occupy a large discourse. We shall con- tent ourselves, therefore, by enumerating a few only of the principles, which, by the benignity of religion and the enlarged influence of knowledge and public opinion, are now generally received among civilized nations. Conquest may respect either persons or things. It may respect movable or immovable pro- CONQUEST. perty. It may apply to a whole nation, or only to a single town or province. It may be temporary or permanent. I. Conquest over persons. Persons captured in war are called prisoners of war, especially if they are taken in arms. If they are included in a mere sur- render of territory, without being in arms, they are commonly deemed subjects, for the time being, upon their submission. But the conqueror may, if he choose, consider all his enemies who surrender as prisoners of war, though it would be deemed a harsh and vindictive course.—The conqueror has no right to inflict upon prisoners of war any unnecessary injury or violence. He has no right to take away their lives, or subject them to cruel punishments. For- merly, they were sometimes removed into other coun- tries, or reduced to a state of slavery for life. But these would now be thought such extreme exercises of power, as no Christian sovereign ought to autho- rize. Christian sovereigns now usually keep prison- ers of war under guard, in suitable depots, until they are ransomed, or exchanged by cartel, or restored upon the return of peace. Upon their return to their own country, all such prisoners are, by the law of postliminy, as it is called, considered as redinte- grated to all their original rights and privileges. Officers in the public service are often released upon their parole of honour, by which they promise not to serve again in the war, until they are regularly ex- changed; and, if they remain in the country of the Conqueror, they are required to keep within certain limits, and report themselves at stated seasons to some proper officers. If they break their parole, they are universally esteemed infamous, and, if again taken in war, may be treated with great severity for their con- duct.—Where persons are not found in arms, but are included as inhabitants of a town or province which has surrendered, they are treated generally as subjects. The original allegiance to their own government is suspended, and they come under the implied obli- gation to the conqueror, to violate mone of his rights, to submit to his orders, and to demean themselves, for the time, as faithful subjects. Under such cir- cumstances, the conqueror generally leaves them in possession of their property, and exercises his power with moderation, usually quartering his troops upon them, levying taxes, and punishing them only for re- bellious or traitorous conduct.—Where the conquest is of a whole state (as, indeed, is true also of a town or Small territory), the conqueror has authority either to rule the inhabitants by their former laws, or to create a new form of government; or perhaps, in an extreme case, to dissolve their society. Where the conquest is temporary, while war rages, it is rare for the conqueror to change the laws. But where the conquest is permanent, or is recognized by a treaty of peace, the conqueror usually exercises his sove- reign power to annul or vary the laws, or form of government, according to his own pleasure. It is not usual, in modern times, to change the fundamental laws of a country, in cases of Conquest, unless under very pressing circumstances. But the sovereign power of the conqueror so to do is conceded by the law of nations. 2. Conquest of property. This may be of movable or immovable property. In the former case, it is com- monly called plunder, or booty, or prize of war, accord- ing to the circumstances under which it is taken. In the latter case, it merely follows from the rightofoccu- pation and superior force; and, therefore, the right of property continues no longer than such occupa- tion by superior force. The original proprietor is re- instated in his rights the moment the conquest is aban- doned.—As the law of nations allows the conqueror, in its utmost strictness, to appropriate to himself all 405 the property of his enemies, as soon as it is within his reach by conquest, the extent to which he shall exercise this harsh power must depend upon his own moderation and sense of justice. Neutral nations al- ways respect the title conferred by conquest, when it is already established; and enemies respect it only so far as it suits their own convenience and policy, when in the hands of enemies. But, when acquired by a neutral, they also respect the title ; for that which, by the law of nations, is lawfully acquired by an enemy, may be lawfully transferred to a neutral, and thus the latter may acquire a valid title. There is a distinction, in this respect, between movable and im- movable property. No conquest of the latter is esteemed absolute, so as to divest the original pro- prietor, unless confirmed by a treaty of peace, or an entire submission and extinction of the state to which it belongs, or by an acquiescence so long, that it amounts to an abandonment of all prior right and title. But movable property, which is capable of being conveyed from one country to another, be- comes the absolute right of the conquerors from the moment of conquest and complete possession. Movable property, captured in the heat of battle, or as an immediate result of victory, by an army on land, is often called booty or plunder. It belongs to the conquering sovereign, and portions of it, are usually distributed among the officers and soldiers. It seldom happens now, that any place which is captured is given up to indiscriminate plunder. Private property is, for the most part, respected; but public property is appropriated by the Sovereign to such purposes as he pleases. All property Cap- tured in war may be justly denominated prize. But, in a more limited sense, that is called prize property, which is acquired by capture and surrender upon land or upon the oceam, and is disposed of by Some formal proceedings, under the sovereign authority. Thus, in Britain and America, all property captured on the ocean, by public or private armed ships, is required to be brought into port, and condemned as prize by the lawful prize tribunals, before the captors acquire any rights under the capture; and, in cases of joint captures, by land and naval forces, a simi- lar proceeding is usually had.—A question is often discussed, at what time movable property Cap- tured is so completely in the power of the captors, as to give them a perfect title to it. Writers on the law of nations differ on the point; and the practice of nations also differs. Some writers hold that it should be carried to a place of safety; as, for in- stance, if captured at sea, that it should be carried into port (infra praesidia) before the title of the ori- ginal proprietor is divested. Others contend that it is sufficient that the property has remained in pos- session of the captors twenty-four hours. But, at present, in Britain and America at least, a sentence of condemnation is considered indispensable to divest the right of the original proprietor in movable pro- perty. Nevertheless, if a treaty of peace takes place between the belligerents, and no contrary provision is made, the actual state of things, in relation to captures, is deemed rightful; and neither can re- claim anything of the other on account of such captures, whether there has been a condemnation or not.—This question, with regard to the title to mov- able property, chiefly arises in cases of recapture, or other cases where the jus postliminii, or right upon repossession or...return of the property to the coun- try of the original proprietor, occurs. 3. Conquest of immovable property. It has been already observed that, of such property, the title by conquest is not deemed perfect or complete, unless recognized by a treaty of peace, or cession, by an extinction of the state, or by a long acquiescence, 406 amounting to an admission of right. The conqueror usually appropriates the public domains to himself, and generally leaves private property in possession of the original proprietors. Whenever there is a re-conquest or re-occupation by the original proprietors, their original right ye- turns by the jus posiliminii; and no intervening title, unless confirmed by treaty, or by some other mode, as above Stated, is recognized, although it may have passed into the hands of a neutral. Where a con- quest is temporary, it gives validity to titles to im- movable property only while it lasts. It merely sus- pends the rights of the former proprietors at the conqueror's choice; but these rights revive as soon as the Conquest is abandoned. The same thing is true as to the laws of the conquered territory, whe- ther it be a town, province, or state. The conqueror may, if he chooses, suspend all the common laws which regulate persons or property, during his oc- Cupation, and impose new ones; but the old laws revive as soon as the conquest is surrendered or abandoned. Acts, however, done during the pos- session by the conqueror, according to his laws, are considered as rightful for many purposes. Thus, if goods are imported into a conquered territory, with the consent of the conqueror, they are not liable to forfeiture afterwards, although prohibited by the laws of the country antecedent to the conquest. But the prohibitory laws revive, as soon as the territory is re- gained, by their own force, proprio vigore. In general, the laws of a conquered territory re- main in full force until they are altered by the con- queror. As soon as the conqueror receives the par- ties under his protection by capitulation or otherwise, they become his subjects; and they are entitled to have their persons and property secure from violation. The question is often asked, To whom do things taken in war belong P to the captors, or to their so- Vereign P , The true answer is, To the sovereign. Whatever is acquired in war is acquired by the state; and the manner in which the property so acquired shall be disposed of or distributed depends upon the orders of the state. In cases of prizes upon the ocean, it is usual for the state to distribute the pro- perty captured, after condemnation, as a bounty among the captors. CONRADIN of Suabia; the last of the imperial house of the Hohenstaufen (q.v.); son of Conrad IV., and grandson of the emperor Frederic II., from whom he inherited Naples and Sicily in 1254. Pope Clement IV. would not acknowledge him, because he was the son of a prince who died in excommuni- cation, and therefore conferred Sicily on Charles of Anjou, brother to Louis IX. (St Louis), king of France. As the administration of Charles occasion- ed great dissatisfaction, the people called in Con- ºradino, as he was termed by the Italians. He came, accompanied by his friend, Frederic, prince of Baden, with about 10,000 men, in 1267. At first, fortune seemed to favour him ; in 1268, he entered Rome at the head of his army; but, at Taglia- Cozzo, he was defeated, and, on his flight, be- trayed by Frangipani, and taken prisoner with his friend. Charles of Anjou, with the consent of the pope, ordered them to be beheaded, October 25, 1268, in the market place of Naples. Conradin was but sixteen years old. He died with admirable firm- ness, after having declared his relation, Peter of Ar- ragon, the heir of his realm. Peterſ, gained posses- Sion of Sicily in 1282, when the Sicilian vespers put an end to the French power in that country. It is Supposed that a German poem, a Minnelied, or love Song, the second in the Manessian collection, and bearing the name of king Conrad, was composed by him. He had inherited a love for the German lan- CONRADIN–CONSCRIPTION. guage and poetry from his grandfather Frederic II. See Frederic von Raumer’s Geschächte der Hohen- staufen und ihrer Zeit, 6 vols., Leipsic, 1825. CONRING, HERMANN, one of the greatest schol- ars of his time, was born at Norden, in East Friesland, in 1606. He survived an attack of the plague, and afterwards studied at Helmstadt and Leyden, devot- ing himself chiefly to theology and medicine; was appointed, in 1632, professor of philosophy at Helm- stadt, in 1636, professor of medicine, and re- mained in this city until his death in 1681. He was distinguished in almost every department of know- ledge, and was invited, in 1649, by the princess of East Friesland, to be her physician. In 1650, he re- ceived a similar invitation from Christina, queen of Sweden, and, in 1664, a pension from Louis XIV. At a later period, the title of a counsellor was confer- red on him by the kings of Denmark and Sweden and the elector of the Palatinate. He was then made professor of law. The German emperor likewise dis- tinguished him. From far and near his advice was sought in political and legal cases. He did a great deal for the history of the German em- pire, and for the improvement of German public law, in which he opened a new path. He wrote, it is true, no new system or compendium, but many treatises on particular subjects, highly serviceable for others, and educated many celebrated scholars. Such were his acquirements, and his confidence in his ability to ap- ply them, that he is said, on offering his hand to a lady, to have asked her whether she would like to have him a theologian, jurist, diplomatist, or phy- Sician. His complete works, with his biography, were published in 1730, in Brunswick, 6 vols., fol., by Goebel. They contain political, historical, medi- cal, philosophical, juridical, &c., treatises, besides letters and poems. CONSALVI, ERCOLE, cardinal and prime minister of pope Pius VII., was born, in 1757, at Toscanella. His views on the French revolution, publicly expres- Sed, gained him the favour of the aunts of Louis XVI., ard, through the influence of these ladies, he became auditor of the rota at Rome. In this capacity, he was Cnarged to have an eye upon the friends of the French, which he did with great strictness, and, on this ac- Count, was banished when the French entered Rome, in 1798. He afterwards became secretary of cardi- nal Chiaramonti, and, when his patron was elected pope (Pius VII.), became one of the first cardinals, and afterwards secretary of state. Consalvi was the person who concluded the famous concordate with Napoleon. In 1806, cardinal Casoni de Sarzana took his place, and Consalvi lived, like his master, in a kind of retirement. In 1814, he became papal minister at the Congress of Vienna, where he effect- ed the restoration of the marks and legations to the pope. In 1815, he conducted the negotiations with France; at the same time, he drew up the celebrat- ed edict motu proprio. Until the death of Pius VII., he remained at the head of all the political and ec- clesiastical affairs of the Roman government, and pos- sessed the fullest confidence of the pope. He gave a large sum to erect a monument to his master, and died in Rome, Jan. 24, 1824. CONSCRIPTION; the enlisting (enrolement, in French) of the inhabitants of a country capable of bearing arms, by a compulsory levy, at the pleasure of the government. It is distinguished from recruit- ing, or voluntary enlistment. The name is derived from the military constitution of ancient Rome. Every Roman citizen was obliged to serve as a sol- dier from his 17th to his 45th year; hence no re- cruiting, in the modern Sense of the word, took place, but only levying (delectus). According to law, four legions of infantry (6666 men composing one legion) CONSECRATION.—CONSERVATORY. two for each consul, were annually levied. The con- suls who, in the time of the republic, were always commanders of the army, announced every year, after the legionary tribunes were elected, by a herald or a written order, that a levy was to be made (milites cogere, colligere, scribere, conscribere). This was the proper conscription. All citizens capable of bearing arms were obliged, under penalty of losing their for- tune and liberty, to assemble in the Campus Martius, or near the capitol, where the consuls, seated in their curule chairs, made the levy by the assistance of the legionary tribunes. The consuls ordered such as they pleased to be cited out of each tribe, and every one was obliged to answer to his name, after which as many were chosen as were wanted. This lasted until the time of the emperors, when large armies were constantly required : these were general- ly recruited in the provinces. France, in the begin- ming of the revolution, declared it the duty and hon- our of every citizen to serve in the army of his coun- try. Every French citizen was born a soldier, and obliged to serve in the army from sixteen to forty years of age. From forty to sixty years, he belong- ed to the national guard. Every year, the young men of the military age were assembled, and distri- buted in the different military divisions. It was de- cided by lot who, among the able-bodied men of suit- able age, should take arms. In several states be- longing to the confederation of the Rhine, this mea- sure was imitated. But the constant wars under the imperial government, and the anticipation, in some cases, of the year of conscription, made this usage, though just and patriotic in its principle, so unpo- pular in France, that it was deemed necessary to abol- ish it in the charter (Charte constitutionnelle, art. 12). In the kingdom of Westphalia, and some other states of the confederation of the Rhine, a great part of the soldiers raised by conscription served so reluctantly, that the governments made parents, and even neigh- bours, answerable for their conduct. In a greater or less degree, however, conscription exists, at present, throughout the continent of Europe. In Prussia, every person, except the mediatised princes, and the sons of a widow who support her, &c., (the latter exceptions also existed in France) is obliged to serve three years in the standing army, from seventeen years of age to twenty-one; after this, he belongs to the militia (q.v.) until fifty. Those, however, who onter the army voluntarily, and pay for their equip- ment, serve but one year in the standing army; but only such persons as, on examination, appear to have a certain degree of education, are admitted. Theo- logical students are not exempted. In Austria, a person once enlisted must serve as long as the go- vernment pleases. Denmark is the only continental state in which the old principle, common in Europe before the French revolution, is kept up, that all per- sons born in cities, the sons of officers and noblemen, are exempted from service. In Britain and the United States, no citizen is obliged to serve in the standing army. The character, therefore, of the armies of these two countries is very different from that of those on the continent of Europe, the latter being of a decidedly superior quality. The advantage of obtaining superior soldiers, however, would never reconcile the people of these two countries to the system of compelling citizens to serve in the standing army. See Militia. - CONSECRATION ; the action by which a thing, animal, or person is destined for the Service of God or of the deities of paganism. It is opposed to pro- fanation and sacrilege. With the Romans, consecratio at first signified only dedication; but under the em- perors, it denoted deification (&ºrošíools.) , (See Apo- theosis.) The Greek and Roman Catholic churches 407 practise the consecration of things and persons, and ground the usage on numerous passages in the Old Testament and several in the New. That God Commanded consecration in the Old Testament is undeniable. (For the consecration of priests, see Priest.) In a narrower sense, the word consecration is particularly used for the act of the priest who cele- brates the mass, by which he is considered as changing the bread and wine, into the real body and blood of Christ. There was formerly a warm contest between the Greek and Roman Catholic churches on this subject; the former maintaining that, in the consecration of the elements, it was necessary not only to use the words of Christ, but to invoke the Holy Spirit; while the latter denied that any such invocation was required. At present the Greeks themselves are divided on this point. The Protes- tants do not consider consecration so important as the two Catholic sects do. (See the articles Sacra- ment and Transubstantiation.) The consecration of the pope is a ceremony which takes place immedi- ately after his election. CONSERVATORY (conservatorio, in Italian); a musical school intended for the scientific cultiva- tion of musical talents. They are sometimes pub- lic benevolent establishments, including hospitals, Supported by rich private persons. The pupils have board, lodging, clothing, and instruction gratis. Be- sides these pupils, others are received, who pay for their instruction; as, in Italy, the instruction in con- servatories is preferred to private teaching. In Naples, there were formerly three conservatories for boys; in Venice, four for girls. The most famous among the former was that of Santa Maria Loretto, established in 1537. Leo, Durante, Scarlatti, and Popora were teachers at this school; and, among the great musi- cians educated there, it counted the distinguished names of Traetta, Piccini, Sachini, Guglielmi, Anfossi, Paesiello, and others. There were generally more than 200 pupils from eight to ten years of age in the conservatory of Loretto; in the others, about half this number. Pupils were received from eight to twenty years of age. The period during which they obliged themselves to stay in the establish- ment was generally eight years. If, however, it was discovered that a pupil had no talents for music he was sent away. The conservatories in Venice were established in the same way. They were called ospedale della pietà, delle mendicanti, delle incurabili, and ospedaletto di San Giovanni e Paolo. Sacchini was for a long time the first instructor in the latter. The girls were obliged to conform to a very strict monastic kind of life, and used to re- main in the establishment till they were married. All instruments used in the public concerts were played here by girls and women. From these conservatories issued the great number of compo- sers, and male and female singers, who were met in every part of Europe. In Naples the conserva- tories are reduced to a single establishment, which in 1818, was removed to the former nunnery of St Sebastiano, and received the name real collegio di musica. In Milan, the viceroy Eugene established a conservatory in 1808, the direction of which was given to Asioli. It has fourteen professors and sixty pupils. in France, music was very little cul- tivated until Italian and German music were intro- duced by Piccini, Sacchini, Gluck, and others. The want of singers was now felt. The opera therefore established a musical school, and, in 1784, it was ele- wated into an école royale de chant et de déclamation. But it was not until the revolution that this institution acquired a high degree of importance. The want of musicians for fourteen armies was then felt, and in. | November, 1793, the convention decreed an institut 408 national de musique. In 1795, it received its final or- nization, and the name of conservatoire. It was intended for both sexes. 600 pupils from all the de- partments, were to be instructed there by 115 teachers. The expenses were fixed at 240,000 francs annually, but, in 1802, were limited to 100,000 francs, and, in consequence, the number of pupils and teachers was reduced. The instruction was divided between music and theatrical declamation. The most distinguished musicians have been instructors in this institution; of whom we need only mention Gossec, Méhul, Garat, Choron, Cherubini, Grétry, Boieldieu, Kreutzer, &c. Since its foundation, 2000 musicians and singers of both sexes have been edu- Caled there. At the same time, the conservatoire is the central point of all amateurs of music. The public performances of the pupils are the most splendid concerts in Paris. The execution of sym- phonies, in particular, is unparalleled. For al- most all branches of music, the conservatoire has published elementary works, or methods, as they are called, which are circulated and adopted through- out Europe. The institutions of the same name; in Vienna and Prague, are less important. The Conservatoire royal des Arts et Métiers, at Paris, is an establishment, which deserves the greatest praise, containing a collection of models of ma- chines, of manufactures, &c., and having profes- sors, who deliver lectures on mechanics, chemistry, and the processes used in manufacturing, to per- sons who wish to prepare themselves for pursuing mechanical arts and the business of manufacturing in a scientific way. The king selects the pupils. The foundation of this praiseworthy establishment was laid on the 19th Vendémiaire, year III. (Oct. 10, 1794), by the convention. After many impor- tant changes, it was finally organized by an ordi- nance, November 25, 1819. CONSERVATORY, in gardening, is a term gen- erally applied, by gardeners, to plant houses, in which the plants are raised in a bed or border without the use of pots. They are sometimes placed in the plea- sure ground, along with the other hot-houses, but more frequently attached to the mansion. The prin- ciples of their construction are, in all respects, the same as for the green-house, with the single difference of a pit or bed of earth being substituted for the stage, and a narrow border instead of surrounding flues. The power of admitting abundance of air, both by the sides and roof, is highly requisite both for the green-house and conservatory; but for the latter, it is desirable, in almost every case, that the roof, and even the glazed sides should be removable in summer. When the construction of the conser- vatory does not admit of this, the plants in a few years become etiolated, and naked below, and are no longer objects of beauty; but when the whole superstructure, excepting the north side, is remov- ed during summer, the influence of the rains, winds, dews, and the direct rays of the Sun, pro- duces a bushiness of form, closeness of foliage, and a vividness of colour, not attainable by any other means. Therefore a conservatory of any of the common forms, unless it be one devoted entirely to palms, ferns, scitamineae, or other similarly grow- ing plants, should always be so constructed as to admit of taking off the sashes of the roof and the front; and if it be a detached structure in the flower- garden, a plan that would admit of the removal of everything excepting the flues and the plants, would be the most suitable. CONSILIUM ABEUNDI (Latin; advice to de- part). There are two ways in Germany of dismissing a student from a university—the consilium abeundi, and the relegatio. The former is without any impu- { CONSERVATORY-CONSONANTS. tation on the morals of the student, and inflicted for youthful imprudences; the latter is the punishment of crimes. Since the late police regulations respect- ing the universities, the relegatio is an extremely severe punishment, as the German diet at Frankfort made a rule that no relegated student should be ad- mitted into another university, or be capable of any appointment by any German government. The par- don of the ruler, however, can generally be obtained by a change of conduct. - CONSISTORY (from the Latin consistorium). This word has been handed down from the time of the Roman emperors, particularly from the time of the emperor Adrian, who died A. D. 138. The emperors had a college of counsellors (consistoriani) about them, who were obliged to be always together consistere), in order to determine the cases which were brought before the emperor. The council was called consistorium sacrum, or consistorium principum. When the Roman hierarchy had become firmly esta- blished, and the bishops had acquired jurisdiction in many cases, they imitated the institutions and names appertaining to the secular power. Thus, down to the present time, the highest council of state, in the papal government, has been called consistory. The ordi- mary consistory of the pope assembles every week in the papal palace ; the extraordinary consistories are called together, by the pope, according as occasions arise for regulating anew the affairs of the church. These are called secret consistories. All political affairs of importance, the election of cardinals, archbishops, bishops, &c., are transacted in the consistory. Also in Protestant countries, on the European continent, consistories exist, which manage the affairs of the church as far as the monarch, the highest bishop, allows them. In Russia, they are little more thiſ the executive officers of the minister, through whom he manages the concerns of schools and churches. In Vienna, and in Paris, likewise, Protestant consistories exist, which are the highest Protestant ecclesiastical bodies in those countries. CONSOLS ; the abbreviation of consolidated, i.e., funds; the largest of the British funds, formed by the consolidation of different annuities, which had been severally formed into a capital. See Funds. CONSONANCE, if we deduce the definition of this word from its etymology, is the effect of two or more sounds heard at the same time; but its signifi- cation is generally confined to concording intervals. When the interval of a consonance is invariable, it is called perfect; and when it may be either major or minor, it is termed imperfect. CONSONANTS (from the Latin con-sonans, sounding at the same time); those letters which can- not be pronounced by themselves, but want the aid of vowels, as, b, k. This circumstance shows that the division of syllables into letters is artificial ; the natural division of languages being syllables, which, in fact, are the elementary sounds of which languages are composed. It deserves, however, the praise of great ingenuity; nay, we consider it as one of those grand and simple ideas, which, like the invention of the mode of writing numbers, in the way in which it is performed with the Arabic ciphers, as they are called, evince the most philosophical spirit in their conceivers. There does not, in most instances, exist, in reality, so clear a division between the con- sonants and vowels of a syllable, as we express by writing, but both form one inseparable sound. Con- Sonants are to be considered the more permanent part of language. The vowels are comparatively little regarded in etymology. Some nations, as, for instance, the Hebrews, did not even write the greater number of the vowels. We do not know of any language, in which all the five simple vowels—a (bar) CONSONANTS. e (where), i (bill), o (rode), w (push)—or the five vowel sounds, such as they exist in the continental lan- uages of Europe—are not found; but in respect to the consonants, languages differ very much : thus the German has no sound like the English th; the Eng- lish no German ch, both no Polish guttural l, &c. Some nations have an antipathy towards certain classes of consonants, and use them, either not at all, or seldom, as is the case, for instance, with several Indian tribes. The various interesting relations of consonants to vowels, and of the sounds and letters in the different idioms, have not yet received any Sa- tisfactory investigation, which is so much the more desirable, as general philology has attracted, in this age, the attention of several distinguished literati, both in Europe and this hemisphere. Mr P. Dupon- ceau has led the way, in these investigations, by his English Phonology, or an Essay towards an Analy- sis and Description of the component Sounds of the English Language, published in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, in Philadelphia, vol. i. new ser. 1818–a treatise which ranks with the other productions of the same acute, comprehen- sive, and learned mind. We have no doubt that the more the science of languages is developed, the more obvious will be the necessity of the study of phonology, by which Mr Duponceau denotes, in gene- ral, the knowledge of the sounds produced by the human voice. The various relations of consonants and vowels will then be investigated. In the Essay on Phonology,the learned inquirer says, “I have not been able to iscover, in the English language, more than twenty-nine pure elementary sounds, of which seven are vocal, twenty-one organic or consonant, and two are aspirations or spirits.” In a spelling-book of the Sandwich island language, printed at the Sandwich islands, there are but twelve consonants enumerated; c, f, g, q, s, w, z, y, not occurring in the language. In different languages, the consonants are classified in different ways: thus, in Greek, I, according to the organs, into Labials, 3, ºr, Ø, Æ, ; Linguals, 3, 7, 4, v, *, *, a ; Palatics, y, z, z: or, 2, according to their qualities, into Semi-vowels, 2, 2,w, g, called, also, li- quids, and the sibilant a and Mutes, which are Aspirates, p, x2, 4; Medials, 3, y, 3; Soft, ºr, z, r. It is a matter of the greatest interest to investigate the different relations of consonants, and to observe how they run into each other, both in words of the same language, and in words transferred from one lan- uage to another. This is of particular use in earning languages derived from Latin; for instance, the Latin f was pronounced, by the Spaniards, so soft, that it became an h, and at last vanished, in pro- nunciation, entirely, so that facere became haeer. The circumstance that consonants cannot be pro- nounced by themselves, and that there is an almost infinite variety of shades between the different con- Sonants, and even in the pronunciation of the same Consonant, is the reason that there is much more difference between different languages in regard to the pronunciation of consonants than that of vow- els, and that hardly an alphabet exists which provides for every organic sound or consonant by a proper let- ter; almost all contrive, in a conventional way, to designate certain consonants peculiar to them. It ought, however, not to be forgotten, that one reason of this circumstance is, that most nations did not in- vent the alphabet which they use, but received that 409 proved language. The Greek alphabet is one of the purest; we mean one which needs the fewest ar- tificial contrivances, in order to designate its various sounds, though it has to denote many. The alphabet now used for the Sandwich island language may, in- deed, be called purer; but it has to designate only a few elementary sounds, compared with the alphabets of other languages. We must direct our reader's at. tention to Mr John Pickering's Essay on a Uniform Orthography for the Indian Languages of North America, in the Transactions of the American Academy, and published by itself, Cambridge, Mass., 1820, according to which the missionaries have al- ready printed several works in those languages. See Orthography. The melodious sound or music of a language de- pends, in part, upon the proportion of the vowels to the consonants, a language becoming too hard if there are too many consonants. We do not say that the euphony of a language depends entirely on this proportion, and that it becomes the more melodious according as the proportion of vowels is greater. In this, as in everything else, much of the effect de- pends on the distribution of the elements. The pro- per disposition of the vowels and consonants, the happy mingling of the long and short, of the accent- ed and unaccented vowels, produces the sweet har- mony of a tongue. Many Savage idioms, which sound little better than the imarticulate cries of animals, are full of vowels; indeed, the cry of animals itself is mostly composed of vocal sounds. The euphony of a phrase is not unfrequently produced by a consonant, as in the way in which a hiatus is avoided in Greek. So, too, the French for the sake of euphony, sound the s in such connexion as les ans; while they omit sounding that letter in cases where it immediately precedes a consonant, as in les chevaua. There are several other things required to give harmony to the Sound of a language; for instance, the clear pro- nunciation of the vowels, if they are in abundance. It occurred to the writer, while preparing this ar- ticle, that it would lead to interesting results, if the proportion of the vowels and consonants, in the differ- ent languages, could be ascertained; but the con. clusions, to which he has been led by such investiga- tion as he has bestowed on the subject, are rather to be regarded as indications of what might be learned from more thorough inquiries, than as facts from which general deductions can be safely drawn. In making the comparison, passages have been taken from the popular poets of different countries. The different passages were in the same measure, or in measures very similar, so that the number of syllables in each would be very nearly the same. For Eng- lish, Italian, German, Portuguese, and Spanish, three stanzas have been taken from each of the following poems respectively—the beginning of Childe Harold, Jerusalem Delivered, the Dedication of Goethe prefix- ed to his Faust, the Luisiada of Camoens, and the Araucana ; for French, 24 lines of the beginning of the Thébaïde of Racine; for Greek (Ionic), 24 hex- ameters of the beginning of the Odyssey, and for the Attic dialect, the ieginning of the Anabasis ; and for Latin, the 24 first hexameters of Ovid. To give any- thing like accuracy to such investigations, it is obvious that the results ought to be taken both from prose and poetry, also from many different writers, and the lan- guage of conversation. In the beginning of the Odys- sey, the proportion of consonants to vowels was found to be as 3:4—a very melodious proportion, as will soon be seen. It ought, however, not to be forgot- ten, that the Greek language is full of diphthongs, which, in counting, were reckoned always as two ſet- ters, because, with regard to many, it is not easy to of a more cultivated nation, adapted to a more im- say whether they were pronounced altogether as one 410 sound, or, in some measure, as two, as the Italians pronounce paura. In the Attic dialect, the propor- tion of consonants to vowels was as 1 : 1:006. The difference, then, between the Ionic and Attic dialect, would be, Ionic, - 3: 4 = 1 : 1'333 . . . Attic, = 1 : 1-006 0°327 there would, therefore, be 0.327 more vowels in the lonic dialect—a very great difference. In Latin, the proportion of consonants to vowels was a little less than 6:5; and in Italian, as 11 : 10; Latin, -: | 2 : 1 Italian, - 1*I : 1 0° 1 which would show, if euphony depended altogether upon this proportion, that the Italian language had added one-tenth to the euphony of the Latin. The harmony of the Tuscan dialect was forcibly recalled to the mind of the writer, while counting the letters, by the great similarity in the number of letters in each verse: a very uniform distribution of vowels and consonants, therefore, exists in the beautiful and mu- sical tongue of Ariosto and Dante. In Spanish (not counting the h, and counting qu before e and i as one letter, ch before e and i in Italian having also been counted as one), the proportion of consonants to vow- els, was found to be a little less than 1-24 : 1, or a little more than 6 consonants to 5 vowels. It must be observed here, that the Italian language has very many double consonants, as opponer, volli, bellezza, &c., which in respect to euphony, ought to be count- ed only as one, because they are hardly heard as two, and only give a peculiar sound to the preceding vowel. But this would increase the proportion of vowels in the language very much, particularly in comparison with Spanish, which has thrown out al- most all the double consonants except ll. In Portu- guese, the consonants were to the vowels as I-02: 1. This shows a greater quantity of vowels in the Por- tuguese than in Spanish ; but the very frequent repe- tition of nasal sounds in the former deprives it of much of its musical character. Thus far the amount of vowels and consonants was pretty easily ascertain- ed, because the three languages of Latin descent, whose proportions have been given, have so far sim- plified their orthography, that little more is written than the pronunciation requires: but how different is the case in French and English! What a differ- ence, for instance, between the sounds and number of letters in the third verse of the Thébaïde, Mes yeuw depuis six mois etoient ouerts aua larmes, and in the first verse of Childe Harold, Oh thou, in Hellas deemed of heavenly birth ! In the specimens of these two languages, therefore, the writer first counted all the written consonants and vowels, and secondly, the consonantal and vocal sounds, reckoning all the simple sounds, as th, sh, in English, or eu, ou, in French, as one, and leaving out the letters not pronounced at all, as gh in though, or ent in etoient. The proportion ascertained by the first enumeration may be termed the orthographic pro- portion ; that ascertained by the second, the phonic proportion. The same way of counting was employ- ed on German, not because, in this idiom, so many letters are written, without being pronounced at all, as in the two preceding languages, but because, in German, many simple sounds, as eu, au, sch, ch, &c. are written with two characters. Every body sees, that such a distinction between the orthographic and phonic proportion was necessary, with a view to a comparison between these languages and those before mentioned. A Greek would have written CONSU)NANTS. though in this way, 60. In French, the orthographic proportion of the consonants to the vowels was found to be 1:27: I, and the phonic proportion, 1-34: 1; so that, in French, more vowels are written and not Separately pronounced, or not at all, than conson- ants. In English, the Orthographic proportion of the consonants to the vowels was 1:52: 1, and the phonic proportion, 1.51 : 1. In German, the ortho- graphic proportion of consonants to vowels was 1.64: l, and the phonic proportion, 1.67: 1. In Swedish, the proportion was 1.64: 1; in Dutch, the propor- tion was 1-5:1, or 3: 2. Of the two latter langua- ges, the orthographic proportion only is given, as the writer is not sufficiently acquainted with them to decide, in regard to some letters, whether they should be taken phonically as one or two. The lan- guage of the Sandwich islands exhibited the uncom- mon proportion of consonants to vowels 1 : 1-8, or five consonants to nine vowels. The great propor- tion of vowels to consonants, in this idiom, may be seen in the following line, in which it ought to be remembered that every letter is to be pronounced: —ºve? %. ża owkow ai mo 3 ſca olelo mai, i ka olelo a ke 2002. This line is taken from the missionary spelling-book above mentioned. In the Seneca Indian language, into which the Gospel of St Luke was translated by T. S. Harris, and published in New York, 1829, the proportion of the consonants to the vowels was as 1:18:1; in Chahta Indian, or the language of the Choctaws, the proportion was 1-2 : 1. The phonic proportion of consonants to vowels in Sanscrit was 1: 12: 1; in Malay, 1.33: 1; in Persian, 1.33:1; in Hebrew, 1-2 : 1, and in common Arabic, 1-08: 1. If we then arrange all these proportions in a tabular form, we shall have the following series:– Cons. Vowels. Sandwich islands . . 1 : 1.8 Ionic dial. . . 1 : I.333 Greek §. dial. . . I : I'006 Portuguese . & º 1.02 : 1 Common Arabic . I '08 : 1% Italian © I 1 : I Seneca Indians I* 18 : I Chahta Indians I 2 : 1 Sanscrit . . 1-2 : ** Latin - 1°2 : 1 - ? Hebrew 1-2 : i-S Spanish 1°24 : 1 Persian I ‘33 : I* Malay • * g e 1:33 : 14 French phonic prop. 1.34 : 1 orthographic 1.27 : 1 Dutch • - © tº 1.5 : 1 } English, phonic prop. 1:51 : 1 orthographic 1.52 : 1 Swedish . . . . . I-64 : 1 German, phonic prop. . 1-7 : 1 orthographic 1.64 : 1 It is easily seen, that, in the languages of Latin ori- gin, the proportion of consonants to vowels is much smaller than in the Teutonic idioms. To compare the proportions of consonants to vowels, in such dif- ferent families of languages; to show the proportions of the gutturals, labials, &c., of the different idioms; and, again, the proportion of these letters in the various families of languages, or according to the different parts of the earth to which they belong, as Asiatic, European, &c., languages, and many other calculations—might lead to very interesting conclu- sions. This branch of philology might be compared to the new department of stocchiometry in chemistry, * Those marked with k are counted phonically. # It will be observed that Sanscrit, Latin, and Hebrew appear to have the same proportion of consonants to vow- els; and yet what a total difference between the sounds or these languages 1 † The Malay is always considered as one of the sweetest and most Italian-like languages, though the proportion of letters would make it rank far behind the Italian. § The many gutturals in Dutch, render the language hard , though, according to the proportion only, it would be softer than English. CONSTABLE–CONSTANCE. which treats the proportions of the quantities of the elements in a state of neutralization or Solution—a branch of science which every day becomes more im- ortant, and which has been illustrated by the la- }. past and present, of a Berzelius, Klaproth, I}obereiner and others. CONSTABLE (French cometable, from the Latin womes stabuli, count of the stable). This office ex- isted as early as under the Roman emperors, and passed into the constitution of the Franks. After the major domus, or mayor of the palace, had become king, the comes stabuli became the first dignitary of the crown, the commander-in-chief of the armies, and the highest judge in military affairs. Under the last kings of the house of Valois, the connetable was of so much political influence, that Louis XIII., after the death of the connetable de Lesdiguieres, thought it best not to appoint a new one; and,in 1627, he abol- ished the office entirely. Napoleon re-established it as one of the high offices of the empire, but it vanished with his downfall. In England, there was formerly a lord high constable of England, an officer of the crown of the highest dignity. The office of constable appears to have been first granted by Wil- liam the Conqueror to Walter, earl of Gloucester; or, according to some, to William FitzOsborne, or Roger de Mortimer, and became hereditary in two different families, as annexed to the earldom of Hereford. After two centuries, Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, then constable, being attainted of high treason, the office was forfeited to the crown (13 Henry VIII.); since which time, lord high constables have been appointed only to officiate at Coronations, and on other solemn occasions. There is also the constable of the hundred, or high chief, or head con- stable, probably sprung from this office, and the con- stable of the village, or petty constable. The first statute which appears to notice the constable is 13 Edward I., ch. 6, wherein “it is ordained that in every hundred, or franchise, there shall be chosen two constables, to make view of armour,” &c.; since which period, the office has been familiarly known in law, and various duties have been imposed upon it by different statutes. Both the high and petty constables are chosen at the leet or term of the hundred, or by justices of the peace, and, in some places, by the parishioners of towns and parishes, according to an- cient and particular usage. The duties of constables are multifarious, but may be summed up under two heads—repressing felonies, and keeping the peace, of which they are the conservators by the common law; they are also bound to execute the precepts of sheriffs, justices of the peace, and coroners. In the United States, constables are town or city officers of the peace, with powers similar to those possessed by the constables of Great Britain. They are invested also with powers to execute civil as well as criminal process, and to levy executions. CONSTABLE, ARCHIBALD, an extensive Scottish bookseller and publisher, was the son of an overseer or land-steward on the estate of the earl of Kellie, in Fifeshire, and born there in 1774. After receiving an ordinary education, he was apprenticed, in 1788, to Mr Peter Hill, bookseller in Edinburgh, and early displayed a taste for collecting old, rare, and curious books. On the expiry of his apprenticeship, he married the daughter of Mr Willison, printer in Edin. burgh, and established himself as a bookseller in a small shop in the High street, from which afterwards emanated the Edinburgh Review, the poems of Sir Walter Scott, the Waverley Novels, the supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica, and many other valu- able works, which have intimately connected his name with the literature of his country. In 1810, he him- Self edited and published a “ Chronicle of Fife’ from 4 : 1 an old diary, and in 1822, he wrote a “Memoir of George Heriot,” illustrative of ‘The Fortunes of Nigel.” In 1823, he removed his establishment from the High street to a more modern part of the city; but j not been long there, before the public was Surprised by the announcement of the bankruptcy of his house. This unexpected and lamentable occur- rence involved, as is well known, Sir Walter Scott in overwhelming debts, and his life was sacrificed in gigantic efforts to overcome them. How a bookseller, filany of whose speculations were so pre-eminently suc- cessful, should so far miscalculate his business, as to end in such fatal bankruptcy, has never been very well explained; but much has been attributed to an original want of capital, and great personal extrava- gance, which kept him always behind the world, and obliged him often to make wasteful sacrifices in order to fulfill his engagements. To redeem his fortunes, he projected the well-known series of publications, issued under the name of “Constable's Miscellamy,” which has been the precursor of numerous other works of a similar character. He did not long survive his misfortunes, as he died on the 21st of July, 1827. Notwithstanding the unfortunate result of Mr Con- stable's business, it cannot be denied that he did much for the literature of his country, by his readiness in appreciating literary merit, his liberality in reward- ing it, and the Sagacity he displayed in bringing it in an acceptable manner before the public. In the introduction to the Fortunes of Nigel, he is com- mended as one “whose vigorous intellect and liberal ideas, had not only rendered his native country the mart of her own literature, but established there a court of letters, which commanded respect even from those most inclined to dissent from many of its can- ons.” CONSTANCE, LAKE of (or Boden See ; properly Bodman See, from the old castle of Bodman), lies be- tween Germany and Switzerland; is 10 leagues in its greatest length, and 3 in its greatest breadth, and # in its least. It is 368 fathoms in its greatest depth, and 1089 feet above the level of the sea. It is divid- ed into the Zell, or lower, and the Bregentz, or up- per lake. Several rivers flow into it; e. g. the Rhine, which enters it at Rheineck, and issues from it at Stein; also the Bregentz, the Argen, the Schus- sen, and four streams which bear the name of Aach. It contains the islands of Lindau, Reichenau, and Meinau. It has 73 kinds of marsh birds and water fowl, 20 kinds of shell fish, and 26 other fish, among which is the salmon trout. The trade and commerce of the lake are inconsiderable, on account of the falls of the Rhine at Schaffhausen, and are confined to grain, Salt, and lake wine, as the wine there made is called. The lake has not been frozen over since 1695. In 1824, steam-boat navigation was commenc- ed on this lake. CONSTANCE; capital of the Seekreis (Circle of the Lake), in the grand-duchy of Baden, on the lake of Constance, or Boden, where the Rhine unites the upper part of the lake with the lower; lat. 470 36' 10' N., and long. 9° 8' E. The city and its two sub- urbs, connected by a bridge over the Rhine, are par- tially fortified, and very extensive, considering the small number of inhabitants (4500). The ancient episcopal residence and the cathedral contain beauti- ful monuments of Gothic architecture. Constance is memorable for the council of 1414–18. The Ger- man emperor, the pope, 26 princes, 140 counts, more than 20 cardinals, 7 patriarchs, 20 archbishops, 91 bishops, 600 other clerical dignitaries and doctors, and about 4000 priests, were present at this ecclesias- tical assembly, which was occasioned by the divisions and contests about the affairs of the church. From | 1305–77, the popes had resided at Avignon; but, 412 in 1378, Gregory XI. removed the papal seat back to Rome. After his death, the French and Italian Cardinals could not agree upon a successor, and So each party chose its own candidate. This led to a Schism which lasted 40 years. Indeed, when the emperor Sigismund ascended the throne, in 1411 there were three popes, each of whom had anathematized the two others. (See Antipope). To put an end to these disorders, and to stop the diffusion of the doctrines of Huss, Sigismund went in person to Italy, France, Spain, and Eng- land, and (as the emperor Maximilian I. used to say in jest, performing the part of the beadle of the Roman empire) summoned a general council. The pretended heresies of Wickliffe and Huss were here condemned, and the latter, notwithstanding the as- surances of safety given him by the emperor, was burnt, July 6, 1415; and his friend and companion, Jerome of Prague, met the same cruel fate, May 30, 1416. After the ecclesiastical dignitaries supposed they had sufficiently checked the progress of heresy by these executions, they proceeded to depose the three popes—John XXII. (also called XXIII.), Gre- gory XII. and Benedict XIII. John, who was pre- sent at the council, was forced to consent to his own removal. He escaped, indeed, with the aid of Fred- eric, duke of Austria, who was excommunicated and put under the ban of the empire for rendering him assistance, and also lost a large part of his territory. But Frederic at last yielded, delivered John up to the council, and allowed him to be imprisoned. The former pope now gladly received the humbler office of a cardinal. Gregory XII. experienced a similar loss of dignity. Benedict XIII., in Spain, retained, for some time, the name of pope, but was little no- ticed. Martin V., on the contrary, was legally cho- sen to the chair of St Peter. Sigismund now thought a complete reformation might be effected in the af. fairs of the church; but, the new pope having retired to Italy against the emperor's will, the assembly was dissolved, and his object was not attained. It was first accomplished at the council of Basil (q. v.). Travellers are still shown the hall where the council assembled (now occupied as a market house); the chairs on which sat the emperor and the pope; the house where Huss was apprehended, and where his bust is still to be seen; his dungeon, in the Domi- nican monastery; his statue which serves as a Sup- port to the Cathedral; and, in the nave of the church, a brazen plate on the spot where the venerable mar- tyr listened to his sentence of death ; also the place, in a garden, where he was burnt. After the council had been convinced of the heresy of Huss, the bishop of Concordia read, in the cathedral, the sentence, that his books should first be burnt, and that he as a public and scandalous heretic, and an evil and obsti- mate man, should be disgracefully deprived of his priestly dignity, degraded, and excommunicated. The sentence was immediately executed, and began with the degradation. The bishop of Milan and six other bishops led Huss to a table where lay the garments used in the mass, and the other raiment of the priests: they clothed him with them, and, when he was in full dress, with the cup in his hand, the bish- ops once more called upon him to save his life and honour, and to abjure his opinions. Huss refused, and spoke to the people from the scaffold. After he had spoken, the bishops cried out to him, “Descend from the scaffold.” The bishop of Milan and another bishop now took the cup, saying, “O Huss, we take from thee the cup in which was offered the blood of Christ; thou are not worthy of him.” The other bishops then came forward, and each one took off some part of the priestly apparel with the same speech. When they had finished with the clothes they scraped his CONSTANCE—CONSTANT. shaven crown (to designate the removal of the oil of consecration). Finally, when the excommunication was ended, they placed upon his head a paper crown, nearly a yard high, with devils painted upon it, and the inscription, “John Huss, arch-heretic.” The bishops now turned to the emperor, and said, “ The holy council of Constance now surrenders to the temporal power and tribunal John Huss, who has no longer office or dignity in the church of God.” The emperor arose, and took Huss, and Said to the palatine Louis, “As we, dear cousin and prince, wear the temporal sword, take this John Huss and have him punished as becomes a heretic.” Louis laid down his princely ornaments, and led Huss to the provost of Constance, to whom he said, “ Upon the sentence of our graciºus lord, the Roman emperor, and our special order, take this master Huss, and burn him as a heretic.” The governor gave him to the execu- tioner and his attendants, and Huss was burnt. CONSTANCE FALCON, or PHAULKON; a political adventurer of the 17th century, whose pro- per name was Constantine. He was born in the is- land of Cephalonia. His mother was a Greek. At the age of twelve, he embarked for England, whence he went to the East Indies. Having gained some property in the service of the company, he under- took a trading voyage to the coast of Malabar. He was shipwrecked, and lost everything; but, meeting with an ambassador from the king of Siam to Persia, who had suffered the same misfortune, he procured a bark, and conveyed the Siamese envoy to his own country. The latter recommended Constance to the barcalon, or prime minister, who took him into his service. On the death of his master, the king offered him the same post, which he accordingly ac- cepted. He undertook the project of introducing Christianity among the Siamese, and induced the king of Siam to send an embassy to Louis XIV. The ambassadors died on their route; but the French monarch, hearing of the scheme, sent two envoys, with some Jesuits, to Siam. French troops were also introduced into the country. These circumstances aroused the jealousy of the native princes and no- bility, the result of which was a conspiracy, which terminated in the dethronement of the king, and the death of Constance, who was beheaded. CONSTANT DE REBECQUE, BENJAMIN DE ; born at Lausanne, 1767; one of the most distinguish- ed authors and greatest orators of the liberals or constitutionalists, on the left side of the French chamber of deputies, was the son of a general in the Dutch service, who had retired into his native Coun- try, French Switzerland, and commanded the militia there. The first of the family, Augustine Constant de Rebecque, quitted France, in 1605, and went to Geneva. The father of Benjamin Constant removed to France in 1791, and died, in 1812, a renaturalized citizen. The subject of this article was educated in the Carolinum, at Brunswick, in Germany, and, at a later period, studied the law. He subsequently ac- cepted employments at the court of Brunswick, which, however, did not confine him there, for he resided partly in Paris, and partly in the Pays de Vaux, until he finally fixed his residence entirely in France. At the beginning of the revolution, he went to Paris, conducted, before the council of the five hundred, the cause of his countrymen who had been expelled by the repeal of the edict of Nantes, * * The Catholic clergy have always maintained that they cannot be concerned in the shedding of blood, being prohib- ited from so doing by the ecclesiastical law, so that a priest cannot even be a surgeon. On this ground, the inquisition professes never to have taken away life: all that it has done is to deliver up culprits to be dealt with by the Secu- lar power. CONSTANT—CONSTANTINE. and soon distinguished himself by several works upon politics and revolutionary subjects, while he studied the German language and literature. With equal courage and sternmess of purpose, he opposed anar- chy and despotism. As a member of the cercle con- stitutionnel, in 1797, he distinguished himself by the fire of his orations. This caused his election to the office of tribune, in which capacity he brought every power into action, to maintain the equality of citizens, the representative system, the freedom of the press, and the regular administration of justice. He was the principal cause of the election of Talleyrand to the office of minister of foreign affairs, by the direc- tory, in 1797. His speeches. and writings rendered him odious to the first consul, and he was, conse- Quently, dismissed from his station in 1802. Simi- larity of sentiments connected him with madame de Stael; and with her he travelled through several countries, till Napoleon permitted him to return to Paris for a limited period. He then went to Got- tingen, and employed himself principally in the study of German literature, and in preparing a work on the history of different modes of worship. He again appeared at Paris in 1814, in the retinue of the crown-prince of Sweden, and publicly showed himself zealous for the cause of the Bourbons, par- ticularly in March, 1815, by the violent articles which he published in the Journal des Debats. Not- withstanding this, however, he suffered himself to be elected counsellor of state by Napoleon, and assisted in forming the constitution of the Champ de Mai, which he defended warmly in many writings. On the return of the king, he went to Brussels. In Nov., 1816, he was permitted to return to Paris. In 1819, he was elected a member of the chamber of deputies. As an orator, he was one of the most clear and eloquent defenders of the Charte, and of con- stitutional principles; but his voice was indistinct, and his speech hasty; nor had he that powerful ex- pression which carries away the hearer. In general, he wrote better than he spoke; but no one knew better how to take advantage of any opportunities afforded by his opponents. He united to great power of reasoning a fine irony, elegance of expres- Sion, and a pleasing style, so that, without over- stepping the bounds of courtesy, he entirely discom- fited his antagonists. He, had, also, the art of justly timing his enthusiasm. In his famous pamphlet Des Motifs qui ont dictó le Nouveau Projet de Loi sur les Elections (Paris, 1820), he considers the new law in the light of a victory of the party of the old mobility, not only over the liberals, but also over the interests of the nation, the ministry, and the king personally. He likewise gives vivid portraits of the duke Deca- Zes, and the duke de Richelieu. With this spirit, he was always one of the leading characters of the op- position; but his resistance to the administration be- came more violent and bitter since the laws of 1822, which deprived the jury of the right to decide in cases of offences against the press, and subjected periodicals to the strict surveillance of the police. His works are distinguished by perspicuity and liveliness of style, richness of imagination, and often by depth of know- ledge and acute observation, although mingled occa- Sionally with declamation, witticisms, and sophisms. As early as 1796, he excited attention by his work De la Force du Gouvernement actuel de la France, &c. again, in 1797, by Des Réactions Politiques, and Des Effets de la Terreur. In 1800, he wrote Suites de la Contre-Révolution de 1660 en Angleterre. The following essays are much esteemed :-De !’Esprit de Conquéte et de l’Usurpation dans leurs Rap- ports avec la Civilisatiºn Européenne (1814); De la Liberté des Brochures, des Pamphlets et des Jour- nawa, sous le Rapport de l'Intérét du Gouvernement 413 (1814); Réflewions sur les Constitutions, la Distribu- tion des Powvoirs, et les Garanties dans une Monarchie Constitutionnelle (1814); Observations sur le Discours prononcé par S. E. le Ministre de l'Intérieur en Faveur du Projet de Loi sur la Liberté de la Presse (1814); De la Responsibilité des Ministres (1815); Principes de Politique applicables a tous les Gouverne- mens représentatifs et particulièrement d la Constitu- tion actuelle de la France (1815); Principes du Droit Public (1815); and de la Religion considérée dans sa Source, ses Formes et ses Développemens (Paris, 1824, two vols.). Besides these works, he translated Schiller's PWallenstein into French, and adapted it for the stage. At the election of the chamber, in 1824 he was again chosen deputy, and, after a long dis- pute, at last acknowledged as a French citizen. He died at Paris, Dec. 8, 1830. A brother of Benjamin Jean Victor, baron of Constant de Rebecque, born at Geneva, Sept. 22, 1773, lieutenant-general in the service of the Netherlands, served in the French army till 1792, and, after 1793, under the hereditary prince of Orange, in the army of the allies: he en- tered the British service in 1795, and the Prussian service in 1798. The king of Prussia made him go- vernor to the prince of Orange in 1805, whom he accompanied in the campaign in Spain, in 1811. In 1814, he fought in the Netherlands, and distinguished himself at the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom, at Quatre- bras, and Waterloo. CONSTANTIA; a village of the colony of the cape of Good Hope, between Table bay and False bay, five leagues from the cape. . It is celebrated for its wine, made from vines brought originally from Persia and the Rhine; 200 tons of this wine are an- nually made. - CONSTANTINE. Caius Flavius Valerius Aure- lius Claudius Constantime, surnamed the Great, Son of the emperor Constantius Chlorus and of his wife Helena, was born A. D. 274. When Constantine's father was associated in the government by Diocletian, the son was retained at court as a hostage, but was educated with the greatest care. After Diocletian and Maximian Hercules had laid down the reins of government, Constantine fled to Britain, to his father, to escape the machinations of Galerius. After the death of his father, he was chosen emperor by the soldiery, in the year 306. Galerius was very unwil- ling to allow him the title of Augustus, and gave him that of Caesar only. Constantime, however, took possession of the countries which had been subject to his father, viz., Gaul, Spain, and Britain. He over- came the Franks, who had formerly overrun the territory of Gaul, made prisoners of two of their leaders, followed them over the Rhine, surprised and defeated them. He then directed his arms against Maxentius, who had joined Maximian against him. In the campaign in Italy, he saw, it is said, a flaming cross in the heavens, beneath the Sun, bearing the inscription, “In hoc signo vinces” (Under this sign thou shalt conquer). In the following night, Christ himself appeared to him, and commanded him to take for his standard an imitation of the fiery Cross which he had seen. He accordingly caused a stand- ard to be made in this form, which was called the labarum. Some days after this (Oct. 27, 312), he vanquished the army of Maxentius, under the walls of Rome, and drove it into the Tiber. He then en- tered the city in triumph, set at liberty all whom Maxentius had unjustly imprisoned, and pardoned all who had taken up arms against him. He was de- clared by the senate, chief, Augustus, and pontifea. maximus. In the year 313, together with Licinius, he published the memorable edict of toleration, in favour of the Christians. By this, every one was al- lowed to embrace the religion most agreeable to his 414 own mode of thinking, and all the property was re- stored to the Christians, that had been taken from them during the persecutions. They were also made eligible to public offices. This edict marks the pe— riod of the triumph of the cross and the downfall of paganism. Constantine had married his daughter to Licinius; but the latter, jealous of his fame, conceived a mortal hatred against him, which he displayed by persecut- ing the Christians. Both emperors took up arms, and met in Pannonia, A. D. 314. Constantine, Sur- rounded by bishops and priests, besought the assis- tance of the God of the Christians; while Licinius, calling upon his soothsayers and magicians, relied upon the protection of their gods. Licinius was de- feated, but the conqueror granted him peace. He, however, renewed hostilities, was vanquished again, taken prisoner, and put to death at Constantine's command. Thus the latter became, in 325, the sole head of the Eastern and Western empires. His first and chief cares were the establishment of peace and order, and the propagation of his religion. Many beneficial decrees were proclaimed by him. Among these were those which abolished all the establish- ments of debauchery, ordered the children of the poor to be supported at his expense, gave permission to complain of his officers, and promised that the emperor would not only hear complaints, but com- pensate the complainants for injuries received, when they were proved to exist. He diminished the land- taxes one quarter; and, to secure a fair distribution of them, he caused a new valuation of estates to be taken. The state treasury had always been enriched by the property of criminals; but Constantine spared the property of their wives, and ameliorated the con- dition of their children. Death in prison, he said, was a cruel punishment for the innocent, and an in- sufficient penalty for the guilty; he therefore ordered all trials of prisoners to take place at once. . He for- bade the use of unwholesome dungeons and oppres- sive chains. The reason which he assigned was, that it was his duty to secure the person of the ac- cused, but not to injure him. He gave leave to sick persons, widows, and orphans, to appeal from the lo- cal magistrates, and refused this privilege to their adversaries. It had been customary for the heirs of a person deceased to divide his slaves among them; Constantine forbade the separation, in these cases, of husbands from their wives, and of parents from their children. Divorces had been very common among the Romans, but he made them much more difficult. To the Christians he gave permission, not only to erect churches, but to be remunerated, for the cost of them, from his domains. Amidst all the cares of govern- ment and the occupations of war, he found leisure to assemble the council of Arles, to put an end to the schism of the Donatists. The oecumenical council, held at Nice, in Bithynia (q.v.), A. D. 325, was at- tended by him in person. Nov. 26, 329, he laid the foundations of a new capital of the empire, at Byzantium, upon the Bos- phorus, in Thrace. The city of Byzantium had been almost entirely destroyed by Severus; it was rebuilt by Constantine, enlarged, and adorned with Open Squares, fountains, a circus, and palaces, and called by his own name. Highly favoured by nature, it soon rivalled Rome herself. All the wealth of the empire was collected in the East; thither the nations poured their tribute and their trade; and Rome, the ancient mistress of the world, sunk from her supre- macy. Constantine divided the empire into four parts, which were governed by four pretorian pre- fects. These four parts contained thirteen dioceses, each under the direction of a vicar, and the dioceses comprised 117 provinces. Constantine contributed CONSTANTINE. to bring much evil on the empire by employing Iner- cenary troops to guard the frontiers; and the legions which had occupied the frontiers were dispersed in the provinces. Towards the close of his life, he favoured the Arians, to which he was induced by Eu- sebius of Nicomedia; and he even banished many Catholic bishops. In the year 337, he fell sick in the neighbourhood of Nicomedia, was baptized, and died after a reign of thirty-one years. Constantine committed a great political error in dividing his empire among his three sons, Constan- time, Constantius, and Constans. The condemnation of his son Crispus, who had been falsely accused by his stepmother of an attempt to seduce her, has al- ways been considered a stain on his memory. His zeal for Christianity appears to have been excited not less by the knowledge, that the religion which was embraced by a majority of the inhabitants of the Roman empire must prevail, and that, of course, the strength of the government must be increased by protecting it, than by a wish to apply its consoling powers to the relief of a heavy conscience. He has been accused of inordinate ambition, excessive liber- ality, and an Oriental fondness for parade. But he was brave at the head of his army, mild and indulgent in his intercourse with his subjects, the favourite of his people, the terror of his foes. In the year 332, he fought successfully against the Goths, who had already experienced his power. His eldest son gained many victories over them, and about 100,000 of the enemy perished by the sword or by hunger. Con- stantime made use of his advantages only to grant them a favourable peace, upon terms equally benefi- cial to himself. He took this opportunity to rid his empire of a disgraceful tribute, which his pre- decessors had paid to these barbarians, and to secure his frontier upon the Danube. The Sarmatians, who had been expelled their country by the slaves whom they had injudiciously armed against the Goths, and who took refuge in his dominions, he provided with lands in Thrace, Lesser Scythia, Macedonia, and in Italy itself. He even resolved, in his fifty. sixth year, and but a short time before his death, to take the field against the Persians. He was fond of the sciences, as well as of arms, and gave them his protection. He read much, and wrote nearly all his own letters. In Eusebius we find many proofs of his theological learning. Some of the martyrologists have counted him among the saints, and fix the 20th of May as his festival. The Greeks and Russians observe it upon the 21st of the same month. Among all the writers who have attempted to describe the character, influence, and policy of Constantine, Gib- bon, from the extent of his researches and the pro- ºnes of his views, appears to deserve the first place. CONSTANTINE, grand-prince of Russia. Con- stantine Caesarovitch Paulovitch, grand-prince of Russia, and second son of Paul I., was born May 9, 1779. The characteristics of this prince were, ac- tivity, energy, a rudeness often merging into bar- barity, and a degree of personal courage approachin to rashness. In 1799, he distinguished himself, under Suwarroff, both as a soldier and a commander. Paul I. bestowed upon him the title of Caesarovitch as a reward for his services. At Austerlitz, in 1805, he distinguished himself by his bravery, at the head of the guards, after he had been betrayed, by his courage into a too hasty advance. In 1812, 13 and 14, he attended his brother, the emperor Alexander, in all his campaigns. He appeared at the congress of Vienna, and received from the emperor Francis the command of a regiment of cuirassiers. He was afterwards employed in superintending the affairs of the new kingdom of Poland. He was then succes. CONSTANTINOPLE. sively made military governor and generalissimo of the Polish troops, and was present, as a deputy, at the last diet. He resided at Warsaw in great splendour. By an imperial ukase of April 2, 1820, he was divorced from his wife, a princess of Coburg, who resides in Switzerland, and was married, May 24, 1820, by permission of the emperor, to a Polish countess, Johanna Grudzinska, who was afterwards honoured with the title of princess of Lowicz, from the name of some estates in Masovia, which were bestowed upon the grand-prince. The title was to descend to the children of the marriage. Before this marriage took place, it was decreed, by an imperial ukase, that the children of princes, who were not re- lated, by the mother's side, to any reigning house, should have no claims to the throne of Russia, in any case whatever. The prince had, during the life- time of his brother Alexander, renounced, in a sacred instrument, dated January 14, 1822, all pretensions to the throne; notwithstanding which, he was pro- claimed emperor, at Petersburg, in his absence, upon the decease of his brother, in December, 1825; but, as he preferred to adhere to his renunciation, his younger brother, Nicholas, became successor to Alex- ander. The grand-prince was present at the coro- nation of his brother, at Moscow, September 3, 1826. In 1829, the grand-prince retired from War- saw, where he resided during the time of his admi- mistration, which had little to distinguish it but the rude and savage character of the ruler. He died in 1831, execrated by the Poles, as one of their most barbarous oppressors. Many of the actions recorded of him, prove him to have been a tyrannical monster of the worst description, whose very existence was an outrage to humanity. CONSTANTINE COLUMN. See Colºm?. CONSTANTINOPLE (the city of Constantine), called, by the Oriental nations, Constantinia, by the Turks, Istambol (that is, “ into the city”), by the Walachians and Bulgarians, Zaregrad (royal city,) was built, by Constantine the Great, on the site of the city of Byzantium, consecrated in the year 330, and named from him. It was, till the year 1453, the capital and residence of the emperors of the East, and has been, since that time, the capital of the Turk- ish Sultans. This city has been besieged twenty- four times, but taken only six, viz., by Alcibiades, Severus, Constantine, Dandolo, Michael Palaeologus, and Mohammed. It lies in the government of Ru- melia (Rom-Ili), on the sea of Marmora, and at the south-western opening of the Thracian Bosphorus, which separates Europe from Asia. It has a large and safe harbour. The interior of the city but ill corresponds to its noble amphitheatrical site and the splendour of its mosques and palaces. The streets are generally narrow, dirty, and steep ; the houses, for the most part, low, and built of mud and wood. There is also a great want of open squares. The largest open space is the Atmeidan, which is 250 Fº long, 150 broad, and ornamented with an obe- isk of granite sixty feet in height. The air is healthy; but from the neglect of all precautionary measures, the plague is brought hither from Egypt almost every year. The heat of Summer is moder- ated by the winds from the Black sea; but these winds often produce a change from heat to cold, which is very unpleasant. The city, without includ- ing the suburbs, is about eleven or twelve miles in circumference. Including the suburbs, it is about fifty-five miles in circuit. The number of inhabitants in the city and suburbs is estimated, by Von Ham- mer, at 630,000; by others at 1,000,000, of whom above 200,000 are Greeks, more than 40,000 Arme- nian Christians, more than 60,000 Jews, and the remainder Turks. Before the last great fire, the 415 city contained 80,000 houses. It has the form of a triangle, with bent sides and an obtuse angle at the vertex. This vertex borders upon the straits ; the north side upon the harbour, and the South upon the sea of Marmora. The west side, or base of the triangle, toward the main land, is the longest of the three sides, and extends, in a somewhat curved di- rection, from the harbour to the sea of Marmora upon the south. Upon the south-west side, not far from the sea, and within the wall, is the fortress of the Seven Towers. It included, at first seven, after- wards eight towers, of which four were destroyed by an earthquake in 1754, and one in 1766. In the quarter belonging to the arsenal, which extends around upon the outside of the fresh water canal, are reckoned some portions of the city, which extend towards Galata. They are comprehended under the name of Kassum Paschi. Here are the residence of the capudan pacha, the arsenal, the navy-yard, and the prison of the galleys. Not far from this is the bagmio, or prison of the royal slaves, who are cruelly kept at hard labour in this swampy place. The suburb of Galata, surrounded by a wall of its own, lies opposite the seraglio, upon the harbour or strait which comes from the Black sea, is of con- siderable size, contains many large houses, and is the residence of the European merchants. Still farther, upon the straits, lies Tophana, which derives its name from the cannon-foundery. Upon the heights op- posite Galata and Tophana lies the Suburb of Pera, in which the European ambassadors reside. Not far from this is the open burying-place, for Europeans; and upon the heights just by is the suburb of St Demetrius, inhabited, for the nost part, by Greeks. If you sail towards the Asiatic side, you find, in the middle of the strait, upon a rock, the town of Lean- der, which is a sort of fortress and prison, and has some cannon. Beyond it lies the suburb of Scutari, also of considerable magnitude. The fortifications of Constantinople are unimportant. A wall, provid- ed with 548 towers, partly of stone and partly of brick, which, towards the land is double, and bor- dered by a broad ditch, surrounds the whole city. Upon the side towards the land, there are six gates; upon the sea of Marmora, seven ; and as many as thirteen upon the harbour, besides numerous Smaller ones. The suburbs are, for the most part, open ; but some are surrounded by old walls, built by the Greeks and Genoese. The seraglio (q.v.) is a collection of dwellings, baths, mosques, kiosks, gardens, and groves of cy- press. To distinguish it from other palaces, the Turks call it the Padisha Serai, or imperial palace. To the south-east of it lie the gulf of Nice, the coast of Asia, and especially Scutari; towards the north- east, it borders upon the beautiful environs of the straits of Constantinople, and the suburbs of Tophana, Pera, Galata, which rise like terraces on the side of the hills opposite to it. With its garden, it forms a little city by itself, and is surrounded by a high wall, which is guarded by cannon upon the side towards the strait. These are discharged during the walks of the sultan, and also to celebrate occasions of public rejoicing. Single discharges indicate the execution of state-criminals within the walls of the seraglio. The chief entrance, before which, upon the one side, is the ancient church of St Sophia, and upon the other a beautiful fountain, opens into the first court, which is irregular and badly paved, having on, its left the mint, and on its right the stables, together with a large hospital, and other buildings. , Here is also the royal mosque. At the distance of about 1000 paces from the outer gate is the second. It is, like the first, guarded by capidschis, and leads to a second court smaller, but more elegant than the first. The 416 edifices by which it is surrounded are not of uniform height, and are, in part, ornamented with colonnades. In the centre of the court is a beautiful fountain, surrounded by cypresses and wild mulberry-trees. The most important of the edifices comprised in this court is the divan. To this succeeds the third court, into which Turks only are admitted, and none, even of these, who do not belong to the court, or are not especially commanded to enter. The ambassadors pass, by a covered way, from the divan to the audience-chamber of the Sultan, which is in the real seraglio, and is a splendid apartment, although small and dark. Beyond this lie the apartments of the sultan and his wives, into which it is not allowable to enter. large, irregular edifices, which are surmounted by cupolas covered with lead. Besides this chief serag- lio, there is also, in the centre of the city, the Eski Serai, built by Mohammed II., in which were shut up the wives and slaves of the deceased sultans, who have, however, the privilege of marrying and leaving it, if they choose. The number of dschamis and mosques in Con- stantinople amounts to near 509. Among these, the oldest and most remarkable is the former church of St Sophia, founded by Justinian, which is 270 feet in length by 240 in breadth. No one, who is not a Mussulman, can enter this without express permis- sion from the Sultan. The cupola is supported by pillars covered with marble. In this large cupola are comprehended eight half cupolas. The floor is covered with porphyry, verd antique, and rich car- pets. From without, nothing is discernible but unsightly masses of building; the various irregular parts, of which it is composed, have no symmetry; the dome alone rises majestically above it. The four minarets, which were added by Selim II., stand in- Sulated, have each a different form, and resemble Gothic towers. Next to this in celebrity, are the mosques of Selim, Mahmoud, Achmet, Soliman, the Sultana Valide, the mother of Mohammed VI., and of Bajazet. There are five thousand oratories (metscheds), be- sides twenty-three Greek, three Armenian, one Rus- sian, and nine Catholic churches; a hundred and thirty public baths; eleven academies, in which six- teen hundred young Turks are educated at the sultan's expense, for the future service of the church and state; five hundred and eighteen high establishments for education (medrese), in which the pupils are support- ed and instructed gratis; thirteen hundred children's schools; thirteen public libraries, none of which, however, contains over two thousand manuscripts, and none any printed books. There are, also, many Caravansaries; a mathematical and nautical school; Turkish, Jewish, and Armenian printing-offices; and a great number of coffee-houses, ornamented in the Chinese style, and singularly painted, in which peo- ple of all classes mix together, many of whom smoke, in the course of the day, thirty or forty pipes of to- bacco, and drink as many cups of coffee. To the class of public houses belong, also, the teriak-hane, or opium-booths, where the guests generally assemble in the evening, chew their pills of opium, drink a #. of cold water, and await the intoxicating re- SultS. The manufactories supply morocco, cotton, silk and linen cloths, carpets, harness, pocket-books, arms of various sorts (including bows and arrows), gold, sil- ver, and embroidery. There is no want of dyers, stone-cutters, jewellers, &c. Trade is chiefly con- ducted in the khans and bazars. In the latter are to be found merchants from all parts of the Turkish do- minions. These bazars are large buildings of stone. One of them, the Misr chartsche, or Egyptian market, Externally are discoverable a number of CONSTANTINOPI,E. contains goods from Cairo, especially minerals and medicines. Other parts of the bazar are occupied by jewellers and booksellers, who keep for sale Turkish, Persian, and Arabian manuscripts. For the most part, particular articles are to be found in particular streets: thus the dealers in furs, the shoe-makers, and pipe-makers, have each their own streets. The bazars will well repay the trouble of visiting them. Two kiayas, or deputies appointed by the govern- ment, superintend the management for these reposi- tories and answer for any theft or disorder committed within the walls. The buildings are all fire-proof, and are the places where wealthy Turks deposit their most valuable property, and where sales by auction are held. The charshis are used for the retail trade. These are an immense assemblage of shops, where all the different trades are carried on, and almost everything requisite for food, clothing, or furniture may be purchased. These endless rows of stalls along each side of a covered street, wherein the article is often manufactured as well as sold, present a constant succession of novel objects, and the motley throng of purchasers is amusing and instructive. Sedate Turks, saturnine Armenians, Swaggering Ghaliyonjis, saucy Franks, thin-bearded Arabs, Bos- tanjis, with their long-tailed scarlet caps, dervishes, crowned with dirty caps, that look like extinguishers, are all crowded together, each driving his own bar- gain, and betraying, by his physiognomy and gestures, the characteristics of his calling, nation, and habits. Constantinople, besides the many splendid and spacious mosques with which it is adorned, can boast of hospitals, alms-houses, schools, colleges, and pub- lic libraries, such as rival the rich institutions found- ed by the caliphs of Bagdad and Cairo, and surpass any now existing in other parts of the Mohammedan world. The Turkish baths contain three spacious apartments, one within the other, paved with marble, and lighted by holes in the dome above, filled with coloured glass. In the first chamber, the attendants prepare the linen and other articles used by the bathers. In the second, the visitors undress, and fasten round their waists a thin covering, which hangs down to the ankles. They then enter the third room with high wooden clogs on their feet, to pro- tect them from the floor, which is heated by vapours from a caldron immediately beneath. The bather is stretched out upon a raised platform, and the attendant scours him well with cold and warm water, rubbing him with keffeh-kil, a perfumed Sapoma- ceous earth. Numbers of persons of the same Sex bathe together, but everything is conducted with the strictest regard to decency. The baths are open to women in the day-time, and to men at night. A clean shirt is thrown over the bather, and a handker- chief tied round his head, as soon as his ablution is completed, and he returns into the antechamber, called jamekan (dressing-room), where a clean bed is ready for him, and he falls into a refreshing slumber, accompanied by a luxurious sensation of repose, hardly conceivable by those who have not enjoyed it. Shampooing is seldom used by the Turks, except in the case of women a short time after confinement. Among the European nations, the Italians, Russians, British, and French (all called Franks), are those which trade here the most. In the neighbourhood of Constantinople lies Eyoub, a town, or, rather a sub- urb of the city with a mosque, in which the new sultan is publicly guarded with his sword, which is equivalent to the ceremony of coronation; Buyuk- dere (q.v.), Belgrade, formerly the residence of the ambassadors in summer, but at present deserted, on account of the unwholesomeness of the air; Fondukli, with a fortress, Dulmach Backtsche (the garden of melons); an imperial palace, in the Chinese style : CONSTANTINOPLE –CONSTELLATIONS. Beschicktasch, a town containing an imperial sum- mer palace, a great part of which was burnt in 1816. See Dardanelles. CONSTANTINOPLE, GENERAL Councils of. These include the second, fifth, sixth, the Trullan, and the Seventh. The second was convoked by Theodo- sius the Great, in 381, to put down the enemies of the Nicene creed, who had already been restrained by his decrees. One hundred and fifty Oriental bishops, assembled for that purpose, condemned the Arians of all parties, together with other heretics, and, in a supplement to the creed above mentioned, they decided that equal honour was due to the Holy Ghost as to the Father and the Son, with a view of recalling to the orthodox faith the Macedonians or Pneumatomachists, who had adopted the Arian doc- trine of the inferiority of the Holy Spirit. These, however, separated from the council, and suffered themselves to be declared heretics. The ordinances of this council made the bishop of Constantinople next in rank to the bishop of Rome, and committed the disputes of their bishops to the decision of the emperor. Theodosius confirmed the decrees of the council, and even procured them authority in the West. The Greek church took advantage of the circumstance that the Holy Ghost was declared to proceed only from the Father, to set up their claims to orthodoxy against the Catholics. The fifth gen- eral council was held, by the emperor Justinian, in 533, to decide the dispute of the three chapters. The three chapters were three doctrines of the bishops Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret, and Ibas of Edessa, who were suspected of Nestorianism, and de- clared heretics by the council. The 165 bishops, nearly all from the East, who were assembled at this meeting, excluded from their communion the Roman bishop Virgilius, who would not unconditionally con- demn the three chapters, and with him many divines, even some that were dead; for example, Origen. They were only the contemptible organs of the senseless zeal of Justinian. The sixth council, held in 680, by the order of the emperor Constantine, in the Trullan palace (so called on account of its vault- ed roof), by 166 bishops, of whom the legate of the Roman bishop Agatho had the greatest influence, condemned the doctrines of the Monothelites, and declared their leaders heretics. Rejecting the Bible and reason, they proved, from the fathers, that Christ acted not merely with one will, which the Monothelites maintained, but with both a divine and a human will, in accordance with his two natures. Among the condemned Monothelites was Honorius, the predecessor of Agatho. As these two councils made no new ecclesiastical laws, the emperor Jus- tinian II., in 692, again summoned a general coun- eil, which, from the purpose of the meeting to sup- ply the defects of the fifth and sixth, was called the quiniseafa, and, because it was held again in the Trullan palace, the Trullan council; but it is not numbered among the councils of Constantinople. It confirmed the decrees of the previous sessions, and instituted rigid laws for the clergy; among them were those fixing the rank of the patriarchs and the permission of marriage to priests, which were so offen- sive to the Latin church, that she rejected all the decrees of this council; but in the Greek church, they are still valid. The seventh ecclesiastical coun- cil, which was held, in 754, in Constantinople, by 338 bishops, was not attended nor acknowledged by the Latin clergy. This council condemned, with the utmost severity, the worshippers of images, many of whom were put to death in consequence. But the decrees of this council lost all their validity in con- sequence of the subsequent decrees of the council of Nice in 787. See Iconoclasts. | Is 4.17 CONSTELLATIONS are the groups into which astronomers have divided the fixed stars, and which have received names for the convenience of descrip- tion and reference. The science of the constellations is called astrognosy. The division of the stars into groups was begun in ancient times. It is plain that the union of several stars into a constellation, to which the name of some animal, person, or inanimate object is given, must be entirely arbitrary, since the several points (the stars) may be united in a hundred different ways, just as imagination directs; for in- stance, the best known of all the constellations, the Great Bear, or the Wain, might just as well be made to represent a great variety of other things. It is enough that astronomers know what is meant by a certain constellation, so as to understand each other. The division of the heavens into constellations is like the division of a classic into pages and paragraphs. Ludwig Ideler's Untersuchung uber den Ursprung und die Bedeutung der Sternnamen, Berlin, 1809, (Inquiry into the Origin and Meaning of the Names of the Stars, by Louis Ideler), is a work of great interest. The ancient divisions of the constellations have been retained by the moderns, with the addition of such as have been newly discovered. When and where the first constellations were formed is not known. It is very probable that some of the most remarkable collections of stars, such as Charles's Wain, the Pleiades, Orion, &c., were formed into constellations, and had names given them, in very early ages. Some of them, by their different appear- ances, serve to mark out the different seasons of the year, and, on that account, were not only considered as a kind of directory for the commencement of ploughing, sowing, and other operations of husban- dry, but were also regarded as having a great influ- ence on the temperature of the air, and the fertility of the earth. Hence, from their being signs, point- ing out the times of the year when heat or cold, dryness or moisture, predominated, they were regard- ed as the causes of these states of the atmosphere. They were also imagined to have dominion over minerals, vegetables, and animals; over the complex- ions, constitutions, and even the dispositions of man- kind. This opinion obtained credit the more easily, as the sun, moon, planets, and stars were believed to be of a divine mature, insomuch that some persons conceived that they were inhabited by an inferior kind of deities, who governed their motions, and directed their influences; while others thought that they were animals, each of which had a living soul; and others again supposed that they were animated by a part of the substance of the Supreme Being. Each of these motions led mankind to pay them a sort of religious worship. The Egyptians divided the heavens into several regions, which they called the stations or mansions of their gods. They worshipped the heavenly bodies, and more especially the sun and moon, which they called their great gods, denominating the sun Osiris, and the moon Isis. They also imagined that they found in various animals some qualities corresponding to the motions, appearances, or influences of the sun, moon, and some of the stars; hence they were induc- ed not only to use those animals in their hieroglyphic representations of their deities, but also to pay them divine honours, and denominate the constellations from them. The Greeks, who learned astronomy of the Egyptians, retained several of their figures, as the ram, the bull, the dog, &c., but accommodated almost all of them to the fabulous history of their gods and heroes, whom they placed among the stars. The Bomans imitated them, and the poets of both na- tions have given us wild and romantic fables about the origin of the constellations, probably derived 2 D 418 from the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians, and trans- mitted, with some alterations, from them to the Greeks. Many of the figures that occur among our present constellations were originally Egyptian. The names which the Chinese and Japanese give to the groups of stars forming our constellations are very different from those which we have given them. Some Ara- bians, too, though they received their astronomy from the Greeks, changed the names of the constella- tions, from a superstitious notion, that it was unlaw- ful to draw any human figure. The zeal of some Christian philosophers has induced them to endea- vour to drive the heathen deities and heroes from the skies. The venerable Bede gave the names of the twelve apostles to the twelve signs of the zodiac. Judas Schillerius, in 1627, completed the reformation, and gave Scripture names to all the constellations in the heavens. Weigelius, professor of mathematics in the university of Jena, made a new order of con- stellations, converting the firmament into coelum heraldicum, and introducing the arms of all the prin- ces of Europe among the constellations. The more intelligent astronomers, however, never approved of Innovation, because it tended to introduce confusion into the Science. The old constellations, therefore, are, for the most part, still retained. Ptolemy enumerates, in his Almagest, forty-eight constellations, which are still called the Ptolemaean. They are the following:—1. The twelve signs of the Zodiac (see Ecliptic). 2. Twenty-one constellations found in the northern hemisphere—the Great Bear (Ursa Major, the Wain), the Little Bear (Ursa Mi- nor), Perseus, the Dragon, Cepheus, Cassiopeia, Andromeda, Pegasus, Equulus (Horse's Head), the Triangle, the Wagoner (Auriga), Bootes, the Nor- thern Crown (Corona Borealis), Ophiuchus, the Serpent (Serpentarius), Hercules, the Arrow (Sagitta), the Lyre, the Swan (Cygnus), the Dolphin, the Eagle (Aquila). 3. Fifteen constellations in the southern hemisphere—Orion, the Whale (Cetus), Eridanus, the Hare (Lepus), the Great Dog (Canis Major), the Little Dog (Canis Minor), Hydra, the Cup (Crater), the Crow (Corvus), the Centaur, the Wolf (Lupus), the Altar (Ara), the Southern Fish, (Piscis Australis), the Argo, the Southern Crown (Corona Australis). The poets of antiquity very ingeniously connected the most popular fables of mythology with the dif. ferent constellations. Some of the constellations, however, have been changed; and the ancients Sometimes even added new ones, such as the Hair of Berenice (Coma Berenices), and the Anti- mous. Much still remained for modern astrono- mers to do. Hevelius introduced the twelve follow- ing new constellations:–the Shield of Sobiesky, the Squirrel, Camelopardalus, the Sextant, the Grey- hounds, the Little Lion, the Lynx, the Fox and the Goose, the Lizard, the Little Triangle, Cerberus, and Mons Maenalus. When the Europeans began to navigate the southern hemisphere, many new stars of Course appeared to them, which they never had seen in Europe. Thus twelve new constellations were added in the 16th century—the Indians, Crane, Poenix, Fly, Southern Triangle, Bird of Paradise, eacock, American Goose, Hydrus or Water-Snake, Sword-Fish, Flying-Fish, Chamaeleon. Halley, in 1675, during his stay at St Helena, added the Royal Oak (Robur Carolinum); and Lacaille, in 1750, during his stay at the cape of Good Hope, added the four- teen following:—Officina Sculptoria, Fornax Chemi- ca, Horologium, Reticulus Rhomboidalis, Equuleus Pictorius, Caela Praxitelis, Pyxis Nautica, Octans Hadleianus, Machina Pneumatica, Circinus (the Compass), Quadra Euclidis, Telescope, Microscope, and Table Mountain. To these have been added Sons entertained respecting their genuineness. CONSTELLATIONS-CONSTITUTION. the Lapland Reindeer, the Hermit, the Brandenburg Sceptre, the Telescope of Herschel, the Shield of Poniatowsky or Taurus Poniatowsky, the Honour of Frederic, and others which cannot well be enumerat- ed here, as their names have not be sanctioned by all nations. Thus the professors of Leipsic made of a part of Orion the constellation of Napoleon, but it did not come into use. The different stars of a constella- tion are marked by Greek letters. Several have also particular names. They are also divided according to their apparent magnitude; thus we speak of stars of the first, second, and third, up to the sixth magiii- tude. The last are the smallest visible to the naked eye. One of the best works on astrognosy, in the present state of this science, is Bode's Anleitung zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels, 9th edition, Berlin, 1823, with plates (Guide to the Knowledge of the Starry Heavens). On the subject of the constella- tions and astrognosy of the ancients, the same author has written, in his Ptolemaeus, Beobachtung und Beschreibung der Gestirne, Berlin, 1795 (Ptolemy, Ob- servation and T)escription of the Stars). For infor- mation respecting celestial globes, see Globe. CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY ; the first conven- tion of the delegates of the French nation, (June 17, 1789), consisting of 600 deputies of the third estate, 300 of the nobility, and 300 of the clergy. The fa- mous Oath taken in the tennis Court, June 20, 1789, not to dissolve until they had completed a constitu- tion for their country, is one of the noblest displays of the spirit of a nation bent on recovering and secur- ing its liberty. See France. CONSTITUTION, in medicine; the general con- dition of the body, as evinced by the peculiarities in the performance of its functions: such are the pecu- liar predisposition to certain diseases, or liability of particular organs to disease, the varieties in diges- tion, in muscular power and motion, in sleep, in the appetite, &c. Some marked peculiarities of Constitu- tion are observed to be accompanied with certain ex- ternal characters, such as a particular colour and texture of the skin, and of the hair, and also with a peculiarity of form and disposition of mind; all of which have been observed from the earliest times, and divided into classes, and which received names, dur- ing the prevalence of the humoral pathology, that they still retain. See Temperament. CONSTITUTION, in the Roman church; a de- cree of the pope in matters of doctrine. In France, however, this name has been applied, by way of emi- mence, to the famous bull Unigemitus (q.v.). —Apos- tolic constitutions is the name given to a collection of ecclesiastical laws and regulations ascribed erroneous- ly to Clement I. Their contents betray a later origin. No father of the church, before the fourth century, mentions them. Epiphanius is the first who speaks of them as a genuine work of the apostles, though he does not pretend to deny the doubts which many #. The Trullan council (692) considered only part of them genuine, and rejected the collection on account of the interpolations which it had experienced. Most prob- ably this collection was made in the third century, and compounded of regulations already existing, and others invented by the compiler, who was an adver- sary of the Gnostics (q.v.). But it is still very dubious whether the collection, which we haveat present under the above name, is the same mentioned by the fathers of the church. The Catholics themselvesaresuspicious of them. The Dictionnaire de Théologie says of them, Ces Constitutions prétendues apostoliques sentent, dans plusieurs endroits, l'Arianisme, renferment des ana- chronismes et des opinions singuliéres sur plusieurs points de la religiöm. CONSTITUTION ; the fundamental law of a CONSTITUTION. state, whether it be a written instrument of a certain date, as that of the United States of America, or an aggregate of laws and usages which have been formed in the course of ages, like the English consti- tution. I. Constitutions, according to their origin or their fundamental principle, may be divided in three clas- ses:–1. those established by the Sovereign power; 2 those formed by contracts between nations and cer- tain individuals, whom they accept as sovereigns, on condition of their complying with the terms of the contract; 3. those formed by a compact between dif- ferent sovereign powers. 1. The first class may be again divided into, a. constitutions established by a free sovereign people for their own regulation—the only ones which rest on a just and philosophical basis (although such as are embraced in the other descriptions may be the best which circumstances will allow in given cases); of this sort are the constitutions of the United States; and, b. such as have been, in some instances, granted by the plenary power of absolute monarchs to their subjects, and which, in theory, are the voluntary gift of the beneficence of the ruler. These are called, by the French, constitutions octroyées, from octroyer, to grant. Such an instrument is the French Charte, which commences with the words Nous avons volon- tairement et par libre exercice de notre autorité royale accordé et accordons, fait concession et Octroid nos sw- jets, &c. - 2. The second great class of constitutions mention- ed above includes such as have been formed by a con- tract between the future ruler and the people. These are mutually binding on each party, as long as the other fulfills his duty. Such, in a great degree, is the British constitution. And a constitution octroyée partakes much of the nature of a compact, as soon as the people have sufficient spirit and Sense of justice to prevent it from being infringed or abolished, and, asserting the natural rights of men, whose rulers ex- ist only for their benefit, avow that they will submit to the government only as long as the government observes the constitution. In fact, a constitution octroyáe, in any case, can hardly be regarded other. wise than as a compact, proceeding, as it does, from the wants of the times and the demands of the peo- ple, and expressing the intention of the ruler to ob- serve certain rules, which these wants and demands rescribe. Where would be its value, how could it e regarded as a fundamental law, controlling the operations of the government, if it were liable to be abolished at any moment, at the pleasure of the Sove- reign? That the monarch acted from compulsion in granting the constitution, only proves that the character of the times made it indispensable.* 3. Some constitutions are compacts between sever- al sovereign powers. Such was the constitution of the German empire, and that of the United Provinces of Holland, and such is also the Swiss confederation. The constitution of the United States of America, al- though the different states call themselves sovereign, proceeded, in point of fact, from the people of the * If we consider strictly the origin of the two great divi- signs of constitutions, we shall find that they all recognize the sovereignty of the people. They are, as we have said, established either by the people themselves, or by a con- tract between the people and their future ruler, or are granted by the ruler. In the first case, the constitution is a direct emanation from their sovereign power. In the second case, it it no less so; for they confer the rights of sovereignty, which they could not do unless they possess- ed them. In the third case, the constitution, as we have said, is virtually a compact, and as such, recognizes the in- dependence of the contracting parties, and admits that the people collectively, have no superior. 419 United States collectively, as is apparent from the very beginning of the instrument, which is in these words —“We, the people of the United States,” and, not “We the states.” Moréover, it can escape no one's ob- servation, that the congress, established by this consti- tution, has rights and powers far exceeding those which other confederate, but entirely distinct govern- ments, are wont to allow each other, and that the Constitution, in short, unites all the states into one nation, the government being called, by all parties, the national government. Governments entirely and virtually distinct from each other never would, how- ever closely confederated, allow a government, par- ticularly a national government, to be established over themselves. It seems, therefore, that the con- stitution of the United States is more than a mere Compact between independent powers, yet less than the simple constitution of an undivided nation: it ought rather to be considered as forming one whole with the different constitutions of the states which have given up to the general government most of the rights of sovereignty, as that of making war and peace, coining, &c.; II. In regard to political principles, constitutions are, I. democratic, when the fundamental law guar- antees to every citizen equal rights, protection, and participation, direct or indirect, in the government, Such as the constitutions of the United States, and of Some cantons of Switzerland. 2. Aristocratic, when the constitution establishes privileged classes, as the nobility and clergy, and entrusts the government en- tirely to them, or allows them a very dispropor- tionate share in it. Such a constitution was that of Venice, and such still are those of some Swiss can- tons, for instance, Berne. 3. Of a mixed character. To this latter division belong some monarchical con- stitutions, which recognize the existence of a king whose power is modified by other branches of go- vernment, of a more or less popular cast. The Bri- tish constitution belongs to this division. It has of. ten been called a mixture of democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy; but, in fact, even the representation of the commons of this country is, in a great measure, under the control of the privileged orders, so that the government falls, almost entirely, into the hands of the aristocracy, and little of the democratic ele- ment is visible. III. The forms of government, established by the various constitutions, afford a ground of division im- portant in Some respects; and, lastly, IV. The principle on which a constitution estab- lishes the representation, or the way in which the people participate in the government, furnishes an important means of classification. I. Some allow the people to partake in the government, without repre- sentation. This is the case in several of the Small Swiss cantons, in which the whole people assemble and legislate. It is obvious that such a constitution can operate only where the number of citizens is very Small, and, even then, it will be, almost always, ob- *— # For more particular information respecting the consti- tution of the United States, we would refer the reader to the Federalist, the contemporaneous exposition of this instru- ment, by some of the ablest men concerned in its prepara- tion. The View of the Constitution of the United States of America, by William Rawle, Philadelphia, 1829, contains a lucid explanation of its principles, and has been, as well as the Federalist, introduced, as a text-book, into some of the American colleges. The Elementary Catechism of the Constitution of the United States, for the Use of Schools, by J. A. Stansbury, Boston, 1828, exhibits the principles of the constitution in a way to make them easily intelligible, and would prove a useful guide to a foreigner desirous of obtaining a general insight into the constitution, withotº the trouble of much study. 2 D 2 420 jectionable. 2. Some are of a representative cha- racter; that is, all the citizens do not take an imme- diate part in the government, but act by their repre- Sentatives. Constitutions of this sort, a. either establish a general and equal representation, as those of the United States; or, b. connect the right of repre- sentation with particular estates (q.v.) and corpora- tions. The term representative constitution is fre- quently applied exclusively to the former by way of eminence. A great desideratum, in these times of political agitation, is a digest of all constitutions, existing and abolished, a codew constitutionum, ex- hibiting all the different trials, which men have made, to provide for their permanent security and welfare. The only attempt to execute such a work, as far as our knowledge extends, has been made in the German language—Die Europaischen Constitutionen, Leipsic, 1817. Though a great part of Europe is engaged in a controversy on the subject of constitutions,—the people desiring them, the governments resisting their wishes, and mercenary writers attacking and vilifying their advocates, it would be ridiculous for us to enter into an argument in defence of the ad- vantage and necessity of constitutions, since every one of our readers is convinced that governments are instituted for the welfare of the people, and that the true welfare of nations is founded on liberty and jus- tice; that liberty and justice imply restraints on rulers, and the security of his rights to every citizen; and that constitutions, therefore, are essential, as as- signing to every branch of government its powers and limits, protecting against aggression, and ascer- taining the purposes for which the government ex- ists, and the rights which are guaranteed to every citizen. It would be, perhaps, interesting, if we had room enough, to give a sketch of the most celebrated arguments against constitutions ; but the substance of them amounts to this, that states and nations re- semble families, the monarchs being in the place of the fathers; that the father of a family has a divine right to govern his family, and provide for his chil- dren, according to his discretion, and that a family would be in a most unfortunate condition, in which, to prevent quarrels and discontent, the father should be obliged to refer to a written instrument, in which the duties of every member of the household were laid down. The comparison of a state to a family has come to our times, from ages when the princi- ples of government were little understood, when man- kind was gaining political experience at a dear rate, and when the whole subject of government was very ill defined, because the general principles of the subject, and the limitations of the different branches of the administration, were not, and perhaps could not be, clearly understood. . In regard to those times, the comparison of the head of a government to a father may be excused. But, in times like the pre- sent, after so much experience, so many examples, so much investigation into the nature of governments, nothing but narrow-minded prejudice, wilful perver- sion of reason, or degraded servility towards the powers that be, can lay down such a principle. No Comparison, probably, has done more mischief, than the one alluded to, because it perverts the very prin- ciples and elements of the subject to be elucidated. No two things can be more different than a state and a family. The ruling principle of the latter is love, forbearance, and kindness; that of the former, stern justice, strict' adherence to strict law. A family is composed of parents and children, bound together by the ties of natural affection, and the claim of infancy on manhood for protection. A state is composed of men comparatively unconnected and independent. Families are united by nature, states by law. How unfortunate would be a family in which every member CONSTITUTION. should insist, obstinately, on his right! How un- fortunate have been those nations, which have left everything to the kindness and paternal care of their rulers, and have not insisted, obstimately, on their rights In very many instances, nations have pre- pared the way for the loss of their liberties by the concessions into which they have been hurried by gratitude towards great national benefactors, or those whom they have regarded as such. The greatest favour that monarchs could bestow on na- tions, would be to give up all favour, to make jus- tice the only rule of government. V. To return to the subject of representative con- stitutions. These may be divided into, 1, such as are founded on the union of the feudal estates, the clergy, nobility, citizens, and peasantry; the two lat- ter of which derive their right of representation from the charters of the ancient corporations: 2, such as establish the right of a general representation, like the American constitution, and such as partake of both characters, like the British constitution. Those of the first class either originated in the feudal times, or have been since copied from such as did. Our li- mits will not allow us to discuss the mode in which the estates grew up, and became the basis of these constitutions. (See Estates.) We will only observe, that external causes exerted here their usual influence —that the feudal states were conglomerates of many heterogeneous bodies; and that it was reserved for later ages to unfold the true principles of government —to separate the essential from the unessential and injurious—to give stability, distinctness, and extent to principles before unsettled, indefinite, and limited in their operation. The causes, however, which pro- duced the feudal constitutions, and established the di- vision of estates, have almost all ceased to operate long ago. The art of printing, schools, post-offices, and an improved sense of justice, have long since overthrown the barrier which separated the different classes; and the constitutions which still remain, founded on the idea of estates, are equally unjust and inconsistent with the spirit of the age, conferring, as they do, ex- clusive privileges on particular classes, when almost all the causes for which they were originally granted have ceased. They are remnants of times long gone by, and are kept up either by the influence of the privileged aristocracy, or by the belief of particular nations, that circumstances are unfavourable to a ge- neral representation ; or they have been re-establish- ed for the express purpose of counteracting the spirit of the age. - The democratic tendency of time must be acknow- ledged by every calm and unprejudiced observer, whether he thinks the effect good or bad, whether he belongs to the class which deems all virtue and no- bleness of character concentrated in the middle ages, to those who believe in the final perfection of man- kind, or to those who have no standard for measuring the state of a nation but statistical tables. Every- thing, from the fashion of the dress to the cultivation of the intellect, tends to a democratic equality. The turning point in the history of constitutions, from whence we must date the introduction into practice of the principles of general representation, is the es- tablishment of the constitutions of the thirteen first United States. France then adopted the same prin- ciples; and it will remain for ever one of the most prominent facts in the history of Napoleon, that wherever he became completely master of a country, he abolished the estates, and, of course, bondage and feudal services, and established constitutions on the principle of general representation, although these, it is true, were not allowed to act freely. Europe, un- til the downfall of Napoleon, was continually involv- ed in wars, into which the French emperor declared CONSTITUTION. that Britain continually forced him. Whatever may have been the true cause of these continual conflicts, it cannot be denied, that, if the tumult of the strife had not prevented the operation of the just principles which these constitutions contained, they would have been of essential benefit: they would, at least, have formed a basis for further political developments; and furnished a much more reasonable prospect of a speedy attainment of the great objects of political so- ciety, than the constitutions, if they deserve the name, which the conquerors of Napoleon have established in, or rather imposed on, different countries; e. g. the provincial estates which Prussia has established in her different districts, and the political organization which the house of Austria has introduced into the Tyrol, which had sacrificed itself in a bloody struggle for that imperial family. These mock constitutions, to- gether with the right of armed intervention, pro- claimed by the holy alliance, are so entirely incon- sistent with the spirit of the age, that they afford no hopes of improvement except by their entire abolition. Napoleon, as one of the emperor's nearest connex- ions, who stood highest in his confidence, said to us, was essentially, by conviction and natural inclination, the enemy of feudalism, and the sincere friend of the principles of equal liberty. It must always be re- membered, that he abolished everywhere, by one of his first acts, wherever his power reached, the feudal Services, estates, and constitutions, founded on the old corporations, which had become useless or ob- noxious, and were, with very few exceptions, much more unpopular than the actual rulers. We shall now give a very condensed view of the existing con- Stitutions. Europe. I. Constitutions founded on the feudal estates of the middle ages, and on the system of corporations, continue to exist, 1. in the Austrian monarchy. In the arch-duchy of Lower Austria, in Stiria and Carinthia, in Bohemia, Moravia, and, Since 1817, also in Galicia and Lodomeria with Bukowime, the estates are still kept up, comprising the four orders—the clergy, nobility, gentry (Ritterstand), and citizens; the latter being represented by the magistrates of the royal cities. In the Ty. rol, we find again, since March 24, 1816, the estates of peasants, citizens, mobility, gentry, and clergy. But, notwithstanding their gallant struggle against the French and Bavarians, they have not even received from Austria the right of a voice in the imposition of their own taxes, which formerly belonged to them —but the constitution allows them the right of making repre- Sentations, in the name of the country, to the emperor In the imperial part of Silesia, the estates are composed only of the dukes and princes, with the lords (Standesherren), and gentry (Ritterschaft), who are immediately under the emperor. In the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, the estates are founded, accord- ing to the constitution of April 24, 1815, on the system of cor- porations. Two central congregations exist at Milan and Ve- nice : the different provincial congregations in the Lombardic part of the kingdom consist of deputies appointed by the king; in the Venetian part, of deputies elected by the central congré. gation and the #. (the Austrian designation of the go- vernment.) All these deputies are from among the noble and not noble landed proprietors, and from the royal cities, under the sway of the imperial governors or delegates. The privileges of these estates consist almost solely in the right of granting the royal postulates, and in the distribution and collection of the taxes. Some have also the right of advising the government, and that of petitioning. In Hungary, the four orders of the estates -the high clergy, the barons and magnates, the gentry (Rit- terschaft), and royal free cities—have important privileges. (See Hungary.) The mobility or gentry and the cities elect their deputies and give them instructions. In Transylvania, or Siebenbwergen, the grand-prince exercises certain rights of sove- reignty, assisted by the representatives of the three nations (the Hungarians, Szeklers, and Saxons) whom he convokes. These representatives consist partly of royal officers, partly of deputies appointed by the regent, or elected by the corporations, 2. Sardinian monarchy. On the island of Sardinia, the clergy, mobility, and deputies of the cities and boroughs exercise, to gether with the king the right of legislating and taxing. In the kingdom of Sweden, there exist, according to the latest constitution of June 7, 1809, the old estates, comprising four or- ders-the nobility, clergy, citizens, and crown-peasants. The jiet has the right of legislation and taxation, and the superim- tendence of the finances, bank, and mint. The king has an un- conditional veto. In the kingdom of Saxony, the estates are composed of three orders. The first order consists of the higher *lergy, or prelates, princes, counts, and lords, with the dépu- ties of the university of Leipsic. The second order embraces the gentry, to which, since 1820, twenty-nine deputies also have 421 been joined from the possessors of noble estates. # The third order consists of deputies from the magistrates of the cities. The business of granting and fixing the taxes, and of receiving the accounts connected therewith, belongs to the diet : import. ant laws of a general character must also be laid before them for consideration. A similar constitution exists in the duchy of Saxe-Gotha, in which the legislative body consists of the estates of the counts, the gentry (Ritterschaft), and the citizens. Each of these estates has only one vote. I he principality of Alten- burg, has two estates—the gentry and the citizens. In the kingdom of Hanover, the estates were, according to a decree of Dec. 7, 1819, divided into two chambers. The old system of corporations was retained. (See Hanover.) In the principality of Liechtenstein, a constitution after the Austrian fashion was introduced, Nov. 9, 1818. The estates consist of the clergy and the deputies from the communities, appointed by the magis- trates. Their power is simply to make propositions. . In the two grand-duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and M. Strelitz, the estates consist of the Ritterschaft and deputies of the corpo- rations. They have very great privileges, which the former particularly maintains with great strictness. In the principal- ities of Reuss, the old estates also exist, as, likewise, in the Danish duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg. The republic of the seven Ionian islands was erected March 21, 1800, and governed ac- Cording to the aristocratic constitution, established, under Rus- sian influence, Dec. 6, 1803. When the republic was placed under the protection of Great Britain, the lord-commissioner, Maitland, dissolved the senate, which had existed at Corfu since 1803, and established a new constitution Jan. 1, 1818, according to which the legislative body consists of deputies of the nobility, and the Senate is chosen from among the legislative body. II. The constitution of Great Britain is founded jointly upon the old system of corporations—that of estates, and that of a general national representation. See Britain. III. A mational representation, in the full sense of the phrase, was first established in the year 17S7, by the constitution of the United States of America. The reader will find, towards the end of this article, some account of the constitutions of the Se- veral states which compose this union. Constitutions in which the aristocratic element was excluded were soon after estab- lished in France. Several other states then shook off the ſetters of the feudal system, and introduced more or less of the demo- cratic element into the constitutions which they adopted. Dur- ing the last half century, there have been 114 new, written con- stitutions established in Europe and America : 31 of them have been abolished, but the remainder still exist, and about 100 mil- lions of people are ruled by them. º France has seen, since the old revolution, ten different consti- tutions:–1. The monarchical-representative constitution of 1791. 2. 'The republican-democratic constitution of June 24, 1793. This never went wholly into operation, much power being given, for the time, to dictatorial,bodies. 3. The constitu- tion of Sept. 23, 1795, which established the directorial goverri- ment, and divided the legislative body of the national conven- tion into the council of the ancients and the council of the five hundred. It vested the right of electing the representatives immediately in the primary assemblies. . 4. The constitution of Dec. 13, 1799, established a first consul for ten years, with the right of proposing laws, and two other consuls. The first con- sul (Bonaparte) was surrounded by a council of state and minis- ters. A triple election was, at the same time, established. The citizens of each commune chose one-tenth of their number as persons qualified for public office; the aggregate of the per- sons thus named in all the communes of a department chose also one-tenth of their number; and from the whole body of persons thus nominated by all the departments, forming the na- tional list of persons eligible to official situations, the conserva- tive senate chose the legislators, tribunes, consuls, the members of the court of cassation, and the commissioners of accounts. In this instrument, the principles of the liberty of the press, and others of a similar kind, which had been guaranteed in the former constitution, were omitted. 5. Many essential changes were soon after made in this constitution by the various se- matus.consultes organiques, so called. These decrees of the senate, of Aug. 2 and 4, 1802, gave the first consul, Napoleon Bonaparte, his dignity for life, and invested him with several monarchical prerogatives. , 6. At last, the senatus-consulte of May 18, 1804, elevated the first consul to the dignity of emperor of the French, and the succession was made hereditary in his family. France had now a monarchical constitution with some democratic forms ; one of these—the tribunate—was abolished by the sematus-consulte organique of August 19, 1807. The equality of all citizens, in the eye of the law, was a principle preserved in all the French constitutions, and even the Bour- bons were obliged to make it a prominent feature in the Charte constitutionnelle. 7. After the downfall of Napoleon, the Senate drew up a new constitution, of April 6, 1814, in which an aris- tocracy, hereditary in the families of the Senators, was esta- blished. It guaranteed, however, in several respects, the liberties of the people. But Louis XVIII., as it is well known, adopted at St Ouen, May 2, 1814, only certain principles of this constitu- tion, relating to the representative system in two bodies, the responsibility of the ministers, the judges' tenure of , office during good behaviour, the irrevocability of the sale of the na: tional property, the capacity of every Frenchman for all civil and military appointments, and, as before mentioned, the equality of all citizens in the eye of the law. 8. After this, the king promulgated, June 4, 1814, the present constitution, which * Noble estate (in German, Rittergut) is such an estate as formerly could, or, in some countries, still can, be held by a nobleman only. Prussia has abolished this condition of tenure so that commoners can buy such estates 432 had been drawn up by a committee appointed by him. It esta- blished a chamber of peers, to be elected by the king, and a chamber of deputies, to be chosen by electoral colleges. These two bodies, together with the king, were to form the legisla- ture. But this instrument left many points unsettled, which allowed full play to machinations of all kinds. 9. After the re- turn of Napoleon from Elba, the emperor promulgated a new constitutional instrument, as an addition to the imperial Con- stitution, April 22, 1815. This was adopted by the people; in June, on the occasion of the celebrated Champ de Mai. When Louis XVIII. returned to Paris, the Charte went again into operation. By the electoral law, of June 28, 1820, the demo- cratic element of this fundamental law, as respects the repre- sentation of the people, has been essentially weakened, or rather thrown out; as, in a population of 35,000,000, there are only 70,000 electors, and only five or six thousand who can be elected. The law of June 9, 1824, established septennial elec- tions of the chamber of deputies, though the Charte had limited their term of office to five years. 10. The revolution of 1830, though made in support of the Charte, caused a material change in the constitution, besides a change of kings. See France. In the Netherlands, similar changes took place. An act of arbitrary power was necessary to overcome the opposition of the federal party to the friends of union (democrats), before the first constitution of the Batavian republic, fashioned after the French constitution, was accepted, April 23, 1798, by the ma- tional assembly. The second constitution, of Oct. 16, 1801, was fashioned after the fourth French constitution, of 1799. Under the influence of Napoleon, the Batavian republic received the third constitution, of March 15, 1805, by which a pensionary of . the state was put at the head of the government. Only a few points were necessary to be changed, when the treaty with |. of May 24, 1806, connected the new kingdom of Holland most intimately with France. This was done by the constitu- tional law of the kingdom of Holland, of June 10, 1806, which remained in force until 1810, when Holland was made part of the French empire (July 9). In Dec. 1813, the son of the last stadtholder, the present king William I., was acknowledged as sovereign of the Netherlands. He convoked the notables in March, 1814, who accepted the constitution proposed by him. Thus the kingdom of the Netherlands, established by the con- gress of Vienna, received its fifth constitution, Aug. 24, 1815, which, in spite of the opposition of the Catholic notables of Belgium, went into operation in the Belgian provinces, in 1815, and was, therefore, the fundamental law of all the seventeen provinces of the kingdom. The recent separation of Belgium from Holland has effected a change in their several constitu- tions. Poland was, until 1791, an aristocratico-monarchical repub- lic; in fact, it might be called an aristocratic republic, because the king elected had very little power. The first step towards a more popular constitution was the charter given to the cities in April 14, 1791, which gained the favour of them all towards the new order of things. Soon after, the constitution of May 3, 1791, was adopted, and , it is remarkable that it was finished four months before the first French constitution; but ..he confederation of Targowitz, formed under Catharine II., destroyed this instrument, and rejestablished the old order of things. At a later period, Napoleon, at the peace of Tilsit, created the duchy of Warsaw, and gave it a constitution, signed by him, Dresden, July 22, 1807, which, among other things, abolished bondage, and pronounced the equality of all citizens in the eye of the law. After the connexion of the kingdom of Poland with Russia, by the congress of Vienna, the emperor . Alexander adopted, April 30, 1815, the title of king of Poland, and gave this kingdom a constitution, Nov. 27, 1815, which established a national representation, in a diet consisting of the king and two houses of legislature. The Senate formed the first chamber, chosen by the king; the second chamber con- sisted of 76 deputies of the land-holders and 51 deputies of the communities. The constitution guaranteed, also, the liberty of the press, which, however, has been long since suspended. Sweden and Norway have two entirely different constitu- tions, though both countries are under one king. We made mention of the Swedish constitution above. Norway adopted a constitution of a mixed democratic and monarchical charac- ter, May 17, 1814, after the peace of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, had been concluded. The present king of Sweden, after having invaded Norway, and conquered it, assented to the whole com- stitution, with those modifications only which necessarily grew out of the connexion of Norway with Sweden under one mo- narch. These particulars were settled by the storthing (duet) held at Christiania, Nov. 4, 1814, so that the present constitu- tion is called the constitution) of Nov. 4, 1814. Nobility is abo- lished. The storthing, or legislative body, consists of two houses—the logthing and the oldesthing. See Norway. Spain. The old forms of the Spanish monarchy were first called to life again by the junta (assembled at Bayonne, under the influence of Napoleon), who drew up and adopted the con- stitution of July 6, 1808, at the time When Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain. But the regency, which governed in the name of Ferdinand VII., proclaimed a new constitution, March 19, 1812—the constitution of the Cortes—which, how- ever, was abolished by Ferdinand VII., on his return to Spain, by his declaration at Valencia, May 4, 1814, but again accepted and sworn to by him, March 7, 1820, to which he was com- pelled by the army. This instrument not only abolished the old feudal and hierarchical forms of government, but it likewise lilimited considerably the powers of the king ; so much that a strong party in Spain espoused his cause, and four of the first continental powers declared themselves, at the congress of Verona, in December, 1822, against the constitution, and main- CONSTITUTION. tained that the authority of the king ought to be strengthened. According to the 375th article of the constitution, however, such a change could take place only after the constitution had been in operation for eight years. France declared war against Spain, and abolished the constitution of the cortes in 1823. (See Cortes.) Portugal, likewise, received, by the revolution which began Aug. 24, 1820, a constitution similar to that of Spain. It limited the power of the king, however, still more. The cortes at Lisbon drew it up, and the king swore to it, Oct. 1, 1822. But another military revolution (May 27, 1823) abolished this instrument. April 23, 1826, don Pedro, emperor of Brazil, gave a new constitution, which, however, was abolished by his brother, the usurper of his throne, don Miguel, who, in order to surround himself with some of the appearances of a legitimate sovereign, renewed some of the forms of the old estates. (See Portugal.) . In Naples, the army proclaimed the Spanish constitution, which was sworn to by the king, July 13, 1820. The parliament of the two Sicilies was convened, Oct. 1, 1820, and drew up a new constitution, on the basis of the Spanish, in January, 1821; but, in consequence of the entrance of an Austrian army into Naples, conformably to the resolu- tions of the congress of Laybach, this constitution was abolished in March, 1821. The same thing happened in Piedmont, where the Spanish constitution was proclaimed, March 10, 1821, but ºned by the Austrian army which entered Turin, April 10, 821. Italy, which, for many centuries, has been the theatre of po- litical conflict and bloody revolutions, has also experienced more changes, in respect to the constitutional representations of her people, than any other country. Savoy, Nice, and Piedmont were governed, from the years 1796 and 1798 to 1814, according to the constitutions drawn up for France. Since 1814, the king has governed without the co-operation of popular representa- tives, Genoa lost her ancient aristocratic constitution in 1797, and received, through the influence of general Bonaparte, in the convention of Montebello, of June 6, 1797, a democratic constitution, which lasted from IDec. 2, 1797, to 1802, when its place was supplied by a constitution modelled after that of the Cisalpine republic, and signed by Bonaparte and Talleyrand, June 26, 1802; but a new constitutional law of Dec. 1, 1802, remodelled it again. June 4, 1805, the Ligurian republic was in- corporated with France; and Genoa did not receive again her old name until lord Bentinck, April 19, 1814, in the name of Great Britain, proclaimed the restoration of her old aristocratic repub- lican constitution ; ; but the congress at Vienna, abolished this, and gave the republic of Genoa, as a duchy, to the king of Sar- dinia, by which an end was put to her representative govern- ment; but the new duchy received a senate, high court, and provincial councillors, without whose consent no new taxes can be imposed. The former Cisalpine republic received its first constitution from general Bonaparte," June 29, 1797. It was fashioned after the French constitution of 1797; but, in 1798, the French ambassador, Trouve, made essential changes in it; and, in 1799, the whole republic was broken up by the armies of Russia and Austria. It was re-established by the memorable victory of Marengo. in 1800, and governed provi- sorily, and received from a state-consulta at Lyons, as an Italian republic, a new constitution, Jan. 28, ISO2. Its presi- dent was the first consul of France. This constitution pro- vided three electoral colleges—those of the land-owners, of the learned bodies, and of the merchants. When the Italian re- public was changed into the kingdom of Italy, and Napoleon had become king of Italy, March 16, 1805, he gave this state three constitutional statutes, of March 16, March 27, and June 5, 1805, in which the monarchical form was more and more de- veloped. After the downfall of Napoleon, the emperor Francis established here the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, and gave it, April 24, 1815, that constitution which we have mentioned above. The aristocratic republic of Lucca received, in 1799, from a French general, a democratic constitution, fashioned after that of France of 1795; but it hardly had time to go into operation, on account of the advance of the allied troops into Italy. In consequence of the victory of Marengo, a constitu- tion similar to that of the Cisalpine republic of 1802, was pro- claimed, Dec. 26, 1801; but, in 1805, the republic begged the emperor to give them a prince out of his own family. This was general Bacciocchi (q.v.), prince of Lucca and Piombino, and Napoleon signed the new constitution, June 23, 1805. A congress of Vienna, in 1814, gave this principality (still go- verned, in all essential respects, according to the constitution of 1805) to the former queen of Etruria. The States of the Chwreh were changed by general Berthier, Feb. 15, 1798, into a Roman republic, which received a constitution, March 20, I798, drawn up by Daunou, on the model of the French consti- tution of 1795. It expired, with the dissolution of the repub- lic, in 1799. After the pope was re-established, in 1814, he proclaimed, July 6, 1816, a constituent decree. The miniature republic of San Marino continues to preserve its ancient de- mocratic representative constitution, in which there are some aristocratic elements. Naples received a constitution from king Joseph, at Bayonne, June 20, 1808, which was confirmed by Napoleon; but his successor, Joachim, never put it into operation. Joachim (Murat), however, after his defeat, in 1815, ordered his minister Agar to draw up a constitution; but this was only posted up at the corners of the streets, and never acted upon. At an earlier period, in 1812, lord Bentinck had established in Sicily (then under the protection of Britain and the sceptre of king Ferdinand IV., soon afterwards under that of his son Francis) a constitution fashioned according to the British, which vested the legislative power exclusively in a parliament of peers and commons, the executive in the king, and the judiciary in independent courts. The feudal constitue CONSTITUTION. tion was entirely abolished. This constitution was in force until July 23, 1814, on which day Ferdinand IV., who had once more taken the reins of government, overthrew the forms pre- scribed by Britain, together with the parliament of Sicily, which had hither to existed. Murat, he received Naples back, in 1815, from the congress of Vienna, he convoked the two houses of the Sicilian parliament, and communicated to them the draught of a new constitution fºr Sicily, of May 16, 1815, which had much similarity to the charter granted by Louis XVIII. to the French, in 1814. This Cºnstitution also, never went into operation; but when Fer- dimand IV, Dec. 8, 1816, made Naples and Sicily one kingdom, and assumed the title of Ferdinand I, king of the Two Sicilies, he promulgated for the whole monaréhy the constituent law of Dec. 12, ISI6, which confirmed the abolition of feudalism, but did not re-establish a national representation. Germany. The constitution of the former German empire was founded entirely on the principles of the feudal system, and the old corporations. It had become a mere mockery, and even worse than useless. The eagle of the empire was often £ompared to an old, worm-eaten, stuffed bird, which must not be touched, for fear of its falling to pieces. Napoleon abolished the empire, and established the confederation of the Rhine, July 12, 1806. But the deputies to be sent by the members of the confederation never actually assembled. The constitution 9f this confederacy did not guarantee a national representation in the different countries belonging to it. June 8, 1815, the German, confederation (see Confederation) was established. The 13th article runs thus:–“ In each of the confederated States, a Constitution, founded on the estates, shall be intro- duced " (In allen Bundesstaaten wird eine landesstaendische Werfasswºmg Statt finden). The explanation of this article caused much dispute, but, at last, the old estates and the mo- marehical basis were considered as the essential parts of all the ReW constitutions. In consequence of the confederation of the Rhine, and of the German confederacy, several constitutions were formed between 1806 and 1815, in Germany, some of which inclined more to the representative system; others, mºre to the old system of ſeudal estates and corporations. The kingdom of Westphalia, which lasted from 1807 to 1814, received a constitution modelied after the French representa. tive System. This served as a model for the constitutions of Several other states belonging to the confederation of the Rhine. It was given by Napoleon, Nov. 15, 1807, and its deficiencies supplied by the statute of Dec. 23, 1808. It expired with the kingdom. The grand-duchy of Frankfort had a similar consti- tution, from Aug. 16, 1810, to 1813, which met with a like fate. In the kingdom of Bavaria, which belonged also to the confe- dération of the Rhine, a national representation was establish- ed in May, 1808, by a formal constitution and six constituent edicts ; but, by the decree of Dec. 2, 1811, the owners of major- ates (entailed estates), and the possessors of noble fiefs were de- “lared representatives of the Bavarian nation by right of birth. At last, the king, Maximilian, granted the constitution of May 25, 1818, accompanied by ten edicts. May 17, 1818, a regulation fºr the communities had been already promulgated. The com- stitution establishes two houses—one of peers, the other of commons—the former to hold their places by right of birth, or by º of the king, the latter by election. This elec- tion, however, is not made by the people collectively, but by the different estates—nobility, clergy and scholars, citizens and peasants. This constitution nominally provides for the chief points of civil liberty, freedom of consciênce and of the press, equality of all the citizens in the eye of the law, the equal ca- pitcity of all citizens for all appointments in the service of the State, also the equal distribution of taxes, the responsibility of public officers, &c. Wurtenberg. King Frederick abolished, in 1806, the old constitution, founded on a compact concluded be- tween the estates and the sovereign, and governed absolutely, according to the decree of organization of March 18, 1806. Jan. 11, IS15, he issued a proclamation, by which he intended to pre- pare the way for the establishment of such a constitution as he wished ; but the assembly convoked by him in March, 1815, re- fused the proposed constitution, asking for the re-establishment of the old 9ne. At last, the constitution of Sept. 25, 1819, was established by way of compact. It provides for two houses of legislature. (See Wurtenberg.) The grand-duchy of Baden, after several preliminary decrees, received a constitution, Aug. 22, 1818, which provides for two houses of legislature. The first is composed of peers, of the deputies of the gentry (Ritterschaft) and the universities, a Catholic bishop, a Protestant prelate, and eight members nominated by the monarch, without refer. ence to their birth or station. The lower house consists of de- uties, chosen with reference to the population. (See Baden.) The grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt received a constitution, providing for two houses, May 18, 1820. (See Hesse-Darmstadt.) The principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont received a constitu. tion, Jan. 28, 1814. This was changed, however, April 19, 1816, when a constitution was established, by which only the land. owners and corporations of the cities are represented. The duchy of Nassaw received a constitution by the ordinance of Sept. 2, 1814, which establishes two houses, one of hereditary peers, the other of representatives, chosen for a limited time. July 1, 1816, a new organization of the government was pro- claimed. It is founded, for the most part, on the division of estates. Saxe-Weimar received a constitution, Sept. 20, 1809, while she belonged to the confederation of the Rhine. Another constitution was adopted, May 5, 1816, founded on the estates of the mobility, citizens, and peasants, each of which sends ten deputies, while the university of Jena sends one. There is only one house of legislature. The elections are free, and the liber- ty of the press is guaranteed. The diet, opened Dec. 17, 1820, exhibited the remarkable instance of a representative body re. But when, after the downfall of 423 fusing publicity to its deliberations, and allowing only the pub- fication of portions of its proceedings: The liberty of the press has been long since suspended. . It is hardly necessary to men- tion how utterly insufficient a basis of representation the an- cient estates are in our times, since the important classes of the learned (who were formerly represented in the clergy) artists, mechanics, inerchants, and manufacturers remain, on this Sys- tem, unrepresented. Saare-Coburg received a coustitution from its sovereign, Aug. 21, 1817, founded on the estates. When the diet is not sitting, a permanent committee watches Over the maintenance of the constitution, and the execution of the laws. A further constitutional regulation was given, Dec. 15, 1820, and the diet first assembled in 1821. Save-Hildburg. hawsen received a constitution, Jan. 7, 1818, founded on the es- tates. A permanent committee of the nobility, the cities, and clergy, represents the diet when it is not sitting. The princi- pality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt received a constitution, April 21, 1821, founded, on the estates. The principality of Lippe-Schaumburg received a constitution by a decree of Jan. 15, 1815. It is founded on the estates. Lippe-Detmold receiv- ed a constitution, June 8, 1819, from the princess-regent Pau- lina, drawn up by herself; but this instrument was too liberal for the old estates of the mobility and the cities, which protest- ed against it, as did also the prince of Schaumburg as "agnate. The duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel received a constitution, Jan. 19, 1820, founded on the estates and corporations. It pro- vides only one house of legislature. In respect to the granting of taxes, the old constitution was retained. The free city of Frankfort, during the reign of Napoleon, received a liberaſ or. ganization, Oct. 10, 1806. July 18, 1816, an act was passed by the senate, supplementary to the old, constitution of the city when it was an imperial free city, which was accepted by the citizens. The former privileges of the patrician families do not exist any longer. The three Hanseatic cities have re-establish- ed, since 1814, their old constitutions, founded on the ancient corporations, and, like several others, little in unison with the demands of the age. (See Constitutions des trois Willes Libres- Anseatiques, by Villers, Leipsic, 1814.) The duke of Saxe-Mein- ingen established a constitution, Sept. 4, 1824, founded on the estates. The Swiss confederacy was transformed, by the French di- rectory, in 1799, into the Helvetic republic, with a democratic form of government. This gave rise to bloody contests. Bo- naparte, by the act of mediation, Feb. 19, 1803, gave a new fe- derative constitution to this country, combining ancient and modern elements. Sept. 8, 1814, the cantoms convened again, and received into the confederacy of the nineteen cantons three new ones—Valais, Geneva, and Neufchatel. Each canton has its own representative constitution, founded on the elements of the old system, together with the principles of the act of mediation. In some, the aristocratic principle prevails ; in others, the democratic. Some cantons are purely democratic, as Valais, Coire, Zug, &c. Neufchatel has a constitution in which aristocratic, democratic, and monarchical principles are combined. The king of Prussia—the sovereign of this canton —established this constitution, June 18, and Dec. 26, 1814. In Asia, several countries have fundamental laws. These, it is true, hardly deserve the name of constitutions, since they are destitute of those guarantees of the rights of the people, which we are accustomed to consider as integral parts of a constitu- tion. Yet several of them, however, are, in fact, Subject to as strict limitations as the constitutions of many of those states which we have just enumerated. Nay, it would be far more difficult to change certain fundamental laws in some Asiatic states, founded, as they often are, on the religion and ancient customs of the people, than to introduce a new constitution in- to many of the European states. We have seen that the mere decrees of certain European sovereigns have been sufficient to establish, change, abolish, re-establish, and re-abolish constitu- tions in the states under their rule. One point, however, must be kept in view—that, in almost all the European constitutions, the idea of a representation of the people is a fundamental one, however imperfect may be the means and forms provided for securing it. But we know of no fundamental law, in any Asia- tic state, which embraces the idea of representation ; and We may, therefore, be excused from going into, a consideration of the Asiatic forms of government, in an article on constitutions. Having thus enumerated the European states which have re- ceived constitutions, it may not be uninteresting to take a sur- vey of those European states which are governed by sovereigns entirely absolute. Austria was mentioned among those coun- tries in which constitutions founded on the old feudal estates exist; but, although this may be the case in point of form, yet the Austrian monarchy is virtually one of the most absolute governments that can exist, and has systematically pursued, for a long series of years, so arbitrary a cºurse, in many re- spects (including the administration of the finances and the in- tellectual cultivation of the people), that we can hardly find any thing parallel in governments which claim to be purely abso- lute; as, for instance, in Prussia. e e ºf a • The following governments are without constitutions :—l. Piedmont, Savoy, and Nice. 2. Tuscany, Parma, and Modena. 3. The Two Sicilies. 4. The States of the Church. 5. Prussia, with the exception of Neufchatel, though the royal decree of May 22, 1815, just before the last campaign against Napoleon, promised the nation a representative constitution. The king, some years since, established provincial estates, founded on the different estates already enumerated, and the city corporations, which have the right to be consulted in regard to taxation, aud to discuss what is laid before them by the king, through the marshal of the diet. Their rights, however, are, in reality, nugatory, because they have not even the power of making propositions to the government ; and when, a few years ago, 424 the estates of the province of the Lower Rhine petitioned the king not to abolish the trial by jury, which had been in use on the left bank of the Rhine from the time when that district had been connected with France, the king was highly displeas- ed, and reminded the estates that they were convened only to consider what was laid before them by his marshal. 6. The electorate of Hesse-Cassel. In 1815, the elector, having resum- ed possession of the electorate, after the abolition of the king- dom of Westphalia, convened not only the old estates, those of the nobility, clergy, and citizens, but also that of the peasants, which gave rise to animadversion; and, on the assembly’s dis- agreeing to the new constitution, which he presented to them, the elector dissolved the body; since which time the govern- ment has been entirely absolute. 7. The land-graviate of Hesse- Homburg. 8. The duchy of Anhalt. Dec. 28, 1810, this little country received from the reigning duke a constitution, mo- delled entirely on that of the French empire ; but the guardian of his successor suspended the constitution, Oct. 24, 1812. , 9. The principalities of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Siegmarin- gen. 10. The principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen. 11. The duchy of Oldenburg. 12. The duchy of Holstein. Both the latter, however, are about to receive, according to public report, constitutions founded on the estates. 13. The kingdom of Denmark, in which the ancient constitution was abolished in 1660. The people co-operated with the government in the overthrow of the old system, as it was favourable only to the mobility and the privileged corporations, the former of whom §. abused their powers. 14. The empire of Russia. 15. 'L'urkeV. Wºod. The British colonies in North America, before the declaration of the independence of the United States, were all governed by charters from the crown of Britain, the principal features of which were a house of representatives, and a go- vernor and body of counsellors, the first chosen by the people, the two last appointed by the king (or proprietors), except in the cases of Commecticut and Rhode Island plantations, in which the people were empowered to choose all their officers. The constitution prepared by the distinguished philosopher, John Locke, for South Carolina, at the request of the proprietors of the territory, operated no better than Plato's republic would probably have done, if it had ever been put into practice. The constitution consisted of 120 articles, and was founded on aris- tocratical and feudal principles. Three classes of mobility were to be established, viz., barons, caciques, and landgraves. The irst were to possess twelve, the second, twenty-four, and the third, forty-eight thousand acres of land, which were to remain inalienable in their families. The parliament, which consisted of one house only, was composed of the lords, proprietors, landgraves, caciques, and deputies from the free inhabitants holding inheritable property. This plan of government produc- ed nothing but anarchy and discord. By the revolution, the present formation of the United States was established in 1787, inearly each state having a separate constitution. In Virginia, all laws originate in the house of representatives. , 'The power of impeachment before the senate is vested in the house of re- presentatives by all the state constitutions, except those of Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina. Maryland appears to have no court of impeachment, judicial officers being removable by conviction of misbehaviour in a court of law. In Virginia, the house of delegates impeach before the court of appeals. In North Carolina, state }. may be impeached before any State court of supreme jurisdiction, either by the general as- Sembly, or by presentment of the grand jury of the court. No pardoning power anywhere exists in cases of impeachment.— In Alabama, a revision and new digest of civil and criminal law is to be made decennially. In Alabama, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri, the legislature are restricted in their power of erecting banks. It may be proper to mention here, that the Senate have no power to originate money bills, excepting in the states of Connecticut, New York, Ohio, North Carolina, Tennessee, Illinois, and Missouri; and that, in New Jersey and Maryland, the senate can neither originate nor alter such bills. The duties of the executives are, to superintend the ex- ecution of the laws, and to act as commanders-in-chief of the militia. In Louisiana, the governor must visit the different counties at least once in two years, to inform himself of the state of the militia, and the general condition of the country.— Mas- sachusetts is the only state whose constitution gives titles to the officers of government. The governor is entitled his excellen- cy, the lieutenant-governor his honour. In the United States, every denominatiou of religion is equally under the protection of the law. In a few of the states, however, certain modes of belief are required as qualifications for office. In Massachusetts and Maryland, the declaration of a belief in the Christian reli- gton is required to qualify for office. In New Jersey, no Pro- testant can be denied any civil right on account of his religious principles. In Pennsylvania, Mississippi, and 'Tennessee, the belief in a God, and a future state of rewards and punishments, is required as a qualification for office. In North Carolina, no one denying the truth of the Protestant religion, or the divine authority of the Old or New Testament, or whose religious principles are incolnpatible with the freedom and safety of the state, can hold a civil office. In the other states, no religious test is required. Persons conscientiously scrupulous of taking an oath, are everywhere permitted to substitute a solemn af. firmation ; and this is recognized by all the constitutions, except those of Virginia and North Carolina, and the charter of Rhode Island, a hiatus which is supplied in those states by law. Those who are conscientiously scrupulous of bearing arms, are every- where allowed to pay an equivalent for personal service. In Tennessee, the legislature are enjoined to “pass laws exempting citizens belonging to any sect or denomination of religion, the CONSTITUTION.—LE CONSTITUTIONNEL. tenets of which are known to be opposed to the bearing of arms, from attending private and general musters.” In Maine, “per- sons of the denominations of Shakers or Quakers,” may be ex- empted from military duty. Ministers of the gospel are not eligible as legislators in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee. In South Carolina, Kentucky, and Mississippi, they are eligible neither as governors nor legislators... In Mis- souri, the only civil office they can hold is that of justice of the peace ; while in New York, Delaware, and Louisiana, they are not eligible to any office whatever. New Hampshire and Mas- sachusetts are the only states whose constitutions make provi- sion for religious establishments. . In New Hampshire, the le- gislature is empowered to authorize, and in Massachusetts, the legislature is enjoined to require, the several towns, parishes, &c., in the state, to make adequate provision, at their own ex- pense, for the support and maintenance of I'rotestant ministers of the gospel. In Central and South America, a number of constitutions have been established within this century. All, with the ex- ception of the monarchical constitution of the Brazils, and the transient imperial system of the Mexican empire under ſtur- bide, who was elected emperor, May 18, 1822, are republican, modelled, in most respects, after the constitution of the United States, in regard to the division of powers among the legislative, judiciary, and executive bodies, &c. In Mexico, Central Ame- rica, and the United Provinces of La Plata, there exist federal governments, i. e. unions of different states, like that of the United States: the other republics have central governments. The government of Spain, in her South American colonies, was defective, the territory of these so immense, and the population So Scattered, that, when the Spanish yoke was thrown off, the elements of an independent and free government, in the new States, were necessarily so few, that, ever since their respective declarations of independence, they have been in a state of agi- tation; and many of them are likely to remain so for a long time to come, because the people are woefully deficient in edu- cation and industry—two of the main grounds of real liberty and of a settled order of things ; and it is one of the most diffi- cult tasks for a nation, from which tyranny has withheld the means of education, to acquire the habits which fit men for in- dependence, after shaking off the yoke of their oppressors, which is generally the easiest part of a revolution. History shows that far more internal convulsions are caused by ignor. ance, and the violence which springs from it, than by the am- bition of aspiring individuals. Since the condition of South America is, at present, so unsettled, it would be of little use to enumerate the different constitutions existing there, which will probably undergo many changes ; and we must refer the reader to the articles on the respective countries, in which he will find their history brought down to the time of the preparation of the articles. CONSTITUTIONISTS. See Unigenitus. CONSTITUTIONNEL, LE (French; The con- stitutional); a daily paper in Paris. In Britain and America, no party, however much it may be opposed to others, thinks of abolishing the constitu- tion or constitutional liberty: the word constitutional, therefore, Cannot be used in these two countries as de- signating a party. Very different is the case in France —a difference which must be constantly kept in mind, if we wish to understand the present political proceed- ings in that country, or to compare them with British and American politics. In France, there really exists a powerful party, which aims at restoring the good old times, and destroying the Charte. The word consti- tutional, therefore, designates, in France, the party opposed to the one just mentioned, embracing, how- ever, many varieties of opinion. The paper called Le Constitutionnel is one of the ablest journals of the age. It is liberal, but moderate and cautious. Messrs Etienne, Jay, and Tissot are the chief editors. Six or eight proprietors contribute. Over the whole is a directure en chef, and for the different branches there are from ten to twelve editors. Many of the first savants are often engaged to furnish a certain num- ber of original articles in the course of the year. In like manner, the famous M. Malte-Brun was employed to write, every month, a geographical article for the Journal des Debats, for a very high sum. The Consti- tutionnel occupies from eight to ten presses, working day and night. The monthly expense of the paper amounts to 50,000 francs. The remuneration which is paid for single contributions is very high. For an article of one column, or one and a half, generally 100 to 120, sometimes 150, francs are paid. It was established, in 1815, by fifteen shareholders, and has from 18 to 20,000 subscribers—a greater number than any other French paper, the Journal CONSTRUCTION. des Debats, which comes next to it, having only from 13,000 to 14,000. In the beginning, a share of the Constitutionnel cost 30,000 francs; now it costs 100,000. A great variety of topics is treated of in this paper, embracing not only politics, but the sciences and arts, and, as interesting to general readers, it may be recommended in preference to any other French newspaper. CONSTRUCTION, in politics, is the interpreta- tion of the fundamental law of the state. Wherever there is such a fundamental law, a difference of opi- nion must exist respecting the meaning of certain passages, as no phraseology but the mathematical is capable of perfect precision. Such construction is therefore a copious source of party strife. In several states, there have been parties, which declared war against all construction of the fundamental law, and insisted upon the execution of its obvious meaning, forgetting that this obvious meaning, as they called it, was nothing but their own construction of its provi- sions. Such difference of opinion must exist in regard to every written code, political or religious. Thus the Protestants declared, at the diet of Augs- burg, that they would not allow any construction of the Bible, since its obvious meaning expressed God's will. The construction of the fundamental law, them, wherever persons are united in one society, is of vital importance, and particularly so in politics. If the construction of the constitution, that is, the declaration of its meaning in doubtful points, is un- provided for, and left, as has been the case in Several of the modern monarchies, to the executive, liberty may be considered as destitute of any bul- wark. The United States of America are the first state, at least of any magnitude, which has entrusted the construction of the constitution, in cases of dispute between the government and people, to a tribunal provided by the instrument itself. This tribunal is the Supreme court of the United States. CONSUL ; a name given, 1. to the two highest magistrates in the republic of Rome, from whom it passed to certain high officers under the emperors; 2. the designation of the three highest magistrates of the French republic, during a certain period; 3. the title, at present, of certain officers of a diplomatico- Commercial character. I. In Rome, after the kings had been expelled, two consuls were placed at the head of the senate, the body in whose hands was the administration of the republic; consul signifying adviser, counsellor. These officers were to be annually elected. In Greek, they were called $224 oi (the highest). Con- suls were, at first, chosen only from among the patricians; at a later period, also from the plebeians. In some cases both the consuls were plebeians, but this was an exception to the general rule. In order to be eligible to the consulship, the candidate was to be forty-five years of age (actas consularis). But this law was frequently violated. Pompey' was made Consul in his thirty-sixth, Valerius Corvus in his twenty-third, Scipio Africanus, the elder, in his twenty-eighth, and the youngest Scipio in his thirty- eighth year. Nobody was to be re-elected consul till after an interval of ten years. But this law was also disregarded; Marius was re-elected immediately. The candidate was required, by law, to be in Rome at the time of the election; but this law was not better regarded than the others. The election of the consuls took place in the comitia centuriata, in the Campus Martius. One of the existing consuls pre- sided. He who had most votes was called consul prior. His name was the first in the fasti. He also first received the fasces (q.v.), and usually presided at the election of the magistrates for the next year. The time of election varied at different periods. The 425 consuls elect were called consules designati. They entered on their office, on the first of January, by sacrificing and praying in the capitol, after receiving the congratulations of the senate and people. Within five days afterwards, they were obliged to repeat the oath which they had taken when elected, that they would not injure the republic, and that they would govern according to the laws. A similar oath that they had so done, was required of them when they left their office. The exterior marks of honour of the consuls (insignia) were the same with those of the former kings, excepting the crown; and, instead of a sceptre, they had a staff of ivory (Scipio ebur- news). Their toga was lined with purple (toga prae- teata); under the emperors, it was embroidered. They sat upon an ornamented chair (sella curulis). Twelve lictors, with the fasces and axes, preceded them. In the beginning, the lictors, with fasces, marched before each ; but Valerius Publica made a law, that, in the city, they should precede only one. After that time, the consuls enjoyed this honour re- spectively, in alternate months. The One who was not preceded by the fasces had a public slave going before him (accensus), and the lictors following him. The consul who was first elected, or who had most children, or, if the number was equal, whose wife was living, or who had most votes, first received the fasces cum securibus. Whoever met the consul gave way to him, uncovered his head, descended from his horse, or rose, if he happened to be seated. If the consul saw any one neglect this form of respect, he ordered the lictor to punish him (animadvertere). The ammals of state were called fasti consulares, and particular years were designated by the names of the consuls then in office. Instead of saying, for instance, A. U. C. 690, it was said M. Tullio Cicerone et L. Antonio consulibus ; hence mu- merare multos consules, instead of multos annos. In order to understand the authority of the consuls, it must be kept in mind, that, in the time of the Roman republic, the powers of the different branches of go- vernment were by no means kept so distinct as with us, and therefore much greater opportunity was then afforded for the assumption of undue authority. The division of powers is one of the most important in- ventions in the art of governing, and affords one of the greatest protections of liberty; much greater than is afforded by republicanism, or any form of govern- ment, without it. We find united in the consuls, to a great degree, the executive, judiciary, and legisla- tive functions. In the beginning of the republic, the authority of the consuls was almost as #. as that of the preceding kings. ... They could declare war, conclude peace, make alliances, and even order a citizen to be put to death; hence Cicero ascribes to them regiam potestatem (Legg. iii. 3.) But Valerius Publicola took the axe out of their fasces, that is deprived them of their right over the lives of the citizens, and left them, at least while in the city, only the right to decree the punishment of Scourging. Without the city, when they had the command over the army, they had the axe in the fasces, that is, the power to condemn to death. Publicola had a law en- acted allowing appeals from the consuls to the peo- ple. The greatest check was put upon the consular power by the establishment of the tribunes of the peo- ple, who had the right to oppose every measure of the consuls. Yet their power remained very great. They stood, in reality, at the head of the whole repub- lic: all other officers were under them, the tribunes of the people only excepted: they convoked the Senate, proposed what they thought fit, and executed the laws. Laws proposed by them were generally called by their name. They received all 㺠from the provinces and foreign kings, and gave audience to 426 foreign ambassadors. In times of emergency, the consular power was still further increased by the well known decree, viderent, vel darent operam, ºne guid detriment; respublica caperet, by which they received unlimited power, and could even sentence to death withoul trial, levy troops, and make war without the resolve of the people first obtained. If a sudden riot took place, the consuls called the citizens to arms by the words qui rempublicam salvam esse velit, me se. quatur—equivalent to the reading of the riot act with us. At the beginning of their term of office, the consuls divided the provinces among them by agree- ment or lot. Province, at first, signified a certain business committed to the consul, as the command of an army. By and by, it came to denote conquered countries. To these consuls were sent by the Sen- ate as governors, after laying down their office. They were them called proconsules. A citizen who had been consul was called consularis, and had a higher rank than other senators. Pompey enacted a law that a consul should not be sent to a province until five years after he had laid down his office, and Caesar de- creed that he should remain there only for two years. Under the emperors, the consular dignity sunk to a mere shadow, until Caligula wished to make his horse consul. Many consuls, at this period, were appoint- ed in one year, until Constantine again appointed two annually, after the office had been abolished by Jus- tinian. The pomp of the consuls, under the empe- rors, was still greater than during the republic. Con- sul honorarius was a titular officer, with the rank, but without the power, of a consul. This dignity was first conferred under Caesar. II. In France, the directorial government (third constitution) was abolished by the revolution of the 18th Brumaire, of the year eight of the republic (Nov. 9, 1799), and a provisional consular government, consisting of Bonaparte, Sièyes, and Roger Ducos, es- tablished the fourth constitution, which was proclaim- ed Dec. 15, by which France was declared a republic under a government of consuls. Three elective con- suls (Bonaparte, Cambacéres, Lebrun, each with 500,000 francs annually) had almost uncontrolled executive authority, while the legislative power was in the hands of the tribunate and the legislative assem- bly: a conservative senate was also elected. But as early as Aug. 2, 1802, Bonaparte was proclaimed first consul for life, and thus the constitution of France became again monarchical. He had the power of naming his successor, proposing the two other con- suls, appointing the Senators, counsellors of state, and the presidents of the council of the people, while he could assemble, and determine the length of their sessions at his pleasure; he could also assemble and dissolve the legislative body at his will. The courts of justice, civil and criminal, were subjected to his control; the right of pardoning was put into his hands, and the number of the members of the tribunate was limited to half of what it had been. He was to man- age the revenues and the expenditure of the state, provide for the safety of the people at home, and for the defence of the country abroad, exercise Supreme command over the forces, maintain political connex- ions with foreign countries, confirm all treaties, and, in critical times, might even suspend the constitution. Thus the first consul united royal dignity with royal authority, and, that he might the better retain both, the civil list was increased to 6,000,000 francs; and, Aug. 15, 1802, the birth-day of the first consul, a consular court was instituted at St Cloud, and all the former court discipline re-established. Nothing now remained for the complete restoration of monarchy, but to make Bonaparte's dignity hereditary, in his family by law, as it was already, in point of fact, by his power of naming his successor. The first consuls CONSUL–CONSUMPTION. were also the last; the one became emperor, the others princes. On the first coins struck after Napoleon's elevation as emperor, he called himself empereur de la republique Française. III. Since the time of the crusades, officers called consuls have existed in different states, for the pur. pose of giving decisions, affording protection, or veri: fying facts and occurrences, relating to maritime and commercial affairs. The Italian states, in particular, took advantage of the crusades to procure permissioi, from the Asiatic princes to send such persons as pro- tectors of merchants from their own country into the domains of these princes, and their example was fol- lowed by other European nations, for the protection of their commerce in the Levant, and in Africa; and, since the 15th and 16th centuries, the same officers have also been established in European countries, to facilitate the intercourse of the respective nations, so that the commercial consuls, both in Europe and other parts of the world, are now very numerous. The right of nominating consuls is in the hands of the supreme power, which, however, can send them only where treaties or ancient customs authorize their ap- pointment. The duty of this officer is to afford pro- tection and assistance to navigators or merchants of his nation, and to watch over the fulfilment of com- mercial treaties. In point of authority, however, the consuls in the Levant and Africa are different from those in Europe and America, because the former have also civil jurisdiction over their coun- trymen. They are invested with much more of a diplomatic character than the latter. Consuls are regarded by some as ministers: others, however, will not acknowledge them as such. They certainly do not stand on the same footing with even the lowest degree of acknowledged diplomatic persons, because they have no letters of credence, but merely patents of appointment, which must be confirmed by the go- vernment to which they are sent. They therefore do not enjoy the privileges of ministers; for instance, exemption from the jurisdiction of the courts of the foreign country; and from taxes, the right of having divine service performed in their residences, &c. Generally, they are subject to the civil authorities of the place where they reside. . Consul-general is a consul appointed for Several places, or over several consuls. Sometimes Vice- consuls are given to consuls. Consulships almost always exempt from military service, for which rea- son the consulship is often sought for. Generally, consuls are merchants, without remuneration, except that arising from fees, which amount to considerable sums. Very often consuls are not citizens of the countries for which they act. CONSULTA (Ital.) was a branch of the adminis- tration in the Italian republic, and the kingdom of Italy which succeeded. It corresponded to a coun- cil of state. It consisted of eight persons, and had chiefly the direction of foreign affairs and diplo- macy. CONSUMPTION, in political economy, is the use and wearing out of the products of industry, or of all things having an exchangeable value. This destruction, by putting things to the uses for which they are designed, is very different in different things; nor are the wants of society limited to the use of things having an exchangeable value. The air and the water are as necessary, in the economy of life, as the earth and its products; and yet neither the air nor water, ordinarily, bears a price. The latter, however, is sometimes a subject of commerce, especially in large cities; in the city of Madrid, for example. The earth, on the other hand, is a subject of monopoly in all countries where any progress has been made in civilization. But, unlike its products, CONSUMPTION. it is not always deteriorated by use: on the contrary, if skilfully cultivated, its value is increased. In re- spect to the products, too, there is a difference; some are destroyed, or, in other words, reduced to their elements, by use, as provisions. Others, as the precious stones, are not necessarily destroyed by time or use. The metals, ordinarily, pass through various forms, in a variety of manufactures, before they are wasted and lost in rust; and some products, being destroyed in one form, are converted into materials for use in another. The remnants of limen and cotton fabrics, for instance, supply materials for paper; and so the wood and iron of a ship, on ceas- ing to be useful, in their combination, for the pur- poses of navigation, still supply, the one fuel, the other materials for the founderies of iron. The greater the advancement of the arts, the more extensively will the remnants of consumption of one kind supply the materials for the production of articles of another form. The arts will even convert the destruction of war into the materials for new production. The bones left on the field of Waterloo have been care- fully collected, and transported to Britain, to manure the lands. The increase of population, and the progress of the arts, introduce a thousand ways of gleaning the relics of one kind of consumption to supply the materials of another. This is one of the absolute gains of resources consequent upon the ad- vance of civilization. In regard to consumption, the remarks and reason- ing of Adam Smith have led to some erroneous pre- Judices, though his positions are, in some respects, just. He assumes, for instance, that all the stock of society, including the improvements on the lands, are the result of savings, or the excess of the results of labour over the demands for immediate consump- tion; and this is, no doubt, true; but the inference which is, and too often, made, that the great object of a nation should be to save the fruits of its labour, as the surest means of wealth and prosperity, is by no means true in its full extent. If, for instance, a community has saved the products of its labour to the amount of £100, for which sum it imports from abroad, and introduces into use, a more perfect kind of plough, and the art of making it, or the art of making a better hat, or screw, or saw, with the same labour, the amount saved being expended for this purpose, the numerical possessions, or the computed capital stock, of that community, is thereby diminish- ed; and yet the aggregate productive capacity is increased. This lets us into a principle of national economy, which is too frequently overlooked, namely, that the means of prosperity—the national wealth—consists more in the capacity for production than in actual possessions. As far as the capital, or nominal wealth, consists in the implements of production, and the accommodations for the shelter of the inhabit- ants, they are both a part of the individual wealth and national resources. But a vast proportion of the productive faculties of a people do not exist in the form of property, and are not marketable articles. Of this description are the arts, and those character- istics of a community which enable the people to maintain good laws, and perpetuate their political institutions. All the consumption, directed to the promotion of these, is, in the strictest sense, econo- mical, and all the saving of stock, which might be devoted to these objects, by a consumption for that purpose, is a wasteful and short-sighted economy. The great business of society, in an economical view, is production and consumption; and a great produc- tion without a corresponding consumption of pro- ducts cannot for a long time be continued. The lictions about the destructive tendency of luxury are, 427 therefore, preposterous, as a general proposition, for it proposes thrift and saving for no purpose. Sup- pose a whole nation to act fully up to the notions in- culcated by doctor Franklin, what would be the re- sult but universal idleness P for, all being intent on Saving, that is, on not consuming, there would, of course, cease to be any encouragement or demand for production. This is the condition of Savage life, imposed by necessity resulting from ignorance, im- providence, and indolence. To keep the streams of production in active flow, consumption is necessary; and the consumption which directly and steadily promotes production is, in fact, promotive of public wealth. We do not mean to deny, that the expenditures of a man who exceeds his means of payment will be injurious, not only to himself, but also to the community; for he may annihilate the capital of those who give him credit, and, since their industry may depend on their capital, which supplies them with tools to work with, materials to work upon, and a stock of clothing, food, and accommodations, until they can obtain the returns of their industry by a sale of its products, the loss of this capital, by trusting it to one who never pays them, is a destruction of their industry. Hoarding, on the other hand, though not so injurious, yet, if too generally prevalent, may have the effect of paralyzing production, and stifling and enfeebling the economical emergies of a people, by diminishing the motives to industry. In a healthy state of the national industry, therefore, the consumption of pro- ducts should bear a just proportion to production. As long as enough is saved to supply all the increase of demand for a stock of implements and materials, and make all the improvements, of a permanent nature, of which the country is susceptible, such as canals, roads, bridges, &c.,-which are, indeed, all of them, only different modes of present consump- tion of the fruits of labour of various kinds to repro- duce others, it is much better, as a general rule, that the remainder of the products of industry should be expended in luxuries, than that they should not be produced at all. In regard to luxuries—includ- ing in this term all the expenditures made for the gratification of appetite, taste, or vanity—the disposi- tions of men, in general, will sufficiently incline them to these. There is no necessity for inculcating the utility of such expenditures as encouragements to industry. Against the importunity of the appe- tites and desires of men, and against improvidence and thoughtlessness of the future, doctor Franklin's les- Sons of economy are of great utility. But, looking at the whole mass of society as a great engine of production and consumption, we shall inculcate a different set of maxims, based on more comprehen- sive principles. The example of doctor Franklin himself would be a practical lesson, in this respect ; for he was not illiberal of his time, or labour, or money, in promoting those expenditures which had the advancement of society for their object. These are often such as gratify no immediate appetite or taste. They look to the future. Their greatest en- couragement is the honour which is paid to them by the public opinion; for if a man gains more distinc- tion by encouraging a useful or ornamental art, founding a school, or contributing to the construction of a public work, than by riding in a coach, a gen- erous motive is held out to him to turn a part of the general consumption, of which his resources give him the control, into these channels. The tastes and habits of thinking of a people determine the di- rection of a vast proportion of the general consump- tion; and the direction and amount of this consump- tion again determine, in a great degree, those of production. 428 When we say that production should be encourag- ed, it is only inculcating, in other words, the maxim that consumption should be encouraged ; for the one will, in every community, bear a pretty near pro- portion to the other; and the object of a liberal, en- lightened policy is, to swell the amount of both ; and the object of a wise and philanthropical policy is, to direct them to objects promotive of the physical comfort, and moral and intellectual improvement, of a people. We are, however, to avoid the error of supposing, that all the causes which go to swell the aggregate of production and consumption, are bene- ficial in their operation. If, for example, all the rents of the lands, as under the feudal system, are as- signed to a few, who, by a luxurious and expensive style of living, consume the greater part of the pro- duce of the labour of the other members of the community, leaving them no more than barely enough to sustain life, and defend them against the elements, though such a community may present a gorgeous exhibition of individual wealth, yet the condition of a great part of its members is little bet- ter than that of Savages. This was the tendency of society under the feudal system, and all the ecclesi- astical systems founded under the auspices of the church of Rome. In such communities, every tax, and every superfluous product, passes into a vortex remote from the interests, comforts, and wants of the mass of the population. The consumption ought to be so distributed, as to give every one some just share, in proportion to his labour and services. A Fº equal and just apportionment of the fruits of abour, and the profits of the use of the earth, cannot he made in any country; for the rights of property must be guarded, or industry will dwindle away. But the laws may do much, and the prevailing habits of thinking, and principles, and motives of action, of a people, still more, towards assigning to every kind of industry, and every species of talent and skill, its fair proportion of the general consumption, and in such a way as not to check, but to augment, the gene- ral mass of things produced and consumed. The benefits of commerce do not consist so much in the mass of wealth which it may be the means of ac- cumulating, or in its directly employing a great many persons, as in the facilities it gives for aug- menting the general mass of production and con- Sumption ; and, in this respect, internal commerce in a country of considerable extent and variety of pro- ducts, is far more important than foreign, since the mutual exchanges of the products of labour made among the inhabitants of such a country are much greater, in amount, than those made between the whole country and other nations. CONSUMPTION, in medicine, or Phthisis (from £412, to consume); a disease known by ema- ciation, debility, cough, hectic fever, and purulent expectoration. The causes which predispose to this disease are very numerous. . The following are, however, the most general:—hereditary disposition; particular formation of body, obvious by a long neck, prominent shoulders, and narrow chest ; scrofulous diathesis, indicated by a fine clear skin, fair hair, de- licate rosy complexion, large veins, thick upper lip, a weak voice, and great sensibility; certain diseases, Such as Syphilis, scrofula, the small-pox, and meas- les; employments exposing particular artificers to dust, such as needle-pointers, stone-cutters, millers, &c., or to the fumes of metals or minerals under a confined and unwholesome air; violent passions, exertions, or affections of the mind, as grief, disap- pointment, anxiety, or close application to study, without using proper exercise ; frequent and exces- siye debaucheries, late watching, and drinking freely of strong liquors: great evacuations, as diarrhoea, CONSUMPTION. and the continuing to suckle too long under a de- bilitated state; and, lastly, the application of cold either by too sudden a change of apparel, keep- ing on wet clothes, lying in damp beds, or expos- ing the body too suddenly to cool air, when heat- ed by exercise; in short, by anything that gives a considerable check to the perspiration. The more immediate or occasional causes of phthisis are, hae- moptysis, pneumonic inflammation proceeding to sup- puration, catarrh, asthma, and tubercles, the last of which is by far the most general. The incipient symptoms usually vary with the cause of the disease ; but when it arises from tuber- cles it is usually thus marked : It begins with a short dry cough, that at length becomes habitual, but from which nothing is spit up for some time, ex- cept a frothy mucus that seems to proceed from the fauces. The breathing is at the same time some- what impeded, and upon the least bodily motion is much hurried : a sense of straitness, with oppression at the chest, is experienced: the body becomes gradu- ally leaner, and great languor, with indolence, de- jection of spirits, and loss of appetite, prevail. In this state the patient frequently continues a consider- able length of time, during which he is, however, more readily affected than usual by slight colds; and upon one or other of these occasions, the cough be- comes more troublesome and severe, particularly by night, and it is at length attended with an expecto- ration, which towards morning is more free and copi- ous. By degrees the matter which is expectorated becomes more viscid and opaque, and now assumes a greenish colour and purulent appearance, being on many occasions streaked with blood. In some cases, a more severe degree of ha'moptysis attends, and the patient spits up a considerable quantity of florid, frothy blood. The breathing at length becomes more difficult, and the emaciation and weakness go on in- creasing. With these the person begins to be sensible of pain in some part of the thorax, which, however,is usually felt at first under the sternum, particularly on coughing. At a more advanced period of the disease, a pain is sometimes felt on one side, and at times pre- vails in so high a degree, as to prevent the person from lying easily on that side; but it more frequently hap- pens, that it is felt only on making a full inspiration, or coughing. Even where no pain is felt, it often happens that those who labour under phthisis cannot lie on one or other of their sides, without a fit of coughing being excited, or the difficulty of breathing being much increased. At the first commencement of the disease, the pulse is often natural, or perhaps is soft, Small, and a little quicker than usual; but when the symptoms which have been enumerated have subsisted for any length of time, it then becomes full, hard, and fre- quent. At the same time the face flushes, particular- ly after eating, the palms of the hands and soles of the feet are affected with burning heat; the respiration is difficult and laborious; evening exacerbations become obvious, and by degrees the fever assumes the hectic form. This species of fever is evidently of the remittent kind, and has exacerbations twice every day. The first occurs usually about noon, and a slight remission ensues about five in the after noon. This last is, however, soon succeeded by another exacerbation, which increases gradually un- til after midnight; but about two o'clock in the morning, a remission takes place, and this becomes more apparent as the morning advances. During these exacerbations, the patientis very sensible to any coolness of the air, and often complains of a sense of cold when his skin is, at the same time, preternatur- ally warm. Of these exacerbations, that of the evening is by far the most considerable. From the CONTAGION, first appearance of the hectic symptoms, the urine is high coloured, and deposits a copious branny red sediment. The appetite, however, is not greatly im- paired; the tongue appears clean, the mouth is usu- ally moist, and the thirst is inconsiderable. During the exacerbations, a florid, circumscribed redness ap- pears on each check; but at other times the face is pale, and the countenance somewhat dejected. At the commencement of hectic fever, the belly is usu- ally costive ; but in the more advanced stages of it, a diarrhoea often comes on ; and this continues to recur frequently during the remainder of the disease; colliquative Sweats likewise break out, and these al- ternate with each other, and induce vast debility. In the last stage of the disease, the emaciation is so great, that the patient has the appearance of a walk- ing skeleton; his countenance is altered, his cheeks are prominent, his eyes look hollow and languid, his hair falls off, his nails are of a livid colour, and much incurvated, and his feet are affected with oedematous swellings. To the end of the disease, the senses re- main entire, and the mind is confident and full of hope. Those who suffer under it are seldom appre- hensive or aware of any danger; and persons la- bouring under its most advanced stage often flatter themselves with a speedy recovery, and form distant projects under that vain hope. Some days before death the extremities become cold. In some cases a delirium precedes that event, and continues until life is extinguished. The morbid appearance most frequently to be met with on the dissection of those who die of phthisis, is the existence of tubercles in the cellular substance of the lungs. These are small tumours, which have the appearance of indurated glands, are of different sizes, and are often found in clusters. Their firmness is usually in proportion to their size, and, when laid open in this state, they are of a white colour, and of a consistence nearly approaching to Cartilage. Al- though indolent at first, they at length become in- flamed, and, lastly, form little abscesses or vomica, which, breaking and pouring their contents into the bronchia, give rise to a purulent expectoration, and thus lay the foundation of phthisis. Such tubercles or vomica are most usually situated at the upper and back part of the lungs; but, in some instances, they Occupy the outer part, and then adhesions to the pleura are often formed. When the disease is partial, only about a fourth of the upper and posterior part of the lungs is usually found diseased; but, in some cases, life has been protracted till not one twentieth part of them appeared, on dissection, fit for perform- ing their function. A singular observation, confirm- ed by the morbid collections of anatomists, is that the left lobe is much oftener affected than the right. The diet, in this disorder, should be of a nutritious kind, but not heating, or difficult of digestion. Milk, especially that of the ass; farinaceous vege- tables; acescent fruits; the different kinds of shell- fish; the lichen islandicus, boiled with milk, &c., are of this description. Some mode of gestation, regu- larly employed, particularly sailing, warm clothing, removal to a warm climate or to a pure and mild air, may materially concur in arresting the progress of the disease in its incipient stage. With regard to urgent symptoms, requiring palliation, the cough may be allayed by demulcents, but especially mild opiates Swallowed slowly; colliquative sweats by acids, par- ticularly the mineral; diarrhoea by chalk and other astringents, but most effectually by Small doses of Opium. CONTAGION, (contagio ; from contango, to meet or touch each other.) This word properly imports the application of any poisonous matter to the body through the medium of touch. It is applied to the 429 action of those very subtile particles arising from putrid substances, or from persons labouring under Certain diseases, which communicate the diseases to others; as the contagion of putrid fever, the effluvia of dead animal or vegetable substances, the mias. nata of bogs and fens, the virus of Small-pox, lues venerea, &c., &c. The principal diseases excited by poisonous miasmata are, intermittent, remittent, and yellow fevers, dysentery and typhus. The last is generated in the human body itself, and is sometimes called the typhoid fomes. Some miasmata are pro- duced from moist vegetable matter, in some unknown state of decomposition. The contagious virus of the plague, small-pox, measles, chincough, cynanche maligna, and Scarlet fever, as well as of typhus and the jail fever, operates to a much more limited dis- tance through the medium of the atmosphere than the marsh miasmata. Contact of a diseased person is Said to be necessary for the communication of plague ; and approach within two or three yards of him for that of typhus. The Walcheren miasmata extended their pestilential influence to vessels rid- . at anchor, fully a quarter of a mile from the SilCl’e. The chemical nature of all these poisonous effluvia is little understood. They undoubtedly consist, how- ever, of hydrogen, united with sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, and azote, in unknown proportions and un- known states of combination. The proper neutral- izers or destroyers of these gasiform poisons are, nitric acid vapour, muriatic acid gas, and chlorine. The two last are the most efficacious, but require to be used in situations from which the patients can be removed at the time of the application. Nitric acid vapour may, however, be diffused in the apartments of the sick without much inconvenience. Bed- clothes, particularly blankets, can retain the conta- gious fomes, in an active state, for almost any length of time. Hence they ought to be fumigated with peculiar care. The vapour of burning sulphur or sulphurous acid is used in the East against the plague. It is much inferior in power to the other antiloimic reagents. There does not appear to be any distinction com- monly made between contagious and infectious dis- eases. The infection communicated by diseased per- sons is usually so communicated by the product of the disease itself; for instance, by the matter of the small-pox ; and therefore many of these diseases are infectious only when they have already produced such matter, but not in their earlier periods. In many of them, contact with the diseased person is necessary for infection, as is the case with the itch, syphilis, canine madness; in other contagious diseases, even the air may convey the infection, as in the scarlet fever, the measles, the contagious typhus, &c. In this consists the whole difference between the fixed and volatile contagions. A real infection requires always a certain suscep- tibility of the healthy individual ; and many infec- tious maladies destroy, forever, this suceptibility of the same contagion in the individual, and, accord- ingly, attack a person only once, as the Small-pox, measles, &c. Other contagious diseases do not pro- duce this effect, and may, therefore, repeatedly attack the same person, as typhus, itch, syphilis, and others. Sometimes one contagious disease destroys the sus- ceptibility for another, as the kine-pox for the small- pox. In general, those parts of the body which are covered with the most delicate skin, are most sus- ceptible of contagion; and still more so are wounded parts, deprived of the epidermis. Against those con- tagious diseases which are infectious through the medium of the air, precautions may be taken by keeping at the greatest possible distance from tile 430 sick, by cleanliness and fearlessness; but most com- pletely by the vigilance of the health-officers, by fumigations according to the prescriptions of Guy- ton-Morveau, &c. We can more easily secure our- selves against such contagious diseases as are infec- tious only in case of contact, by means of cleanliness, caution in the use of vessels for eating and drinking, of tobacco pipes, of wind instruments, beds, and clothes. No general preservative against contagi- ous diseases is known, though many are offered for sale by quacks. The examination of the persons in- tended for nurses and tenders of infants is very ne- cessary, as thousands of children may be infected by contact with them, and the cause of the disorder re- main unknown. See Epidemic. CONTARINI; a noble family of Venice. Domenico Contarini was doge of Venice from 1043 to 1071. He rebuilt Grado; and reduced the city of Zara, which had revoltcq. Jacopo Contarini was doge from 1075 to 1080. Un- der his reign, the Venetians forced the city of Ancona to acknowledge their sovereignty over the Adriatic sea. Andrea Contarini was doge from 1367 to 1382. The Genoese, under Pietro Doria, had conquered Chiozza, in 1739, and threatened even Venice. An- drea Contarini reconquered Chiozza, and delivered the republic from its enemies. Francesco Contarini was doge from 1623 to 1625. Under him, Venice, in alliance with Louis XIII. of France, the duke of Savoy, and the Protestant can- tons of Switzerland, reconquered the Pays de Vaud, in 1624, which the Austrians had taken possession of. Carlo Contarini was doge from 1655 to 1656. Under his reign Lazaro Mocenigo, admiral of the re- public, in June, 1655, gained a brilliant victory over the Turks, in the Dardanelles. Domenico Contarini was doge from 1659 to 1674. During his government, Venice resisted, for five years, the attacks of the Turks on the island of Candia; but, on September 26, 1667, after a siege and defence of unexampled obstimacy, Francesco Morosini surrendered the island. Peace was then concluded. Francesco Contarini, in 1460, taught philosophy in Padua, was ambassador at the court of Pius II., commanded the Venetian troops against the Floren- times, who had attacked Sienna, and wrote the history of this campaign. Ambrosio Contarini, from 1477 to 1483, was am- bassador of the republic at the court of the king of Persia, Usun Kassan. The interesting description of his residence at this court first appeared in Venice, 1481, in Italian. Gasparo Contarini negotiated a permanent peace between the republic and Charles V. In 1527, he went as ambassador to Rome ; then to Ferrara, in order to obtain the liberty of pope Clement VII., whom Charles V. kept imprisoned in fort St Angelo, succeeded in his mission, and became ambassador at the court of the pope. After his return, he was made senator of Venice. Pope Paul III. Conferred on him the cardinal's hat in 1535. In 1541, he was papal delegate at the German diet, at Ratisbon, where he distinguished himself by his moderation. When the bishops rejected the twenty-two articles of the Protestants, he exhorted the former not to offend the people any longer by their avarice, luxury, and ambition, but to visit their dioceses, support the poor and the schools, and distribute the benefices accord- ing to merit. After his return, he was sent as le- gate to Bologna, where he died in 1542. Giovanni Contarini, (born at Venice, in 1549, died in 1605) was one of the most distinguished painters of his age, worked in the style of Titian, and was particu- larly skilful in painting ceilings, e.g., his Resurrection, in the church of St Francesco di Paolo, in Venice. CONTARINI—CONTE. Vincenzo Contarini, born at Venice in 1577, died in 1617; a scholar, whose reputation was, in early life, so great, that the magistrates of Padua esta- blished a new chair of Latin and Greek eloquence, only to retain the learned youth of twenty-six years of age in their city. He lectured there until 1614. Simone Contarini, born at Venice in 1563 died in 1633, was Venetian ambassador at the court, of the duke of Savoy, Philip II. of Spain, Mohammed III., in Constantinople, pope Paul V., and the emperor Ferdinand II. ; and became afterwards, advocate of San Marco. As such, he made another journey to Constantinople. When, in 1630, the plague raged at Venice, he could not be induced to leave the city, but remained to make the arrangements which the evil required. CONTAT, Louis E (madame de Parny, known on the French stage as mademoiselle), was born aſ Pa- ris in 1760, and made her debut as Atalide in Bajazet, at the theatre Français (1776), but afterwards devot- ed her brilliant talents entirely to comedy. She was the pupil of Mme Préville, and her earlier manner was formed on that of her instructress. She was discriminating, but cold in her action; dignified, but stiff in her movements; forcible, but monotonous in her delivery. It was only when she appeared in a new class of characters, that she ceased to be an imitator. She had already appeared with great ap- plause in the parts which the French call the grandes coquettes, when Beaumarchais produced for her Su- zanne, the spirituelle and fascinating soubrette, in which, by the author's confession, she far surpassed his own conceptions of that character. Her versatil- ity of talent was displayed in the Coquette Corrigée in Julie in the Dissipateur, in Mme de Volmar (Mar- riage Secret), and in Mme Evrard (Pieuw Célibataire). Beauty, grace, vivacity, archness, and ease were unit- ed with dignity, tenderness, delicacy, and judgment. She restored to the stage the masterpieces of Moliere, which had long been neglected by the public. After a theatrical career of 32 years, 24 of which were a continual series of triumphs, she retired from the stage in 1808, and became the centre of a brilliant circle of friends. Mme de Parmy was remarkable for her powers of conversation. She was lively or severe, grave or gay, as the occasion required; and her remarks were always characterized by Sound and ingenious views, elegant taste, and varied informa- tion. A few weeks before her death, she threw into the fire a large collection of anecdotes and other writ- ings, in prose and verse, from her pen, because they contained some strokes of personal satire. She died, in 1813, after five months of severe suffering from a cancer in the breast, during which she manifested the greatest firmness, and even maintained her usual cheerfulness and gayety of spirit. M. Arnault, from whom this account is borrowed, owed his liberty and life, in 1792, to her interference, at the risk of her own life. CONTE, NICHOLAs JACQUEs, a painter, and che- mist, but particularlydistinguished for the ingenuity of his mechanical contrivances, was born at St Céneri, near Séez (department of Orne), in 1755, and died in 1805. His mechanical genius was displayed at the age of twelve years, by the construction of a violin (which was used at several concerts), with no other instrument than a knife. At the age of eighteen, without having received any instructions, he execut- ed several paintings for the hospital of Séez. This success did not prevent him from the cultivation of the physical and mathematical sciences. He went to Paris, and invented a hydraulic machine, which was mentioned with approbation by the academy of sciences. In 1793, he was appointed one of the committee for making experiments in regard to the CONTEMPT-CONTINENTAL SYSTEM. decomposition of water by iron, instead of sulphuric acid; and Ilis activity and skill on this commission occasioned his appointment of director of the aerosta- tic school at Meudon. Conté suggested the idea of establishing a place of deposit for useful machines, tools, &c., in consequence of which the conservatory was instituted. He afterwards introduced the manu- facture of an excellent kind of crayons into France, and established a great manufactory, which still sup- plies all France with them. He was appointed, in 1798, to accompany the French expedition to Egypt, and his services were of the greatest value. He con- structed a furnace on the Pharos, near Alexandria, in the space of two days, for red-hot balls, with which the British were repelled, and thus time was given for fortifying that place. The machines and instru- ments of the army having fallen into the hands of the Arabs, Conté was obliged to furnish everything, even the tools: he constructed wind-mills, machines for the mint at Cairo, for an Oriental printing estab- lishment, for the fabrication of gunpowder, &c., and cannon founderies; manufactured steel, paper, swords for the soldiers, utensils for the hospitals, instruments for the engineers, telescopes for the as- tronomers, microscopes for the naturalists, drums, trumpets, in short, everything necessary for such a military and scientific expedition in such a country as Egypt. On his return to France, he was appointed to superintend the execution of the great work on Egypt, and invented a graving machine, which, by performing certain parts of the labour, spared the ar- tist much time and trouble. The death of his wife, to whom he was tenderly attached, threw him into a lingering disease, and he survived her but a short time. Conté was a member of the legion of honour. His simplicity, integrity, courage, disinterestedness and warmth of affection rendered him no less amiable and estimable in private life, than his science and in- genuity made him valuable to the nation. CONTEMPT. Legislative bodies and judicial tribunals are generally invested with power to pro- tect themselves against interruption; and such a power is essential to enable them to conduct their business. They are usually empowered to commit persons to prison, or punish them otherwise, for dis- turbances and contempts. A legislative body may punish one of its own members for disorderly beha- viour, as well as a bystander. Judicial tribunals have the same power. The French penal code, article 222, &c., provides, that, when any executive or ju- dicial officer shall, during or on account of his official duties, be insulted, the person guilty of the outrage shall be punished by an imprisonment of not less than two months nor more than two years; unless the of fence is committed in open court, in which case the imprisonment is not less than two nor more than five years. Blackstone says, in the fourth volume of his Commentaries, that process for contempt is “an in- separable attendant on every superior tribunal; and, accordingly, we find it actually exercised as far back as the annals of our law extend.” This power has a much broader construction in Britain than in America, being confined, in the latter country, mostly at least, to the cases of actual disturbance and flagrant disrespect to the court, or an attempt to influence a decision by popular appeals, or direct and high-hand- ed or outrageous resistance to, or obstruction of, its proceedings or processes; whereas, in Britain, it extends to acts or omissions which do not directly dis- turb the judicial proceedings; such, for instance, as not paying a bill of costs awarded by the court; not obeying the summons of a court of equity, and not answering a bill; refusing to be sworn as a witness, which has also been held to be a contempt in the United States. Serving a process on an attorney, 431 while attending court has been held to be a contempt of the court in Britain; likewise shouting or giving applause, in court, on a return of a verdict by a jury. It was held, in New York, to be a contempt of the court to bring a suit in the name of another, without his consent. It is a contempt to endeavour, by writ- ings or publications, to prejudice the public mind, or that of a jury, or the court, in a cause pending in Court. This is not only an attack upon the public administration of justice, but also upon the right of the individual parties in the suit, since it would be in vain to provide, by law, that no party shall be adjudg- ed or condemned without a hearing, if practices are permitted which tend to deprive him of a fair hear- ing. The party may be charged with contempt, either on the view of the court, that is, without tak- ing the testimony of witnesses, for misdemeanours Committed in presence of the court, or on the testi- mony of witnesses; and he is always heard in his own defence, provided he observes decorum in mak- ing his defence. The process is necessarily summary, since the cases are generally such as require immedi- ate interposition, and courts do not usually resort to it, except in palpable and flagrant cases. CONTENT AND NONCONTENT are the Words by which assent and dissent are expressed in the house of lords. AY AND NO are used in the house of commons. CONTESSA, the elder and the younger; two German authors. The former, Christian James Salice Contessa, was born at Hirschberg, in Silesia, in 1767, and died in 1825: the latter, Charles Wil- liam Salice Contessa, was born, August 9, 1777, at Hirschberg, studied at Halle, and died at Berlin, June 2, 1825. He wrote tales and comedies. Von Houwald, likewise a German poet, published his works in 1826. Hoffmann has described Contessa's character in a masterly manner, under the name of Sylvester, in his Serapionsbrueder. The elder of the two brothers is unimportant as an author. CONTI, ANTONIO SCHINELLA, abbate; a Venetian patrician whose mathematical researches attracted the attention of Newton, was born at Padua, in 1677. He gave up the clerical profession, because he disliked to hear confessions. He visited Paris, and, in 1715, London, where he was elected a member of the royal Society, on the proposition of Newton. Here he became involved in the controversy be- tween Newton and Leibnitz, and, by attempting to avoid displeasing either of them, dissatisfied both. By chance, Conti came into possession of a manuscript which contained Newton's system of chronology. From his hands they passed into those of Freret, who published it, with severe notes. Newton was much displeased with Conti's share in the transac- tion. Feeble health obliged Conti to return, in 1726, to the milder sky of his own country. He liv- ed mostly in Venice, entirely devoted to his literary occupations, which included poetry. Of the six vol- umes of his works, which he intended to publish, only the two first appeared (Venice, 1734, 4to). The first contains a long poem (Il Globo di P'enere), intended to illustrate the Platonic ideas of the beau- tiful. After Conti's death (Padua, 1749), four of his tragedies were published at Florence, in 1751 (Giunio Bruto, Cesare, Marco Bruto, and Druso), which did not establish his poetical reputation be- yond all question. In all his works, abstract thinking prevails over poetic imagination. His language is powerful, but is accused of being tinctured with foreign idioms. There are several other Contis famous in the learned world. CONTI. See Bourbon. º CONTINENTAL SYSTEM was a plan devised by Napoleon to exclude Britain from all intercourse 43% with the continent of Europe. All importation of British manufactures and produce, as well as all other intercourse with Great Britain, was prohibited, for the purpose of compelling Britain to make peace upon the terms prescribed by the French emperor, and to acknowledge the navigation law established at the peace of Utrecht. For a long period, a vio- lent conflict had been carried on between the mari- time powers, concerning the rights of neutral flags, which involved the following points —1. Does the neutral flag protect enemies' property, or not 2 2. Is neutral property subject to confiscation under an enemy's flag, or not? 3. How far does the right of belligerent powers extend to search neutral vessels sailing with or without convoy P 4. What is contraband of war at sea, and what are the º of the captors in respect to it? 5. How far does the right extend to declare places in a state block- ade 2 and, finally, 6. Have neutrals the right to carry on a trade, in time of war, from which they were prohibited, in time of peace, with one bellige- rent, without disturbance from the other ? or may neutrals carry on trade between a belligerent power and its colonies, during a war, either directly or cir- cuitously, from which they were excluded in time of peace 2 On all these questions, the interest and po- licy of Great Britain were at variance with those of neutral nations, and induced her to urge belligerent pretensions, to which they were not willing to submit. This opposition to the previously acknowledged rights of neutrals was not, however, confined to Great Bri- tain ; France, likewise, adopted it, and other maritime powers did the same, whenever they were strong enough to maintain their pretensions. The principle that the flag protects the property was denied by the most powerful maritime nation, and still less was neutral property respected under a belligerent flag. The right of searching, not only neutral vessels sail- ing singly, but even fleets under public convoys, was introduced in the case of a Swedish merchant fleet, and followed up in respect to others, and the search- ing vessels were not bound by the rule adopted in the British admiralty, to take the word of officers commanding the convoy, that there were no contra- band goods on board. A very wide latitude was also given to the term contraband. Not only arms and mu- mitions of war were included as such, but also ma- terials which might be used in their manufacture, or such as were necessary in naval and military equip- ments, especially where they were destined to a naval or military station of the belligerent enemy. The prin- ciple adopted was, that whatever might afford the enemy any direct assistance or facilities in his naval or military enterprises, was contraband of war. The principle of the right of confiscating articles of contra- band, and, in some circumstances, the ship also, was carried to the extreme extent of the national law. On the right and extent of blockades, new doctrines, likewise, became prevalent. The old doctrine, that a naval blockade, in order to be valid, in respect to neutrals, must be maintained by an adequate force, so as to render ingress and egress imminently dan- gerous to neutral vessels, was never denied by the British admiralty; but then the novel practice was Introduced, of declaring a whole coast in a state of blockade, and, by a pretty liberal construction as to the force requisite to maintain a valid blockade, and the danger of capture to which a neutral must be ex- posed, by an attempt to enter the places declared to be thus blockaded, the belligerent possessing the strongest naval force was enabled to interrupt the trade of a neutral with the enemy. These doctrines of blockade were finally carried to such a length, that Britain declared the whole coast of France and CONTINENTAL SYSTEM. in retaliation, declared the whole of Great Britain to be in a state of blockade, though he had not a vessel to enforce the blockade. This subject of contraband of war was violently contested, as long ago as 1780; and it was maintained, by the European powers who joined the armed neutrality of that time, that the flag should cover the property, and that the neutral had the right, during war, to carry on a trade between either belligerent and its colonies, by permission of such belligerent, without any interference on the part of the other belligerent, although such trade was not allowed in time of peace. The principles of blockade and contraband gave Great Britain a great preponderance, on account of its maritime Superiority; and the question naturally occurs, whether this preponderance is so dangerous as to call for the united efforts of nations to modify the principles of national law on these subjects, or, at least, to resist the constructions put upon them by Great Britain. On examination, it will appear that the pretensions of Great Britain, whether well or ill founded, do not immediately threaten the independ- ence of other nations, but only injure their commerce in time of war. It increased the price of some arti- cles of luxury, in Europe, during the late wars from 1802 to 1812, but could not endanger the politicalin- dependence of nations; could not, like the prepon- derance of a continental power, extinguish states, and enslave Europe. The continental nations suffered these evils only in time of war; for, in time of peace, Britain never has used oppressive measures against the commerce of other countries; and even in time of war, this reproach was most strongly made against her by those who judged of a maritime war solely by the rules established by the laws of nations to regu- late wars on shore. But the rules adapted to the one cannot properly be extended to the other. Thus it is a general rule, acknowledged, at least, if not al- ways acted upon, that the private property of the ene- my shall be spared. If these rules were extended to maritime war, as France maintained they should be, the war would, in most instances, be entirely illusory. How, for example, could Britain, in a maritime war against France, after having taken her few colonies, and destroyed her fleets, do her any further injury, if private property were, in all instances, to be respect. ed? If, in such a case, the seizure of private, as well as national property, be not permitted, the war would be at an end. For the same reasons, the neutral flag, during a maritime war, cannot be unconditionally re- spected, as in time of peace. Were this the case, the flag of the weaker belligerent power would disappear from the seas, whilst neutrals would carry on its trade undisturbedly, under their flags; and how could de- ceptions ever be detected. The neutrals, themselves, allow that they have no right to render either belli- gerent direct assistance in the war; and yet, if their flag were to protect all property, it would be impos- sible to prevent neutrals from rendering such assist- ance, and, in fact, taking a disguised part in the Wal'. The history of the continental system begins with the famous decree of Berlin of Nov. 21, 1806, by which the British islands were declared to be in a state of blockade ; all commerce, intercourse, and correspondence were prohibited ; every Briton found in France, or a country occupied by French troops, was declared a prisoner of war; all property belonging to Britons, fair prize, and all trade in British goods entirely prohibited. No vessel coming directly from Britain or British colonies, or which had been there since the publication of the edict, was to be admitted into any harbour, and all vessels attempting to avoid this edict by false declarations Holland to be in a state of blockade, while Napoleon, were to be confiscated, with all their goods, as Bri- CONTINENTAL SYSTEM-CONTORNIAT1. fish. The reasons assigned for this decree were, that Britain did not acknowledge the international law accepted by civilized nations, but treated every in- dividual belonging to the country of the enemy as if found in arms; made even the crews of merchantmen prisoners of war; extended the right of conquest over merchantmen and private property, and the right of blockade over places and harbours not fortified; over the mouths of rivers; nay, over whole coasts and countries. But many of these measures had always been taken, in maritime wars, even by France her- self, as long as she had the means. One great rea- son for this and all the subsequent decrees of Napo- leon was, that he considered Britain his inveterate enemy, and the enemy of the political doctrines which took their rise from the revolution. He often used to say, “Je ne fais pas ce que je veuw, mais ce que je peuw. Ces Anglais me forcent à vivre au jour le.four.” Britain immediately directed reprisals against the Berlin decree, first by an order in council of Jan. 7, 1807, by which all neutral vessels were prohibited to sail from one port to another belonging to France, or one of her allies, or to a nation so much under her control that British vessels could not have inter- course with it. Every neutral vessel which should violate this order was to be confiscated, with her cargo. A second decree of Nov. 11, 1807, was much more oppressive to commerce. By this, all harbours and places of France and her allies, in Eu- rope and the colonies, as likewise every country With which Britain was at war, and from which the Bri- tish flag was excluded, were subjected to the same restrictions as if they were closely blockaded ; all commerce in the manufactures and productions of such countries was prohibited, and vessels engaged in such commerce were to be confiscated, as also all those vessels whose certificates showed that they were built in the enemy's country. Another order in council declared the sale of vessels, by the enemy, to neutrals, unlawful, and the intended transfer of property void. Hardly were these orders promulgated, when France made counter reprisals. By a decree of Milan of Dec. 17, 1807, aggravated by a decree of the Tuileries, Jan. 11, 1808, every vessel, of whatsoever flag, which had been searched by a British vessel, and consented to be sent to Britain, or had paid any duty whatever to Britain, was to be declared dena- tionalized, and to have become British property; and, in every case, such denationalized vessel, as also those which had broken the blockade declared against the Ionian islands, or had sailed from a British harbour or British colony, or those of a country occupied by the British, or which were destined to any such ports, were declared good prize. In order the more effectually to annihilate the British commerce, the tariff of Trianon, respecting colonial goods, was proclaimed Aug. 3, 1810. This was extended by another decree of Sept. 12 of the same year, and both were followed by the de- cree of Fontainebleau, Oct. 18 of the same year, directing the burning of all British goods. These decrees were to be executed, with more or fewer modifications, in all countries connected with France. The consequence was, that the price of colonial goods rose enormously; a regular smuggling trade was carried on at different points; for instance, at Heligoland, which was sometimes so crowded with persons concerned in this business, that a ducat was paid for a barrel to sleep in ; thousands of sub- stitutes for colonial goods, particularly for coffee and sugar, were invented (which presented the remarkable psychological fact, that people would drink the decoction of any stuff, which resembled coffee in colour, though it had ñot the slightest resem- He - 43.3 blance in taste; so powerful is imagination), and a variety of manufactures grew up on the continent, which were the germs of very extensive and flourish- ing branches of industry. TAs the holy alliance (a league as obnoxious as its name is arrogant) is composed of European conti- nental powers, and as a chief object of this coalition is the destruction of liberal institutions by the exer- cise of the droit d'intervention armée (see Congress, towards the end), a policy very different from that of the British, when Canning was at the head of foreign affairs, this continental policy has sometimes been called the continental system. CONTINGENT ; the name often given to the quota of troops which is to be furnished by each member of a number of states composing a confede ration. By the terms of the confederation of the Rhine, each of the states of which it consisted was to furnish one man for every 150 inhabitants. The proportion has been increased in the German Con- federation, and amounts, at the lowest rate (the simplum), to one man for every 100 Souls. The whole confederation amounting to 30,095,054, the army of the confederates, at the lowest ratio, called simplum, contains over 300,000 troops, divided into ten corps d'armée, of which Prussia and Austria furnish each three, Bavaria one, and the remaining states three. The quotas of men and money were assigned for a term of five years, according to the population of the different states at the time when the union was formed, and remain unaltered to the pre- sent time. Such an army has never yet been called together, and, should it ever be, the German Con- federation, in this case, would show how impotent and fragile is its whole constitution. - CONTORNIATI; ancient medals which have occupied the attention of antiquarians for a long time, and, on account of their rarity, are highly esteemed in cabinets. They are formed of a thin plate of metal (not of two different sorts, as is often supposed), with a flat impression. They differ from other ancient coins, by having a furrow upon both their sides, where the others have a wreath of pearls. These hollowed lines (in Italian, conformo) may have occasioned their name. Another characteristic of enuine contorniati is a cipher composed of the ſetters EP or PE, of which no satisfactory explana- tion has, as yet, been discovered, together With nu- merous impressed characters, and a great number of palm branches, the cavities of which are often filled with silver. They are also added by a second hand, and thereby are essentially distinguished from the monograms, so called in the language of the mint. They resemble the signa incusa (contremarques) on the Roman medals. All the contorniati are of bronze, and equal in size to the large bronze coins called medaglioncini by the Italian collec- tors. Their form is various, their workmanship rude, and their inscriptions are frequently different from the usual curial style upon the ancient Coins. From these circumstances, we may conclude that they did not belong to the age of the Roman empe- rors whose images they bear, but to a later one. Eckel, in his masterly treatise on the contorniati, follows the opinion of Morelli and Mahudel, who consider them to have been made from the reign of Constantine the Great to that of Valentinian. It has been ascertained that they were not struck by public authority; and the ancients have transmitted no account of their destimation, which must, there- fore, be left to conjecture. The frequent represen- tations of race-grounds, palms, men shouting to the charioteers, and even the images of the emperors Nero and Trajan, &c., upon them, make it probable that they were intended for the frequenters of the 2 E 434 games at the circus in Rome and Constantinople, for whose amusement both these emperors provided so abundantly. They were, probably, distributed as tickets of admission for the spectators, by the di- rectors of the bands. The images of celebrated men, which are found upon them, are of little value as portraits, because they do not appear to have been executed with care. CONTOUR. See Outline. CONTRABAND, IN commeRCE; all goods and wares exported from or imported into any country, against the laws of said country. There are, also, a number of articles termed contraband of war which neutrals may be prevented, by one belligerent, from carrying to another. What is to be considered con- traband of war depends upon existing treaties. These, however, have not settled, with much preci- Sion, the articles embraced under this term. In- deed, before the Consolato del Mare of the Italian mercantile states, the subjects of many powers were forbidden to furnish their enemies with arms. The rule was afterwards established, that a belligerent power might prevent neutrals from supplying its enemy with munitions of war; hence the name con- traband (contra bannum) was introduced. Subse- quently, the term contraband was extended so as to embrace articles out of which munitions of war were made. All other articles, however, even such as might be useful to the enemy, such as grain, wine, provisions, money, &c., were allowed to pass free, a few only being excepted, by particular treaties (as, for instance, in the compact between France and Spain, in 1604, in the treaty between England and Holland, in 1654, &c.) until very lately, when the number of articles styled contraband of war has been prodigiously increased. Many belligerent powers, in the war which broke out near the end of the last century, gave a partial and arbitrary construction to the term—for instance, Britain, and Russia, in 1794, who wished to prevent neutral powers from supply- ing France with corn; and the might of Britain en- alled her to enforce her own construction, which made such articles, for example, as Salted meat con- traband, under the pretext that it could only be intended for garrisons and ships’ crews. ... “The Catalogue of contrabands,” says lord Stowell, “ has varied very much ; sometimes in such a manner as to make it difficult to assign the reason of the varia- tions, owing to particular circumstances, the history of which has not accompanied the history of the de- cisions. The king is bound to watch over the safety of the state; he may, therefore, make new declara- tions of contraband, when articles come into use, as implements of war, which were before innocent. This is not the exercise of discretion over contraband. The law of nations prohibits contraband, and it is the wsus bellici, which, shifted from time to time, make the law shift with them. The greatest difficulty seems to have occurred in the instance of provisions, which have not been held, universally, contraband, though Wattel admits that they become so on cer- tain occasions, when there is an expectation of re- ducing the enemy by famine. In modern times, one of the principal criteria, adopted by the courts, for the decision of the question, whether any particular Cargo of provisions be confiscable as contraband, is, to examine whether those provisions be in a raw or a manufactured state. Articles are treated with greater indulgence in their native condition than when they are wrought up for the convenience of the enemy's immediate consumption.” Of late, the prac- tice of treating provisions as contraband of war, when asserted at all, has been, undoubtedly, less strict ; a proof that the belligerent was not entirely confident of his right to confiscate. CON TO UR-CONTRACT. has exercised the right of pre-emption only—a right of purchase with a reasonable compensation to the individual whose property has been diverted, by the act of the belligerent, from its original destimation. Every state determines for itself what articles shall be deemed contraband in the way of trade ; for the most part, on the principle that nothing shall be im- ported which the country itself produces in abun- dance, and nothing exported but that which exceeds its own consumption. See Smuggling. CONTRACT; an agreement or covenant between two or more persons, in which each party binds him- self to do or forbear some act, and each acquires a right to what the other promises. Natural law re- quires that if one person accepts from another a ser- vice, he should render to him something in return, whether this be expressly agreed upon, or only im- plied from the nature of the undertaking. Mutual promises of future good offices also are inding, at least by the natural law, if one of the contracting parties has thereby been induced to act; for, if he does not receive the thing stipulated for, he suffers wrong. We may go further, and say, that confidence in promises is so essential to the existence of social intercourse among men, that even the bare promise of one of the parties, when given and received in earnest, that is, with the idea of its being binding, is not entirely destitute of the force of obligation. In every state, it will be necessary to retain these prin- ciples, since the idea of justice implanted in the human mind should not be violated. It is the part of legislation to provide for special cases, to establish certain forms, and to fix, according to rules founded upon experience, the effects of each promise; also to withdraw from certain contracts their natural obliga- tion, or determine this in others, in which it is uncer- tain according to natural law. Such has been the course of the Roman law, which by its consistency and justice in regard to contracts, has obtained, on the continent of Europe, almost uni- versal authority. In that law, at an early period, a contract (contractus), in the proper sense of the word, was an agreement binding on both parties. It was required to be in a determinate form ; and there was an equally determinate mode of impeaching it. A contract was distinguished from a simple pact or promise (pactum); and it was a fundamental doc- trime, that a simple pact (paetum) would not entitle one to maintain a legal action, but merely to raise an objection in defence. The essential character of Con- tracts in the stricter sense, is founded on the circum- stance that such a legal relation is necessary for the most simple social intercourse, and imposes, accord- ing to its mature, certain duties. The most simple of these relations arise from a positive act, as the trans- fer of a thing to be returned (contractus realis), in which the object and extent of the obligation are de- termined by the real benefit conferred. Such a con- tract arises from delivering a thing, with or without pay; as, for instance, a deposit, a mutwum, or a pawn. A determinate form of agreement, however, is not always necessary. Civil intercourse allows another kind of contracts, in which the simple con- sent of the parties gives obligation to agreements, so that they may constitute the ground of an action (contractus consensualis). Such, according to the Roman law, is sale, hire (as well the lending of a thing as services dome for money), partnership, an accepted commission, and the contract for a fee farm rent (emphyteusis). But the same obligatory power, and this is the strictest sense, was allowed, also, to a verbal promise given in a certain solemn form, called a stipulation (contractus verbalis), as well as to a written obliga- The belligerent ition (contractus literals, chirographarius). The form CONTRACT. of a stipulation became continually more lax, ap- ºft nearer to a simple promise, and at last, amounted to nothing more than this, that he who wanted to bind another (stipulator) asked him, in a form of his own choosing, “Do you promise to give me such a thing?” and the other, who was to be bound, answered, “I promise it.” It is ob- vious that in this way, every simple promise (pac- tum) could be made actionable, and that the altera. tion, in modern times, in the law of Some parts of Europe, which admits of an action upon every com- pact, amounts, in fact, only to this, that the form of a stipulation has become even more lax, so that there is no longer a necessity for the claimant (promissarius) to commence with his question, but the compact can as well begin with the declaration of the party under obligation (promissor). These forms of contracts are, in their essential parts, settled; and the legal relation, together wth the action arising from it, has a fixed name (contractus nominati). But other relations, also, as exchanges of things and services, service for service, gift for gift, gift for service, service for gift (do ut des, facio ut facias, do wt facias, facio ut des), gave rise to rights and obli- ations, but in such diversified ways, that an appro- priate form of action could be framed only from the statement of each particular case (actio in factum praescriptis verbis); and there were, accordingly, no technical terms adapted to such variously combined relations. Hence arose the contractus innominati, which were considered as real contracts so far only that the actual performance of one party entitled him to an action ; and, even in this case, there was not an absolute obligation on the other party to the performance of his part of the contract; but, in most cases, simply the duty of restoring what had been received. But the modern law creates here (though not without dispute) a perfect duty to per- form the very thing promised. Finally, the Roman law attributed the effect of actionable obligation, even to some partial promises and agreements (paeta); not only to those which were added as appendices to other real contracts (pacta adjecta), but also to some of a different kind. These were either declared obligatory by a formal law, or were admitted as grounds of action by the pretor (pacta legitima and praetoria). Most of the technical designations of these are indeed new, yet the ancients had several, as, for instance, re, consen- sit, verbis, literis, contrahitur obligatio, &c. In this way donations, promises of dowry, promises of in- terest, acknowledgments of debt, &c., were made actionable. It is always implied in the idea of a contract, that the real cause of its obligation is founded on some particular rational object of the party who promises (causa civilis), and that mere promises and agreements are not binding. Even stipulations, which have no ground, or an unlawful one (nullam aut injustam causam), are valid, indeed, with regard to their form, but are open to the objec- tion of intrinsic groundlessness, except when they are donations. With these views were also connected certain divi- sions of these legal relations, and of the actions aris- ing from them, according to which, in some cases, the object of the obligation was strictly enforced (actiones stricti juris); but, in others, the liability could be settled only by the decree depending upon all the circumstances of the special action before the court (actiones bonde fidei). Other divisions refer to the relation of the parties, as, in some of them, the obligation is only on one side, as to return the thing received in lending (contractus unilaterales); and, in others, there are reciprocal obligations, as in a sale, a partnership (contractus bilaterales ; or they 435 concern the subject of the contracts, whether relat- ing to property or to some other, object. To the conditions necessary for the formation of a contract belongs the consent of the contracting parties. AC- cordingly, when this is wanting, either because the parties were not capable of taking upon themselves the obligation (as minors, madmen, prodigals), or because the contract was founded on an error (an innocent error on the side of the party making the mistake, or one occasioned by the deceit of the other party), or when the engagement was extorted by force and fear, there can be no valid contract. To contracts may also be added conditions, which either delay or dissolve them, and also precise de- terminations of time, place, and object (modus), which coincide, at times, with the condition. A contract must be possible and legal, else it is without force. No one can be obliged to undertake what is impos- sible or decidedly immoral (causa turpis). Accord- ing to the Roman law, it is a matter of dispute, whether an obligation to do something or to leave something undoñe gives a right to compel a specific performance, or whether it gives merely a claim to indemnification. The English and French laws have adopted the latter doctrine (toute obligation de faire ow de ne pas faire se résoud en dommages et intérets). Obligations resembling express contracts arise if one person does something for another, without the knowledge and desire of the latter; so that the latter is bound to give a recompense for what has been thus beneficially done for him (obligatio quasi ea. contractu). In this case, there is no consent existing, neither is it supposed, but the consent could not have been refused, or it was not necessary. Such rela- tions resembling express contracts, arise in cases of guardianship, between guardian and ward, by the receipt of money for a non-existing debt by mistake, the amount of which ought to be restored; so by a beneficial performance of some business for another, without any actual commission from him, where the circumstances raise a presumption of obligation. Thus far the present article refers to the general theory of contracts, founded either upon natural jus- tice or the principles of the civil and Roman law. A short account will now be added of the nature and obligation of contracts by the common law which regulates this subject in the jurisprudence of Bri- tain and America. The original basis of the common law, as to con- tracts, was, without doubt the civil or Roman law; but it has undergone some modifications in its incor- poration into our jurisprudence. A contract may be defined, in the common law, to be an agreement made in one form, between parties capable of con- tracting, for a legal object or purpose, and upon a sufficient consideration. It must be an agreement or mutual bargain, voluntary, and without force or fraud; and therefore, it includes an assent given bona fide. The notion of an assent includes a physical and moral power of assenting, and the de- liberate and free use of this power. And this leads us to the consideration of the next point, which is, that it must be between parties capable of contract- ing. Upon principles of universal law, an infant, having no discretion or moral power of perception, cannot make a contract; nor can a person who is insane or mad; nor an idiot, or person labouring under such mental debility or such natural defects as prevent a just exercise of reason. The common law recognizes these principles, and therefore it treats as nullities all contracts entered into by such persons; it treats in like manner contracts made by aged and imbecile men, whose understanding has become so weak and inefficient that they are liable to imposition, and cannot act with a reasonable discretion. In 2 p. 2 436 respect to persons who enter into contracts in a state of intoxication, the old law, with a view to deter men from such practices, did not hold the contracts void, so that the party might set them aside at his own suit, upon the ground that no man should be allowed to stultify himself, or allege his own vice to excuse his non-performance of a contract. But this principle, if it is now acted upon at all, is received with great modifications; and, if there be any undue advantage taken of the party's situation, he will be relieved. The common law, indeed, seems originally to have disabled a party who was insane from avoiding, after the recovery of his reason, any contract made during his insanity; partly upon the maxim that no man should be permitted to stultify himself, and partly upon the supposed danger, in ad- mitting such defences, of overturning deliberate and solemn contracts. But his legal representatives, after his death, were always allowed to avoid them; and when he has a guardian appointed, the guardian may avoid his contracts in a proper suit; so that the doc- trine, if it now exists (and it has been much ques- tioned), is more a matter of form than of substance. In respect to who shall be deemed infants or mi- nors, the laws of every civilized country have pro- vided a certain age, at which persons shall be deem- ed capable of all sorts of contracts, and for all pur- poses sui juris. The time differs in different coun- tries, and different times are assigned for different acts. By the common law, all persons are infants until twenty-one years of age, and then are consider- ed as of full age for all purposes whatsoever. By the same law, the ages of males and females are different for different purposes. A male at fourteen is at years of discretion, and may consent or disagree to marriage, may choose his guardian, and, if his discretion is actually proved, he may make a testa- ment of his personal estate, though not of his lands; at seventeen, he may be an executor. A female may, at seven years, be betrothed in marriage; at nine, is entitied to dower; at twelve, may consent or agree to marriage; at fourteen, may choose a guar- dian ; at seventeen, may be an executrix; and at twenty-one, is of full age for all purposes. Both males and females are capable of making contracts for necessaries during their minority; but in gene- ral, other contracts do not bind them, unless mani- festly for their benefit ; and, though contracts made with them cannot be avoided by the other side, the infants themselves, when they arrive at age, may ra- tify them ; for, as to them, they are generally void- able, and not void. & A contract, too, must be for some legal object or purpose; that is, for something which the law al- lows to be done or omitted: for it is a general prin- ciple, that all contracts which are prohibited by law, whether they involve moral turpitude, or are merely prohibited by positive law, are void and incapable of binding the parties. A contract, too, must have a sufficient consideration to support it. Considerations are either valuable in themselves, or good. A good consideration is such as flows from blood or natural affection between near relations, such as parent and child. In respect to such considerations, it may be said, that they are, as between the parties, generally sufficient to support an executed contract; that is, a contract which has completed its operation by a transfer of the thing, such as a gift or grant, or as- signment and delivery of a thing. But where the rights of third persons, such as creditors, intervene, such gifts, or grants, or assignments, are not always valid, as against them. For a man must be just be- fore he is generous. But in respect to good consi- derations, if the contract is not executed, it is a mere chose in action, such as the promise to pay money, CONTRACT-CONTUMAC. Y. or to deliver goods, or to give a thing: such a con- tract has no legal obligation, and cannot be enforced in a suit, in a court of law. It is generally deemed a voluntary promise or naked pact. A valuable consideration is one arising from, or on account of, money or goods received, or services dome, or other contracts of reciprocal benefit, or marriage, or a loss or injury, or forbearance of right. In all such cases, if a promise is made on any of these or the like ac- counts, it is binding in law. If A promises to pay ten pounds to B for goods sold to A, or money borrow- ed, &c., it is a binding contract. So, if A promises to pay B a debt due from C, if B will forbear, for a certain time, to sue C, it is a binding contract. So, if A has done an injury to B's lands or goods, and promises to indemnify him, it is a good contract. In all these cases there is a mutuality of interest or consideration—a quid pro quo. But a mere moral obligation creates no contract; as if A promises to give a pauper his clothes, or to supply him with ne- CéSSalleS. But though in general, a contract is not binding, unless made upon a valuable consideration, there are certain forms in the common law, as there are in the civil law, by which a party may bind himself without such consideration. If, therefore, A enter into a written contract, under his seal, with B, to pay him a sum of money, or do any other act, there the Com- mon law considers the deed of such high solemnity, that it will hold it binding. It deems it as import- ing a valuable consideration, or rather will not suf- fer the contrary to be proved, and acts upon the solemnity of the instrument as, of itself, of paramount obligation. There are certain contracts which the common law requires to be done in a particular mode to give them validity, and therefore another requisite is, that the contract must be in due form. There are certain things, which can be conveyed or transferred only by some written instrument or deed, such as incorporeal hereditaments, as rights of ways, easements, &c.; and, generally speaking, lands can now be granted only by deed. There are, also, many cases specially provided for by statutes, in which contracts are not binding, unless reduced to writing, and signed by the party or his agent. Among these are contracts for the debts of another, contracts respecting lands, and contracts respecting goods beyond a certain value. CONTRAVALLATION ; a line formed in the same manner as the line of circumvallation, to defend the besiegers against the enterprises of the garrison, so that the troops carrying on the siege lie jetween the lines of circumvallation and contravallation. As the line of circumvallation must be out of reach of cannon-shot from the place besieged, its circumfer- ence is necessarily so great as to render both its erec- tion and its defence difficult. It is, therefore, sel- dom resorted to, and a corps of observation is gene- rally preferred. CONTUMACY. (See Contempt.) The Latin term contumacia is used, on the continent of Europe, to express the offence of non-appearance in court of a person summoned judicially. In civil causes, a person, in such case, may be properly made liable to a decision against him, for his neglect in not appear- ing to defend his rights; but, by an extension of the principle to criminal cases, persons are often senten- ced, in their absence, to punishment in contuma- ciam, as it is called, particularly those who are charged with political offences, who can expect little justice under despotic governments. Such sentences are manifestly unjust, since an innocent person ought not to suffer punishment, even if he courts it, and neglects the means of defence. Sentences in contumaciam, in criminal offences, therefore, are CONTY—CONVERSATION. generally set aside, if the accused person appears and submits to trial. During the late political per- secutions in Prussia, Austria, Italy, Spain, and France, a great number of sentences in contumaciam have taken place, and even sentences of death have been passed in this way. CONTY, or CONTI. See Bourbon. CONVENTICLE ; a private assembly, or meeting, for the exercise of religion. The name was at first given as an appellation of reproach, to the religious assemblies of Wickliffe, in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II., and is now applied to illegal meet- ings of non-conformists. There were several statutes made, in former reigns, for the suppression of conven- ticles ; but, by 1 William and Mary, it is ordered that dissenters may assemble for the performance of religious worship, provided their doors be not locked, barred, or bolted. Conventicle, in strict propriety, de- notes an unlawful assembly, and cannot, therefore, be justly applied to the legal assembling of persons in places of worship, certified or licensed according to the requisitions of law. CONVENTION (from the Latin); a meeting. The word, in a political sense, is generally used for a meeting of delegates convened #. a special purpose. Thus it was a convention which deposed James II. National convention was the name of the assembly of the delegates of the French nation; so, in America, there have been, of late years, various conventions to amend the constitutions of the several states respec- tively, as the Virginia convention, &c. CONVENTION MONEY (in German, Conven- tionsgeld); money coined according to the twenty gilder standard of 1753. The courts of Vienna and Munich made a convention, in that year, to coin 283 gilders five kreuzers and 3: ; pence (Pfennige) of one fine mark of gold; and twenty gilders, or 13; convention dollars, or Species-Thaler, of one fine mark of silver. This standard was afterwards adopt- ed by all the states of Germany excepting Holstein, Lubeck, Hamburg, Mecklenburg, Bremen, Olden- burg, and Prussia. The twenty-fôur gilder standard, so called, is not another actual standard, but only a nominal division of the coins coined according to the above standard. Twenty kreuzers of convention mon- ey, according to this, are counted as twenty-four, &c. CONVERSATION. With all civilized nations, agreeable conversation has been considered as one of the most important productions and promoters of so- cial intercourse. The standard of good conversation must be different in different ages, countries, individ- uals, and even sects. A sober Quaker's idea of good conversation is probably very unlike what a gay man of the world would term such. The monotomous life which is led in Asia indisposes the natives to the quick interchange of thought, and makes them pa- tient listeners to long narrations, or the endless crea- tions of a fertile imagination; while the diversities and rapid changes of life in Paris afford a vast stock of subjects, so that a ready converser may touch on twenty different topics in the course of five minutes. When Leibnitz returned from a learned dinner, and said he had been entertained with fine conversation, he meant something very different from what an of ficer in the London horse-guards would designate by this phrase. In the same way, the conversation must always bear the impress of the age. A conversation at the frivolous courts of Louis XIV., and XV., or in the dissolute circle of Charles II., must have had a different character from that which prevails at present in the courts of Versailles and St James. Notwithstanding the numerous varieties of charac- ter which conversation assumes under different circum- stances, there are certain general rules, which ought to be followed, wherever it takes place, according to 437 the meaning given to it among the civilized nations of the West. Our rules would not, indeed, be ap- plicable to some nations; e. g., the Chinese, among whom the better classes are said to converse often by alternate improvisation. Conversation is an art which must be learned like every other ; and, as is the case in other arts, there are individuals and whole nations who have peculiar talents for it. Yet, as it is practised by every accomplished man, it is the duty of every such man to perfect himself in it as much as possible. It is, however, as in the case of every art, much easier to say what should be avoided, than what is to be done. A friend of ours, whose servants were Methodists, gave them leave to invite a party of their friends, which they did. Males and females of their sect came, but seated themselves apart from each other. Not a word was spoken. At last, recourse was had to the Bible. Who of us has not witnessed the reverse of this?—some noisy company, where every one spoke, and no one could distinguish even his own voice. These are the two extremes of un- skilfulness in conversation. The intermediate shades we need not describe. The object of conversation is to afford entertain- ment or agreeable information; and one of its first rules is to allow every body to contribute his share; at the same time, we should not be entertained pas- sively, but exert ourselves for the gratification of the company. Egotism is the very bane of conversation, the purpose of which is not to please ourselves, nor to obtain admiration, but to please others. We must carefully avoid tediousness in narration, and any dis- play of self-conceit. We cannot, however, assent to the rule of the venerable Franklin, never to contra- dict in company, nor even correct facts, if Wrong- ly stated, because difference of opinion is the Soul of conversation. To adapt yourself to the Com- pany, and your conversation to your talents and in- formation, is another rule ; as, also, to keep the Com- versation flowing; to seize upon points which can turn it into new channels; and, above all, not to talk about the weather. The British and Americans talk more on this subject than any other nation. Perhaps this may be partly owing to their variable climate. If you see that your hearers understand already all you are going to say, proceed to something else. If you relate an anecdote, be quick: avoid episodes, and oblige others to support you: don't laugh at your own wit—it takes away all the point. Nothing is more disagreeable than a speaker's laugh outlasting his joke. Good sense and good feeling should guide in the selection of topics for conversation, and prevent you from touching subjects unpleasant to your com- panions. Conversation, moreover, is not a parlia- mentary debate; and, if the demonstration of What you said becomes tedious, let it go. When you are inclined to complain of a dull conversation, remem- ber that two are necessary for a lively exchange of ideas, and consider whether you were not the party in fault. This complaint of tediousness is too often made by ladies, who forget that it is their duty to contribute to the conversation. The natural tact and politeness of the French, founded on a humane feeling, have made them dis- tinguishedabove all other nations for sparkling, fluent, animated, and delightful conversation. The Encyclo- pédie Moderne gives the following definition of its character:-La conversation n'est point ºne course vers un but, une attaque régulière sur un point, c'est wne promenade au hasard dans ºn champ spacieuw, ow l’on s'approche, on s'évite, on sefroisse quelquefois sans se heuréer jamais. Rousseau justly remarks, that “the tone of good conversation is neither dull nor frivolous. It is fluent and natural ; sensible, without being pedantic : cheerful, without being boister. 438 ous; elegant, without being affected, polite with- out being insipid, and jocose, without being equivo- tal. It deals not in dissertations or epigrams; con- forms to the demands of good taste, without being bound by rule ; unites wit and reason, Satire and compliment, without departing from the rules of a pure morality, and allows all to speak on subjects which they understand. Each one expresses his opinion, and supports it in as few words as possible; and no one attacks that of another with warmth, or upholds his own with obstimacy. All impart infor- mation, and all are entertained.” The middle of the last century, when the most po- lite and refined circles collected around ladies of po- lished minds and graceful manners, such as L’Es- pinasse, Du Deffand and Geoffrin (q.v.), (to the ,ast of whom we are indebted for an excellent treatise on conversation) may be justly regarded as the flourish- ing period of refined society in France. Though the art of conversation can be learned very imperfectly from books, yet these sourses of information are not to be despised. We would, therefore, refer our read- ers to Delille's poem entitled La Conversation ; ma- dame Wannoz's Conseils d une Femme, sur les Moyens de plaire dans la Conversation ; and Chazet's L'Art de causer. Diderot and madame de Stael have given us at once rules and examples for delightful conver- sation. We will, therefore, willingly take the French as our masters in this art, believing in the old maxim—que les Français seulement savent converser et que les autres nations ne savent que disserter et dis- cuter. The Encyclopédie Moderne contains the fol- lowing passage, which we insert as containing some truth in the midst of its extravagance:—Les Alle- mands me causent pas, ils argumentent : la conversa- tion des Italiens est une pantomime melée d'eaclama- tions. Chez les Anglais, ce qu'on nomme conversa- tion est un silence syncopé par des monosyllabes et in- terrompt, de quart d'heure en quart d'heure par le bruit de l'eau qui s'echappe de l’urne d the. We must observe, that the British have no word precisely corresponding to causer. . It might be as difficult to find a word in any other language corresponding to prosing. Goldoni, in his comedy called the Coffee- House, has characterized the different nations of Eu- rope by the nature of their conversations. It is sur- prising that the Western nations have never been sensible how important it is to instruct children in the art of agreeable narration. A large part of their time in schools is spent in acquiring facility in writ- ten composition; and yet, have we not occasion to relate a hundred times where we have occasion to Write once? If we look around us, how few persons do we see who know how to relate, properly, any thing of length !. Among the Asiatics, the art of relating is in high estimation, and properly taught. We ought to imitate them in this respect. CONVEX (from the Latin conveaws, vaulted, arched); rising in a circular form; the contrary to concave. Thus the inside of a watch-glass is concave, the outer surface convex. The mathematician de- fines a curved line convex on the side on which the point of intersection of two tangents falls, and con- cave on the opposite side.--Convexity and concavity are of particular importance in Catoprics and dioptrics, as applied to mirrors and lenses. CONVEYANCE, in law, is the transfer of the ti- tle to lands or hereditaments. There are different kinds of conveyance at common law; as by feoffment and livery (making a deed of the land in fee, and putting the grantee into possession); by lease and release (granting a term of years, or other limited right of possession of the land, and then relinquish- ing the remainder to the lessee, after he has taken possession); by grant, which was first used in regard CONVEX—CONV ULSION to incorporeal hereditaments (such as the right of receiving a certain perpetual rent, or appointing a clergyman to a particular church), where no livery of seizin and actual possession could be given, but was subsequently applied to corporeal hereditaments; or, finally, by bargain and Sale, which is, in fact a species of grant. (See Bargain and Sale.) Such were the modes of conveyance by the common law; but the introduction of uses and trusts made a great revolution in the modes of conveyance in England. The feoffment to uses was first introduced, whereby the fee of the land was granted to one person, for the use or benefit of another. The statute of 27 Henry VIII., was passed to prevent this species of conveyance, by enacting, that, where it was made, the fee should pass to the person for whose benefit the grant was made, that the effect should be the same as if the conveyance had been made to him directly. To evade this statute, trusts were invent- ed, whereby the land was conveyed to one, for the use of another, in trust for a third ; and the courts, favouring this evasion of the statute, held that, in such case, the fee would pass to the second, to be held for the use and benefit of the third ; thus ef. fecting, by the intervention of another party to the conveyance, what the statute was intended to pre- vent. This contrivance has rendered the system of conveyancing very intricate and complicated in Eng- land. It is more simple and direct in the United States of America, following, substantially, the trans- fer by bargain and sale. CONWOCATION ; an assembly of the clergy of England, by their representatives, to consult on ec- clesiastical matters. It is held during the session of parliament, and consists of an upper and a lower house. In the upper sit the bishops, and in the low- er the inferior clergy, who are represented by their proctors, consisting of all the deans and archdeacons, of one proctor for every chapter, and two for the clergy of every diocese; in all, 143 divines. The convocation is summoned by the king's writ, direct- ed to the archbishop of each province, requiring him. to summon all bishops, deans, archdeacons, &c. The power of the convocation is limited by a statute of Henry VIII. They are not to make any canons or ecclesiastical laws without the king's license; nor, when permitted to make any, can they put them in execution but under several restrictions. They have the examining and censuring of all heretical and schis- matical books and persons, &c.; but there lies an ap- peal to the king in chancery, or to his delegates. The clergy in convocation, and their servants, have the same privileges as members of parliament. In 1665, the convocation gave up the privilege of taxing them- selves to the house of commons, in consideration of being allowed to vote at the elections of members for that house. CONVOY (from the French convoyer, to accom- pany), in naval language, signifies a fleet of mer- chantment, bound on a voyage to some particular port or general rendezvous, under the protection of a ship or ships of war. It also means the ship or ships appointed to conduct and defend them on their passage thither. In military language, it is used for escort. (q.v.) Convoy, or brake, is a crooked lever, applied to the surface of the wheels of carriages, so as to retard their motion by its friction, - - CONVULSION (Latin, convulsio; from convello, to pull together); a diseased action of muscular fibres, known by violent and involuntary contractions of the muscular parts, with alternative relaxations. Convulsions are universal or partial, and have ob- tained different names, according to the parts affect- ed, or the symptoms; as the risks sardonicus when the CONVUL SION is TS–COOKE. muscles of the face are affected; St Pitus's dance, when the muscles of the arm are thrown into invo- luntary motions, with lameness and rotations. The ilysterical epilepsy, or other epilepsies, arising from different causes, are convulsive diseases of the uni- versal kind. The muscles of the globe of the eye, throwing the eye into involuntary distortions, in de- fiance of the direction of the will, are instances of partial convulsion. The muscles principally affected in all species of convulsions, are those immediately under the direction of the will; as those of the eye- lids, eye, face, jaws, neck, Superior and inferior ex- tremities. The muscles of respiration, acting both voluntarily and involuntarily, are not unfrequently convulsed; as the diaphragm, intercostals, &c. The more immediate causes of convulsions are mental af. fections, or any irritating cause exciting a great ac- tion in the arterial system of the brain and nerves. After muscles have been once accustomed to act involuntarily, and with increased action, the same causes can readily produce the same effects on those organs. All parts that have muscular fibres may be convulsed. The sensations in the mind most capa- ble of producing convulsions, are timidity, horror, anger, great sensibility of the Soul, &c. CONWULSIONISTS. See Jansemists. COOK, JAMEs ; a British seaman, highly cele- brated for his maritime discoveries. He was born at Marton, a village in the north riding of Yorkshire, in 1728, of sober and industrious parents, not above the rank of peasantry. After having learned read- ing, writing, and a little arithmetic, at a country School, he was put apprentice to a shopkeeper at Snaith, a small town on the sea-coast. Here he ac- quired such a taste for the occupation of a sailor, and so much consequent dislike of his business, that his master gave up his indentures and he soon after bound himself to two brothers, ship-owners of Whit- by, for three years, and continued in their employ for Some time after. At the commencement of the French war in 1755, he entered the royal navy. In 1759, he was made master of the Mercury, which belonged to the squadron sent against Quebec, and performed the hazardous service of taking soundings in the river St Lawrence, opposite the French en- campment. He also made a chart of the river St Lawrence below Quebec, in a very satisfactory man- mer. After the capture of Quebec, he assisted at the taking of Newfoundland, and afterwards made a survey of the harbour of Placentia. At the end of 1762, he returned to Britain ; but, the next year, he went again to Newfoundland as a marine survey- or. After again visiting Britain, he went out in the same capacity with Sir Hugh Palliser, appointed governor of Labrador and Newfoundland. In this situation, he made himself known to the Royal Society by the communication of an observation on a solar eclipse, in 1766, with the longitude of the place de- duced from it. In 1768 he was appointed to the command of the Endeavour, a vessel destined to convey to the Pacific ocean persons employed by government to make ob- servations on the transit of Venus. He sailed from Deptford, June 30, 1768, with the rank of lieutenant in the navy. He was accompanied by Mr (afterwards Sir Joseph) Banks, and the Swedish naturalist Dr Daniel Solander. The transit of Venus, June 3, 1769, was advantageously observed at Otaheite; the neighbouring islands were explored, and lieutenant Cook then sailed for New Zealand, where he arrived in October. Six months were employed in examin- ing the shores of the islands; after which he took his departure for New Holland, the eastern coast of which he attentively surveyed. On his return, Cook was raised to the rank of master and commander in 439 the navy. An account of the voyage, drawn up by doctor Hawkesworth, was speedily published, and a second expedition was planned to explore the antarc- tic regions, for the purpose of ascertaining the exist- ence or non-existence of a circum-polar Southern Continent. On this occasion, two ships were employed-–the Resolution, of which captain Cook had the com: mand, and the Adventure, under captain Furneaux. Doctor John Reinhold Forster and his son went out as naturalists, Mr Hodges as painter, and Messrs Wales and Bayley as astronomers. The voyage was commenced in July, 1772; and, after proceeding as far south as the latitude of 719 , where a barrier of ice opposed any further progress, discovering the island of New Georgia, in 54° south latitude, and visiting Otaheite and other places, captain Cook re- turned to Britain in 1775. So successful were the means employed by captain Cook for the prevention of disease among his crew, that only one man was lost by sickness during the expedition. The captain having communicated to the Royal Society a paper describing the regulations and remedies which he had adopted, he was chosen a fellów of that body, and his experiments were rewarded by the Copleian gold medal. Government rewarded him with the rank of post-captain in the navy, and the appoint- ment of captain in Greenwich Hospital. The narra- tive of this voyage was drawn up by Captain Cook himself, and merely arranged for the press by doctor Douglas, afterwards bishop of Salisbury. In July 1776, he sailed on an expedition to ascer. tain whether any communication existed between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans in the arctic regions. In this voyage, he again commanded the Resolution, which was accompanied by the Discovery, and ex- plored a considerable extent of the western coast of North America. He also discovered the Sandwich islands, and to Owhyhee, one of this group he re- turned from his American Survey, to pass the winter of 1778. In February, captain Cook sailed for Kam- tschatka, but was compelled by an accident to put back to Owhyhee. A boat having been stolen by one of the islanders, the captain went on shore to seize the king of Owhyhee, and keep him as a host- age till the boat was restored. The people, how- ever, were not disposed to submit to this insult: their resistance brought on hostilities, and, in attempting to reach his boat captain Cook and some of his at- tendants became victims to the fury of the irritated islanders. The death of this great seaman took place Feb. 14, 1779. A medal in commemoration of him was struck by order of the Royal Society; his eulogy was pronounced in the Florentine academy, and was made a prize subject by one of the French Scientific Societies. COOKE, GEORGE FREDERIC ; a theatrical per- former of great eminence. He was born in Westmin- ster, April 17, 1756. His father was a subaltern offi- cer in the army, who, dying when young, left his wife in straitened circumstances. ' The youth evinc- ed an early taste for his future profession ; and, be- ing apprenticed to a printer, he neglected the labours of the office, and engaged his companions to assist him in performing plays. His indentures were con- sequently cancelled, and he was dismissed. He was then tried in the navy; but his inclination for the stage overcame all restraint, and he at length joined an itinerant company of actors. Here he was quite in his element ; and, after having acquired a compe- tent acquaintance with stage business, he became the hero of the scene at York, Newcastle, Chester, Man- chester, Liverpool, and other places. He acquired so much fame, that, in 1794, he was engaged by the manager of the Dublin theatre; and after perform- 440 ing that season with great success, lie returned to England. In 1797, he went again to Dublin, and continued there three years. At length, he made his appearance at Covent-garden theatre, Oct. 31, 1800, in the character of Richard III. His reputation was at once established, as a histrionic performer of the first class; and, after repeating the part of Richard III., several times, he acted Iago, Macbeth, Shy- lock, Sir Giles Overreach, Sir Pertinax Macsyco- phant, Kitely, &c., with at least equal applause, if not with equal skill and discrimination. The talents of Cooke were obscured by indulgence in pernicious habits of intemperance, which j destroyed his popularity. Owing to the irregularity of his conduct, Cooke at length became the plague and terror of English managers, few, if any, of whom probably, regretted his removal to America, where he had formed a theatrical engagement. In Ameri- ca, he displayed the same powerful abilities, and the Same vicious weakness, which had distinguished him in his native country. Death, hastened by intem- perance, put an end to his career, March 25, 1812. COOKERY. It is not great things, but trifles, which principally make up the sum of human hap- piness. Who would not think a dull razor, which draws tears from the eyes every morning, or a creak- ing tavern sign, which disturbs us every night, a much greater evil than the single sharp pang occa- sioned by the drawing of a tooth 2 An act, there. fore, like eating, which is repeated several times every day by the millions who inhabit the globe, is a subject worthy of serious investigation. The scien- tific pride, which disdains to dwell on the ordinary affairs of common life, is rapidly vanishing; and, in an age when utility is the great object of the philo- Sopher, cookery may hope to engage a share of his attention. It has been asked, Why does man cook? Why does he, unlike the lower animals, transform the materials, which mature gives him for nourish- ment, at least with the exception of some savage tribes? Some philosophers have ascribed it to a desire innate in man to make changes in everything that he meets But however philosophers may solve this question, the fact is clear that we cook, and all agree in desiring something palatable on their tables. Mr Frederic Accum has given us a treatise on Culi- ºnary Chemistry (London, Ackermann, 1821, 8vo); but much remains to be done to put cookery on a scientific footing. The maxim, that “people will easily find out what is best for them,” is by no means applicable to cookery. Every body who has travel- led, and has observed the manner of cooking among different nations, must have seen, that, with the ex- ception of those countries where man lives chiefly up- on fruits, or in an almost savage state, people gene- rally spoil what nature affords them as nourishment; and he would be a great benefactor to his nation, who should teach them to adopt a system of cookery which would make their dishes at once palatable and wholesome. . How much money would be saved, how many diseases prevented, how much comfort gained, if cookery were placed on a more rational basis, and were accommodated judiciously to the re- Spective products of different countries : Rumford has attained deserved celebrity for his efforts to im- prove the food of the poor; and he would be no Small benefactor of his species, who should be equal- ly successful in improving the diet of the people at large. Most modern books on cookery are devoted to the preparation of refined dishes; and a very un- founded prejudice prevails, as if the culinary art were too trivial a matter to engage a reflecting mind. We are acquainted, however, with one book, the editor of which, a gentleman of literary reputation in COOKERY. Germany, has applied himself to the investigation of the culinary art, with a view of throwing light upon many points in the practice of cookery, which are, in general, but insufficiently understood, and of teaching the preparation of wholesome and palatable dishes within the reach of the people at large. This ex- cellent work, of which we should be glad to see a translation, is called Geist der Kochkunst, von Koenig, herausgegeben von C. F. von Rumohr, Stuttgard, 1822 (The Spirit of Cookery, by Koenig, edited by the Bar- on von Rumohr). As architecture is divided into two sorts, the use- ful and the ornamental, so cookery might be divided into the useful and the luxurious ; and again, as the pharmacopatia of some countries is divided into a general one, and one for the poor, so useful cookery might also be divided into common and pauper cook- ery. Prizes might be offered for the invention of cheap and wholesome dishes, and more care might be taken to provide good cooks, by setting on foot establishments where particular instruction should be given to girls desirous of becoming cooks. It is a little surprising, that, while so much care is be- Stowed on the improvement of the fruits of the earth, and the animals used for food, so little attention, com- paratively speaking, is given to improving the culi- mary processes, which render them fit for affording nourishment. In addition to the work of the baron Rumohr, above mentioned, the best books on this sub- ject are the Cook’s Oracle and Housekeeper's Man- ual, by Dr Kitchener; the French Cook, by Louis Eustache Ude ; and the Cook and Housewife's Man- ual, by Mrs Margaret Dodds of the Cleikum Inn (Mrs Johnstone of Edinburgh). Ude's work is adapt- ed more particularly for those who say, with Voltaire, Qu’un cuisinier est un mortel divin Dr Kitchener's and Mrs Johnstone's Manuals, besides being valua- ble as cookery books, are composed in such a manner as to interest and amuse the mere literary reader. The melody of Homer's verse can hardly recon- cile us to the cookery of his countrymen, described in his flowing hexameters. All the beauty of the Ionian dialect cannot give a charm to the process of preparing the pork for the feast of Penelope's suitors. How much the Egyptians, so far advanced in many branches of civilization, had accomplished in the art of cookery, Champollion has not as yet informed us. The early Romans did not disdain to direct their at- tention, not only to husbandry, but also to cookery. Cato, in his book on agriculture, gives several re- ceipts for dishes of flour and vegetables. The intro- duction or successful cultivation of important vegeta- bles was frequently the occasion of surnames, in the early times of Rome, as Lentulus, Fabius, Cicero. The meals of the Romans consisted generally of three courses: the first contained light food, eggs, oysters, and the like, to excite the appetite; next came the brunt of war, as the ancients called it, made up of roast and boiled dishes, of every descrip- tion; then followed the desert (mensae secundar) of fruit and pastry. Luxury in eating increased, when the Romans became acquainted with Asiatic magni, ficence, to such a degree that laws were required to keep it within bounds. Lucullus carried epicurism to the extreme. He erected several dining halls in his palaces, and gave to each of them the name of some deity, which was a guide to the steward in regulat- ing the etiquette and the expenses of the banquet: a cana, for example, in the hall of Apollo, commonly Cost 50,000 drachms; or 2¢1060. Under Pompey, M. Aufridius Lurco invented the fattening of pea- Cocks, and, in this way, earned, in a short time, 60,000 sestertia. . During this period, an actor had a dish prepared, which cost £422. It consisted of Singing and talking birds, each of which was valu- COOKERY—COOPER. ed at £25. The son of the same actor enter- tained his friends with pearls, which he dissolved in vinegar. Under Tiberius, there were schools and teachers of cookery in Rome. One of the family of the Apicii invented many new dishes; for example, a Salt dish of fishes' livers; also many cooking utensils, and the art of fattening swine on dried figs. Another wrote a book on cookery, and inventëd the art of Keeping oysters fresh. The emperor Vitellius was once entertained by his brother with 2000 choice fishes and 7000 birds. Vitellius himself once had a single dish prepared of the livers, the young, and the brain of many select birds and fishes. Roman cookery was remarkable for the almost universal use of oil or oily substances. . In the later ages of Roman greatness, the object of the cook was to please the palate, rather than to provide for the healthful mourishment of the system. In the middle ages, the Italians, who out- Stripped the rest of the nations of Europe in every branch of civilization, attained, also, much earlier, a degree of accomplishment in the culinary art. They carried it to much perfection as early as in the six- teenth century, and probably earlier, as some pas- Sages of their novelle lead us to suppose. The artists of that country delighted much in convivial assem- blies, and the chief cook of St Pius V., Bartolommeo Scappi, published, in 1570, an excellent work on the art of cookery (Opera di Bartol. Scappi, cuoco secreto di Papa Pio P. divisa, etc. con il discorso funerale, che fu fatto nelle esequie di Papa Paolo III., 4to). The princesses of the house of Medici appear to have transplanted the Italian cookery to France, at least to the French court. The Italian cookery was, how- ever, very similar to that of the ancient Romans, as even the mode of preparing dishes at present pre- valent in Italy has still retained much of the ancient character. We refer particularly to the abundant use of oil. In fact, this character prevails more or less in the cookery of all nations of Latin descent. However great the influence may have been which \talian cookery exercised on the French system, it is to the inhabitants of France that we owe the usage of seasoning meat mostly with its own gravy, whereby a much greater variety is obtained, and the dishes are, at the same time, more wholesome than those prepared in the old modes. From the accounts of the household of Louis XV., it appears.that the court dined with moderation. From eight to nine dishes only were served ; but two-thirds of the meat used in the kitchen was taken for gravy. Of course this was pos. sible only in a royal kitchen; but the tendency of the modern culinary art appears clearly enough from this instance. The French, probably, were induced to make this change because only a small portion of the southern part of their country furnishes oil, and good butter is produced only in a small part of the north. When ther’rench revolution brought the “third estate” into honour, the old national French soup, pot au feu, came into notice—a dish on which the French pride themselves justly. The new mode of cooking became now more and more popular. But, soon after the great excitenient of the revolution had subsided, and men had leisure to think of their palates, an over-refined style of cookery was introduced, and gave rise to works like the Almanac des Gourmands. The dishes of this latter period are not to be rashly ventured on, but to be eaten with a wise circumspection. The British took quite a different turn from that of the Italians and French. Owing to their situation on an island, which prevented them from constant associa- tion with other nations, at least as far as respected the people at large, and probably owing, in part, to their national disposition, their cookery has been mostly confined to simple, strong, and substantial dishes. The art of roasting has been carried by them 441 to much perfection. With other British customs, the British cookery likewise came to the United States; but that country, which has departed from the Bri- tish standard in regard to many things of more im- portance, has not confined itself to a servile imitation of British cookery, but has borrowed much from the European continent. Soup has become general; and, in preparing vegetables, the French way has been followed more than the British. But the system of cooking in the United States has many defects. Many dishes are spoiled by butter and fat, and, on the whole, far too much meat is eaten—a very natural consequence of which is the everlasting complaint of dyspepsy. A country So rich in fruits ought to al- low them a large place in its cookery. If the culi- nary art were properly investigated, many facts would be brought to light, which have as yet been little attended to. Thus, for instance, it would be very interesting, in a medical point of view, to show the intimate connexion of different diseases, in various countries, with the common dishes. COOMBE, WILLIAM, author of several popular works, including the Diaboliad; the Devil upon two Sticks in England, a continuation and imitation of Le Sage's novel, but far inferior, in spirit and graphic delineation, to the original ; the Tour of Dr Syntax in search of the picturesque, &c. The last mentioned poem was originally written for Mr Ackermann, and published, by him, in the Poetical Magazine with Rowlandson's illustrations. Mr Ackermann, in 1812, published a history of Westminster Abbey, in 2 vols, 4to, from the pen of this gentleman, who also was a principal contributor of essays, short pieces il- lustrative of engravings, &c., to many of his miscel- lanies. Mr Coombe's last poem was the History of Johnny Quae Genus, which, like his Syntax, English Dance of Death, and Dance of Life, was accompanied by Rowlandson's prints. In his youth, Mr Coombe inherited a moderate fortune, which he soon dissipat- ed; and, during the last years of his long life, literature was his principal Support. He died, June 18, 1823. COOPER, ANTHONY ASHLEY, first earl of Shaftes. bury, and a statesman of considerable eminence in the reign of Charles II., was born in 1621. At the age of fifteen, he entered Exeter college, Oxford, whence he removed to Lincoln's Inn, with a view, to the study of the law ; but was chosen representative for Tewkesbury, in 1640, while only in his nineteenth year. At the commencement of the civil war, he sided with the king's party, though he appeared to deem mutual concession necessary. In consequence of this opinion, finding himself distrusted by the court, he went over to the parliament, and, in 1644, storm- ed Wareham, and reduced all the adjacent parts. He had some share in the private negotiation between the king and lord Hollis, at the fruitless treaty of Uxbridge, and is said to have contrived the insurrec- tion of the club mem. When Cromwell turned out the long parliament, Sir Anthony was one of the mem- bers of the convention which succeeded. He was, nevertheless, a subscriber to the protestation, which charged the protector with arbitrary government, a fact which did not prevent him from becoming one of his privy council. After the deposition of Richard Cromwell, he was privately engaged in a plan for the restoration of Charles II., which he subsequently aided with all his influence. He was one of the twelve members who carried the invitation to the king, and was, soon after, made a privy counsellor, and a commissioner for the trial of the regicides. In 1661, he was raised to the peerage, by the title of baron Ashley, and appointed chancellor of the ex- chequer, and a lord of the treasury. He was also a leading member of the Cabal. He promoted the de 442. claration for liberty of conscience; but, on the other hand, he supported the Dutch war, and issued illegal writs for the election of members of parliament during a recess, and, in other respects, exhibited much lati- tude of principle and of practice. In 1672, he was created earl of Shaftesbury and lord high chancellor. His conduct on the bench was able and impartial. He had not, however, been more than a year in of. fice, when the seals were taken from him; and, from that moment, he became one of the most powerful leaders of the opposition. For his warmth in asserting that a prorogation of fifteen months amounted to a dissolution of parliament, he was Com- mitted to the Tower, and was not released until after a full submission. Whether the popish plot, in 1678, was of his contrivance, is uncertain ; but he made use of it to force out the earl of Danby's administra- tion, and produce the formation of a new one, in which he was himself made president of the council. Amid many violent party proceedings which follow- ed, he was the author of that bulwark of liberty, the habeas corpus act. He only remained in the admin- istration four months, when the interest of the duke of York once more prevailed against a statesman whose endeavours to promote a bill for his exclusion from the succession had been unremitting. On his dismissal from office, he was charged with having attempted subornation of perjury. He was, in con- sequence, once more committed to the Tower, and tried for high treason; but was acquitted by the jury amidst prodigious acclamations of the people— a circumstance which stimulated Dryden to the pro- duction of his celebrated poem of Absalom and Ahithophel, in which Shaftesbury is so unfavourably conspicuous. Not long after this acquittal, the earl withdrew to Holland, where he arrived in November, 1682, and where he died, of the gout in his stomach, on the 22d of Jan., 1683. The career of this able, but dubious and versatile statesman, forms the best commentary on his public principles, and declares him to be rather a bold, active, and enterprising man of expediency, than a great politician. Yet the cha- racter of a man sincerely esteemed by Locke, and other men of undoubted principle, is not to be impli- citly taken from the odium excited by opposing party feelings. On the whole, this extraordinary person appears to have possessed many vices, always re- deemed by a great portion of ability, and a leaning to broad and liberal principles of government, when he could freely display it. COOPER, ANTHONY ASHLEY, third earl of Shaftes- bury, a celebrated philosophical and moral writer, was born at Exeter-house, in London, in February, 1671. He was grandson to the subject of the pre- ceding article, who early instructed him in Greek and Latin, placing about him a female who spoke those languages with considerable fluency. He could read them both with ease when only eleven years of i. He was then placed at a private school, and finally removed to Winchester. At the latter establishment he did not remain long, but went on his travels ear- lier than was customary. On his return to England, in 1689, he became the representative of Poole, in Dorsetshire, and distinguished himself, while in par- liament, by his support of measures favourable to public liberty. His health suffered so much by par- liamentary attendance, that, in 1698, he #. up his seat, and, visiting Holland in the assumed character of a student of physic, he prosecuted his studies, and became intimately acquainted with Bayle, Le Clerc, and other literary men. On his return to England, he succeeded to the earldom ; and, although not a constant attendant of the house of lords, he was al- ways ready on important occasions. King William offered him the post of secretary of state, which his COOPER—CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. health would not allow him to accept. On the ac- cession of Anne, he took leave of public life, and Once more visited Holland, to which he was much attached, where he remained for two years. In 1708, in consequence of the extravagances of the French prophets, he published his Letter on Enthusiasm, in which he opposed prosecution and personal punish- ments. In 1709, he published his Moralists, a Phi- losophical Rhapsody; being an eloquent defence of the doctrine of a Deity and providence, on the Plato- nic model; which piece is ranked by bishop Hurd among the most finished productions of the kind in the English language. His Sensus Communis soon followed, and, in 1710, his Soliloquy, or Advice to an Author; after which his health declined so rapid- ly, that he was advised to fix his residence at Naples, in which city he died, in February, 1713, in the forty- second year of his age, but not before he had finished his Judgment of Hercules, and Letter concerning Design. His Works appeared, in three volumes, 8vo, in 1713, under the title of Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, and Times. In 1716, some of his private letters, upon philosophical and theological subjects, were published, under the title of Several Letters, written by a Noble Lord to a Young Man at the University, 8vo; and, in 1721, another collection, entitled Letters from the Right Honourable the Earl of Shaftesbury to Robert Molesworth, Esquire, &c. The principal attention of Lord Shaftesbury was, however, directed to the writings of antiquity, on which he built a civil, social, and theistic kind of philosophy. In his Essay on Wit and Humour, he defends the application of ridicule, as a test of truth, His principal merit is a lively and elegant mode of discus- sion, somewhat fettered by his uncommon solicitude in regard to style, to which no English author has at: tended with more assiduity. In all his works, lord Shaftesbury appears a zealous advocate for liberty, and a firm believer in the fundamental doctrines of natural religion; but, although he professed a re- spect for Christianity, he was doubtless sceptical in regard to revelation, and sometimes indulged his hu- mour, on scriptural points, with correspondent inde- corum. In a moral point of view, his character was very estimable, both as a public and as a private man, and obtained the suffrages of all who knew him. COOPER, SAMUEL, an American clergyman, was born March 28, 1725. He gave early indications of great powers of mind, and, after having been graduat- ed at Harvard college, in 1743, devoted himself to the church. When but twenty years of age, he acquired great reputation as a preacher, and was chosen to suc- ceed his father as colleague with the reverend doctor Colman, in Boston. He continued in this situation until his death, which happened Dec. 29, 1783, in the 59th year of his age. As a preacher, doctor Cooper was, perhaps, the most distinguished man of his day in the United States. He was a sincere and liberal Christian, and of a charitable disposition. He was not only a great theologian, but was also extremely well versed in other branches of learning, particularly in the classics. He was one of the º founders of the American academy of arts and sciences, of which he was the first vice-presi- dent. His patriotism prompted him to take a decided part against Great Britain. He was effica- cious in procuring foreign alliances, and was often consulted by some of the most prominent of the revolutionary characters. His manners were those of a finished gentleman. . With the exception of his political writings, which were published in the journals of the day, his productions were exclusively Sermor?S. CO-OPERATIVE in regard to religion, as well as other matters. SOCIET IES. For severa! COPAL--COPENHAGEN. years, there have been Societies in London, and else- where, for the purpose of encouraging the formation of working communities among the labouring classes. “Wages,” say the co-operatives, “ have been and are continually diminishing. . The inde- pendent day-labourer has almost ceased to exist; the country labourer can seldom live without parish aid: the mechanic begins to find himself in the same situation. Machinery, which multiplies the products, has diminished the demand for workmen, and, in consequence, their wages. The whole secret of the remedy lies in this, that the labourers do not work for themselves, but for the capitalists: if they could work for themselves, they would get the whole pro- duce of their labour, of which they now get only an eighth, or, at most, a fourth. To do this, they must have capital, which must be obtained by union and Saving. Societies may be formed, each member of which pays a small periodical subscription. Instead of putting this out in savings-banks, or investing it in different securities, which yield a small interest, because the capital is employed by others, who must have their profits from it, let the workmen employ themselves on this capital, and thus obtain the whole i. of it themselves. They may purchase goods y wholesale, and sell them at the usual prices to the members. Thus the profits on the articles sold will go to increase their own capital, instead of going into others’ hands. As the capital increases, the society will be able to find work for the members, the whole produce of which will become common property, instead of enriching other employers. After a while, all the members may be thus em- loyed, and they will soon become able to purchase and, cultivate it, establish manufactories, provide for all their wants, food, clothing, &c.; and thus receive all the produce of the labour of the whole.” This reasoning is not mere speculation; it has actu- ally been carried into practice. “There are now,” Says the Quarterly Review (Nov., 1829), “ upwards of seventy co-operative societies in England, and they are spreading so rapidly, that, by the time this number of our Review is published, there will be nearly 100.” But the increase was greater than was anticipated; since the Sunday Atlas of Dec. 6, 1829, gives the number at nearly 150. The benefits which the co-operators promise themselves, are, 1. relief from all fear of poverty, the sick, aged, widows and orphans being provided for by the Society; 2. the supply of the comforts of life without that in- cessant labour which the low rate of wages now requires; 3. leisure and means for the improvement of their moral and intellectual condition. It will be seen that these are not establishments of charity, being established by the poor themselves; that they encourage industry, since each individual must depend, as much as ever, on his own exertions, which are more suitably rewarded, and promote good morals by a strict inquiry into the moral character of . as are desirous of admission to their privi- €2'éS. ºpAL is a somewhat resinous substance, ob- tained from a tree (rhus copallinum) which has winged and very entire leaves, the foot-stalks mem- branaceous and jointed, and is a native of several parts of America. Considerble' quantities of copal are annually exported from the Spanish colonies in America, in irregular masses, some of which are transparent, of a yellowish or brown colour; and others are whitish and semi-transparent. By solu- tion in different ways, it is made into a most beauti- ful and perfect varnish, which has the name of copal warnish. One mode of making this is by melting the copal with an equal quantity of linseed oil; another by mixture with oil of turpentine : and a 443 third, by mixture with alcohol, or spirit of wine. Copal is the varnish which is chiefly applied to snuff. boxes, tea-boards, and other similar articles. CO-PARTNERSHIP. See Partnership. COPECK (kopeika); a Russian copper coin, so called from the impression of St George bearing a lance. A hundred of them make one ruble. (See Coin.) The value of the copper coin, compared with the assignation-ruble, varies in the different govern- mentS. COPENHAGEN (in Danish, Kioebenhavn); the capital of the kingdom of Denmark, and the residence of the king; 55° 41' 4" N. lat. ; 120 35' 6" E. lon. ; on the island of Zealand, in the Sound, and on a narrow branch of the sea, which separates it from the island of Amack. Copenhagen is forti- fied, contains a citadel Called Fredericshaven, and is well built, with regular well-lighted streets, and fine houses, principally of brick. It contains 230 streets and 13 public places, the largest of which, but irregularly built, is the new king's-market, with the statue of Christian V., and the octangular Frederic's- place, in which four streets meet, and in the centre of which is the fine statue of king Frederic V. on horseback. Copenhagen contains twenty-two churches, twenty-two hospitals, thirty alms-houses. three convents, and 105,000 inhabitants, among whom are 2400 Jews. The town is composed of three principal divisions, which are enclosed by the fortifications, viz., the old town, which has been much improved since the fire; the new town, of which the eastern (the finest, but least lively part) is called Fredericstadt; and Chris- tianshaven which is situated on the island of Amack. and is separated from the island of Zealand by an arm of the sea. This channel forms a safe harbour capable of admitting 400 vessels, where the naval arsenal, the dock, and other buildings requisite for the navy, are situated. This is, likewise, the station of the fleet. Outside of the fortifications are three Suburbs, partly composed of fine country-seats. Formerly, there were four royal palaces at Copen- hagen; but, in 1794, the most splendid of these (one of the largest palaces of Europe, called Christians- burg) became a prey to the flames, so that only the ruins and the splendid stables remained. The other three palaces are Charlottenburg, now the repository of the academy of arts, and furnished with a gallery of paintings; the old royal palace Rosenburg, where many antiques and precious articles are kept, adjoin- ing to which is the king's-garden, a public promenade; and the Amalienburg, consisting, properly speaking, of four palaces, which were purchased for the re- sidence of the king after the fire had consumed the palace. - Among the other buildings worthy of being men- tioned are, the arsenal, in which is the royal library containing 250,000 volumes and 3000 manuscripts, (according to a late number of the Foreign Review, it contains 400,000 volumes): the theatre; the ex- change, with the bank; the Trinity church and the beautiful Frederic's church; the large, beautiful, and admirably arranged Frederic's hospital; the found- ling, lying-in, and marine hospitals. Among the scientific establishments are the uni- versity, founded in 1475, with four faculties, twenty ordinary, and sixteen extraordinary professors, a li- brary of 100,000 volumes, with valuable Northern and Oriental manuscripts; a botanical garden and an observatory; the royal surgical academy, which has about 200 students; the academy for military cadets and midshipmen; the royal and university library; the public library of Classen, with 30,000 volumes, founded, in 1776, by two brothers named Classen; several public and private museums; the royal aca- 444 demy of sciences and arts; the society for the study of the Northern languages and history; the Iceland and Scandinavian societies; the surgical academy; 114 schools, among which is one for the deaf and dumb, and one for the blind; the veterinary sehool, the gymnastic establishment, &c. Many of the ad- mired works of Thorwaldsen (q.v.) adorn the churches and palaces of Copenhagen. Besides numerous sorts of mechanics and artists, Copenhagen contains manu. factories, which employ 14,000 hands. Among these are the royal manufactory of porcelain, the manufac- tories of cloth, Calico, silk, cotton, oil-cloth, and paper-hangings, the iron-founderies, and eighteen sugar-refineries, with 520 workmen. Copenhagen is the centre of the domestic and fo– reign commerce of Denmark, which is promoted by the royal bank (founded, in 1736, by Christian VI.), the marine insurance company, the East and West India companies, and by the beautiful harbour, into which about 5000 vessels enter annually. From the 2d to the 5th of Sept., 1807, the town was bom- barded by the British, and 305 houses and other edifices, among which was a beautiful church, were entirely burnt, and 2000 houses injured so as to be rendered uninhabitable: 2000 persons, partly of the garrison and partly citizens, lost their lives. The environs of Copenhagen are, some of them, very fine. In the neighbourhood are the summer palaces of the king—Fredericsberg, the usual summer residence of the court, Hirschholm, Friedensburg, and Jaegerpreis. In 1168, Copenhagen was a fisher's hamlet, which was given by the king to bishop Axel (see Absalom), who fortified it against the pirates, then numerous on the islands. Gradually it rose to great importance, but, of late, its commerce has sunk very much. COPERNICUS, NICHOLAs ; born at Thorn, on the Vistula, Feb. 19, 1473, where his father had become a citizen ten years before. It is supposed that his family came originally from Westphalia. His mother was sister to the bishop of Ermeland. From a school at Thorn, Copernicus went to Cracow, where he studied medicine, and received the degree of doctor. At the same time he studied mathematics and astro- nomy. The fame of Peurbach and Regiomontanus, the restorers of astronomy in Europe, excited his emulation. At the age of twenty-three, he went to Italy, where the arts and sciences were beginning to flourish, after the fall of the Byzantine empire. At Bologna, he was instructed in astronomy by Domi- nicus Maria, whose intimate friend he became. In 1500, he taught mathematics at Rome with great success, and was already placed by the side of Regio- montanus. From Rome he returned to his own country, where his uncle made him a canon in the cathedral of Frauenburg. In 1521, he was sent, by the chapter, to the diet of Graudentz, one of the prin- cipal objects of which was to put an end to the diffi- culties which had arisen from the irregular coining of money. Here he proposed a plan for establishing a general mint at the public expense; but the cities of Elbing, Dantzic, and Thorn would not give up their right of coining, and the plan of Copernicus was not carried into effect. He now applied his whole strength to the contem- plation of the sublime objects of nature. Among the many hypotheses, with regard to our planetary system, which had been advanced during the previous 2000 years, one had at last prevailed, the most in- genious, and artificial, and the most wonderful mix- ture of sagacity and error which the human mind has ever conceived. Pythagoras, Aristotle, Plato, Hip- parchus, Archimedes, and others, had all adopted it. It was called the system of Ptolemy. (See System of the Universe, and Ptolemy.) Copernicus doubted whether the motions of the heavenly bodies could be COPERNICU.S. so confused and so complicated as this hypothesis would make them; for nature follows, he thought, more simple laws; and, as soon as these are found, they must explain, with simplicity, the most compli- cated appearances. He found, in the writings of the ancients, that Nicetas, Heraclides, and Ecphontus had thought of the possibility of a motion of the earth. This induced him to examine the subject more fully. The hypothesis of Aristarchus of Samos—that the earth revolves in an oblique circle around the sun, and also revolves daily on its own axis—Copernicus could not yet have seen; for it is found in no work previous to his time, except the Arenario of Archi- medes, which was first printed at Venice, at a later period. Copernicus now assumed that the sun was the centre of the system; that the earth was a planet like Mars and Venus; and that all the planets re- volve round the sun in the following order:-Mer- cury, in 87 days; Venus, in 224; the Earth, in 365; Mars, in one year and 321 days; Jupiter, in eleven years; and Saturn in 29 years. When he afterwards described their paths, he found that these circles, not- withstanding their simplicity, fully explained all the motions of the heavenly bodies, and that the apparent stations and retrogradations of the planets necessarily resulted from the motion of the earth. Thus was discovered the true system of the universe. Thus Copernicus stands, as it were upon the boundary line of a new era. (See Earth, and Astronomy.) He died June 11, 1543, in the 71st year of his age. His great countryman, Kepler, has described his charac- ter in the following words: Copernicus, vir maa'imo ingenio, et quod in hoc ea'ercitio magni moment; est, animo liber. The great and excellent character of this philosopher best appears in the letter with which he addresses his work to the pope. Excommunica- tion, however, was issued from the Vatican against Copernicus, and it was not till two hundred and seventy-eight years after the publication of the work, in 1821, that the papal court annulled the sentence. Let us review the progress of Copernicus's dis- covery. He commences his labours at a time when the belief in the immobility of the earth is universal. He conceives the idea of its motion, and pursues it with unwearied diligence, not for a few years, but through the greater part of his life, constantly com- paring it with the appearances in the heavens. He at last confirms his idea, and thus becomes the founder of a new system of astronomy. All this he did, a hundred years before the invention of telescopes,with miserable . wooden instruments, on which the lines were often only marked with ink. In his immortal work, dedi- cated to the pope, Paul III., De Orbium coelestium Revolutionibus, libri vi. (first published at Nuremburg. 1543, folio; later editions appeared at Basle, 1566, and Amsterdam, 1617), his system is developed. Besides his principal work, we have by the same au- thor, Astronomia Instaurata, in six books, and a work, De Lateribus et Angulis Triangulorum. His principal work was completed in 1530; but he de- termined to publish it only at the repeated Solicita- tions of his friends. As the first impression appeared May 24, 1543, Copernicus enjoyed but for a few days the pleasure of seeing his work in the hands of the world. (See Rhaeticus, Narratio de Libris Revol. coelest. Copernici, Dantzic, 1546, 4to). He there advances his system merely as a hypothesis, which explains, in a more simple and natural manner than the previous ones, the phenomena of the heavens. This was a precaution which the prejudices of the times obliged him to take; but an inspection of the book shows with what full and thorough conviction he was persuaded that his system was the only possi- ble one. Gassendi, as well as Lichtenberg, has written a Life of Copernicus (Pita Nic. Copernici. COPIAPO-COPPER. Accessit Gassendi Pita Tycho-Brahei, Hague, 1652, 4to). See, also, Adam's Pita Philosophorum Ger- manorum, page 26. , Doctor Westphal has given a good narrative of the life of Nicholas Coper- nicus (Constance, 1822). Count Sierakowski has erected a monument to his memory, in St Anne's church at Cracow, with this inscription taken from the Bible —Sta, Sol, ne moveare. “He commanded the sun to stand still.” Thorwaldsen, the greatest sculptor of the age, has executed a colossal statue of Copernicus, for the city of Cracow, which is one of the most noble specimens of modern art. COPIAPO ; a jurisdiction in Chile, rich in gold mines, situated on the north part of Chile. There are likewise mines of iron, copper, Sulphur, lead, mercury, silver, and lapis lazuli. Arsenic also is found. Saltpetre is common. COPIAPO ; a seaport of Chile, which gives its name to the jurisdiction; 140 miles N. N. W. Rioja; lon. 710 18' W. ; lat. 27° 10' S. ; population, 1700. It is situated on a river of the same name, twelve leagues from the sea. The houses are irregularly built. COPLEY, JoHN SINGLETON, a self-taught and distinguished painter, was born in 1738, in Boston, Massachusetts, and died in London, in 1815. Cop- ley began to paint at a very early age ; and pieces, executed by him in Boston, before (to use his own words) he had seen any tolerable picture, and cer- tainly before he could have received any instruction, in the art of painting, from the lips of a master, show his natural talent, and, in fact, were unsurpass- ed by his later productions. He did not visit Italy till 1774. In 1776, he came to Britain, where he met his wife and children, whom he had left in Bos- ton. . As the struggle between Britain and America had begun in 1775, there was neither a good op- portunity for Mr Copley to return to his native land, which he always seems to have had in view, nor was there much hope of success for an ar- tist in the convulsed state of the country. He there- fore devoted himself to portrait-painting in London, and was chosen a member of the royal academy. His first picture, which may be called historical, was The Youth rescued from a Shark; but the picture styled Death of Lord Chatham, which represents the great orator fainting in the house of lords, after the memorable speech in favour of America, and coll- tains, at the same time, the portraits of all the lead- ing men of that house, at once established his fame. In 1790, Copley was sent, by the city of London, to Hanover, to take the portraits of the four Hanove- rian officers, commanders of regiments associated with the British troops under general Elliot, (after- wards lord Heathfield), at the defence of Gibraltar, in order to introduce them in the large picture, which he was about making for the city, of the siege and relief of Gibraltar, which was afterwards placed in the council-chamber of Guildhall. Mr Copley pur- sued his profession with unabated ardour, until his sudden death, in 1815. Besides the pictures already mentioned, and a number of portraits, including those of several members of the royal family, the most distinguished of his productions are Major Pierson's Death on the Island of Jersey ; Charles I., in the House of Commons, demanding of the Speak- er Lenthall the five impeached Members, containing the portraits of the most distinguished members of that house; the Surrender of Admiral de Winter to Lord Duncan, on board the Venerable of Camper- down ; Samuel and Eli, &c.; of all of which en- gravings exist, though of some (for instance, of the last mentioned piece), they are extremely rare. Mr Copley's eldest, and only surviving son, now lord Lyndhurst, and formerly high chancellor of England, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, May 445 21, 1772; went, with his mother and sisters, in 1775, to England; was sent at the age of seven years, to a boarding-school at Chatham, near Lon: don, and after the lapse of a few years he was placed under the reverend doctor Horne of Chiswick, with whom he remained until he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. He distinguished himself here by assi: duous application, won many prizes, and received the high degree of second wrangler. He afterwards obtained a lay fellowship, and, in 1795, visited the United States. In 1798, he returned to England, commenced the study of the law at Lincoln's Inn, and was, for two years, with Mr Tidd, a distinguished special pleader. In 1816, Mr Copley was elected member of Parliament for Yarmouth. In 1819, he took the degree of serjeant-at-law, and was M.P. for Ashburton, having been made chief justice of Ches- ter in 1818. In 1819, he first became known to the public at large by his able assistance of Sir Charles Wetherel, in his defence of the eldest Watson, and afterwards by an equally able defence of Thistle- wood, both accused of high treason. Wetherel and Copley were then the idols of the populace, and their names were placarded on every corner. After these displays of talent, the government felt the im- portance of securing his services. He was, there- fore, sent to attend the special commission at Derby, for the trial of Brandreth and his companions. In 1819, he was made solicitor-general, in time to in- volve him officially in the proceedings against the queen, Caroline (q.v.), in which he assisted the attorney-general. In 1824, he was made attorney- general. He became the friend of Canning, and so remained until the death of this minister. In 1826, Mr Copley was chosen M.P. for the university of Cambridge, after an arduous ; In a few months, on the death of lord Gifford, he was made master of the rolls. April 30, 1827, he was made lord high chancellor of England, after Canning had been appointed prime minister, April 12, 1827, and lord Eldon had resigned, and after he had declar: ed himself against Catholic emancipation. April 25, 1827, he was created lord Lyndhurst. When Wellington's administration was formed, lord Lynd- hurst remained in office, but retired on the accession of the Whigs. COPPER is of a red colour, with a tinge of yellow, having considerable lustre, but liable to tarnish and rust from exposure to the air. It is moderately hard, and has considerable ductility and malleability. . Its specific gravity is 878. It has a sensible odour, especially when heated or rubbed, a styptic, un- pleasant taste, and is peculiarly poisonous to animals. in treating of this metal we shall defer our account of its ores, which are numerous, until we have Con- cluded its chemical history. - Copper melts at a full white heat, and, by slow cooling, may be crystallized. It suffers oxidation at a lower temperature from the action of the air, thin scales of oxide forming on its surface when it is heat- ed to redness. At a higher heat, it burns with a green flame. Exposure to air and humidity, at the natural temperatures, converts it into a green rust, which is the oxide combined with a portion of carbo- nic acid. There are two oxides of copper. The protoxide is of a red colour, and occurs native, in the form of octoedral crystals, in the mines of Cornwall. It is also prepared artificially, by mixing sixty four parts of metallic copper, in a state of fine division, with eighty parts of the peroxide, and heating the mixture to redness in a close vessel; or by boiling a solution of the acetate of copper with sugar, when the per- oxide is gradually deoxidized, and subsides as a red powder. It consists of one atom, or proportional, of 446 copper, 64, and one of oxygen, 8, -72. The sulphu- ric, muriatic, and probably several other acids, form with it salts, which, for the most part are colourless. On exposure to the air, they attract oxygen, and are rapidly converted into per-salts. The peroxide of copper is also found native, and may be prepared artificially by calcining metallic copper, by precipita- tion from the per-salts of copper, by means of pure potash, or by heating the nitrate of copper to redness. It is composed of one atom of copper, 64, and two of oxygen, 16, = 80. . It waries in colour from a dark- brown to a bluish-black, is insoluble in water, and does not affect the vegetable blue colours. It un- dergoes no change by heat alone, but is readily reduced to the metallic state by heat and combustible matter. It combines with nearly all the acids, and most of its salts have a green or blue tint. It is so- luble, likewise, in ammonia, forming with it a deep blue solution—a property by which the peroxide of copper is distinguishable from all other substances. Metallic copper is oxidated and dissolved by the greater number of the acids, and forms with them, in general, soluble, and crystallizable salts. Sulphuric acid, either concentrated or diluted, oxi- dates it, and combines with the peroxide, especially when assisted by heat. The solution is of a blue co- lour, and, when evaporated, affords crystals in the form of rhomboidal prisms. This salt is the blue vit- riol of commerce, and is usually obtained, either by evaporation of the solution of it, formed by the infil- tration of water through copper mines, or by expo- sure of sulphuret of copper to the action of air and humidity, until the sulphur is converted into Sulphu- ric acid, and the metal is oxidated and combined with it. Nitric acid acts on copper with great energy, the metal attracting a portion of its oxygen, nitric oxide gas being º and the oxide combining with the remaining acid. The solution, when evaporated, affords prismatic crystals, of a deep-green colour, de- liquescent, and easily soluble in water. From the facility with which it parts with oxygen, it acts with energy on several substances. Thus it detonates when struck with phosphorus, and it burns several of the metals. If wrapped in tinfoil, the tin is oxidated with such rapidity as to be attended with inflamma- tion. Muriatic acid dissolves copper slowly, when the air is admitted: if it is excluded, the action is very inconsiderable, unless heat is applied. The solution is of a fine green colour, and, by evaporation, slender prismatic crystals are obtained, which are deliques- cent, and very soluble in water. The combinations of peroxide of copper with phos- phoric, carbonic, and other acids, are effected by add- ing to a solution of nitrate or sulphate of copper a solution of a neutral salt, containing the acid with which the copper is designed to be combined. Cop- per is slowly oxidated by a number of weaker acids, as by some vegetable juices, when acted on by them with the admission of air. Acetic acid, or vinegar, in particular, forms an important compound with the oxide of copper. To obtain it, copper plates are ex- posed to the fumes of vinegar. A crust is soon formed of a green colour, which is the verdigris of COmmerce. All the Salts of copper are decomposed by the al- kalies and earths. Potash, soda, and the alkaline earths, throw down precipitates, which are of various shades of green or blue, according to the quantity of alkali added, the colour being green, if a small quan- tity is added, and becoming blue from a larger quan- tity. These precipitates are sub-salts, the alkali attracting the greater portion of the acid, but the oxide precipitated still retaining a portion of the acid combined with it. COPPER. The action of ammonia upon the salts of copper is more remarkable. It first abstracts a portion of the acid, and throws down a green or blue precipitate, which is a sub-salt; but, when added in larger quan- tity, it redissolves this precipitate, and forms a trans- parent solution, of a very deep-blue colour, which, when evaporated, affords fine blue crystals. A triple compound, used in medicine under the name of amy- moniuret of copper, is prepared by triturating toge- ther two parts of sulphate of copper with one part of carbonate of ammonia, the mass becoming soft from the mutual action of the two salts, the carbonic acid being disengaged with effervescence, and the triple compound of sulphuric acid, oxide of copper, and am- monia, being obtained of a deep violet-blue colour. Copper is precipitated in its metallic state, from its saline solutions, by Zinc and iron; either of these metals attracting the oxygen which serves as the medium of its union with the acid of the solution. Its oxide is precipitated by albumen, and the precipi- tate is almost inert; hence the whites of eggs have been recommended as an antidote to the poisonous Salts of copper. - The best mode of detecting copper, when sus- pected to be present in mixed fluids, is by sulphureted hydrogen. The sulphuret, after being collected, should be placed on a piece of porcelain, and digest ed in a few drops of nitric acid. A sulphate of cop- per is formed, which, when evaporated to dryness, strikes the characteristic deep blue, on the addition of a drop of ammonia. Copper and sulphur unite by fusion, the combina- tion being attended with the evolution of heat and light. A bi-sulphuret of copper also exists in copper pyrites. Copper combines with a great number of the me. tals by fusion. It communicates hardness to gold and silver, without much impairing their ductility, or de- basing their colour, when in small proportion; hence it is employed in the standard alloys of these metals, that of gold containing one-twelfth, that of silver one- sixteenth, of the mass. With platina, it forms an alloy, ductile, and susceptible of a fine polish. With tin, it forms several valuable alloys, which are cha- racterized by their sonorousness. Bronze is an alloy of copper, with about eight or ten per cent. of tin, together with small quantities of other metals, which are not essential to the compound. Cannons are cast with an alloy of a similar kind, and the ancient bronze statues were of nearly the same composition. See Bronzes. Bell-Metal is composed of eighty parts of copper and twenty of tin. The Indian gong, so much cele- brated for the richness of its tones, contains copper and tin in this proportion. The proportion of tin in bell-metal varies, however, from one-third to one- fifth of the weight of the copper, according to the sound required, the size of the bell, and the impulse to be given. . M. d’Arcet has discovered that bell- metal, formed in the proportion of Seventy-eight parts of copper, united with twenty-two of tin, is, indeed, nearly as brittle as glass, when cast in a thin plate, or gong; yet, if it be heated to a cherry red, and plunged into cold water, being held between two plates of iron, that the plate may not bend, it becomes malleable. Gongs, cymbals, and tamtams have been manufactured with this compound. Brass. Copper and zinc unite in several propor. tions, forming alloys of great importance in the arts. The best brass consists of four parts of copper to one of zinc ; and, when the latter is in greater propor- tion, compounds are formed called tombac, Dutch gold, and pinchbeck. An alloy called Bath metal is made by adding nine pounds of zinc to thirty-two of brass; and an extremely pale, nearly white metal, COPPER. used by the button-makers of Birmingham, under the name of platina, by adding five pounds of zinc to eight of brass. The brothers Keller, who were very iº statue-founders, used an alloy, 10,000 parts of which containing 9140 of copper, 553 of zinc, 170 of tin, and 137 of lead. Their castings are famous, and some are of very large size, as the eques- trian statue of Louis XIV., cast at a single jet, by Balthazar Keller, in 1699, which is twenty-one feet high, and weighs 53,263 French pounds. . These statues are usually called bronze statues, although made of brass. Brass was well known to the Ro- mans, under the name of oriehaleum, who took ad- vantage of its resemblance to gold, in robbing the temples, and other public places, of that precious metal. Thus Julius Caesar robbed the capitol of 3000 pounds’ weight of gold, and Vitellius despoiled the temples of their gifts and ornaments, and re- placed them with this inferior compound. The art of tinning copper consists in covering that metal with a thin layer of tin, in order to protect its surface from rusting. For this purpose, pieces of tin are placed upon a well-polished sheet of Copper, which, if the process is skilfully conducted, adhere uniformly to its surface. The oxidation of the tin— a circumstance which would entirely prevent the success of the operation—is avoided by employing fragments of resin, or muriate of ammonia, and re- gulating the temperature with great care. tal, is of a red colour, but frequently tarnished. Its lustre is metallic: it is flexible, ductile, and malle- able: its fracture is hackly. It occurs in branched pieces, dendritic, in thin plates, and rarely in regular crystals, under the form of the cube or octoedron. It is found in the veins of primitive rocks, and of the older Secondary. It is occasionally accompanied by several of the ores of copper, and sometimes those of other metals. One of the largest masses of this sub- stance ever noticed was discovered by School- craft, in the North West Territory, about thirty miles from lake Superior, on the west bank of the river Ontonagon. It weighs, by estimation, 2200 pounds. It lies near the water's edge, at the foot of an elevat- ed bank of alluvion. Native copper is frequently found in connexion with the secondary greenstone and red sandstone formation in America. Its greatest known depositories, however, are the mines of Cornwall in England. 2. Sulphuret of Copper. Under this name may be described a series of ores containing copper, sulphur, and variable proportions of other metals, which, by Some mineralogists, are conceived to pass into each other, and, of course, are improperly arranged as distinct species. Its principal varieties are the vi- treous copper ore, the purple copper, grey copper, and yellow copper pyrites. a. Pitreous Copper is of a lead or iron-grey colour. It occurs crystallized in regular six-sided prisms, mostly modified on the terminal edges, and in acute, double, six-sided pyramids, with triangular planes. It also occurs massive. The cross-fracture of the crys- tallized is often conchoidal, with a vitreous lustre: the massive varies greatly in respect of hardness and colour. It is sometimes sectile and soft. The frac- ture is even, or flat conchoidal. Specific gravity, 4-8 to 5:4. It consists, according to Chenevix, of 81 copper and 19 sulphur. It occurs in veins and beds, in primitive and early secondary rocks, and is found with other ores of copper. In the United States, it has been met with very often in the old red sandstone, but is nowhere wrought as yet, to advan- tage. It abounds in Cornwall, and many European countries. - 6. Purple Copper occurs both massive and crystal- 447 lized. Its colour is between copper-red, and tombac- brown. It is often possessed of an iridescent tarnish, in which blue is apt to prevail. The general form of the crystal is that of a cube, of which the solid angles are replaced. It is soft, easily frangible, and sectile in a slight degree. Specific gravity, 5:033. That of Norway consists of copper 69.50, Sulphur 19, iron 7:50, and oxygen 4. It is fusible into a globule, which acts powerfully upon the magnetic needle. The purple copper is found in Norway, Saxony, and England, and occurs under similar circumstances with the other ores of copper. c. The Grey Copper, or Fahlerz, is of a steel-grey or iron-black colour. It occurs crystallized in the form of the tetraedron, in which no regular structure is visible; it also occurs massive and disseminated. 1us fracture is uneven or imperfectly conchoidal, with a shining or glistening metallic lustre. It is brittle. Specific gravity, 4-5. It consists of 52 copper, 23 iron, and 14 sulphur; but it also contains, mixed with these constituents, various other metals, in very variable proportions, as lead, antimony, and silver. It occurs in Russia, France, Spain, England, Chile, and Mexico. d. Yellow Copper Ore, or Copper Pyrites, occurs of various shades of yellow, crystallized in the form of the tetraedron, having the solid angles replaced, and massive. It is also stalactitic and botryoidal. It is brittle, yields to the knife, and may thereby easily ORES OF CoPPER.—1. Native copper, like the me- be distinguished from iron pyrites, which it often much resembles. Specific gravity, 4-3. It contains copper 30, iron 32°20, sulphur 35:16, earthy matter 0.50, lead, arsenic, and loss, 2:14. It is the most abundant of all the ores of copper, and affords almost exclusively, the copper of commerce. It exists both in primitive and secondary rocks, and is accompanied by most of the other ores of copper, sometimes ga- lena, oxide of tin, and several of the ores of iron. It is found in North and South America, most Euro- pean countries, in Japan, and Africa. . In the year ending June 30, 1817, 73,727 tons of copper ore (principally copper pyrites), which sold for £410,936, and yielded 6425 tons of pure copper, were raised from the mines of Cornwall only; being more than three-fourths of the quantity raised from the British IIll IlêS. 3. Red Owide of Copper is of a red colour, varying greatly in its shades, and, by transmitted light, often of a crimson red. It occurs crystallized in the form of the octoedron, and its varieties, which are very nu- merous. The crystals are externally splendent, but sometimes of a lead-grey colour, with a metallic lus- tre. The cross-fracture is sometimes uneven ; oftener conchoidal with a splendent and somewhat adaman- time lustre. It is transparent, or translucent, yields easily to the knife, and is brittle. Specific gravity, 4-9 to 5-6. It consists, according to Chenevix, of 88.5 copper, and 11.5 of oxygen. Red oxide of cop- per is also found in delicate capillary crystals, as well as massive, when it is opaque, and frequently granu- lar in its fracture. The brick-red, or tile copper ore, which occurs earthy, or a little indurated, appears to be a mixture of oxide of copper and oxide of iron. This species is found in the primitive and transition rocks, associated with the other ores of copper. It is found finely crystallized in the English mines, and at Chessy in France. It also occurs in the Hartz, the Bannat, Hungary, Chile, and Peru, but, hitherto, has not been found, except in very limited quantities, in the United States. & 4. Carbonate of Copper. Oxide of copper, combin- ed with carbonic acid, forms two species—the blue, and the green carbonate; the differences between which arise either from different states of oxidation, or in part from the combination of water. 448 a. Blue Carbonate, or Azure Copper Ore, is found in shining, translucent crystals, whose figure is that of rhombic prisms, variously acuminated, and modifi- ed by secondary planes. The colour is azure-blue, fre- quently of great intensity. It sometimes occurs in an-earthy form, as an incrustation, and is occasion- ally massive, without lustre. As analyzed by Mr Phillips, it consists of 69 peroxide of copper, 25.4 carbonic acid, and 5-4 water. It occurs in the cop- per mines of England, and of European countries generally, also in South America. b. Green Carbonate of Copper, or Malachite, occurs massive, disseminated, and crystallized in capillary and acicular crystals. Its colour is green, and the lustre of the fibrous varieties silky and pearly. It is soft and brittle, but admits of a beautiful polish, and is highly esteemed in inlayed work. . It contains more oxygen and more water than the blue carbon- ate. It occurs along with the other ores of copper. The finest specimens are brought from Siberia. 5. Phosphate of Copper is a rare ore, which was formerly regarded as malachite, but is now known to be a bi-phosphate of the peroxide of copper. It oc- curs massive, and disseminated in minute prismatic or octoedral crystals, of a green colour. It is found in Hungary. 6. Muriate of Copper is another rare species, which occurs in angular grains, of a bright green colour, among the sands of the river Lipas, in the desert of Atacama, separating Chile from Peru ; also in mi- nute prismatic crystals, of an emerald-green colour, on brown iron stone, at Remolinos, in Chile. It is soft and brittle. Specific gravity, 4.4. It tinges the flame of the blowpipe of a bright green and blue, muriatic acid fumes are evolved, and a bead of copper remains on the charcoal. 7. Arseniate of Copper. Copper, combined with arsenic acid, forms several species, differing in the re- lative proportions, and in the quantity of water in thern. Five are usually enumerated, which were dis- tinguished by Chenevix. One variety—the Octoedral arseniate of copper—occurs crystallized in the form of an obtuse octoedron. Its usual colour is sky-blue; sometimes apple or grass-green. It is translucent, shining, and brittle. Specific gravity, 2-881. It consists of peroxide of copper 49, arsenic acid 14, and not less than 35 of water. A second, copper mica, or the rhomboidal arseniate of copper of Phillips, is crystallized in hexaedral tables, bevelled on the terminal planes. Its colour is deep emerald- green, with considerable lustre and transparency. It is less hard and less heavy than the foregoing species, and consists of 58 of oxide of copper, 21 of arsenic acid, and 21 of water. A third, the right prismatic arseniate of copper, as it is termed by Phil- lips, is crystallized in the form of an acute Octoedron, the crystals being sometimes capillary, in some speci- mens appearing as delicate fibres, and sometimes in layers, flat or mammillated, and of a fibrous texture. The colour in these is dark olive-green, passing into brown or yellow, or greenish-white. It is often transparent; it is harder than the preceding species, and is much heavier. It consists of 50 parts of oxide of copper, from 30 to 40 of arsenic acid, with, in Some varieties, 20 of water. Another species occurs crystallized in triedral prisms, generally extremely small: they are of a beautiful bluish-green colour, but, from decomposition, often black; when unal- tered, they are transparent. It consists of 54 oxide of copper, 30 arsenic acid, and 16 water. All the foregoing species are found along with other copper ores in the English mines. The sulphurets are the ores from which copper is usually extracted. The ore is roasted by a low heat, in a furnace with which flues are connected, in which COPPER—COPT. the sulphur that is volatilized is collected. The re- maining ore is then smelted in contact with the fuel. The iron present in the ore, not being so easily re- duced or fused as the Copper, remains in the scoria, while the copper is run out. It often requires re- peated fusions, and, even after these, it may be still alloyed with portions of metals which are not volatile, and are of easy fusion. Hence the Copper of Com- merce is never altogether pure, but generally corb tains a little lead, and a smaller portion of antimony. The carbonates of copper reduced by fusion, in con- tact with the fuel, afford a purer copper, as does also the solution of sulphate of copper which is met with in some mines, the copper being precipitated in its metallic state, by immersing iron in the solution. The precipitate which is thus formed is afterwards fused. Copper, being ductile and easily wrought, is ap- plied to many useful purposes. It is formed into thin sheets by being heated in a furnace, and sub jected to pressure between iron rollers. These sheets being both ductile and durable, are applied to a variety of uses, such as the sheathing of the bottoms of ships, the covering of roofs and domes, the con- structing of boilers and stills of a large size, &c. Copper is also fabricated into a variety of household utensils, the use of which, however, for preparing of preserving articles of food, is by no means free from danger, on account of the oxidizement to which cop- per is liable. It has been attempted to obviate this danger by tinning the copper, as above described. This method answers the purpose as long as the coat- ing of tin remains entire. Copper may be forged into any shape, but will not bear more than a red heat, and, of course, requires to be heated often. The bottoms of large boilers are frequently forged with a large hammer worked by machinery. The bolts of copper used for ships, and other purposes, are either made by the hammer, or cast into shapes, and rolled. The copper cylinders used in Calico printing are either cast solid upon an iron axis, or are cast hollow, and fitted upon the axis. The whole is afterwards turned, to render the surface true. COPPERAS, or GREEN VITRIOL, is a mineral substance, formed by the decomposition of pyrites by the moisture of the atmosphere. Its colour is bright green, and its taste very astringent. A solution of it in water, dropped on Oak bark, instantly produces a black spot. Copperas is occasionally found in grottoes, caverns, the galleries of mines, and other places. It is in much request with dyers, tanners, and the manufacturers of ink, and, for their use, is artificially prepared from pyrites. This mineral bein § moistened and exposed to the air, a crust is forme upon it, which is afterwards dissolved in water: from this the crystals of vitriol are obtained by evapora- tion. The principal use of vitriol is in dyeing woollen articles, hats, &c., black. It is the basis of ink, and is used in the manufacture of Prussian blue. If it be reduced to powder by the action of fire in a crucible, and mixed with powder of galls, it forms a dry, port- able ink. COPPERPLATES. See Engraving. COPT, a name given to the natives of Egypt be- longing to the Jacobite or Monophysite Sect, is a term of Arabic formation, manifestly a corruption of the Greek word Aiyººr-tos, converted, by the Arabs, into Kubtá, or Käbti, pronounced Gubtá, or Gybi, by the Egyptians. The Jacobites who were exclusively of pure Egyptian blood, and far more numerous than their adversaries, the Melkites (Greeks in faith as well as origin), having been persecuted as heretics by the Greek emperor, were willing to submit to the arms of Amru-Ibn eláás, the Arabian commander, who granted to them immunities which they had not COPT--COPY. previously possessed, and protected their church from the encroachments of the Constantinopolitan see. But the Copts soon found that their privileges would be of little avail under oppressive or fanatical princes." Their wealth, numbers, and respectability rapidly de- clined; and, though rarely intermarrying with their conquerors, and preserving their features, manners, and religion unaltered, they soon lost their language, which had resisted the influence of a Grecian court for so many ages. Their alphabetical characters, which, with a very few exceptions, were borrowed from the Greek, and probably first introduced towards the latter end of the third century, had contributed to preserve their language in its original form, while a desire of instructing the people had led the monks to compose many religious works in their vernacular tongue; but the poverty and ignorance, which soon sprung up from the oppression under which they la- boured, could not fail to cut-them off from the use of such instructors, and accustom them to neglect a language which served only as an invidious distinc- tion. In the lower, or northern provinces, it appears to have been little, if at all, spoken as early as the tenth century, though used and studied, as a learned language, as late as the fifteenth century. In the Sãid, or Upper Egypt, which was less exposed to foreign influence, it prevailed much longer, and the . dialect of that country was generally spoken by the people in the beginning of the sixteenth cen- tury. Wamsleb, who was there in the latter part of the seventeenth century, saw the last of the Copts to whom this language could be said to be vernacular. It is an original tongue, having no distinct affinity with any other, though many Greek words have been introduced, unaltered by Christian writers, and seve- ral terms appear to have been anciently borrowed from the Hebrew. The Coptic version of the New Testament is valuable on account of its antiquity, dating, according to several critics, as early as the second century, and not later than the fifth, at the lowest computation. As a relic of the ancient Egyp- tian, also, the Coptic language is deserving of atten- tion; and the light which a study of the fragments written in it will throw on the history and antiquities of ancient Egypt has been clearly shown in the works of M. Quatremères and M. Champollion. In person and features, the Copts differ much from the other natives of Egypt, and are evidently a dis- tinct race—an intermediate link in the chain which connects the Negro with the fairer tribes to the north and south of the tropics, strongly resembling the Abyssinians, who, though extremely dark, are much paler than the genuine Negroes. Dark eyes, aqui- line noses, and curled hair are the usual characteris- tics of both nations; and the mummies which have been examined show the resemblance of the modern Copts to their ancestors. (Blumenbach, in Com- ment. Reg. Sec. Gottingen, xiv., 38.) Reduced, by a long series of oppression and misrule, to a state of degradation, their number and national character have rapidly declined; so that at the highest calcula- tion, they do not now amount to more than between 400,000 and 500,000 souls; according to another ac- count, their number does not exceed 80,000. They are chiefly employed as agricultural labourers. Many, in the larger cities, are engaged in manu- factures and commerce, and most of the various kinds of business requiring much skill. In their hands, moreover, is the whole business of imposing and col- lecting the taxes. This they have managed ever since the Arabs made the conquest of Egypt. The Turks are generally ignorant, and little disposed to business. The beys and mamelukes, being taken from the class of slaves, cannot even read; and thus the care of the finances falls, almost necessarily, into II. . portant language. 449 the hands of the Copts, who make a mysterious sci- ence of their administration, which lone can under- stand but themselves. The following cut represents the costume of a Copt of rank. They are quiet, industrious and saturnine, but are often represented, by travellers, as crafty, fraudulent, and revengeful. All, however, allow that they show a capacity and disposition, which, under more favour- able circumstances, would raise them to a respectable rank in the scale of civilized nations. The Coptic, of which the English Orientalist Woide has published a grammar and dictionary, has become a dead language. In modern times, how- ever, it has been made pretty evident that the dialect of the modern Copts has much resemblance to that of their ancestors; and it has served as a key to the latter, as well as to the long hidden meaning of the hieroglyphics. The celebrated Champollion is said to have prepared a new grammar of the Coptic, which, within a short time, has become a highly im- He expected to prove that Cop- tic is the language used in the ancient hieroglyphics. This j. savant also composed a Coptico- Egyptian dictionary, in three quarto volumes, com- prising the three distinct dialects, viz.: the Thebaic, Memphitic, and Heptanomic. COPY comes from the Latin copia, abundance, be- cause copying a thing is multiplying it. A copyist ought always to understand his original, whether this be a manuscript or a work of art, to avoid the numer- ous blunders which he will otherwise make in most cases in which copying is required. In ancient times, when the art of writing was less improved than it is, at present, and, at the same time, the art of print- ing was not in existence in Europe, good copyists were much esteemed. With the Romans they were slaves, and commanded very high prices. In the middle ages, when learning had fled from the world into the convents, the monks were busily engaged in copying the manuscripts of the ancient clas- sics, and others of a later date; but very often they did not understand what they wrote, or did their work carelessly, because copying was often imposed upon them as a penance; so that great labour has been subsequently spent in correcting the errors of the manuscripts of the middle ages. At the time when copying was the only means of multiplying books, their price was, of course, very great; and this was the case even with common books, as the breviary. In the fine arts, much more talent is me- cessary to produce an exact copy of a masterpiece 2 F 450 than is at first supposed. the original, in the mind of the copyist, his imitation Cannot be perfect. He must have the power to coil- ceive, and transfer to his own canvass, the living Spirit of the piece before him. What an immense difference there is between the copy of an artist of genius and the literal exactness of a Chinese ! This consideration leads us a step further, to the miscon- ception of the character of painting and sculpture, which would confine the artist to a strict imitation of: particular objects in nature. If this were the great aim of the arts, any view of a market would be bet- ter than a Teniers, and any landscape superior to a painting of Claude Lorraine. It is true that a cat so painted as to be hardly distinguishable from the liv- ing animal, or a drop of water which we try to wipe away, call forth our praise of the artist’s skill; but they are only studies. It is the life which breathes throughout nature, and (in the higher branches of the fine arts) the ideals at which nature herself aims, which the artist must be able to conceive and to ex- hibit. It is with the above arts as with the drama. A drama would be an extremely dull, poor, and per- haps vulgar production, if all we could say of it were, that it is an exact copy of certain particular occur- rences. As copies of the great works of art may convey, to a considerable degree, the same pleasure as the originals, it were to be wished that great sculptors would copy their own works, as Thorwald- Sen did his beautiful Triumph of Alexander. The Copy is on a reduced scale, and in terra cotta. COPYING MACHINES. The most convenient mode of multiplying copies of a writing is by litho- graphy, and this mode is much used by merchants and others in preparing circulars; also in the differ- ent departments of government. In Mr Hawkins's polygraph, two or more pens are so connected as to execute, at once, two or more copies. Mr Watt's copying machine is a press, in which moistened bibu- lous paper is forced into close contact with freshly written manuscript. The writing is, of course, re- versed, but, the paper being thin, the characters can be read on the opposite side. Doctor Franklin used to cover writing, while moist, with fine powdered emery, and pass the sheet through a press in contact with a plate of pewter or copper, which thus became sufficiently marked to yield impressions, as in the common mode of copperplate-printing. COPYRIGHT denotes the property which an au- thor has in his literary works, or which any other person has acquired by purchase, and which consists of an exclusive right of publication. In some coun- tries, in Europe, this right is perpetual; in others, as in Britain, France, and the United States of Ame- rica, it is for a limited period. In England, the first legislative proceeding on the subject was the licen. sing act of 1662, which prohibited the publication of any book unless licensed by the lord chamberlain, and entered in the register of the stationers’ com- pany, in which was entered the title of every new book, the name of the proprietor, &c. This and Some subsequent acts being repealed in 1691, the owner of a copyright was left to the protection of the common law, by which he could only recover to the extent of the damage proved, in case of its infringe- ment. New applications were therefore made to parliament, and, in 1709, a statute was passed (8 Anne, 19), by which the owner of a copyright was required to deliver a copy of his book to each of nine public libraries, and severe penalties were provided for guarding the property of copyright against in- truders for fourteen years, and no longer. In 1801 the act was extended to Ireland, and two additional copies of all works entered in stationers’ hall were to be delivered: one to Trinity college, Dublin and Without a reproduction of one to King's Inns, Dublin. COPYING MACHINES-COPYRIGHT. The delivery of eleven #. copies is very burdensome to authors and pub- ishers, especially when the works are of an expen- sive character, and the impression taken is small. Large books with plates, which may cost ten or twenty pounds a copy, and the demand for which is limited, feel it severely. In America, Prussia, Sax- ony, and Bavaria, only one copy of any work is re- quired ; in France and Austria, two copies are re- quired; in the Netherlands (Belgium and Holland under the old regime),three. Three copies for this country, namely, one for England, one for Scotland, and one for Ireland, would be more reasonable than the present number. The delivery, in some in- stances, was evaded by publishers; but, in 1811, the university of Cambridge brought an action to enforce the delivery, and obtained a verdict; and, in 1814, an act was passed, confirming this claim on the part of the libraries. Notwithstanding the statute of Anne, it was, for Some time, the prevailing opinion, in England, that authors had a permanent, exclusive copyright, at common law; and, in fact, it was decided, in 1769, by the court of king's bench, in the celebrated case of Millar v. Taylor (4 Burr. 2303), that an author had a common law right in perpetuity, independent of the statute, to the exclusive printing and publishing of his original compositions. The court, were not unanimous in this case. Lord Mansfield and two other judges were in favour of the permanency of copyright, in which they were confirmed by judge Blackstone: the fourth judge, Yates, maintained that the words of the statute were a limitation. A sub- sequent decision of the house of lords (1774) settled the question against the king's bench, by establish- ing that the common law right of action, if any exist- ed, could not be exercised beyond the time limited by the statute of Anne; and that the exclusive right should last only fourteen years, with a contingent re- newal for an equal term, if the author happened to be alive at the end of the first period. The law con- tinued on this footing till 1814, when the right was extended to twenty-eight years, by rendering the last fourteen years certain, instead of leaving them con- tingent; and, if the author were living at the end of that period, to the residue of his life.* * As the existing act regarding copyright often requires to be consulted, we subjoin here its principal clauses :- Having recited the acts 8 Anne c. 19, and 41 Geo. 3. c. 107., it enacts, that so much of the said several recited acts as requires that any copies of any books which shall be printed or published, or reprinted and published with addi- tions, shall be delivered by the printers thereof to the ware- house-keeper of the said company of stationers, for the use of any of the libraries in the said act mentioned ; and as re- quires the delivery of the said copies by the warehouse- keeper for the use of the said libraries; and as imposes any penalty on such printer or warehouse-keeper for not de- livering the said copies, shall be repealed. And that eleven printed copies of the whole of every book, and of every volume thereof, upon the paper upon which the largest number or impression of such book shall be printed for sale, together with all maps and prints be- longing thereto, which from and after the passing of this act shall be printed and published, on demand thereof being made in writing to or left at the place of abode of the pub- lisher or publishers thereof, at any time within twelve months next after the publication thereof, under the hand of the warehouse-keeper of the company of stationers, or the librarian or other person thereto authorized by the persons or body politic or corporate, proprietors or managers of the libraries following; videlicet, the British Museum, Sion College, the Bodleian Library at Oxford, the Public Li- brary at Cambridge, the Library of the Faculty of Advocates at Edinburgh, the Libraries of the Four Universities of Scotland, Trinity College Library, and the King's Inn Li- brary at Dublin, or so many of such eleven copies as shall pe respectively demanded, shall be delivered by the publishers thereof respectively, within one month after demand made thereof in writing as aforesaid, to the warehouse-keeper of the said company of stationers; which copies the said warehouse-keeper shall receive for the use of the library COPYRIGHT. in the United States of America the jurisdiction of this subject is vested in the federal government, by the constitution (art. 1. sec. 8), which declares that congress shall have power “to promote the progress 451 of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.” By the acts of congress of May 31, 1790 (ch. 15), and April 29, 1802 (ch. 36), the authors of maps, charts, books, engravings, etchings, &c., being citizens of the United States, or resident therein, are entitled to the exclusive right of publishing for fourteen years, and, if the author be living at the end of that period, for an additional term of fourteen years. The Bri- tish law does not distinguish between resident and non-resident aliens, like the American law. In France, the law of copyright is founded on the law of 1793, which gave to authors a right in their works for life, and to their heirs for ten years after their deaths. The decree of 1810 gave the right to the author for life, and to his wife, if she should survive him, for her life, and to their children for twenty years. A work, already published in a foreign country, may be published in France without the consent of the au- thor. There is a disposition in France to enlarge the term of copyright; and propositions have been made, within a few years, to extend it to the legal repre- sentatives of the author for fifty years after his death. In Germany, the laws respecting copyright vary in the different countries; but, in general, there is no fixed time. The copyright is i. always given for the lifetime of the author. But the diet of the Germanic confederation has not, as yet, succeeded in agreeing upon a general law, and an author's works may be printed in any of the states in which he has not taken out a copyright. Austria is motorious for piratical, incorrect, cheap editions ; the government seeming to calculate according to the old maxim of po- litical economy—if the book is pirated there, the cost of it does not go out of the country. There is one check, however, against pirated editions, viz., the Leipsic book-fair (q.v.), where the German booksel- lers meet to settle their mutual accounts, and where no member of the community would like to appear in the character of a piratical publisher. A copyright may exist in a translation, or in part of a work (as in notes or additional matter), with an exclusive right to the whole; but a bona fide abridgment of a book is not considered, in Britain and America, a violation of the original copyright. So a person may use fair quotation, if, by its applica- tion, he makes it a part of his own work; but cannot take the whole, or a large part of a work, under the pretence of quotation. If an encyclopedia or review copies so much of a book as to serve as a substitute for it, it becomes liable to an action for a violation of property. An encyclopedia must not be allowed, by its transcripts, to sweep up all modern works. In Ger- many, abridgments are not protected as they are by the laws of Britain and America, as they tend greatly to the prejudice of the authors of original works, who are liable to have the most valuable fruits of their toils given to the public in the shape best fit- ted to command a rapid sale, for the benefit of others, while the original works are comparatively excluded for which such demand shall be so made; and he is hereby required, within one month after any such book or volume shall be so delivered to him, to deliver the same for the use of such library. And if any such publisher or warehouse- keeper shall not observe the directions of this act, he and they so making default shall forfeit, besides the value of the said printed copies, the sum of £5 for each copy not so de- livered or received, together with the full costs of suit; to be recovered by action in any court of record in the United Kingdom.—$ 2. Provided always, that no such copy shall be so demanded or delivered, &c., of the second, or of any subsequent edi- tion of any such book, unless the same contain additions or alterations; and in case any edition after the first shall contain any addition or alterations, no printed copy there- of shall be demanded or delivered, if a printed copy of such editions or alterations only, printed in a uniform manner with the former edition of such book, be delivered to each of the libraries aforesaid : Provided also, that the copy of every book that shall be demanded by the British Museum shall be delivered of the best paper on which such work shall be printed.—$ 3. And whereas by the said recited acts it is enacted, that the author of any book, and the assigns of such author, should have the sole liberty of printing and reprinting such book for the term of fourteen years, &c.; and it was provid- ed, that after the expiration of the said term of fourteen years, the right of printing or disposing of copies should re- turn to the authors thereof, if they were then living, for another term of fourteen years. And whereas it will afford further encouragement to literature, if the duration of such copyright were extended ; Be it enacted, that the author of any book or books composed, and not printed and pub- lished, or which shall hereafter be composed, and be print- ed and published, and his assigns, shall have the sole liber- ty of printing and reprinting such book or books, for the full term of twenty eight years, to commence from the day of first publishing the same ; and also, if the author shall be living at the end of that period, for the residue of his na- tural life : and if any bookseller or printer, or other person whatsoever, in any part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in the Isles of Man, Jersey, or Guern- Sey, or in any other part of the British dominions, shall, from and after the passing of this act, within the times granted and Himited by this act, print, reprint, or import, or shall cause to be printed, &c., any such book, without the consent of the author, or other proprietor of the copyright, first had in writing ; or knowing the same to be so printed, &c., with- out such consent shall sell, publish, or expose to sale, or cause to be sold, &c., or shall have in his possession for sale, any such book, without such consent first had and ob tained ; such offender shall be liable to a special action at the suit of the author or other proprietor of such copyright; and every such author or other proprietor may, in such special action, recover damages, with double costs; and every such offender shall also forfeit such book, and every sheet of such book, and shall deliver the same to the author or other proprietor, to be made waste paper of, and shall also forfeit the sum of 3d for every sheet thereof either printed or printing, or published or exposed to sale, the one moiety thereof to any person who shall sue for the same time.—$ 4. And in order to ascertain what books shall be from time to time published, the publishers of every book demand- able under this act shall, within one calendar month after the day on which any such book shall be first sold, published, advertised, or offered for sale, within the bills of mortality, or within three calendar months in any other part of the United Kingdom, enter the title to the copy of every such book, and the names and place of abode of the publisher, in the register book of the company of stationers in London (for every of which several entries the sum of 2s shall be paid, and no more), under a penalty of the sum of £5, to- gether with eleven times the price at which such book shall be sold or advertised: to be recovered, together with full costs of suit, by persons authorized to sue, and who shall first sue for the same : Provided, that in the case of maga- zines, reviews, or other periodical publications, it shall be sufficient to make such entry in the register book of the said company within one month next after the publication of the first number or volume : provided, that no failure in making any such entry shall in any manner affect any Copyright, but shall only subject the person making default to the penalty aforesaid under this act.—$ 5. Provided always, that if any publisher shall be desirous of delivering the copy of such book or volume, on behalf of any of the said libraries, at such library, it shall and may be lawful for him to deliver the same at such library; and such delivery shall be held as equivalent to a delivery to the said warehouse-keeper. And if the author of any book, which shall not have been published fourteen years at the time of passing this act shall be living at the said time, and if such author shall af. terwards die before the expiration of the said fourteen years, then the personal representative of the said author, and the assigns of such personal representative, shall have the sole right of printing and publishing the said book for the fur- ther term of fourteen years after the expiration of the first fourteen. And if the author of any book which has been already published shall be living at the end of twenty-eight years after the first publication, he or she shall, for the remainder of his or her life, have the sole right of printing and pub- lishing the same. Actions and suits shall be commenced within twelve months next after such offence committed, or be void and of no effect.— $$ 7, 8, 9, 10. Musical compositions, engravings, maps, models, &c. enjoy a similar protection. sculptures, . 2 F 2 452 from the market. Washington Irving, it is well known, was compelled to prepare an abridgment him- self of his Life of Columbus, for his own protec- tion. It would seem but just to allow a man the exclu- sive property in his own book during his life, and even to extend the same, for a given period, to his heirs, in certain cases; for the most valuable books are, in many cases, those which have the slowest sale. For a novel which is forgotten within six months from its appearance, the term of copyright may be sufficiently long ; but for a standard work in history or Science, it is often much too short. The sums which have been paid for copyrights have varied with the nature of the work, the reputa- tion of the author, and the liberality of the publisher. An original work, the author of which is unknown, and the success of which must depend on the taste and talents of the writer, and the taste and wants of the age, will stand little chance ; while a book suited to the market, for which the publisher can calculate the demand, may command a liberal price. A com- pilation or a dictionary may succeed, where the poems of a Milton, the philosophy of a Hume, or the histories of a Robertson could find no encouragement. Chateaubriand received for his complete works, from the bookseller L’Avocat, half a million of francs. Moore has a life annuity of £500 for his Irish Melodies. Sir Walter Scott received, for three of his large poems, 3000 guineas apiece. Campbell re- ceived for his Pleasures of Hope, after it had been published fifteen years, 1000 guineas; for his Gertrude, after having been published six years, 1500 guineas. Byron received for the fourth canto of Childe Harold, £2100. Cowper's poems, in 1815, though the copy- right had only two years to run, were sold for 8000 guineas. Cotta, a German bookseller, is said to have given Goethe, for his complete works, 30,000 Crowns. In Britain, large sums are paid for books which promise a rapid sale; the same is true, in a less degree, of France and the United States of America. Germany and Italy remunerate authors very poorly, only a few instances, such as Goethe, ex- cepted. In Spain, the book-trade has been so crushed by a merciless censorship, that an author must publish his books, in that country, on his own account. For a long time after the art of printing was invented, no remuneration was paid to authors. COQUETRY ; an undue manifestation on the part of a woman, of a desire to attract admirers. The wish of woman to please gives rise to much that is amiable in the female character, and delightful in the intercourse of good society, and is blamable only when it is carried so far as to overstep delicacy. Its degrees are very different, and, in a French woman particularly, it is often united with much that is graceful and amiable. That which is nurtured by the system of the English boarding-schools has fewer redeeming qualities. It received its name in France. We learn from madame Scudery's Histoire de Co- wetterie, which is to be found in the 2d volume of er Novelles Conversations, that this word was first introduced into the French language in the time of Catharine de Medici. COQUIMBO, or SERENA; a jurisdiction in Chile. The fertility and beauty of the country have induced many families to reside here. The country produces corn enough to supply annually four or five vessels, of 400 tons each, for Lima. There are many mines of gold and silver. COQUIMBO ; capital of a jurisdiction in Chile, the Second town founded by Valdivia, about a quarter of a league from the sea, on a river of the same name; 10 miles S. W. of Rioja; lon. 17o 19, W.; lat. 290 55 S. The population consists of Spaniards and COQUETRY-CORDAY D’ARMANS. people of colour, with some Indians. The harbour is accounted one of the best on the west coast of South America, and is much frequented. . The streets are built in a line from north to south, and east to west; well watered, and shaded with fig- trees, palms, oranges, olives, &c., always green. The number of houses is between three and four hundred. CORAL (corallium, Lat. ; zogáà Auov, Gr.), in gem sculpture ; a marine Zoophyte that becomes, after removal from the water, as hard as a stone, of a fine red colour, and will take a good polish. Coral is much used by gem sculptors for smail ornaments, but is not susceptible of receiving the finer execution of a gem as the hard and precious stones. Caylus has published an antique head of Medusa, sculptured in coral, of which the eyes are composed of a white substance resembling shells, incrusted or let in. He supposes it to have been an amulet, because the ancients, who were partial to a mystical analogy be- tween the substance and the subject represented (see Allegory), supposed, as Ovid relates in his Metamor- phoses, that Perseus, after having cut off the head of Medusa, concealed it under some plants of coral, which instantly became petrified, and tinged with the colour of the blood which flowed from it, and from a green turned to a red colour. Pliny and other an- cient authors attribute many superstitious qualities to the coral; therefore it is no wonder that it was often taken for an amulet. Pliny also relates that the Gauls, and the people inhabiting maritime parts of Italy, as well as other nations on the sea-coast, used it to form ornaments for their armour and house- hold furniture. CORAN. See Koran. CORBAN (from the Hebrew karab, to approach). In the Scriptures, this word signifies an offering to the Lord. Jesus is represented as using this word in Mark vii. 11. CORDAY D’ARMANS, MARIE ANNE CHAR- Lott E, the murderer of Marat, was born at Saint Sa- turnin, near Seez, in Normandy, in the year 1768. With the charms of her sex she united a rare courage. Her lover, an officer in the garrison at Caen, was accused by Marat as a conspirator against the republic, and assassinated by villains hired for that purpose. This excited Charlotte Corday tº revenge. History had inspired her with a deep-rooted hatred against all oppressors, and she determined to free her country from Marat, whom she considered as the head of those monsters called buwetºrs de sang (the drinkers of blood). Another motive confirmed her purpose. Many deputies, such as Barbaroux, Lou- vet, Gaudet, and others, who were persecuted by Marat, and afterwards proscribed, May 31, 1793, to whose opinions she had attached herself, invoked the assistance of Frenchmen in behalf of liberty, now ex- piring beneath the horrors of the times. Charlotte then left home, entered Paris July 12, 1793, and went twice to Marat’s house, but was not admitted. On the same evening, she wrote to him as follows: * Citizen, I have just now come from Caen. Your love for your country no doubt makes you desirous of being informed of the unhappy transactions in that part of the republic. Grant me an interview for a mo- ment. I have important discoveries to make to you.” The following day came, and, with a dagger in her bosom, she proceeded to the house of Marat, who, just on the point of coming out of his bath, immediately gave orders that she should be admitted. The assem- blies at Calvados were the first subjects of conversa- tion, and Marat heard with eagerness the names of those who were present at them. “ All these,” he exclaimed, “shall be guillotined.” . At these words Charlotte plunged her dagger into his bosom, and he CORDELIERS–COR}}{}VA, , 453 immediately expired, with the words, “ To me, my friend ?” Meanwhile the maid remained calm and tranquil as the priestess before the altar, in the midst of the tumult and confusion. She was afterwards conducted as a prisoner to the Abbaye. A young man, who begged to die in her place, was also con- demned to death. Her first care was to implore the forgiveness of her father for disposing of her life without his knowledge. She then wrote to Bar- baroux as follows: “To-morrow, at five o'clock, my trial begins, and on the same day I hope to meet with Brutus and the other patriots in elysium.” She appeared before the revolutionary tribunal with a dignified air, and her replies were firm and noble. She spoke of her deed as a duty which she owed her country. Her defender (Chaveau-Lagarde), full of astonishment at such courage, cried out, “You hear the accused herself! She confesses her crime; she admits that she has coolly reflected upon it; she conceals no circumstance of it ; and she wishes for no defence. This unshaken calmness, this total abandonment of herself, these appearances of the ut- most internal tranquillity, are not naturall Such ap- pearances are to be explained only by political fanati- cism, which armed her hand with the dagger. To you then, gentlemen of the jury, it belongs to judge of what weight this moral view may be in the scale of justice P’ His words could make no impression on the minds of the judges. After her condemnation, she thanked her defender with these words: “I would willingly give you some token of the esteem with which you have inspired me. These gentle- men, however, have just informed me that my pro- perty is forfeited ; but I have incurred some small debts during my imprisonment, and I hereby transfer the obligation to you.” She was conducted to the Scaffold in a red mantle, and passed, with a smiling countenance, through the crowd by whom she was pursued by shouts of execration. She retained her presence of mind to the last. A voice from the multitude exclaimed, “She is greater than Brutus !” It was Adam Lux, a deputy from the city of Mentz, who, fired with admiration, wrote to the tribunal, requesting to die like Charlotte Corday. She was guillotined July 17, 1793. Modern history presents many similar instances of individuals who have been driven, by a sense of duty operating on an excited imagination, to attempt the lives of important men. Sand, the murderer of Kotzebue, Louvel, who killed the duke de Berri, Staps, who attempted the life of Napoleon, and Loehning, a German student, who attempted to destroy a political leader in Nassau, were all actu- ated by this motive, which has been, in late times, much oftener the occasion of such attempts than the desire of personal vengeance. CORDELIERS. This word originally signified an order of Franciscan monks: secondly, a society of Jacobins, from 1792 to 1794, were so called from their place of meeting. These were distinguished by the violence of their speeches and conduct. In this club of the Cordeliers, Marat and André soon began to raise their voices. The talents of Danton also procured it some reputation ; and Camille- Desmoulins published a journal under the name of The Old Cordeliers, in which he at last took the field against the ultra-revolutionists, and endeavoured to unmask the notorious Hébert and his associates. But when he was afterwards imprisoned and exe- cuted, with Danton, the society sank, and, even before the abolition of the Jacobin clubs, fell into total oblivion. CORDILLERAS. See Andes and Mearico. CORDON, in a military sense ; troops so dis- posed as to preserve an uninterrupted line of com- munication, to protect a country either from hostile invasion or from contagious diseases. In the first case, it answers its purpose badly, according to the new system of the military art, because a life which is far extended can be easily broken through by an enemy, and is not capable of an obstinate resist- all Ce. CORDOVA, on the Guadalquivir; an ancient and celebrated town in Lower Andalusia, capital of a province of the same name, which was formerly a small Moorish kingdom. It contains about 35,000 inhabitants, and lies in 370 52, 13" N. lat. It is built on a gentle declivity of a chain of mountains, forms an oblong quadrangle, and is surrounded with walls and lofty towers. A part of the town is of Roman, a part of Moorish origin; many of the buildings are in ruins, and a number of gardens occupy a great part of the inhabited space. The streets are narrow, crooked, and dirty; the plaza mayor, the principal market-place, however, is distinguished for its size, its regularity, and the beauty of the colonnade by which it is surrounded. The remains of the residence of the Moorish kings now form a part of the archbishop's palace. The Cathedral is a splendid building, originally a mosque, erected in the 7th century, by king Abderahman, strikingly ornamented with rows of cupolas, partly octagonal and partly round, which are supported by 850 pillars of jasper and marble, forming nineteen colonnades. The bridge over the river rests on sixteen arches. Cordova has always carried on con- siderable trade; and, even under the Moors, the leather exclusively manufactured there (cordovan) was exported in all directions. At what period the Romans laid the foundation of the town (Colonia Patricia, afterwards Corduba) is not known. In 572, it was conquered by the Goths, and, in 692, by the Moorish chief Abderahman, who afterwards renounced his allegiance to the caliph of Damascus, and made Cordova his royal residence.—The pro- Vince of Cordova (3940 square miles, with 259,000 inhabitants) includes the fertile and beautiful valley of the Guadalquivir and the mountains of Sierra Morena, a part of which are constantly covered with SI) OW. & CORD OVA ; a province of Buenos Ayres, about 100 leagues in length and seventy in breadth, crossed by several chains of mountains, and watered by Several rivers. The principal town is called by the same name, besides which there are some towns and villages. . The inhabitants feed a great number of cattle and horses, which form their principal trade. Serpents are numerous: some of them are of an amazing size, and exceedingly dangerous; others are harmless. This province is but little known. CORD OVA ; a town of Buenos Ayres, and capital of the province of Tucumam, founded in 1550, by Nunez Prado, and, about twenty years after, erected into a bishopric ; 450 miles, by the common road, N. N. W. Buenos Ayres; lon. 650 IO' W. ; lat. 31° 20' S. ; population, according to Mr Bland, about 10,000. It contains about 1500 Spanish inhabitants, with about 4000 Negroes. It has a handsome cathedral and a spacious market- place. The college formerly belonging to the Jesuits is a large edifice, now appropriated to public purposes. The adjacent country is fruitful, abound- ing in excellent pasture. - CORDOVA, Jose M., accompanied the liberat- ing army sent to Peru by Colombia, and commanded a division at the battle of Ayacucho. (q.v.) He was known as a meritorious officer during the whole period of the contest, after the year 1819 until its conclusion, but was particularly distinguished at Aya- cucho, where his gallantry greatly contributed to the 454 success of the patriots. Dismounting, and standing in front of his division, general Cordova ordered them to advance to the charge, with the emphatic exhortation, “Adelante, paso de vencedores.” Al- though the Spaniards prepared to receive his attack with a show of confidence, they could not withstand the onset. General Cordova received much praise for his conduct on this occasion, and was promoted on the field to the rank of general of division, at the age of twenty-five years. As general in chief, he remained with the auxiliary Colombian army in Bo- livia. He continued in Upper Peru until 1827, when he returned to Colombia. In the changes which took place in the government of Colombia, in 1828, general Cordova took the part of Bolivar, and, in September, was made secretary of the department of war, and a member of the council of ministers. In September, 1829, after Bolivar had received almost unlimited power (see Colombia), Cordova set up the standard of revolt in Antioquia, but did not receive much support. He was attacked November 17, by general O’Leary, and slain, with almost all his adherents, 200 in number, after a desperate de- fence. CORDOWAN ; a fine leather, which took its name from the city of Cordova, where it was manu- factured in large quantities. Much is now made in the Barbary states. COREA ; a kingdom of Asia, bounded N. by Chinese Tartary, E. by the Sea of Japan, S. by a narrow sea, which parts it from the Japanese islands, and W. by the Yellow sea, which parts it from China; about 500 miles from N. to S., and 150 from E. to W.; between lat. 34° 16' and 43 N., and lon. 124° 32' and 130° 30' E. It is a peninsula, being everywhere surrounded by the Sea, except towards the north. This country consists of eight provinces, in which are found forty grand cities, call- ed kium ; thirty-three of the first rank, called fou; fifty-eight toheous, or cities of the second rank; and seventy of the third, called hien ; besides a great number of fortresses well garrisoned. The north part of Corea is barren, woody, and mountainous, in- fested with wild beasts, and but thinly inhabited; but the southern division is rich and fertile, breeds great numbers of large and small cattle, besides fowl, wild and tame, and a great variety of game; it likewise produces silk, flax, and cotton. The king of Corea pays an annual tribute to China, but in the internal administration is independent. The prevailing religion is that of Fo or Buddha. Popu- lation vaguely estimated at 6 or 8,000,000; square miles, about 88,000. ISingki-tao is the capital. CORELLI, ARCANGELo, a celebrated performer on the violin, was born at Fusignano, in the terri- tory of Bologna, in the year 1653, and was instructed in church music by Matteo Simonelli, a singer at St Peter's in Rome, and in profane music by Bas- sano of Bologna. In the year 1706, he travelled into Germany, and was in the service of the elector of Bavaria during five years, after which he returned into his own country. He performed on the violin with great judgment and an incredible degree of accuracy. His execution was peculiarly charac- terestic, full of spirit and expression, and his tone was firm and uniform. Cardinal Ottoboni was his patron at Rome. Corelli formed and conducted, ac- cording to the original plan of Crescentini, the cele- brated musical academy which met at the palace of the cardinal every Monday. By his sonatas on the violin, and by his concerts, he may be considered, as it were, the creator of a new species of harmony, especially for his own instrument. He died in 1713, and, besides a considerable fortune, left behind him a valuable collection of paintings, which became the CORDOWAN–CORINTH. property of cardinal Ottoboni. He was buried in the Pantheon. - CORFU (anciently Drepanum, then Scheria, and at last, Corcyra); an island in the Mediterranean, at the mouth of the Adriatic, near the coast of Alba- nia; about forty-five miles long, and from fifteen to twenty wide; lon. 20° 20' E. ; lat. 39° 40' N. ; po- pulation, 60,000; square miles, 229. The climate is mild, but variable, the air healthy, the land fertile, and the fruit excellent. Oranges, citrons, the most delicious grapes, honey, wax, and oil, are exceeding- ly abundant. Some parts are mountainous and barren, and good water is scarce. Salt forms a great part of its riches. The capital has always borne the name of the island. Towards the end of the 14th century, it came into the power of the Venetians. It was afterwards taken by the French, and ceded to them by the treaty of Campo-Formio, in 1797. In March, 1799, it was taken from them by the Russians and Turks, and united with Cepha- lonia, Zante, &c., to form a republic, under the de- nomination of the Seven Islands. (See Ionian Is- lands.) Homer, in the Odyssey, describes the beauty of this island of the Phaeacians, celebrating the climate and the gardens of Alcinous. CORFU (anciently Corcyra); capital of the is- land of the same name; lon. 20° 17' E.; lat. 39° 40' N. ; population, 15,000; the see of an archbishop. It is the seat of government of the Ionian Islands, is fortified, and defended by two fortresses; and has a good harbour and considerable trade. In 1818, a university was established here, under the auspices of the British government, by the earl of Guilford, who was appointed chancellor, and nominated Greeks of the first abilities to the different chairs. The number of students soon amounted to 150. CORIANDER (coriandrum sativum, Linn.); an annual plant, native of Italy, and cultivated in other parts of Europe. The seed has, when fresh, a very unpleasant smell, like that of bed- bugs. It is, on the contrary, very agreeable and aromatic when dry. It acts in the same manner as aniseed, &c., and enters into several officinal com- pounds. Its infusion is occasionally employed as a Sudorific. It is used, likewise, as a corrective of cer- tain purgatives. CORILLA. See Improvisation CORINNA ; called the lyric muse ; a poetess of Tanagra, in Boeotia, contemporary with Pindar, whom she is said to have conquered five times at musical contests, and therefore her image, crowned with the chaplet of victory, was placed in the gymnasium of Tanagra. According to Pausanias, who relates this fact, she was so beautiful that her charms may have influenced, in some degree, the opinion of the judges. It is probably owing to the ten- derness and softness of her songs, that she received the surname of the fly. Sappho and Erinna were each called the bee. Of the numerous poems which the ancients ascribed to her, only a few fragments have come down to us. In Creuzer s Meletem. e Disc. antiquit.), vol. 2, p. 10 et seq., Welker has col- lected the accounts relating to her, and critically commented on them.—Madame de Stael has given the name of Corinna to the heroine of one of the most beautiful novels of our age; a work which ex- hibits, perhaps, more than any of her former produc- tions, the extraordinary talents of this distinguished WOIſlall. CORINTH, a celebrated city upon the isthmus of the same name, which unites the Morea with Liva- dia, lat. 37°53' 37° N., lon. 229 24' 5" E., the inha. bitants of which, Some years ago, amounted to about 2000; but it has been taken and retaken several times during the late revolution, and its population CORINTH–CORIOLANU.S. has varied accordingly. Only a few ruins remain to attest the magnificence of the ancient city; but much might undoubtedly be obtained by excavation. Capitals and bass-reliefs are found, in great numbers, in the houses of the bey and other Turks formerly residing here; the latter, however, are put to the use of ordinary pieces of marble, having the figured side turned inwards. The northern harbour, Lochaeon, on the gulf of Corinth, is choked with sand, as is like- wise the eastern harbour, Cenchrea, on the Saronic gulf. Of the shallow harbour Schoenos, on the north of the city, where was a quay in ancient times, there hardly remains a trace. All these harbours are now morasses, and corrupt the air of the city. The mosques and churches, and the palaces formerly be- longing to Turks of high rank, are built partly out of the ruins of the anëient city. The Turks did nothing for the city or the harbours; they only paid a little attention to the Acrocorinthus. (q.v.) Corinth derived, in ancient times, great advantages , from its situation on the isthmus, between two bays, belonging to what may be called two different seas, if we consider the poor state of navigation in ancient times; and a great exchange of Asiatic and Italian goods took place there. The duty paid on these goods afforded a great revenue to the state ; and the citizens accumulated such wealth, that Corinth be- came one of the most magnificent, but at the same time, most voluptuous cities of Greece. Venus was the goddess of the city, and courtezans were her priestesses, to whom recourse was often had, that they might implore the protection of the goddess in times of public danger; and a certain num- er of new priestesses were consecrated to her at the Commencement of important enterprises. Lais and several other females of the same profession were distinguished by their great accomplishments and beauty, and the high price which they set on their Charms: hence the old proverb, Non cuivis homini bicet adire Corinthum. The virtuous women celebrat. ed a feast to Venus apart from the others. The famous Sisyphus was the founder of Corinth. His family was succeeded by the Heraclides (who were dethroned after several centuries), and the go- vernment intrusted to 200 citizens, called Bacchiades. Heeren thinks that they were, at least several of them, merchants. . To this oligarchy followed a monarchical form of government, which was succeed- ed by a constitution approaching nearer to oligarchy than to democracy. In the sequel, Corinth became the head of the Achaean league, and was conquered and destroyed by the consuf Mummius, 146 B. C. Julius Caesar, twenty-four years later, rebuilt it; but its commerce could not be restored: the productions of the East now took the road to Rome. St Paul lived here a year and a half. The Venetians received the place from a Greek emperor; Mohammed II., took it from them in 1458; the Venetians recovered it in 1687, and fortified the Acrocorinthus again; but the Turks took it anew in 1715, and retained it until the late revolution of the Greeks, during which it was the seat of the soi-disant Greek government. Against any enemy invading the Morea from the north, Corinth is of the highest military importance. It is described at some length in Lieber's Journal of his stay in Greece, in 1822 (Leipsic, 1823). The situation of Corinth is one of the most charm- ing that can be imagined, surrounded as it is by the beauties of nature and the charms of poetic and his- torical associations. The Acrocorinthus, on its pic- turesque and beautiful come, seems like an observa- tory for surveying the whole field of Grecian glory. The waters of two bays wash the olive groves, which border the city; and from every hill in it, you can Survey the noble Helicon and Parnassus, or let your 455 eye wander over the isthmus, where, in happier ages, the Isthmian games were celebrated, even to the mountains and shores of Megara and Attica. Nero began to dig a canal through the isthmus, but his successors were ashamed to complete a work which had been undertaken by such a monster, though it happened to be a good one. The luxury of ancient Corinth was greater than that of any other place in Greece. At the court of the Byzantime emperors, there were officers called Corinthiarii, who were keepers of the ornaments and furniture of the pa- lace. A certain mixture of various metals was called Corinthian brass, and was very dear. The story that it had its origin in the accidental melting together of different metals at the time of the conflagration of Corinth, when taken by Mummius, is a fable, the brass having been in use long before. For farther information on the political history of Corinth, see Timoleon. CORINTHIAN ; with some of the earlier Eng- lish writers, was used to signify a person of a loose, licentious character, in allusion to the voluptuous and corrupt state of society in ancient Corinth. It has very recently been applied to express a person in high life, and of fashionable manners. This usage is drawn from the Corinthian capital in architecture, which is distinguished for its elegance and ornament. The latter usage, particularly when it is applied to a lady, is rather offensive to the ear of one familiar with the older application. CORINTHIAN ORDER. See Architecture. CORIOLANUS; the name given to an ancient Roman, Caius Martius, because the city of Corioli, the capital of the kingdom of the Volsci, was taken almost solely by his exertions. His valour in the victory over the Antiates was rewarded by the con- sul Cominius with a golden chain. Coriolanus, how. ever, lost his popularity when, during the famine which prevailed in Rome 491 B. C., he placed him- self at the head of the patricians, in order to deprive the plebeians of their hard-earned privileges, and even made the proposition to distribute the provisions obtained from Sicily among them only on condition that they would agree that the tribuneship should be abolished. Enraged at this, the tribunes commanded him to be brought before them; and, when he did not appear, they endeavoured to seize his person, and, failing in this attempt, condemned him to be thrown from the Tarpeian rock. But the patricians rescued him ; and it was finally determined that his cause should be brought before the tribunal of the whole people. Coriolanus appeared, and made answer to the complaints alleged against him by the tribunes (who accused him of tyranny, and of en- deavouring to introduce a regal government), by the simple narration of his exploits, and his services to— wards his country. He showed the scars on his breast, and the whole multitude were affected even to tears. But, notwithstanding all this, he was un- able to repel the accusations against him, particular- ly that of distributing the spoils of war among the soldiers, instead of delivering them to the questors, as the laws of Rome required; and the tribunes were enabled to procure his banishment. Coriolanus now resolved to revenge himself upon his country, and immediately went to the Volsci, the bitterest enemies of Rome, and prevailed upon them to go to war with her before the expiration of the truce. He himself was joined with Attius in the command of their army, which immediately made it- self master of the cities of Latium. The Volscian camp was pitched in sight of Rome before troops could be raised for the defence of the city. The en. voys sent by the Senate returned with the answer, 456 that Rome could purchase peace only by the surren- der of the territory taken from the Volsci. A second embassy was of no more avail; and at length, the priests and augurs having returned equally unsuccess- ful, the terror of the inhabitants was extreme. Wa- leria, the sister of Valerius Publicola, exhorted the women to try the effect of their tears on the resolu- tion of Coriolanus. She immediately went to the house of Veturia, his mother, whom he highly ho- moured, where she also found Volumnia, his wife, and besought both to go with the other women to make a kast experiment upon the heart of the conqueror. The senate approved of this resolution, and the Ro- man matrons, Weturia and Volumnia with her chil- dren taking the lead, went towards the camp of Co- riolanus, who, recognizing his mother, his wife, and his children, § the lictors to lower their fasces, and received them with tender embraces. He then urged them to leave the treacherous city, and to come to him. During this time, his mother never ceased entreating him to grant his country an honour- able peace, and assured him that he never should en- ter the gates of Rome without passing over her dead body. At length, yielding to her entreaties, he rais- ed her from the ground, and confessed that she had prevailed. He then withdrew his army from before Rome, and as he was attempting to justify himself in an assembly of the Volsci, was assassinated in a tu- mult excited by Attius. The Roman senate caused a temple to be built to female fortune upon the place where Veturia had softened the anger of her son, and made her the first priestess. CORR ; a county of Ireland, in the province of Munster, formerly a kingdom, bounded N. by the county of Limerick, E. by the counties of Tipperary and Waterford, S.S.E. and S.W. by the sea, and W. by the county of Kerry; 99 English miles in length and 71 in breadth. The land is generally good, and no county in Ireland is better watered. The princi- pal towns are Cork, Kinsale, Youghal, Mallow, Don- neraile, and Bandon-bridge. Population stated, in 1811, at 523,936; by census, in 1821, 702,000; by census, in 1831, 764,359. CORK; a city of Ireland, capital of the county of Cork, situated about 160 miles S.W. Dublin; lon. 8° 28′ 15" W.; lat. 51° 58' 54" N. It was originally built on an island formed by the river Lee, but is now greatly extended on the opposite banks of both branches of the river. It is fifteen miles from the Sea, and its harbour or cove, eleven miles below the town, is celebrated for its safety and capaciousness. Its entrance, deep and narrow, is defended by a strong fort on each side, and also strong fortifications on two islands, called Spike and Howbowlin, whose guns command the entrance. Cork is the second city in Ireland, and exports great quantities of salt provisions; during the slaugh- tering season, 100,000 head of cattle are prepared. In 1827, the gross receipt of import-duties amounted to #229,260. The contract for the annual supply of naval stores for Great Britain is generally taken by the merchants of this city; butter also forms a great object of export, the county of Kerry, which is al- most wholly engaged in this species of agricultural production, preferring this market and port. The trade between Bristol and Cork is considerable, and steam-packets ply regularly on this station; whiskey and porter are also exported in large quantities, and the latter chiefly to the East and West In- dies. Sail-cloth, coarse sheeting, coarse woollen, paper, leather, and superior glass, are manufactur- ed here. Perhaps the city lies too far from the harbour; but this inconvenience is partly remedied by the river Lee, which is navigable up to the cus- tom-house by vessels of 200 tons, and to Parliament CORK. bridge, by those of 150 tons. Beyond this, it is crossed by several handsome bridges, the most ele- gant of which is thrown across the river at the termi. nation of the Mandyke walk; it commands a magni- ficent prospect up and down the channel of the Lee. The principal buildings are a stately cathedral, ex- change, market-house, custom-house, town-house, a theatre, several hospitals and churches, large bar- racks, &c. The Cork institution is an incorporated scientific establishment, in which lectures are deliver- ed on chemistry, agriculture, and botany. . . The houses of the city are generally old and not elegant. It sends two members to parliament. Population, 106,000. CORK is the external bark of a species of oak (guercus suber) which grows in Spain, Portugal, and other southern parts of Europe, and is distinguished by the fungous texture of its bark, and the leaves being evergreen, oblong, somewhat oval, downy un- derneath, and waved. The principal supply of cork is obtained from Catalonia in Spain. In the collect- ing of cork, it is customary to slit it with a knife at certain distances, in a perpendicular direction from the top of the trees to the bottom ; and to make two incisions across, one near the top, and the other near the bottom, of the trunk. For the purpose of strip- ping off the bark, a curved knife with a handle at each end, is used. Sometimes it is stripped in pieces the whole length, and sometimes in shorter pieces, . cross cuts being made at certain intervals. In some instances, the perpendicular and transverse incisions are made, and the cork is left upon the trees, until, by the growth of the new bark beneath, it becomes sufficiently loose to be removed by the hand. After the pieces are detached, they are soaked in water, and when nearly dry, are placed over a fire of coals, which blackens their external surface. By the latter operation, they are rendered smooth, and all the smaller blemishes are thereby concealed; the larger holes and cracks are filled up by the introduction of soot and dirt. They are next loaded with weights to make them even, and subsequently are dried and stacked, or packed in bales for exportation. The uses of cork were well known to the ancients, and were nearly the same to which it is applied by us. Its elasticity renders it peculiarly serviceable for the stopping of vessels of different kinds, and thus preventing either the liquids therein contained from running out, or the external air from passing in. The use of cork for stopping glass bottles is gene- rally considered to have been introduced about the fifteenth century. The practice of employing this substance for jack- ets to assist in swimming is very ancient; and it has been applied in various ways towards the preserva- tion of life when endangered by shipwreck. The cork jacket, revived from an old German discovery by Mr Dubourg, to preserve the lives of persons in danger of drowning, is constructed as follows:– Pieces of cork about three inches long by two wide, and the usual thickness of the bark, are enclosed be- tween two pieces of strong cloth or canvass, and formed like a jacket without sleeves; the pieces of cloth are sewed together round each piece of cork, to keep them in their proper situations; the lower part of the jacket about the hips, is made like the same part of women's stays, to give freedom to the thighs in swimming; it is made sufficiently large to fit a stout man, and is secured to the body by two or three strong straps sewed far back on each side, and tied before; the strings are thus placed to enable any wearer to tighten it to his own convenience. The floats of nets used for fishing are frequently made of cork. Pieces fastened together make buoys, which, by floating on the surface of the water, afford CORMORANT. direction for vessels in harbours, rivers, and other places. In some parts of Spain, it is customary to line the walls of houses with cork, which renders them warm, and prevents the admission of moisture. The ancient Egyptians frequently made coffins of it. On account of its lightness, cork is used for false legs; and from its being impervious to water, it is sometimes placed between the soles of shoes to keep out moisture. When burnt, it constitutes that light black substance known by the name of Spanish black. In the cutting of corks for use, the only tool em- ployed is a very broad, thin, and sharp knife; and, as the cork tends very much to blunt this, it is shar- pened on a board by one whet or stroke, on each side, after every cut, and now and then upon a com- mon whetstone. The corks for bottles are cut lengthwise of the bark, and consequently the pores lie across. Bungs, and corks of large size, are cut in a contrary direction: the pores in these are there- fore downward—a circumstance which renders them much more defective in stopping out the air than the others. The parings of cork are carefully kept, and sold to the makers of Spanish black. CORMORANT (a corruption of the French words corbeau marin); the trivial name of a genus of aquatic birds included by Linné under pelecanus, but properly removed thence by Brisson, to form a dis- tinct genus, denominated phalacrocoraa. This term is indicated by Pliny, as being the Greek name for the cormorant, though it is not employed by Aristo- tle, who called the bird hydrocoraw, or sea-crow, whence the French name above mentioned. The cormorants belong to the family totipalmes of Cuvier, steganopodes, Bonap. They are aquatic birds, hav- ing the great toe united to the others by a common membrane, and their feet are thus most admirably adapted for swimming; yet they are among the very few web-footed birds capable of perching on the branches of trees, which they do with great ease and security. The genus is distinguished by the following characters:–a moderate-sized, robust, thick, straight and compressed bill, having the upper mandible seamed, and rounded above, with the ridge distinct, unguiculated and hooked at the point, which is rather obtuse. The lower mandible is somewhat shorter, truncated at tip, Osseous throughout, and furnished, at the base, with a small, naked, coria- ceous membrane, which is continued on the throat. The nostrils, opening in the furrows, are basal, la- teral, linear, and scarcely visible; the tongue is cartilaginous, very short, carinated above, papillous beneath and obtuse. The occiput is very protuber- ant; the face and small pouch are naked; the neck is rather short, and of moderate strength; the body is compressed. The feet are short, robust, and rather turned outwards; the legs are wholly feather- ed, and closely drawn towards the belly; the tarsus is naked, one-third shorter than the outer toe, much compressed and carinated before and behind. The outer toe is the longest, and edged externally by a Small membrane ; i. webbing membrane is broad, full, and entire ; the hind toe is half as long as the middle, and all are provided with moderate-sized, curved, broad, bluntish nails, the middle one being serrated on its inner edge, and equal to the others. The wings are moderate and slender, with stiff quills, of which the second and third primaries are longest ; the tail is rounded, and composed of twelve to fourteen rigid feathers. About fifteen species of cormorant are at present known, and are distributed over the whole world, engaged in the same office,—that of aiding to main- tain the due balance of animal life, by consuming vast numbers of the finny tribes. Like the pelicans, to which they are closely allied in conformation and 457 habits, the cormorants reside in considerable families near the waters whence they obtain fish. It is scarcely possible to imagine any animal better adapt- ed to this mode of life, since they dive with great force, and swim under water with such celerity that few fish can escape them. When engaged in this chase, they not only exert their broadly-Webbed feet, but ply their wings like oars, to propel their bodies forward, which, being thin and keel-shaped, offer the least degree of resistance to the water. They swim at all times low in the water, with little more than the head above the surface, and, therefore, though large birds, might easily be overlooked by one unac- customed to their habits. Should a cormorant seize a fish in any other way than by the head, he rises to the surface, and, tossing the fish into the air, adroitly catches it head foremost as it falls, so that the fins, being properly laid at the fish's sides, cause no in- jury to the throat of the bird. This precaution is the more necessary, as the cormorants are very vo- racious feeders, and are often found not only with their stomachs crammed, but with a fish in the mouth and throat, which remains until the material below is digested, and is then passed into the stomach. When standing on shore the cormorant appears to very little advantage, both on account of the propor- tions of its head, neck, and body, and because of its awkward manner of keeping itself erect, being un- der the necessity of resting upon its rigid tail fea- thers. But, mounted in air, these birds are of Swift and vigorous flight, and, when desirous of rest, alight upon the branches of tall trees or the summits of rocks, where they delight to spread their wings and bask for hours in the sun. They select similar situations for building their nests, though sometimes they make them upon the ground or among reeds, always rude- ly and among coarse materials. In them they lay three or four whitish eggs. That the services of birds, which are such excel- lent fishers, should be desired by man, is by no means surprising, and we are informed that the Chinese have long trained cormorants to fish for them. This training is begun by placing a ring upon the lower part of the bird's neck, to prevent it from Swallowing its prey. After a time, the cormorant learns to de- liver the fish to its master without having the ring upon its neck. It is said to be a very interesting sight to observe the fishing-boats, having but one or two persons on board, and a considerable number of cor- morants, which latter, at a signal given by their mas- ter, plunge into the water, and soon return, bringing a fish in their mouths, which is willingly relinquished. The male and female resemble each other in size and plumage; but the young, especially when about a year old, differ greatly from the adult birds. They change their thick, close, black plumage, or moult, twice a-year, acquiring additional ornaments in winter. Four or five species of cormorants are known to be inhabitants or occasional visitors of the American continent; but with the exception of P. graculus, which is very common, and breeds in Florida (though also abundant within the arctic and antarctic circles), they are rather rare, and only seen during winter in the United States. In some parts of Europe frequented by species of the cormor- ant, they commit great depredations upon the fish- ponds, which are kept for the purpose of supplying the tables of the proprietors; and in Holland, they are said to be especially troublesome in this way, two or three of these greedy birds speedily clearing a pond of all its finny inhabitants. From their great voracity and entirely piscivorous regimen, it will readily be inferred that their flesh promises very little to gratify the epicure. It is so black, tough, and rankly fishy, that few persons venture upon it ! 458 more than once, where anything else can be had. Nevertheless, naval officers, and others, condemned, by the nature of their service, to situations where they are long debarred from fresh provisions, some- times have the cormorant served at their tables, after having taken the precaution to skin it, and endeav- oured, by the artifices of cookery, to disguise its pe- culiar flavour. CORN ; a hardened portion of cuticle produced by pressure; so called, because a piece can be picked out like a corn of barley. Corns are generally found on the outside of the toes, but sometimes between them, on the sides of the foot, or even on the ball. They gradually penetrate deeper into the parts, and sometimes occasion extreme pain, and, from the fre- quency of their occurrence, hold a prominent rank among the petty miseries of mankind, and frequently exert no small influence upon the temper of individ- uals. A monarch's corns may affect the welfare of a nation. No part of the human body, probably, has been injured so much by our injudicious mode of dress, as the feet, which have become, in general, deformed; so much so, that sculptors and painters can hardly ever copy this part from living subjects, but depend for a good foot almost solely on the re- mains of ancient art. the foot belong the corns, produced by the absurd forms of our shoes and boots. They appear, at first, as Small dark points in the hardened skin, and, in this state, stimulants or escharotics, as nitrate of sil- ver (lunar caustic), are recommended. The corn is to be wet, and rubbed with a pencil of the caustic every evening. It is well to have the skin previously softened. If the corn has aftained a large size, re- moval by cutting or by ligature will be proper: if it hangs by a small neck, it is recommended to tie a silk thread round it, which is to be tightened every day, until the corn is completely removed. In all cases of cutting corns, very great precaution is to be observed. The feet ought always to be bathed pre- viously. Mortification has, in many instances, re- sulted from the neglect of this precaution, and from cutting too deep. Another simple and generally very efficacious means, is the application of a thick adhe- sive plaster, in the centre of which a hole has been made for the reception of the projecting part. From time to time, a plaster must be added. Thus, the surrounding parts being pressed down, the corn is often expelled, and at all events, is prevented from enlarging. Paring with files, rubbing with fish-skin, &c., have been likewise found effective. In large cities, as London, Paris, &c., people make a business of curing corns. CORN, INDIAN. See Maize. CORN LAWS. An adequate supply of grain for bread is evidently of the very first importance to every country, and should be as regular as is pos- sible, since sudden fluctuations in an article of so uni- versal necessity are injurious, and scarcity, with the consequent high prices, brings distress upon the poorer classes, and is a fruitful cause of discontent and convulsions. The best means of securing a suf. ficient and steady supply of this article is a subject of come diversity of opinion, and the practice of go- vernments has varied much at different times. One theory, urged by Adam Smith, but questioned by Mr Malthus and most others, is, that the government should do absolutely nothing in the matter, on the ground that the farmers and corn-merchants, if un- checked, will always form correct views of their own interest, and that their interest will coincide with that of the community. But broad, sweeping the- ories of this sort are rarely adopted in the practical administration of affairs; and a government, in mak- ing regulations on this subject, as on every other, To this general deformity of CORN–CORN LAWS. looks at its internal condition, the character and pur- suits of its population, and its foreign commercial re- lations; and though it may not judge correctly of the best means of securing a steady and sufficient supply, this does not prove that a total neglect of the subject would be the wisest and safest policy in all countries and at all times. It is certain, however, that very unwise measures have often been resorted to, and sometimes such as tended to aggravate the evil rather than to provide a remedy. One way to guard against a scarcity is that adopted by the king of Egypt, in the time of Joseph—the purchasing of corn by the government, in time of plenty, at home, or importing it from abroad, and storing it in public magazines, to be distributed as the public wants may demand. But this system is attended with great ex- pense, and affords but an uncertain and inadequate provision. Most governments, accordingly, instead of making direct purchases, attempt to provide a re. medy by the passing of laws. This subject of grain legislation is by no means entirely modern. The Athenians had laws prohibiting the exporta- tion of corn, and requiring merchants who loaded their vessels with it in foreign ports, to bring their cargoes to Athens. The public provision and dis- tribution of corn was an important branch of admin- istration at Rome, and very intimately connected with the public tranquillity. The regulation of the supply of corn and the trade in the article have been a fruitful subject of legislation in modern Europe. But it is to be observed, that the public solicitude and current of legislation take this direction only in populous countries, or at least those in which the po- pulation presses hard upon the means of domestic production of bread stuffs; for a country of which, like Poland, the staple export is corn, needs to take no measures for securing a supply; and as flour and Indian meal are great articles of exportation in America, that country has had no occasion for laws to guard against a famine, since the ordinary course of industry and trade gives the greatest possible se- curity, by producing a surplus of provisions, which a high price at home, in anticipation of any Scarcity, will be sure to retain for the supply of domestic wants. In agricultural countries, the object of solici- tude is to supply the want of arts and manufactures, as in populous and highly improved countries, it is to supply the want of food. But the laws directed to this object have been very various, and some of them contradictory; for as in Athens, so in Britain at one period, the laws pro- hibited the exportation of corn; whereas, at another period, and for a very long one in the latter country, a bounty was given on the exportation; and both these laws had the same object, viz. the adequate and steady supply of the article. For this purpose, the bounty is the measure undoubtedly calculated to produce the effect intended, and the permanent pro- hibition of exportation must aggravate the scarcity which it is intended to prevent. Such a bounty tends to stimulate a surplus production, and so to give a country, by this factitious encouragement, the same Security, in respect to a supply, as results from the spontaneous course of industry and trade in Poland, the southern part of Russia, and the United States of America. But the objection to the bounty is its great expense, requiring, as it does the imposition of a tax, and, at the same time, raising the price of the article to the domestic consumer. To secure the advantages, and avoid some of the burdens of this law, Mr Burke, in 1773, proposed the system of corn laws since adhered to in Great Britain, according to which no bounty is paid, but the exportation of corn is permitted when it is sold under a certain price in the home market. This price is determined by the CORN ARO–CQRNEILLE. average sales in certain specified places for a given time; and, when it rises above a certain other fixed price, the importation is permitted. By Mr Burke's bill, wheat might be exported when the price was under 44 shillings the quarter, and imported when it was over 48 shillings. The home grower is, there- fore, sure to be free from foreign competition at any price under 48 shillings, and this gives him confidence in pursuing this species of cultivation. The rates or prices at which exportation and importation have since been allowed, have varied, from time to time very materially; but the principles of the laws and their effect are the same. This system is allowed by Mr Malthus and many others, who are, in gene- ral, opposed to restrictions and encouragements of trade, to be the best system by which the home supply could be secured; and they further think, that Great Britain could not safely open its ports to a perfectly free trade in so essential an article, since the fluctuations of price and the occasional scarcity, in consequence of wars or other interruptions of trade with the countries depended upon for a supply, would produce great distress, and tend to breed disturbances and riots in the kingdom. CORNARO, Ludovico, was descended from a Venetian family which had given several doges to Venice, and, in the 15th century, a queen to the island of Cyprus, who left that kingdom to the Venetian republic. He died at Padua, in 1566, aged 104 years, without pain or struggle. From the 25th to the 40th year of his age, he was afflicted with a disordered stomach, with the gout, and with slow fevers, till at length he gave up the use of medicine, and accustomed himself to extreme frugality in his diet. The beneficial effects of this he relates in his book entitled The Advantages of a temperate Life. Cornaro's precepts are not, indeed, applicable, in their full extent, to every constitution; but his general rules will always be correct. His diseases vanished, and gave place to a vigorous health, and tranquillity of spirits, to which he had hitherto been an entire stranger. He wrote three additional treatises on the same subject. In his work upon the Birth and Death of Man, which he composed in his 95th year, he says of himself, “I am now as healthy as any person of twenty-five years of age. I write daily seven or eight hours, and the rest of the time I occupy in walking, conversing, and occa- sionally in attending concerts. I am happy, and relish everything that I eat. My magination is lively, my memory tenacious ; my judgment good; and, what is most remarkable, in a person of my advanced age, my voice is strong and harmonious.” CORNEILLE, PETER, the founder of French tragedy, and the first, in point of time, among the great authors of the age of Louis XIV., was born at Rouen, June 6, 1606, at which place his father was advocate-general. In his later and more finished works, he showed how much the court intrigues, and the troubles which prevailed during the first years of the reign of Louis XIII., had influenced the forma- tion of his character. A somewhat equivocal success with the mistress of his friend, to whom he was unsus- pectingly introduced by her lover, first made him a comic writer. He related this adventure in verse, and brought it on the stage, under the name of Mélite, in the year 1629. Its great success encour- aged him to persevere, and he soon produced Clitandre, La Peuve, and La Galerie du Palais, La Suivante and La Place Royale, the last of which appeared in 1635. The success of these pieces was So great, and the applause so universal, that a par- ticular company of actors was established for their performance, and many of them, modernized in some respects, retain their place on the stage to this day. 459 The neglect of nature was common to Corneille with his contemporaries. His Medea, produced in 1635, Was imitated from Seneca, and written in the decla- matory style of that author. At that time, cardinal Richelieu retained several poets in his pay, who were obliged to write comedies from plots furnished by him. Corneille was about to place himself in the same situation; but a change, which he took the liberty of making, in a plot submitted to him, offended the cardinal, and prevented the execution of this plan. He then withdrew to Rouen, where he met monsieur de Chalon, the former secretary of Mary of Medici, who advised him to turn his atten- tion to tragedy, and recommended the Spanish Writers as models. Upon this, Corneille learned the Spanish language, and, in 1636, produced the Cid, which confirmed the predictions of his intelligent friend. Cardinal Richelieu was the only person who did not join in the general admiration, and, mortified by the poet's open rejection of his offered patronage, induced the newly-established academy to decry the merits of the Cid. Chapelain, by whom the criticism was written, attempted to satisfy the founder, with- out too much offending the general opinion. The Sentiment de l'Académie Français sur la Tragi.comédie du Cid is, therefore, more creditable to the learning than to the taste of the French literati. Others hoped, by decrying the poet, to obtain the favour of the minister. But the works of Corneille were a sufficient answer to their attacks. In 1639, his Horaces made its appearance (the earlier editions had the title Horace, but the later ones have Horaces), whereby he refuted the reproach of a deficiency of invention; which was, however, repeated, when he brought out his Heraclius, in 1647, imitated from Calderón, and the Menteur, in 1642, after Pedro de Roxas. This objection, perhaps, was the cause of the poet's leav- ing modern subjects; for henceforward, he applied himself almost exclusively to the Roman; and the Strict patriotism of the ancient, with the artful politics of the more modern Romans, as an ingenious Critic Says, now took the place of that chivalric honour and faith, the representation of which in the Cid shows him to participate in the spirit of the Spanish dramatic writers. The French critics are inclined to consider Cinna, which appeared in 1639, as his masterpiece; but foreigners will not place it above Polyeucte. The happy blending of the pathe- tic with the dignified gravity to which Corneille so much inclines, makes this piece more attractive than the others. In the Mort de Pompée, which appeared in 1641, the noble dignity of the piece cannot excuse its bombast. In his Memteur, mature and truth of description take the place of the artificial tone then prevalent; and a comparison of this piece with the Spanish original (La Sospechosa Perdad) may be in- Structive to the friends of dramatic literature. At length, the genius of this prolific poet seemed to have been exhausted. Rhodogºne, the favourite of Corneille, produced in 1646, leaves a painful impres- Sion, and the artful combination of the accumulated terrors of the piece cannot redeem it. The latter works of Corneille (e. g., Heraclius, which appeared in 1647, Don Sanche d'Arragon, Androméde, a piece with music, processions, and dancing), are less known, and, according to the opinion of the French, less worthy of being so, with the exception of Nicomède, which appeared in 1652, and which was revived by Talma, and still maintains its place upon the stage. The disdainful scorn of fate, in the hero of this piece, is susceptible of very great effect; but that rhetorical antithesis prevails in it which is found in many of Corneille's pieces. Pertharite, in 1653, failed entirely. Becoming dis- 460 trustful of his talents, Corneille now wished to abandon dramatic writing, and applied himself, for six years, to the translation of the De Imitatione Jesu Christi, the first book of which he had previously finished in verse. At length, Fouquet entreated him to devote his talents again to the stage. CEdipe, in 1659, and Sertorius, in 1662, were received with the applause which had been given him in his best days, and he endeavoured to secure the public favour by accompanying the exhibition of the piece with splendid scenery. But his subsequent pieces—Otho, Agésilaus, Attila, and many others—proved the fail- ing power of a poet who had formerly shown himself without a rival. Of thirty-three pieces which Corneille left, only eight still retain their places on the stage. Time has established his fame, and the French, long ago, surnamed him the Great, though Voltaire, the editor of his works, and La Harpe, who followed in the steps of his great predecessor, do not pronounce an entirely favourable sentence upon his merits. A. W. Schlegel has criticised him in a masterly mode, and Lessing has point- ed out, in a striking manner, the defects in the plots of many of his pieces. It is, indeed, sincerely to be regretted, that his great talents, which were display- ed so brilliantly in the Cid, should have been so much checked in their development by his inclination to the classic, or, rather, Roman forms. It was owing to the circumstances of the times, that he was induc- ed to take political subjects as materials for tragedy. Voltaire remarked their influence upon the tragedy of Cinna, and did not fail to see that the interest, in many parts of Polyeucte, must have been increased by the Jansenist controversies, which may, in fact, have given occasion to the passages. Corneille had nothing captivating in his manners. His conversation was tedious, and by no means well chosen. Like Turenne, he was, in early years, con- sidered as deficient in talent. In his external ap- pearance, he resembled an inferior tradesman of Rouen, and it is very easy, then, to conceive that with rather rude manners, and a high sense of his merits, he could not feel himself in his proper sphere at court. His profession and talents did not make him rich, and he lived with great frugality. During the year 1647, he was received into the French academy in the place of Maynard, and died Oct. 1, 1684, being the oldest member. A descendent of the eldest of his two sons lived till the year 1813, and was as little favoured by fortune as the grandniece of Corneille, to whom Voltaire, by the edition of the works of her great-uncle, discharged the debt of his country. The latest views of the French concerning this great man, who did so much for the establish- ment of their theatre, are found in an Eloge de Cor- neille, par M. Pictorin Fabre, which received the prize of the French academy in 1807, and which has since been republished. The most complete and cor- rect edition of his works, enriched by the principal productions of his brother, by Voltaire's commen- taries, and by a selection of Palissot's notes, was pub- lished by Renouard, Paris, 1817, in twelve volumes. Napoleon is described, in the memoirs of Las Cases, as having said, that, had Corneille lived in his time, he would have made him a prince. The emperor was fond of reading the works of this poet during his abode on St #. whilst he treated with com- parative neglect several other poets adored by the French nation. CORNEILLE, THOMAs, brother of the preced- ing, was born at Rouen, Aug 20, 1625, and lived in the most friendly union with his brother Peter till tile death of the latter. A comedy, which he wrote in ſatin verse, while he was a scholar at the Jesuits’ CORNEILLE-CORNELIAN. college, and which obtained the honour of a repre- sentation, as well as the success which attended tha works of his brother, determined him to turn his at- tention to the drama. His first Comedy, called Jes Engagements du Hasard, which appeared in 1647, and was an imitation of Calderon, was successful. Many similar ones soon followed, also borrowed from the Spaniards. The number of his dramatic works is 42 ; yet most of them are now so little known, that even the catalogue of them in the records of the French academy wiſbe found erroneous and incom. plete. His comedies, however, at the time of their appearance, were received with greater interest, if possible, than those of the great Corneille, in imita- tion of whom Thomas applied himself to tragedy, and his Timocrate, which appeared in 1656, was received with such continual applause, that the actors, weary of repeating it, entreated the audience, from the stage, to permit the representation of something else, otherwise they should forget all their other pieces. Since that time, it has not been brought upon the boards at all. Camma, in 1661, produced an equal sensation. The spectators thronged in such numbers to witness the representation, that scarcely room enough was left for the performers. Of his dramatic works which now merit attention, are Ariane, which maintained a competition with Racine's Bajazet ; L’Inconnu, a heroic comedy, in 1675, which, in 1724, was represented at a festival at the Tuileries, with a ballet, in which Louis XV., and the young lords of his court danced; and, especially, Le Comte d'Essea, which he produced in 1678. This last piece, as well as Stilicon and Ariane, is sometimes represented at the present day. Thomas, according to the judg- ment of Voltaire, although inferior to his brother, stood second to none but him, and his style is more pure. In 1685, he succeeded his brother in the French academy, by a unanimous vote, and, after his election, immediately undertook the publication of the French Dictionary, which appeared in 1694. He then prefixed notes to Vaugelas's Remarks, and finally added a supplement to the Dictionnaire de l'Académie, in which he explained the terms of art and science. This may be regarded as the basis of the subsequent Encyclopédie. Thomas Corneille was also admitted into the academy of inscriptions, and was a diligent contributor to the Mercure galant, with his friend De Visé. In old age, he lost his sight, and died, highly honoured by his contempora- ries, and beloved for his social virtues, at Andelys, Dec. 8, 1709. In his conversation, he was lively and natural. He left two children: and Voltaire united the daughter of his son Francis in marriage with the count de la Tour du Pin. A selection of his dramas is commonly found annexed to the edi- tions of his brother's works, and his remaining pro- ductions, for the most part superseded by better, are not collected. CORNELIA, the mother of the Gracchi, daughter of Scipio Africanus the elder, and wife of the consul Gracchus, was a noble-minded Roman matron, who lived about 130 years B. C. To her sons (see Grac- chus) she gave an excellent education, and, being in company, with a Roman lady who was displaying her jewels, and desired to see the jewels of Cornelia, presented her sons as her most precious jewels. At her death, the Romans erected a monument to her memory. Cornelia is one of those women for whom the history of Rome is distinguished before all others. In the history of no nation do we find so many ex- amples of mothers and wives remarkable for noble- ness of spirit. CORNELIAN ; or CARNELIAN, (cornaline, Fr. ; corniola, Ital. ; from carments, or corneus, Lat.); a precious stone, of a light-red or flesh-colour, CQR.NEI, IS-CORNWALL. whence its name carnaline. It is much used for seals, bracelets, necklaces, and other articles of mi- nute gem Sculpture. Its name, cornelian, is derived from corneus, or horny, it being reckoned by mineral- ogists among the hornstones. It was known to the Romans, as we learn from Pliny, by the name of sarda, from being found originally in Sardinia. Cor- melians are of various colours, from a light and fleshy red, opaque, and semi-transparent, with and without Yeins, to a brilliant transparency and colour approach- ing the ruby, from which they are, however, known by sure distinctive marks. Winckelmann describes a Cornelian of this latter sort, on which was engrav. ed a portrait of Pompey. The cornelian is a stone Well fitted for engraving in intaglio, or sinking as for seals, being of sufficient hardness to receive a fine polish, and wax does not adhere to it, as it does to Some other sorts of stones which are used for seals, and the impression comes off clear and perfect. The number of the cornelians that were engraved by the ancients, and have reached our times, is very considerable, and nearly equal to that of all the other kinds of gems with which we are acquainted. From an ancient epithet—“ cornelian of the old rock”—Pliny conceives that they were taken from a rock of that material near Babylon. He thinks they were clarified by being steeped in the honey of Corsica. The royal collection at Paris, and the British Museum of London, have numerous ancient and beautiful engraved cornelians. Many of the latter were found in the field of Cannae in Apulia, Where Hannibal defeated the Romans. CORNELIS, CoRNELIUs, a painter, born at Haer- lem, in 1562, studied the rudiments of his art with Peter Ærtsens the younger, and afterwards worked at Antwerp, under Peter Porbus and Giles Coignet. Hiſ 1583, he returned to Haerlem, where his great painting—the company of arquebusiers—established his reputation. Descamps called it a collection of figures, sketched by the Genius of History. In 1595, With Charles van Mander, he instituted an academy for painting at Haerlem. His numerous pictures are rarely to be bought, on account of the great value which the Flemings set upon them. Cornelis painted great and smaï pieces, historical subjects, portraits, flowers, and especially subjects from ancient mythology. His drawing is admirable. He is a true imitator of nature, and his colouring is always lively and agreeable. The galleries at Vienna and Dresden contain some of his pieces. J. Mueller, H. Golzius, Saenredam, L. Killian, Matham, Van Geyn, and many others, have imitated his manner. He died in 1638. CORNELIUS NEPOS, a Roman historian, born in Cisalpine Gaul, lived in the golden age of the Ro- man language, in friendship with Catullus, Cicero, and Pomponius Atticus, and died thirty years B. C. Of his numerous writings, only his Lives of distin- guished Generals have come down to us. In this work, he gives, in a classical style, with great bre- vity and distinctness, twenty-four biographies of the most remarkable Grecian heroes of antiquity, to- gether with the lives of some barbarian generals, and also that of Cato the elder, finishing his work with the life of Atticus. His characters are, in general, strikingly illustrated, though he does not always observe a just proportion in his relations, sometimes treating important subjects in too concise, and trifl- ing ones in too prolix a manner; and, indeed, he does not always draw from the most trustworthy Sources. On account of his brevity, he throws little new light on history; and it is generally believed that the book which has reached us is an extract from the Works of Nepos, made by Emilius Probus, in the time of Theodosius. The edition of this author by 461 Van Staveren (Leyden, 1773) is the most valuable. Other good editions, of a later date, are those of Fischer, Harles, Tzschucke and Bremi. CORNET; a wind instrument, now but little known, having, more than a century since, given place to the hautboy. There were three kinds of cornets—the treble, the tenor, and the bass. The treble and tenor cornets were simple curvilineal tubes, about three feet in length, gradually increas- ing in diameter from the mouth-piece towards the lower end. The bass cornet was a Serpentine tube, four or five feet long, and increasing in diameter in the same manner. CORNET, in military language, is the third officer in a company, in Britain and the United states of America. He bears the colours of the troop. In the Prussian army, the name cornet is abolished. CORNU COPIAE ; horn of plenty. See Ache- lous and Amalthea. CORNWALL, a maritime county of England, forming the south-western extremity of Great Britain, is surrounded by the Sea, except on the eastern side. Its superficial area has been found, by actual survey, to contain 758,484 statute acres, or 1407 Square miles. It is divided into nine hundreds, and 206 parishes. The general aspect of Cornwall is very dreary, a ridge of bleak and rugged hills stretching through its whole length. Comparatively little attention is paid to agriculture in Cornwall, and most of its opera- tions are still conducted in a very rude manner. Its principal wealth is derived from its mines, of which, according to an accurate map made in 1800, it ap- pears that there were then forty-five of copper, twenty-eight of tin, eighteen of copper and tin, two of lead, one of lead and silver, one of copper and silver, one of silver, one of copper and cobalt, one of tin and cobalt, and One of antimony. Some mines of manganese have been opened since that time. Of the minerals of this county, which are numerous, one of the most interesting is the soap. rock, particularly used in the manufacture of porce lain. The china-stone, which is raised in great quantities near St Austell, forms a principal ingredi- ent in the Staffordshire potteries. A great variety of fish frequent the coasts of this county: by far the most important of these are the pilchards, in the fishery of which a great capital is employed. Corn- wall can boast of but few manufactures, except the preparation of its metals. Antiquities, generally supposed to be Druidical, abound. The Scilly is lands lie about nine leagues W. by S. of the Land's End, and are supposed to have been formerly con- nected with Cornwall. The intermediate and Sur- rounding rocks are innumerable. Under the Romans, Cornwall made a part of the province called Britannia Prima ; and here, when invaded by the Saxons, considerable numbers of the Britons sought refuge, and maintained their indepen- dence long after the other parts of England had been subdued. Egbert, king of Wessex, in the beginning of the ninth century, invaded Cornwall, when the native inhabitants invited the Danes to their assist- ance, and, though repeatedly defeated, they succeed- ed in repelling the invaders. About 100 years later, King Athelstan attacked the Cornish Britons, whom he reduced to subjection, and their territory has since formed an integral part of the realm of England, Among the various occurrences of which this coun- ty has been the theatre, may be noted, the landing of Perkin Warbeck, in 1497, and two formidable insur- rections against the government of Henry VII. ; and in Cornwall took place almost the latest efforts of the royalists towards the close of the contest which prov- ed fatal to Charles I. The difference of language which long prevailed between the people of Cornwall 462 and their neighbours, preserved the national charac- teristics of British descent, after they had been else- Where obliterated. The Cornish dialect is derived, like the Welsh, from the language of the ancient Britons. ... It continued to be generally spoken in the county till after the introduction of the English li- turgy into the service of the church, in the sixteenth Century; from which period it declined, and about the middle of the eighteenth century it had become so much disused, that only a few aged individuals were capable of conversing in it. After the con- quest of Cornwall, by Athelstan, the government of the County was intrusted to earls, who possessed a degree of feudal authority beyond what was common in other parts of England, and which they continued to enjoy till the creation of the dukedom of Corn- wall, in favour of Edward the Black Prince, in 1337, When the duchy was settled by act of Parliament, on the eldest Sons of the kings of England, to whom this dignity has ever since appertained. Population of Cornwall in 1831, 302,440. CORNWALL; a post-town of America, in Litch- field county, Connecticut, on the east side of the Housatonic. A foreign mission school was established here in 1817, under the direction of the board of commissioners for foreign missions. The object of it is to educate heathen children, so that they may be qualified to instruct their countrymen in Christianity and the arts of civilized life. The number of pupils, in 1822, was thirty-four ; of whom nineteen were American Indians, and nine from the islands of the Pacific Ocean. CORNWALLIS, CHARLEs, marquis of, was born in 1738, and received his education at Eton, and at St John's college, Cambridge. Devoting himself to the profession of arms, he was appointed aide-de- Camp to the king in 1765, and colonel of foot in 1766, and, after passing through all the various pro- motions, he obtained the rank of general. He re- presented the borough of Eye in parliament until the death of his father, in 1762, when he succeeded to the peerage. He did not distinguish himself in par- liament, either by the frequency or the eloquence of his speeches; and, in the house of peers, he appears to have been favourable to the claims of the American colonies; notwithstanding which, he accepted a com- mand in America, and distinguished himself at the battle of Brandywine, in 1777, and at the siege of Charleston, and was intrusted with the government of South Carolina. After obtaining the victories of Camden and Guilford, he formed the plan of in- vading Virginia, which failed; and he was made prisoner with his whole army. He laid the blame of this defeat on Sir Henry Clinton, who had not given him the Succour he expected; and several pamphlets were published between them, in which Sir Henry blamed both the scheme and its conduct. Soon after his return to Britain, he was removed from his place of governor of the Tower of London, but was re-appointed in 1784, and retained it until his death. In 1786, lord Cornwallis was sent out to India, with the double appointment of commander-in-chief and governor-general; and not long after, the govern- ment of Bengal declared war against the Sultan of the Mysore, for an attack upon the rajah of Travan- core, the ally of the British. The first campaign was indecisive; but in March, 1791, lord Cornwallis invaded the Mysore, and, in the year after, besieged the city of Seringapatam, and obliged the Sultan, Tippoo Saib, to sue for peace, and to submit to such terms as he dictated. These were, to give up a part of his dominions, to pay a large sum of money, with a promise of a more considerable portion of treasure; and, as hostages for the performance of this treaty, Tippoo intrusted two of his sons to the care of lord CORNWALL-CORONATION. Cornwallis. On the conclusion of this important war, lord Cornwallis returned to Britain, and, in 1792, was created marquis, appointed master-general of the ordnance, and admitted a member of the privy council. In 1798, at the time of the rebellion, he was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland, which office he filled until 1801, conducting himself with great firmness and judgment, united with a conciliatory disposition. In the same year he was sent to France where he signed the peace of Amiens. In 1804, on the recall of the marquis Wellesley, he was again appointed governor-general of India, and, the follow- ing year, died at Ghazepore, in the province of Ben- ares. His personal character was amiable and un- assuming, and, if his talents were not brilliant, his sound sense, aided by his laudable ambition and per- severance, effected much. As a military man, he was active and vigilant, always giving his instruc- tions in person, and attending to the performance of them. CORO, or WENEZUELA, a town in Venezuela, the capital of the province or district of Coro ; 80 leagues W. of Caracas; lon. 69° 40 W.; lat 11° 24′ N. ; population, 10,000. It is situated on a dry, sandy plain, on an isthmus which separates the lake of Maracaybo from the Carribean Sea. The streets are regular, but the houses are mean. The port is indifferent, and the commerce of the town is incon- siderable. COROLLARY (in Latin corollarium); a conclu- sion from premises, or from a proposition demon- strated. Formerly, it was used to signify a surplus. COROMANDEL, CoAST of (Dsholamandol) country of millet; the eastern coast of Hindostan, along the Carnatic, so called, extending from cape Calymere, lat. 100 20', to the mouth of the Kistnah, lat. 15° 45' N. ; length about 350 miles. It contains many flourishing cities, but Coringa is the only one which affords a harbour. Madras is the English pro- vincial city. From the beginning of October until April, north winds blow along the shore, and, during the first three months, with such vehemence, that navigation, during this period, is very dangerous. This is called the north-east monsoon. In the middle of April, the south winds begin, which last until the month of October. During this time, vessels can approach the coast with safety. The wind, during the day, is often glowing hot, but, in the night, be- comes cool again. The sandy soil of the whole coast is not favourable for the cultivation of rice ; but cotton is produced in great quantity, and, in its raw as well as its manufactured state, is the source of wealth to the industrious inhabitants. CORON; a fortress in the Morea, 17; leagues S.W. Tripolizza, and 4%; E. of Modon, on the eastern shore of the gulf of Modon; situated on a mountain ; lat. 36° 47' 26" N. ; lon. 21° 58' 52" E.; population, 5000. CORONATION ; a solemn inauguration of a monarch, with religious ceremonies, which, in all- cient times, when the right of succession to the throne was more uncertain or disputed than at pre- sent, or when the right to govern could not be ob- tained without undertaking certain formal obliga- tions, was deemed more necessary than in modern times. This act is not considered as necessary for establishing the rights and obligations of rulers and subjects; but it is very proper as a means of re- minding both parties, in a solemn way, of the nature of their duties. The essential parts of the Coronation are, first, the oath which the monarch takes, that he will govern justly, will always consult the real wel- fare of his people, and will conscientiously observe the fundamental laws of the state; and, secondly, the placing of the crown upon his head with 'reli- CORONER—CORPORATION. ious solemnities (prayer and anointing). In Eng- and, kings have been anointed and crowned in Westminster abbey, even to the latest times, with great splendour, and the observance of ancient feudal customs, many of which are very singular. So also in France, where the church of the archbishop of Rheims has from ancient times enjoyed the privilege of the celebration of this ceremony. (Histoire du Sacre de Charles X., by F. M. Miel, Paris, 1825.) Splendid engravings of the coronations, both of king George IV. of Great Britain, and of king Charles X. of France, have made their appearance. * The coronation oath of Charles X. ran thus:–“ In the pre- sence of God, I promise my people to defend and honour (de maintenir et d’honorer) our holy religion, as it becomes the most Christian king and the eldest Son of the church; to cause justice to be done to all my subjects; finally, to govern in conformity to the laws of the kingdom, and to the charter, which I swear truly to observe ; so help me God and his holy gospel.” The coronation oath of the king of Britain is prescribed by 1 William and Mary, c. 6, modified by 5 Anne, c. 8 and 39, 40 George III., c. 67:—“‘I solemnly promise and swear to govern the people of this United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the dominions thereto belonging, according to the statutes in parliament agreed on, and the laws and customs of the same; to the utmost of my power to maintain the laws of God, the true profession of the gospel, and the Protestant reformed religion established by the law; to pre- serve unto the bishops and the clergy of this realm, and the churches committed to their charge, all such rights and privileges as by law do or shall appertain unto them or any of them.” After this, the king or queen, laying his or her hand upon the holy Gospels, shall say, ‘The things which I have before promised, I will perform and keep ; so help me God;’ and then shall kiss the book.” The Coronation of the German emperor, by the pope, in former times, was the source of much disorder, as the emperor was generally obliged to go to Rome with an army. Napoleon crowned himself, and . put the Crown on the head of his wife Jose- piline. CORONER ; an officer in England and some of the United States of America, the chief part of whose duty is to inquire into the cause of the death of persons killed, or dying suddenly. In England, he inquires also into the cause of death of persons dying in prison. His examination is made, in all cases, with the aid of a jury, in sight of the body, and at the place where the death happened. In England, the coroner has also to inquire concerning shipwrecks, and certify, in any particular case, Whether there be an actual wreck or not, and who is in possession of the goods; also to inquire con- cerning treasure trove ; that is, gold or silver, which appears, when found, to have been purposely hidden, and remains unclaimed. Such treasure, in England, belongs to the king. The coroner, in that country, is also the sheriff's substitute; and, when an excep- tion can be taken to the sheriff, for partiality, pro- CeSS is awarded to the coroner. In those of the United States where there are coroners, their princi- pal duty is to inquire into the causes of violent or extraordinary death. In Connecticut, the duty is performed by a justice of the peace or a constable. CORONET; an inferior crown, belonging to * The British king at arms, George Naylor, has published the history of the coronation of George IV., in a work of 400 pages, with 70 copperplates, price 25 guineas, the first official description of the ceremony in Britain, since the ºnt of the coronation of James II. by Sandford, in I - 463 the British nobility. The coronet of a British duke is adorned with strawberry leaves; that of a marquis has leaves with pearls interposed; that of an earl raises the pearls above the leaves; that of a viscount is surrounded with pearls only; that of a baron has only four pearls. CORPORAL. This word is written in the Same, or in a similar, manner in many languages. and, at first sight, would seem to be derived from corps (body); but it originates, in fact, from the French caporal and the Italian caporale, which are derived from capo, the Italian form of the Latin caput (the head). The change of the first syllable, ca, into cor, is of much antiquity. Du Fresne uses the Low Latin term corporalis. From this author it appears, that corporal formerly signified a superior commander; but, like captain and many other words, it has sunk in its dignity. A corporal is now a rank and file man, with Superior pay to that of common soldiers, and with nominal rank under a Sergeant. He has charge of one of the squads of the company, places and relieves sentinels, &c. Every company in the British service has three or four corporals. In armies in which privates may advance to the highest ranks, as in France, Prussia, &c., great care is taken in selecting corporals. In fact, they are officers of much importance, associat- ing, as they do, with the privates, over whom their superiority of rank gives them much influence. The feeling of military honour, good morals, and emulation in the discharge of duty, are, in a great degree, to be infused into the mass by means of the corporals.—A corporal of a man of war is an officer who has the charge of setting and relieving the watches and sentries, and who sees that the soldiers and Sailors keep their arms meat and clean : he teaches them how to use their arms, and has a mate under him. CORPORATION. A corporation is a political or civil institution, comprehending one or more per- Sons, by whom it is conducted according to the laws of its constitution. It is a conventional and artificial organ, of an integral or individual character, Whether it embraces one or more members, and is invested with certain powers and rights, varying according to the objects of its establishment. Its acts, when done in pursuance of its powers, are con- sidered those of the body, or organ, and not those of the member or members composing the corporation. In respect to the number of members, corporations are divided into sole, consisting of one person, and aggregate, consisting of more than one. A corpora- tion does not lose its identity by a change of its members. Hence the maxim, in the British law, that the king never dies; for the regal power is considered to be invested in a sole corporation, which continues the same, though the individual Corporator may die. The whole political system is made up of a concatemation of various corporations, political, civil, religious, social, and economical. A nation itself is the great corporation, comprehend- ing all the others, the powers of which are exerted in legislative, executive, and judicial acts, which, when confined within the scope, and done according to the forms, prescribed by the constitution, are considered to be the acts of the nation, and not merely those of the official organs. Corporations are also either local or at large. A nation, state, county, town, or parish, is a local corpo- ration; stage-coach or navigation companies, charit- able and many other associations, may be at large and transitory, that is, not restricted as to the resi- dence of their members, or the place at which their affairs are to be conducted; but, whether local or ambulatory, their objects, powers, and forms of pro- 464 ceeding must be defined, for by these the metaphy- sical abstract entity, called a corporation, subsists; and the persons by whom this artificial conventional engine is operated cease to act as corporators the mdiment they pass beyond the limits of the objects and powers of the institution. Corporations are created either by prescription or charter, but most commonly by the latter. The British government, and, indeed, most of the other governments of Europe, are corporations by prescription. All the American governments are corporations created by charters, viz., their constitutions. So private cor- porations may be established in either of these ways, and, whether by one or the other, they derive their powers and franchises, either directly or indirectly, from the sovereign power of the state. The improvements, among the moderns, in civil liberty, arts, and commerce, took their rise in private corporations. In the first volume of Robertson's Charles V. will be found a very good historical view of the manner in which municipal corporations and communities contributed to the amelioration of the condition of the great mass of the population in the western part of Europe. The several governments, established after the dissolution of the Roman em- pire, had degenerated into a system of oppression, and the great body of the people were reduced to a state of actual servitude ; and the condition of those dignified with the name of freemen was little prefer- able to that of the others. Nor was this oppression confined to the people inhabiting the country. Cities and villages found it necessary to acknowledge de- pendence on some powerful lord, on whom they reli- ed for protection. The inhabitants could not dispose of the effects acquired by their own industry, either, during life, by deed, or, at their decease, by will. They had no right to appoint guardians to their chil- dren, and were not permitted to marry without pur- chasing the consent of their superior lord. If they once commenced a suit in the lord's court, they durst not terminate it by compromise, because this would deprive the lord of the perquisites due to him on pass- ing sentence. Services of various kinds, no less disgraceful than oppressive, were exacted from them without mercy or moderation. The cities of Italy, being situated at a distance from their German superiors, whereby the ties of subjection were weak- ened, found it comparatively easy to extricate them- selves from their political and commercial thraldom ; and they were stimulated to the attempt by the ex- citement, revival of trade, and influx of wealth, occasioned by the crusades. The spirit which ani- Imated the Italian cities spread itself into Germany and France, where the dilapidation and exhaustion of the wealth of the sovereigns and nobles, occasion- ed by the repeated and obstinate prosecution of these religious wars, put it in the power of the towns to extort, or to purchase at a low rate, exemption from any species of military oppression, servitude, and merciless exaction. In some stipulated composition, the sovereign or baron granted charters of community (see Communi- ty), #º certain privileges in regard to per- Sonal liberty, municipal government and judicial administration. These charters, though on a limited Scale, were equivalent, in character, to what are called constitutions in the United States; and the term is still retained, on the continent of Europe, in the same application: thus the limitations to which the Bourbons submitted when restored to the throne of France, are called the charter. As the most impor- tant immunities and privileges granted in these char- ters were, in effect, limitations of the legislative and executive power of the sovereigns, they would very naturally attempt to retract them, when a favourable CORPORATION.—CORPS. opportunity offered; and this they did, and some- times with success; but the corporations had one great advantage, in resisting these encroachments, in consequence of the struggles between the sove- reigns and nobles; for the free cities, being very useful allies to either side of these contests, were treated with greater forbearance, so that the general tendency was to the enlargement and establishment of the rights and privileges of the citizen, and the restraint and regulation of the power of the sove- reign. This voluntary association of Small communi- ties, which proved so powerful an engine in rearing the present political fabrics in Christendom, is no less efficient as an engine of political revolution and demolition; and it may be used with equal success for the best or the most pernicious purposes, as every age and country have frequent opportunities of witness- ing. Charters of incorporation for mere economical purposes, as the construction of roads and canals, and carrying on of banking, insurance, manufactures, &c., are more frequent in the United States of Ame- rica than in any other country. - Corporations are erected for undertakings which, in Britain, are conducted by joint stock companies; and, in some of the states, the character of these bodies has been modified by the laws, where their object is the conducting of some branch of industry, so as to render them either limited or absolute co- partnerships, in respect to the joint liability of the individual members for the engagements of the com- pany, though they still retain the character of cor- porations, in respect to the capacity to conduct busi- ness, notwithstanding the decease of any members, which, in ordinary copartnerships, usually effects a dissolution. CORPORATION and TEST ACTS. The COr. poration act, passed in the 13th Charles II., 1661, prevented any person from being legally elected to any office belonging to the government of any city or corporation in England, unless he had, within the twelvemonth preceding, received the sacrament of the Lord's supper, according to the rites of the church of England; and enjoined him to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy when he took the oath of office. The test act, 25 Charles II., 1673, required all officers, civil and military, to take the oaths, and make the declaration against transub- stantiation, in the courts of king’s bench or chancery, within six months after their admission ; and also within the same time, to receive the Sacrament of the Lord's supper, according to the usage of the church of England, in some public church. . The corpora- tion act was principally directed against Protestant non-conformists; the test act against Roman Catho- lics. In the year 1828, they were both abolished. CORPOSANT, or CORPO SANTO (Italian, holy body); the electric flame which sometimes ap pears on the tops of the masts of vessels, and is also called Castor and Pollua, and St Elmo's fire. CORPS (French for body); a word often used in military language, many of the terms of which are derived from the French, they having begun the or- ganization of armies on the system which now pre- vails. The term is applied to various kinds of divi- sions of troops. - Corps d'armée is one of the largest divisions of an army (the German Heeresabtheilung). Corps de garde; a post occupied by a body of men on watch; also the body which occupies it. Corps de reserve; a body of troops kept out of the action, with a view of being brought forward, if the troops previously engaged are beaten, or cannot fol- low up their victory, or are disorganized. . Corps volant (a flying body) is a body intended for rapid movements. It is always rather Small. COR PULENCE—CORPUS CHRISTI. Corps de bataille is the main body of an army, drawn up for battle between the * CORPULENCE; the state of the human body, when loaded with an excessive quantity of flesh and fat. The flesh forms the muscular system ; and its ex- tent being limited by the form of the particular mus- cular parts, its quantity can neither exceed nor fall below a certain bulk. The fat is much less limited, and the production and deposition of it is confined to no such definite form. The formation of the muscular fibres, or the change of blood into flesh, takes place in the capillary system, formed by the minutest por- tions of the arteries at their termination in the mus- cles. (Concerning the production of fat, see Fat.) If blood is copiously furnished with nutritive matter, it is converted readily into muscular fibres and fat. The secretion of fat depends, in a certain degree, on the state of the health. Children and females have a larger proportion of it than adult men. It is pro- moted by rich diet, a good digestion, corporeal inac- tivity, tranquillity of mind, &c. There is, however, a diseased state of the system, which, independently of all these influences, will increase the production and deposition of fat. We see young people and men, even such as are intelligent, and continually engaged in active business, very corpulent. The enormous corpulence of many men appears to bear no proportion to their food, and is evidently a disease, as many other secretions in the body; for example, the preparation and secretion of the bile, Saliva, &c., are augmented by disease. Sandiford mentions an unborn child, in which he observed a monstrous mass of fat. Tulpius saw a boy five years old, who weighed 150 pounds. Bartholini makes mention of a girl aged eleven years, who weighed above 200 pounds. John Love, a bookseller of Weymouth, who died in October, 1793, weighed twenty-six stone, or 364 pounds, and was absolutely suffocated by excessive fatness. Ed- ward Bright, grocer of Malden, in Essex, when only twelve years j. weighed ten stone four pounds, or 144 pounds; when twenty, he had increased to twenty- four stone, after which he gained two stones yearly; for, at his death, which took place in 1750, in the thirtieth year of his age, he weighed forty-four stone, or 616 pounds. His height was five feet nine and a half inches. He is said to have been in the habit of drinking one gallon of small beer daily, and once for a wager, seven young men of twenty-one years of age were included in one of his waistcoats. Daniel Lambert, who was exhibited in London, in 1806, when only twenty-three years of age, weighed thirty stone. When in London, his weight was fifty stone, or 704 pounds, and his height five feet eleven inches; he measured nine feet four inches round the body, and three feet one inch round the leg. A Canadian, named Maillot, who exhibited himself in Boston, in 1829, weighed 619 pounds. Corpulency is often only the repletion of the cells of the cellular mem- brane with watery, gaseous, and vaporized matter, arising from a marked tendency to disease, and often the commencement of actual dropsy. Moderate cor- pulence (embonpoint, in French) is consistent with health, and is not opposed to beauty, as it prevents angularity and unevenness in the surface of the body, and gives the parts rotundity. For this reason, mo- derately corpulent women and men preserve a beau- tiful and youthful appearance longer than lean per- sons. But if corpulence is excessive, it becomes troublesome, and, at length, dangerous. ... Water should then be drunk instead of wine; milk, beer, and brandy should be avoided; active bodily exer- cise should be taken, and employment provided for the mind. Anxiety soon takes off superfluous fat, though grief sometimes produces it. In what cases medicine is to be resorted to, and what kinds should II. 465 be used, must be left to the judgment of physicians. People sometimes resort to violent and injurious means to rid themselves of superfluous flesh. Madam Stitch, the best actress in the theatre at Berlin, took poison to reduce her person to the right dimensions for performing Shakspeare's Juliet, and succeeded, though at the expense of her health. Instances of leanness as remarkable as those of corpulence are by no means rare. In 1830, a native of Vermont exhi- bited himself in America. He called himself the liv- ing skeleton. His legs and arms were almost entirely deprived of flesh. The man was about forty-five years old, and weighed sixty pounds. In curing corpulency, due attention must be paid to the regulating of the diet, exercise, and sleep of the individual. The most noted case of cure is that of Mr Thomas Wood, miller of Billericay, in Essex, whose case is related by Sir George Baker, in the Philosophical Transactions. When at the age of forty-four, this individual was of a monstrous size, and was habitually suffering under severe gout and rheu- matism, attended with thirst, heart-burn, pain in the stomach, headache, and giddiness, and had even had two severe fits of epilepsy, with a constant horror of being suffocated after every meal. But he was gra- dually freed from all these dreadful complaints by making a complete change in his mode of life. First, taking small beer instead of strong ale, then drinking water only ; using dumb-bells, then leaving off drinking even water; and next abstaining from but- ter and cheese, and, lastly, all animal food; confining himself for several years to a sort of hasty pudding, made of milk, sea biscuit, and an egg, and abridging his hours of sleep to seven, and labouring with a spade in his garden. His voice, which had been lost, returned. He became active, vigorous, and cheerful, and attained the age of sixty-four years— dying, at length, from an inflammation in his bowels —a disease hereditary in his family. In nine cases out of ten, corpulency may be traced to the pernici- ous habit of swilling large quantities of malt liquor, or milk, or cream, or tea; and nothing is more effica- cious than to abstain, as much as possible, from over indulgence in the use of fluids. Some writers on corpulency have recommended the use of Castile soap in pills, or boluses, taken to the extent of two or three drachms daily, but the safer plan is to follow the example of the miller of Billericay. See Dr Flem- ing's Pamphlet on Corpulency; Dr Cullen's First Lives; Sauvage's Nosol. Method. Article, Polysarcia; and Philosophical Transactions. CORPUS CHRISTI, or corpus Domini Jesu Christi, means the consecrated host at the Lord's supper, which, according to the doctrines of the Ca- tholic church, is changed, by the act of consecration, into the real body of Jesus the Saviour. This doc- trine, which was prevalent even in the 12th century, caused the adoration of the consecrated host, which, as it was thought, should be worshipped as the true body of Jesus. On that account, the people in the Catholic churches fall upon their knees whenever the priest raises the host; and throughout all coun tries in which the Catholic religion is the only one tolerated, as Spain, Portugal, Italy, &c., the viaticum (the name of the host when carried to the house of a sick or dying man that he may partake of it private- ly) is saluted with the same marks of adoration by every one who sees the priest pass with it, or who hears the bell of the boys of the choir, when they go by. All who are riding dismount or leave their car- riages to exhibit this mark of respect. All business, conversation, and amusement is interrupted until the viaticum has passed. The Catholic church has ordained, for the conse. crated host, a particular festival, called the corpus 2 G 466 CORPUS Christi feast. It owes its origin to the vision of a nun of Liege, named Juliana, in 1230, who, while looking at the full moon, saw a gap in its orb, and, by a peculiar revelation from Heaven, learned that the moon represented the Christian church, and the ap, the want of a certain festival—that of the adora- tion of the body of Christ in the consecrated host— which she was to begin to celebrate and announce to the world ! On this account, the archdeacon James went to Liege (the same who afterwards became pope under the title of Urban IV.) in order to ordain such a festival; and he was confirmed in his purpose by a miracle. In 1264, while a priest at Bologna, who did not believe in the change of the bread into the body of Christ, was going through the ceremony of the benediction in his presence, drops of blood fell upon his surplice, and when he endeavoured to Con- ceal them in the folds of his garment, formed bloody images of the host. The bloody surplice is still shown as a relic at Civita Vecchia. This circumstance forms the subject of one of the beautiful pictures of Ra- phael, in the Stanze di Rafaello. Urban IV. published, in the same year, a bull, in which he appointed the Thursday of the week after Pentecost for the cele- bration of the corpus Christi festival throughout Christendom, and promised absolution for a period of from 40 to 100 days to the penitent who took part in it. Since then, this festival has been kept as one of the greatest of the Catholic church. Splendid {..." form an essential part of it. The children elonging to the choir, with flags, and the priests with lighted tapers, move through the streets in front of the priest, who carries the host in a precious box, where it can be seen, under a canopy held by four layilien of rank. A crowd of the common people closes the procession. In Spain, it is customary for people of distinction to send their children dressed as angels, to join the procession; the different fraterni- ties carry their patron saints, carved out of wood and highly adorned, before the host; astonishment and awe are produced, as well as feelings of devotion, by the splendour and magnificence of the procession, by the brilliant appearance of the streamers, by the clouds of smoke from the censers, and the Solemn sound of the music. The festival is also a general holyday, in which bull-fights, games, dances, and other amusements are not wanting. . In Sicily, all the freedom of a masquerade is allowed, and passages from Scripture history are represented in the streets. The whole people are in a state of excitement. The festival is kept with more simplicity and dignity by the German Catholics. In Protestant countries, the Catholics merely go round the churches in proces- Sions, and celebrate their worship with peculiar Solem- nities. See Sacrament. CORPUS DELICTI (literally the body of the crime or offence). It is a figurative expression, used to denote those external marks, facts, or circum- stances which accompany a crime, and without the proof of which the crime is not supposed to be esta- blished. We have no correspondent expression in English, and the preceding exposition is peculiar to the civil law of continental Europe. We should say,. that certain proofs are indispensable to establish a crime, and that, unless they exist, there is no legal ground to convict the party; so that corpus delicti is equivalent to the proofs essential to establish a CIIIſle. The following observations have reference to the jurisprudence of Germany. The marks of guilt, which constitute the corpus delicti, are in many eases perceptible in the traces remaining (facta perma- mentia); for instance, the wounds inflicted upon a man; a lampoon posted up; written or printed words; coun- terfeit writings: in other cases, such traces exist only ſ) ELICTI. in the memory (facta transeuntia); as words merely spoken, &c. A criminal trial must always rest upon a corpus delicti clearly substantiated. Unless the death of a man is fully proved, and shown to have been occasioned by the co-operation of another, no sentence of homicide can be passed. An inspection of the body, in case of murder, or the statement of the injured party, in less heinous offences, confirmed with an oath, &c., is accordingly, the first condition of a criminal process. Entire deficiency of the cor- pus delicti can be supplied by no confession; and the latter remains without any effect ; as, for instance, if a person should accuse himself of having stolen some- thing from another, or of having killed some one, and no person could be found from whom such a thing had been stolen, or who had been killed. In the cases where the corpus delicti cannot be discovered by means of immediate examination, because the doer has destroyed all traces of it (for instance by a total burning of the corpse of a murdered person), other circumstances must be sought for, which can afford certain proof of the crime; and without them punishment cannot be legally pronounced by the court. It must further be ascertained, in a case of murder, that death has ensued in consequence of the wound : or, rather, that the wound inflicted was, in itself, a sufficient cause for the death. In this re- spect, the courts in Germany often go too far, by seeking for the most remote possibility, by which the corpus delicti may be rendered uncertain. In the fa- mous trial of Fonk, in Cologne, it was one of the greatest faults, that the corpus delicti (the wounds in the head of the dead man, Coenen) had not been ex- amined with sufficient medical accuracy, and that there was a search for a mmrderer hefore the murder was ascertained. It has happened more than once that a person has been executed as a murderer of a missing person, who, after some time, has re-ap- peared. No reliance ought, in most cases, to be placed upon the circumstance, that several persons pretend to have seen the corpse of the individual believed to have been murdered, until the corpse has actually been discovered, or until infallible evidence of the murder has been adduced. In crimes which leave no traces, the whole possible proof rests on witnesses and confessions. Even a confession of guilt by an accused party must be supported by other cir- cumstances; e. g., actions which have been observ- ed by other persons, and which have a bearing on the crime, and render it probable. In the investiga- tion of the corpus delicti, in a great many cases, the science of medicine must assist the law. Neverthe- less, great uncertainty often remains, after all the aid which can be thus attained ; for instance, in poisonings, and in cases where the point in question is, whether an infant was born alive or not. Fre- quently, questions are proposed to the physicians, which they cannot answer at all. In such cases, nothing is required of them but the declaration that nothing can be said with certainty. It is a very im- portant question, whether preference ought to be given to the testimony of the physician who has attended the deceased till his death, or to the opinion of the physician of the court at the official examination.* In a famous case, in Germany, the inquest found traces of poisoning by arsenic, though not the arsenic itself, whilst the physician attending during the last illness of the deceased asserted that no symptom of poison- ing had shown itself, and that the disease had taken * In many parts of Germany, a physician, in the employ of the government, is attached to each district, who sees that proper health regulations are observed, makes reports respecting births, deaths, &c., inquires into the causes of deaths which are attended with suspicious circumstances, and is, ea officio, the medical adviser of the judicial courts, CORPUS JURIS.–CORRECTION OF THE PRESS, its natural course. In another case, the physician declared that the deceased had died of the lockjaw, occasioned by a wound, whilst the legal examiners maintained that the wound had been without influ- ence upon his death. CORPUS JURIS (body of law) is a name given to the Justinian code and collections, in the 12th cen- tury, when the separate portions began to be con- sidered as one whole. Under this name are included the Pandects, in three parts; the fourth part, con- taining the nine first books of the Code; the fifth part, called the Polume, containing the Institutes, the Novels, or Authentics, in nine subdivisions or collations; in addition to which, the collections of feudal laws, and the modern imperial edicts, forming a tenth collation, and the three remaining books of the code, are comprised in the Corpus Juris. Some scholars have attempted to add the later edicts of the Romano-German emperors, as an eleventh colla- tion. This, however, is not acknowledged, and the Corpus Juris civilis has been, since the time of Ac- cursius, considered as completed. Those parts, even of the Justinian collection of laws which were brought by early commentators within the circle of their critical examinations, have not acquired, in the European courts of judicature, any legal authority, although they have been since received into the entire collection of the Roman law. With the cano- nical or papal laws, the same mode of proceeding has been adopted. From the old resolves of the councils, and the papal decrees, genuine and spuri- ous, Gratian, in the middle of the 12th century, Collected his Concordantia discordantium Canonum, afterwards called the Decretum. In the 13th cen- tury, a collection of still later papal decisions or decretals, in five books (compiled by order of Gre- gory IX., by Raymond of Pennafort, in 1234), was added. These decretals were considered as Supple- mentary and additional, and were therefore described and cited by the name of extra. Boniface VIII., (1298) allowed the addition of a sixth book. Cle- ment W. added the decrees of the ecclesiastical council of Vienne (1311), under the name of the Clementines, or the seventh book of decretals, which completed the Corpus Juris Canonici, although pope John XXII., about 1340, and a learned individual, about 1488, collected further decretals of the popes, which were added as supplements, under the name of the Ea'travagantes. The name of Corpus Juris has also been given to many other codes and private col- lections of laws. There is a Corpus Juris Germanici Antiqui, by Georgisch; a Corpus Juris Feudalis, and a Corpus Juris Germanici, publici et privati, Medii AEvi, by Senkenberg; a Corpus Juris Militaris, pub- lished at Leipsic, ğ. An edition of the Corpus Juris, which may correspond to the improvements of the age, and the progress of knowledge, has, for a long time, been a desideratum. Lately, a very con- venient edition for ordinary use has been under- taken by J. L.W. Beck, of which two volumes have already appeared (Leipsic). A complete critical edi- tion has also been prepared by professor Schrader, of Tubingen. CORREA DE SERRA, Joseph FRANCIS, a learn- ed Portuguese scholar, was born at Serpa, in the province of Alentejo, in 1750. He commenced his studies at Rome, finished his education at Naples, under the care of the celebrated abbe Genovesi, and afterwards devoted himself to the study of the an- cient languages and botany at Rome. At the age of twenty-seven he returned to his native land, with his friend the duke of Lafoens. Correa was now ac- tively engaged in the establishment of the royal academy of sciences at Lisbon, of which the duke of Lafoens was the founder, and the celebrated Pombal 467 the patron. The former was appointed president of the academy, and Correa standing secretary. Both acted in concert, and their exertions established a cabinet of natural curiosities, a laboratory, &c., and particularly an important printing-office, which they succeeded in freeing from all restraints of the press. Correa prepared, with the assistance of the members of the academy, a collection of unpublished docu- ments (monumentos ineditos), relating to the history of his native country. In his botanical researches, he investigated the physiology of plants with distin- guished ability. But, being exposed to the danger of becoming a victim to intolerance, he was obliged to take a hasty leave of Portugal. He visited Paris in 1786. Here he associated with Broussonet, the naturalist, on the most intimate terms. After the death of Peter III. of Portugal, his enemies lost their influence, and he returned to Portugal. Subsequent. ly, Broussonet, flying for the reign of terror, ar- rived in Lisbon, where his connexion with Correa. procured for him a flattering reception from the duke of Lafoens. But the French emigrants, who could not forgive Broussonet, for the share which he had taken in the first movements of the French re- volution, denounced him to the tribunal of the inqui- sition as a Jacobine and a freemason, and implicated even his friend Correa. Nothing remained for Cor. rea but to seek safety in flight, as Broussonet had already done. At this time, the duke of Lafoens kept him concealed several days in the royal libra- ry. Correa then went to London, where Sir Joseph Banks, president of the royal society, received him under his protection, and introduced him to the so- ciety, and he was elected a member. He enriched the memoirs of the society with dissertations on Sub- jects of natural history. By the interposition of the count of Linhares, minister of the Portuguese marine, he was appointed counsellor of legation to the embassy at London. After the peace of Amiens, Correa resigned this post, and resided eleven years at Paris, where the institute elected him a member. In 1813, his scientific zeal carried him to the United States of North America. While there, the govern- ment of Portugal appointed him minister plenipo tentiary to the United States. Of the period of his death we have no account. CORRECTION OF THE PRESS. As it is of much importance for every one who appears in print to be able to correct the errors which occur in setting up the types, we have thought that a short account of the characters employed by printers for this purpose might be acceptable to many of our readers. The first impression taken from the types is called a proof; and almost always contains some €l'I’OTS. #.the person who corrects these does not understand the various signs used in correcting by the printers, he is very liable to have his meaning mistaken; and many of the errors which occur in books are to be referred to this source. Of the printers' signs, the most important are those which follow :-When a wrong word or letter occurs, a mark is made through it, and the proper, word or letter written in the margin opposite the line in which the error occurs. If a word or letter is omitted, a caret (A) is placed under the place where it should have stood, and the Omission is written on the margin. If a superfluous letter. Occurs, it is crossed out, and the character 3, signifying deſe, written in the margin. Where words are impro- perly joined, a caret is written under the place where the separation should be made, and the character ſ. written in the margin. When syllables are impro- perly separated, they are joined by a horizontal pas ,"s tº e e renthesis; as, du ty. This parenthesis is to be made - 2 a 2 468 in the margin, as well as at the break. When words are transposed, they are to be connected by a curved line, as, not\is when set up for “is not,” and the character tr. is to be written in the margin. When a letter is inverted, the mistake is pointed out by such a character as 6) in the margin. When marks of punctuation are omitted, a caret is put where the mark should have been inserted, and the comma or period, &c., is placed in the margin, with a stroke behind it; as, ºſ. If a mark of quotation has been omitted, the caret is made as before, and a character of this sort \/ or \!/ placed in the margin. Words which are to be printed in Italics are marked be- neath with a single line; as, office: if in small capitals, with two lines; as, Greece: if in large ca- pitals, with three ; as, James. Where these marks are used in correction, the abbreviations Ital. small caps. and caps. should be written in the margin. Where a word printed in Italics is to be altered to Roman letters, a line is to be drawn under it, and the abbreviation Rom. is to be written in the margin. Where a corrector, after altering a word, changes his mind, and prefers to let it stand, dots are placed under it, and the word stet is written in the margin. When a hyphen is omitted, a caret is made under the place where it should be, and such a character as this - placed in the margin. The omission of a dash is pointed out in the same way, only the en- closed line in the margin is made a little longer. When a break is made, so as to produce a division into paragraphs, where this was not intended, the end of the one and the beginning of the other para- graph are connected by a curved line z-\ , , and the words no break are to be written in the margin. Where a new paragraph is to be made, a caret is inserted, and this mark placed in the margin. Where blemishes, such as crooked lines, &c., appear, it is sufficient to call the printer's attention by a dash of the pen to the place. It is always to be kept in mind, that the printer will not make any alteration in the text, unless his attention is drawn to it by characters in the margin. ... Persons correcting the press would do well to recollect, that no considerable amount of matter can be inserted into or taken from a page, without requiring the whole page of types to be deranged; and, as the length of the page is affected by the alteration, it must be adjusted at the expense of the next page, and so on; so that all the following pages may have to be disturbed. It is therefore very desirable, when an addition is made amounting to more than a few letters, to strike out Something of about equal length in the vicinity; so, when an erasure of more than a few letters is made, it is desirable to introduce an addition, of about the same amount, near the place where it oc- Cllr.S. In the early times of the art of printing, more at- tention was paid than at present to the correction of the press, the books then printed being comparative- ly few and important, and superintended by learned men in their progress through the press; while, in modern times, innumerable publications of temporary interest are sent forth in great haste. Some of the old presses are celebrated for great correctness, and the works which have issued #. them, therefore, are held in high esteem; e. g. the publications of the Alduses, the Stephenses, &c. It was not uncom- mon in those times for the proofsheets to be hung up in some public place, that anybody might have an Opportunity of detecting errors. From this custom the proof sheets are still called, in German, Aushaen- gehogen (sheets hung out). Some modern presses have been distinguished; and in the case of particu. CORRECTION OF THE PRESS—CORREGG1O. lar works, consisting wholly or in part of tables of figures, or of arithmetical calculations, a reward has been offered for every error discovered. In the pre- face to Vega's logarithmic tables, two louis d’ors are offered for every erratum detected. On the whole, however, more attention has been paid, in modern times, to elegance than to correctness of execution. Some of the English newspapers deserve much credit for their correctness, considering the rapidity with which much of their contents is printed, as in the case of parliamentary speeches, delivered late at night, perhaps after midnight, and given to the public early the next morning. The Germans, who are distin- guished, in so many respects, for laborious accuracy, yet print with less correctness than the other great literary nations. Some of the editions of the works of their first authors have two or three pages of €rrata. CORREGGIO, ANTONIO ALLEGRI, frequently called Antonio da Correggio, from the place of his birth, was born, in 1494, at Correggio, in the duchy of Modena, and was intended for a learned profession; but na- ture had designed him for an artist. It has not been ascertained how much he was indebted to his in- Structor, who was probably his uncle Lorenzo Al- legri. His genius pointed out to him the way to immortality. It is related that once, after having viewed a picture of the great Raphael, he exclaimed, Anch” io sono pittore (I also am a painter); but it is not proved that Correggio ever was in Rome; and in Parma and Modena, where, according to D'Argens. ville, he might have seen works of Taphael, there were none at that time; so that this story wants confirmation. That Correggio, without having seen either the works of the ancient masters, or the chefs- d'oeuvre of the moderns who preceded him, should have become a model for his successors, by the un- assisted energies of his genius, renders him so much the more deserving of our admiration. Three qua- lities will always be admired in him—grace, har- mony, and a skilful management of the pencil. There is a peculiar grace in the movements of his figures, and a loveliness in their expression, which takes pos- Session of the soul. These attitudes and movements could not be executed by any artist, without his mas- terly skill in foreshortening, which not only gives greater variety to a piece, but is also favourable to gracefulness. Avoiding all roughness and hardness, Correggio sought to win the soul by mild and almost effeminate beauties. He strove to obtain this object also by harmony of colouring, of which he may be called the creator. He is unrivalled in the chiar oscuro; that is, in the disposition of the light; in the grace and rounding of his figures, and in the faculty of giving them the appearance of advancing and re- tiring, which is the distinguishing excellence of the Lombard school, of which he may be considered the head. In his drapery, he calculated with extreme accuracy all the effects of the chiar oscuro. He pos- sessed the power of passing, by the most graceful transition, from the bright colours to the half tints. It was ever his object to make the principal figure prominent, that the eye, after gazing till it was sa- tisfied on the bright colours, might repose with pleasure on the softer masses. He made a skilful use of this art in his Night (la motte di Correggio), which is to be seen in the gallery in Dresden, where there are seven pictures in which his progress in the art may be recognized. That this artist was imbued with the spirit of poetry, is proved by the allusions which he sometimes introduced into his pictures; for example, the white hare in the Zingara (Gipsy), in Dresden and Naples (a Madonna, which has received this name from the oriental style of the drapery and head-dress); and the goldfinch, in the Marriage CORREGIDOR.—CORSET. of St Catharine, at Naples. By the nearness of these timorous animals, the idea of the innocence and purity of the persons delineated is strongly represented, and the stillness and repose of the scene are forcibly impressed on the mind. Among his best pictures, besides the Night, are, the St. Je- rome, which has kindled the admiration of se- veral distinguished painters to such a degree as to render them unjust towards Raphael; the Peni- tent Magdalen; the altar-pieces of St Francis, St George, and St Sebastian; Christ in the Garden of Olives (in Spain); Cupid (in Vienna); the fresco painting in Parma; and, above all, the paintings on the ceiling of the cathedral, in the same city. He died in 1534. The story of his extreme poverty, and of his death in consequence of it, has been long since disproved, yet Oehlenschlager has made it the Subject of one of his best tragedies in German and Danish. CORREGIDOR, in Spain and Portugal; a ma- gistrate; a police judge with appellate jurisdiction. CORREZE ; a French department, formed of a part of what was the Lower Limousin. See Depart- me??ts. CORRIDOR (Italian and Spanish), in architec- ture; a gallery or long aisle leading to several cham- bers at a distance from each other, sometimes wholly enclosed, sometimes open on one side. In fortifi- Cation, corridor signifies the same as covert-way, which see. CORRIENTES, LAs ; a town of Buenos Ayres, in Santa Fé, at the union of the Parama and Paraguay, 440 miles north of Buenos Ayres; lon. 60° 36' W. ; lat. 27° 50' S. : population, about 4500. CORROSIVES (from corrodere, to eat away), in surgery, are medicines which corrode whatever part of the body they are applied to ; such are burnt alum, white precipitate of mercury, white vitriol, red pre- cipitate of mercury, butter of antimony, lapis infer- malis, &c. CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. See Mercury. CORRUPTION OF BLOOD. See Attainder. CORSAIRS (from the Italian corso, the act of running, incursion) are pirates who cruise after and capture merchant vessels. Commonly those pirates only which sail from Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and the ports of Morocco, are called corsairs. Those ships which, in time of war, are licensed by European or American governments to seize upon hostile ships, are called privateers. Lord Byron's Corsair, it is well known, derives its name from the character of the hero. CORSET; an article of dress, especially intended to preserve or display the beauties of the female form. Its name appears to have been derived from its peculiar action of tightening or compressing the body, and may be compounded of the French words corps and serrer. The influence of female charms, among civilized people, has, in all ages, been extensive and benefi- cial, and the sex have always regarded the possession of beauty as their richest endowment, and thought its acquisition to be cheaply made at any expense of fortune. To this cause may be attributed the origin of the cosmetic arts, with their countless baneful and innocent prescriptions, for restoring smoothness to the skin, and reviving the delicate roses upon cheeks too rudely visited by sickness or time. The preser- vation or production of beauty of form, as even more admired than mere regularity of features, or from be- ing, apparently, more attainable by art, received an early and ample share of attention, and has largely exercised the ingenuity of the fair aspirants for love and admiration. To prevent the form from too early showing the 469 inroads of time; to guard it from slight inelegances, resulting from improper position, or the character of exterior drapery; to secure the beauteous propor, tions of the bust from compression or displacement; and, at once, agreeably to display the general con. tour of the figure, without impeding the gracefulness of its motions, or the gentle undulations caused by natural respiration, are the legitimate objects of the corset. For this purpose, it should be composed of the smoothest and most elastic materials, should be accurately adapted to the individual wearer, so that no point may receive undue pressure, and should never be drawn so tight as to interfere with perfect- ly free breathing, or with graceful attitudes and movements. It is obvious that such corsets should be entirely destitute of those barbarous innovations of steel and whalebone, which, by causing disease, have thrown them into disrepute, and which, under no circumstances, can add to the value of the instru- ment, when worn, by a well-formed individual. Such hurtful appliances were first resorted to by the ugly, deformed, or diseased, who, having no natural preten- sions to figure, pleased themselves with the hope of being able, by main strength, exerted upon steel- ribbed, whaleboned and padded corsets, to squeeze themselves into delicate proportions. If, however, it be remembered that the use of corsets is to pre- serve and display a fine figure, not to make one, and that they are to be secondary to a judicious course of diet and exercise, it will be readily perceived that such injurious agents are utterly uncalled for in their Composition. By selecting a material proportioned, in its thickness and elasticity, to the size, age, &c., of the wearer, and by a proper employment of quilt- ing and wadding, they may be made of any proper or allowable degree of stiffness. . If it be then ac- curately fitted to the shape of the individual, and laced no tighter than to apply it comfortably, all the advantages of the corset may be fully obtained. But such, unfortunately, is not the course generally pur- sued. Ladies purchase corsets of the most fashion- able makers, and of the most fashionable patterns and materials, regardless of the peculiarities of their own figures, which may require a construction and material of very different description. Hence it often happens that females, naturally endowed with fine forms, wear corsets designed for such as are dispro- portionately thick or thin, and destroy the graceful ease of their movements, by hedging themselves in the steel and whalebone originally intended to re- duce the superabundant corpulence of some luxuri- ous dowager. As no two human figures are precisely alike, it is absolutely requisite that the corset should be suited with the minutest accuracy to the wearer; and a naturally good figure cannot derive advantage from any corset but one constructed and adapted in the manner above indicated. Slight irregularities or defects may be remedied or rendered inconspicuous, by judicious application of wadding, or by interpos ing an additional thickness of the cloth. But it should be remembered that certain changes occur to the female frame, after the cares of maternity have commenced, which are absolutely unavoidable. Among these, the general enlargement or filling up of the figure is the most observable, but it is never productive of inelegance, unless it take place very disproportionately. The undue enlargement of the bust and waist is most dreaded, and the attempt to restrain their development by absolute force has led to the most permicious abuse of the corset. There is no doubt but that a judiciously fitted corset, whose object should be to support, and gently compress, might, in such cases, be advantageously worn ; but, at the same time, it must be thoroughly understood that the corset can only be really beneficial when 470 combined with a proper attention to diet and exer- cise. Thus many ladies, who dread the disfigure- ment produced by obesity, and constantly wear the most unyielding and uncomfortable corsets, lead an entirely inactive life, and indulge in rich and luxu- rious food. Under such circumstances, it is vain to hope that beauty of figure can be maintained by cor- sets, or that they can effect any other purpose than that of cramping and restraining the movements, and causing discomfort to the wearer. On the other hand, proper exercise, and abstinence from all but the simplest food, would enable the corset to per- form its part to the greatest advantage. There is another error, in relation to corsets, as prejudicial as it is general, and calling for the serious attention of all those concerned in the education of young ladies. This error is the belief that girls just approaching their majority should be constantly kept under the influence of corsets, in order to form their figures. They are therefore subjected to a discipline of strict lacing, at a period when, of all others, its tendency is to produce the most extensive mischief. At this time, all the organs of the body are in a state of energetic augmentation; and interference with the proper expansion of any one set is productive of per- manent injury to the whole. So far from making a fine form, the tendency is directly the reverse, since the restraint of the corsets detrimentally interferes with the perfection of the frame. The muscles, be- ing compressed and held inactive, neither acquire their due size nor strength; and a stiff, awkward car- riage, with a thin, flat, ungraceful, inelegant person, is the too frequent result of such injudicious treatment. The corset of a girl, from her twelfth or fifteenth year till her twenty-first, should be nothing more than a Cotton jacket, made so as rather to brace her shoul- ders back, but without improper compression of the arm-pits, and devoid of all stiffening, but what is proper to the material of which it is made. At this age, slight imperfections of form, or inelegances of movement, are especially within the control of well- directed exercise and appropriate diet: force is utter- ly unavailing, and can have no other tendency than that of causing injury. We may conclude what we have to say on the use of the corset, by imbodying the whole in a few plain, general rules:—1st. Corsets should be made of Smooth, soft, elastic materials. 2d. They should be accurately fitted and modified to suit the peculiarities of figure of each wearer. 8d. No other stiffèning should be used but that of quilting or padding ; the bones, steel, &c., should be left to the deformed or diseased, for whom they were originally intended. 4th. Corsets should never be drawn so tight as to impede regular, natural breathing, as, under all cir- cumstances, the improvement of figure is insufficient to compensate for the air of awkward restraint caus- ed by such lacing. 5th. They should never be worn, either loosely or tightly, during the hour appropriat- ed to sleep, as, by impeding respiration, and accum- ulating the heat of the system improperly, they inva- riably injure., 6th. The corset for young persons should be of the simplest character, and worn in the lightest and easiest manner, allowing their lungsfull play, and giving the form its fullest opportunity for eXpansion. At this remote period, it is impossible for us to say whether the corset, in some form, might not have belonged to the complex toilet of the ancient Israel- itish ladies. We find the prophet Isaiah, in chap. iii., inveighing against their numerous and useless decora- tions—“the bravery of their tinkling ornaments about their feet, and their cauls, and their round tires like the moon, the chains, and the bracelets, and the mufflers, the bonnets, and the ornaments of the legs, CORSET. and the head-bands, and the tablets, and the ear- rings, the rings and nose-jewels, the changeable suits of apparel, aid the mantles, and the wimples, and the crisping-pins, the glasses, and the fine linen, and the hoods, and the vails.” This catalogue, at least, shows that the disposition evinced by the fair sex to adorn their persons, and render them more attractive, is not of modern origin, but most probably originated with our great mother Eve. The earliest and most delightful record we have of a contrivance like the corset, among Ethnic writers, is Homer's account of the girdle, or cestus, of Venus, mother of the Loves and Graces, which even the haughty Juno is fabled to have borrowed, in order to make a more profound impression upon her rather unmanageable husband, Jupiter. This girdle was invested by the poet with magical qualities, which rendered the wearer irresisti. bly fascinating:— “In this was every art and every charm To win the wisest, and the coldest warm— Fond love, the gentle vow, the gay desire, The kind deceit, the still reviving fire. Persuasive speech, and more persuasive sighs, Silence that spoke, and eloquence of eyes.” Pope, Iliad, book xiv., line 247, &c. This, after all, we are persuaded, was nothing but such a corset as we have described in the beginning, worn by an elegant form, to which it was accurate; adapted. Even Venus herself could not look other- wise than awkward and repulsive in one of the ar. madillo, shell-like machines, which are sold as fash- ionable, without regard to their inelegance. The cos- tume of the ancient Greek ladies was, in every par- ticular, opposed to stiffness or personal restraint ; and we find that the cestus, or girdle, to gather the flow- ing redundance of their robes around the waist, was considered sufficient for the display of their enchant- ing forms. The Roman ladies were great adepts in the mysteries of the toilet, though not possessed of the grace and elegance of the Grecian beauties. We find among them rudiments of the corset, in the bandages which they wore around the chest, for the purpose of preserving the shape of the bosom, and displaying it to advantage. They were commonly made of woollen or linen cloth, and are alluded to, in several instances, by the poets. Thus, in Terence, we find Chaerea saying to his servant, concerning an unknown beauty who attracted his attention—“ This girl has nothing in common with ours, whom their mothers force to stoop, and make them bind their bosoms with bandages, in order to appear more slender” (Haud similis virgo est virginum nostrarum, quas matres student demissis humeris, vincto pectore wt gracilae sient). TER., Eun. A writer in the French Dictionary of Medical Sciences, in an article on corsets, which the reader may compare with the present, states that the whale- bone corset, dividing the female form into two parts, is a relic of the ancient German costume, which is still to be seen in some pictures of celebrated mas- ters. We are not, however, prepared to retract our opinion, that such contrivances were first resorted to in cases of deformity; for, on inquiry, we find that the German females, as described by the Roman writers, wore dresses tight to the person, though no mention is made of artificial contrivances to give it a peculiar form. The dress of both sexes was similar, consisting of a sagum or cloak clasped at the throat, and a vest or tunic which fitted tightly, and showed all the form. Tegumen fuit sagum, fibula si defuis. set, spina confertum ; locupletissimi distinguebantur veste, non fluxa, sed stricta, ac pene singula membra eaprimente : idem feminis habitus qui et viris. B. AUBAMUs, De Morih. etc. omn. Gent. It might prove interesting to inquire into the influence which the costume of the mailed knights, during the age of CORSICA. chivalry, had upon female dress, and whether much of the disposition to display the entire figure, as far as possible, did not arise from this display constantly made by the male sex, in their closely-fitting armour. It would lead us too far, however, to engage in such an examination here; neither shall we attempt to Copy M. de Jouy's account of the thoracic corset of the Bayaderes of India (a finely-woven met made of bark, which is worn about the bust, and never laid aside), as having but little relation to the objects we have in view. CORSICA, the third in size of the Italian islands, is separated from the northern coast of Sardinia by the straits of Bonifacio, which are ten miles in breadth. It is about fifty miles distant from Tuscany, and 100 from France. It contains 3790 square miles, eigh- teen large towns, of which four are seaports (with three harbours, capable of containing large fleets), five market-towns, 560 villages, including sixty- three pièves, or cultivated valleys, and 180,400 in- habitants. San Fiorenzo, which has fine roads for ships to anchor in, ought to be the capital, and to be fortified. A range of mountains, with numerous branches, traverses the whole extent of the island, and, near the middle, rises to such an elevation, that the Snow remains on the summits during the greater part of the year. The monte Rotondo and the monte d'Oro (from eight to 9000 feet in height) are covered with perpetual Snows. This chain of mountains con- sists, in part, of precipitous rocks; and is, in part, overspread with forests. A number of small rivers, of which the Golo alone is navigable, flow easterly and westerly into the sea. Most of these frequently become dry in summer. The eastern Coast is more flat than the western, on which are most of the inlets of the sea. The climate is mild, since the heat of the sum is rendered less oppressive by the high mountains and sea breezes. The air, in many parts of the island, owing to the many lakes of stagnant water, is unhealthy; and these districts have, consequently, become desolate. The soil is very fertile, particularly in the valleys and near the coast; for which reason the inhabitants, although very inattentive to agriculture, yet reap a sufficient Supply of grain for their necessities (with the excep- tion of oats, which are not produced there). The Iower order of Corsicans subsist, commonly, on chest- nuts, and seldom obtain wheat bread. Wine, which resembles the Malaga and French wines, not- withstanding the negligent mode of cultivation, is obtained in abundance. The island also produces much flax, and oranges, which form an article of export, in perfection. It is covered with forests of chestnut and oak-trees, great quantities of olive-trees, fir-trees and birch-trees, which reach the elevation of from 120 to 130 feet. The breeding of cattle is carried on here to a great extent; but the horse, ass, and mule, are of a small breed; the horned Cattle are, indeed, large, but very lean ; and the wool of the sheep is coarse. The tunny, anchovy, and oyster fisheries afford the inhabitants one of their principal employments. The mountains contain various kinds of minerals; and yet the art of work- ing mines is almost wholly unknown. The iron is celebrated for its good qualities. The Corsicans are still nearly in a state of mature. The majority of them are Italians, and profess the Catholic religion. Industry is unknown. Even the most necessary mechanics are wanting: each one makes for himself almost everything he has need of Their habitations, furniture, and clothing, are miser- able, and there is a great want of good Semináries for education. Valour, love of freedom, indolence, and desire of revenge, are the characteristics of the Corsicans. As late as the year 1822, the prefect of 471 Corsica, in a pamphlet, urged the French govern- ment to legalize the practice of duelling there, because the quarrels of the inhabitants often became hereditary feuds. Until the first Pumic war, the Carthaginians were masters of this island. They were succeeded by the Romans. In later times, Corsica was, for a long time, under the dominion of the Vandals, and after. wards passed successively into the hands of the Greek emperors and the Goths. In 850, the Corsi- cans were conquered by the Saracens, who held them in subjection until the beginning of the 11th century; at which time they fell under the dominion of Pisa. In 1284, this island submitted to the dominion of the Genoese, who had before, in 806, subdued it, but were unable to retain possession of it for a long time. Exasperated by the oppressions of the Genoese government during 400 years, the Corsicans took up arms, in 1729, and, since that time, have never submitted to the Genoese. Genoa called in the imperial forces in 1730, and the French, in 1738, to their assistance. In 1736, baron Theodore von Neuhof (See Theodore), a Westphalian, so won the affections of the Corsicans, that they elected him king, under the name of Theodore I. He left them, upon the landing of the French, to seek for foreign aid. The French evacuated the island, on the breaking out of the German war, in 1741, and another insurrection took place. In 1755, the Corsican senate appointed Pascal Paoli (q.v.) their general, who conducted their affairs with so much Success, that the Genoese, even with the assistance of the troops of the French garrisons (after 1764), were able to retain in their possession only a few maritime towns, with the capital, Bastia, and renounced the hope of ever bringing the island again into subjection. They, therefore, in 1768, aban- doned these places to France, by a treaty, which Spinola and the duke of Choiseul concluded at Paris, in which it was stipulated, that the king of France should reduce the island, and govern it until the republic should repay the expenses of the war. This convention was a mere subterfuge to deceive the British, and to save the Senate from the reproach of a sale. The French thought that the subjugation of Corsica could be effected by a small military force; but Paoli, in the expectation of assistance from Britain, made so spirited a resist- ance, that the expedition soon cost the French 30,000,000 livres, although they had gained no im- portant advantages. The number of the French troops was afterwards increased, so that they amounted to 30,000 men, under the marshal de Vaux. Britain still remained inactive ; and, in several actions, the Corsicans were so unmindful of their duty, that Paoli, in despair, gave up all thoughts of resistance, and, in June, I769, fled to Britain, where he was supported by a pension from the king. A partisan warfare was, however, main- tained in the mountains until 1774. At the time of the French revolution, Corsica was incorporated with France, as a separate department, and sent deputies to the national convention. Paoli now returned to his native land; but the terrorists required his presence at Paris, where he would inevit- ably have been put to death. He therefore unfurled the banner of the Death's head (the old Corsican arms), and Summoned his countrymen to his standard. With the assistance of the British, who landed Feb. 18, 1794, he reduced Bastia, May 22, and Calvi, Aug. 4. The Corsicans submitted to the British sceptre, in a general convention of deputies, at Corte, June 18, 1794. Corsica was constituted a kingdom, under the government of a viceroy (Elliot); the constitution and laws of Britain were 472 adopted; and a parliament, such as Ireland had, was established. But a large part of the people were averse to the British, whom they regarded as heretics, and the French party again appeared on the island, in Oct., 1796, under general Gentili. Sickness rendered the situation of the British very critical: their power was still further weakened by the reduction of the neighbouring city of Leghorn, by the French, in 1796; and, in consequence, they evacuated Corsica. Since 1811, the island has formed a French department, of which Bastia is the capital. The revenue received from the island by France, in 1821, amounted only to 500,000 francs, while the administration of it costs the crown, yearly, the sum of 3,000,000 francs. (See Memoirs of Napo- leon, Fourth Part (London, 1824), by count Mon- tholon; Sketches of Corsica in 1823, with Specimens of its National Poetry, by Robert Benson (London, i825, with fifty-one copperplate engravings); and Boswell's Account of Corsica). CORSO. The Corso is one of the principal streets in Rome, and, like the chief streets in many Italian cities (Florence, for example), derives its name from the horse-races which enliven the even- ings of the carnival. The Corso, at Rome, is nearly 3500 paces in length, and is enclosed by high and mostly splendid edifices; but its breadth is not pro- portionate ; so that, in most parts, not above three carriages can go abreast. The higher class of citizens take the air in carriages, which form a very long row. This evening promenade, which, in all large Italian cities is splendid, and is imitated in very small towns (although it may have only a few coaches), attracts great numbers of spectators on foot. The carnival is the gayest of the festivals; and, at this time, the Corso appears in its greatest splendour. (See Goethe's description of the Roman carnival and the Corso.) CORTES. The cortes was the old assembly of the estates in Spain and Portugal. In Spain the cortes of Castile, which was composed of the no- bility of the first rank, the superior ecclesiastics, the knights of the orders of St James, Calatrava and Alcantara, and the representatives of certain cities, held the first rank during the time of the united Spa- nish monarchy. In early times the king was very dependent upon them ; indeed, they were invested with the power of making war, and frequently exer- cised it in opposition to the throne. In the original constitution of Arragon, the form of government was very remarkable, a supreme judge, called el justizia selected from persons of the second class, presided over the administration of the government. He de- cided all questions and disputes between the king and his subjects, and confined the royal power within the constitutional limits. King Ferdinand of Arra- gon and Isabella of Castile succeeded in rendering themselves independent of the estates (las cortes); and afterwards when the Castilians dared to resist an unconstitutional tax, at a meeting convoked at To- ledo, by Charles, in 1538, the king abolished this assembly of the estates. After this, neither the clergy nor nobility were assembled; deputies from eighteen cities were sometimes, however, convened, but this only in case subsidies were to be granted. Philip II, restrained the liberties of the Arragonese in 1591. After the Spanish war of succession, Philip V. deprived those provinces which had ad- hered to the Austrian party of the privileges that still remained to them. From that time, the cortes were convened only to pay homage to the king, or the prince of Asturias, or when a question respect- ing the succession to the throne was to be determin- ed. But when Napoleon attempted to extend his CORSO—CORTEZ. and Spain since 1808), he convoked (June 15, 1808) a junto of the cortes at Bayonne. In their last ses- Sion (June 7, 1812), a new constitution was adopted by them. The 9th article regulated the powers,and duties of the cortes, and provided that they should consist of twenty-five archbishops, twenty-five nobles, and 122 representatives of the people. Napoleon afterwards attempted, by offering to restore the cor- tes to their ancient importance, to gain over the Spanish nobility, and through them, the people, but failed. (In regard to the new cortes in Spain and Portugal, see those articles.) In 1828, don Miguel assembled the cortes of Portugal, in order to be ac- knowledged by them, and to give his usurpation an appearance of legitimacy. o CORTEZ, FERNANDo, the conqueror of Mexico, was born in 1485, at Medelin, in Estremadura, and went to the West Indies in 1504, where Velasquez, governor of Cuba, gave him the command of a fleet, which he sent on a voyage of discovery. Cortez quitted San-Iago, November 18, 1518, with ten ves- sels, 600 Spaniards, eighteen horses, and some field- pieces. He landed on the gulf of Mexico. The sight of the horses on which the Spaniards were mounted; the movable fortresses, in which they had crossed the ocean ; the iron which covered them ; the noise of the cannon;––all these objects alarmed the natives. Cortez entered the town of Mexico, November 18, 1519. Montezuma, the sovereign of the country, received him as his master; and the in- habitants, it is said, thought him a god and a child of the sun. He destroyed the idols in the temples, to whom human sacrifices were offered, and placed in their room images of the virgin Mary, and of the Saints. In the mean time, he made continual pro- gress towards getting possession of the country, forming alliances with several caciques, enemies to Montezuma, and assuring himself of the others by force or stratagem. On a general of Montezuma attacking the Spaniards, in obedience to a secret order, Cortez repaired to the imperial palace, had the commander and his officers burnt alive, and forc. ed the emperor, while in chains, to acknowledge, publicly, the sovereignty of Charles V. The un- happy monarch added to this homage a present of a large quantity of pure gold, and a number of pre- cious stones. But the jealousy of Velasquez was so much excited by the deeds of his representative, that he sent an army against him. Cortez, reinforced by fresh troops from Spain, advanced to meet it, gained over the soldiers who bore arms, against him, and, with their assistance, again made war with the Mexi- cans,who had also revolted against their own emperor, Montezuma, whom they accused of treachery. After Montezuma, who had hoped to restore tranquillity by showing himself to the multitude, had fallen a vic- tim to their rage, Guatimozin, his nephew and son- in-law, was acknowledged as emperor by the Mexi- cans, and gained some advantage over the Spaniards. He defended his crown during three months, but could not withstand the Spanish artillery. Cortez again took possession of Mexico, and, in 1521, the emperor, the empress, the ministers, and the whole court, were in his power. The unhappy Guatimo- zin was subjected to horrid cruelties to make him dis- close the place where his treasures were concealed, and was afterwards executed with a great number of his nobles. The court of Madrid now became jea- lous of the power of Cortez, who had been, some time before, appointed captain-general and governor of Mexico. Commissioners were sent to inspect and control his measures; his property was seized; his dependents were imprisoned, and he repaired to Spain. He was received with much distinction, and influence over Spain (see the articles Ferdinand P11. returned to Mexico with an increase of titles, but a CORTONA—CORVEY. diminution of power. A viceroy had charge of the civil administration, and Cortez was intrusted only with the military command and the privilege of prosecuting his discoveries. The division of powers proved a constant source of dissension; and, though he discovered the peninsula of California in 1536, most of his enterprises were frustrated, his life im- bittered, and he returned again to Spain, where he was coldly received and neglected. One day, hav- ing forced his way through a crowd round the car- riage of his king, and put his foot on the step to ob- tain an audience, Charles coldly inquired who he was. “I am a man,” replied Cortez, “who has gained you more provinces than your father left you towns.” He passed the remainder of his days in solitude, and died, December, 1554, near Seville, in the sixty-third year of his age, leaving a character eminent for bravery and ability, but infamous for perfidy and cruelty. CORTONA, a fortified town of Tuscany, contains seven churches (including the cathedral), and twelve convents. It is a place of great antiquity, Popula- tion, 4000. It lies forty-five miles S. E. Florence. CORTONA, properly Pietro Berretini, a painter and architect, was born in 1596. He was common- ly called Pietro di Cortona, from the name of his native town, Cortona in Tuscany. He acquired the first rudiments of his art under his father, Giovanni, who was also a painter and architect, and afterwards studied with Andreas Commodi and Baccio Ciarpi at Rome. At the commencement of his studies, his awkwardness was so remarkable, that his fellow students called him ass’s head. Nevertheless, he devoted himself to the study of the antiques, and of? the great masters, Raphael, Caravaggio, and Mi- chael Angelo, and unexpectedly made his appear- ance as an artist, with the Rape of the Sabines. The Birth of Christ, in the church of Our Lady of Lo- retto, established his reputation. His painting, on the ceiling of the large saloon in the Barberini palace, representing the Triumph of Honour, is a very happy effort. Mengs declares it one of the grandest compositions ever executed by a painter. He afterwards travelled through Lombardy, the Ve- netian states, and Tuscany, where he painted the ceilings of the Palazzo Pitti in Florence, and thence veturned to Rome. During this journey, he was Constantly employed as a painter and architect. He was subsequently attacked by the gout, and could not, in consequence, ascend the stagings: he there- fore employed himself in the execution of easel pic- tures, which, although of less value than his larger works, are held in great estimation: they are very ware. Alexander VII. made him a knight of the order of the golden spur, as a reward for the embel- lishment of the colonnade of the church Della Pace. He died in 1669, and obtained an honourable burial in the church dedicated to St Luke, at Rome, where he had immortalized himself by the design of the altar of St Martina. , Cortona sacrificed truth to pleasing effect. This object, however, he did not attain. The defects of his drawing, which is rather heavy, were redeemed by the fertility of invention, the at- tractive charms of his young female figures (although it is objected to them that they are too uniform), and the fresh colouring of his harmonious tints. This last quality is an excellence peculiar to him, and which no other artist has attained in an equal degree either before or since his time. CORUNDUM, sometimes called also, from its hardness and peculiar lustre, adamantine spar, is of a grayish, greenish tint, occasionally reddish; more rarely blue, yellow, and black. It is translucent or opaque. Its specific gravity varies from 3-975 to 4°161. In hardness. it ranks next to the diamond. 73 It occurs, crystallized, in the form of the regular six. sided prism, and also in acute and obtuse hexaedral pyramids. It is also found granular and compact. It consists almost wholly of pure clay, or alumine, Sometimes containing four or five per cent. of silex or lime. The blue variety, when transparent, goes by the name of the sapphire; the rose red or the violet, which is sometimes chatoyant, is called the Oriental ruby. Both of these rank, as gems, next to the diamond. They are found in the sands of rivers, and among alluvial matter in Ceylon. The common corundum is found in a granite rock in India, also at mont St. Gothard, and in Piedmont. A granular variety of corundum, containing considerable iron, is called emery. It is found in the island of Naxos, in rolled masses, at the foot of primitive mountains. Its powder is well known in commerce, and greatly valued as a polishing substance. CORUNNA, a seaport of Spain, in the province of Galicia, on the north-west coast, on a peninsula at the entrance of the bay of Betanzos. The streets of the upper town are narrow and ill paved. The lower town stands on a small tongue of land, and has tolerably broad and clean streets. The chief objects of interest are the royal arsenal, and an an- cient tower, admired for its elevation and solidity. The harbour is spacious and secure, and is protected by two castles. About three miles from the harbour is a light-house. In January, 1809, the British army was attacked at this place, previous to embarking, by the French, under Marshal Soult. The French were gallantly repulsed, but the British lost their brave commander, Sir John Moore, who was in- terred, on the evening of the action, in the citadel of Corunna, where the enemy afterwards raised a monu- ment to his memory. Population, 4000. 30 miles N. W. Lago. Lon. 8° 20' 23" W.; lat. 43° 34'32" N. CORVEE (French, from cura via, care of the road); the obligation of the inhabitants of a certain district to do certain labour, for the feudal lord or the Sovereign, gratis or for pay. As the name shows, corvée originally meant compulsory labour on roads, bridges, &c., but it is applied also to other feudal Services. Generally, of course, the payment for such services is much below the wages of ordinary labour. In some cases, however, the corvées have been con- sidered as a privilege, and people have insisted on their right to perform the services, and to receive the pay for them; as the tenth part, for threshing, &c. In some parts of Germany, they still exist. In Prus- sia, they were abolished under Hardenberg's admi- mistration. In France, the first Revolution extirpated this relic of the feudal times. CORVETTE (French); a vessel of war having fewer than twenty guns. CORVEY, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 15 leagues S. E. of Minden, famous, in former times, as Corbeia Nova ; a Benedictine convent on the Weser, which, with the convent of Fulda, was one of the first centres of civilization in Germany. It was built in the sixth century. The history of this interesting convent is important with reference to the history of the civilization of the middle ages. (See Theatrum illustr. Piror. Corbeiae Sawonicae, Jena,1686 4to; and Leibnitz's Introduct. ad Script. Brunswic., vol. i. page 26 et seq.) Wittekind, the historiogra- pher of the convent, and many other learned men, were educated here. From Corvey proceeded Ans- gar, “the apostle of the North.” . In 1794, Corvey was made a bishopric. In 1802 the bishopric was abolished, and Corvey given to the prince of Nassau and Orange; in 1807, it was assigned to Westphalia; in 1815 to Prussia; in 1822, it was made a mediatised principality (106 Square miles, 10,000 inhabitants). 474 The magnificent cathedral contains many monuments. In 1819, Paul Wigand published a history of the abbey of Corvey. CORVISART, JEAN N1col As, baron, a distin- guished French physician, was born at Dricourt, in the present department of the Ardennes, Feb. 15, 1755. His father, procureur to the parliament of Paris, wished to educate him for the law; but an in- vincible inclination for medical studies led him into a different career, in which he was soon distinguished for his intelligence and his extensive learning. He succeeded Rochefort as physician to the hôpital de la charité, and was the first professor of internal clinics in France. He was chief physician to the first consul (1802), and afterwards to the emperor (to whom he was faithfully attached, but with whom he had not, according to the Mémoire of him by baron Cuvier, any political influence, as some have asserted), pro- fessor in the college de France from 1797, member of the imperial institute, &c. Corvisart's great merit was not overlooked after the restoration. The place of honorary member of the royal academy of medicine was conferred on him just before his death, which hap- pened Sept. 18, 1821. Corvisart felt that the most dis- tinguished practitioner of medicine has not performed his whole duty to his science, unless he leaves some memorial of his experience. He translated some important works, with commentaries, and was the author of several valuable treatises. His two prim- cipal works are a Treatise on Diseases of the Heart, and a Commentary on the work of Auenbrug- ger, a German physician, published in 1763, at Wien- na. In 1770, it was translated into French, but so much forgotten, that Corvisart says, “I could have sacrificed Auenbrugger's name to my vanity, but I did not choose to do so: I only wish to revive his beautiful discovery.” His place in the French aca- demy of sciences has been filled by M. Magendie, and his chair in the college of France had been oc- cupied by M. Hallé for several years before the time of his death. CORYBANTES, (Curetes, Idai Dactyli, among the Romans, a peculiar order of priests called Galli) are said to have derived their origin from Corybas, son of Cybele and Jasion, who appointed them to perform religious service to his mother, the goddess Cybele, in the island of Crete and in Phrygia. Ac- cording to much more ancient traditions, they were descendents of Vulcan. The story of their clashing together instruments of forged metal, when Rhea gave them the infant Jupiter, in order to prevent Sa- turn from hearing his cries, seems to have some con- nexion with this tradition. According to Apol- lodorus, the Corybantes were sons of Apollo and Thalia; according to others, of Apollo and Rhetia. COS, or COOS; an island in the AFgaean sea (now Stanchio or Stincho), on the coast of Asia Mi- mor, opposite the towns of Halicarnassus and Cnidos (ninety-five square miles, 4000 inhabitants); the land of Apelles and Hippocrates. Here was a celebrated temple of Æsculapius. In Cos was manufactured a fine, semi-transparent kind of silk, much valued by the ancients. COSEL ; a small, yet not unimportant fortified town, on the left bank of the Upper Oder, in Upper Silesia (197 houses and 3600 inhabitants); first for- tified by Frederic the Great, after the conquest of Silesia. It has been several times besieged in Wall Il. COSEL, countess of; one of the many mistresses of the prodigal Augustus II., king of Poland and elector of Saxony. She was the wife of the Saxon minister Hoymb, who, well knowing the king's dis- position, kept her far from court; but, on one oc CORVISART-COSMOGONY. to the king, that the latter ordered her to be brought to Dresden. She was soon divorced from Hoymb, and appeared at court as the countess of Cosel, the mistress of the king. A palace was built for her, still called the Cosel palace, which was pre-eminent for magnificence and luxury. The furniture alone cost 200,000 Saxon dollars (150,000 Spanish). It must be remembered that the king had no income from Poland; on the contrary, the royal dignity was a source of great expense to the elector; thus the little electorate had to support, unaided, the enor- mous extravagance of its ruler. For mine years, the countess succeeded in preserving the king's favour, and exercised an arbitrary sway in affairs of govern- ment. At last, she fell into disgrace, and was dis- missed from the king's presence. She retired into Prussia, and was afterwards arrested at Halle, at the request of Augustus, and carried to Stolpe, in Saxony, where she remained imprisoned forty-five years, and died eighty years old. So much power had she over the king, when in favour, that dollars and florins were actually coined, bearing the stamp of the royal arms in conjunction with those of the countess. She is one among many similar instances of the advan- tages which i; brings in its train, subjecting nations to the control of profligate monarchs, who are governed by equally profligate mistresses. COSENZA, (anciently Cosentia); a city of Naples, capital of Calabria Citra, situated on seven Small hills, at the foot of the Apennines; 145 miles S. E. Naples; lon. 16° 27' E. ; lat. 39° 22' N. ; popula- tion, 7989. The metropolitan is the only church within the walls; but there are three parish churches in the faubourgs. There are twelve convents. The environs are beautiful, populous, and well cultivated, producing abundance of corn, fruit, oil, wine, and silk. This town was anciently the capital of the Brutii, and a place of consequence in the second Punic war. Cosenza has frequently suffered from earthquakes, particularly in the year 1638. COSMETICS (from zoogºo, I ornament, beautify); means for preserving or increasing the beauty of the human body. Every one knows that such means are used by the most savage, as well as the most civilized, nations; that cosmetics have afforded a rich harvest to charlatans; and that it is very difficult to find good ones among the numberless bad ones. COSMO I. OF MEDICI. See Medici. COSMOGONY, (from the Greek x64 gos, the world and yévos, generation) according to its etymology, should be defined the origin of the world itself; but the term has become, to a great degree, associated with the numerous theories of different nations and individuals respecting this event. Though the origin of the world must necessarily remain forever con- cealed from human eyes, there is, notwithstanding, a strong desire in the breasts of mortals to unvail it; so that we find hypotheses among all nations, re- specting the beginning of all things. We may divide these hypotheses into three classes:—1. The first re- presents the world as eternal, in form as well as sub- stance. 2. The matter of the world is eternal, but not its form. 3. The world had a beginning, and shall have an end. I. Ocellus Lucanus is one of the most ancient philosophers who supposed the world to have exist- ed from eternity. Aristotle appears to have embrac- ed the same doctrine. His theory is, that not only the heaven and earth, but also animate and inanimate beings, in general, are withoutbeginning. . His opin- ion rested on the belief, that the universe was necessarily the eternal effect of a cause equally eternal, such as the Divine Spirit, which, being at once power and action, could not remain idle. Yet casion, when excited by wine, he praised her so much he admitted, that a spiritual substance was the cause COSMOGONY —COSSACKS. of the universe; of its motion and its form. He says positively, in his Metaphysics, that God is an intel- ligent Spirit (ows), incorporeal, eternal, immovable, indivisable, and the Mover of all things. According to this great philosopher, the universe is less a crea: tion than an emanation of the Deity. Plato says the universe is an eternal image of the immutable Idea, or Type, united, from eternity, with change- able matter. The followers of this philosopher both developed and distorted this idea. Ammonius, a disciple of Proclus, taught, in the sixth century, at Alexandria, the coetermity of God and the universe. Modern philosophers, and also ancient ones (e. g., Xenophanes, according to Diogenes Laertius), went further, and taught that the universe is one with the Deity. Parmenides, Melissus, Zeno of Elea, and the Megaric sect, followed this doctrine. II. The theory which considers the matter of the universe eternal, but not its form, was the prevailing one among the ancients, who, starting from the prin- ciple that nothing could be made out of nothing, could not admit the creation of matter, yet did not believe that the world had been always in its present state. The prior state of the world, subject to a Constant Succession of uncertain movements, which Chance afterwards made regular, they called chaos. The Phoenicians, Babylonians, and also Egyptians, seem to have adhered to this theory. The ancient poets, who have handed down to us the old mytholo- ical traditions, represent the universe as springing from chaos, without the assistance of the Deity. He- Siod feigns that Chaos was the parent of Erebus and Night, from whose union sprang the Air (Aſ4%) and the Day (Høgo). He further relates how the sky and the stars were separated from the earth, &c. The System of atoms is much more famous. Leucippus and Democritus of Abdera were its inventors. The atoms, or indivisible particles, say they, existed from eternity, moving at hazard, and producing, by their Constant meeting, a variety of substances. After having given rise to an immense variety of combina- tions, they produced the present organization of bodies. This system of cosmogony was that of Epi- Curus, as described by Lucretius. Democritus attri- buted to atoms form and size, Epicurus added weight. Many other systems have existed, which must be classed under this division. We only mention that of the Stoics, who admitted two principles, God and matter, in the abstract, both corporeal, for they did not admit spiritual beings. The first was active, the second passive. III. The third theory of cosmogony makes God the Creator of the world out of nothing. This is the doc- trine of the Etruscans, Druids, Magi, and Bramins. Before idolatry was introduced into China, the peo- le worshipped a Supreme Being, Chang-Ti, the over and Regulator of the universe. Anaxa- goras was the first among the Greeks, who taught that God created the universe from nothing. The Romans generally adopted this theory, notwithstand- ing the efforts of Lucretius to establish the doctrine of Epicurus. The beginning of Ovid bears a strik- ing resemblance to the beginning of Genesis. Cle- ment of Alexandria therefore thinks that the Penta- teuch was known in Greece and Rome before the time of Christ. It is not necessary, however, to adopt this conclusion, for the two systems of cosmo- gony might have had a common origin. The Indian Cosmogony also bears much resemblance to that of Moses. It is well known to every reader, that the Mosaic cosmogony belongs to the class we are now describing. It is distinguished by its great simplici- ty. The rationalists, as they are called in Germany, regard it as an Asiatic tradition, and not as a reve- lation. Some of the most important sources of in- 475 formation respecting the different systems of cosmo- gony, besides the book of Genesis, are the works of Hesiod, Diogenes Laertius, Nonnus of Panopolis, Eusebius, Philo the Jew, Pliny, and Diodorus. A very learned and ingenious treatise on the Mosaic history of creation is contained in a work full of learn- ing—Mythologus oder gesammelte Abhandlungen uéber die Sagen des Alterthums von Philipp Buttmann, vol. i., Berlin, 1828. COSMORAMA is the high sounding title affixed to a species of picturesque exhibition, which has of late been frequently shown in London. It consists of eight or ten coloured drawings executed in body colours laid horizontally round a semicircular table, and reflected in mirrors, placed diagonally opposite to them. The spectator is permitted to look at them through convex lenses placed immediately in front of each mirror. The exhibiton takes place by lamp light only, and the lamps are so placed, as not to be reflected in the fields of the mirror. There is nothing new in theinvention, and the views exhibited, are gene- rally copies made from engraved views, such as those of Piranesi, De Nou, Le Bruyer, and other artists. COSSACKS (Casacks); the tribes who inhabit the southern and eastern parts of Russia, Poland, the Ukraine, &c., guarding the southern and eastern frontier of the Russian empire, and paying no taxes, performing, instead, the duty of soldiers. Nearly all of them belong to the Greco-Russian church. . Their internal administration, however, is independent of the Russian government. They form a military de- mocracy. They must be divided into two principal classes, both on account of their descent and their present condition—the Cossacks of Little Russia (Malo-Russia), and those of the Dom. Both classes, and especially those of the Don, have collateral branches. From those of the Don, who are the most civilized, are descended the Volgaic, the Terek, the Grebeskoi, the Uralian and Siberian Cossacks. To the other race belong the Zaporogians or Haydamaks, who are the wildest and most unrestrained. Writers are not agreed as to the origin of this people and of their name. Some derive both races from the pro- vince of Casachia, so called by Constantine Porphy- rogenetes. In the Turkish, cazak signifies a robber; but, in the Tartar language, it signifies a soldier lightly armed, for rapid motion. Since the Cossacks came from the plains beyond the Volga, they may be the remains of the Tartar hordes who settled there at different times. Some suppose them to be of Russian origin. Their language is properly Russian, al- though, in consequence of their early wars with the Turks and Poles, they have adopted many words from these people. It is probable that both races of the Cossacks are descended from the United Russian adventurers, who came from the provinces of Novo- gorod. Their object was to collect booty in the wars and feuds with the Tartars, on the frontiers of the Russian empire. As they were useful in protecting the frontiers, the government granted them great privileges; and their numbers rapidly increased, more especially as grants of land were made them. Thus their power was augmented, and they became, by degrees, better organized and firmly es- tablished. Their privileges, however, have been very much limited, since the year 1804. In the war of 1538, 3000 Cossacks of the Don made their first campaign with the Russians in Livonia. They then conquered Siberia, repulsed the Tartars from many Russian provinces, and assisted in defeating the Turks. During the frequent rebellions of the Cos- sacks of the Don (the last of which was conducted by the formidable Pugatscheſt), quarrels arose among them, and the great family became divided into seve- ral parts. Thus a branch of the great tribe of the 476 Don, consisting of about 7000 men, in order to escape the punishment of their offences, retired, in 1577, to the Kama and to Perm, and afterwards to the Oby. (See Siberia and Stroganoff.) They drove out the Woguls, the Ostiacs and Tartars, who were settled there. Their numbers having been much reduced by these contests with the inhabitants, and their leader being no longer able to maintain his con- quest, they placed themselves under the protection of the Russian government,and obtained assistance. This branch of the Cossacks has since spread over Siberia. The strength of the Cossacks is variously estimat- ed. Archenholz makes the number of warriors 700,000; but not half this number is in actual ser- vice, and two-thirds of those are employed only in the domestic Service, and never enter Europe, so that not many more than 100,000 men are at the disposal of the Russian government, in case of a war in Eu- rope. During the seven years' war, the Russian army included but 10,000 Cossacks. According to the regulations of 1804, two out of three regiments do duty at home, and the third on the frontiers. But they are all liable to be called into the field, and they then receive pay and rations from the emperor. They form, in general (particularly those of the Don, who are the most independent), the irregular flying cavalry of the Russian army, being divided into sepa- rate troops. The Cossacks of Little Russia are more disciplined; they may almost be called regular troops. The Cossacks have no mobility among them. All are equal, and all may, without degrading themselves, alternately command and obey. Their officers are chosen by them from among themselves, only the commander-in-chief must be approved by the govern- ment. He cannot be displaced except by its consent. The commanders are always in the pay of the crown, but the common Cossacks receive pay only while they are on duty. Their regiments (pulks) are from 500 to 3000 strong, according to the size of the circle, and are commanded by a chief (hettman, q. v. ; in their language, ataman). The commander of the whole corps is also called hettman. The officers under the colonel are without rank (with the excep- tion of those of some particular regiments, who have an equal rank with the officers in the army), and, in case of necessity, may be commanded by the inferior officers of the regular army. Each Cossack is liable to do duty from the age of eighteen to fifty, and is obliged to furnish his own horse, and to be clothed in the Polish or Oriental fashion, although the tex- ture and quality of his garments are left to himself. The annexed cut exhibits the costume of a Cossack of the Black Sea. COSSACKS-COSSE. Their principal weapon is a lance from ten to twelve feet in length: they have also a sabre, a gun, or a pair of pistols, as well as a bow and arrows. The lances, in riding, are carried upright by means of a strap fastened to the foot, the arm or the pommel of the saddle. Those who use bows carry a quiver over the shoulder. The kamtschw, also, which is a thick whip of twisted leather, serves them for a weapon against an unarmed enemy, as well as for the management of their horses. Though little adapted for regular movements, they are very ser viceable in attacking baggage, magazines, and in the pursuit of troops scattered in flight. Their horses are mostly small, and of poor appearance; but they are tough and well broken, and so swift, that, when they do not move in compact bodies, and carry little or no baggage, they can travel, without much diffi- culty, from fifty to seventy miles a-day, for several days in succession. ... Each pulk has two or more silken banners, usually adorned with images of the Saints. The Cossacks fight principally in Small bodies, with which they attack the enemy on all sides, but principally on the flanks and in the rear, rushing upon them at full speed, with a dread- ful hurrah, and with levelled lances. If they suc- ceed in breaking through the enemy by a bold at- tack, they drop their lances, which are dragged along by the strap, and, seizing on their sabres and pistols, do great execution. If they meet with opposition, and find it impossible to penetrate, they immediately retreat, hastem to some appointed place, form anew, and repeat the attack until the enemy is put to flight, when they bring destruction on the scattered forces. In 1570, they built their principal stanitza and rendezvous, called Tscherkask, seventy wersts above Azoph, on some islands in the Don, 1283 miles from Petersburg, now containing 2950 houses and 15,000 inhabitants, the seat of the ataman. It may be call- ed the Tartar Penice, for the houses rest on high wooden piles, and are connected with each other by small bridges. When the river is high, which is from April to June, the city appears to be floating on the water. Their churches are richly adorned with gold and precious stones. There is a regular theatre here. There are also many private libraries, and a school where French, German, geometry, history, geography, natural philosophy, &c., are taught. A great deal of business is done by the Greeks, Arme- nians, Jews, &c. As the city is rendered unhealthy by the overflowing of the island on which it stands, they have lately fuit New Tscherkask, on an arm of the Don, about four miles from the present city, to which all the inhabitants of the old city will remove, so that, perhaps, in 50 years, no vestige of the old town will remain. COSSE, CHARLEs DE, more known by the title of marshal de Brissac, was son of René Cossé, who was lord of Brissac in Anjou, and chief falconer of France. He served with success in the Neapolitan and Pied- montese wars, and distinguished himself as colonel in the battle of Perpignan, in 1541. The first noble- men of France, and even the princes, received their military education in his school, while he commanded the French light cavalry. When the emperor Charles V. attempted to besiege Landrecy, in 1543, Brissac repulsed him three times, and united himself, in spite of the superior numbers of the enemy, with Francis I., who lay with his army, near Vitry. This mo- narch folded him in his arms, allowed him to drink out of his cup, and created him a knight of his order. After other great actions, he rose to the rank of grand master of artillery of France, and Henry II. sent him as ambassador to the emperor, for the pur- pose of negotiating a peace. Here he proved him- self a good diplomatist, and obtained for his services COST A FURTADO DE MENDOCA—COSTUME. the office of governor of Piedmont, and the baton of marshal of France, in 1550. He afterwards returned to France as governor of Picardy, and rendered that province important services. Brissac was small, but very well made. The ladies called him the hand- some Brissac. It is said that the duchess of Valen- timois regarded him with particular favour, and that Henry II. appointed him lieutenant-general in Italy merely from jealousy. Brissac died at Paris, Dec. 31, 1563. COSTA FURTADO DE MENDOCA, Hip- Poly To Joseph D.A.; a Portuguese gentleman, dis- tinguished for his talents, learning, and adventures. He was tried and imprisoned at Lisbon, by the inqui- sition, for the pretended crime of free-masonry. The following are said to have been the circumstances of his escape from captivity:-The door of the cell in which Da Costa was confined opening into a hall, which was the centre of the prison, he had opportunities for remarking that the daily labours of his jailors termi- nated with throwing a bunch of keys on a table where a lamp was left burning. By patience and perseverance, though conscious of liability to espial through apertures in the walls and ceiling of his cell, he succeeded in forming, out of an old pewter plate, a key which would unlock his door. Upon making his final attempt, the bunch of keys proved to be a proper collection for threading the entire labyrinth of the prison, not excepting the outer gate. Besides the keys, and lamp, there was a book, containing, among other records, the minutes of his own examina- tions. This he took with him, and, carefully closing and locking every door after him, he made his way, without interruption, to the outside of the prison walls; and, after remaining six weeks, secluded and disguised in the neighbourhood, he took his depar- ture from Portugal, and reached England in safety, carrying with him the book and keys of the inquisi- tors, as trophies of his success. M. da Costa was the proprietor of the Correio Braziliense, a monthly maga- zine in the Portuguese language, printed in London, and discontinued a short time before his death, which took place in the beginning of 1824. COSTA RICA ; the most eastern and most southern province of Guatimala; between lat. 8° 20' and 11° 27' N., and long. 80° 27' and 85° 49' W.; bounded N. by Nicaragua, E. by the Spanish Main, S. E. by Veragua, and W. and S. W. by the Paci- fic Ocean; 150 miles in length and nearly as much in breadth. It is full of deserts and forests, thinly peo- pled, and ill cultivated. A great part of the inhabi- tants live independent of the Spaniards. The princi- pal commerce consists in cattle, hides, honey, and wax. It has ports in each sea. Carthage is the capital. COSTA RICA; a river of Guatimala, which runs into the Escondida, five miles from St Carlos, in Nicaragua. COSTER, LAURENS (called Jansoens, that is, son of John), a wealthy citizen of Haerlem, was born in that city in 1370 or 1371. He was a member of the chief council in 1418, and by turns performed the duties of a judge and a treasurer. In 1421, or ac- cording to some, 1399, he was appointed to the office of sacristan (Koster) of the parochial church at Haerlem, and continued in this station ; and from this office, which, at that time, was very honourable, he derived his surname. He died, probably of the con- tagious disease which raged, in the latter part of 1439, in Haerlem. This is all that the contemporary city records have preserved of his history. More than a hundred years after his death, in the middle of the 16th century, traces of a tradition appeared, which assigned to the city of Haerlem the inven- tion of the art of printing. At this time, Hadrian Junius produced (in a work entitled Batavia, writ- 477 ten between 1562 and 1571, but not published till 1588, after his death), from the verbal information of some aged people, who, again, derived their knowledge from others, a complete history of the invention of the art of printing, in which Coster acted the chief part. During his walks in a wood near Haerlem (as Junius relates), he carved letters, at first for his amusement, in the bark of beech- trees. He persevered in these experiments, till he had finished entire lines, and finally proceeded so far as to cut out whole pages on the sides of boards. With blocks of this sort, he effected the impression of the Spegel onzer Behoudemisse. After this, he improved his mode of printing by casting lead or pewter types. But a person of the name of John, whom he had employed as an assistant, stole his print- ing apparatus one Christmas night, and fled with it first to Amsterdam, and then to Cologne and Mentz, at which last place this theft occasioned the general diffusion of the art invented by Coster. In Hol- land, the people are so firmly convinced of the truth of this story, that a statue in honour of Cos- ter was erected in 1622. His house, which fell down in 1818 through age, was shown with the greatest respect; and, in 1740, the jubilee of his invention of the art of printing was celebrated. This cele- bration was repeated in 1823, the justice of the claim of the Dutch being considered to be estab- lished by Meerman's Origines Typographica (1765), and Koning's Perhandeling over het Oorsprong der Boekdrukkunst (1816). The examination of the Subject, in the last essay in the Hermes, by Ebert (No. XX), leads us to this result; that Coster, at a time at least as early as that of the invention of the art by the Germans, employed himself in ex- periments, the design and result of which was the invention of the art of printing. (See Ebert's article Buchdruckerkunst in the Encyclopædia by Ersch and Gruber. COSTUME, in the fine arts; the observance of propriety in regard to the person or thing repre- sented, so that the scene of action, the habits, arms, proportions, &c., are properly imitated. The pe- culiarities of form, physiognomy, complexion; the dress, ornaments, habitations, furniture, arms, &c., should all be conformable to the period and country in which the scene is laid. The rules of costume would be violated by the introduction of a palm- grove and a tiger in a scene in Russia, by the repre- sentation of American Indians in turbans, or of Ro- mans with cannons at the siege of Carthage, or an inhabitant of the East seated at table with a knife and fork. That the ancient painters, and even celebrated masters of the modern European schools, are often chargeable with deviations from propriety in regard to costume, is not to be denied ; but no- where have they been so glaring as on the stage, where Greek, Turkish, and Peruvian princes used to make their appearance in long velvet mantles, em- broidered with gold; Merope and Cleopatra were equipped in hoop-petticoats, Medea and Phaedra in French head-dresses; peasant-girls were dressed out in whale-bone, and heroes emerged from the battle in stiff coats, not a fold of which was disordered. Le Kain and mademoiselle Clairon, it is said, were the first who introduced propriety of costume on the stage under the patronage of the count de Lauraguais; but they excluded only the grosser absurdities: Scythians and Sarmatians were clothed in tiger-skins, Asiatics in the Turkish dress; but the old costume was retained in other respects. The scenery of the stage was as incongruous as the dresses. It is not long since Semiramis issued from a palace adorned with Corinthian columns, and entered a garden in which a whole American Flora was blooming; or 478 perhaps she was seated on a throne, overshadowed With a canopy a la Polonaise. Those by whom she was surrounded were dressed in the Turkish style ; while a master of horse, in the costume of the age of chivalry, offered her his hand. In Germany, the stage, at that time, was no better in this respect. It is not very long since the companions of Theseus made their appearance there with large perukes; and, in the Clemenza di Tito, Roman soldiers marched on the stage with stiff boots, and stiffer queues. The Germans, however, first made a thorough reform these absurdities, and the national, now royal, theatre, in Berlin, in point of scenery and costume, is at pre- sent the most correct in the world. In France, Talma reformed the Parisian stage. What he did in this respect for the drama, David (who had, how- ever, a predecessor in Wien) effected for painting, and his school is entitled to the honour of having strictly observed propriety of costume. The question, To what extent should truth be sacrificed to beauty P is answered in the best manner by an article on the subject of dramatic representation, in Muellner's Al- manac for Private Theatres (Almanach fuer Privat- buehnen, in two volumes, 1818). There poetical cor- rectness is distinguished from historical, and the cases are pointed out, in which the latter must yield to the former, partly on account of the harmony that must necessarily exist between the external ap- pearances and the spirit of poetry, and partly for the sake of intelligibleness, and avoiding what would be offensive to the less informed spectators. That art may be permitted to idealize costume as well as language, cannot be denied. No perfect work on costume has as yet appeared. Dandré Bardon, in his Costumes of the most Ancient Nations, did not confine himself to the true sources of information. The Traité des Costumes of Lenz is a very feeble pro- duction, and Martini's Commentaries have very little improved it. Spalart's Essay on the Costume of the most celebrated Nations of Antiquity, of the Middle Ages, and of Modern Times (Versuch ueber das Cos- tume der vorzueglichsten Poelker des Alterthums, des nittlern Alters und der neueren Ceiten, published by Ignatius Albrecht, Vienna, 1796–99, 3 vols.) is su- perior, but not entirely free from faults. The Re- cueils des Costumes Antiques, by Rocheggiani and Willemin, are more useful productions, but not sufficiently comprehensive. A new Essay on Antique and Modern Costumes, by Gironi, appeared in Italy, in 1819; and an Illustration of the Egyptian, Gre- cian, and Roman Costume, in forty sketches, with Descriptions, was published by Thomas Baxter, London, 1810. There is often no means of informa- tion for the artist but the original sources. For the costume of the ancients, he must have recourse to the engravings of antiquities; for the modern cos- tume, he must resort to essays on painting in different ages, monumental figures, and treatises on costume; and in regard to the costume of foreign nations he may derive information from books of travels; histories, antiquities and geographies, are indis- pensable guides in these inquiries. The costumes of modern times and foreign nations are de- Scribed in the Costumes civils actuels de tous les Pew- oles connus, by St Sauveur; and in a large work en- titled Collections of Costumes of various Nations (Lon- don, 1800 et seq.); and in several publications on the costume of the theatre, viz., Costumes et Annales des grant's Théatres de Paris; Costumes of the Im- perial Court Theatre in Vienna (Costumes des K. K. Hoftheaters in JWien), with coloured plates (Vienna, 1812 and 1813); Costumes of the National Theatre at Berlin (Theatercostumes des berliner nationalthea- ters) from 1816 to 1823—the old ones were given from 1789 to 1813. COSTUME—COTIN. COTE-D'OR; a chain of mountains in Burgundy, so called from the abundance of excellent wine which they yield. Their height varies from 1400 French feet to 1600. The chain runs from N. N. E. to S. S. W., and is about 36 leagues long, beginning at the plateau of Langres, and extending to the sources of the Bourbince and the Dheune. COTE-D’OR ; a department of France, formerly a part of Burgundy. See Department. COTERIE; a French word now much used in English Society. Originally, coterie was a commercial term, signifying an association in which each mem- ber furnished his part, and received his proportion of the profits, or bore his proportion of the loss. Thence it was used for small societies, in which certain indi- viduals are in the habit of meeting, and each contri- butes his share of conversation and entertainment. A coterie consisting of ladies and gentlemen of talent, vivacity and agreeable manners,is one of the finest pro- ductions of modern Society. It is from coteries that we derive a large stock of the most entertaining and in Structive matters in the numberless French memoirs. COTES-DU-NORD; a French department, for. merly the northern part of Upper Brittany. COTES, WIN DE ; Bordelais wine. See Borde. lais. COETHEN, ANHALT; one of the Anhalt principa- lities. See Anhalt. All the possessions of the prince of Anhalt-Coethen, amount only to 300 square miles, Containing four towns and 33,500 inhabitants, fur. nishing 320,000 gilders of revenue, and burdened with 1,200,000 gilders public debt. The prince and his wife—a natural daughter of Frederic William II. of Prussia—embraced the Catholic religion in Paris, Oct. 24, 1815, which caused some religious excite- ment in Germany. Coethen, the capital, has 700 houses and 5500 inhabitants. COTHURNUS, with the ancients; a kind of shoes, laced high, such as Diana and her nymphs are represented as wearing. They are still worn by the hunters in Italy. They were particularly in use among the Cretans. Galen and Pollux describe them as reaching up to the middle of the calf, and laced tight by means of thongs, to protect the foot and ankle, without obstructing freedom of motion. The tragic actors also wore them, perhaps, at first, as commemorative of the expeditions of Bacchus; and, at a later period, in order to give additional height to the actors who played the part of heroes. Hence cothurnus is sometimes used figuratively for tragedy. . The cothurnus used for this purpose differ- ed from the hunting cothurnus in this respect, that it had a sole of cork, at least four fingers thick. COTIN, CHARLEs, counsellor and almoner of the king, and member of the French academy, was born at Paris, in 1604. He is indebted for his notoriety, in a great measure, to the Satires of Boileau. He possessed a knowledge of theology and philosophy, understood the Hebrew and Syriac languages, and studied the Greek authors so diligently, that he could repeat large portions of Homer and Plato by heart. Among his poems are many which have much merit. It has often been supposed, that Boileau introduced the name of Cotin into his satires, because it furnish- ed a convenient rhyme, and Moore refers to this in his Life of Byron, vol. I. But Boileau had good reasons for complaining of Cotin, who had represent- ed him, at the hotel Rambouillet, as a dangerous man. The ridicule of Boileau exasperated Cotin still more, and he attempted every means of silenc. ing him. His influence at court, his title and wealth, appeared to give him the means of effecting this ob. ject; but, unluckily, his follies drew upon him a new enemy in Molière, who in his Femmes Savantes, in. troduced him on the stage, and exposed him to ridi- COTOPAXI—COTTON. cule, under the name Trissotin. The sonnet to the princess Urania was composed by Cotin; and he en- aged in a dispute respecting this poem with Mén- âge, in the presence of a select society, in which the disputants used the same kind of language which Mo- lière places in the mouths of Trissotin and Vadius. Cotin died, in 1682. His CEuvres Mélées appeared in 1659, at Paris, and his CEuvres Galantes, in 2 vols., in 1665. COTOPAXI; the most remarkable volcanic moun- tain of the Andes, in Quito ; 35 miles S. S. E. of Quito, N. N. E. of Chimborazo; lat. about O' 40 S. It is the most beautiful of the colossal summits of the Andes. It is a perfect cone, which, being cover- ed with an enormous layer of snow, shines with daz- Žling splendour at the setting of the sun, and stands forth in bold relief from the azure heavens. This Covering of snow conceals from the eye of the observer the Smallest inequalities of the ground. No point or mass of rock penetrates the coating of snow and ice, or breaks the exact regularity of the conical figure. The Crater is surrounded by a small circular wall, which, When viewed through a telescope, appears like a para- pet. Its height above the sea is 18,898 feet. It is the most tremendous volcano in Quito, and its explosions have been most disastrous, spreading destruction over the surrounding plains. Remarkable eruptions took place in 1698, IT38, 1742, 1744, 1766, and 1768; and one in 1803. In 1698, the eruption destroyed the city of Tacunga, with three-fourths of its inhabitants, and other settlements. In 1738, the flames rose nearly 3000 feet above the brink of the crater; and in 1744, its roarings were heard as far as Honda, on the Mag- dalena, 600 miles distant. With respect to the explo- sion of 1803, Humboldt observes, “At the port of Gu- ayaquil, 52 leagues distant, in a straight line, from the crater, we heard, day and night, the noise of this vol- Cano, like continued discharges of a battery; and we distinguished these tremendous sounds even on the Pacific ocean.” In viewing this volcano, everything contributes to give it a most majestic and awful cha- racter. The pyramidal summits of Ilinissa; the snowy ridges of the other mountains; the singular regu- larity of the inferior line of snow, and the luxuriance of the great plains, offer an unparalleled assemblage of the grand and picturesque features of nature. Humboldt found it difficult to ascend the mountain, in 1802, as far as the limit of perpetual snow, and he pronounces it impossible, by any human art to reach the summit. COTTA, J. G., baron of Cottenberg; an eminent bookseller of Germany, was born at Stuttgart in 1764. In his youth he studied theology, and was, for Some time, a private instructor. In 1798, he esta- blished, in connexion with some other persons, the Allgemeine Zeitung which soon became, through his efforts, the best political paper of Germany. Mr Cotta then became a publisher of books; and his es- tablishment under the firm of J. G. Cotta’ sche Buch- handlung, was distinguished, not—like those of his contemporaries, Crapele, and some others—for the peculiar beauty and correctness of the publications which proceeded from it, but for the great number, among which have been many of the best works of German literature. But the circumstance which probably, rendered Mr Cotta's press unique, was the number of periodicals that he succeeded in establish- ing, which embraced a very extensive circle of scien- tific and literary subjects. His Allgemeine Zeitung is a daily political paper; Das Morgen-Blatt is a daily paper, principally devoted to entertaining mat- ter; Das Kunst-Blatt treats of the fine arts; Das Ausland gives information only respecting foreign countries; Das Inland is chiefly for Bavaria; Das Polytechnische Journal is devoted to the useful arts; 479 Die Politischen Annalen is made up of long political treatises and documents; Das Literatur-Blatt is a daily paper, containing short critiques, somewhat similar to the London Literary Gazette, but its con- tents are more valuable. All these different publi- cations are carried on in Stuttgard, Tuebingen, and Augsburg. Some years before his death, Mr Cotta purchased the barony of Cottenberg, in the kingdom of Wuertemberg, whereby he became entitled to a seat in the chamber of the nobles of that state, where he showed himself disposed to liberal sentiments. His Allgemeine Zeitung has likewise this character, as much as is possible in a country in which the Con- ductor has been obliged already, three times, to change the place of its publication, in order to evade a strict censorship. Mr Cotta's wealth was great, and he applied it liberally in procuring valuable con- tributions to the various journals published by him. He died on the 29th December, 1832. COTTIN, SoPHIE RISTAUD, better known by the name of madame Cottin, the author of several novels and works of entertainment, was born in 1773, at Tomneins, in the department of Lot and Garonne, married, at the age of seventeen, a banker at Bour- deaux, and went soon after to Paris, where, in a few years, she lost her husband. To relieve her Sorrow, she gave herself up to intellectual pursuits. To di- vert her thoughts, she wrote down the fancies and reflections that strongly occupied her active mind, without supposing that they would be of interest or value beyond the circle of her immediate friends. In the ease with which she expressed her thoughts, she discovered a talent, which even those most intimate with her had not hitherto appreciated. Her first attempts were small poems, and a history of 200 pages. One of her friends having occasion for fifty louis-d'ors, in order to leave France, from which he was banished, madame Cottin, to assist the unfortu- mate man, published her Claire d’Albe, but kept her name a secret. The necessity which she felt of pouring out her feelings, determined her to appear again as an authoress, and she produced Malvina, Amélie de Mansfield, and Elizabeth, or the Eaſiles or Siberia. The eloquence and fervour with which she expresses the most secret feelings of the heart have been much admired, especially by her own sex. Her circumstances enabled her to devote the profits of her works to benevolent objects. A painful disorder prevented her from finishing a religious work which she had begun, and another on education. . The latter was the only one of her works for which she was anxious to gain a favourable reception with the public; for, singular as it may seem, she disap- proved, in general, of women's appearing as authors. She died, after three months’ suffering, August 25, 1807. Her works are contained in the collection CEuvres complètes de Madame Cottin, Paris, 1806. COTTON is a soft, vegetable down, which is con- tained in the seed-vessels, and envelopes the seeds, of the cotton plant (gossypium herbaceum), which is cul- tivated in the East and West Indies, North and South America, and Egypt; in fact, in most parts of the world which possess a sufficiently warm climate. It is an annual plant. It grows to a considerable height, and has leaves of a bright green colour, marked with brownish veins, and each divided into five lobes. The flowers have only one petal in five segments, with a short tube, and are of a pale-yellow colour, with five red spots at the bottom. The cottom-pods are of somewhat triangular shape, and have each three cells. These, when ripe, burst open, and disclose their snow-white or yellowish contents, in the midst of which are contained the seeds, in shape somewhat resembling those of grapes. The fibres of cotton are extremely fine, delicate, and flexile. When examined 480 by the microscope, they are found to be somewhat flat, and two-edged or triangular. Their direction is not straight, but contorted, so that the locks can be extended or drawn out without doing violence to the fibres. These threads are finely toothed, which ex- plains the cause of their adhering together with greater facility than those of bombax and several apocynea, which are destitute of teeth, and which cannot be spun into thread without an admixture of Cotton. - . In the Southern States of the American Union, the cotton cultivated is distinguished into three kinds— the nankeen cotton, so called from its colour; the green seed cotton, producing white cotton with green seeds; and the black seed cotton. The two first kinds grow in the middle and upper country, and are called short staple cotton ; the last is cultivated in the lower country, near the sea, and on the isles near the shore, and produces cotton of a fine, white, silky appear. ance, very strong, and of a long staple. Cotton was found indigenous in America. There are two machines for cleansing cotton from the seeds; these are, the roller-gin and the saw-gin. The essential parts of the first are two small §ier, revolving in contact, or nearly so. The cotton is drawn between the rollers, while the size of the seeds prevents them from passing. The saw-gin, invented by Mr Whit. ney, an American, is used for the black-seed cotton, the seeds of which adhere too strongly to be sepa- rated by the other method. It is a receiver, having one side covered with strong parallel wires, about an eighth of an inch apart. Between these wires pass a number of circular saws, revolving on a common axis. The cotton is entangled in the teeth of the saws, and drawn out through the grating, while the Seeds are prevented, by their size, from passing. The Cotton thus extricated is swept from the saws by a revolving cylindrical brush, and the seeds fall out at the bottom of the receiver. Sir Richard Arkwright is highly celebrated for the machinery which he in- vented for the spinning of cotton. , North and South America, Egypt, and India, produce most of the cotton consumed, and the greater part is manufac- tured in Britain and the United States of America. The export of cotton from the United States, between October, 1828, and September, 1829, to Great Bri- tain, amounted to 498,001 bales; the amount ex- ported to France, was 184,821 bales; and to the other parts of Europe, 66,178; total, 749,000. The crop in 1824–5 was 569,259 bales; that of 1825–6 was 720,027 bales; that of 1826–7, was 957,281; that of 1827–8, was 720,593; that of 1828–9, was 870,415. Of this last crop, 130,000 bales are esti- mated to have been manufactured in theUnited States. The whole amount of cotton imported into Great Bri- tain, in 1824, was 149,380,122 pounds; in 1825, was 228,005,291; in 1826, was 177,607,401; in 1827, was 272,448,909 pounds. The value of cotton ma- nufactured goods exported in 1824, according to the official rates, was £27,171,555; in 1825,426,597,574; in 1826, 2621,445,742: of cotton twist and yarn, in 1824, according to the official rate, 4'2,984,344; in 1825, 262,897,706; in 1826, 263,748,526. Cotton Manufacture. The increase of the cot- ton manufacture, during the last half century, is one of the most interesting events in the history of Commerce. The earliest seat of the manufacture, known to us, was Hindostan, where it continues to be carried on, by hand labour, in all its original sim- plicity. Such, however, has been the power of im- proved machinery, in its recent application to it, that Europe and America are now pouring back upon Asia her original manufacture, and underselling her in her own markets. The first impulse in these im- COTTON. provements was derived from the inventions of Har greaves and Arkwright, between 1768 and 1780. The improved machinery of which we speak consists of the cylindrical carding engine, by which the fibres of cotton are disentangled and separated from each other, and from all foreign substances, and delivered in a uniform, continuous roll; the drawing and rov- ing frames, by which these rolls are repeatedly dou- bled and extended, until the fibres are drawn out into a regular and perfectly horizontal position; and the spinning frame, the most important quality of which is the causing the roving or preparatory yarn to pass through two or more sets of rollers, revolving with different velocities, by which the thread, at the mo- ment of being twisted, is drawn out to any desired degree of tenuity; the rollers performing the deli- cate office of the thumb and finger. In addition to these, the power-loom was brought into general use about the year 1816, by which the laborious process of weaving is converted into the mere superintend- ence of two, and even three, of these machines; each one producing from thirty to forty yards of cloth per day. In the printing of calicoes, equally important improvements have been made. Instead of the tedi- ous process of impressing patterns from wooden blocks, the most delicate patterns are transferred from copper cylinders with astonishing rapidity; two, and even three, colours are, in this way, imprinted at One operation. In the richer and more expensive patterns, however, block-printing continues to be us- ed, in addition to the impressions from the cylinders. The Science of chemistry has contributed its share of improvement in the new process of bleaching by chlorine, and in innumerable new combinations of colours. In its present state, the entire manufacture, in its various departments, presents a greater combi- nation of human skill than can be found in any other art or manufacture. In 1781, the quantity of cotton wool imported into Great Britain, was 5,000,000 pounds; in 1829, it cannot be estimated at less than 210,000,000; and, allowing 20,000,000 for export, 190,000,000 pounds will remain as the consumption of the kingdom. Of this, upwards of 40,000,000 pounds are exported in yarns, valued at 263,500,000 sterling. The value of all other manufactures of cotton, exported in 1828, was 26 13,545,638. Some estimates of the annual value of the cottom manu- factured in Great Britain have been as high as £36,000,000 sterling; but this would seem to †e alſ) exaggeration. In the early periods of this manu- facture, the profits must have been enormous. It has built up the cities of Liverpool and Manchester in England, of Glasgow and Paisley in Scotland, and has been estimated to give employment to a million of persons. After a i. period of success, inter. rupted only by occasional and temporary fluctuations, the production, both of the raw material and of the manufactured article, seems to have outrun the con- Sumption of the world in that eventful year of over- trade, 1825. A long stagnation succeeded in 1826; an unprecedented reduction in the prices of cotton manufactures, and in the value of property engaged in it, spread a wide and general distress, throughout the districts devoted to this manufacture, which con- tinued, with greater or less intensity, through the years 1828 and 1829. Although there is no di- minution in the quantity of cotton consumed in Great Britain, there is abundant evidence, that neither the capital nor labour employed in it is now receiving a fair remuneration. The fall in the prices of cotton manufactures, from 1814 to 1826, would seem, by a comparison of the real or declared value of the exports with the official value, rated by a uniform list, to have been 55 per cent. COTTON. The greatest export in value, of any one year, was in 1815, having exceeded £19,000,000 sterling. The following circumstances, connected with the cotton trade, are given here chronologically:- B. C. 340 The cotton manufactures of India taken notice of by the I) Greeks when Alexander overran Greece. A. D. I2S0 The hºacture of Cotton introduced into China from Il Cila. 'The . attempt made to introduce cotton goods into ting land. The first act of parliament relating to cotton goods. Printed calicoes imported into England. Fustians made at Bolton. The Dutch loom first used in England. Blone, in his history of Liverpool, speaks of great cot. ...ton manufactories in the adjacent parts. Calico printing first introduced into London. The manufacturing of muslins first attempted in Paisley. The weaving of India calicoes prohibited. Linens, lawns, and cambrics, first manufactured at Glas- gow. Mr James Monteith was the first manufacturer who warped a muslim web in Scotland. Cotton spinning attempted unsuccessfully by Mr Wyat, at Litchfield, who spun the first thread of cottom yarn ever produced without the intervention of the fingers. The Cotton plant first cultivated in Surinam. Mr Lewis Paul took out a patent for an improved mode of carding. * The fly shuttle invented by Mr John Kay of Bury. The first mill for spinning cotton erected at Birming- ham. It was moved by asses; but the machinery was sold in 1743. The fly shuttle in general use. Cotton velvets and quiltings first made. Mr James Hargreaves applies the stock card to the card- ing of cotton with some improvements. cylinder cards invented. First used by the father of the late Sir Robert Peel. Rouen the principal narket for the sale of cotton wool. The Spinning jenny invented by Mr James Hargreaves. Mr Arkwright, afterwards Sir Richard Arkwright, ob- tained his first patent for spinning with.rollers, and built his first mill at Nottingham. 5521 bags of cotton imported into Liverpool from the West Indies, three from New York, four from Vir- ginia and Maryland, and three barrels from North Carolina. Power looms invented by the Rev. Dr Cartwright. Mule jenny invented by Mr Samuel Crompton. Cayenne, Surinam, Essequibo, Demerara, and St Domin- go Cotton most in esteem. Braſſ ſºon first imported from Maranham, but, very Irty. Mr James Watt obtains his patent for the steam en- gine. Surat, and also Bourbon cotton, first imported, or known, about this time. Mr Arkwright’s first patent expired. Cotton manufactured in Great Britain this year was 11,280,238 lbs., and valued at £3,950,000. Cottom imported in small quantities from the United States. Mr M.Intosh and Mr Dale commenced dying Turkey red in Glasgow. Bourbon cotton-sold from 7s 6d to 10s per Jb. Cotton, the growth of the United States, first imported in large quantities, by way of the West Indies. Scutching machine, said to be invented by Mr Snodgrass and Mr Cooper, first used at Johnstone. About this time the saw-gin was invented. The Fame arrived with the first cargo of cotton from the East Indies. ISO0 or 1801 'ſhe entire stock of American cotton in Liver- pool on E bag. Radcliff's dressing and warping machine invented. Trade to British India thrown open under certain re- strictions. 105 millions of yards of cotton cloth manufactured in Glasgow, value £5,000,000. . . Cotton first imported from Egypt direct to Liverpool. Steam engines estimated at 893 horses' power, spinning cotton in and around Glasgow, in a space not more than two miles from the cross. The Danforth throstle frame introduced into England. Mr Montgomery of Johnston improves the throstle frame. The value of cotton goods now manufactured in Great Britain estimated at £40,000,000 yearly, 3620,000,000 of which are exported. Mr Smith of Deanston invents a Self-acting mule. | 735 173S 1742 1750 1756 1760 1762 1763 ..." 1767 I 769 1770 1785 I7S6 I793 I797 * 1798 1S03 ISI 3 In the United States of America the progress of this manufacture has partaken of the characteristic energy and vigour of the country. It is only since the introduction of the power loom, that it can be considered as having been established on a perma- Il. name of American domestics. 48} ment and useful basis; the scarcity of skilful weavers, and the high prices of weaving, had been found seri- ous obstacles to its success, which was secured by this invention. The first successful experiment with this instrument was made at Waltham, Mass. in 1815, applied to the coarser fabrics; but so rapid has been the extension of the manufacture, that, besides furnishing the United States with its full supply of the more staple productions, and a con- siderable export of coarse goods, the beautiful prints of Manchester and Glasgow are imitated in great perfection ; and more than half the consumption of the country, in this important branch, is supposed to be now furnished from native industry. The actual extent of this manufacture, in the United States, at the present time, is matter of estimate only ; a very moderate one is believed to be the consumption of 35,000,000 pounds of cotton per annum, manufac- tured into 140,000,000 of yards of cloth, of which about 10,000,000 are exported, and upwards of 20,000,000 printed; the value, 12 to 14,000,000 of dollars; and employing a capital of 25 to 30,000,000 dollars. Several improvements, originating in the Country, have been introduced into the manufac- ture, and the whole process is believed to be per- formed to as great advantage as in any part of the world. The descriptions of cottons exported are mostly of a coarse fabric, which are taking the place of the cottons of India, and are known abroad by the They have been ex- tensively imitated by the English, and a competition is going on, between the manufacturers of the two countries, for the possession of the foreign markets. It is thought, that the possession of the raw material On the spot, and the use of the comparatively cheap moving power of water, instead of steam, with the proximity of the great markets of South America, are advantages, in favour of the United States, more than sufficient to counterbalance some disadvantage in the higher cost of machinery, and, as is common- ly supposed, in the higher wages of labour. But the labour in the cotton mills producing these goods, being wholly performed by females, has been ascer- tained not to be dearer than the same description of work in Britain; and, as it is not easily applicable to any other branch of industry, it would seem not improbable, that that country will be the future Source of supply, in coarse cottons, for foreign mar- kets. The great profits attending this manufacture have attracted to it, in a very short period, a great amount of capital, and produced a violent competi- tion: the consequence has been a sudden reaction and great depression of prices, producing consider- able embarrassment in those establishments operating with inadequate capital, and unable to meet the shock of impaired credit. But although individuals may meet with heavy losses by imprudent specula- tions, there is no reason to distrust the eventual suc- cess of the manufacture, which must soon find relief, under the increasing consumption of the country. The price of coarse cottons, in 1829, was less than one-third of the price in 1815. The largest esta- blishments for the manufacture of cotton, in the Unit- ed States, at present, are at Dover, N. H.; Lowell Mass.; Pawtucket, R. T.; Patterson, N. J.; and in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia and Baltimore. The increase of the production of the raw material is even more wonderful than that of the manufacture. In 1791, the whole export of the United States was 64 bags, of 300 pounds each; the average of 1826, 7, and 8, is 235,000,0U0 pounds; and, if we include that consumed in the country, the average produc- tion is 270,000,000 pounds, valued at 27,000,000 dollars; the price having fallen to about one-third of that of 1815. This reduction of price seems destined 2 H 482 to cause a still further immense extension of the manufacture, which is rapidly taking the place of hempen sailcloth, and the different descriptions of Coarse linens. In fact, this valuable material, at once delicate, strong, and cheap, seems equally well adapted to every fabric, from the gossamer-like mus- lin of the ball room to the coarse garment of the Negro slave. Account of the Imports of Cotton Wool into Great Bri. tain, of the Stocks on hand on the 31st December, and of the Annual and weekly Delivery for consumption, from I814 to 1830, both inclusive. Total º ports sº in the Total Deliveries Fº into Great orts, - Weekly Britain. 31st December for Consumption. commiſſion. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1814 73,728,000 22,272,000 80,640,000 1,664,000 1815 96,200,000 22,360,000 85,800,000 1,612,000 1816 97,310,000 22,355,000 88,631,000 1,709,500 1817 126,240,000 31,034,000 108,356,000 2,051,400 1818 173,940,000 85,800,000 111,800,000 2,132,000 1819 137,592,000 88,452,000 108,864,000 2,116,800 1820 147,576,000 103,458,000 125,646,000 2,322,000 1821 126,420,000 106,800,000 126,420,000 2,476,800 1822 141,510,000 76,362,000 144, 180,000 2,750, 100 1823 183,700,000 105,875,000 147,125,000 3,025,000 1824 147,420,000 64,428,000 174, 174,000 3, 166,800 1825 244,360,000 123,968,000 169,264,000 3,456,000 1826 170,520,000 100,548,000 164,640 000 3,410,400 1827 264,330,000 134,244,000 211,167,000 3,801,600 1828 222,750,000 120,582,000 217,701,000 4, 158,000 1829 218,324,000 84,966,000 221,676,000 4,263,000 1830 259,856,000 95,360,000 242,000,000 4,768,000 As the subject of cotton manufactures is one of so much interest, we shall here give a detailed account of the process, and mention the most important ma- chines by which each part is performed. After the cotton has been ginned (see the first part of this ar- ticle), and picked or batted, that is, beat up and separated into a light, uniform mass, the first opera- tion of the manufacturer is carding, which serves to equalize the substance of the cotton, and dispose its fibres in a somewhat parallel direction. The carding engine consists of a revolving cylinder, covered with sheet cards, which is nearly surrounded by a fixed concave framing, also lined with ten to twelve pieces called top cards, with which the cylinder comes in contact. From this cylinder, called the breaker, the Cotton is taken off by a smaller cylinder, called the doffing cylinder, and thence by the motion of a trans- verse comb, called the doffing comb, and passes through a second carding in the finishing cylinder. It is then passed through a kind of funnel, by which it is contracted into a narrow band or roving, and received into tin cans, in the state of a uniform, con- tinued roving. The next step in the process is call- ed drawing the cotton. The machine employed for this purpose, called the drawing frame, is constructed on the same principle as the spinning frame, from which the idea of it was taken. To imitate the operation performed by the thumb and finger in hand- Spinning, two pairs of rollers are employed; the first pair, slowly revolving in contact with each other, are placed at a little distance from the second pair, which revolve with greater velocity. The lower roller of each pair is furrowed, or fluted longitudinally, and the upper one is covered with leather, to give the two a proper hold of the cotton. ... If a carding be passed between the first pair, it will be merely com- pressed by the pressure of the rollers; but if it be then: passed through the second pair, moving with twice or thrice the velocity of the first, it will be drawn twice or thrice smaller than it was when it entered the first rollers. The relative velocity of the two pairs of rollers is called the draught of the machine. The general spring is from six to twelve times the speed. Several of these drawings are then passed together through rollers in the same manner, plying (coalescing) as they pass, and forming a single new drawing. . The drawing and plying are several times repeated, and have the effect of arranging all COTTON. the fibres of the cotton longitudinally, in a uniform and parallel direction, and doing away all the in- equalities of thickness. In these operations, the cotton receives no twist. Roving the cottom, which is the next part of the process, gives it a slight twist, which converts it into a soft and loose thread, called the roving. The machine for performing this operation is called the roving frame or double speeder. In order to wind the roving upon the bobbins of the spindles, in even, cylindrical layers, the spindle rail is made to rise and fall slowly, by means of heart wheels in the interior of the machine. And, as the size of the bob- bins is augmented by each layer, the velocity of the spindles and of the spindle rail is made to diminish gradually, from the beginning to the end of the ope- ration. This is effected by transmitting the motion to both through two opposite cones, one of which drives the other with a band, which is made to pass slowly from one end to the other of the cones, and thus continually to alter their relative speed, and cause a uniform retardation of the velocity. The bobbins are now transferred to the spinning frame, which has a double set of rollers, like those describ- ed in the account of the drawing and roving frames, and which, operating in the same manner as in those machines, extend the rove, and reduce it to a thread of the required fineness. The twist is given to this thread by flyers, driven by bands, which receive their motion from a horizontal fly wheel, or from a longi- tudinal cylinder. The yarn produced by this mode of spinning is called water twist, from the circum- stance of the machinery, from which it is obtained, having been, at first, generally put in motion by water. In 1775, the mule jenny or mule was invent- ed by Samuel Crompton, of Bolton. The spindles are mounted on a movable carriage, which recedes when the threads are to be stretched, and returns when they are to be wound up. The process of stretching is intended to produce threads of the finest kinds, and consists in forcibly stretching portions of yarn, several yards long, in the direction of their length. The purpose of it is to reduce those places in the yarn which have a greater diameter than the rest, so that the size and twist of the thread may be- come uniform throughout. Here ends the process of spinning, and that of weaving begins. The ãº. progress of a pound of cotton may be not uninteresting to our readers, It appeared, originally, in the Monthly Magazine, “There was sent to London lately, from Paisley, a small piece of muslin, about one pound weight, the history of which is as follows: The wool came from the East Indies to London; from London it went to Lancashire, where it was manufactured into yarn; from Man- chester it was sent to Paisley, where it was woven; it was sent to Ayrshire next, where it was tambour- ed; it was then conveyed to Dumbarton, where it was hand-sewed, and again returned to Paisley, whence it was sent to Glasgow and finished, and then Sent, per coach, to London. It may be reckoned about three years that it took to bring this article to market, from the time when it was packed in India, till it arrived complete, in the merchant's warehouse, in London; whither it must have been conveyed 5000 miles by sea, nearly 1000 by land, and have contributed to reward the labour of nearly 150 per- Sons, whose services were necessary in the carriage and manufacture of this Small quantity of cotton, and by which the value has been advanced more than 2000 per cent.” The foregoing outline of cotton spinning is sufficient to give the general reader an idea of the nature of this species of manufac- ture; but as it is a prominent feature in the trade and commerce of this country, we have thought proper to give engravings of the most improved forms of the machinery. When the cotton ar- rives in this country it is much compressed, and the first opera. CO'TTON. tion is to teaze it, either by the hand or rake, and even some- tithes by a machine, called the Willow, which consists of a re- volving cylinder, with studs on its surface, which tear the cotton, and take away the sand and part of the seeds. As this machine injures the staple of the wool, the former method is generally preferred. The cotton being teased is carried to the scutching machine, the use of which is to open up the wool. This was formerly done by switching the cottom on a table, the sand and seeds falling to the ground between cords stretched Over it. A plan and elevation of the scutching machine are given in plate XX. n is the driving pulley giving motion to the first fanner C, and motion is communicated from the same shaft to the second fanner C, k. The pulley at k drives the shaft m. The scutchers B, B are driven by belts from the ſanners C, C. The shaft m passes through the machine and gives motion to the upright shaft R by bevel geering. 'This shaft R communi- cates motion also by bevel geer to the lying shaft O seen in the side view. The shaft O gives motion to the three bevelled wheels S, S, S, which drive the feeding rollers to the first scutch- er A, A, and those to the second E, E, as likewise the delivering rollers T. The cotton is first spread by the attendant on an endless cloth, whose upper side moves continually to the feed- ing rollers by means of two wooden rollers round which it is sewed. The cotton enters the machine at the feeding rollers A, A, and is beat by the first scutcher, the battens of which beat out the ginns and sand, which fall through a wire sieve at the bottom. The cotton is now passed to the perforated cy- linder H, the under part of which communicates to the fanner C. The suction caused by the motion of the fanners draws the cotton as delivered from the scutchers equally upon every part of the cylinder. The cylinder, travelling at a słow rate, car- ries the cotton to the rollers E, which deliver it to the second scutcher B (in the plan), where it is treated in a similar way, and is passed out of the machine at the delivering rollers T. It will be seen, in the side view, that the rollers are press- ed down by the loaded levers t, t, t. V, V are glasses in the co- vers to enable one to see the interior machinery. When the cotton has passed through the scutching machine it is carried through the spreading machine, in order that a given weight of cotton may be spread out to a given length and breadth. The cotton is carefully weighed before it is put to this machine, in order to produce an uniform fleece, so that the yarn which is produced in the succeeding operation may all be of the same grist. It will be seen by the following description that the operations of the scutching and spreading machine are very similar. Two views of a spreading frame are given in plate XXII. A represents the driving pulley, fixed on the shaft of the fanner, which pulley gives motion to the shaft D, by means of a belt passing round the pulley on that shaft. From the shaft D motion is given by means of bevelled wheels at the other side of the machine, to the upright shaft F, which again is connected by bevel geer to the shaft i. 'The scutcher L is driven by a belt from the fanner M, fixed on the driving shaft. w, the table on which the cotton is spread Somewhat similar to the feeding cloth described in the scutch- ing machine. The cotton is carried by the feeding rollers V to the scutcher. N is a perforated cylinder, and M fanners simi- lar to those in the scutching machine. The fanners having drawn the cottom equally over the perforated cylinder, it then passes through the calender rollers and is taken up by the lap roller X, which is moved by friction on the wooden roller S. m is a slip coupling on the shaft i, which may be put out and in geer by the lever P. r, r, two calender rollers carrying the cotton to the lap. When it is put out of geer the rollers at once stop, and every part of the machine except the scutcher and fanmer. The coupling is thrown out of geer before stop- ping the machine, and when changing a lap roll in order that the cotton remaining in the machine may be put in motion by the scutcher, and fall properly on the cylinder. , t is a weight on the calender rollers for pressing them down, d is a weight on the lap roller. When the roller is full, the lever k is pressed down by the foot, and by a rod the lap roller Saddles are raised, the lap being then thrown into the gap g. - • When the cotton has passed through the spreading machine, it may be regarded as sufficiently cleaned, and the next process is to lay the fibres parallel to each other, and prepare it to be turned into thread. The carding machine performs all that the common hand cards do in this respect, and delivers the fleece in one thick, soft, continuous thread; and this may be regarded as the commencement of the spinning, properly so called, for all the future operations are directed to compress, stretch, and twist the end or thread delivered by the carding machine. A side elevation of the carding machine is given in plate XXII. A is the pinion on the main cylinder, which commu- nicates motion by means of intermediate wheel work to the doffer B ; C is the pinion on the delivering roller. D the wheel on the feeding roller, driven by intermediate wheels, lead from the pinion on axle A. E is the roller, which drives the lickers in, and is driven by a small pulley at its end, which *eceives its motion from a band passing round the driving pulley. The same band is made to cross, and, being carried forward, drives the crank by which the comb F is kept in mo- tion. G is a screw for setting the doffer, and H the lap of cot- ton entering the machine. The cotton from the stretching frame being introduced to the feeding rollers by the lickers in, is taken up by the main cylinder of the card and carried up to the tops, whose teeth, being opposed to those of the main cy- lander, stretch the cottom and straighten its fibres. It is then delivered to the doffer, and carried round to the comb, which takes it off and delivers it to the conductor, from whence it passes into the delivering hall, and goes into the can in a thick, soft, continuous thread. 483 Even when the cotton has passed through the cards its fibres have not been sufficiently straightened, and to coin. plete this part of the process, which is necessary to the for- mation of good yarn, it is next carried to the drawing frame, which likewise doubles the ends that have come from the carding engine. The drawing frame acts on a very simple and ingenious principle. Two or more ends are taken from the cards and passed through between a pair of rollers in motion, and, being carried forward, are passed through an- other pair revolving at a greater velocity, and being coilected and passed in one mass through another pair, are delivered in one thread at the other end of the machine. Now the yelocity ºf the second pair of rollers being greater than that of the first, they would take up more cottom than is delivered to them, in consequence of which the whole is stretched, and, as in the ma- chine described below, four ends are combined and delivered no thicker in grist than any of those first introduced into the machine. This doubling of the ends is repeated several times, depending on the nature of the fibre, its great use being to equalize the thickness of the thread, but it must not be too often repeated, for it cannot be doubled without it be at the same time drawn, and too frequent drawing injures the staple, The doubling is a most essential part of the process ; the num ber of doublings at the drawing frame may be about ten thou- Sand, and throughout the whole process about forty thousand. Plate XX contains a plan and elevation of the drawing frame; The rove is drawn out of the cans H, H., H., H, and passed over G, being led through the four rows of rollers seen at E. E. The front rollers move at a greater speed than the back ones, so that the roving is drawn out by the front roll. ers, and passed in this state to the mouth piece at C, and the four ends being all joined, pass through the rollers at B, and the four plies are thus delivered in one end to the can A, being So much drawn out that it is no thicker than one of the ends in the cans H, H., H., H. In the elevation A, A is the frame of the machine, the roying L is seen coming out of the cans N, N, and passing through the rollers driven by the wheel work 3 K, H, G, C, F, B, C, D, on its way to the receiving can seen at A in the plan. When the end has been thus doubled, and drawn by the drawing frame, it is carried to a machine called the fly frame, in order that it may be further drawn, and receive a slight twist. This is one of the most ingenious machines in the whole range of the cotton manufacture, and has to. tally superseded the con, skeleton, and jack frames, the use of all which machines, was to continue the stretching, or rather drawing of the cotton a little further, and to give it a slight twist. All these are called slabbing or roying frames, and the stream of cotton that they deliver is called slab or rove. The principle of the fly frame will be understood by the accompanying cut. The rove is supposed to come through be- A tween the rollers at A, and is made to EE pass through an eye at the top of the forked tube D, which revolves with the C shaft A, B. The rove passes through only one of the legs of the forked tube D, call- ed the flyer, and is delivered upon a bobbin at E, and by the rapid revolution of the flyer the roving receives a slight twist, and is prepared to be taken to the stretch- ing frame. It will be seen that the row- - ing, in being wound upon the bobbin, must E | " \ always be kept at an equal degree of ten- sion. 'That the bobbin E may be built re- F gularly, it is necessary that it should -- move up and down on the spindle A, B, -- which is effected by a contriyance eon- nected with the machinery. Every time that the bobbin moves up or down, its thickness is increased by a new layer of roving, and it will thus require a longer line of the cotton delivered by the flyer to go round it. The flyer would therefore require to increase in speed as the bobbin fills, and at the same time decreases the speed of the upward and downward motion of the bobbin. Tha principal part of this portion of the machine may be understood by an inspection of the figure of a fly frame, plate XXIII. An upright shaft in the centre of the figure carries two pulleys, S and T. The pulley'ſ gives off the belt that puts in motion the pulleys that carry the bobbins, and the pulley S gives off a belt, b, b, that passes round a small wheel, and over the conical drum, a, a, which revolves on the horizontal shaft A. This cone, a, a, is attached to the lever W, which is connected with the lever D, called the traverse. The traverse works in the rack N, in such a manner that at every rise or fall of the bob bins it is moved one tooth forward towards the cone, and B B moves the come forward. Now the belt, b, b, passes over the cone, and when it is moved forward the belt will of course pass over a thicker part, and by this means increase gradually the speed of the pulley, S, and consequently that of the bobbin. While the velocity of the bobbin's rotation increases,the velocity of its rising and falling must be diminished, to effect which there is a friction pulley, E, on the top of the shaft G, which is supported at C by the traverse rod D. . The friction pulley F ; against the friction plate J, which gives motion to the shaft F by intermediate wheel work. There is a pinion at the end of the shaft F, which drives a mangle wheel fixed on the end of the shaft P. The pinion is so contrived that it acts upon each side of the wheel alternately, thus causing it to move back after it has made a revolution forward, and by this means the bobbin rail is alternately raised and depressed. 'The friction 2 H 2 484 pulley E, when it rises with the shaft G, comes nearer to the centre of the friction plate J, and of course the rove increases the number of its revolutions, and vice versa. * The tube frame belongs to the same description of machines as the fly frame, but differs from it in construction, and is su- perior to it in some respects, but inferior in others. The tube frame produces about five times as much roving as the fly frame, but of a much coarser quality, so that its rove can only be em- ployed for the coarsest numbers of yarn. . It gives no twist, and requires the interposition of another machine before the roving can be carried to £he spinning jenny ; whereas all sorts of rov- ing can be prepared by the fly frame. An end view, plan, and elevation of the tube frame are given in plate XXIII. is the driving pulley, D D the rove comes, FF the back roller beam, G G the front roller beam, T T the tubes through which the rove passes, which, by their revolu- tions on their axis, have the property of compressing the rove by first twining and then untwining it. S S the rove Sloughs, which are driven by the fluted blocks rr. R the pulley over which the tube strap passes, and thence along the tubes. His the carriage upon which the rove sloughs are placed. VVV the wheels on which the carriage travels on the rails m m m. O the mangle wheel driven by a pinion on the end of the shaft L. . g a pinion on the axis of the mangle wheel, which works in the rack t, and by means of it the rod on the building rack is moved. The carriage H receives its motion from the rod P, which is connected farther down on the building rack, which rod is lowered by the catches k k, every time the carriage tra- vels, and thus shortems the length of its motion upon the rails in order to taper the building of the rove upon the sloughs. n is the tube strap which passes over a pulley under the rack X. In the end view r is the fluted block that drives the sloughs. S and n marks the endless strap that drives the tubes, which, after passing over them and the pulley W. is carried to the other end of the machine. d is a small lever connected with the belt to guide it. If the roving has been finished by the fly frame, the bobbins are immediately taken to the jenny; but if it has been pre- pared by the tube frame, it must go through a machine called the stretching frame—a maine which is certainly misapplied, as the cotton is drawn by it, and not stretched. This machine much resembles the common jenny, and may be thus described. The bobbins with the rove are placed upon a rail, and the cot- ton is led from them through three pairs of rollers similar to those in the drawing machine, and increasing in speed as they recede from the bobbin, by which the cottom receives a draw. ing. It then passes over a roller on to a spindle, made of pol. lished steel, which revolves at a considerable rate, and gives a twist to the thread. When the motion commences, the car- riage on which the spindles are mounted is moved back from the bobbins, the spindles continuing their motion all the while, and thus a twist is given to the roving, which has already un- dergone a reduction in diameter by the action of the rollers. The carriage moves back about four feet, and the spinner guides the thread upon the spindle by means of a rail, building it thick in the middle and tapering towards each end. This, when finished, is called a cop. The characteristic difference between the stretching frame and the mule (which finishes the yarn for one sort of spinning) is this, that when the carriage car- rying the spindles has receded from the rollers about one-third of its whole race, these rollers stop, and, ceasing to deliver more thread to the spindles, all the rest of the time occupied in the motion of the carriage is given to the stretching and twist- ing of the cotton. In the jenny of Hargreave the rove passed through two pieces of wood called the clasp, and when the rov- .#. had come through a certain length, the clasp was closed, when the spinner stretched the roves with his finger, and the twist was given by the spindle. Arkwright added rollers, on the principle of those in the stretching machine, which, by their difference of velocities, stretched the threads to their proper grist, and the twist was given by an application of the spindle and flyer of the common spinning wheel. The machine in this form is best suited for spinning low numbers, and as it was at first driven by water wheels it has been called the water frame. In the water frame each head, that is, a combination of from four to six spindles, is driven by an independent set of geering 80 that any one may be stopped at pleasure, which arrange? ment causes considerable complexity in the machinery, but an improvement was made afterwards by connecting all the roll- ers on both sides together, and giving motion to the whole of the spindles by bands from one cylinder at the end of the ma- Chine. This simplification of the spinning frame constitutes the throstle. The flyer on this and the water frame is the same as that described in the fly frame. In the first jenny the cotton was stretched and not drawn; in Arkwright's it is drawn but not stretched. But Mr Crompton, by arranging the machinery so that the drawing rollers stopped when the carriage had moved back, a certain part of its distance, the rest being em. ployed in stretching, combined the principles of both, and formed the spinning machine called the mulé. It would be im. possible to enter into a minute description of all these ma- chines, and we shall therefore confine ourselves to a description of the organ jenny, preferred for its compactness and general excellence. - Plate XXI. contains end and front elevations, together with a ground plan of the organ jenny, of which the following is a description. The same parts in all the views are marked by the same letters, in order to avoid circumlocution, and at the §ame time to give the reader a more comprehensive view of the relative situation of the more minute portions of thema- ºlinery. A is the fixed pulley shaft carrying the speed pulley B; Q is the speed wheel; D a second speed pulley; E a secon speed wheel, and Gachange bevel pinion on the top of the shaft COTTON. A, driving the bevel wheel H on the top of the shaft I. This last shaft 1 carries another bevel, J, which drives another be- vel, K, on the diagonal shaft L. The diagonal shaft L carries another beveled wheel, M, in pitch with the bevel N on the front roller O. On the front roller O is fixed a Sinall pinion P, which drives the crown wheel Q, to the top of which is at- tached the grist pinion R, which grist pinion drives another pi- nion, S, on the back roller T, on the off end of the back of which is fixed the pinion U, for the purpose of giving motion to the mid roller V, which is effected by means of the intermediate pinion W and the mid roller pinion. X and Y are the saddle bars on which the middle rollers are placed ; Z is the drum band, driven by the twist pulley, which is fixed near the bottom of a shaft, upon which are also fixed two wheels, working in pitch with the speed wheels C and E. . This drum band is carried over a loose pulley, which moves in a slanting direction into the car- riage a, and works in a groove at the top of b. The spindle drum, which drives the wharve upon the spindle d, is driven by a small band, that passes round b, the spindle drum. e is the squaring, which keeps the carriage a steady and parallel; that part of the squaring band which works in the grooves of f (the squaring band pulley) is made of hemp and the remainder of wire. g is the iron rail or rod on which the carriage wheels c are guided. The spindle frame, h is that part in the top of which are the collars, and at the bottom of which the steps in which the spindles d work. i is the folder or guide, and k the under guide, by means of which the yarn is built upon the spindles d, which are made to revolve by the handle 1 and the bevel wheels m and n, so as to take on the yarn while the car- riage is made to approach the rollers. o is the guide support. The horizontal shaft I communicates motion to the whole ina- chine, excepting the twist pulley, the turns of which, however, it also regulates, by means of p, the twist pinion, which it drives by means of a screw or scroll, V, at its extremity. r is the mendozapinion on the shaft I, driving s, the mendoza wheel, which is fixed on a shaft, at the bottom of which is the mendoza pulley. The mendoza pulley gives motion to the carriage a, by means of the mendoza band t. The carriage a shifts the first stretch, and when there is a second, the second draw-levers, by means of a rod which lies in a horizontal position beneath the carriage and alongside the mendoza band t. There are two catches near the extremity of this rod, which come into con- tact with a finger plate attached to the carriage, by which means the first and second draw levers are disengaged. By dis- engaging the first of these, the bevel k, fixed on the diagonal shaft, and the mendoza wheel s, fall out of geer. When the bevel k falls out of pitch, the rollers O, V, T cease to revolve ; and when the mendoza wheel s falls out of pitch, (which it does at the same instant with the bevel K,) the second draw wheel, which is on the same shaft, and immediately under s, and in pitch with the second draw-pinion on the extremity of an intermediate shaft, is driven by the wheel w and the pinion v, by which means the second stretch is given to the yarn. Near the bottom, and attached to the twist rod or shaft W, is a small finger plate x, and also near it, but not connected with it, is an upright lever, upon which are two notches, like the teeth of a rack. Another small finger plate is fixed upon an upright rod, which shifts the driving-belt lever, and this finger plate rests upon the upper notch of the upright lever. hen the mendoza shaft falls into the second draw geer, it shifts this up- right lever by means of connecting rods and a tumbler; thus al- lowing the finger plate upon the rod which shifts the belt lever to fall into the second notch, and thereby causing the belt to pass from the pulley B to D. The finger plate x also comes into contact with the upright lever at every turn of the shaft W, on which it is fixed, and allows the finger plate on the rod which shifts the belt lever to fall below the second notch, by which means the belt is brought down upon the loose pulley V is the loose drum band pulley; Z the loose mendoza puſ- ley; A A the creel which contains the rove bobbins in three rows; BB the frame which contains the geering. The following statements may not be uninteresting to the general reader, and will furnish very useful data to the practic cal man. A steam engine, 85 horses' power, drives I willow, 2 scutching machines, 2 spreading machimes, 100 cards, each 24 inches broad, 120 cards, each 20 inches broad, 22 drawing frames, average 9 heads each, 9 can slabbing frames, average 2 cans each, 14 slabbing fly frames, average 20 spindles each, 2 tube frames, average 36 tubes each. 41 finishing fly frames, average 39 spindles each, 9 stretching frames, average 78 spindles each, Spindles 36,000. Yarn spun, average No. 63. Quantity of yarn produced, weekly average, 8750 lbs. In Scotland, the yarn, when it comes from the spinner, is wound upon reels, the reel being fifty-four inches in circumfe- rence. The yarn is tied into skeins of eighty threads each, seven of which make a number or hank, and the fineness of the yarn is determined by the number of hanks in a pound : thus, No. 63 contains 63 hanks in one pound. As to the relative prices of yarns of different degrees of fine- ness, Mr Macfarlane gives the following data. No. 50 List: Rising every two Nos. from 18 to 26, §d; from 26 to 46, #d; 46 to 64, 3-8d; 64 to 84, #d ; 84 to 94, %d. By the No. 120 List: falling id. every two Nos. to 90, and rising every two Nos. from 120 to 130 by 2d.; 130 to 140, 3d; ; 140 to 160, 4d. ; 160 to 180, § ; 180 to 200, 6d. 3 200 to 220, 8d.: 220 to 240, 10d. ; all above y 18. COTTON.—COUGH. COTTON, CHARLEs, a burlesque poet of the 17th century, was born in 1630, and received his education at Cambridge, after which he travelled in France. Not being of a very provident disposition, he was subject to frequent embarrassments, and, at one time, was confined in prison for debt. He died at Westminster in 1687. His works are numerous, including Scarronides, or Pirgil Travestie, being the first book of Virgil's AEmeid, in English burlesque, and a translation of Montaigne's Essays. After the death of Cotton, a volume was published, entitled Poems on several Occasions (8vo), which contains some pieces of considerable merit, chiefly of the light and humorous kind. He also translated the Horaces, a tragedy of Corneille; and his pen was often employed to relieve his pecuniary difficulties. COTTON, SIR. Robert BRUCE ; a celebrated English antiquary and collector of literary relics. He was born at Denton, in Huntingdomshire, in 1570, and, after having been at Westminster school, completed his studies at Trinity college, Cambridge. He then settled in London, devoting much of his time to antiquarian pursuits, and employing himself especially in collecting ancient deeds, charters, letters, and other manuscripts of various kinds, illustrative of the history of England. He was one of the earliest members of the antiquarian society; and he not only promoted the general objects of that learned association, but also assisted with his literary treasures, as well as with his purse, Speed, Camden, and other writers on British archae- ology. In the reign of James I., he was knighted; and, on the institution of the order of baronets, he was promoted to that rank. He died in May, 1631. He is chiefly memorable as the founder of the valu- able Cottonian library, which collection was long preserved at Cotton-house, Westminster. In 1700, it was appropriated to the public use; and, after having been partly destroyed by fire in 1731, it was removed, in 1753, to the British museum, where it now remains. COTTONIAN LIBRARY, in London, was collected by Sir Robert Bruce Cotton, Secured to the public by a statute, in 1700, after which it was several times removed, and, after being injured by conflagrations and political disturbances, was at last placed in the British museum, where it remains. COTTUS. See Brčarezſs. COTYS, or COTYTTO; a goddess of de- bauchery, worshipped at Corinth and Chios. Her festival was called Cotyttia, or Cotyttis, and was celebrated during the night (in what way is easily to be inferred from the character of the goddess), at Athens, Corinth, Chios, in Thrace, &c. Cotys is probably the same with the goddess of the Edoni in Thrace.—Koráo; 4,274-hs, follower of Cotys ; a common term for a profligate person. COUCHING ; a surgical operation, that consists in removing the opaque lens out of the axis of vision, by means of a needle constructed for the purpose. COUCY, RENAUD, CASTELLAN of, was the hero of a tragical occurrence, which has been often celebrated in ancient ballads and Songs. He is supposed to have been the nephew, or at least the kinsman, of Raoul, lord of Coucy, who accompanied Philip Augustus to the Holy Land, and with whom he has been sometimes confounded. A manuscript in French verse, in the royal library at Paris, entitled Romance of the castellan of Coucy, and the Lady of Fayel, written about 1228, and a chronicle on the same subject, in 1380, in the possession of Fauchet, relate the following story: Renaud, castellan of Coucy, was smitten with the charms of Gabrielle de Vergy, lady of Aubert de Fayel. The castle of 485 Fayel was situated not far from Coucy, in the neighbourhood of St Quentin. Renaud threw him- self at the feet of Gabrielle, confessed his passion, and was at first repulsed, but not for ever. The lovers often saw each other in private. Assurances of the most ardent love, and unceasing precautions against the jealousy of the husband, gave occasion to the songs of Renaud, of which a collection has been preserved to us, breathing the language of the most glowing passion. The happiness of the parties was interrupted by the summoning of Coucy to the crusade. He embarked with Richard of England at Marseilles. With him he fought at Caesarea, and conquered at Ascalon. But, in defending a castle where the king was quartered, he was wounded by a poisoned arrow. The wound proved incurable, and Renaud requested leave to return to his country, which was granted. But, in a few days, he felt sensible that his end was ap- proaching; and, giving to his faithful squire a silver casket, with the presents of his mistress, “Take it.” he said, “ and guard it well; when I am dead, enclose my heart in this casket, and bear the Whole to the lady of Fayel.” He also added a letter, which he was hardly able to sign. He died, and his faithful squire hastened to the castle of Fayel. He was surprised by the lord of the castle, who, suspecting his appearance, ordered him to be searched, and found on him the gifts and the letter of Coucy. Burning with rage, he determined on revenge. He ordered the heart to be served at table." It was done, and Gabrielle ate of it. “Have you found the dish to your taste, madam?” he asked. “Excellent ſ” answered his victim. “I doubt it not,” he replied; “it must have been a dainty morsel for you, for it was the heart of the castellan of Coucy.” In fearful confirmation of his words, he gives her the letter of the dying Renaud. The unhappy woman, after this horrible meal, refused all sustenance, and died of voluntary starvation. The love-songs of the castellan of Coucy are in the Mémoires historiques sur Raoul de Coucy, Paris, 1781, in the ancient dialect, with a translation subjoined, and old music. Uhland has made this story the subject of a fine ballad. COUGH, in medicine; a deep inspiration of air, followed by a sudden, violent, and Sonorous ex- piration, in a great measure involuntary, and excited by a sensation of the presence of Some irritating cause in the lungs or windpipe. The organs, of respiration are so constructed, that every foreign substance, except atmospheric air, offends them. The smallest drop of water, entering the windpipe, is sufficient to produce a violent coughing, by which the º labour to expel the irritating substance. A similar effect is produced by inhaling Smoke, dust, &c. The sudden expulsion of air from the lungs is produced by the violent contraction of the diaphragm and the muscles of the breast and ribs. These parts are thus affected by a sympathy with the organs of respiration, which sympathy springs from the con- nexion of the nerves of the different parts. The sensation of obstruction or irritation, which gives rise to cough, though sometimes perceived in the chest, especially near the pit of the stomach, is most commonly confined to the trachea, or windpipe, and especially to its aperture in the throat, termed the glottis. Yet this is seldom the seat of the irritating cause, which is generally situated at some distance from it, and often in parts unconnected by structure or proximity with the organs of respiration. Of the various irritations which give rise to cough, some occur within the cavity of the chest; others are external to that cavity; some exist even in the viscera of the pelvis. Of those causes of cough 486 which take place within the chest, the disorders of the lungs themselves are the most common, es- specially the inflammation of the mucous membranes, which excites the catarrhal cough, or common cold. This disease is generally considered unimportant, particularly if there be no fever connected with it. But every cough, lasting longer than a fortnight or three weeks, is suspicious, and ought to be medically treated. Another common cause of cough, which has its seat in the lungs, is inflammation of those organs, whether in the form of pleurisy or peripneumony. (q.v.) These diseases do not differ very essential- ly, except in violence and extent, from the acute Catarrh, but are more dangerous, and more rapid in their progress, and the constitution is excited to a highly febrile condition. Even after the acute state of inflammation may have subsided, a cough, attend- ed with extreme danger, sometimes continues to be excited by collections of pus, or abscesses, which en- Sue in the substance of the lungs, and either termi- nate in consumption, or suffocate the patient by Sud- denly bursting; more rarely the pus is discharged gradually from a small aperture, and the patient re- Covers. In such cases, the fever, originally acute, is Converted into a hectic, with daily chills, succeeded by heat and flushing of the face, night sweats, and emaciation. Another frequent origin of cough is the rupture of some of the blood-vessels of the lungs, and the consequent effusion of blood into the cells, which is expelled by the cough that its irritation ex- cites, constituting what is technically termed hamop- toe, ha:moptysis, or spitting of blood. When the vessels of the lungs are thus ruptured, they seldom heal readily, but ãegenerate into ulcers, which pour out a purulent matter; and, by this discharge, the vital powers are gradually worn down and destroyed. This is a common Scource of consumption, or phthisis pulmonalis. (See Consumption.) A cough is excit- ed, and the same fatal disorder is also induced, by the existence of tubercles in the lungs. These are little tumours, which gradually inflame and ulcerate, and produce the same consequences as the ulcera- tions from hamoptysis. Calculi, or stony concretions, are sometimes formed in the lungs, and the irritation which they produce necessarily excites a cough, which is liable to terminate in consumption. There is yet another scource of irritation within the lungs, of which cough is an attendant, namely, an effusion of serum into the parenchymatous sub- stance of the lungs, or into the cellular membrane, which connects the cells and blood-vessels together. This has been called anasarca pulmonum, or dropsy of the lungs, and is marked by great difficulty of breathing, with a sense of weight and oppression in the chest, occasioned by the compression of the air- cells and vessels by the accumulated water; hence also great irregularity of pulse, frightful dreams, im- perfect sleep, &c., are among its symptoms. Inflam- mation of the heart, and of the pericardium, or mem- brane surrounding it, is also accompanied by cough, and other symptoms not easily distinguishable from those of pleurisy and peripneumony. "Where a cough is excited by disorders of parts external to the cavity of the chest, it is generally dry, as the irritating cause is external, ini not any obstructing matter in the lungs themselves. Disorders of the viscera of the abdomen, especially of those which lie in contact with the diaphragm (the muscular curtain separating the cavities of the belly and chest), frequently induce a cough. A short, dry cough invariably attends in- flammation of the liver, whether acute or chronic, and accompanies the various tubercular and other obstructions in that organ. Hence inflammation of the liver is not unfrequently mistaken for inflamma- COUGH-COUMASSIE. tion in the lungs; and, in some of the thronic dis- eases of the liver, the cough is occasionally com- plained of as the most urgent symptom. The pre- sence of pain in the right side, shooting up to the top of the shoulder, the dryness of the cough, and pain, enlargement, hardness, or uneasiness on pressure be- low iñe ribs of that side, will afford the best means of distinguishing whether a disease of the liver is the origin of the cough. Disorders of the stomach are, also, often accompanied with a cough of the Same dry and teasing nature, especially when that organ is over distended with food, or is in the op- posite condition of emptiness. . A short cough is, therefore, a frequent symptom of indigestion and hy- pochondriasis, or of that weakness of the stomach which is popularly termed bilious. In short, there is scarcely any one of the viscera, in the cavity of the abdomen, the irritation of which, in a state of dis- ease, has not excited cough. Disorders of the spleen, pancreas, and even the kidneys, have all given rise to this symptom; and external tumours, at- tached to them, have had the same effect. Any dis- tension of the abdomen, which, by its pressure up- wards, impedes the descent of the diaphragm, and Consequently the expansion of the lungs, occasions Cough. Thus, in the ascites, or dropsy of the belly, the water—in tympanites, the air—in corpulency, the fat in the omentum—and, in pregnancy, the gravid uterus, all have the effect of exciting cough in many constitutions. The variety of causes from which coughs may arise, must convince every reader of the absurdity of attempting to cure all kinds of cough by the same remedy. COULOMB, CHARLEs AUGUSTIN DE ; born 1736, at Angoulême; entered the corps of engineers ; was sent to Martinique, where he constructed fort Bour- bon. In 1779, his theory of simple machines obtain- ed the prize offered by the academy; and, in 1781, he was unanimously chosen a member of that body. In all difficult cases of mechanics, his judgment was appealed to, and invariably proved correct. A plau had been proposed to the estates of Brittany for mak- ing navigable canals in their province, and Coulomb, as commissioner of the government, was to give his opinion of the scheme. Convinced that the ultimate benefit would by no means be proportioned to the immense cost of the work, he decided against it. As this interfered with the plans of certain of the minis- try, he was obliged to do penance in the Abbaye. Coulomb requested permission to resign his office. His request was denied, and he was sent again to Brittany. His second decision was the same as the former, and the estates of Brittany honoured his judgment by the present of a watch bearing the arms of the province. On the breaking out of the revolu- tion, Coulomb was knight of the order of St Louis, and lieutenant-colonel in the corps of engineers. He gave up all his offices to devote himself to the edu. cation of his children. This leisure was useful to the cause of science ; for he was led, by experiments on the elastic force of bent metal rods, to discover secrets of magnetism, and the principles of electrici- ty, which he ascertained with the more precision from his habit of combining, in all his inquiries, calcula- tion with observation. On the restoration of the in- stitute, he was made a member, and appointed in- spector-general of public instruction. He was actively employed in this department, which he was constantly elevating by his writings, and was in the enjoyment of much domestic happiness, when he died, Aug. 23, 1806. COUMASSIE ; a town in Upper Guinea, the capital of the kingdom of the Ashantees. Bowdich estimates its inhabitants at 18,000. Lat. 6° 39' 50" N. ; lon. 20 11'45" W. COUNCIL. COUNCIL ; an assembly by way of eminence, an assembly of the church, called also synod. Provin- cial councils were held as early as the second cen- tury, that is, synods consisting of the prelates of a single province. The assembled bishops and elders deliberated on doctrines, rites, and church discipline, and promised to execute the resolutions of the synod in their churches. These assemblies were usually held in the capitals of the provinces (metropolis), the bishops of which, who, in the third century, received the title of metropolitans, usually presided over their deliberations. The councils had no other legislative authority than that which rested on the mutual agree- ment of the members. After Christianity had become the established religion of the Roman empire, in the beginning of the fourth century, the emperor sum- moned councils, which were called oecumenical, that is, Universal councils, because all the bishops of the empire were invited to them. Among these, the most remarkable are, 1. the council of Nice, in 325, by which the dogma respecting the Son of God was settled ; 2. that of Constantinople, 381, by which the doctrine concerning the Holy Ghost was decid- ed; 3. that of Ephesus, 431; and, 4. that of Chal- Cedon, 451; in which two last, the doctrine of the union of the divine and human nature in Christ was more precisely determined. In the fourth century, the opinion arose, that the councils were under the particular direction of the Holy Ghost; hence the great authority which their resolutions obtained. Like the Roman emperors, the German kings exer- cised, at first, the right of assembling synods; in particular, Charlemagne, during whose reign the clergy of the Frankish empire held a council at Frankfort on the Maine, in 749, which condemned the worship of images introduced among the Greeks. In the middle ages, the popes maintained the right of summoning councils, which, however, cannot be considered as general councils, since the Western church was separated from the Greek. The princi- pal of these Latin Councils are that of Clermont (1096), in the reign of Urban II., in which the first Crusade was resolved upon, and some later ones in which a reunion with the Greeks was attempted. In consequence of the great schism towards the end of the fourteenth century, which gave rise to, at first two, and afterwards three, *ś for the papal throne, the council of Pisa was convened, in 1409, which declared that the popes were subordinate to the general council, and condemned the schismatic candidates. After the dissolution of the council of Pisa, without having terminated the schism, the Council of Constance was held in 1414, the most so- lemn and numerous of all the councils, which reviv- ed the principle, that a general council is superior to the pope, adjusted the schism, and pronounced the condemnation of John Huss (1415), and of his friend Jerome of Prague (1416). The council of Bâle, in 1431, asserted the same principle, and intend- ed a reformation, if not in the doctrines, yet in the Constitution and discipline of the church. At the time of the reformation, the Protestants repeatedly demanded such a council; even the em- peror, and the states which had remained faithful to the old doctrine, thought it the best means for re- Storing peace to the church. But the popes, recol- lecting the decisions at Pisa, Constance, and Bâle, so disadvantageous to their authority, constantly endea- voured to evade it. At length the pope could no longer resist the importunities of the emperor and the states. He summoned a council at Trent, which began its session in 1545, and laboured chiefly to confirm the doctrines of the Catholic church against the Protestants. Since the council of Trent, there has been no council, in which all the Catholic states 487 of the West have been represented; but there have been several national councils, particularly in France. The Lutherans have never settled their church concerns by councils; but in the Calvinistic churches, many particular synods have been held, among which, that of Dort (1618), which confirmed the pe- culiar opinions of Calvin on election, in opposition to the Arminians, is distinguished. The Protestant councils could never have the same authority as the Catholic in matters of doctrine, for the Protestants do not consider their clergy as constituting the church : moreover, in the Protestant countries of Europe, each monarch has assumed the station of head of the church of his country. The chief questions in regard to councils are. 1. What is their authority in matters of doctrine and discipline 2 2. What is necessary to give them the character of oecumenical or general councils, and to which of those that have been held should this name be confin- ed? 3. Who has the right to convoke councils, to preside over them, to be a member of them 2 4. Whether their decrees are authoritative per se, or whether they require to be confirmed by some other power, as the pope, for instance P All these points are of vital interest to the Catholic church, and have occasioned violent contests. They involve too many considerations to be treated here, and we must re- fer the reader to Catholic works on this point. Among others, the Dictionnaire de Théologie, par Bergier, extrait de l'Encyclopédie Methodique, Tou. louse, 1817, contains a full article Concile. COUNCIL AULIC. See Azzlie Council. COUNCIL OF STATE, in modern politics; a term of very vague meaning. In general, it means a council intended to assist the sovereign, and compos- ed of members, whose chief business it is to discuss, advise, legislate, or decide; it being the duty of the ministers to execute. Buillard's Histoire du Conseil d’Etat (Paris, 1718, 4to), and Guyot's Traité des Droits des Dignités, et Offices du Royaume (Paris, 1787), show the indefinite, vacillating and arbitrary character of the powers of the conseil d'état, in France, before the revolution. It judged cases of maritime prizes, often decided in civil and criminal processes, determined the authority of the papal bulls, &c. The abolition of such a body was an act of wis- dom in the constituent assembly. It was succeeded by the court of cassation (q.v.), which is not only the Court of ultimate appeal, but also defines the jur- isdiction of different tribunals in case of conflict. The Constitution of the year III. established a council of state, under the direction of the consuls, pour ºrédiger les projets de loi et de réglements, et pour ré- Soudre les difficultés en matière administrative. These extensive and vague powers of the council contained the Seeds of mischief, particularly as that body was under the direction of the consuls. In 1802, the counsel d'état was constituted juge des appels comme d’abats; and this abuse still continues. The powers of the council were still further enlarged by sematus- consultes, and even by imperial decrees: thus it was empowered to annul the decisions of the cour des comptes, and still retains this dangerous authority. Under the Bourbons, the conseil d’etat has been in- trusted with powers of indefinite extent, and of all kinds, which are by no means wested in the execu- tive, by the charte. Besides this, the members are appointed and removed at the will of the king. This council has, says Corménin (Questions de Droit Administratif, p. 5), une juridiction tellement éten- due, qu'on me trouve rien de semblable mi en France dans les temps antérieurs à la révolution, mi dans les autres pays de l’Europe, telle enſin, qu’elle se méle a presque tows nos intéréts, qu’elle affecte presque toutes 720S propriétés, gºd'elle touche d presque toutes nos per- 488 sonnes. In Spain, when the constitution of the cor- tes was in force, a constitutional council of state ex- isted. In Prussia, an assembly composed of the highest civil and military officers, with the princes, is called Staatsrath (council of state), but of course, no power is vested in that body. They give their opinion on questions laid before them by the king. The prince royal is its president. In some of the United States of America there are councils, which the governors are obliged to consult upon executive business, and which have a negative upon their ap- pointments to office. COUNCIL, PRIvy, in England, is the principal council belonging to the king. In 1679 the number of members, having become inconveniently large, was limited to 30. It is now, however, again, indefinite, but only such members attend as are summoned on each particular occasion. The lord president of the council is the fourth great officer of state. He is ap- pointed by letters patent under the great seal, during pleasure. Privy councillors are nominated by the king, without patent or grant, and removable at his pleasure. The power of the privy council, in offen- ces against the government, extends only to inquiry, and their committal is not privileged beyond that of an ordinary justice of the peace. But in plantation or admiralty causes, in disputes of colonies concern- ing their charters, and in some other cases, an ap- peal lies to the king in council. The privy council continues for six months after the accession of a new prince, unless he previously dissolve it. Proclama- tions, which, if consonant to the law of the land, are binding on the subject, are issued with the advice of this council. COUNCIL AND SESSION, LoRDs of ; the su- preme judges of the highest court of Scotland. See Scotland. COUNCIL, BLUFFS ; a military post belonging to the United States of America on the west bank of the Missouri, about 50 miles above the junction of the La Platte, and 650 above the junction of the Missouri with the Mississippi. Lon. 960 42' W. ; lat. 41° 31' N. It is an important station, the high- est up the Missouri, that is occupied by the United States as a military position. Before the United States occupied this post, the Ottoes and Missouris held a council there, Aug. 3, 1814, which gave rise to the name. Bluff was originally a sea term mean- ing high land. See Pickering's Pocabulary of Ameri- G(Z%2S772S, COUNSEL ; those who give counsel in law; any counsellor or advocate, or any number of counsellors, barristers or sergeants, as the plaintiff’s counsel, or the defendant's counsel. In this sense, the word has no plural, but it is applicable, in the singular num- ber, to one or more persons. COUNSELLOR, in law, is one whose profession is to give advice in questions of law, and to manage causes for clients. See Advocate. Counsellor (in German, Rath). In Germany, the mania for titles is carried to a greater degree than in any other country in Europe. Almost every man is desirous of possessing one, and the title of even the lowest officer is reverently repeated, with a preceding Mr, as often as the individual is address- ed by persons of equal or lower rank; for instance, we have Mr Lieutenant, may, sometimes, Mr Taw- gatherer, and even Mrs Taagatheress (Frau Steuer- einnehmerin). The title Rath (counsellor), in par- ticular, has been distributed with a most ridiculous profusion. In all branches of government, you meet counsellors in abundance. Every one is a counsel- lor who has passed through certain preparatory de- #. particularly in Prussia. In fact, the term, in Prussia, is as common as mandarin in China. The COUNCIL–COUNT. judges are not judges, but court-counsellors, which title, for the sake of precision, is amplified to country, or city, or high-country-court counsellor (Oberlandes- gerichtsrath. There are also Finanz-Raethe, Medizinat Raethe, Regierungs-Raethe, &c.; and, in all branch- es, Geheime-Raethe, as,Geheime-Medizinal. Raethe, &c. Moreover, as it always happens, that honours and titles gradually decline in value, new ones must be invented: thus, in Prussia, the title Geheime. Raethe being given to persons who have nothing to do with the private deliberations of the government, it has been deemed necessary to give to the actual counsel- lors a new and distinguishing title: they are called real-privy-counsellors. And you find, therefore, in Prussia /Wärkliche-Geheime-Ober-Finanz-Raethe (real- privy-high-finance-counsellors) and so in all branch- es. And who are these real privy-high-&c.'s? You would think they were at least several degrees higher than the privy counsellors of Britain. They are, in fact, however, mere assistants of the minister. Be- sides this host of Raethe, who have actually official du- ties to discharge, there is another swarm, equally nu- merous, of people whose title of counsellor is a mere title of honour, like the Chinese peacock's feather. The title most generally bestowed in this way is Ho- frath (counsellor of the court). Hofraethe and Geheime- Hofraethe are so common in Germany, that a traveller observes, if you spit out of the window on a crowd, it is ten to one that you hit a Hofrath. There are also Bau Raethe (building-counsellors), Steuer Raethe (tax-counsellors), Universitaets-Raethe Commerzien- Raethe; and again the same titles, with the honorary term Geheime (privy) prefixed, as Geheime-Bau-Raethe, &c. The title of Kriegs-Rath (counsellor of war) is often given to men who have nothing military in their occupation or habits. The old proverb says, Sat ver- bum sapienti, but here we are tempted to exclaim, Sat verbum stulto. COUNT, COUNTEE, or COUNTY (from the Latin comes), appears to have been first used, as a title of dignity, under the reign of Constantime. Dur- ing the existence of the republic, the inferior officers, as tribuni, praefecti, scribae, medici, haruspices, ac- censi, praecomes, who accompanied the proconsules and propraetores into their provincial governments, were known as the comites or cohors of their provincial. (Cic. pro. Rab. Post. 6.) On the establishment of the imperial government, the name was applied to the court and household of the prince; and Dio (53) mentions a council of senators, selected by Augustus, as his comites. (Sälmas. ad Sueton. Tib. 46.) On the first distribution of his dominions, and the foundation of the new capital by Constantine, 10 out of 35 pro- vincial generals received the title of comes. The civil officers, likewise, who were honoured with this dis. tinction, gradually became very numerous, and lists of them may be found in the Cod. Theod. vi. 12–20, in the Notitia Imper., and in the glossaries of Spel man and Du Cange. After the fall of the Roman power, the title was retained by the conquerors; and, under Charlemagne, it denoted equally a mili- tary or civil employment. About the end of the 15th century, in Germany, and under the last prin- ces of the Merovingian race in France, the title appears to have become hereditary in families, from the weakness of the crown, which was unable to recall the dignity that it had once bestowed. Selden, in his Titles of Honour, treats the origin and progress of the title at much length, and with his usual learning. Such is the account usually given of the origin of the counts of modern times. The institutions of the ancient German tribes may, however, have contributed much to the establish- ment of this class of nobles. In early times, before the existence of the Latin comites, the Ger- COUNTERGUARDS—COUNTY. mans had officers chosen, at least in some tribes, by the people. These were a kind of inferior judges. After the Franks became the ruling nation, they made a change in their character. The kings now appointed them, and they exercised jurisdiction over certain districts in the king's name, with the title of Grafen. The word has been derived very variously from grau (gray or venerable), from yºpo, to write (like the Gallico-Latin word graffare, whence greffier), &c., from gefera, signifying companion, and corresponding to the Latin comes ; š. there is little doubt that it is really from the Saxon gerefa (gather- er, and subsequently judge). These ancient officers are, perhaps, as fairly elititled as the comites to be considered the root of the subsequent counts. The German title Graf corresponds to the title count in other countries of Europe. From the instructions given to these Grafen, which Marcalf has preserved, it is evident that they superintended the administra- tion of justice, the police, and the taxes. After the time of the Carlovingian dynasty, the office and name remained, but different classes of counts or Grafen were formed; thus pfalzgrafen, or comites Palatil, the judges of the court, who decided whether a case should be brought before the king; Markgrafen, counts of the frontiers; Holzgrafen, counts of the forests, that is, inspectors, &c. These royal officers Soon usurped power which did not belong to them, and treated the people so badly, that the em- perors and kings were obliged to go themselves into the provinces, and hold courts, or to send particular officers for this purpose, called Sendgrafen. The capitularies of Charlemagne contain very precise instructions to these officers, on the subject of their duties. The sheriffs in England were originally the deputies of the English counts or earls, who corre- spond to the German Grafen. Their Latin title is still vice-comes. Their English title, derived from shire and gereſa, has the same origin with the Ger- man Graf. (See Sheriff.) In the German empire, the power of the counts increased with the progress of the nation, whilst the imperial government became weaker and weaker. They even began to transmit their titles to their children, as did also the dukes, and other officers, in those times of unpunished usur- pation. In the 12th century, the division of coun- ties, on the continent of Europe, was abolished, and thus the counts lost their jurisdiction, except on their own possessions. In point of rank, the English earls are considered as corresponding to the continental counts. (See Earl.) COUNTERGUARDS, in fortification, are small ramparts with parapets and ditches, to cover some part of the body of a place. They are of several shapes, and differently situated. They are generally made before the bastion, in order to cover the oppo- site flanks from being seen from the covert-way, and, in this case, consist of two faces, making a salient angle parallel to the faces of the bastion. They are Sometimes made before the ravelins. The cost of building them is more than proportionate to their value, especially when they are small, and without Cannon, in which case, particularly, they are called couvrefaces. CONTERMARK, in numismatics (from counter and mark). Antiquaries call by this name those Stamps or impressions which are found on ancient coins or medals, and have been given since their first impress in the mint. These countermarks or stamps are often executed without any care, and frequently obliterate the most interesting portion of the original inscription. Thus they correspond with the codices *escripti. In performing this operation, the new mark was stamped upon the coin with a heavy blow of a mallet upon a punch, on which was engraved 4$9 the countermark of a round, oval, or square shape. The use of countermarks appears to have been first adopted by the Greeks, but it is impossible to say at what period of their history. Upon the Greek coins so altered, the countermarks are generally figures, accompanied by inscriptions. Those of Rome seldom contain anything more than inscriptions and mono- grams. There have been various opinions respecting the cause of these countermarks; some antiquaries thinking that they were to indicate an augmentation of the value of the money upon which they were stamp- ed; others, that they were vouchers for workmen ; and, again, that they were only struck upon money taken or received from foreign enemies. Jobert, Millin, De Boze, Bimard, Mabudel, Pelleim, Florez, and other antiquaries, have exercised their conjec- tural skill on this subject. During the long was with revolutionary France, Britain stamped millions of Spanish dollars with Small, oval countermarks of the head of George III., upon the neck of the Spanish monarch. Many of them were completely restamped or countermarked in the mint, and both impressions were sometimes visible, the English head and reverse not completely destroying the Spanish head, armorial bearings, and inscriptions. COUNTERPOINT signifies, in music, a part or parts added to a given melody. . In ancient times, musical sounds were represented by certain letters of the alphabet. A great improvement was made on the old system by the celebrated Guido d'Arezzo, who substituted points or dots in the place of letters. The simple harmony of that period consisted of notes equal in length, and the term contrapunctus or coun- terpoint, which was applied to it in consequence of the points by which it was represented being placed under, or, as it were, against each other, on the staff. By counterpoint, we understand, therefore, the several parts which compose musical harmony; and the science of counterpoint consists in a knowledge of the rules according to which those parts must i. constructed. On this account, the term is frequently used for musical composition in general. When the notes employed are of equal length, the counterpoint is called simple. When notes of various length are used, the counterpoint is said to be figurate or florid. COUNTERPROOF, in engraving; an impression taken from a newly-printed proof of a copperplate, for the purpose of a closer investigation of the state of the plate, as the proof is, in every respect, the re- verse of the plate, while the counterproof has every- thing the same way. COUNTER-REMONSTRANTS (Contraremon- stranten). (See Remonstrants, and Gomarists, under the article of Reformed Church). COUNTERSCARP, in fortification, is properly the slope or talus of the exterior side of a ditch, to- wards the field. The inner slope, on the side to- wards the place, is called escarpe. Sometimes the covert way and glacis are termed counterscarp. COUNTY; originally, the district or territory under the jurisdiction of a count or earl ; now, a circuit, or particular portion of a state or kingdom, separated from the rest of the territory, for certain purposes, in the administration of justice. It is called also a shire. (See Shire.) Each county has its sheriff and its court, with other officers employed in the administration of justice, and the execution of the laws. In England, there are fifty-two counties, and in each is a lord-lieutenant, who has command of the militia. In Scotland there are thirty counties, and in Ireland thirty-two. The several states of America are divided by law into counties, in each of which is a county court of inferior jurisdiction; and, in each, the Supreme court of the state holds stated Sessions. 490 County palatine, in England, is a county distin- guished by particular privileges; so called a palatio (the palace), because the chief officer in the county had originally royal powers, or the same powers, in the administration of justice, as the king had in his palace; but these powers are now abridged. The counties palatine, in England, are Lancaster, Ches- ter, and Durham. There is a court of chancery in each of the counties palatine of Durham, and Lan- caster. There are many privileges attached to these counties. In none of them are the king's ordinary writs of any force.—3 Blackstone, 79. (See Count.) County Corporate, in England, is a title given to several cities or boroughs, which have extraordinary privileges, so that they form counties by themselves. COUP (French; a blow). This term is used in various connexions, to convey the idea of promptness and force.—Coup de main, in military language, sig- mifies a prompt, vigorous, and successful attack.-- Coup d'oeil, in a military sense; a rapid conception of the advantages and weaknesses of positions and ar- rangements of troops. It is also used for a quick comprehension of all the points and bearings of any subject.--Coup de théâtre ; a sudden and striking change in the action.—Coup d'état is a forcible and arbitrary political measure. COURLAND (in Russian, Kourliamdia ; in Ger- man, Kurland); formerly a duchy, to which also belonged Semigallia. At present, they form together the Russian government of Mittau, containing 10,280 square miles, and 581,300 inhabitants. Courland lies on the Baltic. The Dwina forms its frontier to the east. It is situated between lat. 55° 40' and 57° 45' N., and lon. 200 55' and 27° 10' E., and is gener- ally flat. Morasses and lakes are numerous. The climate is cold. Though healthy in general, par- ticularly on the coasts, yet fever, dysentery, and gout, are Ilol, uncolunion. The soil is in general Sandy, in some parts clayey, almost everywhere susceptible of cultivation, but not remarkably fertile. The princi- pal productions are grain, flax, and hemp. The forests are numerous, and some almost impenetrable. In some parts, the axe has never yet penetrated. There is little pasturage, and the cattle are small. Goats are numerous: swine and birds do not abound. The forests contain wild boars, bears, wolves, elks, and other game. The coasts, lakes, and rivers abound with fish. The country contains mines of iron, quarries of gypsum, turf-bogs, and mineral waters. Yellow amber is collected on the shores of the Baltic. The manufactures are few, comprising only those of paper, potashes, spirit distilled from grain, and bricks. The exports are grain, hemp, flax, flax-seed, linseed oil, timber, planks, skins, wax, honey, tallow, resin, and other raw products. The principal trade is carried on at the ports of Windau and Liebau. The roads are obstructed by forests and morasses. The population is composed princi- pally of Lettonians, Livonians, Germans, and Rus- sians. There are also some Poles and Jews. The greater part of the inhabitants are Lutherans; about one-fifth are Catholics. The nobility is composed of Poles, Russians, and Germans, and possesses great privileges. Courland was anciently a part of Li- vonia, and, like the latter, was conquered in the 13th century, by the knights of the Teutonic order. It was subsequently united with Semigallia, and, under the name of the duchy of Courland, the two provin- ces became a fief of Poland. The duchy, however, was governed by its hereditary dukes till 1737. The sixth duke, Frederic William, espoused in 1710, Anna Ivanowna, princess of Russia, who, after his death, maintained possession of the duchy; but the government of it was intrusted to prince Ferdinand, brother of the deceased duke. On the death of Fer- COUP-COURTS OF JUSTICE. dinand, in 1737, the estates, in consequence of the influence of the empress of Russia, elected her fa- vourite and grand chamberlain, Ernest John Biren, to succeed him, who was exiled to Siberia in 1740. In 1762, the emperor Peter of Russia recalled Biren, who, after some contest with prince Charles, son of the king of Poland, who had been placed over the duchy in his absence, was declared by the estates the only legitimate duke. In 1769, he transferred the duchy to his son, at whose death the estates of Cour- land solicited a union with the Russian empire. Catharine consented, and, by an edict of April, 1795 secured to the inhabitants all the privileges which they had enjoyed under their princes, and all the rights of her other subjects. Since this time, it has formed a government divided into five districts. In 1818, the emperor Alexander confirmed the charter of the nobility of Courland, which declared the pea- sants free, and regulated their relations to their for- mer lords. COURT (curtis, curia, aula); the space enclosed by the walls of a feudal residence, in which the fol- lowers of a lord used to assemble, in the middle ages, to administer justice, and decide respecting affairs of common interest, &c. It was next used for those who stood in immediate connexion with the lord and master, the pares curiae, the limited portion of the general assembly, to which was intrusted the pro- nouncing of judgments, &c. Finally, it came to denote the residence of a prince, with his family and highest officers. From this court (aula principalis), when the vassals began to take less part in the management of the public business, and this could no longer be trans- acted, on the public court days (at Easter, Whitsun- tide, and Christmas), the different permanent state authorities were separated with independent powers, and the actual court, the residents and daily atten- dants of the prince, acquired a distinct character. The etiquette of the courts has been formed, in mo- dern times, at first on the model of the old Spanish court (the Spanish fashion of wearing the cloak, Spanish reverences, or bending of the knee, &c., being adopted), and, subsequently, the less formal ceremonial of the French court, in the time of Francis I., Catharine of Medici, Louis XIV., which admits of a dress accommodated to the existing fashion, and requires a mere inclination of the neck. The obstruc- tions in the way of presentation have been growing fewer and fewer, especially since the time of the French revolution. The court offices are, in part, the old hereditary offices, derived from the times of feudal services. Besides these, there are others of a more modern character, which are founded, how- ever, in some degree at least, on the old distribution of services among such officers as the chief marshal, chamberlain, master of the horse, butler, &c. The modern court offices are now all personal, and have become very numerous. Court ladies are noble ladies, composing the retinue of the princess. At their head stands the dame d’honneur. Court council (Hofrath—consilium aulicum). See Aulic Council.) This corresponds, in Germany, to the French conseil du roi. Similar authorities, called, in the Smaller states, Landesregierungen, were established in Germany in the 16th century in imitation of the imperial council, and, like this council, were, by degrees, intrusted with judicial functions, till they have finally become Supreme Courts, wherever no particular department is esta- blished, with the charge of presiding over the general administration of justice, and have, as in Prussia resigned the name of government to the administra- tive authorities. COURTS OF JUSTICE. [The first part of this COURTS OF JUSTICE. article, including all which precedes the extended account of the courts of England, is taken from the German Conversations Lewicon, and was, of course, Written by a German lawyer.] The essence of the judicial power consists in deciding according to existing law, and the facts of the case which have been brought before the court. The judge must follow scrupulously the existing laws, whether they agree with his own convictions or not. Every departure from them involves an overstepping of his 9Wh power, and an infringement upon that of the legislative body. Every decision, resting on a devia- tion from existing law, is invalid; and the purpose of correcting such deviations gave rise to the court of Cassation in France, and to the writs of error in Fngland. Still it cannot be denied, that a system of law is developed far better by the higher courts than by express acts of the legislature; and the Roman, the most complete of all systems of law, is indebted for its perfection to this very circumstance, that its extension and improvement, with the excep- tion of a few applications of the legislative power, Were effected principally by the pretors or chief: judges. (See civil Law.) So also the English com- mon law has been built up principally by the Courts, who are guided mostly by precedents which their predecessors on the bench have established. The ancient French courts (parliaments and other cours souveraines) exercised a similar power. They decided contested points of law by arréts réglá. mentaires, which were binding also upon the occur- rence of similar cases; but, when the courts were reorganized, in 1790, not only was this privilege denied them (Code Napol., art. 5), but they were not even permitted to apply the universal principles of right to cases not provided for by express ſaw. On the contrary, they were obliged to refer such cases to the national assembly. These questions, however, soon multiplied to such a degree, that the right of deciding according to general principles and the analogy of previous cases, was restored to the Courts, and they were even menaced with punishment, if they refused to make such decisions, under the pretence that the laws were obscure. (Code Napol., art. 4.) A similar course has been pursued in Prussia; and it will forever be the duty of courts, in the explanation and application of the laws, to take for their guidance those higher and eternal princi- ples of right which are the same in all ages and nations; not, indeed, making them take the place of positive law, but explaining the positive laws with reference to them. Many peculiarities, in ancient and modern constitutions of govern- ment, are explained, when we reflect that every Command (imperium) is, in itself, distinct from the judicial power (jurisdictio). The courts in Germany are clothed with the power of carrying into effect their own decisions; but this was not always so, nor is it now the case in other countries. In all civil processes in England, the original writ is first issued from the chancery of the kingdom, except in trifling cases, where the sum in i. is less than forty shillings. The original writ is put into the hands of the sheriff, and contains an order to hold the defendant to do what the plaintiff requires of him, or to show cause to the court why he should not (an order styled in Britain a praccipe, in Germany a mandatºm cum clausula); or without giving the defendant such a choice, the writ orders the sheriff absolutely to bring him before a court of justice as Soon as the plaintiff gives security for prosecuting his Suit (this order is ..i. a pone, or site fecerit secur- wºm). The various writs receive names from the initial Latin words, as all the judicial proceedings in the English courts were in Latin till 1730. The 49 i case is somewhat similar in France, where the officers of the court (huissiers) execute the first summons, like the officers of government, without receiving a commission from the court. Sentences, in criminal cases, are executed in France solely by the advocates of the crown, and not by the judges; in England, by the sheriffs of the counties. The judicial power should not be accused of a defective organization, because the courts have no power to execute their sentences. The constitution must pro- vide for such an execution ; but, strictly speaking, the judicial power has completed its duty in deciding between right and wrong. The sentence of a court of justice can never affect the person of a sovereign prince, and, even in regard to his immovable pro- perty, there are difficulties in the way of its execu- tion. The remedy of the English nation, in this case, is stated in the article England. In Germany, executions gould formerly be obtained against the princes in the imperial courts, and they were to be carried into effect by the circles of the empire; but, with the dissolution of the imperial constitution, this power has ceased. The German confederation can carry into effect, against the states composing it, its own decrees, and the decisions of the court appointed to arbitrate between different states (the Austragal Instanz), but cannot take cognizance of the com- plaints of a private individual against a Sovereign power, whether the one to which he is himself sub- ject, or that of another state. The above distinction between the proper busi- mess of courts, to decide on what is right in particular cases, and the powers of the executive in regard to the administration of justice, often appears in the organization of courts, and the officers of government concerned in the administration of justice. In the first place, this is observable in cases where the object is not so much to settle contested points, as to carry into effect the undisputed claims of one party On another, or to settle temporarily the relations of the parties (as, for instance, in regard to the posses. Sion of certain property), with a view to a final decision of their rights at a future time. Acknow- ledgments of their i. made before a public officer, and containing an order for their execution in the name of the government (guaranda, or guaran- tigia, resembling the French notarial documents), and, in general, all indubitable claims, were not anciently esteemed subjects of judicial examination, in a proper sense, in Germany; and this view of the subject is one of the sources of the participation of the executive in the administration of justice in that Country. Another arises from the ordinances ºf the Italian cities. In the second place, the duties of the higher branches of the ministry of justice. are founded on the same distinction. ... Nothing belonging properly to legal decisions falls, within the department of a minister of justice.* His duty is to provide that the Leibunals are properly fill- ed, and that they perform their duties. He issues mandates enjoining them to administer justice (man- data de promovemda justitia). He hears complaints respecting the delay or nonperformance of justice; but, in case of a wrong decision, on the part of the court, the minister has no right to alter it. To ob- tain this object, appeal must be made to higher courts. The establishment of these courts of appeal was an important improvement in the civil constitu- tions of Germany. These various gradations of courts were unknown to that country in the middle ages. The decision of every court was final, except * The states of Germany have a particular department of government, which superintends the administration of justice, in the same manner as the United States of Ameri- ca have departments of state, of the treasury, &c. 492 COURTS that sometimes important cases were referred to a higher and more experienced tribunal (the high court); and, after the territorial jurisdiction of the feudal lords had become better settled, a denial of justice in a lower court could be remedied by car- rying the complaint to the court of the feudal su- perior; and, when the judges of the lower courts had decided wrongfully, they were personally respon- sible to the higher court, where right and wrong were often decided by an appeal to God in single com- bat. But, even after regular courts of appeal had been established, from the lowest rank up to the imperial, royal, &c., tribunal, and the ancient tribu- mals which succeeded the prince's court (aula princi- palis) had attained a fixed seat and permanent judges (in England, by Magna Charta, 1215, in France, 1305, and in Germany, 1495), there were still cases in which the lower courts might be accused of ob- vious injustice in their decisions, and attempts were made to procure their abolition, and the higher au- thorities were very ready to avail themselves of the Opportunity. this relation between the executive (conseil privé) and the judicial power in France is that of Henrion de Pansey, entitled De l'Autorité Judiciare en France (On the Judicial Authority in France) Paris, 1818, 4to. This mixture of the executive and judicial authori- ties in France, which had become an object of uni- versal detestation on account of the egregious abuses to which it led (such as infringement upon the power of the judicature by means of commissions, by the Cassation of legal decisions, by lettres de cachet), was abolished by the institution of the court of cassation. (q.v.) By this means, the gradations of tribunals were reduced to two; and the number of district courts (tribunawa de premiére instance) and the high courts (cours d'appel) was diminished. In Germany, probably to the advantage of the country, the ancient number of three gradations, proceeding from the baronial or municipal, the princely and the royal tribunals, has been retained. (See Appeal, Courts of.) For a general history of the constitution of Courts, we are indebted to a celebrated jurist, of the Jewish religion, J. D. Meyer—Esprit, Origine et Progrès des Institutions Judiciaires des principauw Pays d'Europe, published in 1819–1822, 6 volumes. The subject, however, is by no means exhausted. The secret courts of Westphalia, in Germany, are unique, and have never yet received a full explana- tion, notwithstanding the labours of learned lawyers, such as Kopp, Eichhorn, and Wigand. It might be made a question, whether their establishment, which is dated in the 13th century, had not some connexion With that of the inquisition, founded about the same time. As it is an object of high importance to fix the limits of the judicial power, with respect to the exe- cutive and legislative, it is equally important to as- certain those limits with respect to the law of nations. In this, too, there is a great confusion, both in theory and practice, which it is highly important to settle by particular treaties between nations. While it re- mains, it not only throws obstacles in the way of in- tercourse between different states, but also tends to destroy the confidence of the subjects in the justice of ºrs by the striking inconsistencies which it pre- SČIlúS. France, as far as we are informed, is the only state which extends its jurisdiction to every country; and permits its citizens to bring foreigners before a French tribunal, although they have neither residence nor property in the realm; and no delay of trial takes place in favour of a foreigner, residing in his own country, if accused before a French tribunal by a citi- Zen of France. (Code civil, art. 14.) This course is An excellent work on the history of OF JUSTICE. the more dangerous for foreigners, as it is possible for them to be summoned before the court, and con- demned, without the slightest knowledge of what is going on. The summons is delivered to the state at- torney, to be sent to the minister. of foreign affairs, who transmits it through the diplomatic authorities to the accused. If the summons is delayed or miscar- ried (examples of which are known to have taken place) the trial still goes on ; and the proceedings of the court, and the sentence it passes, lose nothing of their validity. If the stranger comes to France, or has property there, he may be immediately arrested and imprisoned, though a Frenchman could not be. (Law of Sept. 10, 1807.) The double injustice of this system appears from the fact, that the French do not acknowledge the jurisdiction of foreign tribunals in the case of their own countrymen, even though this be based on the universal principles of right. It is, therefore, very desirable that all governments should protect their subjects by strictly maintaining the law, that no one shall be accused except before his proper judges. This universal rule has been acknowledged by France only in relation to Switzerland, by various treaties, old and new, and, finally, by that of Sept. 27, 1803. With this subject is connected the authority allow- ed to the decisions of the courts of foreign countries. The imperial constitution in Germany, under which all the states considered themselves as members of one whole, accustomed them to regard foreign ju- dicial decisions, in private causes, as binding; and the tribunals were held bound to carry into effect such decisions whenever required to do so. The same custom prevails in England as to chattels, but in regard to real estate, no foreign jurisdiction is ac- knowledged. In France, since 1629, the decisions of foreign courts have had no force. If a judicial process is carried on against a French citizen, it is required to be reviewed before a French court, at least as to its most essential features, unless the French party chooses to go over the whole again from the beginning (comme entier); and, if both par- ties are foreigners, a petition for the attachment of the property of the debtor, in France, is never grant- ed. (Sirey's Journal de la Cour de Cassation, viii., 453, and xviii. 58.) Similar laws were established in the kingdom of Westphalia and some of the Ger- man states; for example, Bavaria began to refuse all authority to the decisions of foreign courts; but it soon became evident that such a system would intro- duce great confusion, as there was so lively an inter- course between the different German states, and the old rules were in a great measure restored. (A de- cree of the Bavarian government, dated June 2, 1811, gives authority to the decisions of foreign courts, in civil causes, only when no property can be found on which to levy execution in the state where the suit has been carried on, and where no equal or superior claims exist to the property of the debtor in Bavaria. This system, however, is by no means free from ob- jection.) As the relations of the German states, as members of the empire, have ceased, and the uncon- ditional admission of the validity of the decisions of foreign courts would be attended with many disad- vantages, it is highly desirable that a uniform rule on this subject should be introduced throughout the German confederacy. The authority to be given to sentences of foreign courts, in criminal cases is a subject of great delica- cy, and involves the difficult question, how far states are required to deliver up accused persons who have fled to them for protection. The law of nations, on this point, is nearly uniform. The substance of it is, that, in criminal cases, one country has nothing to do with the sentences of another, either, for or against COURTS OF JUSTICE. the accused. The confiscation of property, in parti- cular, which is decreed in one state, is absolutely disregarded in every other. The punishment of crimes committed in foreign lands is a matter still more disputed. The various theories on penal law present each a different view of the subject. It should always be remembered, in discussing this question, that the administration of the penal law has a higher object than the acquiring or securing an advantage to the state, and a better foundation than the Caprice which threatens this or that action with punishment, and which would suffer the most infamous crimes to pass unpunished, if they are inadvertently omitted in the penal code. The penal laws, more than any other branch of legisla- tion, should have regard to those eternal principles, which are older than any laws. They intimately concern all mankind; they are the great support of moral order: every state, therefore, should lend to others all the assistance, in executing these laws, which accords with its convictions of right. A state which tolerates a criminal in its bosom unpunished, wherever his crime has been committed, partakes of his guilt. He should be punished according to the laws of the land (for each state must regard its own penal laws as the most just); but only for acts which are criminal in themselves and universally ; such as murder, robbery, fraud, violence, which may be styled crimes against the law of nature (delicta juris gentium). Acts which are prohibited by particular states for particular reasons, and violate no universal laws of morality and justice, are to be viewed simply as vio- lations of the peculiar organization of certain states; and no other state has good reason to punish them ; for, before this can properly be done, it must first be decided, that the prohibitory laws of the states Sup- posed accord with the higher demands of justice, and a different state has neither the means nor the right to make this decision. For this reason, it is the universal practice of nations to pass over crimes which merely infringe the positive regulations of other states (delicta juris positivi); such as violations of financial laws, laws against contraband trade, po- lice regulations, ecclesiastical ordinances, &c. In fact, one state could not, consistently, punish such offences against the laws of another; for foreign states often encourage such transgressions of posi- tive law to advance their own political views. But if a subject of one country, while abroad, commits an offence of this class against the laws of his own coun- try, he is properly liable to punishment on his return. The citizens of a country, while they are abroad, are subject to the laws of their native land. This is the rule in England, France (Code d’Instruct. crim. art. 5, Prussia (Allgemeine Landrecht, ii., 20, sect. 12–15), Austria (Strafgesetzbuch, S. ii., Sect. 30). In this case, as in those before mentioned, France ex- tends its jurisdiction beyond the proper bounds. It assumes the right of punishing strangers who violate the laws of the state abroad (Code d’Instruct, crim. art. 6); and, on the other hand, it refuses to punish crimes committed by its own subjects in foreign lands against foreigners (Code d’Instruct. crim. art 7, 24). As offences committed abroad are not to be considered as an immediate violation of the penal code of the country where they are brought to jus- tice, the punishment inflicted on a foreigner ought not to be severer than that provided by the laws of the country where the offence took place; and as the punishment cannot be more severe than that imposed by the laws of the country where it is inflicted, the milder rule should be followed. This is in accord- ance with the statutes of Prussia (Allg. Landr. ii., 20, Sect. 15). To adopt the punishment imposed by the laws of the country where the act took place, with- 493 , justices, are institute out regard to circumstances, is contrary to all correct theory, and would lead to the greatest inconsistencies. This would require the application of the most absurd laws that were ever framed—the penal laws of Eng- land, for instance, where death is the punishment for cutting down of a tree, or wearing a maskin a wood; and the religious laws of Spain are equally severe. If the liberty of selection, among the punishments imposed by foreign laws, be allowed, this would lead to the most pernicious uncertainty and ca- price. Courts of ENGLAND.. Inferior Courts. In describing the courts of England it will be sufficient to take a cursory view of those of inferior and limited jurisdiction ; among the most in- considerable of which is the piepowder court, which is com- monly said to derive its appellation from words signifying the dusty foot, either in allusion to the suitors who frequented it, or, as some say, because justice was as speedily dome in this court as the dust could be shaken from the feet. Barrington, however, derives, the name from the old French pied-powl. dreaway, a peddler, because the chapmen frequented these courts. The piepowder court is incident to fairs and markets, having two branches, one held by the lord of the franchise or his steward, the other by the clerk of the market. In this court are settled all disputes respecting contracts made, and all suits for injuries and offences committed during the fair. An appeal lies from this court to those of Westminster hall. The piepow- der court has fallen very much into disuse. Courts of manors and hundreds. The lord of every manor is entitled to hold a court, not of record, called a court baron, by himself or his steward, having a civil j urisdiction. A hundred court is similar, only embracing a wider district. The coroner’s court is held by a coroner, who assembles a jury to inquire concerning the death of ally person, where ver any violence is suspected. The sheriff’s court. The sheriff of each county formerly held a court, called the sheriff’s towrm or torm, twice a-year, in each hundred of his county, at which every person over twelve years of age, and mot specially privileged, was obliged to at- tend, for the reformation of common grievances and nuisances, the trial of offences, and the preservation of peace and good government. It has also a considerable jurisdiction in civil suits. Though the jurisdiction of this court remains, its business has, it seems, long since ceased, except in regard to actions of replevin, which, professor Wooddeson says, are frequently commenced in the sheriff's torm, and almost as frequently re- moved into a superior judicature. The court leet has the same jurisdiction, in particular dis- tricts, that the sheriff's court has in the county, and, like the sheriff's court, is now almost obsolete. Justices’ court. The jurisdiction of justices of the peace has superseded that of most of the small courts. These officers are now the conservators of the peace, scattered in every town and parish of the kingdom. We have a minute account of the qua- lifications and powers of these officers in Burn's Justice. A justice of the peace is required to have a yearly income, clear of all encumbrances, of £100, or property estimated to be equi- valent. The justices are commissioned by the king, their ap- pointment being made through the lord chancellor. A justice is a judge of record, and causes are removed from his court to the superior courts by certiorari. The justices of each county hold quarterly sessions; but any justice is empowered to hold a court at any time for the examination and committing of of.- fenders, and also for the trial of such actions as come within his commission.—The quarter sessions, as well as the individual for the suppression and punishment of offences, and their power extends to the committing to prison for trial for crimes, with but few exceptions. Two justices may determine the settlement of a pauper, but an appeal lies from their decisions to the quarter sessions. Assizes. Courts of assize and misi privs are treated at length under the article Assizes (q.v.). These courts are branches of those of Westminster hall, the great centre of the judicial ad- ministration in England, according to the forms of the common 3.W. Besides the above courts, there are others of a limited and special jurisdiction; namely, three in London—1. the hustings' court, which has a jurisdiction in civil actious, and at which some of the city elections are held (among others, that of mem- bers of parliament from that city), and from which an appeal lies to certain justices of the city; 2. the sheriffs' courts, 3. a court of conscience, of summary jurisdiction in actions under forty shillings, held by the lord mayor:-the court of comman’s- sioners of sewers, to provide for the repair of sea-walls, ditches, Gewers, &c. :-the court of stannaries, for the tin mines in Corn- wall and Devonshire, for the trial of suits in which the timmers are parties:—courts of the forest, having jurisdiction over the royal forests:—the court of the royal franchise of Ely, belong- ing to the bishopric of that name, but held by justices, not by the bishop himself, and having jurisdiction of causes arising within the bishopric :—courts palatimate, of the counties pala- time of Durham, Chester, and Lancaster, which are courts of record, of superior jurisdiction, commensurate with that of the courts of Westminster, from which writs do not run into these counties palatine:—the court of the Marshalsea and of the pa- lace, still held weekly at Southwark, whose jurisdiction embraces a circuit of twelve miles about the king's palace, for the deter- mination of causes arising among the Servants of the king's household ; and the court of the earl marshal, authorized ; 494 the statute of 13 Richard II., chap. 2, to take cognizance “ of deeds of arms and war out of the realm, which cannot be dis- cussed by the courts of the common law :”—besides the ecclesi- astical courts and those of admiralty and chancery, of which a more particular account will be given. The Superior Courts of Westminster hall are the courts of exchequer, common pleas, and king's bench. These three courts, and also that of chancery and the house of lords, are the remains and successors of the great court established in the Norman period, under the title of aula regis, which was divid- ed, very naturally, into several departments, for the trial of different kinds of pleas; and, at length, these several branches of one jurisdiction became so many distinct courts. The king’s bench is considered as the most direct successor to the awla regis, in Westminster hall. In this court, the sove- reign is, by a fiction, supposed to preside in person, and the writs are, accordingly, made returnable “before the king, wherever he may be in England,” because the court formerly followed the king to different parts of the kingdom, and was once held, in the twenty-first year of Edward I., at Roxburgh, in Scotland; but, for many centuries, its sittings have been held in Westminster hall, and the king never presides at its sittings. Sir Edward Coke says, if he were present, still jus- tice could be administered only by the justices, in the same manner as if he were absent; and Sir William Blackstone says, when James II. sat there, he was told by the justices that he must not give his opinion. The three courts of Westminster hall, at the time when they were constituted out of the aula Tegis, had jurisdiction of distinct kinds of actions; the king’s bench having cognizance of criminal suits, the common pleas of suits between party and party respecting land titles and on Contracts, and the exchequer in matters of revenue. These Courts have also a jurisdiction in respect to the person, and not resting wholly on the kind of action. Every one, for instance, has jurisdiction of suits in which its own attorneys, or some other of its officers, are parties; and through this right of ju- risdiction, in relation to the person, the king's bench has drawn to itself cognizance of actions of almost all descriptions, in which the proceedings are at common law, except real actions; nor does this exception much abridge its jurisdiction, for titlé to lands, in England, is tried in personal suits, between the parties to a real or supposed lease of the lands in dispute. This general jurisdiction was acquired upon the principle that no other court could bring before it a person imprisoned by the king's bench ; and, in respect to every such person, therefore, suits must be brought against him in that court, or there would be a failure of justice, as long as he should thus continue to be imprisoned. A defendant being, accordingly, once arrested and imprisoned, in an action brought before this court, might, while so in custody, be sued in any civil action, in the same court. By taking one step farther, the jurisdiction was made general in such actions, namely, by adopting the fiction that the de- fendant was imprisoned by the court. The great mass of the present business of this court, which fills the reports of its pro- ceedings, is brought under its cognizance by this fiction. It has also supervision of all the inferior courts of common law throughout the kingdom, from all which a writ of error lies to this court... It may also punish magistrates and officers of jus- tice for wilful and corrupt abuses of their authority. This spe- cies of supervision has, in some cases, been extended to other than civil and judicial officers, as in the case inentioned by Noy, where the court issued a mandamus to the bishop of Exon to allow the sacred unction and baptismal oil to the people of a certain parish, to whom they had been denied by him. This power of supervision is frequently exercised by ordering officers of Corporations to discharge the duties incumbent upon them. This court does not take cognizance of any civil action in which the amount in dispute is less than forty shillings. Actions are brought from the common pleas to this court, and are also car- ried from the king's bench to the exchequer chamber or the house of lords by writ of error. The common pleas, originally having jurisdiction of civil causes, between party and party, was, like the king's bench, ambulatory, moving with the king wherever he went in the kingdom. But, by the eleventh chapter of Magna Charta, it was ordained that it “should not follow the court, but be held in some certain place.” This court is still distinguished by some of the characteristics of its original constitution, for it has the jurisdiction of real actions, and has no jurisdiction in felony and treason. Like the king's bench, it may issue writs of ha. beas corpus, which may be issued by the whole court or any one of its judges, to bring up a person imprisoned, and inquire into the cause of his imprisonment, and set him at liberty if he is confined without lawful cause. A writ of error lies from it to the king's bench. It consists of a chief justice and three justices. The court of earchequer, having jurisdiction of that part of the general business of the awla regis which relates to the re- venue, derives its name from a chequered cloth (evchequier, a chess-board, or chequer-work) on the table. There are reck- oned seven courts in the exchequer; viz. I. of pleas; 2. of ac- coverits; 3...of receipts; 4 of exchequer chamber (where all the twelve judges of England assemble to consult on difficult mat- ters of law) ; 5. of exchequer chamber for errors in the exche- quer; 6. for errors in the king's bench; 7. of equity. The court of equity is held by the lord treasurer, the chancellor of the ex- chequer, and four barons of the exchequer. The four barons, in fact, are the regular and constant judges of this court, in which is transacted the business originally belonging to the exchequer, namely, the calling the king's debtors to account, on bills being filed against them by the attorney-general, and the recovering lands, chattels, or profits belonging to the king. A court of common law is also held by these four barons. And, COURTS OF ENGLAND. * in both these courts, civil actions, in general, may be brought, under pretence or on the fiction that the plaintiff is the king’s debtor, and the less able to discharge the dues to the king, be- cause his own debtor, the defendant, neglects to make the pay- ment or do the act demanded ; the fact whether the plaintiff is, as he alleges in his writ, the king's debtor, being never in- quired into. One of these courts of exchequer chamber is merely an assembly of all the judges of the three superior courts, for consultation in matters of law. The court of ex- chequer chamber, for the correction of errors in the common law courts of exchequer, constituted by the statute of the 31 Edw. III, chap. 12, consists of the lord chancellor, the lord treasurer, and the judges of the king’s bench and common pleas. The other court of excliequer chamber, for the correction of errors in the king's bench, in certain cases, is constituted by the statute of 27 Elizabeth, chap. 8, and consists of the judges of the common pleas and the barons of the exchequer. We have seen that the three courts of king’s bench, common pleas, and ex- chequer have, all of them, by means of the fictions above men- tioned, concurrent jurisdiction of civil actions in general; and, if there were no higher tribunal for the supervision and cor- rection of their decisions, they might diverge into different principles of adjudication, so that what was law in one would not be so in another, and thus uncertainty might be introduced into rights and obligations of every kind. Accordingly, every Community requires to have one ultimate tribunal of appeal on all questions of the same description; and the judicial system of Great Britain is constituted upon this principle. The king's bench may, on writ of error, revise the decisions and correct the errors of the common pleas; the exchequer chamber, con- sisting of the judges of the common pleas and court of exche- quer, may revise those of the king's bench ; and the court of exchequer chamber, consisting of the lord chancellor and lord treasurer, with the ; of the king’s bench and common pleas, may revise those of the common law courts of exchequer; and from all these, as also from the court of chancery, the equity side of the court of exchequer, and from the superior courts of Scotland and Ireland, actions may be carried, by writ of error or appeal, to the house of lords, the highest judicial tribunal in the kingdom. The judges of each of the courts of king’s bench, common pleas, and exchequer are usually four; and this number is so well es- tablished by usage, that the expression the “twelve judges of England” is used to signify the court of exchequer chamber already mentioned, including all the judges of these courts. But the number of these judges has, as we learn from Mr Woodde- Son, Sometimes been five, and again, at others, less than four, there having been but two in the beginning of Trinity term, 1655, in Cromwell's time, in the king's bench, then called the wpper bench. The judges anciently held their office during the pleasure of the king ; but now, by the statutes of 12 and 13 of William III., chap.2, and l George III., chap. 23, during good behaviour; and their commissions do not expire on the de- mise of the crown. When the judges of either of the courts are equally divided, a meeting of the twelve judges is held in the exchequer cliamber, to consult on the matter. The house of Lords, in its character of a judicial court, is the highest tribunal in the kingdom, to which civil actions are carried, by writ of error, from the two courts of error already mentioned, as held in the exchequer chamber, and from the court consisting of the twelve judges; also from the king's bench, from which latter court some actions may be carried, as we have already seen, to the court of exchequer chamber; but the party aggrieved by the judgment of the king's bench has his election, in actions of that description, to go immediately to the house of lords, if he so chooses. So civil actions may be brought before this court by appeal from the chancery and the equity side of the exchequer, and by writ of error or by appeal from the highest courts of Scotland and Ireland. Actions were formerly brought, in the first instance, before the aula regis, to which, of all its surviving successors, the house of lords bears the greatest resemblance; and petitions continued to be pre- sented to the house of lords, from the reign of Edward I. to that of Henry VI., to take cognizance of suits in the first in- stance; but the lords uniformly referred the petitioners to the other courts; and they entertain no civil action except on ap- peal or writ of error. 'I'he practice of bringing cases, by writ of error, from the courts of common law, has prevailed ever since the establishment of those courts ; but appeals from the court of chancery are of later date, having cominenced in the latter part of the reign of Charles I., after the court of chan- cery had succeeded in establishing its present extensive juris- diction against the opposition of the common law courts. The reason commonly given in favour of this right of appeal is, that it ought not to be left to the chancellor to bind the whole pro- perty of the kingdom, by his decrees, without any power of revision. The house of lords, also, exercises a very important original criminal jurisdiction, in respect to the person ; for all peers, including all the Scottish mobility, whether of the sixteen who are members of the house or not, and the queen, duchesses, countesses, and baronesses, are exempt from a trial by jury, for treason or felony, being liable to be tried for those crimes only by the house of lords; and they are not only entitled to this mode of trial for these crimes, but are bound to it, and cannot waive it, and put themselves upon trial by jury. . In case a peer marries a woman not of noble blood, she is to be tried only by the lords for the above offences, but if she afterwards lose her rank by marrying a commoner, she ceases to be enti- tled to this mode of trial. The question does not seem to be fully settled, whether bishops, who have a seat in the house of lords, must be tried by that body, or are subject to be tried for trea: son or felony by jury. It has always been customary, in all capital trials, in the house of lords, for the bishºps to withdraw COURTS OF before the taking of the vote of guilty or not guilty; and it is made a question whether they have a right to vote upon that question ; and Mr. Wooddeson seems to be of opinion that they have not this right. The reason for this distinction between them and the temporal peers is, that the character of their pro- fession ought to exclude, as well as excuse, them from taking a part in the final decision of a questión of life and death. The É.º of which we have been speaking is by indictment efore this tribunal as a court of judicature, during the session of parliament ; and, during the recess of parliament, such trials take place before a court of peers, summoned by the lord high steward, consisting of not less than thirty-five peers, who for- merly might be summoned at the discretion of that officer; but, to avoid the abuses to which such a power might be liable, the statute of 7 and 8 William III., chap. 3, provides that ali the peers shall be summoned to attend. A majority of twelve is necessary in order to a conviction in this court. The last trial before this court, up to the present time, was that of lord Delamere, in the reign of James II. There is still amother form of proceeding before this tribunal, as a court of judicature, namely, that by impeachment by the house of commons. Im. peachments may be made, in Great Britain, against any person and for any misdemeanour, though it is a mode of accusation Ordinarily adopted only against public officers in relation to some abuse of their trusts; as the trial of Warren Hastings, for alleged maladministration as governor of India, which last. ed for seven years. As all these judicial proceedings, both civil and criminal, are analogous to those of other courts, they are not dissolved by the prorogation or dissolution of the par. liament; aud though, in the ordinary business of legislation, any peer may vote by proxy, he cannot so vote in his judicial capacity. At the first view, it would seem to admit of a ques- tion whether a body constituted like that of the house of fords would be the best calculated to act as the judicial tribunal of ultimate jurisdiction; but it is to be considered, that the chan- cellor, who is necessarily one of the ablest law officers of the kingdom, presides in all the civil trials, and in those and all other cases, the judges of the superior courts and the attorney- general are present, and their opinions are taken on all diffi- cult questions. The court, therefore, combines the collected wisdom, talent, learning, and dignity of the kingdom. Bills of attainder, and of pains and penalties, an anomalous kind of ju. risdiction, is also exercised by parliament, as constituted for the ordinary purposes of legislation, consisting of the king, lords, and commons, who, by their concurrent voices, have occasionally acted as judges, in particular cases, at the same time making the law, if they choose, and punishing the offence (already committed) for which the law is made. "When a bill of this description was introduced into the house of lords, in l820, against the queen, Mr Brougham commenced the defence by urging objections to this mode of proceeding in any case. Though such a bill is passed like any other in parliament, yet witnesses may be examined, and the party heard by counsel, as in any trial before a judicial tribunal. º Admiralty, Courts. The admiralty court, in England, is coeval at least, perhaps anterior, to the others in its origin, as we meet with it in the most remote periods of the judicial his. tory of the country. This court formerly maintained a long and arduous, and, in some respects, an unsuccessful struggle for jurisdiction against the common law courts, in which strife it was encumbered with the disadvantage of being allied, in its forms of proceeding, to the ecclesiastical courts; since both these descriptions of judicial tribunals, as well as the chancery, borrow their forms of process from the civil law; and they, therefore, had formerly to encounter the prejudices of the nå. tion, which set very strongly against the civil law, as associat- ed with the papal usurpations. By a comparison with the French courts, we shall see how much the jurisdiction of the British admiralty has been curtailed. The French code assigns the jurisdiction of prize questions to a distinct court. The tri- bunals of commerce have jurisdiction of all disputes relative to engagements and transactions between merchants, traders, and bankers, and all commercial contracts or affairs, viz., purchases of goods for the purpose of selling them, either in the same state or after labour done upon them, and agreements for hir- ing the use of chattels ; all undertakings in manufactures for commissions, or for transportation by land or water; all agree- ments for supplying provisions, and for agencies ; all those re- lating to sale by auction; all operations of banking, exchange, and brokerage; all those of the public banking companies; all obligations between merchants, traders, and bankers; all bills of exchange, or remittances of money between whatever per- sons; all agreements for the purchase, building, sale, or resale of vessels, used either in foreign or domestic trade; all mari. time undertakings; every purchase or sale of rigging, apparel, or provisions for vessels; agreements for freight or charter- party; loans on bottomry, or respondentia ; contracts of insur- ance, or other contracts respecting marine commerce ; every contract with seamen in regard to their services on board of merchant vessels. The boundaries of the jurisdiction of the corresponding courts in England are much marrower, and the reasons and principles on which its extent has been settled, are, as stated in the reports, involved in the greatest confusion, obscurity, and contradiction, as is fully shown in the learned and profound investigation of the subject by judge Story, in the case of De Lovio against Boit, in the 1st volume of Gallison's Reports. . The judge of the high court of admiralty in England holds his office by two commissions. (See the article Admiralty Courts.) It does not appear that the Eng- lish admiralty ever had a jurisdiction commensurate with that of the present French tribunals of commerce; but it does ap- pear that a part of that which it formerly enjoyed has been ex- tºrted from it hy the common law courts. In a great part of what now remains to it, the common law courts have a con- 495 current jurisdiction. As a prize court, the admiralty has re. tained its jurisdiction unimpaired; and it is in the administra. tion of this branch of the jurisdiction, for the most part, that, Sir William Scott, (afterwards lord Stowell), shed so much splendour upon his court, and gave so many profound and ku- minous expositions of the law of nations and of commerce. . In regard to the other branches of its jurisdiction, all piracies, robberies, and felonies committed on the high seas, are exclu- sively within its cognizance, and they are tried, not according to the forms of the civil law, but, by the statute of the 28th year of Henry VIII., in the same manner as similar offences committed on land are tried by the courts of common law. In respect to iminor offences, it has a concurrent jurisdiction with the common law courts. . In matters of commerce, these latter courts have, in the most important subjects, a jurisdiction ex- clusive of the admiralty; as, for example, over bills of ex- change, promissory notes, charter-parties, bills of lading, and policies of insurance. In others, the jurisdiction is again con- current, as in respect to victualling and repairing ships, mari- ners' wages, hypothecation of the ship or goods by instruments of bottomry, or respondentia. In matters of salvage, or the recovery, at sea, of lost goods, the jurisdiction is in the admi- ralty; and so are also questions of seamen's wages; and it is resorted to for the purpose of enforcing liens against the ship, as in bottomry or suits for mariners' wages. It has also juris- diction of all stipulations made by the parties to a suit in re- ference to the subject of dispute in a case pending in the court; as, for example, where the goods, which are the subject of con- troversy, are delivered to one party on his agreement, in the nature of a recognizance, to answer for their value in case the opposite party prevails; in which case execution is forth with issued on the stipulation. The admiralty jurisdiction of the courts of the United States is adopted into the American from the British laws. Court of Chancery. See Equity. Ecclesiastical Courts. There are still subsisting in England divers ecclesiastical courts, of which the most important juris- diction remaining is that relating to the goods of persons de- ceased, which belongs to the prerogative courts of the arch- bishops of Canterbury and York, if the deceased leave goods to the amount of £5 (bona notabilia) in two different dioceses ; otherwise it belongs to the court of the bishop of the diocese. But much of the business of administering upon and determiri- ing the distribution of the estates of persons deceased, passes into the court of chancery, under its jurisdiction of trusts; a large amount of property in Great Britain being put in trust under grants and wills. . Courts of LAw IN Scotſ,AND. The principal courts of law in Scotland consist of a civil, a criminal, and a revenue court. The supreme civil court is the Court of Session, also called the College of Justice, established in 1532 by James V. . It was for- merly composed of fourteen judges and a president, before whom all civil causes were tried ; but for the despatch of busi- ness this court is now divided into two chambers; the one con- sisting of eight, and the other of seven judges. Its decisions are subject to appeal in the house of lords. e A Jury Court for the trial of civil actions, consisting of five commissioners, was established in 1815, Questions came belore this court by remit from the court of session. By an act passed in 1830, the Jury Court was united with the ordinary jurisdic- tion of the Court of Session. sº f tº The Justiciary or Criminal Cowrt, consists of a lord justice- general, a lord justice-clerk, and five commissioners of justi- ciary, who are also lords of session. . In this court, causes are tried by the verdict of a jury. The judges go on circuit to the principal districts of the country, where they hold courts twice in the year, with the exception of Glasgow, where courts are held three times annually. One lord can hold a circuit court, and the judgments of circuit courts are not liable to review in the justiciary court. Upon these circuits they possess a civil jurisdiction, by way of appeal, in causes below at 12 sterling ; and in these they proceed without a jury. e The Court of Exchequer is composed of the lord chief-baron, and other four barons, who must be either serjeants at lay or English barristers, or Scottish advocates of five years standing; and they have the same jurisdiction over the revenue in Seot- land as the English barons have over that in England. All may plead before this court who can practise in the courts of West. minster hall, or in the court of session. g In the High Court of Admiralty (lately abolished) there was only one judge, who was the king’s lieutenant, and justice: general, upon the seas, and in all ports and harbours. He had àjurisdiction in all maritime causes; and by prescription he had acquired a jurisdiction in mercantilé causes not maritime. His decisions were subject to the review of the court of Session in civil, and to that of the court of Justiciary in criminal cases. The jurisdiction of this court is now transferred to the court of 8t'SSIOll. º The College or Faculty of Advocates, answers to the English inns of court; and, subordinate to them, is a body of inferior lawyers, or attorneys, styled writers to the signet, because they alone can substantiate the writings that pass the signet. The commissary Court consists of four judges nominated by the crown, and has an original jurisdiction in questions of mar riage and divorce, and reviews the decrees of local commissary courts. It sanctions the appointment of executors, and ascer- tains debts relating to the last illness, and funeral charges, of persons deceased, or obligations arising from testaments, 0.10- tions of scandal, and upon all debts which do not exceed £40. As Scotland is divided into counties, shires, or stewartries, the sheriff or steward, the king’s lieutenant, enjoys an exten- sive jurisdiction, civil and criminal. . Of old, the sheriff or steward reviewed the decrees of the baron courts within his territories; he mustered the military companies or militia. SCOTLANR). 496 whose exercises were known by the name of weapon-shawing; and the same office is now renewed in the establishment of the militia in Scotland, the officers of which receive their commis- sions from the sheriff, or lord lieutenant—as he is now called— of the county. The office of sheriff was of old hereditary in the great families; but, by an act of parliament in 1748, this and all other offices possessing hereditary jurisdiction, were either dis- so.ved or annexed to the crown ; the jurisdiction of the magis- trates of royal burghs being preserved entire. The office of sheriff, as far as regards legal matters, is now exercised by a judge, called the sheriff-depute, and his substitute. The former is appointed by the crown, and must be a member of the faculty of advocates. The sheriff receives the royal revenues from the collectors within his district, which he pays into the exchequer; he summons juries for the trials before the jury and justiciary courts; he returns, as member of parliament for the county, the person having a majority of suffrages; he establishes, with the assistance of a jury, the fiars or rates to be paid for grain, that ought to be delivered when no precise price is stipulated ; he has a civil jurisdiction in all cases, except in a contest for the property of a landed estate; and a criminal one in cases of theft, and other smaller crimes. The decrees of this court are subject to review by the supreme courts of session and justi- Clary. . . . . . The powers of jurisdiction vested in the magistrates of cities, and of royal burghs, are somewhat similar to those of the she- riffs, and are subject to the review of the supreme court. The Dean of Guild Cowrt has lost considerably of its former import- ance; being formerly authorized to decide in all causes between merchants, and between merchant and mariner. Its office at present is, to take care that buildings within the city or burgh are carried on according to law; that encroachments be not made in the public streets; to judge in disputes between con- terminous proprietors; to consider the state of buildings, whe- ther they be in a fair condition, or whether they threaten damage to those dwelling in them, or to the neighbourhood, from their ruinous state; and to grant warrant for repairing, pulling down, or rebuilding them, according to the circum. stances of the case. 'The royal burghs of Scotland also form, as it were, a commercial parliament, called the Convention of Royal Burghs, which meets once a-year at Edinburgh, consist- ing of a representative from each burgh, to consult upon the good of the whole. The Justice of Peace Court, established in 1609, is very similar to that of England. Generally speaking, justices judge in riots and breaches of the peace; appoint constables, regulate highways, bridges, and ferries; have authority to punish vagrants, and offènders against penal laws; to judge upon transgressions of the game laws, and concerning frauds against the duties of customs and excise, besides various other branches of jurisdiction. There is also a Justice of Peace or Small Debt Court held monthly in every town, where causes not exceeding £10 sterling are decided in a summary manner, and at a small expense. 'The reader is referred for a full ac- count of the Courts of England and Scotland to the “Book of the Constitution, by Thomas Stephen,” published at Glasgow, in 1834. ... See also the articles England and Scotland in this En. cyclopedia. Courts of THE UNITED STATEs of AMERICA. By the consti- tution of the United States, which went into operation in the year 1789, a limited extent of judicial power was confided to the government of the union, the nature of which will be best explained by quoting the very words in which it is given. The third article of the constitution declares, 1. that “The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the congress may, from time to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their con- tinuance in office.” 2. “The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;-to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ;-to controversies to which the United States shall be a party;-to controversies between two or more states; between a state and citizens of another state; between citizens of different states; between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states; and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.” 3. “In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the Supreme court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the congress shall make.” It is observable, that this enumeration of the various classes of cases to which the judicial power may extend, does not make it imperative upon congress to vest the whole juris- ‘liction in courts created by the general government; but leaves much to the discretion of congress, as to the establish- ment of courts, and the jurisdiction with which they shall be elothed. In point of fact, congress has never legislated to the extent of the judicial power authorized by the constitution. Some branches of it remain undisposed of; and the courts of the several states are left to act upon them as matters not ex- clusively confided to the courts of the United States. At the first session of congress, under the constitution, the organiza- tion of the judicial establishment was made, which has sub- §tantially remained in force ever since. By a statute passed Sept. 24, 1789, a Supreme court was created, consisting of a chief justice and five associate justices, since increased to six; and two classes of inferior courts, viz., circuit courts and dis. * COURTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. trict courts, were also created. All the judges of the courts of the United States are appointed by the president, by and with the consent of the senate of the United States, and cannot otherwise be appointed.—We shall now proceed to give a sum- mary view of each of these courts, beginning with those which are the lowest in point of rank, and of the first instance. 1. The District Cowrts. Each state in the confederacy con- stitutes at least one judicial district, and the States of New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia are divided into two districts by certain local limits. In each district, a court is appointed to hold sessions, consisting of a single judge. The district courts possess criminal jurisdiction, exclusively of the state courts, of all crimes and offences against the United States, where the punishment of whipping, not exceeding 30 stripes (which is now generally abolished), or a fine not exceeding 100 dollars, or a term of imprisonment not exceeding six months, is to be in- flicted. It also possesses civil jurisdiction of all civil causes of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; that is, of suits upon ma- ritime contracts and maritime torts; of seizures in rem, and of suits in personam for penalties and forfeitures incurred under the laws of the United States; of all causes where an alien Sues for a tort only, in violation of the law of nations, or a treaty of the United States; of all suits at common law, where the government of the United States sue, or any officer thereof sues, under the authority of any act of congress, whatever may be the matter in dispute; and of all suits against consuls and vice-consuls. The district courts also possess the jurisdiction of circuit courts in those districts where no circuit courts are held, and also certain limited authorities under special laws. 2. The Circuit Courts. The United States are now divided into Seven circuits, in each of which a court is held, called a circuit cowrt. It consists of two judges, one of whom is a jus- tice of the Supreme court of the United States, and the other is the district judge of the particular district in which the court sits. The court imay be held by either judge in the absence of the other; but the district judge cannot try causes brought by appeal from his own decisions. Each eircuit consists of at least two states, and some of three states, and one of four states. There are six states in which no circuit court sits; and there the like duties are performed by the district judges. The circuit courts possess original jurisdiction in all civil suits at common law, or in equity, where the matter in dispute is of the sum or value of 500 dollars, or upwards, and the United States are plaintiffs; or where an alien is a party; or where the Suit is between a citizen of the state in which the suit is brought, and a citizen of another state. They also possess ju- risdiction in cases of patents for useful inventions, and of copy- rights for books, &c. They have also exclusive jurisdiction of all crimes and offences against the United States, not cognizable in the district courts; and concurrent jurisdiction with those courts of all crimes and offences cognizable therein. They have appellate jurisdiction of all final judgments and decrees of the district courts, in all cases where the matter in dispute exceeds 50 dollars. Civil suits can be brought in the circuit and dis- trict courts, by original process, against an inhabitant of the United States, only in the district whereof he is an inhabitant, or in which, at the time of serving the process, he may be found; and, in cases of negotiable securities for money, except foreign bills, these courts cannot, by any transfer or assign- ment of such securities, maintain jurisdiction, unless their ju- risdiction could have attached independent of such transfer or assignment. If a suit is commenced in a state court against an alien or citizen of another state, and the matter in dispute ex- ceed 500 dollars, it may be removed into the circuit court, which sits in the same state, and tried there according to cer- tain regulations prescribed by law ; and a like removal may take place where, in a suit in the state court, the parties claim title to lands under a grant thereof from different states, that is, where one party claims title under the state in which the suit is brought, and the other under another state. 3. The Supreme Cowrt consists of seven judges, as above stated. It sits annually at the seat of government, on the se- cond Monday of January. It possesses exclusive original ju- risdiction of all controversies of a civil nature, where a state is a party, except between a state and its citizens, and except, also, between a state and citizens of other states and aliens, in which latter case it has original but not exclusive jurisdiction. It possesses also, exclusively, all such jurisdiction of suits and proceedings against ambassadors, and other public ministers, or their domestics, or domestic servants, as a court of law can have or exercise consistently with the law of nations; and original, but not exclusive jurisdiction of all suits brought by ambassa- dors, or other public ministers, or in which a consul or vice-con- sul is a party. It possesses, also, appellate jurisdiction from the final judgments and decrees of the circuit courts, and of the dis- trict courts exercising circuit court powers, in all civil cases where the matter in dispute exceeds 2000 dollars in value or amount, and the causes were originally brought in or removed into such circuit or district courts. It has also jurisdiction in cases brought by way of appeal into the circuit, courts from the district courts, which word appeal has here a technical and some- what peculiar sense, but not in cases brought by writs ºf error from the district courts into the circuit courts. This difference is more accidental than intentional, and proceeds from the dif- ferent modes of process by which suits are brought into the ap- pellate courts according to the course of the common law. The terms of the statute conferring the jurisdiction are supposed to limit the appellatejurisdiction to cases which did not get into the circuit courts by the process of a writ of errors in its technical sense. It is difficult to make the distinction clear to lawyers bred in the civil law; it is obvious to those bred in the com- mon law. The supreme court also possesses appellate jurisdic- tion from the final decisions of the state courts, in cases in which COURTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. there is drawn in question the validity of a treaty or statute of, or an authority exercised under, the United States, and the state court decides against its validity; or where is drawn in question the validity of a statute of, or an authority exercised under, any state, on the ground of its being repugnant to the constitution, treaties, or laws of the United States, and the de- cision is in favour of its validity; or where is drawn in ques- tion the construction of any clause of the constitution, or of a treaty or statute of, or commission held under, the United States, and the decision is against the title, right, privilege, or exemption specially set up or claimed by either party, under such clause of the constitution, treaty, statute, or commission. The appellate jurisdiction, however, so exercised in these cases, coming from the state courts, is confined to the points above mentioned, and does not extend to the other merits of the case, not connected therewith, nor flowing therefrom. From this sketch, it will be perceived that the supreme court exercises, or may exercise, jurisdiction in the following classes of cases:—l. In cases where the construction of the constitu- tion, treaties, and statutes of the United States is involved ; 2. in cases where the state laws are supposed to be inconsistent with the constitution, treaties, or laws of the United States; 3. in cases of rights derived under the constitution, treaties, or laws of the United States; 4. in cases where a state is a party to the suit, or a foreign ambassador, or minister, or consul, or vice-consul; 5. in cases of controversies of a civil nature be- tween aliens and citizens, or between citizens of one state and citizens of another state; 6. in cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. As a general description, this is sufficiently precise for the common reader. The supreme court has authority, also, in various other modes, to exercise a supervision over the acts of inferior tribunals; as, by granting writs of Anandamus, to direct them to do their duty in certain cases; by granting writs, of prohibition, where they exceed their authority; by granting writs of habeas corpus, to relieve parties from unjust imprisonment, &c. &c. . In cases also where no appeal lies to the supreme court, the judges of the circuit courts are allowed to obtain the opinion of the supreme court, by certifying cases $o that court, in which they are divided in opinion. This course is often pursued in important and difficult questions, both of civil and criminal law, and in the latter especially, be- cause, in criminal cases, the supreme court has no direct ap- pellate jurisdiction. The general mass of business, which em- ploys the Supreme court, consists of private controversies re- specting property, or personal rights and contracts. In times of war, it also exercises a final appellate jurisdiction in prize causes, and other causes in which belligerent and neutral rights and duties are involved. For the most part, questions of na- tional and public law are there finally discussed and settled. Its most important function, however, in a practical view, is the decision of the great constitutional questions, which, from time to time, arise in the different parts of the Union. These ques. tions are not brought forward, in a formal manner, by the go- vernment itself, to be adjudged upon a mere reference of them to the court. The court cannot take cognizance of them in such a shape, but only in a suit regularly brought before it, in which the point arises, and is essential to the rights of one of the parties. Hence it happens that a private person may litigate any question respecting the constitutionality of a law of the national or state government, whenever it is connected with his own rights, which are in controversy in a suit. Such a person may not only litigate the constitutionality of such laws, independently of the government, but even against the will of the government; and it not unfrequently happens that such questions are discussed and decided without the government having any opportunity of interposing itself in the discussion. The constitution is deemed the supreme law of the land, which rulers, and magistrates, and legislatures are bound to obey ; and if, unintentionally or otherwise, they overleap the proper boundary, and the Supreme court so decide, the act of the le- gislatures or rulers becomes a mere nullity, and receives no Sanction or support whatsoever. It may naturally be supposed that, in many instances, such questions must involve interests of a public nature to a vast extent, as well as contests respect- ing the just exercise of political power, and thus give rise to very heated discussions, and sometimes to violent political struggles, which might threaten the very existence of the na- tional government. But hitherto, however warm have been the preliminary controversies, and however important the rights to state sovereignty or state pride, the decisions of the supreme court have been universally respected. Indeed, the people are so well satisfied, that the great security of their civil and political liberties essentially depends upon the inde- pendent exercise of this great function, and the supreme court is accustomed to expound its opinion with so much fulness and moderation, that no instance has occurred, in which a great majority of the nation has not hitherto rested satisfied with the decision. Such is the supremacy of law in the United States. If it be asked, in what respects the Supreme court of the United States differs, in its functions and organization, from the highest courts of England, the following will be found the most import- ant particulars: 1. In England, the prize and admiralty jurisdic- tion, the equity jurisdicton, and the common law jurisdiction,are Severally intrusted to distinct courts. The supreme court of the United States exercises all these jurisdictions, as, indeed, do the circuit courts. 2. The highest courts in England have a general jurisdiction as to all persons and all suits. The supreme court of the United States has a limited and restricted jurisdiction over particular persons only, and particular classes of suits. 3. The courts in Britain have no jurisdiction over constitutional questions: an act of parliament is an act of uncontrollable so- vereignty, which all courts must obey and enforce. 4. The courts in Britain do not exercise jurisdiction in cases between II. 497 state sovereignties; or, if they do, it is a very limited and in- cidental jurisdiction. In many particulars, the highest courts in Britain and the supreme court of the United States exercise the same powers, substantially in the same way. In the first place, the general system of jurisprudence to be administered by them is, in most respects, the same. The common law go- verns in Britain. It constitutes the general basis of the juris- prudence of all the states in the Union, with the exception of Louisiana, where the civil law prevails, as it did while that territory belonged to France and Spain. The common law is, indeed, modified by the legislation of the several states, accord- ing to their pleasure, as it is by the parliament in Britain ; and, in some of the states, there are some customs and peculiarities which grew up in early times. But they are few, and, in a general sense, unimportant. The statutes passed by the states, and the judicial constructions or interpretations of them, consti- tute the principal peculiarities of what is denominated local law; and these are far more uniform than, at first thought, would be supposed. The original circumstances of the colonies were not, as to most political and municipal arrangements, ma- terially different. Inheriting from Britain the common law, they generally adopted such amendments of it as were, from time to time, made in the mother country; and, in their colonial legislation, they borrowed from each other such portions of the statutes, which were enacted and in use, as were suited to their own wants. Hence, at an early day, in almost all the colonies, they enacted nearly uniform laws as to the making of wills, as to registering of conveyances of lands, as to the descent of estates among all the children, giving, in Some cases, a double share to the eldest son, but excluding the British law of primogeniture. The system of land law, that is, the System adopted in relation to the sale and distribution of the public lands belonging to the states, constitutes, at this very time, a more important feature of difference in the legislation, and ju- dicial interpretation of rights to landed property, than any other in the whole code of positive law. , it may naturally be presumed, too, that, though the common law was the general basis of the jurisprudence of all the states, yet, in the course of time, the judicial interpretations thereof, especially when there were no printed reports, might essentially vary in the different states, in many cases; and that these diversities, as well from the different talents and acquirements of the judges, as from the uncertainty of many of the principles of decision, might create other heads of local law. It would surprise a foreigner, however, to learn how few, comparatively speaking, these now are. The regular publication of reports; the desire to give uniformity to the system; the influence of the decisions in the mother country and in the national courts, have a powerful operation upon the whole profession in this respect, and the more powerful and beneficial, because it is silent and insensi- ble. In this way, it conduces to a general harmony and coinci: dence in the administration of the law, by the gentle means of juridical reasoning and argument. From this general prevalence of the common law, the deci- sions made from time to time in England are cited in the dis- cussions in the American courts, not as absolute authorities, but as very able expositions of the law; and, on that account, they are generally adopted. In the next place, the modes of administering justice are the same in the courts of the United States as they are in England in like cases. In the prize and admiralty proceedings, the principles and practice of the Eng- lish courts of admiralty are adopted; in equity causes, the principles and practice of the court of chancery in England; in suits at common law, the principles and practice of the courts of commendam in England. There are no courts in America which possess a general jurisdiction in ecclesiastical affairs, like the ecclesiastical courts in England; for, in America there is no church establishment. But the business of the probate of wills, and granting administration on the estate of deceased persons, and appointing guardians to minors and others, is ge- nerally confided to orphan courts, or probate courts, exercising a jurisdiction over these subjects yery similar to the summary jurisdiction exercised by the ecclesiastical courts in England over the same subjects. The jurisprudence in America, then, not being entirely homogeneous, the supreme court, in the ex- ercise of its jurisdiction, has an invariable regard to the local law, where it applies, and, consequently, is called upon to ad- minister justice in many cases of a conflict of laws. In this part of its functions, it acts upon the same general principles which regulate, or ought to regulate, the tribunals of other in- dependent states. It acts upon the same principles which the English courts would act upon; but it is called more frequent- ly to decide on such questions, and therefore it refers, more, as guides in its decisions, to the civil law writers, who have dis- cussed this complicated subject with ability and learning. . In- deed, it may be stated as a general fact, that, the American courts, in questions of public and commercial law, are in the habit of paying great attention to the works of the continental jurists. J The supreme court of the United States exercises no politi- cal functions whatsoever, except the administration of public and prize law, and the decision of constitutional questions, may be so considered. It is wholly independent of the executive government, the judges holding their offices during good beha- viour, and réceiving a salary which cannot be diminished during their continuance in office. The present salary of the Chief justice is 5000 dollars, and that of each of the other judges 4,500 dollars. They are liable to impeachment for high grimes and misdemeanours before the senate of the United States, and, upon conviction by two-thirds of the members present, are liable to be removed from office. Cases of impeachment of pub- lic officers are exclusively triable before the Senate ; and, when the president of the United States is on trial, the chief justice - 2 I 498 of the United States is required by the constitution to preside. As to the modes of trial : In cases of impeachment, as has been already stated, the trial is before the senate, without any jury. The trial of all crimes, in other cases, is required by the consti- tution to be by jury. So is the trial of all civil suits at common law, where the value in controversy exceeds 20 dollars. And, in all cases where the facts are tried by a jury, their verdict, as to the facts, has the conclusiveness given it by the common law of England. . In admiralty and prize causes, and in equity causes, the questions of fact, as well as of law, are decided by the court, as they are decided in the English courts. The ge- neral practice, in the trials by jury, is the same as in England. The mode of appointing and selecting the jurors is not uni- iorm. In some of the states, the marshal or sheriff selects them ; in others, they are drawn out of ballot boxes, which contain the names of all the persons whom the municipal au- thorities deem qualified to sit as jurors. The selections thus made usually embrace a very large proportion of the voters ; and as many are selected and returned for a particular session of the court as the court deems the occasion to require. In Some states, the same jurors sit in all causes tried at the same term ; in others, a distinct jury is, or may be, returned for each cause. The courts of the United States, sitting in any particular district, follow the local practice as to the selection of juries. In all criminal trials, the constitution guarantees to the party accused a public trial, upon a written indictment or accusation, a right to be confronted with the witnesses brought against him, and to have compulsive process for the attendance of his own witnesses, and a right to have the assistance of counsel or lawyers in his defence. The statutes of the United States generally secure to him, in civil cases, the same privi- leges, except that depositions of witnesses may be used therein, In certain cases, where the witnesses cannot attend by reason of infirmity, or distance of place, &c. The power of pardon is exclusively confided to the president of the United States. The judges have no express authority to recommend any person, after conviction, for a pardon ; but, where the case requires it, It is not unfrequently done by them, as private persons, upon their own responsibility and sense of justice. It may be asked, Who determine finally what causes do or do not belong to the jurisdiction of the courts of the United States ? 'The general answer should be, that the court, before which the suit is brought, must, in the first instance, decide that question for itself; and it is finally to be decided by the highest court to which an appeal lies from that court. If it de- pend on matter of fact, the fact is ascertained in the usual way in which other facts are ascertained in cases of a like nature ; if it depend on matter of law, then the court primarily decides on its own view of the law. In general, the judgments and decrees of courts of competent jurisdiction are held conclusive in the United States, as they are in England. Few conflicts, as to jurisdiction, arise in the American courts, as, for the most part, the jurisdiction of the state courts is concurrent with that of the United States' courts in civil cases; and where it is not, the line of exclusive jurisdiction is broadly marked out. For instance, the admiralty and prize jurisdiction is, exclusive in the courts of the United States; but in controversies between citi- zens of different states, the jurisdiction is concurrent. One state cannot sue another in its own courts. The suit must be in the supreme court of the United States. The courts of the United States, like the courts in England, have general autho- rity to make rules for the orderly course of their business, to issue writs and executions, to take bail, to grant injunctions, to permitamendments, to punish for contempts, &c., in the same way as the courts in England. Writs and executions do not run, that is to say, cannot be executed, beyond the limits of the particular district in which the court sits, with a few excep- tions, among which are subpaenas for witnesses and executions on judgments in suits in favour of the United States. There are various sorts of process to compel the performance of judg- ments, as in England. Such are writs of fieri facias, on which the goods and chattels of the debtor or defendant may be taken or sold ; writs of levari facias, on which his lands may be taken for a term ; writs of capias, on which his person may be ar- rested and imprisoned ; and other writs, on which his lands may be taken and set off to the creditor, at an appraised value, or sold at public auction. In criminal cases, the courts of the United States direct the punishment against the party accord- ing to the rules prescribed by the law. If the punishment is death, the court, before which the trial is had, declares the time and place when and where the execution of it shall take place. If the punishment is discretionary, as by fine, or by im- prisonment, or by fine not exceeding a certain sum, or by im- prisonment not exceeding a certain period of time, the court fixes the fine, or imprisonment, or both, in its Sentence, accord- ing to the circumstances of each particular case. As all trials, both civil and criminai, are public, and reports are printed, from time to time, of those which are most interesting either as to law or facts; as the opinion of the court is always public- ly given, and, generally, the reasons of that opinion, it is not easy for any court to trespass upon the known principles of law or the rights of the parties. In the United States, as in Eng- land, the citizens at large watch with jealousy the proceedings of courts of justice. The very great number of lawyers engag- ed in the profession also furnishes an additional security. The rules of admission to the bar are not very strict; and usually, after three years' preparatory study, any citizen of good educa- tion and character is admissible to the inferior courts, and, after two or three years' practice there, is admissible to the highest courts. Generally speaking, lawyers are entitled to the same privileges, upon the same terms, in the United States' courts, as in the state courts. Few but eminent lawyers, in fact, practise in the Supreme court of the United States, although the admis- COURTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. sion to it is quite easy. Throughout the United States, the bay of the highest courts is characterized by learning and talent, a spirit of independence and integrity, and a manliness of conduct, which give it great weight and popularity. Lawyers, more than any other class, are the favourite candidates for seats in the legislative and executive departments of the government. CotºrTS UF THE SEVERAL STATES IN THE UNITED STATES — The limits of this work will not permit a particular account of all the courts of the several states of the Union. In some re. spects, their judicial systems correspond with each other. The office of justice of the peace is very similar in all, the general police of the counties being confided mostly to these magis- trates. They generally have authority to cause offenders and criminals, and all disturbers of the peace, to be arrested, and, if the offence is small, to fix its punishment ; if it falls without their jurisdiction, they commit the offenders to prison, to be detained for trial before the proper tribunals. But for all con- siderable offences, the parties are liable to be put upon trial on- ly on a bill being found against them by a grand jury. In the county courts of sessions, the assembled justices, or a select number of them, in many of the states, have a pretty exten- sive jurisdiction in matters of police, in the regulation of the affairs of the county, such as building court-houses, assessing county taxes, laying out roads, licensing taverns and victualling houses, and, in some states, granting the right to erect mills, and settling the questions of damages thereby occasioned. In Virginia, the county sessions have a still more extensive juris- diction, both civil and criminal, the civil jurisdiction extending to suits in which an amount not exceeding 300 dollars is in dis. pute; and, though a vast amount of the business of both de- scriptions comes into these courts, the justices discharge all their duties without fees, and this paternal, friendly superim- tendence of the general interests of the county is supposed to have a very salutary influence upon the community. Besides this "general superintendence of the police, and maintenance of the peace and good order of the community, exercised by the justices individually or collectively, they have, in most of the states, a jurisdiction of civil actions to amounts varying from 13 to 100 dollars, reserving to the parties a right to appeal, and have a new trial before the county sessions or county courts of common pleas, or some other superior tribunals, in cases where the sum in dispute exceeds a certain amount. In some states, there is a right of appeal in case the amount of four dollars or more is in dispute: in others, the final jurisdiction of the justices extends to a greater sum ; in Massachusetts, to 20 dollars; and there is a distinction in some states, in the local extent of the civil and criminal jurisdiction of justices, the for- mer extending only to the town in which the magistrate ree sides, the latter to the whole county. In some of the capitals, and more considerable towns, special courts are established, to which is assigned the jurisdiction of many of the offences and suits, which, in the counties, generally come under the cogniz- ance of the justices, individually or collectively. In all the states, another class of county courts is established, variously denominated,—courts of common pleas, county, district, or cir- cuit courts, which have original jurisdiction of the great mass of civil actions at law, or indictments for crimes not capital ; and over these are established the superior or supreme Courts, or courts of errors or appeals. In some states, the county courts for trials by jury are held by one of the judges of the su- preme court, and all questions of law are reserved for the de- termination of all the judges. In others, the judge of the su- preme court, who presides in trials by jury, in the counties, is assisted by associate justices: this is the case in Maryland. In other states, trials by jury are held in the counties by a court of which the jurisdiction is limited to the county; and, in case of the amount in dispute exceeding a certain sum, varying, in the different states, from 100 to 300 dollars, or in cases involving land titles, and some others, either party may appeal, and have another trial of the same facts, by jury, before a judge of the su- perior court. This trial of the same facts a second time, by jury, without the allegation of any error or misdirection on the first trial, or any surprise on the part of either of the litigants, or any discovery of new evidence, or, indeed, any other reason than to give the parties opportunity for another contest, upon precise- ly the same footing as the first, is an anomaly. It is, in effect, an appeal from one jury to another, for which there might be more reason, ifjuries were, like courts, differently constituted, so that one should be considered superior to the other; but this is not the case, the juries in both courts being selected upon the Sanje principles. This is a feature of some of the state courts, by which they are distinguished from the English courts, and also from those of the United States, . A similar practice prevails, in some of the states, in criminal trials, except for felomies or the more heinous ofteices, of which the superior court has original and exclusive cognizance. This right to two trials of the same case, in the same state of it, though theoretically an irregular- ity not easily reconciled to any principle, is yet not the cause of any very serious inconvenience in practice, for very few of those actions in which the parties have a right to two trials are, in fact, tried more than once. The equity jurisdiction is in a distinct court in some of the states, as New York, Mary- land, Virginia; in others, the same courts act as courts of law and equity, as in Massachusetts, Ohio, North Carolina; and there is a great diversity in the extent of equity jurisdiction possessed by the courts, those of Pennsylvania, for instance, having very circumscribed powers; and in the New England states, excepting Connecticut, the prejudices, against equity courts and proceedings derived from some of the old common law writers, particularly lord Coke, have taken deep root, and are the more difficult to eradicate, as they have no definite foundation, but rest upon a vague notion of the delays Suppos. ed to be necessarily attendant upon chancery proceedings, and COU RT-MARTIAL–COUSTON. the still more groundless notion that a court of chancery pro- ceeds, without any regard to the law or to principles, upon the mere arbitrary discretion of the judge. These prejudices are, however, gradually wearing away, and the remedies, which can only be obtained by proceedings in equity, are from time to time introduced by successive legislative acts. In all the states in which the two species of courts are distinguished, the tribunal of final resort, as in England, is the same in appeals from courts, both of law and equity. There is established, in the city of New York, a tribunal called the marine court, hav- ing jurisdiction of marine torts and questions between masters of vessels and their crews; but, in general, all subjects of commercial and maritime jurisdiction, not belonging exclusive- }y to the courts of the United States, but remaining in the same tribunals, either exclusively or concurrently with the courts of the United States—such as bills of exchange, bills of lading, charter-parties, policies of insurance, claims for seamen's wages, claims for contributions in general average, and maritime torts —are within the jurisdiction of the same courts which have cognizance of other contracts, and torts of similar amounts. In rthost of the states, the jurisdiction of the subject of wills, and granting administration on the estates of persons deceased in- testate, and the appointing of guardians to minors, is assigned to certain tribunals, denominated courts of probate, orphans' courts, sometimes the register's court; and, in one state, a part of this jurisdiction is vested in the court of the ordinary. These courts are held in the several counties. An appeal lies from them, generally, to the higher tribunals. In some states, the sessions of the tribunal of final resort are held only at the capital; in others, again, the sessions are held in the several counties, one session or more in the year being devoted, in each county, to the determination of questions of law, for which purpose all the judges make a circuit of the state in a Ody. COURT-MARTIAL. See Martial Law. COURTS OF LOVE (cours d'amour, corti d'a- more). In the chivalric period of the middle ages, when love was not satisfied with remaining a cher- ished secret of the heart, but stood forth to public view ; when enamoured knights were ambitious to draw the attention of the world, and prove the ardour of their passion, by deeds of daring; when ladies were the soul and ornament of the tourney; and love, in short, was the serious business of life among the higher classes of society, subtle ques- tions on topics of gallantry were discussed in mixed Companies, and often made subjects of poetical com- petition by the troubadours or poets in their chansons; such for example, as the following:—“Which is most easy to be endured, the death or inconstancy of a mistress 2" “Should you rather see me leave your mistress as you approach, or approach as you re- tire P” “Who suffers most, a husband whose wife, or a lover whose mistress, is unfaithful?” At this period, when love was regarded as the source of nobleness of character; when even bishops sung its praises, and the uncultivated and unoccupied minds of a feudal mobility were at a loss for intellectual en- tertainment, the doubts and difficulties which grew out of the belle passion led to the institution of courts of love. The first was probably established in Pro- vence about the twelfth century. These courts were composed of knights, poets, and ladies, who gave their decisions as arréts d'amour, after the man- ner of the parliaments. In 1803, Christopher von Aretin published a collection of these decisions from ancient manuscripts. There is likewise an older collection of them, by Martial d'Auvergne. This species of amusement was so popular, that hardly any court festival took place without a contest in a cour d'amour. These courts reached their highest splendour, in France, under Charles VI., through the influence of his consort, Isabella of Bavaria, whose court was established in 1380. (See Die Min- nehoefe des Mittelalters und ihre Entscheidungen oder Aussprueche, &c., (Leipsic, 1821.) Under Louis XIV., an academy of love was instituted by cardinal Richelieu (assemblée galante) at Ruel. It was an imitation of the courts of love. The princess Maria of Gonzaga presided, and mademoiselle Scudery was attorney-general. We conclude with the interest- ing decision, somewhat at variance with the notions of our times, given by the countess of Champagne on the question, “Can true love exist between husband 499 and wife P” The “ opinion ” was: Nous disons et assurons, par la teneur des présentes, que l'amour me peut €tendre ses droits sur deuw personnes mariées. Et effet, les amants s'accordent tout mutuellement et gratuitement,sans étre contraints par aucune nécessité, tandis que les époua, sont tenus par devoir de subir Téciproquement leurs volontés, et de ne se refuser rien des uns awa, autres. Quece jugement, que mous avons rendu avec une eatréme prudence, et d'après l'avis, d'un grand nombre d'autres dames, soit poºr vous d'une autorite constante et irréfragable. Ains; jugé, l'an 1174, le troisième four des calendes de Mai, indiction septième.* - COURT DE GEBELIN, ANToINE ; born at Nismes in 1724; died at Paris in 1784. His father, a Protestant, left France on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and repaired to Switzerland. The young Gébelin studied with eagerness the writings of the ancients. In his twelfth year, he gained the admira- tion of all by the extent of his knowledge. His studies embraced matural history, mathematics, the dead and living languages, mythology, antiquities and archaeology. After his father's death, he went to Paris. Here he soon became connected with the most distinguished men. After ten years, he pub- lished. from 1773, to 1784, Le Monde Primitif. The learning displayed in this work excited univer- sal admiration. Another production of his is the Muséum. Count de Gébelin was remarkable for his amiable and simple manners. He looked with aver- sion on the quarrels of writers. Towards the end of his life he became a believer in animal magnetism, which was at that time much in vogue. He defend- ed Mesmer, the author of the theory, in his Lettre sure le Magnetism Animal (Paris, 1784, 4to), shortly after which he died. COURTESY, or CURTESY, tenure by, is where a man marries a woman seized of an estate of inheri- tance, and has by her issue born alive, which was born alive, which was capable of inheriting her estate. In this case, on the death of his wife, he holds the lands for his life, as tenant by courtesy. COURTRAY, or CORTRIJK (anciently Corto- riacºm); a fortified town in the Netherlands in West Flanders; twenty-two miles S. W. Ghent, twenty- four S. Bruges; lon. 3° 16' E. ; lat. , 500 49' N.; population, 15,800. It is situated on the river Lys, and celebrated for its manufacture of table limen and lace. Near Courtray, in 1302, the Flemings, under the command of the count of Namur and William of Juliers, defeated the French, who suffered so severe- ly, that, after the battle, 4000 gilt spurs were found on the field of battle, whence the engagement was called la bataille des éperons. In 1793, the French gained a victory over the British at this place. COUSTON, NICHOLAs, born at Lyons, January 9, 1658, died at Paris, in 1733; and Guillaume Cou- ston, born in 1678, died at Paris, in 1746; two bro- thers, famous as sculptors, from whose labours in France, during the reign of Louis XV., statuary re- ceived a noble impulse. The elder was admired for grandeur of ideas and fine taste. He drew correctly, gave to his figures noble attitudes, and splendid and pleasing draperies. His Descent from the Cross, in the cathedral in Paris, is particularly valued. The younger brother was a worthy disciple of the elder, * TRANSLATION. We certify, by the tenor of these presents, that love cannot extend its rights upon two mar- ried persons. In fine, lovers agree mutually and sponta- neously, without being constrained by necessity, whilst Dh3 l'. ried persons are bound by duty reciprocally to yield their wills, and refuse nothing to each other. Let this judg- ment, which we have given with great prudence, and af. ter having oonsulted with a great number Of other ladies, be your firm and constant authority. Given in the year 1174, third day of the calends of May, seventh indictions, . 2 2 500 whom he succeeded as director of the academy of fine arts. Among his works the monument of the cardinal Dubois, in the church St Honoré, is much esteemed. But he was surpassed by his eldest son, also named Guillaume (born at Paris, in 1716, where he died in 1777), on whom Joseph II., during his stay in Paris, conferred with his own hands, the order of St Michael. The statues of Venus and Mars, which he made in 1769, for the king of Prus- sia, larger than life, gained universal admiration. His monument of the dauphin and dauphiness, pa- rents of Louis XVI., in the cathedral of Sens, bears the character of majestic simplicity. COUTTS, THoMAs; a London banker, eminent for his wealth and his connexions. He was a native of Scotland, and early in life became partner with his brother in a banking establishment in the Strand, "where, by a long life of successful business, he amassed an immense fortune. He died in 1822. He was twice married; first to Susan Starkie, a female servant of his brother James, by whom he had three daughters—Susan, married, in 1796, to George Augustus, third earl of Guildford; Frances, married, in 1800, to John, first marquis of Bute; and Sophia, married, in 1793, to Sir Francis Burdett, bart. In 1815, his first wife died; and, three months after- wards, he married Harriet Mellon, an actress at the head of the second class of actresses at Drury-lane. Mr Coutts at his death left her all his property. Mrs Coutts subsequently married the duke of St Albans, a young man of an income rather limited for his rank, and less, it is said, than that of any other English duke. So unequala marriage afforded matter of diver- sion, for a long time, to the English journals. The duchess is said to be a lady of great benevolence. COVE of CoRK, the name bestowed on the har- bour of Cork, which is situated about mine miles from the city of Cork. It is a spacious basin, completely land-locked and capable of permitting the whole navy of Britain to ride at anchor together in perfect safety and shelter. It is guarded at the entrance, which is a long narrow strait, by the two forts of Camden and Carlisle, and protected within by the fortifications on Spike and Hawlboline, two islands directly opposite to the town of Cove, which greatly diversify the view of the harbour, and where permanent barracks are established. Vessels of the largest class can ride safely close to the shores, and the advantageous position of the asylum for vessels in the West India trade is fully appreciated. The town called the Cove consists of one main street and several minor ones, ranging one above the other on the side of a steep hill, and overhang- ing the grand basin. . Before the revolutionary war, it was but an inconsiderable fishing village, but since that period it has grown into populous town, much frequented by invalids. COVENANT. See Bond and Contract. COVENANT. Soon after the reformation was introduced into Scotland, the Scottish Protestants drew up a confession of faith in 1581, the oath an- nexed to which they called the covenant. It was signed by James I., and again subscribed in 1590 and 1596. After the union of the crowns of Scotland and England (1603),as the Stuarts favoured the episcopal churches, whose hierarchical form seemed fitted to promote their despotic views, the dangers which threatened Presbyterianism brought the followers of Calvin, in Scotland, to a closer union; and when in 1637, the new liturgy, modelled after the English, was ordered to be introduced into their churches, disturbances arose, which ended in the forming of a new covenant the following year. During the contentions between Charles ſ. and the parliament, the Protestants in Scotland entered into a “solemn league and cove. COUTTS-COWAL, nant” with the English parliament, by which the independence of the Presbyterian churches was coll- firmed. But, on the restoration of the Stuarts, the Covenant was formally abolished (1661). This however, only served to confirm the strict fresbyte- rians in their principles, (who were hence called covenanters), so that rebellions were frequent among them, till the establishment of perfect freedom of conscience, in 1689. See Cameronians. COVENT GARDEN, a market place in London, which formerly consisted of the garden attached to a convent or religious house. The first theatre erected here was built in 1733. This was burnt to the ground in 1808, but immediately rebuilt from a de- sign by Smirke, at a cost of £300,000, and calculated to contain about 2800 persons. COVENTRY ; a city in England, of great anti- quity, the final syllable being evidently the British tre, signifying town. It is situated in the county of Warwick, 91 miles N. W. of London. Parliaments were convened here by the ancient monarchs of England, several of whom occasionally resided in the place. In the civil war of the 17th century, Coven- try was conspicuous for its activity in the parliamen- tary interest. Many of its edifices are highly worthy of attention. St Michael's church is a beautiful spe- cimen of the pointed style of architecture. There are places of worship for Roman Catholics, Indepen- dents, Dissenters, Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists, and Quakers; also various charitable institutions, two hospitals, alms-houses, and charity schools. The principal manufactures are those of ribands and watches. A weekly market is held here on Friday; and there are several fairs, one of which is called the great or show fair, and continues eight days; on the first day of which is celebrated the grand procession of lady Godiva and her followers. This celebration is founded on the following story:—It is said that Leofric, earl of Mercia, who possessed the property of the tolls and services of Coventry, exacted his dues so rigidly, that the inhabitants were greatly aggrieved, and at length Godiva, his pious wife, became their advocate. The earl, wearied by her solicitations, promised to grant her request, if she would ride naked through the town at mid-day. His terms, according to the legend, were accepted, and the countess rode through the town with no covering but her flowing tresses. It is added that she had modestly commanded every person to keep within doors and away from the win- dows, on pain of death, but that one person could not forbear taking a glance, and lost his life for his curiosity. In commemoration of this occurrence, a procession occasionally takes place at the show fair, in which a female of easy purchase rides in a dress of linen closely fitted to her limbs and coloured like them. The curious person who stole the glance is called Peeping Tom, and a wooden image of him is to be seen on a house in the city. The story is first mentioned by Matthew of Westminster, in 1307, that is, 250 years after the time of Leofric and Godiva. Population, in 1831, 27,076. COWERED WAY (chemin couvert); a space of ground on the edge of the ditch, ranging round the works of a fortification. Its glacis descends, by an easy slope, towards the field. It affords a safe communica- tion round all the works, facilitates Sallies and retreats, and the reception of auxiliaries, compels the enemy to begin his operations at a distance, checks his ap- proach and the erection of breach batteries, and its parapet protects the fortifications in its rear. COVERTURE. See Husband and Płife. COWAL, a district of Argyleshire, forming a pe. ninsula intersected by three arms of the Sea, loch Strevin, loch Rieddan, and loch Goil, and com- prising the parishes of Dunoon with Kilmun, Inver- COWES–COWPER. chaolain, Kilfinan, Kilmodan, Kilmorich, Lochgoil- head, Strachur, and Strathlachlan. It is watered by the rivers Car and Eachaig, and by the extensive fresh lakes Ech and Long, the latter separating it from the shire of Dumbarton, and all abound- ing with the finest fish. The coast is indented with numerous Creeks convenient for the craft employed in the herring fishery. The higher grounds afford ex- cellent pasture for great numbers of black cattle and sheep, while the lowlands by cultivation yield plen- tiful green crops for their winter support. COWES ; a seaport on the north coast of the Isle of Wight, situated on the river Meden, which divides it into East and West Cowes; twelve miles W. S. W. Portsmouth. West Cowes fort is situated in lon. "I* 19'W., lat. 50° 46' N. The harbour is as safe as any in the British channel, and by far the most Convenient for vessels bound to Holland and the east countries, and is much frequented by ships to repair damages sustained at sea, and to water, , until the weather permits them to proceed on their respective voyages. This place is much resorted to in Summer, as a bathing place. East Cowes is a ham- let opposite to West Cowes. COWLEY, ABRAHAM, an English poet of great celebrity in his day, was born at London in ió18. His father, a grocer, died before his birth, but his mother obtained him admission into Westminster School, as king's scholar. He complained of his own defective memory, in the acquirement of the rules of grammar, but nevertheless became a correct classi- cal Scholar, and so early imbibed a taste for poetry, that, in his 16th or 17th year, while yet at school, he published a collection of verses, which he entitled Poetical Blossoms. These juvenile productions, which are more moral and sententious than imagina- tive, attracted considerable attention towards the author, who, in 1636, was elected a scholar of Trini- ty college, Cambridge, where he soon obtained great literary distinction, and published a pastoral comedy, entitled Love's Riddle, and another in Latin, called Naufragium Joculare, which was acted before the university by the members of Trinity college. He continued to reside at Cambridge until 1643, when he was ejected by the puritanical visitors; on which he removed to St John's college, Oxford, where he published a satirical poem, entitled the Puritan and the Papist. He engaged actively in the royal cause, and was honoured with the friendship of lord Falk- land. When the queen was obliged to quit England, Cowley accompanied her. He was absent from his native country nearly ten years, during which time he undertook various journeys for the royal family; and it was principally through him that the corre- spondence was maintained between the king and queen. In 1646 appeared his collection of amatory poems, entitled the Mistress. This was followed, in 1650, by a comedy, called the Guardian, afterwards altered into the Cutter of Coleman Street. In 1656, being no longer employed abroad, he returned to England, where, it is presumed, he still remained a medium of confidential communication between the king and the royal party. Soon after his arrival, he published an edition of his poems, containing most of the works which appear in the final collection. He was, about this time, committed to custody by the ruling powers, but was released on the celebrated doctor Scarborough becoming bail for him to the amount of 261000. For the purpose, probably, of appearing in an ostensible character, he assumed the profession of physic, and had sufficient interest to procure a mandamus from Oxford, in 1657. He again visited France, and resumed his functions of agent in the royal cause on the death of Cromwell. On the restoration he returned with the other royal- 50] ists. By the interest of the duke of Buckingham and the earl of St Albans, he obtained the lease of a farm at Chertsey, held under the queen, by which his income was rendered about £300 per annum. It however appears, that neither the mind nor body of Cowley was fitted for his new mode of life. A severe cold and fever, caught from wandering among the damp fields, terminated his life, July, 1667, in the 49th year of his age. The private character of Cowley entitled him to general respect; and Charles II., (no very conclu- sive testimony, certainly) observed, that he had not left a “better man behind him in England.” It ap- pears, on higher authority, however, that the loyal- ty of Cowley was free from the servility and gross adulation of the courtiers of the day, and that he possessed a free, independent spirit; was modest, Sober, and sincere; of gentle affections and moderate wishes. As a poet, he probably stands at the head of the metaphysical class, so ably discussed in doctor Johnson's life of him. He is, by turns, easy, gay, Splendid, witty, and never trite and vulgar, although often fantastic, strained, and extravagant. The chief merit of Cowley consists in a kind of sport of the imagination in pursuit of a thought through all its variations and obliquities, and in searching throughout the material world for objects of simili- tude with intellectual ideas, connected by the most fanciful relations. The Anacreontics of Cowley are among his most agreeable pieces, and few have para- phrased the Teian bard more felicitously. His own original ballad, the List of Mistresses, is deemed still more sprightly and pleasant. His love verses, entitled the Mistress, abound with wit, but are utter- ly destitute of feeling, being at once ingenious and frigid. His Pindaric Odes exhibit a most un- bridled license of thought, metre, and expression, but contain many very striking combinations and images. His Davideis, which is incomplete, although conveying no strong proof of epic talent, contains Some pleasing passages. Of his occasional pieces, his Hymn to Light is decidedly the most elevated and poetical. As an essayist in prose, Cowley is natural, easy, and equable, abounding with thought, but without any of the affectation or straining which disfigures his poetry. Nor is his comedy, the Cutter of Coleman Street, without humour, although of a temporary nature. As a writer of Latin verse, he is highly commended by doctor Johnson. His princi- pal performance in that language, consists of six books on plants, which show remarkable facility in the accommodation of verse to an untoward subject. His imitations of the satires and moral epistles of Horace are also much admired by Warton. What- ever place Cowley may retain in general estimation as a poet, he must always stand high as a wit; few authors afford so many new thoughts, and those so entirely his own. COWLEY, HANNAH, a popular writer of dramas. was the daughter of Mr Parkhouse of Tiverton in Devonshire, where she was born in 1743. She mar- ried, in her 25th year, captain Cowley of the East India company's service, who died in 1797. Among her dramas are, the Runaway, the Belle's Stra- tagem, (still a stock piece) More ways than One, and the Fate of Sparta. She died in 1809, and a collected edition of her works, with a memoir, was published in 1813, 3 vols. 8vo. In private life, Mrs Cowley was amiable and modest, and her pieces are all of an agreeable kind. - COWPER, WILLIAM, a distinguished English poet, was born at Berkhamstead, Herts, Nov. 26, 1731. His father, the rector of the parish, was the reverend John Cowper, D. D., son of Spencer Cow- per, one of the justices of the common pleas, a younger 502 brother of the lord chancellor Cowper. He received his early education at a school in his native county, whence he was removed to that of Westminster. Here he acquired a competent portion of classical knowledge; but, from the delicacy of his tempera- ment, and the timid shyness of his disposition, he seems to have endured a species of martyrdom from the rudeness and tyranny of his more robust Companions, and to have received, indelibly, the im- pressions that Subsequently produced his Tirocinium, in which poem his dislike to the system of public education in England is very strongly stated. On leaving Westminster, he was articled, for three years, to an eminent attorney, during which time he ap- pears to have paid very little attention to his profes- Sion; nor did he alter on this point after his entry at the Temple, in order to qualify himself for the honourable and lucrative place of clerk to the house of lords, which post his family interest had secured for him. While he resided in the Temple, he appears to have been rather gay and social in his intercourse, numbering among his companions Lloyd, Churchill, Thornton, and Colman, all of whom had been his Companions at Westminster school, and the two lat- ter of whom he assisted with some papers in the Con- noisseur. His matural disposition, however, remain- ed timid and diffident, and his spirits so constitution- ally infirm, that, when the time arrived for his as- suming the post to which he had been destined, he was . thrown into such unaccountable terror at the idea of" making his appearance before the assembled peerage, that he was not only obliged to resign the appoint- ment, but was precipitated, by his agitation of spirits, into a state of great mental disorder. At this period, he was led into a deep considera- tion of his religious state, and, having imbibed the doctrine of election and reprobation in its most ap- palling rigour, he was led to a very dismal state of apprehension. We are told, “ that the terror of eternal judgment overpowered and actually disorder- ed his faculties; and he remained seven months in a continual expectation of being instantly plunged into eternal misery.” In this shocking condition, con- finement became necessary, and he was placed in a receptacle for lunatics, kept by the amiable and well known doctor Cotton of St Albans. At length his mind recovered a degree of serenity, and he re- tired to Huntingdon, where he formed an acquain- tance with the family of the reverend Mr Unwin, Which ripened into the strictest intimacy. In 1773, he was again assailed by religious despondency, and endured a partial alienation of mind for some years, during which affliction he was highly indebted to the affectionate care of Mrs Unwin. In 1778, he again re- Covered; in 1780, he was persuaded to translate some of the spiritual songs of the celebrated madame Guiom. In the same and the following year, he was also induc- ed to prepare a volume of poems for the press, which was printed in 1782. This volume did not attract any great degree of public attention. The principal topics are, Error, Truth, Expostulation, Hope, Cha- rity, Retirement, and Conversation; all of which are treated with originality, but, at the same time, with a portion of religious austerity, which, without Some very striking recommendation, was not, at that time, of a nature to acquire popularity. They are in rhymed heroics; the style being rather strong than poetical, although never flat or insipid. A short time before the publication of this volume, Mr Cow- per became acquainted with lady Austen, widow of Sir Robert Austen, who subsequently resided, for Some time, at the parsonage-house at Olney. To the influence of this lady, the world is indebted for the exquisitely humorous ballad of John Gilpin, and the author's master-piece, the Task. The latter ad- COWPER—COXE. mirable poem chiefly occupied his second volume which was published in 1785, and rapidly secured universal admiration. The Task unites minute ac- curacy with great elegance and picturesque beauty; and, after Thomson, Cowper is probably the poet who has added most to the stock of natural imagery. The moral reflections in this poem are also exceed- ingly impressive, and its delineation of character abounds in genuine nature. His religious system too, although discoverable, is less gloomily exhibited in this than in his other productions. This volume also contained his Tirocinium—a piece strongly writ- ten, and abounding with striking observations, what- ever may be thought of its decision against public education. About the year 1784, he began his ver- sion of Homer, which, after many impediments, appeared in July, 1791. This work possesses much exactness, as to sense, and is certainly a more accu- rate representation of Homer than the version of Pope; but English blank verse cannot sufficiently sustain the less poetical parts of Homer, and the general effect is bald and prosaic. Disappointed at the reception of this laborious work, he meditated a revision of it, as also the superintendence of an edi- tion of Milton, and a new didactic poem, to be en- titled the Four Ages; but, although he occasion- ally wrote a few verses, and revised his Odyssey, amidst his glimmerings of reason, those and all other undertakings finally gave way to a relapse of his malady. His disorder extended, with little in- termission, to the close of life ; which, melancholy to relate, ended in a state of absolute despair. In 1794, a pension of £300 per annum was granted him by the crown. In the beginning of 1800, this gift- ed, but afflicted man of genius, exhibited symptoms of dropsy, which carried him off on the 25th of April following. Since his death, Cowper has, by the care and industry of his friend and biographer, Hay- ley, become known to the world, as one of the most easy and elegant letter-writers on record. COW-POCK. See Paccination. COWRY-SHELLS ; shells used for coin; a kind of small muscles, belonging to the Indian seas, &c.; the cypraea moneta of Linnaeus. They have an oval smooth shell. The largest are an inch and a half in size, and indented on both sides of the opening. They are collected twice a-year in the bay of Ben gal, on the Malabar coast, and, in still greater quan- tity, in the neighbourhood of the Maldive islands. They are used throughout the East Indies, especially in Bengal, and in the African trade, instead of small coins. The demand is so great, that, notwithstand- ing the insignificant price (in 1780, a pound of them might be bought for three half-pence), about 2633,750 worth are sent every year to Bengal. COXE, WILLIAM, an historian and traveller, born in London, 1747, was educated at Eton and Cam- bridge, and successively accompanied several young men of the first English families, on their travels in Europe, in the capacity of tutor. Among these were the earl of Pembroke, the late Mr Whitbread (the famous parliamentary orator), and the marquis of Cornwallis. He published an account of his travels through Switzerland (1779), and through Poland, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark (1784–92), which are highly esteemed, and have been translated into almost all the languages of Europe. As an historian, he brought himself into notice by his Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole, in 1798, which were followed by those of Horatio lord Walpole, in 1802. He then published his History of the House of Austria (1807), which has been translated into German; next, his Mémoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon, from 1700 to 1788 (1813, three vols., 4to). Marlborough's Life and Original Papers (1818 et COX I F-UR A R. seq., three yols., 4to) is a valuable work. Mr Coxe died in 1828. COXIE, or COXCIN, Much AE, , a painter and en- graver, born at Mechlin, 1497. He was a pupil of Bernard van Orley, and travelled to Rome, where he remained several years, attracted by the works of Raphael, with whom he was probably personally ac- quainted. . Here he executed several paintings in fresco, and many other pieces. He also painted, the history of Cupid and Psyche, in the style of Raphael, which was engraved on thirty-two copperplates. In the imperial gallery of Vienna, we find a Madonna with the infant Jesus, by him. His works are rare, even in the Netherlands. He died in 1592. COYPELS, THE ; i. Noel, the father, born, it is uncertain whether in Paris or Normandy, in 1628 or in 1629, died in 1707, at Paris. After he had em- bellished, by the royal command, the old Louvre with his paintings (from the cartoons of Lebrum), and had, in like manner, adorned the Tuileries, he was appointed a director of the French academy in Rome. His four pictures for the council hall at Versailles—Solon, Trajan, Severus, and Ptolemy Philadelphus—excited the admiration of connois- seurs. His chief works are, the Martyrdom of St James (in the church of Notre Dame), Cain murder- ing his Brother (in the academy), the Trinity, and the Conception of the Holy Virgin (in the Hotel des Invalides). Coypel had a rich imagination, drew correctly, understood expression, and was an agree- able colourist.—2. His son, Anthony, born at Paris, in 1661, where he died in 1721, possessed spirit and invention. At the age of fourteen, he studied the works of the Venetian colourists, and, though his stu- dies were interrupted by his speedy return to France, the works that he executed obtained the greatest applause, which rendered him probably more careless than he would otherwise have been. The richness of his imagination and the greatness of his composi- tion caused his imperfect drawing to be overlooked, and his dazzling colouring excused his want of har- mony. His fame laid the foundation for the manner of the French school.—3. Much more pure and correct, but comparatively neglected by the public of his time, was his younger brother, Noel Nicholas Coypel, usually called Coypel the uncle, born at Paris, in 1692, where he died in 1735. Far from desiring to dazzle by a false glitter, he aimed only at truth and nature. Without general popularity, he was satisfied with the praise of a small circle of con- noisseurs of good taste. He finally received a place in the academy.—4. Charles Anthony, the son of Anthony, born at Paris, in 1694, where he died in 1752, followed the example of his father, and accom- modated himself to the taste of his time with great success. The applause which he received did him much injury. He was entirely a mannerist. His colouring was dazzling but inharmonious. His father was the author of a poetical epistle on paint- ing, addressed to him, written with much elegance. COYSEVOX, ANTorn E, a sculptor, was born at Lyons, in 1640, and went to Alsace, in his 27th year, to adorn the beautiful palace of the cardinal Fuerstenberg at Saverne. On his return to France, he became a member of the academy of the arts of painting and sculpture, and made several busts of Louis XIV., and other works for the royal palaces. His figures are full of grace, natural, and noble. He was called the Wandyke of sculpture, on account of the beauty and animation of his portraits. The statue of cardinal Mazarin, in the museum at Paris, is a masterpiece of art. Besides this, his most dis- tinguished works are the statue of Louis XIV., on horseback, for the estates of Bretagne; the sepul- chre of Colbert ; the statues representing the 503 Dordogne, Garonne, and Marne; the group of Castor and Pollux; the sitting Venus; the Nymph of the Shell ; the Hamadryad ; the sportive Faun with the Flute; Pegasus and Mercury. Coysevox died at Paris, in 1720, in the eightieth year of his a Q'e. CRAB (cancer, Lin.). This name, which appears to be derived from the Greek 226230s, through the Latin carabus, used by Pliny to designate certain crustaceous species, is now applied to a considerable group of invertebral animals, whose bodies are covered by an external skeleton, or calcareous crust, having ten articulated limbs, adapted for swimming or Walking, and breathing by branchia, or gills. The head and corselet are united, the latter being broader than it is long. The tail is short in propor- tion, and concealed by being turned forward beneath the body. This genus is distinguished from all others of the Same family by the semicircular shape of the corse- let, the pointed or hooked extremities of the last joint of the limbs, the narrowness of the superior shell from before backwards, the posterior direction of the hinder tarsi, and the absence of spines or ridges from the forceps, or biting claws. They belong to the fourth section of ten-legged, short- tailed crustacea (decapoda brachyura) of the latest Systems, and are of numerous species, exceedingly various in size, colour, and modes of living. A slight survey of the structure of these animals might lead to the opinion that their senses were limited or im- perfect ; but proper observation shows the contrary to be true. The sense of sight, in most of the Species, is peculiarly acute, and enables them to distinguish the approach of objects from a very con- siderable distance. Their power of smelling is also great, though we have not yet discovered the organ by which this sense operates. It has been inferred that the antennae serve this purpose. Until more positive knowledge is acquired on the subject, no evil can arise from this opinion as to the seat of the Sense of smell. The entrance to the organ of hear- ing is at the base of the peduncle sustaining the antennae, and consists of a small, hard, triangular prominence, covered by a membrane, within which is a cavity containing the expanded auditory nerve. Of all the senses, that of touch, except So far as it may be possessed by the antennae, appears to be the least perfect, since the whole body and limbs are incrusted with a hard, compact shell. Of the sense of taste. we can say nothing, but that, as the animals possess a remarkably complex and elaborate apparatus for mastication, there is no reason for believing them devoid of this sense. The mouth is furnished with at least eight pieces or pairs of jaws, which pass the food through an extremely short gullet into a membranous stomach of considerable size. This stomach is rendered curious by having within certain cartilaginous appendages, to which strong grinding teeth are attached. These, in crabs, are five in number, and placed at the pyloric extre- mity, or outlet of the stomach ; so that the aliment, after being subjected to the action of the jaws, is again more perfectly chewed by the stomach-teeth, before entering the digestive tube, where it is exposed to the action of the biliary fluid of the liver. The latter organ is of great size in these creatures, and is all that soft, rich, yellow substance, found immediately beneath the Superior shell, usually called the fat of the crab, and justly esteemed a delicious morsel. A little posterior to the stomach (commonly called sandbag), the heart is situated —a somewhat globular, whitish body, which propels a colourless lymph to the gills (called dead man's fies/, or fingers) and rest of the body, whence it is brough, 504 back to the heart by a hollow vein (vena cava), of considerable size. º The process of sloughing, moulting, or throwing off the entire calcareous covering which constitutes their only skeleton, is common to all the crustacea, and is very worthy of attention. As it is obvious that the hard shell, when once perfected, Cannot change with the growth of the animal, it becomes necessary that it should be shed entirely; and this shedding takes place at regular periods, at which the increase of size occurs. No one can behold the luge claws or forceps of various species, and the smallness of the joints between them and the body, without feeling some surprise that the creature should be able to extricate them from the old shell, though this is readily accomplished. The aquatic crabs, when the season of shedding arrives, generally seek the sandy shores of the creeks and rivers, and, having selected a situation, they remain at rest, and the change begins. The body of the crab seems to Swell, the large upper shell is gradually detached at the edge, or where it joins the thorax or corselet, and the membrane gradually gives way, and rises up from behind, somewhat like the lid of a chest. The crab next begins to withdraw the limbs from their cases, and the large muscles of the claws undergo a softening, which allows of their being drawn through the smaller joints. This movement is slowly effected, and, at the time it is accomplished, the parts about the mouth, the antennae and eyes are withdrawn from their old cases, and the animal escapes, retaining his original figure,but soft, helpless, and incapable of exertion or resistance. By a gentle and not very obvious motion, we next observe the sand displaced below the body, and the crab be- gins to be covered with it, until, at length, he is suf- ficiently covered for safety, though still in sight. This is generally in shallow water, where the sun shines freely upon the bottom; and, in the course of twelve hours, the external membrane begins to harden, so as to crackle like paper when pressed upon, and the process of hardening goes on so rapidly, that, by the end of the next forty-eight hours, the crab regains Something of his former solidity and ability to protect himself by flight or resistance. Myriads of these animals are caught on the shores of the rivers and Creeks of the Chesapeake bay, in America, when in their soft state, and sold to great advantage. At Baltimore, Annapolis, or Easton, in Maryland, in July and August, soft crabs are accounted one of the highest luxuries of the table, and fairly dispute the palm with canvass-back ducks, also to be obtained in perfection in Baltimore during the winter. The habits of crabs are very various: some are ex- clusively aquatic, and remain on the sands or rocks, at great depths in the sea ; others inhabit excava- tions formed in the soft coral reefs or bars on certain Coasts; some spend their days altogether on shore, living in burrows or dens, formed in a moist or boggy Soil ; others resort to the rocky flats or beaches, to bask in the sun, where only an occasional wave dashes over them, and seek refuge in the sea when alarmed; while some species are completely terres- trial, inhabiting holes upon the highest hills and mountains of the West Indies. Of these land-crabs, the most remarkable is the species formerly so abun- dant in the highlands of Jamaica (cancer ruricola), and still common in less densely peopled or uninhabit- ed islands. When the season for spawning arrives, vast armies of them set out from the hills, marching in a direct line towards the sea-shore, for the purpose of depositing their eggs in the sand. On this grand expedition, nothing is allowed to turn them from their course. With unyielding perseverance, they Surmount every obstacle which may intervene, whe- CRAB. ther a house, rock, or other body, not avoiding the labour of climbing by going round, but ascending and , passing over it in a straight line. Having reached the destined limit of their journey, they de- posit their eggs in the Sand, and recommence their toilsome march towards their upland retreats. They set out after nightfall, and steadily advance, until the approach of day-light warns them to seek con- cealment in the inequalities of the ground, or amon any kind of rubbish, where they lie ensconced . the stars again invite them to pursue their undeviat- ing course. On their seaward journey, they are in full vigour and fine condition ; and this is the time when they are caught in great numbers for the table. Their flesh, which is of the purest whiteness, is high- ly esteemed, but like that of all crustaceous animals, is rather difficult of digestion. Returning from the coast, they are exhausted, poor, and no longer fit for use. They then retire to their burrows, and slough, or shed their shells, after which operation, and while in their soft state, they are again sought by epicures. . Seeing they are so much valued as an article of food, it is not surprising that their numbers should be exceedingly diminished, or quite extin- guished, in populous islands, where multitudes are annually consumed, before they have deposited their eggs for the continuance of the species. Besides this cause of diminution, they are destroyed in great num- bers, by other animals, and numbers of them perish from exhaustion and injury on their homeward progress. When the º are hatched, the young, in like manner, seek the hills, and pursue the course of life peculiar to their race. Crabs generally subsist upon animal matter, es- pecially in a state of decomposition, though some of them are very fond of certain vegetable substances. This is especially the case with the swift-running or racer crabs, which live in burrows made in a soft or watery soil, in the vicinity of sugar-cane fields. From their numbers and activity, they become a great nuis- ance, destroying large quantities of cane, by cutting it off and sucking the juice. They sometimes increase to such a degree, that, in conjunction with the rats and other destroyers of the came, they blight the hopes of the planter, and completely spoil his crop. Their excavations in the soil are so deep and exten- sive, and it is so very difficult to catch or destroy them in any way, that they may be regarded as seri- ously subtracting from the value of estates situated near the Sea, or where they are abundant. No one, who has not made the experiment, could readily believe the great distance at which these marauders descry an approaching pursuer, nor the ex- traordinary celerity with which they escape. Few men can run with sufficient swiftness to overtake them; and even when, from any accident, the pursuer is led to hope that he has cut off the retreat of his victim, the wonderful facility they have in running, or rather darting in any direction, or with any part of their bodies foremost, almost uniformly enables them to elude capture, and recommence their flight. . It is seldom, however, that they leave the mouths of their dens, or go to a distance from them, in the day-time; and their vigilance is such, that they regain them in a moment, and disappear securely, as soon as a man or dog comes near enough to be seen. The writer of this article has known a planter, whose crop was ruined one season by bad weather, rats, and crabs combined, vent his spleen by shooting the crabs, which were not otherwise to be approached so as to be killed. This, as might be supposed, was a very ineffectual revenge, since their shells are sufficiently hard to cause most of the shot to glance harmlessly off. Perhaps poisoning, by means of the powder of the nwa vojnica, or St Ignatius's bean, would prove a CRAB-CRABBE. more effectual method. A mixture of this powder with sugar or molasses, and crumbs of bread might be tried with a considerable prospect of success. The species which daily bask in the sun, on the rocky shores of the West India islands, are quite as vigilant, and very little inferior in swiftness to those above mentioned. Some of them are very large, splendidly coloured, and well suited to excite the wishes of a naturalist to add them to his collection. Many an hour of anxious watching, and many a race of breathless eagerness, have they caused the writer in vain. Sometimes when, with great caution, I had approached, and placed myself between the crab and the sea, hoping to drive him inland, and secure him, just at the instant success seemed to be certain, the vigilant animal would dart sidewise, backwards, or in a direction entirely opposite to that he might be expected to take, and scamper securely to his ocean hiding-place. At other times, while stealing upon one which was prevented from observing my ap. proach by a projecting piece of rock, and almost sure of my prize, one vigilant imp at a distance has taken alarm, and, by dashing across the spot where the un- suspecting individual rested, set all in the vicinity to flight, and changed my anticipated triumph to morti- fication. Inquirers who wish to obtain the most ample knowledge of the construction, functions, and classi- fication of crustaceous animals, we refer to DeSmar- est's excellent work, entitled Considérations génér- ales sur les Crustacés (8vo, Paris, 1825). Such as wish to be satisfactorily acquainted with the habits of these curious beings, would find much gratifica- tion from a visit, during the fine season, to some of the places of resort upon the Atlantic coast, where they will find an abundant field thrown open to their examination. Perhaps cape May is one of the best situations for this purpose. CRAB, in ship-building; a sort of wooden pillar, whose lower end, being ſet down through a ship's decks, rests upon a socket, like the capstern. It is employed to wind in the cable, or to raise any weighty matter. . It differs from the capstern by not being furnished with a drum-head, and by having the bars going entirely through it. CRAB-APPLE. See Apple. CRABBE, GEORGE ; a distinguished modern Eng- lish poet, was born at Aldborough, a small village on the coast of Suffolk, on Christmas-eve, 1754. His father, who filled the humble station of collector of the Salt-duties at that port, early perceived the na- tural talents of his son, and gave him a more liberal education than his circumstances could well afford. Being destined for the medical profession, he was, in his fourteenth year, apprenticed to a surgeon at Wickham-Brook, but receiving more than his due share of labours other than professional—for his mas- ter added the calling of a farmer to his other avoca- tions—he was removed, in 1771, to a more eligible situation at Woodbridge, a market town about seventeen miles distant from Aldborough. Here, while fitting himself by study and observation for the duties of his profession, he found time to court the muses, and in 1775, appeared from his pen, Ine- briety, a Poem, in three parts. He subsequently settled as a surgeon and apothecary in his native village, but soon finding his practice insufficient to afford him a livelihood, he resolved to abandon it, and trust to his talents for poetry for support. With this view he proceeded to London, and after a year Spent in that most trying of all situations, that of a literary adventurer without fortune and without friends—a situation from the miseries of which the unfortunate Chatterton, “the wondrous boy,” escap- ed by suicide—when on the point of being thrown 505 into jail for the little debts which he had unavoid. ably contracted, as a last resource, in an auspicious moment, he applied to Edmund Burke for assistance, transmitting him at the same time some verses as a specimen of his abilities. In these sketches Burke at once recognized the hand of a master. He invited the poet to Beaconsfield; installed him in a conveni- ent apartment; opened up to him the stores of his library; watched over his progress, and afforded him the benefit of his taste and critical skill. Under hig auspices the Library was prepared for publica- tion, and by it Crabbe was at once raised to fame. But the efforts of Burke did not stop here. By his advice and assistance—notwithstanding the irregu- larity of his education—Crabbe was admitted to holy orders; appointed domestic chaplain to the Duke of Rutland, and afterwards obtained most am- ple preferment. In 1783, appeared the Village, which placed Crabbe's reputation on a permanent basis. Two years afterwards it was followed by the Newspaper. A period of twenty-two years now intervenes between the publication of the last mentioned poem and Crabbe's next appearance as a poet. During the interval he was devoting himself to his clerical duties, and though he ought not to escape censure for participating in these foul blots on the system of the church of England, plurality and non-residence, it must be admitted, that he per- formed his duties with rather more than average as- siduity. The Parish Register appeared in 1807. In it Crabbe first fully developed the style which may be regarded as peculiarly his own—that minuteness, yet force and truthfulness of description, that search- ing analysis of human character, which stamps him as an original as well as a great poet. The Borough appeared in 1810. In it characters are sketched with a bolder hand, but it is liable to all the objec- tions chargeable against its predecessor. The follies and crimes of its characters are described with the Same painful minuteness which, instead of pity or in- dignation, frequently excites only disgust. The Tales in Verse appeared in 1812. In these our poet has taken what many will conceive a more poe- tical view of human nature. The workings of the finer feelings—the stirrings of loftier emotions are brought more prominently forward, and dwelt on more at large than in his former writings. In some of the tales—the Parting Hour, for instance—he rises with his subject, and pours forth passages of great beauty and pathos. In the Tales of the Hall, which were published in 1819, there are per- haps fewer of these highly-wrought passages, but there are also fewer of those unsparing views of the darker and more repulsive shades of human character which distinguish the Parish Register; as if the higher station in which his characters move had had a Softening effect on his muse, they are in general of a more amiable disposition. The tender passion, on which other poets love to expatiate, and which Crabbe had in general shunned, as out of place among his ruder characters, was here allowed full play, many of the tales turning on its most roman- tic varieties. The latter years of Mr Crabbe's life were spent in the peaceful discharge of his professional duties, at Trowbridge, in Wiltshire. He died, Feb. 3d, 1832, in his 78th year. A beautiful uniform edition of his Works, with a Life by his son, an Notes, was brought out by Mr Murray the booksel- Jer, in 1834. The distinguishing characteristic of Crabbe's poe- try is truth and force of description. Whatever he paints, he sets before you with unrivalled power. His descriptions, indeed, are so faithful, that they look more like transcripts than imitations. Be the sub- jects ever so mean and repulsive, they are shadowed 506 forth in all their deformity; not a flaw escapes his notice, not a fissure but he gives to it “a local ha- bitation and a name.” His anatomy of character is most searching and minute; there is no depth of in- famy which he dares not look into ; no disguise which he cannot penetrate. In some of his match- less researches into the workings of the human mind, we feel as if we witnessed the writhings of a living wretch under the scalpel of the anatomist. Yet with all this there is much of kindliness and compas- sion, much of tenderness and true pathos. To give full scope to his sketches, he sought the subjects for his muse in humble life, where its asperities show themselves most openly—where impulse is not over- borne by the conventional rules of polite Society. To excite the sympathy of the polished and the polite for such beings as he delights to paint, was only to be accomplished by a great and original mind; one of less power would have shrunk from what to it would have appeared insurmountable. As a writer, his style is often quaint and prosaic, and his versification is far from correct. Yet with all his faults, and these are not few, wherever originality and vigour in poetry are regarded, there will the writings of Crabbe be honoured and admired. CRABETH, DIERK and WouTER, brothers; pain- ters on glass; said, by some, to be Germans; by others, to be Dutchmen. They lived at the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries, at Gouda, where they executed eleven paintings on glass, in St John's church, which are still admired. Wouter excelled in exactness, Dierk in power. The art of painting on glass, according to some accounts, ceased with them. It is related that the jealousy of the two brothers prevented them from communicat- ing to each other, the secret of their particular style, and that each, on receiving a visit from the other, carefully concealed such of his works as were not completed, lest the observation of the gradual im- provement of the painting might enable his brother to acquire the peculiar advantages of his style. CRACOW; a republic and city in Poland, in West Galicia, situated on an extensive plain, at the confluence of the rivers Rudawa and Vistula, where many important commercial roads centre; lon. 19° 57. 9" E.; lat. 500 3' 52° N. It was formerly the capital of Poland, and though, afterwards, Sigismund III. (who reigned from 1587 to 1632) fixed the royal residence at Warsaw, still it remained, till 1764, the place of coronation. It contains about 25,000 inhabi- tants, of whom many are Germans, and a great num- ber Jews. It consists of Cracow proper, or the old city, surrounded with fortifications, walls, and ditches, and the suburbs of Stradom and Clepar on the left, and Casimir on the right, bank of the river Vistula. The traveller, on seeing the number of rich old churches and towers, the lofty castle, and the mass of houses, spread out before him on the boundless plain, would suppose that he was approaching a splendid city; but, on entering, he finds a labyrinth of crooked and dirty streets, bearing the remains of "ormer splendour. Cracow is the see of a bishop, who formerly bore the title of duke of Severia. The church of the castle (a Gothic building well worth seeing), the richest church in Galicia, contains the monuments of many Polish kings, the tombs of the famous Sobieski, of Jos. Poniatowski, of Kosciusko and Dombrowski. Of the other 72 churches, some are remarkable for their antiquity. In the church of St Anna stands the marble monument of Copernicus. On one of the three hills near Cracow stands the monument of Kosciusko, 120 feet high. The city is supposed to have been founded by a prince named Cracus, about A. D. 700. It adopted the Magdeburg law in 1257. CRABETH –CRAIG. From this time, it has been the seat of a flourishing commerce, and has possessed a good university, with an observatory. The university was remodelled in 1817. On the division of Poland, in 1795, Cra- cow fell to Austria, which had already taken posses. sion of the suburb of Casimir. In 1809, it was, to- gether with all West Galicia, made a part of the duchy of Warsaw. By an act of the congress of Vienna (1815), Cracow, with a territory of 487 square miles and 108,000 inhabitants (of whom 7300 are Jews, and 1500 Lutherans), was declared a re- public, to remain perpetually neutral, and to be go- verned according to the constitution of May 3, 1815. The city has a militia for its defence. The taxes are considerably reduced, a part of the debts paid, and useful buildings have been erected. The three powers, under whose protection Cracow is (Austria, Russia, and Prussia), on the 5th of Oct., 1826, esta- blished a new course of study for the university and other institutions for instruction. The constitution, signed by Metternich, Rasumoffsky, and Harden- berg, for Austria, Russia, and Prussia, establishes a house of representatives, and a senate with a presi- dent, a court of appeal, &c. The legislative body consists of representatives chosen by the corporations, together with three deputies of the Senate, three pre- lates of the chapter, three doctors of the university, and six judges. The executive power is in the hands of a senate, consisting of twelve senators, eight of whom are for life, and four for a limited period. The president and eight of the members are chosen by the national assembly; the other four by the chapter and the university. Most of the inhabitants are Ca- tholics, but all sects are protected. No one is quali- fied for being a senator or representative without having studied in one of the universities of Poland. CRADLE, in shipbuilding; a frame placed under the bottom of a ship, in order to conduct her, smooth- ly and steadily, into the water, when she is launch- ed; at which time it supports her weight whilst she slides down the descent or sloping passage called the ways, which, to facilitate her passage, are daubed with soap and tallow. CRAFT, in sea language, signifies all manner of nets, lines, hooks, &c., used in fishing. Hence little vessels, as ketches, hoys, smacks, &c., of the kind commonly used in the fishing trade, are called small craft. CRAIG, John, a learned mathematician, who was a native of Scotland, and was settled at Cambridge, in the latter part of the seventeenth century. No- thing more is known of his personal history. As a mathematical writer, he distinguished himself by a number of papers on Fluxions, and other subjects, in the Philosophical Transactions; and by a controversy with John Bernouilli, on the quadrature of curved lines and curvilinear figures. But his principal claims to notice depend on his Theologiae Christianæ Prin- cipia Mathematica, London, 1699, 4to. The ob- ject of this work is to show, from mathematical cal- culations—1. That the certainty of the history of Jesus Christ would have ceased entirely at the end of the eighth century, if it had been supported only by the oral testimony of one person. 2. That the pro- bability of this history composed by four writers, and propagated by a great many copies of their works, was as strong in I699 as it would have been in the time of Christ, to a person who had heard it related by the twenty-eight disciples. 3. That the probabil- ity of this history at the end of 3150 years from the birth of Christ, will entirely cease, and that this con- sequently will be the period when the Son of God will come to judge the world; because then, as is inferred from Luke, chap. viii. ver. 8, there will be no more faith on the earlh. From this statement it CRAIG–CRAMER. would appear that Craig, whatever be thought of his reasoning, was still a believer. His tract was repub- lished at Leipsic, 1755, 4to, by J. D. Titius of Wit- temberg, with a refutation of his arguments; which were also combated by the abbé Houteville. CRAIG, SIR THOMAs; a Scottish writer on juris- prudence, was probably born in the year 1538. In 1552, he was entered a student of St Leonard's col- lege, in the university of St Andrews, and left the college in 1555, after receiving his degree as bache- lor of arts. He then repaired to France, and studied the civil and canon law in some of the flourishing universities of that country. He returned about the year 1561, and after distinguishing himself in a very eminent degree as a classical scholar, he was called to the bar in February 1563, and in the succeeding year was placed at the head of the criminal judica- ture of the country, as justice depute, under the he- reditary officer, the justice-general, an honour west- ed in the noble family of Argyle. He pursued an extensive practice at the bar for a period of upwards of forty years. During the latter part of his career, he devoted much of his time to the composition of his learned treatise on the Feudal Law, upon which his reputation principally rests. To describe the law of our country, as he found it established by the prac- tice of the courts in his own age; to compare it with the written books on the feudal law, and to impart to it somewhat of the form and arrangement of a sci- ence, demonstrating, at the same time, its congruity in its fundamental principles with the feudal law of England, such were the objects of Sir Thomas Craig in this work, which he completed in 1603, a period when it might have been of signal service, if pub- dished, in removing some of the prejudices which stood in the way of a union between the two coun- tries. The treatise, which was written in a vigorous Latin style, was not, however, put forth to the world till forty-seven years after the death of the learned author. The enlarged and liberal mind of Craig ren- dered him a zealous promoter of every object which tended to preserve the mutual peace, or facilitate the union of England. In January, 1603, he finished a Treatise on the Succession, to further the views of mis sovereign, upon the throne about to be vacated by Elizabeth. This work was more immediately oc- casioned by the celebrated Conference on the Suc- cession, written by the Jesuit Parsons, under the assumed name of Doleman, in which the right of James VI. was contested in a manner equally able and virulent. The treatise, probably on account of the quiet succession of James a few months after, was never sent to the press; but an English translation of it was published in 1703 by Dr Gatherer. It would appear that Craig either was one of those who accompanied the king to England, or soon after followed him ; as he was present at the entrance of his majesty into London, and at the subscquent co- romation. He celebrated these events in a Latin hexameter poem. In 1604, he was one of the com- missioners on the part of Scotland, who, by the king's desire, met others on the part of England, for the purpose of considering the possibility of a union be- tween the two countries. He wrote a work on this subject, in which he warmly seconded the views of the king. This treatise, written, like all his other works, in Latin, has never been published. The work upon which he appears to have been last en- gaged, is one upon the old controversy respecting the homage claimed from Scotland by the English monarch. The De Hominio of Craig remained in manuscript till the year 1695, when a translation of it was published by Mr George Ridpath, under the title, Scotland's Sovereignty Asserted, or a Dispute concerning Homage. He died in 1608. 507 CRAIG, WILLIAM, a Scottish judge, who contri- buted largely to the literary paper styled The Mir- ror, was the son of Dr William Craig, one of the ministers of Glasgow; and born in 1745. He re- ceived his education at Glasgow college, where he attended the classes of Smith in moral philosophy and political economy, and those of Millar in jurispru- dence and civil law. He entered at the bar in 1768, and was the contemporary and intimate friend of some of the most distinguished men of the last age. Or the death of lord Hailes in 1792, Mr Craig was ap- pointed to succeed him on the bench, on which oc- casion he assumed the designation of lord Craig. In 1795, he succeeded lord Henderland as a judge of the court of justiciary. The first idea of starting The Mirror occurred to Mr Craig, who, next to Mr Mackenzie, was the most zealous contributor. The remaining persons concerned were Mr Alexander Abercromby, Mr Robert Cullen, afterwards lord Cullen, Mr Macleod Bannatyne, afterwards lord Bannatyne, Mr George Home, afterwards lord Wedderburn, Mr William Gordon of Newhall, and Mr George Ogilvy, both also advocates, but of whom the first died, and the latter fell into bad health before having made any contribution to the Mirror. Mr Mackenzie was the only individual unconnected with the bar. The as- sociation was at first termed the Tabernacle ; but when the resolution of publishing was adopted, it as- sumed the name of the Mirror Club, from the title of the projected paper. Among occasional contributors were lord Hailes, professor Richardson, of Glasgow, Dr Henry, author of the History of Great Britain, and Mr Hume, one of the barons of exchequer. Some other papers of no inconsiderable merit were suppos- ed to be from ladies. The Mirror was commenced on the 23d of January, 1779, and finished with the 110th number on the 27th of May, 1780. It appear- ed in one small folio sheet, which was sold at three half pence, and though not above four hundred were ever sold of any particular number, the public appro- bation was so high as to demand the immediate re- publication of the whole in three volumes duodecimo. Mr Craig's contributions to the Mirror, are indicated in a later edition of the work. To the Lounger, which was started some years after by the same club, he also contributed many excellent papers. Lord Craig, who possessed originally a very weak constitution, enjoyed so poor a state of health in his latter years as to be obliged to resign his place on the justiciary bench. He died on the 8th of July, 1813. He was much esteemed in his character as a judge, his decisions being remarkable for their clear- mess and precision, while his habits were of a singu- larly industrious order, considering the state of his health. In private life he was beloved on account of his gentle, unassuming manners, and his eminently benevolent and sociable disposition. CRAIL, a parish of Fifeshire, commonly called its east neuk or corner. The town of Crail is situated ten miles S. E. of St Andrews. It is a very ancient but now somewhat decayed royal borough. Popu- lation of town and parish in 1831, 1824. CRAMER, JoHN ANDREw, born Jan., 1723, a Joehstadt, near Annaberg, in the Saxon Erzgebirge, where his father was a poor clergyman, studied theology at Leipsic, in 1742, where he supported himself by his literary labours and private instruc- tion. In connexion with Ebert, Joh. Elias Schlegel, Gaertner, Klopstock, Rabener, and other young men, whose labours had a favourable influence on the culti- vation of the German taste, he was actively engaged in editing the Bremischen Beitraege, and likewise the Sammlung vermischter Schriften von den Perfassern | der bremischen Beitraege. In 1754, by the influence of 508 Klopstock he was appointed court preacher and consis- torial counsellor of king Frederic V. at Copenhagen, and, in 1765, professor of theology in the same place. Here he was much respected and beloved, and re- ceived the surname der Eyegode (the very good). The revolution, which caused the downfall of count Struensee and the queen Caroline Matilda, occa- sioned also the disgrace of Cramer, and induced him, in 1771, to accept of an invitation to Luebeck. In 1774, however, he was invited to Kiel as pro- chancellor and first professor of theology ; and, ten years after, was appointed chancellor and curator of the university. He died in 1788, with the reputation of an accomplished scholar, a poet, a fertile author, one of the first pulpit orators, and a man of a noble character and an active zeal for the public good. Be- sides many historical and theological works, he wrote a poetical translation of the psalms, and three volumes of poems, of which the odes and hymns are the best. His son, Charles Frederic Cramer (born in 1752, died in 1807), was likewise an author, and lived long in Paris, whither he was drawn by the interest which he took in the French revolution. His jour- mal, which he kept with great care, contains much information, as his house was the point of union of many distinguished men, and he was concerned in important transactions. CRAMP (kramp, Dutch), in architecture and sculp- ture ; pieces of iron, bronze, or other metal, bent at each end, by which stones in buildings, and limbs, &c., of statues, are held together. The ancient Romans made great use of cramps in their buildings, and the cupidity of modern barbarians, like pope Barberini, has destroyed many a fine work for the sake of the bronze used in its construction. The Pantheon, with its fine portico, by Agrippa, and the Coliseum, have suffered most from these wanton aggressions and the baldachin of St Peter's, and some eighty pieces of brass ordnance, are nearly all that we have in exchange for some of the finest works of which the world could boast. CRANBPRRY ; a small red fruit, produced by a slender, wiry plant (vaccinium owycoccos), growing in peat-bogs and marshy grounds in Russia, Swe- den, the north of England, and Germany, and in North America. The leaves are small, somewhat oval, and rolled back at the edges, and the stem is thread-shaped and trailing. The blossoms are small, but beautiful, each consisting of four dis- tinct petals, rolled back to the base, and of a deep flesh colour. The American cranberry (P. macro- carpon), growing in bogs principally, on Sandy soils, and on high lands, frequent from Canada to Vir- inia, is a larger and more upright plant than the ast, with less convex, more oblong, much larger leaves. The berries are larger, of a brighter red, and collected in great abundance for making tarts, jelly, &c. They are also exported to Europe, but are not considered there equal to the Russian Cranberries. These fruits are collected, in America, by means of a rake; in Germany, by wooden combs. In England, they are picked by hand, as they grow there but scanti- ly. They are preserved with sugar, much of which is required to correct the natural tartness of the berries. In England, they are preserved dry in bottles, corked So closely as to exclude the external air: some persons, however, fill up the bottles with spring water. They keep very long in fresh and pure water. At sea, they are an agreeable addition to the few articles of diet which can be had. In the Pomarium Britanni- cum, by Phillips (London, 1827), it is stated, that, in 1826, cranberries arrived in England from New Holland, which were much superior in flavour to those of Europe and America. CRANE (grus, Pal., &c.); a genus of birds be- CRAMP-CRANE. longing to the order gralla’, L.; and, by the great Swedish naturalist, comprised in his extensive genus ardea, though properly ranked as a distinct genus by all subsequent naturalists. The distinctive cha- racters of this genus are as follow : The bill is but little cleft, is compressed, attenuated towards the point, and rather obtuse at its extremity; the man- dibles are subequal, with vertical margins, the upper being convex, with a wide furrow on each side at the base, which becomes obliterated before reaching the middle of the bill. The mostrils are situated in these furrows, and are medial-concave, elliptical, pervious, and closed posteriorly by a membrane. The tongue is fleshy, broad, and acute. The ophthalmic region and lora are feathered, though the head is generally bald, rough, and sometimes crested. The body is cylindrical, having long and stout feet. The naked space above the tarsus is extensive, and the latter is more than twice as long as the middle toe The toes are of moderate length, covered with scu- tellae, or small plates, and submargined; a rudimental membrane connects the outer one at base ; the inner is free; the hind toe is shorter than a joint of the middle one, and is articulated with the tarsus, elevated from the ground; the nails are tile-shaped, falculate, and obtuse; the middle one has its cutting edge entire; the hind mail is the longest ; the wings are moderate, with the first and fifth primaries subequal; the tail is short, and consists of twelve feathers. These birds are generally of considerable size, and remarkable for their long necks and stilt-like legs, which eminently fit them for living in marshes and situations subject to inundations, where they usually seek their food. This is principally of vegetable matter, consisting of the seeds of various plants, or grains plundered from grounds recently ploughed and Sown. They also devour insects, worms, frogs, lizards, reptiles, small fish, and the spawn of various aquatic animals. They build their nests among bushes, or upon tussucks in the marshes, Constructing them of rushes, reeds, &c., surmounted by Some soft material, so high that they may cover their eggs in a standing position. They lay but two eggs, for whose incubation the male and female alternately take their place on the nest. T)uring the time that one is thus engaged, the other acts as a vigilant sentinel; and, when the young are hatched, both parents unite in protecting them. The crames annually migrate to distant regions, and perform voyages astonishing for their great length and hazardous character. They are remarkable for making numerous circles and evolutions in the air, when setting out on their journeys, and generally form an isosceles triangle, led by one of the strongest of their number, whose trumpet-like voice is heard as if directing their advance, when the flock is far above the clouds, and entirely out of sight. To this call- note of the leader the flock frequently respond by a united clangour, which, heard at such a distance, does not produce an unpleasant effect. From the Sagacity with which these birds vary their flight, ac- cording to the states of the atmosphere, they have, from the earliest ages, been regarded as indicators of events; and their manoeuvres were attentively watched by the augurs andaruspices—a circumstance which, together with their general harmlessness and apparent gravity of demeanour, led to their being held in a sort of veneration, even by some civilized nations. When obliged to take wing from the ground, crames rise with considerable difficulty, strik- ing quickly with their wings, and trailing their feet along and near the ground, until they have gained a sufficient elevation to commence wheeling in circles, which grow wider and wider, until they have soared to the highest regions of the air. When their flight CRANE–CRANIOLOGY. is high and silent, it is regarded as an indication of con- tinued fine weather; they fly low and are noisy in cloudy, wet, or stormy weather. Against approaching storms, the cranes, like various other birds of lofty flight, readily guard, by ascending above the level of the clouds, and the atmospheric currents which bear them ; and this indication of an approaching gust is not lost sight of by Virgil:— gº Nunquam imprudentibus imber Obfuit: aut illum surgentem vallibus imis Aëriae fugère grues; aut bucula,” &c. Georg. I., 373–5. When a flock of cranes is engaged in feeding, or while it is at rest, when the birds sleep standing on one foot, with the head under the wing, one of the number acts as sentinel, and keeps a vigilant watch, alarming the whole if any enemy approach, or the slightest danger threaten. Two species of this genus are known to inhabit America—the whooping crane (G. Americana) and the brown or sand-hill crane (G. Canadensis, Bonap.). The first named derive their trivial appellation from their loud, clear, piercing cry, which may be heard at the distance of two miles. If wounded, they at- tack the sportsman or his dog with great Spirit, and are said to have occasionally driven their long, point- ed bill through the hand of a man. Wilson states that, during winter, they are frequently seen in the low grounds and rice plantations of the Southern States, seeking for grain and insects. He met with a number of them on the 10th of February, near Wac- camau river, in South Carolina, and saw another flock near Louisville, Ky., about the 20th of March. They are very shy and vigilant, and consequently, shot with difficulty. They sometimes, rise spirally in the air to a vast height, their mingled Screams resembling the full cry of a pack of hounds, even when they are almost out of sight. They are distinguished from other cranes by the comparative baldness of their Heads, and by the broad flag of plumage projecting over the tail. Their general colour is pure white. The brown or sand-hill crane is of an ash colour, generally, with shades or clouds of pale-brown and sky-blue : brown prevails upon the shoulders and back. It is a very stately bird, being above six feet long, from the toes to the point of the beak, when extended, and its wings measure eight or nine feet from tip to tip. When standing erect, the Sand-hill crane is full five feet high ; the tail is quite short, but the feathers pendent on each side of the rump are very long, of a delicate silky softness, and sharp- pointed. The crown of the head is bare of feathers, and of a reddish rose colour, but thinly barbed with a short, stiff, black hair. When the wings are mov- ed in flight, their strokes are slow, moderate, and regular, and, even when at a considerable distance above us, we plainly hear the quill-feathers, as their shafts and webs-rub upon one another, creaking like the joints of a vessel in a tempestuous sea (Bartram). 'The sand-hill crane is common, and breeds in the Sa- wannas of Florida. It is also found in various parts of the American states and territories. It is most rare in the middle portions of the Union. CRANE; a machine employed in raising or lower- ing heavy weights. Cranes are generally constructed by an application of the wheel and axle, cog-wheel, wheel and pinion, on the principle of the hydrosta- tic press. The first may be regarded as somewhat re- Sembling the CAPSTAN, and the last BRAMAH's PRESS, which have already been described. The subjoined cut will illustrate the form and operation of the wheel and pinion crane, made of cast-iron. The collar B is made to revolve in an iron or stone cylinder A, fixed in the ground ; the collar revolving on balls at the top, for the purpose of diminishing friction. 509 The post c, is firmly attached to the collar, and carries the gib and stay, J), E. It has a double gib and stay, which screw on each side of the post, and admit the pulley between them. This crane is very commodious, and may be made of great power. A. CRANIOLOGY (from 242vſov, the skull, and Aoyos, science), a term applied to express a doctrine said to have originated with Drs Gall and Spurzheim, by means of which a knowledge is to be obtained of the charactersofindividuals, merely by inspecting the forni of the brain, as demonstrated by the external forma- tion of the bones of the skull. It is assumed in this doctrine, that the contents of the skull, by pressing outwards, impress various contours upon the bones of the head, and that these are different in every in- dividual exactly in proportion as certain parts of the brain are more or less emergetic or developed. And it is also assumed, that every human being is born with certain innate propensities, which may be ini- proved or suppressed by education, but that these innate propensities will always exist in proportion, to the greater or less development of that particular portion of the brain, in which the organs of these propensities reside. Nemesius, bishop of Emesa, under the reign of Theodosius, taught that the sensations had their seat in the anterior ventricles, memory in the middle of the brain, and understanding in the posterior ven- tricles. Albertus Magnus, in the 13th century, went so far as actually to delineate upon a head, the supposed seat of the different faculties of the mind. He placed common sense in the forehead, or first ventricle of the brain; cogitation and judgment in the second; memory and moving power in the third. Peter de Montaguana, in 1491, published a figure of the head, on which were indicated the seat of com- mon sense, the cell of imagination, the cell of estimat: ing or cogitation, the cell of memory, and the cell of reason. Ludovico Dolci, Servito, and a great number of other writers, have hazarded similar opin- ions as to the particular seat of the different facul: ties. Both Baron Haller and Van Swieten fancied that the internal senses occupy different places in the brain, but they considered its whole organization as too complicated, too intricate, and too difficult, to allow of any hope that the seat of memory, of judg- ment, or of imagination could ever be detected. Dr. Gall, after many years, spent in this difficult investigation, conceived that he discovered the clue which was to conduct us through the mazes of the 510 labyrinth. Having procured as many skulls as possible, of all those persons who had been greatly distinguished for a particular talent or Inoral quality, he remarked the peculiarities of their shape and com- pared them together. He then collected observations on other individuals, who were remarkable for the weakness of any faculty, and made further com- parisons as to their positive and negative indications. When he had no other opportunity, he did not scru- ple, as Dr Spurzheim informs us, to address his ques- tions directly to the person in whose head he observed any distinct protuberance. He used to collect around him the boys whom he met in the streets of Vienna, where he resided, and induced them, by petty bribes, to confess their own faults and betray those of their companions. He sometimes encouraged them to fight together, to find out which had most courage, and then drew his inferences as to the organ which prompted that sentiment. In the absence of the skulls them- selves, he procured plaster casts, or impressions, of the most remarkable he could hear of, and even induced living individuals to allow their heads to be modelled, to illustrate his conjectures. The mi- mister of police at Vienna, being his friend, gave him various opportunities of adding to his collection of facts, by permitting him to open the heads of exe- cuted felons and maniacs. Being without any family to provide for, he expended large sums in gratifying his taste in this manner, and amassed an extensive collection of skulls, as well as of heads, in illustration of his doctrines. He availed himself, also, of the aids afforded by comparative anatomy, and procured the skulls of all sorts of animals, with a view to trace the forms and sizes of corresponding organs throughout the whole series. He arranged all the faculties of the mind, with their corresponding organs, (or parts of the brain in which they have their seat,) according as they relate to the feelings and the intellect : the first class comprehending the propensities, all of which are common to men and animals, and the sentiments, (Synonymous with the French l’ame and the German genneth); and the second class comprising the facul- ties by which we acquire knowledge, or the knowing faculties, as he terms them ; and also the reflecting faculties, which last compose what the French call ('esprit, the Germans gheist, and what we should ge- nerally understand by the term intellect. He asserted that the organs of those faculties which men possess in common with other animals are situated towards the basis, or back part of the brain, while those of the Superior faculties, which are peculiar to man, are placed somewhat higher; and that the organs subser- Vient to the intellectual faculties occupy exclusively the forehead. The total number of special faculties he makes out to be thirty-three, of which he gives.us the following enumeration : CRANIOLOGY —CRANK. 1. Amativeness. 2. Philoprogenitiveness. 3. Con- centrativeness. 4. Adhesiveness. 5. Combativeness. 6. Destructiveness. 7. Constructiveness. 8. Acquisi- tiveness. 9. Secretiveness. These nine, being com- mon to men and other animals, and occupying the ba- sis of the brain, he calls inferior faculties. The next nine are the second genus of the order of feelings or sentiments; these are : 10. Self-love, or self-esteem. 11. Love of approbation. 12. Cautiousness. 13. Benevolence. 14. Veneration. 15. Hope. 16. Ide- ality. 17. Conscientiousness. 18. Firmness. To the order called Intellect, and the first genus of that order, or the knowing faculties, he assigns the following species; namely : 19. Individuality. 20. Form. 21. Size. 22. Weight. 23. Colour. 24. Locality. 25. Order. 26. Time. 27. Number. 28. Tune. 29. Language. The second genus of the order Intellect, or the reflecting faculties, contain the following four species: 30. Comparison. 31. Caus- ality. 32. Wit. 33. Imitation. Under the head Phrenology, it is our intention to enter somewhat into the philosophy of this so called science. Meanwhile, we have thought it sufficient, in this place, to point out the little cages in which phrenologists have chosen to confine the passions and faculties of man. CRANK ; an iron axis with the end bent like an elbow, for the purpose of moving a piston, the saw in a sawmill, &c., causing it to rise and fall at every turn; also for turning a grindstone, &c. The com- mon crank affords one of the simplest and most use- ful methods for changing circular into alternate mo- tion, and vice versa. Double and triple cranks are likewise of the greatest use for transmitting circular motion to a distance. In fact, cranks belong to those few simple elements on which the most complicated machines rest, and which, like the lever, are con- stantly employed. The single crank, Fig. 1, can CRANMER. only be used upon the end of an axis. The bell crank, Fig. 2, may be used in any part of an axis. The double crank, Fig. 3, produces two alternate motions, reciprocating with each other. ſº: - —l CRANMER, THOMAs, famous in the English re- formation, during the reign of Henry VIII., was born in 1489. He entered as a student of Jesus college, Cambridge, in 1503, took the degree of M.A., ob- tained a fellowship, and, in 1523, was chosen reader of theological lectures in his college, and examiner of candidates for degrees in divinity. In the course of conversation on the then meditated divorce of Henry VIII. from his first wife, Catharine of Arragon, Cran- mer remarked that the question of its propriety might be better decided by consulting learned divines and members of the universities than by an appeal to the pope. The opinion thus delivered having been re- ported to the king by doctor Fox, his majesty was highly delighted with it, exclaiming, at the prospect it afforded him of being able to remove the obstacles to the gratification of his passions, “By ——, the man has got the sow by the right ear !” Cranmer was sent for to court, made a king's chaplain, and commanded to write a treatise on the subject of the divorce. In 1530, he was sent abroad, with others, to collect the opinions of the divines and canonists of France, Italy, and Germany, on the validity of the king's marriage. At Rome, he presented his treatise to the pope, and afterwards proceeded to Germany, where he obtained for his opinions the sanction of a great number of German divines and civilians, and formed such intimate connexions with the rising party of the Protestants as probably influenced greatly his future conduct. He also contracted marriage, though in holy orders, with the niece of doctor Osiander, a famous Protestant divine. Cranmer was employed by the king to conclude a commercial treaty between England and the Netherlands; after which he was ordered home, to take possession of the metropolitan see of Canterbury. He hesitated to accept of this dignity, professing to be scrupulous about applying to the pope for the bulls necessary for his consecra- tion. This difficulty was obviated by a vague, and secret protestation, which can be justified only on the jesuitical principle of the lawfulness of mental re- servations or virtual falsehoods. The application being therefore made, in the usual manner, to the court of Rome, the pall and bulls were sent. Soon after, he set the papal authority at defiance, by pro- nouncing sentence of divorce between Henry and Ca- tharine, and confirming the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn. The pope threatened excommunication, and an act of parliament was immediately passed for abolishing the pope's supremacy, and declaring the king chief head of the church of England. The arch- bishop employed all his influence in forwarding such measures as might give permanence to the reforma- tion. The Bible was translated into English, and dispersed among the people; the monastic institutions were suppressed ; the superstitious observances con- nected with them were abolished; and provision was 511 made for the instruction of all ranks in the principles of the prevailing party. In 1536, the casuistry of Cranmer was a second time exerted, to gratify the base passions of his ty- rannical sovereign. When Anne Boleyn was des- timed to lose her reputation and her life, that the king might take another consort, it was determined also to bastardize her issue ; and the archbishop meanly stooped to pronounce a sentence of divorce, on the plea that the queen had confessed to him her having been contracted to lord Percy, before lier marriage with the king. The compliances of the pri- mate served to insure him the gratitude of Henry, though he was obliged to make some important sa- crifices to royal prejudice, which was strongly in fa- vour of the ancient faith, where that did not tend to curb the king's own passions or prerogatives. In 1539 was passed an act of parliament, called the bloody act, condemning to death all who supported the right of marriage of priests, and communion of both kinds to the laity, and who opposed transub- stantiation, auricular confession, vows of chastity, and the necessity of private masses. Cranmer op- posed, as long as he dared, this enactment ; but, finding his efforts vain, he gave way, and sent his own wife back to her friends in Germany. He sub- sequently succeeded in carrying some points in favour of further reformation ; and, in 1540, he published a work for popular use, chiefly of his own composi- tion, entitled the Necessary Erudition of a Christian Man. On the death of Henry, in 1546—7, the archbishop was left one of the executors of his will, and mem- ber of the regency appointed to govern the king- dom during the minority of Edward VI. He united his interest with that of the earl of Hertford, after- wards duke of Somerset, and proceeded to model the church of England according to the notions of Zuinglius, rather than those of Luther. By his in- strumentality, the liturgy was drawn up and esta- blished by act of parliament, and articles of religion were compiled, the validity of which was enforced by royal authority, and for which infallibility was claimed. Under Cranmer's ecclesiastical govern- ment, Joan Bocher and George van Paris were burnt as heretics; and the fate of the former is rendered peculiarly striking by the fact that the primate, by his spiritual authority and pressing im- portunity, constrained the young king to sign the death warrant for the auto-da-fé of the unhappy criminal, which he would not do till he had disbur- dened his own conscience, by telling the archbishop that, if the deed were sinful, he should answer for it to God. The exclusion of the princess Mary from the crown, by the will of her brother, was a mea- sure in which Cranmer joined the partisans of lady Jane Grey, apparently in opposition to his own judgment. With others who had been most active in her elevation, he was sent to the Tower on the accession of Mary. That princess had personal obligations to Cranmer, who is said to have pre- served her from the anger of her father, which menaced her with destruction, for her pertinacious adherence to the Catholic faith; but she could not forget or forgive the disgrace of her mother and her- self, in effecting which, the archbishop had been so important an agent; he was therefore destined to become the victim of popish ascendency. He was tried before commissioners sent from Rome, on the charges of blasphemy, perjury, incontinence, and heresy, and cited to appear within eighty days at Rome, to deliver, in person, his vindication to the pope. To comply with this mandate was impossible, as he was detained in prison; nevertheless he was declared contumacious for not making his appear- 512 ance, and sentenced to be degraded and deprived of office. After this, flattering promises were made, which induced him to sign a recantation of his alleged errors, and become, in fact, a Catholic con- vert. The triumph of his enemies was now com- plete, and nothing was wanting but the sacrifice of their abused and degraded victim. Oxford was the scene of his execution; but, to make the tragedy more impressive, he was placed on a scaffold in St Mary's church, the day he was to suffer, there to listen to a declaration of his faults and heresies, his extorted penitence, and the necessity of his expiating, by his death, errors which Heaven alone could pardon, but which were of an enormity too por- tentous to be passed over by an earthly tribunal. Those who planned this proceeding accomplished but half their object. Instead of confessing the justness of his sentence, and submitting to it in silence, or imploring mercy, he calmly acknowledged that the fear of death had made him belie his con- Science; and declared that nothing could afford him consolation but the prospect of extenuating his guilt by encountering, as a Protestant penitent, with firmness and resignation, the fiery torments which awaited him. He was immediately hurried to the Stake, where he behaved with the resolution of a martyr, keeping his right hand, with which he had signed his recantation, extended in the flames, that it might be consumed before the rest of his body, exclaiming, from time to time, “That unworthy hand.” He was executed, March 21, 1555–6. The fate of Cranmer has shed a false lustre over his character, and procured him the reputation of a Protestant martyr, while he was, in reality, the vic- tim of party malice and personal revenge. Suc- cessively a Catholic, a Lutheran, a Zuinglian, a defender of transubstantiation, and then a persecutor of those who believed that doctrine, the soundness, if not the sincerity of his faith, may fairly be ques. tioned. Even the purity of his motives as a re- former, is rendered somewhat doubtful, by the fact of his having obtained, on very advantageous terms, numerous grants of estates which had belonged to Suppressed monasteries. His private character, however, was amiable; and, whatever may have been his principles, no doubt can exist as to the eminence of his talents. His continued favour with the Capricious Henry is a decisive proof of his mental superiority. He steadily pursued his grand object, the independence of the English church, to the establishment of which he contributed far more than any other individual. CRANTARA ; the cross which formed the rally- ing symbol in the Highlands of Scotland on any sudden emergency. It was called in Gaelic, cream #arigh, “the cross of shame;” because, says Sir Walter Scott, in his note on the passage of the Lady of the Lake (canto 3), in which he has made such a fine use of it, disobedience to what the symbol im- plied, inferred infamy. “When flits this cross from man to man, Wich-Alpine’s summons to his clan, Burst be the ear that fails to heed I Palsied the foot that shuns to speed May ravens tear the careless eyes, Wolves make the coward heart their prize 1 As sinks the blood-stream in the earth, SO may his heart’s-blood drench his hearth ! *s dies in hissing gore the spark, Quench thou his light, Destruction dark And be the grace to him denied Bought by this sign to all besides 1’ The Highlanders appear to have borrowed it from the ancient Scandinavians, of the use of it among whom, for rousing the people to arms, Olaus Magnus gives a particular account. As late as the insurrection in 1745, the crantara, or fiery cross, CRANTARA-CRAWATs was circulated in Scotland, and, on one occasion, it passed through the district of Breadalbane, a tract of thirty-two miles, in three hours. After Charles Edward had marched into England, two of the king's frigates threatened the coast with a descent. The crantara was sent through the district of Appine by Alexander Stuart of Invernahyle (who related the circumstance to Sir Walter Scott), and, in a few hours, a sufficient force was collected to render the attempt of the English hopeless. CRAPE ; a light, transparent stuff, like gauze, made of raw silk, gummed and twisted on the mill, woven without crossing, and much used in mourn- ing. Crapes are either craped (i. e., crisped) or smooth. The silk destined for the first is more twisted than that for the second, it being the greater or less degree of twisting, especially of the warp, which produces the crisping º to it, when taken out of the loom, steeped in clear water, and rubbed with a piece of wax for the purpose. Crapes are all dyed raw. This stuff came originally from Bologna ; but, till of late years, Lyons is said to have had the chief manufacture of it. It is now manufactured in various parts of Great Britain. The grape brought from China is of a more substantial fabric. CRAPELET; father and son; two printers. The father, Charles, born at Bourmont, November 13, 1762, established his printing-office in 1789, and died October 19, 1809. He might be called the French Baskerville. Like this printer, he endeavoured to unite the greatest simplicity with elegance, to deli- ver the art of printing from the heterogeneous orna- ments with which it was so overloaded, particularly in France, and from which even Didot could not en- tirely free himself; but he surpassed his model in the form of his types and the regularity of his work. His editions are no less correct than meat and beau- tiful. IIe has also been successful in printing on parchment, and has shown his skill by producing an impression in gold (thirteen copies of Audebert's Oiseaua dorés, Paris, 1802, two vols., folio).-A. G. Crapelet has extended his father's business, and has excelled him in elegance. His Lafontaine (1814), Montesquieu (1816), Rousseau and Voltaire (both 1819), are monuments of his taste; and the large vellum-paper copies are truly splendid works. The words “De l'imprimerie de Crapelet” are a great recommendation. Renouard has had all the editions published at his expense printed by Crapelet, who, in 1800, employed twenty-two presses. CRASSUS. Two Romans of this name are here to be mentioned. 1. Lucius Licinius Crassus, who was made consul A. U. C. 658 (B. C. 96), and pass- ed for the greatest orator of his time. He was dis- tinguished for talent, presence of mind, and integrity. 2. M. Licinius Crassus, surnamed Dives (the rich), so called, like many of his family, on account of his vast riches. He possessed a fortune equal to £1,125,000. He once gave an entertainment to the whole people, in which 10,000 tables were set, and, besides this, distributed corn enough to last each family three months. In the years of Rome 683 and 698, he was colleague of Pompey, in the consulship, and, in 688, censor. As he was one of the most influential men in Rome, and very ambi- tious, his friendship was sought by Caesar, who form- ed, with him and Pompey, the famous triumvirate. He perished with a great part of his army, in an expedition againstithe Parthians, undertaken from motives of avarice and ambition, B. C. 53. CRATER. See Polcano. CRAWAT; an unhealthy, uncomfortable, unbe- coming article of European dress. The ancients were unacquainted with this ridiculous and injurious CRAWAT—CRAWFISH. style of bundling up the neck. They left unconfined that important region of the body, through which so many vessels pass, and in which are situated so many organs, which will endure no constraint with impunity. In some cases, indeed, they defended themselves from the cold by a woollen, cotton, or silk band, called, in Latin, focale, from fauces, throat. But no one could venture to use this con. trivance publicly, unless he was sick; in which case he might cover his head, and the upper part of his shoulders, and even wear breeches without disgrace. “Palliolum, sicut fascias et focalia,” says Quinctilian, sola eaeusare potest valetudo.” It was allowable, in- deed, to cover the neck with the toga in bad wea- ther, or to hold the hand over it, for the preserva- tion or restoration of the natural temperature. The Poles never wear anything round the neck, notwith- standing the severity of their winters. The same custom prevails among the Orientals, by whom a white, round neck is compared to the beauty of an ivory tower. The bare neck gradually became un- fashionable in Europe. It was at first surrounded, but not constrained, by a starched band of fine linen, on the upper edge of the shirt, falling back natural- ly upon the bust, where it was fastened by a small cord. This was the origin of all the different spe- cies of collars since used—the innocent parent of those thick hot folds, in which the neck was destin- ed to be afterwards muffled. Ruffs, stiffened or plaited, single or in many rows, an inconvenient, indeed, but not a dangerous ornament, had their turn, and lasted as long as short hair was in fashion. They were abandoned, when Louis XIII. allowed his hair to grow : then standing collars, embroidered and pinked, the plaited collarettes, the neck-band, plain or laced and pointed, encompassed the neck chim-deep; and when Louis XIV. adopted those emor- mous periwigs, which hardly left the throat visible, all these splendid envelopes gave way to ribands, tied in brilliant bows. Next came the epoch of the dan- gerous subjection of the neck to constriction and compression, from which it had hitherto been ex- empt. In 1660, a foreign regiment arrived in France, Composed of Croats, in whose singular costume one thing was generally admired and imitated. It was a bandage about the neck, consisting of common stuff for the soldiers, and of muslin or silk for the officers. The ends were disposed in a bow, or garnished with a tuft or a tassel, and hung not ungracefully over the breast. This new article of dress was at first called a croate, and afterwards, by corruption, a cravat. The military and the rich, at that time, wore very fine cravats, with the border embroidered, or edged with broad lace. Those of the soldiers consisted of a scrap of cloth, of cotton, or, at the best, of black, plaited taffeta, bound round the neck by two small cords. Afterwards, the place of these cords was supplied by clasps or a buckle, and then cravats took the name of stocks. Under Louis XVI., the stocks yielded to the cravats dº la cham- celière. The last flourished but for a moment: the revolution came, and with it disappeared cravats and even tight breeches. Soon after this epoch (1796), the cravat recovered its popularity, and increased to an incredible degree of extravagance. Some persons enveloped the neck with whole pieces of muslin; others, with a padded cushion, on which were wrapped numerous folds. In this way, the neck was puffed out so as to be larger than the head, with which it was imperceptibly con- founded. The shirt-collar arose above the ears, and the upper edge of the cravat buried up the chin and the Inouth nose-deep ; so that the visage, bristling on either side with a grove of bushy whiskers, and its ! I. 513 upper regions ensconced to the eyes by the hair flat- tened down over the brows, absolutely showed no- thing except the nose, projecting in all its pleni- tude. The exquisites thus cravatted resembled any- thing rather than men, and afforded excellent sub- jects for caricatures. If they wished to look any way except straight forward, they were obliged to turn the whole trunk, with which the neck and head formed but one piece. It was impossible to incline the head in any direction. Most fashions have been invented to hide an in- firmity or a deformity: large cravats were probably first used to conceal Some disagreeable scars, or some unlucky malformation. A singer or a public speaker cannot use his voice to advantage during the time when his cravat is tied too tight. The habit of wearing large cravats renders the neck very liable to be affected by exposure. . By uncovering the neck imprudently when heated, severe and danger- ous diseases have often been contracted. A young man or young lady, on leaving a party in a warm apartment, should be careful to protect the neck and breast from cold. CRAWFISH (astacus, Fab.); a crustaceous genus, belonging to the family decapoda macroura (ten leg- ged, long tailed), characterized by having the anteri- or part of the elongated semi-cylindric superior shell produced to form a rostrum or beak; the abdomen large, slightly attenuated posteriorly, composed of six joints, forming a tail quite as long, when extended, as the body, and terminating in five broad-fringed, swimming appendages, which fold laterally upon each other. In both sexes, the under part of the ab- domen is generally provided with five pairs of false claws, each terminated by two plates or plaments. The exterior jaw-feet are mostly narrow, elongated, and do not entirely cover the other parts of the mouth. The gills are pyramidal, brush-shaped, or plume-like, separated from each other by tendinous slips, and situated beneath the 'sides of the great superior shell, over the external base of the feet. Of the latter, the second and third pairs are elongated, slender, and furnished at the last joint, which is mov- able, with small pincers; the fourth and fifth pairs have the last joints simply pointed or hooked. The sexual organs are placed, in both sexes, in the basal joint of the last pair of feet. The species .# to this genus, as at present restricted, do not excee six. Some of these kinds are peculiar to Salt and others to fresh water. Of the former, the most cele- brated is the lobster (astacus gammarus). In their modes of living, the crawfish generally resemble the aquatic crabs (see Crab), feeding on putrefying ani- mal matter, spending their time on the Sandy or rocky bottom of deep waters, and only approaching the shallows when impelled by the necessity of under- going their change of shell, or when under the sex- ual influence. The common lobster is the largest species, and grows to a size which may well appear wonderful to persons accustomed to see none but small ones. They are brought to the New York market more than two feet in length, and weighing 20 pounds and upwards. Such individuals, however, are not preferred for the table, as their size is a good indication to their age, and their period of life is stated to extend to 20 years and more. . The Smaller, or half-sized lobsters, are considered the best. The fresh-water crawfish, of which one species (astacus bartnoi;) is very common in most of the fresh- water streams and brooks from Pennsylvania South- ward, afford us the best opportunity for observing their habits. We find them inhabiting excavations of considerable depth along the borders, or a short distance within the current of the stream, at the bot- tom of which they lie hid. In the spring of the year, 2 K 514 by cautiously approaching, and remaining quietly on the margin of such a stream, we may see the crawfish industriously bringing from the lower part of their caves the dirt accumulated there; and this enables us to comprehend the manner in which they origin- ally made their retreats. Upon the two great claws, folded towards each other, and thus forming, with the front of the body, a sort of shelf, the dirt is carefully brought to the surface, and thrown down just where the current will sweep it away. As the substances thus brought up are very light, it requires, a very gentle movement of the animal to avoid spilling, or rather washing off his lading; and he therefore rises in the gentlest and most circumspect manner. We can testify to the patience with which this labour is continued, as, with the view of observing the opera- tion, we have often quietly pushed in the earth from the edge of the water, which they as often have toiled on to remove. It is upon these fresh-water species that the observations have been made, rela- tive to the reproduction of limbs or claws violently broken off. But a short time elapses before a growth or vegetation occurs at the stump or broken part, and a new limb, similar to the original, though some- times rather smaller, is soon formed. This facility of reproduction is found to extend throughout the crus- taceous class. Fresh-water crawfish are regarded by many as furnishing a delicate dish for the table, though their small size, and the trouble of collecting a sufficient number of them, are great obstacles to their being extensively employed in this way. They are preyed upon by various animals, especially by certain birds, whose long bills are adapted to picking them out from the bottom of their dens. CRAYER, GASPAR, a Dutch painter, born in 1582, at Antwerp, was a pupil of Raphael Coxie, and be- came, by the study of nature, one of the greatest historical and portrait painters. At the Spanish court in Brussels, he painted the portrait of the cardinal Ferdinand, brother of the king, and received a pen- sion. He established himself in Ghent, where he constantly executed works for the court. He la- boured with industry and perseverance till his 86th year. When Rubens saw his finest painting in the refectory of the abbey of Affleghem, he cried out, “Crayer, Crayer, nobody will ever surpass thee!” The city of Ghent alone had twenty-one altar-pieces by him. In Flanders and Brabant are many of his works, and some of his pictures are in the public col- lections at Vienna and Munich. His paintings are praised for fidelity to nature, excellent drawing, and a colouring approaching the manner of Vandyke. The latter was his friend, and took his likeness. Crayer died in 1669. CRAYONS ; a general name for all coloured stones, earths, or other minerals and substances used in designing or painting in pastel, whether they have been beaten, and reduced to a paste, or are used in their primitive consistence, after being sawn or cut into long, narrow slips. Crayon painting is practised by rubbing on dry colours, in the manner of chalk, on grounds properly prepared. Vellum or paper is to be employed to receive the colours. The wellum or paper is to be pasted upon canvass extended on a proper stretching frame; a mixture of powdered pumice-stone and whitening, or prepared chalk, with the addition of some thin size or glue, is them to be laid over the surface of the paper or vellum with a common paste brush, and this is to be repeated twice ; when dry, it must be well rubbed with a piece of flat pumice-stone, to render it even and Smooth. The colours used in crayons are the same as those employed in oil-painting, with this differ- ence, that no white lead is admitted into their com- position, as it alters and turns black on exposure to CRAYER—CREBILLON. the air. The whites, therefore, are formed from chalk or plaster of Paris, or the best whitening; with this addition, all the different degrees of tint are pro- duced, with the mixture perhaps of a little white pipe- clay or soap; but the best Crayons are made in Switz zerland or Paris, and are to be had at all the colour shops, ready and arranged in sets. The design then being sketched in with pipe-clay, or soft willow char- coal, the crayon is to be laid on in a good full body, in the manner of chalk, and then rubbed in and made smooth with the tips of the fingers; whatever be the form or surface to be filled, it is best to begin with the middle tint; and in painting flesh, the grey tones should precede the warm. As crayons differ much in their degrees of hardness, arising from the nature of the colours composing them, particularly those made from lakes and blues, it may be found neces- sary occasionally to moisten with spirits of wine such as are found to be very hard and unmanageable, and if too soft, they should be broken down and ground up again with the addition of a little skimmed milk. The excellence of crayons consists, in general, in their possessing the necessary degree of softness, for as one colour is always laid on over another, the finger is injured by being employed in rubbing in those which are too hard. There is a sort of paper sold in the shops called crayon paper, which is pecul- liarly adapted for this mode of drawing, and made of a variety of tints. Some artists prefer using this sort of ground. Crayons are falling daily into disuse; first, because they are apt to perish and spoil, if not covered with glass, and, secondly, because the shadows are always opake and mealy-looking. Different methods have been proposed for fixing them, by sprinkling the sur- face of the picture, when finished, with a spirituous solution of isinglass. CREAM OF TARTAR (potassa supertartras; cremor tartari). This salt exists in grapes and in tamarinds. The dregs of wine also contain a consi- derable quantity of it. Cream of tartar contains a very considerable proportion of super-tartrate of pot- assa, about seven or eight humdredths of tartrate of lime, and a small quantity of silica, albumen, iron, &c. It is insoluble in alcohol, but may be dissolved in fifteen parts of boiling and sixty of cold water. It may be rendered much more soluble by mixing with it a certain quantity of boracic acid or borate of soda, which renders the cream of tartar soluble in its own weight of cold water, and in the half only of this menstruum when boiling. This preparation is known by the name of soluble cream of tartar. Its aqueous solution is soon decomposed by the contact of the air. It is obtained by dissolving in boiling water the Com- mon tartar—a white or reddish crystalline matter, which forms on the internal sides of the vessels in which wine has been kept—mixing with it some clay, which precipitates the colouring matter, and then permitting the liquor to crystallize. The action of this substance varies according to the dose in which it is administered. In small doses, it is absorbed, and acts as a temperant; and, in this quality, it is employed in jaundice, foulness of the stomach and intestines, &c. In larger doses, it principally spends its action on the mucous intestimal membrane, and induces alvine evacuations, especially when given in powder. Its taste being rather less unpleasant than that of some other neutral salts used in medicine, and its operation being of a very gentle nature, it is very frequently administered. In France, the soluble cream of tartar is generally preferred. See Argal. ČREBILLON, PROSPER Jolyot DE, the elder, a French writer of tragedy, who is compared by his CREBILLON.—CRECY. countrymen, even to Æschylus, was born at Dijon, Feb. 15, 1674, and early manifested talent at the school of the Jesuits in his native town, but, at the same time, a boisterous and heedless temper. Being designed for the profession of law, he was placed with an attorney, named Prieur, at Paris; but they were both lovers of the theatre, so that the youth made little progress in his studies. The attorney perceived, too, that his pupil was disqualified for the profession by his passionate temperament, but show- ed penetration and judgment in his criticisms on dra- matic performances: he therefore advised him, though he had as yet written nothing but some trifl- ing Songs and scraps of verse, to apply himself to dramatic composition. Crébillon did so ; but his first piece, La Mort des Enfans de Brutus, was re- jected by the players. He burnt the manuscript, and resolved to have no more to do with the drama ; but, subsequently, at the persuasion of Prieur, he wrote Idoménée, which, in 1705, was brought upon the stage. The faults of the play were overlooked in consideration of the youth of the author and the promising talent which it displayed; and the prompt- mess with which the author in five days wrote anew the last act, which had displeased at the first repre- sentation, drew the attention of the public to the young poet, whose talents, after the appearance of his Atrée, in 1707, were loudly applauded. Prieur, though sick, requested to be carried to the theatre, and said to the young tragedian, “I die content ; I have made you a poet, and leave in you a man who belongs to the nation.” A strange taste for unnatural declamation had been excited by the Rhodogune, and this manner was carried to excess by Crébillon, in the Atrée. In 1709 appeared his Electre, which is as declamatory and as intricate as his earlier plays; yet it suited the taste of the age. His chef d'oeuvre, at least according to La Harpe, is his Rhadamiste (1711). But Boileau, on his death-bed, hearing the first scenes of this tragedy read to him by Leverrier, could not help exclaiming to his friends, “Heavens ! do you wish to hasten my death P Why, the Boyers and Pradons were sums to this author I shall be more willing to leave the world, since our age is be- coming inundated with silly trash.” Most persons of the present day would probably agree with Boileau. In eight days, the Rhadamiste passed through two editions, and Paris and Versailles vied with each other in admiring it. Crébillon had been told that his talent lay in the terrible, and thought, therefore, that he could not exert himself too much in scenes of horror, and hence was called the terrible. Xerxes (1714) exceeded, in this respect, all that he had before written, but soon disappeared from the stage. Semiramis (1717), the mother enamoured of her Son, and not cured of her passion by the discovery of his relationship, was severely censured. It was not till nine years after this that his Pyrrhus ap- peared (1726), and met with a good reception, con- trary to the expectation of the author, who, in this Work, had abstained from the frightful and shocking. Domestic distress and poverty seem, from this time, to have crippled the powers of his genius. His small patrimony was absorbed by debts and law expenses. A father and a beloved wife were taken from him Within a short time. Amidst the embarrassments in which he was involved, he refused, with characteris- tic inflexibility, all the offers of assistance which were made him. When madame de Pompadour wished to humble Voltaire, Crébillon was thought of as a fit instrument for her purpose. The king gave him the office of censor of the police, a yearly pension of 1000 francs, and an appointment in the library. Thus freed from anxiety, he finished his Catiline, which was represented, at the king's expense, in 1749, with 515 all the pomp that the court theatre could display. This piece, overrated by the party opposed to Wol- taire, is undervalued by La Harpe. To make some atonement to the character of Cicero, which was thought to have been wronged in his Catiline, he wrote, at seventy-six, the Triumvirate, or the Death of Cicero, which was brought upon the stage in his eighty-first year. The defects of this piece were over. looked, from respect to the age of the author. Thus much for his dramatic compositions. In general, Crébillon shows none of the true elevation of the tragic art, but only an imitation, sometimes a happy one, of the manner struck out by Corneille. He was a man of a proud and independent character, disdained to flatter the great, and passed much of his life in a condition bordering on poverty. More for- tunate circumstances might have given more amenity to his spirit; but, neglected, as he imagined, by mankind, he sought consolation in the company of dogs and cats, which he picked up in the streets (the poorest and most sickly were those which he preferred), and found a species of enjoyment in an irregular manner of living. In 1731, he became a member of the academy. Crébillon died, June 17, 1762, at the age of eighty-eight. Louis XV. erect- ed a magnificent monument to him in the church of St Gervais, which, however, was never entirely com- pleted till it was removed to the museum of French monuments (awa petits Augustins). Besides the splendid edition of Crébillon's works published by the order of Louis XV., for the benefit of the author, after the successful performance of Catiline (CEuvres de Crébillon, imprimerie R. du Louvre, 1750, 2 vols., 4to), there is another published by Didot the elder, 1812, 3 vols., in both of which, however, six verses are omitted in Catiline, which had been left out in the representation, as applicable to madame de Pom- padour. CREBILLON, CLAUDE PROSPER Jolyot DE, the younger son of the preceding, was born at Paris in 1707, and succeeded as an author in an age of licen- tiousness. By the exhibition of gross ideas, covered only with a thin veil, and by the subtleties with which he excuses licentious principles, Crébillon contributed to diffuse a general corruption of manners, before confined to the higher circles of Parisian Society. In later times, the French taste has been so much changed, especially by the revolution, that such inde- licacies as are found in his works would not be tole- rated at the present day. His own morals, however, appear to have been the opposite of those which he portrayed. We are told of his cheerfulness, his rec- titude of principle, and his blameless life. In the cir- cle of the Dominicaux (a Sunday Society), he was a favourite, and the caveau where Piron, Gallet, Collé, wrote their songs and uttered their jests, was made respectable by his company. Of his works, the best are, Lettres de la Marquise * * * au Comte de * * * (1732, 2 vols., 12mo); Tanzai et Néadarné (less licentious, but full of now unintelligible allusions); Les Egaremens du Coeur et de l’Esprit (Hague, 1736, 3 vols.), perhaps the most successful, but unfinished. One of his most voluptuous pieces is Le Sopha (1745, 2 vols.). In the same licentious strain are most of his other writings composed. It is still a disputed point whether he was the author of the Lettres de la Marquise de Pompadour. They are not included in the edition of 1779, 7 vols., 12mo. Crébillon held a small office in the censorship of the press. He died at Paris, April 12, 1777. CRECY, or CRESSY EN PONTHIEU; a town in France, in Somme; 10 miles N. of Abbeville, and 100 N. of Paris; population, 1650. It is celebrated on account of a battle fought here, August 26, 1346, between the English and French. Edward III. and 2 K 2 516 his son, the Black Prince, were both engaged, and the French were defeated with great slaughter, 30,000 foot and 1200 horse being left dead on the field; among whom were the king of Bohemia, the count of Alen- gon, Louis, count of Flanders, with many others of the French mobility. * CREDIT, in economy, is the postponement agreed on by the parties of the payment of a debt to a future day. It implies confidence of the creditor in the debtor; and a “credit system ’’ is one of general confidence of people in each other's honesty, Sol- vency, and resources. Credit is not confined to civi- lized countries; Mr Park mentions instances of it among the Africans; but it will not prevail extensive- ly where the laws do not protect property, and enforce the fulfilment of promises. Public credit is founded upon a confidence in the resources, good faith, and stability of the government ; and it does not always flourish or decline at the same time and rate as pri- vate credit ; for the people may have either greater or less confidence in the government than in each other : still there is some sympathy and correspond- ence between the two ; for a general individual confi- dence can rarely, if ever, take place in the midst of distrust of the government; and, vice versa, a firm reliance upon the government promotes a correspond- ing individual confidence among the citizens. The history of every industrious and commercial commu- nity, under a stable government, will present succes- sive alternate periods of credit and distrust, following each other with a good deal of regularity. A gene- ral feeling of prosperity produces extension and fa- cilities of credit. The mere opinion or imagination of a prevailing success has, of its own force, a most powerful influence, in exciting the enterprise, and quickening the industry, of a community. The first requisite to industry is a stock of instru- ments, and of materials on which to employ them : a very busy and productive community requires a great stock of both. Now, if this stock, being ever so great, were hoarded up ; if the possessors would neither use, let, nor sell it, as long as it should be so withdrawn from circulation, it would have no effect upon the general activity and productiveness. This is partially the case when a general distrust and im– pression of decay and decline cause the possessors of the stock and materials to be scrupulous about put- ting them out of their hands, by Sale or otherwise, to be used by others; and others, again, having no confidence in the markets, and seeing no prospect of profits, hesitate to purchase materials, or to buy or hire the implements, mills, ships, &c., of others, or to use their own in the processes of production and transportation. This state of surplusage and dis- trust is sure to be followed by a reduction of money prices; and every one who has a stock on hand, and whose possessions are estimated in money, is consi- dered to be growing poorer and poorer every day. But when prices have reached their lowest point, and begin regularly to rise, every body begins to esteem himself and others as being prosperous, and the opin- ion contributes powerfully to verify itself. Credit be- gins to expand; all the stores of the community are unlocked, and the whole of its resources is thrown open to enterprise. Every one is able readily to com- mand a sufficiency of means for the employment of his industry; capital is easily procured, and Services are readily rendered, each one relying upon the suc- cess of the others, and their readiness to meet their engagements; and the acceleration of industry, and the extension of credit, go on until a surplus and stagnation are again produced. The affairs of every industrious and active com- munity are always revolving in this circle, in travers- ing which, general credit passes through its periodi- CREDIT-CREED, cal ebbs and flows. This facility and extension of credit constitute what is commonly called fictitious capital. The fiction consists in many individuals being supposed to be possessed of a greater amount of clear capital than they are actually worth. The most striking instance of this fictitiousness of capital, or, in other words, excess of credit, appears in the immense amounts of negotiable paper, that some in- dividuals and companies spread in the community, or of paper currency, where the issuing of notes for sup- plying currency by companies or individuals is per- mitted. Individuals or companies thus draw into their hands an immense capital, and it is by no means a fictitious capital when it comes into their possession, but actual money, goods, lands, &c.; but, if they are in a bad, losing business, the capital, as soon as they are intrusted with it, becomes fictitious in respect to those who trusted them with it, since they will not again realize it. Extensive credits, both in Sales and the issuing of paper, in new and growing communi- ties, which have a small stock and great industry, grow out of their necessities, and thus become habi- tual and customary, of which America hitherto has given a striking example. CREECH, Thomas, a scholar of some eminence for his classical translations, was born in 1659. He took the degree of M. A. at Oxford in 1683, having the preceding year established his reputation as a scholar, by printing his translation of Lucretius. He also translated several other of the ancient poets, wholly or in part, comprising selections from Homer and Virgil, nearly the whole of Horace, the thirteenth Satire of Juvenal, the Idyls of Theocritus, and several of Plutarch's Lives. He likewise published an edi- tion of Lucretius in the original, with interpretations and annotations. He put an end to his life at Ox- ford, in 1700. Various causes are assigned for this rash act, but they are purely conjectural. He owes his fame almost exclusively to his translation of Lucretius, the poetical merit of which is very small, although, in the versification of the argumentative and mechanical parts, some skill is exhibited. As an editor of Lucretius, he is chiefly valuable for his explanation of the Epicurean philosophy, for which, however, he was largely indebted to Gassendi. CREED ; a summary of belief; from the Latin credo (I believe), with which the Apostles' Creed begins. In the Eastern church, a summary of this sort was called a 34ngz (the lesson), because it was learned by the catechumens; ye&pa (the writing), or závay (the rule). But the most common name in the Greek church was a ſagoxoy (the symbol), which has also passed into the Western church. Numer- ous ancient formularies of faith are preserved in the writings of the early fathers, Irenaeus, Origen, Ter- tullian, &c., which agree in substance, though with Some diversity of expression. The history of creeds would be the history of the church, and of its melan- choly aberrations from the simple doctrines of Jesus. Into this interesting, but humiliating history we can- not now enter, but must confine ourselves to a rapid view of a few of its most prominent features. Of the earlier creeds, there are three which require par- ticular attention. I. The Apostles' Creed is so called from its having been formerly considered as the work of the apostles themselves. This motion is now acknowledged to be without foundation. When and by whom it was drawn up, is not known. It can only be traced to the fourth century. It contains a profession of belief in the Holy Ghost, in the divinity of Jesus, his descent into hell, and his ascension into heaven, in the resurrection of the body, in life everlasting, &c. - II. The Nicene Creed, so called because it was .* CREEI), , adopted at the council of Nice, A.D. 325, held to oppose the Arian heresy. It therefore contains an explanation of the article of the Apostles' Creed— “I believe in Jesus Christ, the only Son,” &c., which is as follows: “The only Son of God, begotten by the Father, that is to say, of the substance of the Father, God of God, light of light, very God of very God, begotten and not made, consubstantial with the Father, through whom everything has been made in heaven and on earth.” Macedonius, bishop of Con- stantinople, having denied the divinity of the Holy Ghost, it became necessary to settle this point, which was done by the council of Constantinople, A. TX. 381, who added the words which follow “I believe in the Holy Ghost ;” viz. “ the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from the Father (‘and the Son 7 was afterward inserted by the Spanish bishops), who, with the Father and the Son together, is worshipped and glorified, who spake by the prophets.” The in- Sertion of the words “and the Son” was finally sanc- tioned by the Roman church in 883, but has never been received by the Greek church. III. The Athanasian Creed is now acknowledged not to have been the work of Athanasius, whose name it bears. It was probably written in Latin, in the sixth century. In the tenth century, it was generally re- ceived in the Western church, and, at the reforma- tion, was adopted by the Protestants. It consists of an introduction and two positions, with their proofs, deductions, and conclusions. The introduction de- clares, that “whosoever will be saved must hold the Catholic faith.” The first position then states, “The Catholic faith is this—that we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity, neither confounding the persons, nor dividing the substance.” For (to give briefly the remainder of this position) there are three persons, but one Godhead. The Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, are uncreate, incomprehensible, eternal, almighty, God, Lord ; yet there are not three Lords, Gods, almighty, eternal, incomprehensi- ble, uncreated, but one. The father is neither made, created, nor begotten : the Son is of the Father alone, not made, nor created, but begotten. The Holy Ghost is of the Father and the Son, neither made, nor Created, nor begotten, but proceeding ; and in this Trinity none is afore or after another; none is greater or less than another. He, therefore, that will be saved must thus think of the Trinity. The Second position establishes the doctrine of Christ's in- Carnation. . It is necessary to everlasting salvation, that we believe rightly in the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ. The right faith is, that he is the Son of God, God and man ; perfect God and perfect man; yet not two, but One Christ ; one, not by conversion of the Godhead into flesh, but by taking of the man- hood into God; one altogether, not by confusion of substance, but by unity of person. This is the Ca- tholic faith, which except a man believe he cannot, according to it, be saved. Besides these creeds, there are numerous Confes- sions of Faith, which have been adopted by different churches, as standards to which the ministers in the respective communions are required to conform. I. The Greek church presented the Confession of the true and sincere Faith to Mohammed II. in 1453; but in 1643, the Orthodow Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Greek. Church, composed by Mogila, metropolitan of Kiow, was approved with great Solemnity by the patriarchs of Constantinople, Álex- ândria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, and for a long time Was the standard of the principles of the Russian Greek Church : it has been superseded by the Sum- mary of Christian Divinity, composed in 1765, by the metropolitan of Moscow (translated into English, Edinburgh, 1814). 517 II. The church of Rome has always received the Apostles', the Nicene, and the Athanasian Creeds; but a public authoritative symbol was first fixed by the council of Trent. A summary of the doctrines contained in the canons of that council is given in the creed published by Pius IV. (1564), in the form of a bull. It is introduced by the Nicene Creed, to which it adds twelve articles, containing those doc- trines which the church of Rome finally adopted af. ter her controversies with reformers. III. The Lutherans call their standard books of faith and discipline Lihri Symbolici Ecclesiae Evan- gelicae. They contain the three Creeds above men- tioned, the Augsburg Confession, the Apology for that confession by Melancthom, the Articles of Smal- Calden, drawn up by Luther, the Catechisms of Luther, and, in many churches, the Form of Concord or Book of Torgau. The best edition is by Tittmann (Leipsic, 1817). The Saxon (composed by Melanc- thon), Wuertemberg, Suabian, Pomeranian, Mans- feldtian, and Copenhagen Confessions, agree in gene- ral with the symbolical books of the Lutherans, but are of authority only in the countries, from which they are respectively called. IV. The confessions of the Calvinistic churches are numerous. The following are the principal: 1. The Helvetic Confessions are three—that of Basle (1530); the Summary and Confession of Faith of the Helvetic churches (Basle, 1536); and the Eapositio simplex, &c., (1566), attributed to Bullinger. 2. The Tetra- politan Confession (Strasburg, I531), which derives its name from the four cities of Strasburg, Constance, Memmingen, and Lindau, by the deputies of which it was signed, is attributed to Bucer. It differs from the symbolical books of the Lutherans in the doctrine of the Sacraments, and especially in its exposition of the eucharist. 3. The Palatine or Heidelberg Confes- sion was framed at Heidelberg by order of the elec- tor palatine, John Casimir (1575). 4. The Confes- sion of the Gallic Churches was accepted at the first synod held by the reformed at Paris, in 1559. In the following year, it was presented to Francis II., and, in 1561, it was presented by Beza to Charles IX. 5. The Confession of the Reformed Churches in Belgium was drawn up in 1559, and approved in 1561. 6. The Confession of Faith of the Kirk of Scotland. The ecclesiastical discipline and doctrine of the church of Geneva were adopted in Scotland, from the beginning of the reformation there. In 1581, the Scottish nation subscribed a General Confes- Sion, together with a Solemn League and Covenant, to defend the Protestant religion and Presbyterian government. The Scottish covenanters afterwards adopted the Westminster Confession, in the compila- tion of which some delegates from their general as, sembly had assisted. In 1688, that confession was received as the standard of the national faith, which all ministers, and the officers of the Scottish universi- ties, are required to subscribe. With this are gene- rally connected the catechisms of their assembly. 7. Confession of Faith of the Anglican Church. In the beginning of the reign of queen Elizabeth, she gave her assent to thirty-nine articles agreed upon in the convocation held at London in 1552, They were drawn up in Latin ; but, in 1571, they were revised and subscribed both in Latin and English. They were adopted by the Episcopal church in the United States of America in 1801, with some alterations, and the rejection of the Athanasian Creed. The first five contain the doctrines of the Anglican church con- cerning the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; in the sixth, seventh, and eighth, the rule of faith is esta- blished ; the next ten relate to Christians as indivi- duals, and the remaining twenty-one relate to them as members of a religious Society. (See Corpus et 518 Syntagma Confessionum Fidei, Geneva, 1612 and 1654; Sylloge Confessionum, Oxford, 1804; Butler's 4ccount of Confessions of faith.) CREEiS, or MUSCOGEES; Indians in the west- ern part of Georgia and the eastern part of Alabama, in the country watered by the Chatahoochee, Talla- poosa, and Coosa. The number of warriors is about 6000, and of Souls about 20,000. They suffered se- verely in 1813 and 1814, in the war with the United States. (See Seminoles.) They are accounted the most warlike tribe found east of the Mississippi. Some of their towns contain from 150 to 200 houses. They have made considerable progress in agriculture, and raise horses, cattle, fowls, and hogs, and cultivate tobacco, rice, and corn. CREES, or KNISTENAUX; Indians in North America, residing about lon. 105° 12' W.; lat. 550 N. They are of moderate stature, well proportion- ed, active, have keen black eyes and open counte- Ilaſ CéS. CREFELD ; a city in the Prussian province of" Cleves-Berg, with 1543 houses, and 16,000 inhabi- tants, of whom 700 are Mennonites; above 12,000 are manufacturers. The city is built in the Dutch taste. The chief manufactories are of velvet cloth and ribands. The former is made principally in the city, the latter in the environs. Silk goods of vari- ous kinds, flannels, woollen stockings, cotton and linen goods, &c., are also made here. Crefeld likewise contains tanneries, sugar refineries, distilleries, manu- factories of soap. Of late, it has exported much to America. CREMNITZ, or KREMNITZ; a free royal city in Hungary, in Barsch, situated on the side of a hill; 100 miles E. Vienna; lon. 190 13ſ E.; lat. 48° 45' N. ; population, 9700; houses, 1200. It is situated amidst lofty mountains, and contains one Lutheran, one Calvinist, and one Catholic church, and a Lu- theran gymnasium. It is celebrated for its mines of gold and silver, and is the oldest mining town in Hungary. The situation is elevated, and the air is | very cold. The town itself is very small, not con- taining fifty houses, but the faubourgs are of great extent. The ducats which bear the name of Crem- nitz have enjoyed, for a long time, the reputation of very fine gold. They are to be known by the two letters K. B. (Kermecz Banya, Cremnitz mines), be- tween which is the image of the sovereign. Much gold and silver from these mines is coined in ienna. CREMONA ; a city of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, capital of the province and district, in a beautiful situation. It is about five miles in circum- ference, and has spacious and regular streets, with se- veral squares, but the houses are in general ill built. Here are forty-four churches and chapels, forty-three convents, and an obscure university. It is the see of a bishop. The cathedral is a massy structure, with a fagade of beautiful white and red marble, ornamented, in the interior, with various paintings and pictures in fresco. The tower of Cremona, built by Frederic Barbarossa, in the 12th century, is a very curious edifice, consisting of two octagonal obelisks, surmounted by a cross, and, in all, 372 feet in height. The silk manufactures of this place are considera- ble, and it has long been noted for its superior vio- lins. This city is of great antiquity, having been created a Roman colony B. C. 291. The Venetians possessed it a long time; and, under Napoleon, it was, until 1814, capital of the department of Alto Po. Population, 23,000; 38 miles S. E. Milan; lon. 100 2 12" E.; lat. 450 7' 43' N. CREOLE (from the Spanish Creollo) is the name which was originally given to all the descendants of Spaniards born in America and the West Indies. It CREEKS-CREOLE. is also used for the descendants of other Europeaſis, as French, Danes, in which case we say, French Creole, Danish-Creole. Since the native Spaniards have been expelled from the former Spanish American colonies, the term Creole is comparatively little used. in speaking of those parts of America, it being seldom necessary as a term of distinction; but, in speaking of the French, Danish, and Spanish possessions in the West Indies, the word occurs more frequently. In the United States, it is often used for the descendants of the French and Spaniards in Louisiana (many of the latter having settled there from Spanish America), in contradistinction to Americans, meaning, by the latter term, people born in the other states, or their descendants. In 1776, Charles III., king of Spain, declared the Creoles capable of civil, military, and ecclesiastical offices, from which, till then, they had been excluded. Native Spaniards, however, still continued to have the preference, and the Creoles were treated with the arrogance which too often distinguishes the con- duct of the natives of a parent country towards colo- nists; and the consequence was great exacerbation of feeling on the part of the Creoles. In the West Indies, the Creoles have always enjoyed equal rights with native Europeans. Before the declaration of independence by the colonies of Spanish America, there existed marked lines of distinction between the different classes, founded on difference of birth. The Chapetones were Europeans by birth, and first in rank and power; the Creoles were the second; the Mulattoes and Mestizoes (descendants of white and black, or white and Indian parents) formed the third class; Negroes and Indians, the fourth. At present, they are all entitled to equal privileges by the con- stitutions. Some of Bolivar's generals were dark Mulattoes, and Paez is a Llanero. The Llaneros are converted Indians. The native Spaniards formerly avoided associating with the Creoles, and formed the first class. In Venezuela, there existed a kind of Creole mobility, unknown in other parts of South America. They were called Mantuanos, and divided themselves into those of Sangre Azul (blue blood), descendants of the first Sparish conquerors, and those of Sangre Mezclada (mixed blood), Creole families of a later origin, who had intermarried with Spaniards or Frenchmen. The Creoles, in general, before the revolution, were very lazy, leaving the mechanical arts and husbandry altogether to the mulattoes, ne- groes, or Indians; and, even now, the mechanics are mostly coloured or black persons. The ladies are of a sallow complexion, have beautiful teeth, large, dark eyes, and are, like the men, very finely formed. Creole dialects are those jargons which have origi- nated from the mixture of different languages in the West Indies. They are spoken by the slaves, who have destroyed the fine grammatical construction of the European languages, and have intermixed with them some original African words. According to the European language which prevails in a Creole dialect, it is called French-Creole, Danish-Creole, &c. In St Thomas, for instance, the latter is spoken ; in Hayti, French-Creole. Among the numerous corruptions of European words and constructions, we find, very ge- nerally, in the Creole dialects, the corruptions of grammar common among children; for instance, me is used instead of I. Often no distinction is made between the possessive pronoun and the personal ; e.g., me house for my house, or wi massra. for our master. The infinitive is used for the finite tenses, as moi donner for je donne. It is well known that Homer has several deviations from grammar which are now peculiar to children; and the Creole dialects have several peculiarities in common with those used by Homer. The mixture of words from different CRESCENDO—CRESCENZ i. languages is often considerable in these dialects; but most of them can be understood, without a great deal of difficulty, by a man acquainted with English, Danish, French, and Spanish. We will give an example of the Papimento language—a Creole dialect spoken in St Thomas—from a work extracted from the four Gospels, entitled Da Tori va wi Massra en Helpinean Jesus Christus, so leki wifind; datti na inni dem fo Evangeliste: Matthews, Marcus, Lucas, en Johannes, 1816. (The Story of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, as we find it in the four Evangelists, &c.) A part of the first chapter of the Gospel of St John, from the fourth to the eighth verse, is given in this work, as follows:—Libi ben de ma inni va hem, Raba da libi ben de Kandera wa somma. Kaba da Kandera de krini na dungru, ma dungru no ben teki da Kandera. Gado ben senni wan somma, dem kali Johannes, dissi ben Komm va takki wo da Kandera, wa demº somma Komm bribà ma da Kandera. Hem Sréft no da Kandera, ma a ben Komm va takki na somma wo da Kandera. This specimen will give an idea of the strange mixture of words, and of the clum- sy periphrases used to express ideas, e.g., libi ben de za inni va hem; of the poverty, e. g., ben for been, has been, has, was, and had, &c. There are, how- ever, in all languages, heavy periphrases, our fami- liarity with which prevents us from being sensible of them ; e. g., je venais de chez moi, or he is about to set out on a journey; which, if we had one word for wndertaking a journey, and a tense for expressing the intention, might be expressed in one word. That a careful investigation of the Creole dialects would lead to several interesting discoveries respect- ing the origin of Some grammatical formations and modes of expression, is hardly to be doubted. When the allied armies invaded France, and the Russian and German soldiers were often under the necessity of communicating with each other, and with the French, a kind of jargon came into use among them, in which the Writer of this article observed that mi—the low German for me, and pretty nearly resembling the French moi—was used by all parties to express the first person singular. The infinitive was also used in- stead of the finite modes, expressing only the gross idea of action without modification. Flesh, from the German Fleisch (meat), dobri, from the Russian, for good, were also employed by all parties, as was also the word caput, to signify broken down, spoiled, &c. This last word is still in use among the lower classes of North Germany. Mi flesh caput meant, in this military dialect, my meat is spoiled. Several of the modern European languages must have originated in this way, after the irruption of the northern tribes in- to the Roman empire. CRESCENDO, or CRES. (Ital.) By the term crescendo, the Italians signify that the notes of the passage over which it is placed are to be gradually swelled. This operation is not of modern invention. The ancient Romans, as we learn from a passage in Cicero, were aware of its beauty, and practised it continually. Crescendo is also the name of a musical instrument, invented, in 1778, by the counsellor Bauer, in Berlin, which is played like a pianoforte, and, like this, is furnished with wire strings. CRESCENT (crescens, Lat.); an emblem, repre- Senting the moon in her state of increase. This em- blem of the Ottomans is of very high antiquity. The Egyptians had their Isis, the Greeks their Diana, and it is easy to conceive that the crescent, which an- nounced the returning light of the moon, soon became an object of worship with such people. Thus, Isis, Diana, and the bull Apis, are decorated with this emblem ; which is also found on medals of Alexan- der, and other ancient monuments of art. The citi- 519 zens of Athens of illustrious birth wore crescents of ivory and silver upon their buskins; and the same mark of distinction was granted to the patricians and Senators of Rome. They were called lunulati calcei. The crescent was often used by females as an ornament for the head; an example of which may be seen on a bust of Marciana, in the villa Pamfili. On many medals of queens, the bust is supported by a crescent, expres- sive of the relation they bore to their husbands, who, as kings, were as the sun, while they were as the moon. It is also an emblem of the etermity of an empire. The god Lumus bears it upon his shoulder; and the demarii of the Lucretian family have it ac- companied by the Seven Stars of the northern hemi- sphere. It is also found on medals of many cities, particularly of Byzantium, from whence it is sup- posed to have been borrowed by the Ottomans. Since their establishment in Europe, it has been the universal emblem of their empire. It decorates their minarets, their turbans, their ensigns, their insignia; , everything appertaining to the Mussul- mans is characterized by this sign, and their states are designated as the empire of the Crescent. During the crusades, particularly, the crescent was the distinguishing symbol of the Mussulmans, as the cross was of the Christians. CRESCENZI, PIETRO, or PETRUs DE, the re- storer of the scientific study of agriculture in Europe, was born at Bologna, in 1230. He figured as an attorney and magistrate, till he was obliged, by civil troubles, to leave his native country. He then travelled through Italy, and collected useful obser- vations. It was not till after thirty years of ab- sence, when order was at length restored to his native city, that he was permitted to return; and, at the age of seventy, he was made senator. He now carried into execution his principles of agricul- ture, on an estate near Bologna, in the cultivation of which he passed the remainder of his life. See his essay on agriculture, (Ruralium Commodorum, twelve books) which he composed at the desire of Charles II. He submitted his work to the examina- tion of learned men in Bologna, by whom it was corrected and improved. It is a remarkable monu- ment of his time, of which it is far in advance. Apostolo Zeno has proved that these twelve books, in the arrangement of which the author seems to have followed Columella, were written originally in Latin. There exists an Italian translation (Il Libro della Agricultura di P. Crescentio, Florence, 1487 et seq.), which is esteemed very highly, on account of the purity of the language, and has given rise to the opinion that Crescenzi wrotein his native tongue. He understood the ancients, and made use of them. His principles are simple, founded upon experience, and free from many prejudices, which continued to prevail in Europe for centuries after. His work was no sooner published, than it spread throughout Eu- rope. It was translated into several European lan- guages, particularly for Charles W. of France, in a splendid manuscript (1373), which is still extant ; and no Sooner was the art of printing invented, than copies of this work were greatly multiplied. The oldest known edition, which is now very rare, ap- peared at Augsburg, in 1471, in folio. The earliest Italian translation, the author of which is supposed to be Lorenzo Benvenuti, of St Geminiano, and which is accounted among the models of language, is contained in the collection of the Classica Italiani (Milan, 1805). A more exact, but a less esteemed translation, was made by Sansovino. We are in- debted for much information concerning Crescenzi and his work to professsor Filippo Re, at Bologna. CRESCENZI, D. JUAN BAPTISTA, marquis de la Torre, was born at Rome towards the end of the 520 16th century, and studied the art of painting under Pomerancias. Some of his early compositions at- tracted the attention of the pope, Paul W., who in- trusted him with the decoration of the Pauline chapel. Cardinal Zapata took him to Spain in 1617, where he obtained the favour of Philip III. Some flower-pieces occasioned his receiving the commission to build the sepulchral monument in the Escurial, the splendour and finished elegance of which place it among the most remarkable monu- ments of Europe. (See Santo's History of the Escurial, with copperplates.) The bronze figures were executed by Roman artists. Philip IV. made him a grandee of Castile, with the title of marquis de la Torre, and conferred upon him other marks of distinction. His house, which contained rich trea- sures in every branch of art, was ever open to artists. He died in 1660. CRESCIMBENI, GiovaNNI MARIA, a scholar and poet, was born at Macerata, in the Mark of Ancona, Oct. 9, 1663. When but a child, he dis- played an inclination for poetry. Ariosto's verses, in particular, were impressed on his memory by an edition of Orlando Furioso, with copperplates, in which he used to search for and peruse the passages to which the engravings referred. In the Jesuits’ college, at Macerata, he wrote, at thirteen, a tragedy—Darius. At fifteen, he was a member of an academy, and, at sixteen, doctor of laws. His father sent him, in 1681, to Rome, to perfect him- self in the knowledge of law; but he applied him- self, with still more zeal, to poetry. Some canzoni of Filicaja, in 1687, gave him correct views of the character of the poetry then in vogue. Dissatisfied with all that he had formerly attempted, he felt himself at once constrained to imitate only the ancient models, and to recommend their simple and natural manner to his contemporaries. Crescimbeni belonged to all the three academies in Rome, which rivalled each other in wretched verses. Out of these, he selected certain members, whose views harmonized with his own, and formed a new acade- my, which was sportively called the Arcadia, in al- lusion to the rural taste of the founder. (See Arca- dians.) He was the first custode of this academy, under the name of Alfesibeo Cario, and was re-elected to the office for several successive olympiads. Crescimbeni, delighted with the success of his plan, was not the least active among his fellow poets. In 1698, ap- peared his Istoria della volgar Poesia—a work of vast industry, but destitute of method and criticism. He next published his Trattato della Bellezza della volgar Poesia (Rome, 1700, 4to), which passed, in a short time, through three editions, and, like the earlier work, was first made capable of being understood and enjoyed by the Commentary intorno alla Storia della volgar Poesia (Rome, 1702, five volumes, 4to). The favour of Clement XI. placed him in an easy situation. . In the tranquillity of his canonicate, dis- turbed only by the disputes of the Arcadians, the number of his works rapidly increased. He made a translation of Nostradamus's Lives of the Provengal Poets, with additions, enlarged his own Commenta- ries with four valuable volumes, and wrote a History of the Arcadia, and Lives of the Arcadian Poets. About this time, also, appeared the two first volumes of verses (Rime) of his Arcadia, which were well received. Clement W. and Benedict XIII. rewarded his labours with ecclesiastical ho- nours; and John V., of Portugal presented the Arcadia with some funds. The society erected a theatre, still existing, on the Janiculum, and their first olympic games were celebrated Sep- tember 9, 1726, in honour of the king of Portugal. The poems which Crescimbeni read on that occasion, CRESCIMBENI – CREST. were received with lively approbation. Meanwhile his constitution was yielding to a disorder of the breast. After being admitted, at his request, into the order of the Jesuits, in whose garb he wished to die, he expired, March 8, 1728. During his life- time, he had caused his monument to be erected in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, with the in- Scription—I. M. C. P. ARC. C. (Joannes Marius Crescimbenius, Pastorum Arcadum Custos), and bear- ing the Arcadian pipe. He was of a gentle disposi- tion, benevolent, affable, and moderate. Among his numerous works, occasional compositions, and eulo- gies, those already mentioned are all that deserve a high rank in the literature of his country. A bio- graphy of him is prefixed to his History of Arcadia (Rome, 1712, 12mo.), by the canon Mancurti of Imola. CRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA, surnamed il Spagnuolo, a painter of the Bolognese school, was born at Bo- logna, in 1665, and studied the masterpieces in the monastery of San Michaele in Bosco, and particularly imitated the Caracci, whose works he also copied. He received instruction from Canuti, then from Cig- nami, afterwards studied in Venice and Parma, and finally came out with his own productions in his na- tive city. His first work was the Combat of Her- cules with Antaeus. From this time he had continual employment. He painted, for cardinal Ottoboni, the Seven Sacraments, now in the Dresden gallery; se- veral pieces for prince Eugene of Savoy, for the elector of the Palatinate, for the grand duke of Tus- cany, and for cardinal Lambertini, his patron, who afterwards, when pope Benedict XIV., conferred on him the honour of knighthood. Crespi, however, has been frequently censured for the singular ideas which he often introduced into his paintings; e. g. he re- presents Chiron giving his pupil Achilles a kick for Some fault that he had committed. Moreover, he painted everything a prima, with strong, bold strokes, in the manner of Caravaggio, and has become a man- nerist from a desire to be constantly new. He had many scholars, among whom were his two sons, An- tonio and Luigi Crespi. The latter distinguished himself by his writings on painting. Crespi died in 1747. CRESSY. See Crecy. CREST (from the Latin crista) is used to signify the rising on the defensive armour of the head, also the ornament frequently affixed to the helmet, such as a plume or tuft of feathers, a bunch of horse-hair, &c. Warriors have always been in the habit of adorning their persons; and the helmet, from its con- spicuousness, is very naturally chosen as the place of one of the principal ornaments. We learn from Homer (Il. iii. 336, that the crests of the earlier Greeks were of horse-hair; afterwards plumes, espe- cially red ones, were adopted. (Virg. Æn. ix. 50, 271, 808.) To gain an enemy's crest was ac- counted an honourable achievement, as it was reck- oned among the spolia. The Greeks called the crest @4xos and x860s ; but some are of opinion that these words mean different things, póxos signifying the raised part of the helmet (conus), and x640s the real crest. The crests of commanders (zºpipoxo), of course, were generally larger than those of Common soldiers. The AEgimetan statues (see &ginetan Style) have crests of horse-hair. In the middle ages, when rank and honours became hereditary, and particular heraldic devices were appropriated to particular fa- milies, the crest became a distinguishing hereditary mark of honour. It denotes, in heraldry, a figure placed upon a wreath, Coronet, or cap of mainte- nance, above both helmet and shield; as, for instance, the crest of a bishop is the mitre. The crest is con- sidered a greater criterion of mobility than the armour CRETE–CRIBBAGE. generally. It is commonly a piece of the arms, as that of Castile is a castle. Crests, therefore, form an important subject in heraldry. CRETE. See Camdia. CRETICUS. See Rythmus. CRETINISM approaches very closely to rickets in its general symptoms. It differs principally in its tendency to that peculiar enlargement of the thyroid gland, which, in France, is denominated goëtre, and in the mental imbecility which accompanies it from the first. The enlargement of the gland does not al- ways, however, accompany the other symptoms, though it does generally. Cretinism was first distinctly noticed and described by Plater, about the middle of the seventeenth cen- tury, as occurring among the peasants in Carinthia and the Valais. It was afterwards found, in a still severer degree, in other valleys of Switzerland, and the Alps generally. It has since been detected in various other regions, where the country exhibits similar features, as among a miserable race called Cagots, inhabiting the hollows of the Pyrenees, whose district and history have been described by Mr Raymond; and in Chinese Tartary, where it is re- presented as existing by Sir George Staunton. On the first discovery of cretinism, it was ascribed by some to the use of snow water, and by others to the use of water impregnated with calcareous earth, both which opinions are without foundation. The first is sufficiently disproved by the fact that persons born in places contiguous to the glaciers, and who drink no other water than what flows from the melt- . of ice and snow, are not subject to this dis- Order; and, on the contrary, that the disorder is ob- served in places where snow is unknown. The second is contradicted by the fact, that the common water of Switzerland, instead of being impregnated with cal- Carious matter, excels that of most other countries in Europe in purity and flavour. The water usually drunk at La Batia and Martigny is from the river Dranse, which flows from the glacier of St Bernard, and falls into the Rhone. It is remarkably free from earthy matter, and well tasted. At Berne, the water is extremely pure ; yet, as Haller remarks, swellings of the throat are not uncommon in both sexes, though cretinism is rare. As comfortable and congenial warmth forms one of the best auxiliaries in attempting the cure of both cretinism and rickets, there can be no doubt that the chill of snow-water must considerably add to the general debility of the system when labouring under either of these diseases, though there seems no reason for supposing that it would give rise to either. It is not difficult to ex- plain why water impregnated with calcarious earth should have been regarded as the cause ; for in cre- timism, as in rickets, the calcarious earth, designed by nature for the formation of the bones, is often Separated, and floats loose in various fluids of the body, for want of a sufficiency of phosphoric acid to Convert it into a phosphate of lime, and give it soli- dity. And as it is, in consequence, pretty freely dis- charged in the urine, this seems to have given rise to the opinion that such calcarious earth was introduced into the system with the common water of the lakes or rivers, and thus produced the morbid symptoms. M. de Saussure has assigned the real cause of the disease. The valleys of the Alps, he tells us, are surrounded by very high mountains, sheltered from Currents of fresh air, and exposed to the direct, and, what is worse, the reflected rays of the sun. They are marshy, and hence the atmosphere is humid, close, and oppressive; and when to these causes we add the meagre, innutritious food of the poor of these districts, their indolence, and uncleanliness, with a predisposition to the disease, from a hereditary taint 521 of many generations, we can sufficiently account for the prevalence of cretinism in such places, and for the humiliating character which it assumes. The general symptoms of cretinism are the same as those of rickets; but the disease shows itself ear- lier, often at birth, and not unfrequently before this period, apparently commencing with the procreation of the foetus, and affording the most evident proofs of an- Cestral contamination. The child, if not deformed and diseased at birth, soon becomes so ; the body is stinted in its growth, and the organs in their development. CREUSA; the name of several celebrated females of antiquity. I. Daughter of Erechtheus, who, before she was married to Xuthus, gave birth to Ion, the fruit of an amour with Apollo. To her second husband she bore Achaeus. 2. The daughter of Priam and Hecuba, wife to Æneas, and mother of Ascanius. In the tumult of the conflagration of Troy, when AEneas fled with the images of his gods, with his father and son, he lost her, and, after he had sought her a long time in vain, her spirit appeared to him, saying that the mother of the gods had taken her to herself, because she was not willing that she should leave Phrygia. CREUTZ, GUSTAvus PHILIP, count of ; a Swedish poet and statesman, was born in Finland in 1726. He was a member of the learned and elegant circle, which surrounded the queen of Sweden, Louisa Ul- rica, sister of Frederic the Great ; and his Atis og Camilla, an erotic poem in five cantos, published at Stockholm (1761), grew out of the meetings of this Society. This poem and his Letter to Daphne are considered as masterpieces in Swedish poetry. He was appointed minister to Madrid, and, at a later period, to Paris, where he remained twenty years, and became particularly acquainted with Marmontel and Grétry. April 3, 1783, he signed, with Dr Franklin, a treaty of amity between the United States and Sweden. He was afterwards placed at the head of the department of foreign affairs in Stock- holm, but he could not endure the climate of his country, and died in 1785. His works and those of his friend Gyllenborg are published together, under the title Pºtterhets Arbeten of Creutz og Gyllenborg, Stockholm, 1796. At a chapter of the Seraphim order, April 28, 1786, king Gustavus himself read the eulogy of Creutz. CREVENNA, PIETRO ANTONIO (commonly called Bolongaro Crevenna), a bibliographer, born in the middle of the 18th century, at Milan, received from his father-in-law, Bolongaro (whose name he took) a large fortune, and lived mostly in Holland. Love for the sciences, in particular for literary history, in- duced him to devote his hours of leisure, from an ex- tensive commercial business, to literary pursuits, and to collect a choice library. The learned catalogues of his books, prepared by himself and others, have given to the works which belonged to him great value in the eyes of amateurs, and the catalogues them- selves have bibliographical authority. His Catalogue Caisonné de la Collection des Livres de M. Crévenna (Amsterdam, 1776, 6 vols. 4to) contains an exact description of the Incunabula, with collations of rare books, and letters of many learned men of the 17th and 18th centuries, printed there for the first time. To understand the importance of the Crevenian li- brary, it is necessary to compare with this catalogue another, the Catalogue des Livres de la Bibl. de M. Crévenna (Amsterdam, 1789, 6 vols.). In 1790, he sold the greatest part of his library by public auc- tion. What he retained may be known by the Cata- logue de la Bibl. de few M. Crévenna (Amsterdam, 1793). Towards the end of his life, he left Holland, and died in Rome, Oct. 8, 1792. CRIBBAGE ; a game at cards wherein no cards 522 are to be thrown out, and the Set to make sixty-one ; and, as it is an advantage to deal, by reason of the crib, it is proper to lift for it, and he that has the Ieast card deals. CRICHTON, JAMEs, was born in Scotland, in 1551, or, according to some accounts, in 1560, of a noble family. On account of his remarkable endow- ments, both of body and mind, he obtained the sur- name of the Admirable. He was educated at the university of St Andrews, and, before his twentieth year, had run through the whole circle of the Sciences, could speak and write to perfection ten different lan- guages, and was equally distinguished for his skill in riding, dancing, singing, and playing upon all sorts of instruments. Thus accomplished, he set out on his travels, and is said to have gone to Paris, where he offered to dispute in any art or science, and to answer whatever should be proposed to him in any of these twelve languages—Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, Latin, Spanish, French, Italian, English, Dutch, Flemish, and Sclavonic ; and this either in prose or verse, at the option of his antagonist. On the day fixed, he is said to have maintained the Con- test from nine o'clock in the morning until six at . to the great admiration of the spectators, who saluted him as the “admirable Crichton.” Before and after the dispute, he was engaged in tilting, vault- ing, &c., or in balls, concerts, and other similar amusements. After similar exhibitions at Rome and Venice, we find him, in 1581, at Padua, exposing the errors of Aristotle, astonishing his hearers with his ingenuity and elegance in an extempore oration in praise of ignorance ; and, finally, to confound his enemies, offering to prove the fallacies of Aristotle, and the ignorance of his commentators, to dispute in all the sciences, to answer all that should be pro- posed or objected, in the common logical way, or by numbers and mathematical figures, or in a hundred sorts of verses, and during three days, Sustaining this contest with a spirit and energy, with such learning and skill, as to obtain the praises and admiration of all men. His next exploit was at Mantua. There was in that city a famous gladiator, who had foiled the most skilful fencers in Europe, and had lately killed three persons, who had entered the lists with him. Crichton offered to fight him for 1500 pistoles, and, having slain him in the contest, he distributed his prize among the widows of the three persons above mentioned. The duke of Mantua, in conse- quence of his wonderful performances, chose him preceptor to his son—a youth of a dissolute life and riotous temper. To amuse his patron, Crichton composed a comedy, ridiculing the weaknesses of men in all employments, and Sustained fifteen charac- ters in his own play, “setting before the eyes of the spectators the overweening monarch, the peevish swain, the superficial courtier, the proud warrior, the dissembled churchman, the cozening lawyer, the lying traveller, the covetous merchant, the rude sea- man, the pedantic scholar, and the tricksy servant,” &c. During the carnival (1583), while amusing him- self with his guitar, he was attacked by half a dozen persons in masks. He defended himself, and, dis- arming their leader, found him to be his own pupil. Crichton fell on his knees, and presented his own Sword to the prince, who immediately stabbed him to the heart. The motives which impelled his pupil to the commission of so savage a deed are unknown. Crichton's real claims to admiration have been much disputed. Dr Kippis; in a life of him in the Biographia Britannica, has impugned some of the testimonies regarding him, and endeavoured to make him out a very clever but not very extraordinary personage, with a fine person, strong memory, and fluent speech. But Mr Tytler, in his life of him CRICHTON.—CRICKET. published in 1822, has adduced very satisfactory evi- dence, that he was indeed a youth of uncommon ta- lents and accomplishments, and that in all his trials of skill, both bodily and mental, he found no one in Europe to equal him. His death took place at the early age of twenty-three, before he had an oppor- tunity of leaving to the world any lasting evidence of his genius or attainments. Dr Johnson, though little given to patronize the marvellous, except when connected with the spiritual world, and still less given to extend the fame of a Scotchman, has devoted a paper in the Adventurer to the character of Crichton, which he opens by saying, that “whatever we may suppress as surpassing credibility, yet we shall, upon incontestable authority, relate enough to rank him among prodigies.” CRICKET (gryllus, Lin. ; acheta, Fab.); a genus of orthopterous or straight-winged insects, belonging to the grylloid family, which comprises the grasshop- pers, mole-crickets, crickets proper. This family, like all other orthoptera, do not undergo a complete transformation. They are hatched from eggs sym- metrically stuck together by a viscous material, either upon vegetables, or placed under ground ; and, from the moment of escaping from the egg, the young are sufficiently vigorous to seek their own food, which consists of organized substances. While yet very soft, they are perfectly formed, with the ex- ception of the rudiments of the elytra and wings. These, in some species, are never developed. As the insect grows, the skin becomes too small, and requires to be changed as often as seven or eight times, before the insect attains its full size. The crickets are distinguished from the other members of this family by their long, silken antennae, by having but three joints to their tarsi, and by the compara- tive smallness of their thighs. Their bodies are short, thick-set and soft, with the head, corselet, and abdomen immediately applied, and of equal length and breadth. The head is thick, rounded above, and nearly vertical. Between the eyes, which are widely separated and reticulated on the surface, there are two brilliant stemmata. The corselet is quadrangular, somewhat larger transversely, and rounded at the edges. The elytra, which do not completely cover the belly, are curved squarely, and are not roof-shaped, as in the locust and grasshopper. In the winged species, the wings exceed the elytra, and even abdomen, beyond which they project, in the form of a sort of bifid tail. In addition to the two flexible abdominal appendages common to both sexes, the females have a long borer or oviduct, which is a stiff, square tube, formed of two pieces, separable, and free at the point, sometimes seeming to be split, and terminating by a slight enlargement. The noise, for which all crickets are remarkable, and usually called chirping, is produced by the fric- tion of the bases of their elytra, or wing-cases, against each other, these parts being curiously adapted to roduce this sound. Both sexes have the elytra ongitudinal, divided into two portions, one of which is vertical or lateral, covering the sides, and the other dorsal, covering the back. These portions, in the female, have their nervures alike, running obliquely in two directions, forming, by their inter- Section, numerous small meshes, which are of a rhomboidal or lozenge shape. The elytra of the females have an elevation at the base. The vertical portion in the males does not materially differ from that of the females, but, in the horizontal part, the base of each elytrum is so elevated as to form a cavity beneath. The nervures are stronger, and very irre- gular in their course, with various inflexions, curved, spiral, &c., producing a variety of different sized and shaped meshes, generally larger than in the female ; CRIEFF-CRILLON. towards the extremity of the wing, particularly, there is a nearly circular space, surrounded by one nervure, and divided into two meshes by another. The fric- tion of the nervures of the convex surface of the base of the left or undermost elytrum against those of the Concave surface of the base of the right One, causes vibrations of the membranous areas of an intensity proportioned to the rapidity of the friction. In fact, the insect may be regarded as performing on a sort of violin, the base of one elytrum serving for a bow, and the cords of the other as the strings of the in- strument. The reader, who may wish to enter upon a very minute study of this and similar insects, contriv- ances for producing sounds, may advantageously con- sult De Geer (vol. iii., p. 512), and Kirby and Spence (24th letter, vol. ii, p. 375 et seq.) The chirping of the domestic cricket (acheta domestica) is by many re- garded as pleasant or musical, and their presence in holes is regarded as a good omen by some people. Where they are numerous, certainly, to our ears, their noise is anything but agreeable; and it re- quires considerable habituation to it to be able to sleep undisturbed by it. They are very harmless, taking up their abode near chimneys, fire-places, and osher warm situations, whence they come Out, when the inmates of the house have retired to rest, and commence their monotonous Song. If a light be brought, they speedily retreat, leaping lightly to their holes, the length and peculiar structure of their long thighs especially fitting them for this mode of progression. One action which we have observed them perform with the antennae shows the delicacy and perfection of the muscles. They move the long silken appendages, as if cleaning or polishing them, somewhat as we see birds do with their feathers. The field crickets (A. campestris) are as loud and noisy in the day as those above mentioned are at night, and largely contribute to the music of the fields, so delightful to the ear of the student of na- ture. Both species have attracted the attention of poets, who have celebrated their simple but lively notes in verse of various degrees of excellence. Both species are equally innoxious, subsisting on small particles of organized matter, which might otherwise become troublesome from accumulation; while, from their numbers, birds and other animals of higher rank in the scale of being obtain a part of their supply of food. CRIEFF, a parish in Strathearn, Perthshire, in- cluding the market town of the same name, the lat- ter pleasantly seated on an acclivity, rising from the north bank of the river Earn, where it is crossed by a substantial stone bridge, on the great military road to the Highlands; distant from Perth eighteen miles west, and twenty-two north from Stirling. The town is much resorted to for the salubrity of its air, and beauty of its situation. It has, for the accommoda- tion of visitors, an excellent inn, and adjoining it, a commodious assembly-room, elegantly fitted up ; a tolbooth, surmounted by a meat spire, was erected in 1665. In the public square stands an ancient stone covered with hieroglyphics, which tradition says belonged to the Picts. There are several ex- tensive distilleries in and about Crieff, and it is noted for the excellence of its whisky. Population of town and parish, in 1831, 4,786. CRILLON, Louis DE BALBE, one of the greatest warriors of the sixteenth century, and the friend of IIenry IV., was born in 1541, at Murs, in Provence, of a respectable family of Piedmont. Being a younger son, the name of Crillon was given him from an estate belonging to the family—a name which he so ennobled iy his exploits and virtues, that the heads of the Balbe family adopted it for their own. The army called Crillon the man with- 523 out fear (l'homme sans peur). , Charles IX., Henry III., and queen Margaret called him simply le brave; but Henry IV. gave him the surname of le brave des braves. His independence and nobleness of spirit were equal to his bravery, and his humanity and vir- tue were not less famous than his heroic achieve- ments. He was distinguished in five successive reigns—those of Henry II., Francis II., Charles IX., Henry III., and, above all, in that of Henry IV. In his first campaign (1557), he contributed much to the speedy conquest of Calais, by a bold deed of arms. He was the first to storm the breach. Here he encountered the commander of the fort, grappled with him, and threw him into the moat. The Bri- tish had spent eleven months in the reduction of the place. The French retook it in eight days. Crillon Subsequently distinguished himself in the bat- tles of Dreux (1561), Jarnac (1563), and Moncoil- tour (in 1569), against the Huguenots. As a knight of Malta, the young hero gained renown in the crusades against the Turks. Selim II. had taken Cyprus from the Venetians. The terror of the Mos- lem arms filled all Europe; a coalition was formed, and the famous naval battle of Lepanto fought in 1571. Crillon, in this action, displayed prodigies of valour, and, though wounded, was appointed to car- ry the tidings of the great victory to the pope and the king of France. Pope Pius V. and the king of France (Charles IX.) loaded him with honours and favours. The massacre of St Bartholomew (1572), the preparations of which had been carefully con- cealed from Crillon, was loudly reprobated by him. We find him, the following year, at the celebrated siege of Rochelle, and, subsequently, in various mi- litary operations, where there was need of courage and enterprise. Henry III. ventured to propose to him the murder of the duke of Guise, which had been resolved upon by the estates of Blois. “I can- not stain my honour with a deed of shame '’ was his answer. He fought heroically for Henry IV. against the league. After the battle of Arques, in Nor- mandy, Henry wrote to him—“Pends-toi, brave Criſ- lon, mous avons combattu di Arques et tu n'y &tais pas. Adieu, brave Crillon, je vous aimed tort et d travers.” He succeeded in throwing himself into Quilleboeuf, which was defended by a small force against marshal Villars. Villars summoned the city to surrender, representing to Crillon that it was impossible for him in an almost open place, with a comparatively feeble garrison, to hold out against his army: Cril- lon's answer was, “ Crillon esſ dedans, et Pillars est dehors.” Villars ordered an assault, but was repuls- ed, and the siege was raised. The young duke of Guise, who was with Crillon at Marseilles, when a Spanish fleet was cruising before the place, indulged in a frolic, which afforded new proof of the heroism of Crillon. Guise, rushed, with some of his young friends, about midnight, into the warrior's sleeping apartment. They hastily awoke him, and exclaim. ed that all was lost; that the Spaniards had made themselves masters of the harbour, and of all theim. portant points in the city: rescue was impossible. The young duke now proposes toCrillon to make their escape together. Crillon rejects the proposal with indignation. “It is better,” he cries, “to die with arms in our hand than to survive the loss of this place.” He arms himself, and rushes down stairs, when the laugh of the young duke discovers the jest that had been played upon him. Crillon turned with a serious air, seized the duke by the arm, and said, “Young man, never amuse yourself with trying the courage of a brave man. By Heaven, had you found me weak, I would have plunged this dagger into your breast !” Finally, when the wars which had shaken Europe were terminated by the peace 524 with Savoy, Crillon returned to Avignon, where he died in 1616, in his seventy-fifth year. History re- presents this hero as a brilliant warrior, a wise coun- sellor, true to his word, and faithful to every duty. He did not desert Henry III. when his crown seem- ed to be lost. He was faithful to Henry IV. when he had nothing but in prospect. Nevertheless, his independence sometimes became rudeness. He was exceedingly sensitive on the point of honour, and any praise which looked like an insult would make him draw his sword. He was remarkable for his profanity, and, in the last days of his life, swore with his favourite oath never to swear again. . Next to Bayard, Crillon is the greatest character of his class, to be found in French history. CRIME. Crime is generally used to designate an act of guilt, which offends the laws both of God and man. It implies freedom of will, and a power of distinguishing between right and wrong. Hence young children, madmen, and idiots cannot commit crimes, neither can persons in a state of great intoxication.* But the circumstances under which full imputability or responsibility shall commence, cannot be decided by general rules, but each case must be judged by itself. To constitute a crime, there must be an intention manifested by an out- ward act. If the intention be wanting, the act is merely accidental. If the outward act is wanting, there is nothing for human tribunals to punish. Mere intention does not come under their cognizance. There are, moreover, many acts of guilt committed, in every community, which are not of a nature to be made the subject of legislation, and cannot be brought before the courts. On the other hand, there are, in every state, certain actions, in them- selves naturally indifferent, but which are forbidden and punished as injurious to the community. These form the greater part of the class of mere offences against the police regulations. Many actions, in themselves indifferent, may, however, by reason of the heavy penalties attached to them, be classed among crimes in the technical and juridical sense. The degree of punishment imposed on any crime should be proportioned to the degree of injury volun- tarily inflicted. It is matter of importance to de- cide whether an uninterrupted series of illicit acts is to be considered as the continuation of a single crime (delictum contiuatum), or as several crimes of the same kind (delictum reiteratum). In the former case, there would be only one punishment; in the latter, several. But the award of several punish- ments, if capital, cannot be executed by more than one punishment of death ; and, if the punishment consist in a deprivation of freedom, the confinement can only be prolonged. According to the scientific principles of law, it would be, perhaps, most correct to consider the several crimes as constituting a whole, deserving only one punishment, to be pro- portioned to the amount of guilt (poena major ab- sorbet minorem), although the majority of learned jurists is, at present, of another opinion.—Quasi de- licta are injuries which must be repaired by their authors, though the intention to perpetrate an illicit act need not be evident. The Roman law has made Such provisions in various cases. (See Criminal Law. Punishments themselves may be divided into cri- * Drunkenness is not admitted as a ground of acquittal, or even of mitigation of punishment, either in Britain or America. But a distinction is taken between a crime com- mitted when the party is in a state of actual intoxication, and a crime committed when he is insane, and his insanity is remotely caused by an indulgence in habits of drunken- ness. In the former case, he is deemed culpable, in the latter, not. CRIME. minal and civil, or police punishments. The criminal or severe punishments are such as have great crimes for their object. They may be divided into, 1. capi- tal punishments (see Capital Punishment): 2. de- privation of liberty simply (as in the case of imprison- ment, and exile from the country), or accompanied with hard labour (for instance, labour in a work- house, a tread-mill, &c.), or sharpened by the inflic- tion of pain (for instance, the punishment of labour- ing in the work-house, with stripes at the entrance and exit, or hard labour, with an iron chain round the neck): 3. punishments inflicting mere bodily pains, or corporal punishments, such as mutilation (which, however, is discarded in well ordered states) and whipping (the latter is frequently applied in inferior crimes, or on young persons not yet entirely corrupt ed): 4. punishments affecting the honour. All punishments of crime, indeed, have this character; but, in some cases, the punishment consists mainly in the degradation. Of this latter sort are, 1. such punishments as have for their object to work com- plete degradation; for instance, the breaking of the armorial bearings of a noble family by the hangman, branding, and the public flogging usually connected with it, deprivation of decent burial, civil death, hanging in effigy: 2. Such as are intended merely to withdraw some particular civil honour; as loss of mobility, exclusion from guilds and corporations, re- moval from office: 3. such as have for their object merely humiliation and chastisement. The latter sort may, according to the rank of the criminal and the magnitude of the crime, be connected with cor- poral punishment; for instance, the pillory, &c. : or they may be of a different kind; as suspension from office, church penances, judicial reprimands, begging of pardon, recantation of injuries, &c. This latter class of punishments is intended chiefly for the correction of the person chastised. The highest de- gree of degrading punishments is always to be con- sidered as equal to loss of life. 4. Civil death is a fiction of law (fictio juris), by means of which an in- dividual can be considered as really dead, with re- gard to all or some of the common legal privileges. This is not always to be considered as a degrading punishment, since any one can give occasion to a sen- tence of civil death by absence or neglect. This, however, in such instances, has no effect beyond the case which gave occasion to the sentence. 5. Fines in money are not always attended with a loss or diminution of honour. They are imposed principally on usurers, counterfeiters, libellers, adulterers, fore- stallers, persons guilty of frauds against the revenue, and other frauds of adulterating wine, of carrying on trades which they are not entitled to exercise, and on many offenders against the police regulations and the feudal institutions. Except in the case of high trea- son, fines or confiscations do not usually embrace the whole fortune of the offender, and are mostly limited to the instruments with which the crimes were perpetrated. A colourable transfer of property which has become liable to confiscation will not pro- tect it. Civil and police punishments are such as are in- flicted for petty offences, and can be imposed by the civil judge. They are chiefly—I. fines; yet a cor- poral punishment, when changed by the sovereign into a fine, retains the character of a criminal punish- ment, without being generally connected with ig- nominy; 2. imprisonment; for instance, civil confine- ment, arrest, which is not connected with criminal imprisonment; 3. such fines as are neither equivalent to a corporal punishment, nor can be changed into one ; 4. condemnation to mechanical and agricultural labours, or chastisement with stripes, confinement within jail limits, or confinement to a country, city, CRIME. or district, by which a person is laid under an obliga- tion not to pass over Certain limits; 5. removal from office without infamy; 6. temporary suspension from office; 7. reprimand from the court ; 8. recantation before the court, or publicly; 9. apologies ordered by the court. Punishment can be inflicted only upon the perpe- trator of a crime, and his accomplices. Fines, which have not been imposed during the life-time of the criminal, cannot be exacted after his death, unless, in order to escape punishment, he commits suicide, or endeavours to delay the judgment in other unlaw- ful ways. If the laws of àe place where the Crime has been committed, differ from those where the criminal is tried, the milder punishment is usually preferred to the more severe. The severity of the laws of a country ought not to add to the Severity of the punishment of a crime committed abroad. In the case of crimes of a very deep dye, the punishment is determined by the general law. Punishments are also divided into ordinary or legal, and discretionary punishments. The former are ex- pressly provided by the law for any case that may occur; the latter are pronounced by the judge, in cases in which the legal punishment cannot take ef. fect, or in which the punishment is left to his discre- tion. Alterations in the legal punishments take place, 1. when the object of the punishment would not be obtained by its application ; 2. when the execution is impossible, or, at least, very difficult ; 3. when the execution would be injurious, not so illuch to the criminal as to Some innocent individual; 4. when the rank or the personal relations of the criminal require an exception. Before making such an alteration, however, the inferior court must first obtain the opi- nion of the higher court. Punishments do not take effect in case, i. of un- limited remission or pardon ; 2. of a mitigation of the sentence; 3. of entire abolition, or the stopping of all proceedings, by the sovereign power; 4. of the expiration of the period within which process can be instituted, which is generally twenty years; 5. of the restoration of the offender to his former rank; 6. where the party is provisionally discharged, but re- mains liable to be put again on trial, if new evidence should be produced ; 7. of the death of the criminal, unless he was convicted of high treason, or unless the case was one in which the punishment was to have been executed in effigy; 8. in the case of small of fences, the punishment may be remitted upon an ac- commodation taking place between the parties, or upon a request for pardon coming from the offended party; 9. corporal punishments are remitted, in ge- Ineral, when the criminal, before the execution of the sentence, becomes insane or sick, to such a degree that the infliction of the punishment might prove fatal to him. In such a case, fines are usually substituted for corporal punishments. The obligation to repair the injury done to the offended party, does not become extinct with the punishment. For more information on this subject, see the subdivision, Criminal Law, at the end of this article. Crime, Statistics of. This forms a very interest- ing subject, which has not been as yet sufficiently in- vestigated to enable us to give as accurate an account as we could wish of the comparative amount of crime in different countries, and of the numerical propor- tion of the different kinds of crime. . . In deducing in- ferences from such views, we should keep in mind the general condition of different countries, and not argue, for instance, against the moral state of a rich and populous country, because many crimes against property are committed therein, nor against that of a poor and thinly peopled region, because it affords Comparatively numerous instances of personal vio- 525 lence. For the study of the statistics of crime in France, we would recommend the Compte générale de l'Administration de la Justice criminelle en France, which has been published annually, since 1825, by the keeper of the seals. It gives an excellent view of all the criminal processes in France. For England, we have the returns to parliament, of which an ab- stract has appeared in the Companion to the British Almanac, published under the direction of the society for the diffusion of useful knowledge (London). For America, we do not know of any more complete statement than that given in the annual reports of the Prison Discipline Society (Boston), though it has not yet been in the power of this praiseworthy insti- tution to give a complete view of the nature of crimes in all the states. Respecting Germany and many other parts of the European continent, much informa- tion is to be found in the Jahrbuecher der Straf, und Besserungs-Anstalten (Annals of Establishments for Punishment and Correction), by Nicholas Henry Ju- lius (Berlin), published in monthly numbers—a very excellent work, embracing a wide extent of informa- tion. The same writer has collected, in a highly judicious manner, a great number of statements re- specting crimes, prisons, houses of correction, common Schools, &c., both in Europe and America, in his Porlesungen weber Geſaengniss-Kunde, &c., (Lectures on the Subject of Prisons,) by doctor N. H. Julius, Berlin, 1828. The last report of the keeper of fine seals in France, for 1828, contains the following information. The courts of assize decided within the year 6396 cases. The number of individuals accused was 7396, being an increase of 467 above those of 1827. The propor- tion of the persons accused to the whole population, was, in 1827, as 1 to 4593, and in 1828, as 1 to 4307. Among the 7396 persons brought to the bar of the courts of assize, 5970 were men, and 1426 women, being in the proportion of 100 to 24. Among these, 4166 could neither read nor write ; 1858 could write and read but imperfectly ; 780 were well instructed in the first elements of knowledge; and 118 had re- ceived an education in colleges, or otherwise superior to that supplied by primary schools. Of the 7396 prisoners, 2845 were acquitted, and 4551 convicted. Of the latter, 114 were condemned to death, 268 to hard labour for life, 1142 to hard labour for different terms, 1228 to Solitary imprisonment, and the rest to different kinds of correctional penalties. The proportion of acquittals to convictions is as 39 to 61. Of the persons convicted and condemned, 3833 appealed to the court of cassation against their sen- tences. Among the 114 condemned to capital pum- ishment, 17 were persons who had already been sen- tenced to penalties less severe. The chambers of the first instance discharged, before trial, 16,409 persons who had been arrested, or against whom informations had been lodged. The police cases or charges, de- cided within the year, amounted to 95,589, including 132,169 persons. This is an excess of 9162 over those of the preceding year. Among the facts, of which justice was called upon to verify and state the causes, were 4855 accidental deaths, 1754 suicides, and 86 duels, of which 29 were fatal. Reports to the British parliament contain the fol- lowing Return of the Number of Persons charged with Criminal Offences committed for Trial, whether convicted or acquit- ted, and the Wumber executed in England and Wales, zyżth a similar Returnt for Ireland, in the years 1827 and 1828. TNGLAND AND WA I.R.S. Committed for Trial. 1827. 1828. Males, . 15,151 . . I 3,832 Females, . . . 2,770 . . 2,732 17,921 16,564 526 CRIME. I827. 1828. For 20 years, . . . . . . . . . . . & 48 Convicted, . . . . . . . . . . 12,564 . . . 11,723 For 15 years, . . . . . . . . . . 59 Acquitted, . . . . . . . . . . 3,407 . 3,169 • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 No Bills found, and not prosecuted, 1,950 . . 1,672 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857 --------. From l YO 5 years, e e e - • º º º - e º º 5 12 17,921 16,564 6 months to 1 year, . . . . . . . . . . 68 Less than 6 months, . . . . . . . . J04 Of whom were executed, tº e 70 ”| In France, the number of accused were in the pro- - - I RELAND. portion of 1 in 4195 of the population ; of the accus- Committed for triº, ales ſº lº ed tried, 1 in 4557. In England, the proportion i.es. . . . . . . . ." § would be greatly superior. But it is difficult to draw -*- -es any parallel in this respect. The offences tried be. 18,031 14,683 fore the correctional tribunals in France are of a º TT graver character than those which are punished in %. * c e º ºs e e 1% e tº º ; England out of the courts of assize and quarter ses— R. a. . . . . . . . 3. . . . ..., |sion. . For instance, in France, under the head of Bailed and not prosecuted, . . . . 304 . . 9i | Crimes punished by the correctional tribunals, there I8 T. appear, under the title vols (thefts), 10,796, of which ,031 *** | 4364 were punished by imprisonment for a year or () f whom were executed, . . . . . . 37 . . . 21 more. Distinguishing crimes against the person, and Return of the Number of Male Convicts sent to New Sout/. Płales and Van Diemanz’s Land, in 1826 and 1827, wiſh the total Eayense of their Conveyance, and the average per head. Number. Total Expense. Average about 1826 2097 f53,349 5 2 £25 8 10 1827 . . .393 . . 81,682 17 8 24 l 6 A report of the house of commons, in 1828, con- tains the following statement of the comparative amount of crime in England and France in the year 1826. In France, the total number of accused was . . . 6,988 Acquitted, . . . . . . . . . * * 2,640 Convicted, . . . . . . . 4,348 6,988 In England, committed for trial, . . . . . . . 16,147 Acquitted, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,266 Not prosecuted, or no bills found, . . . . 1,786 5,052 Convicted, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1,095 16,147 Of 4,348 convicted in France were condemned to death, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . In England, of 11,095, . . . . . . . . . . . Of those condemned to death in France, it would ap- pear that the greater part were executed : in Eng- land, of 1,200, only 57 were executed.—Of the crimes for which the punishment of death was inflicted, we find, in the French statement, murder, 11 ; attempt to murder, 88; parricide, 4; infanticide, 6; poison- ing, 11 ; false money, 9; robbery on a public road, l; other robberies, 2 ; arson of houses, 17; arson of other descriptions, I. The English statement, be- sides the crimes contained above, contains burglary, 10; forgery, 1 ; horse-stealing, 7; larceny in a dwel- ling-house, to the value of 40 shillings, 5 ; rape, 2.; sheep-stealing, 3. In France, it appears to be the practice to condemn, in the first instance, to the pun- ishment intended to be inflicted. For instance, in France, robbery on the highway gives, condemned to death, 1 ; hard labour for life, 30; for a term, 8; Soli- tary confinement, 5 ; correctional punishments, 22. The English gives, robbery on person, on the high- way and other places, sentenced to death, 144; exe- cuted, 15.-Of secondary punishments, France gives, hard labour for life, 281; for a term, 1139; solitary confinement, 1228; to the pillory, 5 ; banishment, 1 ; degradation from civil rights, 1 ; correctional punish- ments, 1478. In England, we have transportation for life, 133; for 14 years, 185; for 7 years, 1945; imprisonment 5 years, none; 3 years, 11 ; 2 years. and above 1 year, 297; 1 year, 1201; 6 months and under, 5813; whipping and fine, 310.—With respect to terms of imprisonment, we find in the French state- theiut, * 150 1,200 those against property, the number under the former head is, in France, of accused, 1907; under the lat- ter, 6988; leaving out Corsica, the former number would be reduced to 1821, the latter to 6939. In England, including the same class of crimes, the num- bers are, - Against the person, . . . . . . . . . . . Against property, . . . . . e s & © . 553 15,616 But adding to the 6939, 10,796, the numbers would be For France, against the person, . . . © & - 1,821 property, . 17,735 53 I For England, against the person, . . . . . . . . .j property, . 15,616 Without pretending to any great exactness" on this subject, it may be inferred that the whole quantity of crime is greater, in proportion to the population in England than in France; but that of offences against the person, there are more, both in proportion to the whole number of offences, and to the population, in France than in England. The general conclusion from this and other facts seems to be, that crowded towns and flourishing manufactures tend to increase depredations on property, and to diminish acts of violence against the person. * In Prussia, 9646 crimes were committed in 1817. The proportion of crimes to the population was great- est in Berlin, in which it was as 1 to 297. In the Rhenish provinces, the proportion was 1 to 400 ; in Silesia and Prussia Proper, 1 to 2000. This differ- ence is owing to the difference in the condition and state of civilization of the provinces. From 1848 to 1827, 210 persons were sentenced to death in Prus- sia, but only 87 executed, giving one execution to 135,414 inhabitants. For a full account of the sta- tistics of crime in Prussia, see the above mentioned Geſaengniss-Kunde, by doctor Julius. In the Netherlands, in 1825, when the inhabitants were 6,157,286, there were 4400 criminals in the prisons, 2400 in houses of correction, and 1150. military prisoners. See Perslag van de Handelingen der tweede algemeene Pergadering van het Nederlan- disch Genootschap tot Zedelyke verbetering der Gevan- genen, gehoºden binnen, Amsterdam, den 27 April, 1825 (Account of the Transactions of the second general Meeting of the Netherlandish Society for the Improvement of the Condition of Prisoners, held in Amsterdam, &c.) Russia presents, from 1823 to 1827, both inclu. Sive, 853 thefts and robberies, 5,817 murders, 5,263 suicides, 95 cases of exposed children, whole number of criminals, including deser- 14,087; tel'S. - In Spain, in 1826, according to official reports, in which, however, no information is contained respect- CRIME. ing the state of crime il, Arragon, Valencia, and the Balearic islands, the number of criminals amounted to 12,937, which, if the population is 11,447,629, would give one crime for 885 persons. The following is an abstract of the state of crime in several countries, such as we should wish to be able to give of all civilized countries:— .Number of Crimes brought before Courts of Justice. Crimes against Crimes against rSO 11 S. ro Pe pe Proportion to WholeNo. Per Ct. W. No. rty. ; Ct Total. Population. Scotland, 1806-1811, ſ: go Y -a – * 89 1: 20,279 Ireland, 1805-1810, - - ) # # U- — — — 2,644 1: 1,702 Wales, 1805-1811, ( T lá; *-* * *-s º 72 1: 8,436 England, 1805–1811, * : ) — — — — — 4,777 1: 1,988 ſ § * * * - nº *-mº sºme ºsmºs-ºs º-me 4,527 l: 1,951 England, ; - - - - : - - - = # l 763 l; * * * * *mº sº — — 16,564 I 721 Lond §lsº * * * *-* -ºº sº- sºmeº 345; 1 403 2 Ondon, 26, - - - - - *-m-m sºmeº * as sºm-º. ,457 iãº, I I I I I I I IT I j : 1: 380 Before courts $ 1825, 2066 29 5.168 71 7,234 1: 4,424 of assizes, }; 1907 27 5081 73 6,988 1: 4,436 ºn; — — — — 141,733 }: 219 France, al police, 1826, *-* - — — 159,740 1 : 194 3 of iocai'po-; i325, – — — — iè3,944 is 222 lice, §§ — — — — 141,021 } ; * 1825, – — — — 288,911 10 liºn, 1826, - — — — 308,749 1: 104 Prussia (the old 4 & 5 p. Jºy * .. ; 1819-1826, “52,583 30 132,549 70 185,132 l; 427 Assizes, 1822–26, “ — 23 — 27 317 l: 6,666 # 5 | Correctional £) ºr 4 & Q pay 97. 5 § 3 police, }1s22-26, “ —- 52 – 48 7744 1: 276 # Local police, 1822-26, “ — — — — 212,374 1 51 ** U Total, 1822–26, “ — -i- — 252,679 l; 42 Convicted Criminals. For Crimes For Crimes Proportion to against pers. against prop. Total. population. Scotland, 1823, - - - - - - - - - , , -- 288 1: 9,649 1810–1826, - - - - - - - 2,539 119,349 lº. in: *** rel. 1826, - - - - - - - - -— — —— ,095 1: 1,082 England, ij}, ... " . . . . . . TI 12,564 l; 1,019 1828, - - - - - - - - -— — 1 1,723 London, 1827, - - - - - - - - - – – 2,300 l; 587 1815, - - - - - - - - - – #; #2; 1823, - - - - - - - - – – 7,923 1: 82 Ireland, ; ; . . . . . . . . T 10,207 1: 666 1828, - - - - - - - - -— 11,919 #6% * 1825, - - - 1,046 3,548 4,594 1: 6,748 | Assizes, 1826, - - - 1,459 3,451 4,910 l; 6,313 | Correctional 5 is25, - - - - § l: ; | police, 26, - - - - 134,384 l; 23 France, 4 . | police, $ 1823, - - - - – }}},991 li 250 | Ocal po ice #: * & º ºmºmºmºsº “-º-º-º-º: §§ } : ; 1825, - - - – – 241,736 l ; 12 | Total, 1826, - - - 259,040 1: 120 Pays de Vaud, 1826, - - - - - - - -------------- 79 1:2, 151 Old provinces, - - - - - 827 8.048 8,875 l; 924 Prussia, -8 Rhenish provinces, - - - - 1 10 3,307 3,417 l; 543 The whole country, - - - 937 11,355 12,292 l; 818 Sleswic Holstein, in 1820, - - - - - -- – — 1,089 l; 6,281 Norwa Per centum, in 1821, - - - 10 90 100 iv () sy,3}. 1814-1826, - - - - – -- —--— 9,740 1: 1,403 Spain Total, in 1826, - - - - - --— — — 12,937 1: 885 P* † Per centum, in 1826, - - - 37 63 100 Sentences of Death. Sentenced. Executed. Scotland, 1806–1811, - - - - - - - annual average 7; 3# England and Wales, 1805-1811, - - - -—— 375; 56 Ireland, 1805–1810, - - - - - - - 85 48 Scotland, 1821-1823, in the whole, - - -— — 49 28 England, 1810-1826, - - - - - - - -— — 15,652 1,384 London, 1731-1740, - - - - - - - – - 531 316 1810-1826, - - - - - - - - – 2,755 350 France, - 1825, - - - - - - - - -— —— 176 I 1 1826, - - - - - - - - -— —— 150 110 Old provinces, 1818-1827, - —— —— ł 40 77 P, ussia, -3 Rhenish prov., & & as a = <-- *-*-* 70 l Total, - - - & & sm mº ºme-º º E-ºs- 2}() 87 Spain, 1826, - - - - - - - - - -— —- 167 Iºwecutions. For Crimes For Crimes Proportion to against pers. against prop. Total. population. 1768-1775, - - - - - - 11 21 32 sº - - - - - - 2 7 9 1827, - - - - - - - - - - 13 l ; 169,271 * 1826, - - - - - - - - - *-* 57 l: 210,526 England,3; . . . . . . . . . I 70 1: 182,857 1749-1780, - - - - - - g I judon, i?si-isos, - - - - - - 61 726 '737 l: 30,000 1827, - - - - - - - - - -- 17 1: 79,412 1815-1819 (annual average), * * * 303 1: 90,909 France, — 1825, - - - - - - - - - * * 111 l: 279,279 1826, - - - - - - - - - * * 1 10 1: 281,818 Old provinces, 1818-1827, - — --> 77 l: 1,240,960 Prussia, -3 Rhenish prov., & & - * * 10 l: 2,371,000 Whole country, “ * * * 87 l: 1,354,140 Prisoners. Proportion to Nº. *; 1825, including debtors, - - - - - - $ : scoland, $º . . . . . . ; ; ; England, April 29, 1826, - - - - - - 2,864 l; 4,187 Debtors Wales, – — — — — - - - - 73 l: 10,411 y Scotland, – — — — — — - - - 216 l: 10, 185 Ireland, - – – - - - - - - 663 l: l 1,011. France, 1821, is sm mºº sm - ºne sº * * - - 4l 307 l: 778 ſº Southern Netherlands 1817, - - - - - - }}; ; 3. (civil and milit, pri 1819, . - - - - - - 1 1,353 l; 528 \ . prisoners), 1821, * * * * * * lº, 1 : 568 • 3 cc 3 1798, - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2, 179 l: 3,671 Prussia, §§ . . . . . . - - - , 5,300 l : 2,396 527 Proportion to Number. population. Prussian 5 1826, standing army, - - - - - - - 1,124 l: l l R army, — militia, - - - - - - - - - - 724 I : 122 Prussia, civil and military, - - - - - - - - - 8, 100 l: 1,550 Sleswic Holstein, 1819, - - - - - - - - - - - 622 l: 112 21, - - - - - - - - - - - - - 693 1: 1,399 Norway, 1826, - - - - - - - - - - - - - 833 1: 1,200 1814-1826, - - - - - - - - - - - 7,740 l: 1,371 Sweden, 1824, - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1,500 l: 1,600 Though the number of persons committed for trial has progressively increased, in England, for a series of years, it by no means follows that the quantity OI crime has increased; and it is perfectly certain, that crimes of the most atrocious character have diminish. ed. Thus, though the parliamentary returns of the number of criminal offenders committed for trial in 1827 be greater, by 1774, than those of 1826, we should minutely investigate the nature of the offences with which these persons are charged, before we af- firm that the morals of the people generally were more unsound in 1827 than in 1826. “Offences,” Say a committee of the house of commons, in a report on the criminal commitments and convictions, “which were formerly either passed over entirely, or were visited with a summary chastisement on the spot, are now made occasions of commitment to jail and regular trial. Mr Dealtry—a magistrate for the West Rid- ing of the county of York—says, “I think One reason we may give for the increase of crime, or the greater exhibition of it to public view, is the seizure and de- livery to the police of all those who commit offences, that are styled offences at all. I remember, in former days, persons were taken and pumped upon, or something of that sort; but now they are handed over to the police and tried. Sir Thomas Baring, and other witnesses, gave a similar testimony. The malicious trespass act, the act for paying prosecutors their expenses in cases of misdemeanor, and other acts not necessary to mention, have tended to fill the prisons, without any positive increase of crime. The magistrates, likewise, are more ready to commit than they used to be.” There is a fact, which is most important to keep in view, namely, that, in England, and in every other country rapidly advancing in civilization, offences against the person are diminished precisely in the proportion that the means of education are enlarged. The most numerous class of offences has been found, not only in that country, but in France, in the United States of America, and in Switzerland, to be that of the smaller offences against property; for example, in London and Middlesex, as stated by Mr Peel in the house of commons, the number of commitments, in 1820, was 2773; in 1826, 3457; increase of com- mitments, 684. In 1820, of these commitments, the number for larceny was 1384; in 1826, 2118; in- crease of commitments for larceny, 734. Thus we see that, whilst, in 1826, there was a large increase of offences against property, there was an actual dimi- mution of crimes against the person. The report of the committee before mentioned states, that “the numbers of persons convicted of murder, from the year 1821 to 1827 inclusive, adding thereto those con- victed of shooting at, stabbing, and administering poison with intent to murder, were respectively, 35, 57, 26, 38, 29, 27, 47. The numbers charged with murder, shooting at, stabbing, and administering poi- son with intent to murder, were, from 1821 to 1827, 232, 241, 239, 253, 273, 245,288. The whole num- ber of persons tried for offences against the person, in 1827, including robbery of the person, which ought not properly to have been included, was under 1000. The criminal calendar of London and Middlesex exhi- bits, for the respective periods from 1811 to 1817, and from 1821 to 1827, an average increase of committals in the latter seven years, equal to 48 per cent. The convictions, during an average of the same periods, have increased 55 per cent. The population of Lon. 528 don and Middlesex has been computed to have in- creased 19 per cent; therefore, of the convictions, 36 per cent remains to be accounted for by other causes than the increase of population. That large increase, afflicting as it is, may be attributed to the large in- crease of petty offences, of stealing from the house, or the person, “goods which are easily transported, and may be quickly converted into money,’ and to the greater vigilance of the police, which renders prose- cutions more certain. Moreover, the number of those sentenced to death has increased only 4 per cent ; but, the population having increased 19 per cent, there is thus a positive diminution of 15 per cent upon the higher offences, subject to the penalty of death generally. For the higher crimes against the person, such as murder, manslaughter, shooting, stabbing and poisoning, the number of convictions followed by sen- tence of death has decreased 50 per cent. For Some of the most atrocious offences against property, such as arson and maiming of cattle, the number of convic- tions followed by sentence of death has decreased 50 per cent. For the offences of coining and forgery, uttering base coin, &c., the number of convictions has decreased 22 per cent, and the number of those sentenced to death has decreased 43 per cent. This particular decrease is principally to be attributed to the withdrawal of small notes of the bank of England from circulation. The great increase of convictions has, therefore, been in the class of frauds, and larcenies of all descriptions. This result for London and Middle- sex is also true, as will be seen from the following ta- ble, with reference to all England and Wales:— Total Total Yearly Yearly Inc. of Yearly Inc. of Years C º Convictions Increase of | Convictions Convictions not "**** for Larceny. Convictions. for Larceny. for Larceny. 1821 8,788 6,629 -- - * 1822 8,200 6,424 ſºmºsºme * 1823 8,204 6,452 26 &=º-ºº-º-º-º: 1824 9,425 7,550 1,22- 1,068 123 1825 9,964 •,0ll 539 46! 78 1826 11,095 8,962 1, 131 951 180 1827 12,564 9,803 1,469 841 628 Much of the large increase of convictions not for lar- ceny, in 1827, may be distinctly referred to the pas- sing of the act for paying prosecutors their expenses in cases of misdemeanor. The increase, in 1824, 1825, and 1826, is also to be referred to changes in legislation and temporary causes. ... Offences against the game laws have greatly multiplied the number of commitments. From 1820 to 1826, 12,000 persons were committed to the county prisons on the charge of poaching. From the returns for England and Wales, of which we have thus given the results, it appears that, since 1821, the convictions for larceny (that is, for robbery and theft of all descriptions) have increased 50 per cent, while the population has in- creased, by computation, about 16 per cent. We have thus 34 per cent of this increase of crimes against property unaccounted for by the increase of population. Some of this increase is real, and some only more apparent. With reference to the real and apparent increase of the smaller crimes against property, the greater multiplication of property, in a highly civilized state of society, offers a ready Solution why such a grow- ing tendency to theft may exist, notwithstanding the progress of education. The number of thieves in- creases from the constant addition to the number of the objects of temptation, from the greater luxuries with which every individual is surrounded, from the increased rapidity with which goods may be trans- ported to distant parts of the country, and from the more easy communication with the continent. Add all these causes, and many others, to a more vigilant administration of justice, which produces committals for the most trifling offences against property, and we shall easily understand how the return of committals thorized to inflict punishment. CRIME–CRIMINAI, LAW. may be increased, while the great bulk of the people is becoming more intelligent and more prudent. M. Lucas, an advocate in the royal court at Paris, has collected, with much accuracy, a body of facts relating to France, Great Britain, the cantons of Ge- neva and Vaud, and the United States, all of which tend to confirm the principles we have endeavoured to establish—that the higher crimes are lessened as men become more civilized and enlightened; and that, though offences against property may increase, crimes against the person are invariably diminished. With regard to France, this fact has been clearly proved by the calculations of M. Charles Dupin. In the northern departments of that country, where the in- habitants are the best instructed, the higher crimes against the person are rare; in the southern, where the people are very ignorant, the most frightful Crimes are twice as numerous. But, again, it is re- markable, that, in the north—the richest and most enlightened portion of France—the crimes against property exceeded, in 1826 and 1827, those in the South by 917. Of those crimes, however, the south. exhibits the greatest number of atrocious examples, having 207 highway robberies, while the north had only 82. In the canton of Vaud, from 1803 to 1826, the total number of offences was 1914. Of these, there were only 52 of the highest crimes against the person. Of the offences against property, only 75 were of the gravest character of crime, such as bur- glary and highway robbery. In the canton of Gene- va, from 1815 to 1826, there were 212 criminal pro- cesses, of which 27 only were for crimes against the person. The number of offences against property was 185, of which 145 were simple larcemies. In the state of Pennsylvania, from 1787 to 1825, the to- tal number of convictions was 7397, of which 628 were for offences against the person. Of the remain- ing 6769 offences against property, 5338 were large- nies. In Spain, the catalogue of crimes against the person for one year amounts to 3436, amongst which are the following:— Homicides, . 1233 Infanticides, . e p e * g º º 13 Poisonings, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Anthropophagy, & sº * . I Cutting and maiming, . . 1773 #: We thus see that, in Spain, the greater quantity of crime is precisely of an opposite character to that which exists in France, Great Britain, Switzerland, and Pennsylvania. On the other hand, the Crimes against property amount only to 2379. From these data, we may conclude that the greater proportion of offences amongst an ignorant people are those which proceed from the licentious and revengeful passions, unsubdued by the cultivation of the understanding, and the subjection of the will to true morality and pure religion. The greater portion of offences among a rich and highly º people, are of that sort which proceed from the temptations of property, the accumulation of which is the result of capital and in- tellectual energy. Forfurther införmation, see Prison, and School. CRIMINAL LAw. In no department of legal Science do so many different views prevail among juriscon- sults, and in none have these views exercised so great an influence upon the theory and practice, as in this. The doctrine of the criminal law is, that the individual committing an unlawful act must not only make amends to the party injured, but also be pup- ished by the supreme authority of the state. . The first question is, whether and how far the state is au- This question cannot * This comparative statement of offences in France, Switz zerland, the United States, and Spain, rests upon the autho- rity of an article in the Bulletin Universel. The precise year taken for Spain is not mentioned, CRIMINAL LAW. 529 be decided by positive rules of law, because the ob- ject of the inquiry is to reconcile these rules with na- tural justice. States have, indeed, at all times, exer- cised the power of punishment, without waiting for or regarding such theoretical investigations, because it is obvious that, without the right of punishing, no state could exist. The different systems, which have attempted to establish theoretically the right of punishment, may be brought under the following heads:— I. The system of vengeance. From the opinion that he who has injured another cannot complain of injustice, if a similar evil is inflicted upon himself, and the injured person, or, in case of murder, his family, would be disgraced, if they did not obtain satisfaction, arises the rude system of retaliation, which we meet with in so many nations; but, whilst those who take revenge must beware not to exceed the measure of the injury received, lest they become aggressors in their turn, they will be obliged to adhere literally to the rule of “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth;” and in this state we find the criminal law subsisting among nations for a considerable time, and bloody revenge and retaliation become a common right and duty. (See Michaelis On the Mosaic Law.) In this state of things, the punishment of offences against the law belongs not to the community, but to the in- clividual, and the public authority is active only in putting limits to the continual exercise of revenge, and in providing means for terminating the hostilities among families, which threaten the nation itself with destruction. From this arises the system of compo- sition. Offences are estimated at certain rates in money ; and not only is the offender förced to pay the sum fixed, but the offended party must also re- ceive it in satisfaction. With this degree of progress is connected the idea of a national peace, which is developed in various forms and relations, as the peace of the king, the peace of the court, &c.; involving, at the same time, the acknowledgment of a public power, whose duty it is to protect and judge. We find the law of composition among the old Germans, as well as the nations of the Indian archipelago, and the tribes of American savages. The next step is the acknowledgment of the principle that the community is bound to prevent crimes. The right of revenge passes into the hands of the state, which does not wait for the complaint of the offended party, but takes upon itself the duty of the accuser. The theory which next succeeds is, II. The system of deterring. By the punishment of the offender, others are to be deterred from similar acts. The punishmentis, therefore, inflicted publicly; and, the more horrible the crime, the greater effort is made to confirm the popular abhorrence of it by severe penalties. This system is liable to the most weighty objections. It cannot be allowable to tor- ment or put to death a human being, simply with the view that others may receive from his sufferings such an impression as to be proof against the temptation to commit crime. In point of fact, this end has never been attained, and would require a scale of punish- ments offensive to sound reason. The mere fear of punishment is of very little weight. Men are kept from crime principally by the natural abhorrence of Wrong, heightened by a good education and good ex- ample. If the plan of deterring should be carried through consistently, it would compel us to propor- tion punishment rather to the temptation to commit crimes than to their magnitude. (See Feuerbach's Revision der Grundsatze despeinl. Rechts, Erfurt, 1799, —Revision of the Principles of Penal Law.) With regard to capital punishments, more particularly, the system of deterring fell by degrees into disre- pute, after the marquis Beccaria (On Crimes and II. Punishments, London, 1770), and a great many other learned men, had declared themselves for, III. The system of prevention, which is ingenious- ly defended by the Hessian minister Von Grolman (Grundsatze der Criminalrechts wissenschaften, Gies- sen, 1798—Principles of the Science of Criminal Law). Every crime contains, if man is considered as a consistent being, the expression of a principle of conduct, and, accordingly, besides the present trans- gression of the law, a threat of a repetition of the of fence. The community is, therefore, entitled to take measures of prevention against it, which, if the injury done is irreparable, may extend to the deprivation of life. This system may be said to afford the true rea- son for punishment in general. It may, however, be objected to it, that this provision against future crimes is not really punishment, and that the punish- ment must needs be omitted, if this presumption of the future offences is refuted by the particular cir- cumstances of the case. This principle, moreover, admits of no scale of punishment, because the means of effectual prevention must always be the same— death or imprisonment for life. The direction which the Science of natural law had taken, at this period, seeking for the foundation of every right in a con- tract, led to, IV. The system of compact, which asserts that, by becoming a member of the state, every individual has, by tacit compact, bound himself to submit to punishment, if the society choose to inflict it. As, however, no one can be bound by a contract to any- thing which is not right in itself, the lawfulness of punishment cannot be shown in this manner. Fichte, therefore, in his original way, modified this theory. He proceeded upon the principle that, by trespassing upon the right of others, the criminal deprived him- self of the claim to be treated as a rational being, since the rights of a free agent depend on his respect for those of others. Every crime, therefore, he says, justifies the expulsion of the offender from human so- ciety. The compact, by which the punishment is de- termined, is consequently in favour of those who re- ceive a lighter punishment than such expulsion. They acquire a right, by suffering some determined evil, to be admitted again into civil society. Much of this theory is true, but the real existence of such a compact seems to be wanting. V. At the same time, the theory of atomement was introduced by Klein and others. The criminal does injury in two ways; 1. to the person who is the immediate subject of the wrong, for which he has to make him amends according to the rules of private law ; and, 2. by the bad example afforded by the di- minished respect for the laws of the state, for which he is answerable to the community. This latter in- jury is compensated by the punishment, which vindi- cates the authority of the law in the minds of the people. This theory has, in later times, been fur- ther developed, with great ingenuity, by Schultz (Entwickelung der philosoph. Principien des buergerl. und peinl. Rechts, 1813—Development of the phi- losophical Principles of Civil and Criminal Law), and by Martin (Lehrbuch des Criminalrechts, 1819–1825 —Compendium of Criminal Law). VI. The theory of psychological constraint, by Feuerbach, is founded upon the system of deterring, with the addition of this position—that the threaten- ing of punishment, in general, is lawful, because it forbids no one to do anything which he can have a right to do; and this menace renders punishment lawful in case of an offence occurring, because the individual knew beforehand what he had to expect. This theory is exposed to most of the objections against the theory of deterring, and the grounds on which it rests often fail in particular cases. 2 L 530 VII. The principle of moral correction, has been little used as the basis of the right to punish. It has for its end to correct, by punishment, in the criminal himself, those unlawful propensities which impelled him to crime. It is undeniably correct, so far as this, that the punishment ought never to be such as to make the moral correction of the criminal impossible, by the annihilation of his sense of honour, by expos- ing him to corruption in the Society of other criminals, and destroying his ability to support himself in an honest manner. But it is evident, on the other hand, that the sentiments of men, and their moral reforma- tion cannot be the direct object of legislation, from the very circumstance, that this effect is not of a kind to be ascertained ; but to produce an outward habit (for instance, to dispose the idle to labour, the drunk- ard to Sobriety, &c.), is practicable. Finally, VIII. The theory of retaliation has been adopted, since the time of Kant, by almost all the German philosophers, but, at the same time, by very few lawyers. It is founded upon the principles, that the state ought to suffer no wrong within itself; that every unlawful action ought to be annihilated, and is annihilated, when made to revert on the author ; and that the latter suffers no injustice by being treated in the same way as he has treated others. This retalia- tion is not, however, a literal one. It inflicts not the Same evil on the criminal which he has done to an- other ; but it seeks for a generic motion of the of: fence, and applies, according to this, the principle of the criminal against himself. This affords, at the same time, a measure for punishment, which no other principle of penal law affords, though it still requires that the degree of punishment, in particular cases, should be fixed by positive law. We have thus set forth the theories on the subject of criminal legislation. In no branch of law has le- gislation been at all times so active as in this. The influence of theory has extended even to the forms of process, and the civilization of nations always manifests, itself early by the improvement of the criminal law. Criminal law was first treated sci- entifically in Italy, but remained in a very rude state till the middle of the 16th century. The dreadful abuses in the administration of criminal justice in Germany and France, gave occasion to the two great reforms introduced by the penal code of Charles V., of 1532, and the criminal ordinance of Francis I., of 1539. This branch of jurisprudence now assumed a more Systematic character. The ordinance of Charles W. greatly improved the forms of process, but re- tained, according to the spirit of the times, cruel punishments, and even torture. Of the points of criminal law, which, in recent times, have given rise to much diversity of opinion, the following are of particular practical importance:—1. The right of punishing flagrant crimes without the authority of an express law. Those who acknowledge the authority of a natural law affirm the existence of such a right, and divide criminal actions into those which are bad in themselves (delicta juris naturalis), or as the Eng- lish law terms them, mala in se, and actions which are of themselves indifferent, but are subjected to a penal- ty by particular laws (delicta juris positivi), or, as the English law terms them, mala prohibita. Crimes of the first class, as murder, theft, &c., must be everywhere punished, even without a positive law; but those of the second, as contraband trade, are punishable only when made penal by express enactment. Feuerbach and others, however, acknowledge no right of pun- ishment without an express law. 2. With the pre- ceding is nearly connected the question—how far it is the right or duty of the state to punish crimes, which have been committed in foreign countries. On this point, in addition to the difficulties attending the main CRIMINAL LAW. question, there exists a great difference of opinion as to the laws by which such crimes are to be judged. whether by the laws of the foreign country or of that to which the individual belongs. 3. What power should be given to the judge to vary the punishment according to the different circumstances attending the offence? The tendency, in modern times, is to define crimes and their punishments so exactly as to leave nothing to the discretion of the judge, and to enable every man to see what he has to expect from a violation of the law. It is doubtful whether so much precision is generally advantageous, since it almost necessarily produces an unequal distribu- tion of punishment, the question whether it shall be light or severe frequently depending on a little dif- ference in the age of the offender, the amount of pro- perty stolen, &c.; so that a penny more or less may make a difference of several years' confinement in a penitentiary; or the difference of a day, in the age of the culprit, may decide whether he shall be pun- ished with a few stripes, or deprived of his liberty for years, or of his life. 4. One of the most difficult points is the just estimation of injuries done to the honour of another, which involves the great question of the liberty of the press. The most important differences of opinion, however, are those which pre- vail with regard to criminal process. From the re- presentation given above of the principles and the development of penal law, it is evident that crimi- mal proceedings have always been founded at first upon private accusations, in regard to which almost the same principles prevail as those observed in civil actions. In the course of time, this mode is super- Seded by a public accusation on the part of the state, appearing by an attorney, to prosecute the offence. Upon this principle are founded the criminal pro- ceedings of the English courts, and of the French Courts since the revolution. With this may be unit- ed the public trial by jury, which has found so many adherents in modern times. Its fundamental charac- ter consists in this, that the party accused remains merely passive, and waits for the charge to be prov- ed. The consequence is, that the sentence must be pronounced from a view of probabilities, and depends, therefore, more on a knowledge of men, and the de- ductions of a sound judgment than on technical rules. It has been considered the safest mode of trying offen- ces, in particular, as it prevents the dangers arising from the influence of the higher officers of the state over judges deriving their salaries from the sove- reign, by referring the question of guilt or innocence to the verdict of men taken immediately from among the people, i.e. jurors. The German criminal pro- ceedings are directed principally, it may be said sole- ly, to the end of obtaining from the accused a con- fession of the deed, and of its circumstances, by in- quisitory process. This admits neither of an accuser nor of a public trial, but the judge must inquire of the accused himself, and obtain from him, if possible, by a skilful combination of the circumstances, as Well as by awakening the voice of conscience, com- plete truth. What is in Germany the chief busi- ness of the judge belongs, in France, to the juge instructeur, and, in England, to justices of the peace, as police officers, whose investigations af. ford, in common cases, the materials for the final trial. The opponents of the trial by jury allege, as a chief reason for their opposition, that, when the preparatory process affords no certain results, the subsequent trial is attended by the same un certainty. To the above, we have to add a few suggestions growing out of the practice of the common law, which constitutes the basis of the institutions of Eng- land. The general theory of the common law is, CRIMINAL LAW. that all wrongs are divisible into two species; first, civil or private wrongs; secondly, criminal or public wrongs. The former are to be redressed by private suits, or remedies instituted by the parties injured. The latter are redressed by the state, acting in its sovereign capacity. The general description of the private wrongs is, that they comprehend those inju- ries which affect the rights and property of the indi- vidual, and terminate there; that of public wrongs or offences is, that they comprehend such acts as in- jure, not merely individuals, but the community at large, by endangering the peace, the comfort, the good order, the policy, and even the existence of so- ciety. The exact boundaries between these classes are not, perhaps, always easy to be discerned, even in theory; for there are few private wrongs which may not, and do not exert an influence beyond the individual whom they directly injure. In doubtful cases, the legislature usually interferes, and pre- scribes a positive rule. In clear cases, the right of punishment on the part of the state is assumed as a deduction from natural justice, and the duty of the state to protect all its subjects. Hence in the Com- mon law, two classes of offences are distinctly traced out. The first embraces those which rest upon le- gislative enactments. The second embraces those which, independently of any such enactment, are deemed, from their very nature, injuries to the pub- lic. The offences belonging to this last class are not, perhaps, capable of a perfect enumeration; and the test by which they are ascertained is left to the judgment of judges, as cases arise to be fixed, not according to their own discretion, but by analogy and appreciation of the principles and cases already well settled by former adjudications. When, there- fore, a non-enumerated wrong arises, which does not fall under any known former rule, the question which is discussed is, how far it falls under the principles already established respecting public crimes. If reasoning furnishes a strong analogy, it is deemed a public offence; if otherwise, it is left for the legisla- ture to declare that it shall be such. Treason, mur- der, setting fire to a dwelling-house in a large city, riots disturbing the general peace, poisoning public wells, &c., it will be readily admitted, naturally en- danger the good order and safety of the state, and therefore are properly to be punished by the state. But it is not so easy to trace the same principle in mere secret thefts, or a private fight, and yet deny its existence in violent seizures of private property, and private quarrels producing defamation of cha- racter. The common law considers the great object of the public punishment of crimes to be the preven tion of offences by deterring both the offender and others from a repetition of the same. Its object is not so much an atonement for, or expiation of, the offences, as a precaution against their recurrence. This naturally includes, not as a primary motive, but as an incident, the reformation of the criminal him- self; for, so far as that is effected, it prevents offen- Ces. That system of punishments is indeed most desirable, which attains its object by such a re- formation. But it is obvious, that reformation cannot always be relied upon as a sufficient se- curity for society. Hence arises the necessity or policy of capital punishment, which, by cutting off the offender, not only operates as a terror to others, but secures society against the possible perpetration of the same offence by him. Undoubtedly it ought never to be resorted to except in cases of atrocious guilt, and where less punishments are manifestly in- adequate to produce security. Some persons, indeed, doubt the lawfulness of capital punishment alto- gether; but the divine law has certainly sanctioned it. Others, who do not question its lawfulness, 53} doubt or deny its policy. It is certain that the fie– quency of Capital punishments has some tendency to abate its terrors ; and it is by no means as certain that Capital punishments have a tendency to prevent the occurrence of the crime, or to secure a convic- tion. There is a natural repugnance to punish, with so much severity, slight offences; and judges and juries, as well as the public, under such circumstan- ces, Jean against prosecutions and in favour of acquit. tals. Hence the probability of conviction is sometimes in proportion to the moderation of punishments. On the other hand, it is found by experience, that the punishment of death is not sufficient to deter men from the commission of offences to which they are strongly tempted by their passions or their wants.” The tendency of modern legislation has, therefore, almost uniformly been in favour of relaxing the seve- rity of the penal code. In Britain, capital punishments are very exten- sively provided for by statute. There are more than 160 capital offences in our code. (4. Bl. Comm. 18.) In the United States of America, there has been a constant effort to diminish the number of capital offences. There are but nine in the criminal code of the United States ; and the codes of the respective states do not generally embrace a larger number. Treason, murder, rape, arson, or burning of a dwel- ling-house, are generally punishable with death; and Sometimes robbery, burglary, or breaking into a dwelling-house in the night-time with intent to steal. The code of the United States also includes piracy, the slave-trade, fraudulently casting away ships on the sea, robbery of the mail, burning public ships of War, and the rescue of convicts capitally convicted When the sentence is about to be executed. The punishment of other offences is, for those of great enormity, solitary confinement or hard labour in a penitentiary or prison erected for that purpose; and for those of a lower degree, fine or imprisonment, or both, according to the nature and aggravation of the offence. In the United States, no capital punish- ments are inflicted unless by the injunctions of some positive statute. In England, the same rule prevails to a limited extent. A few offences are punished by the Common law with death, without any statute to direct it, founded either upon the notion of conform- ity to the divine law, or upon some positive law whose existence cannot now be traced. Such are mur. der, rape, robbery, burglary, and certain other felo- nies at the common law. In respect to other offences, for which no statute has prescribed any punishment, the general rule of the common law is, that they are punishable by fine or imprisonment, or by both. Considering the infinite variety of circumstances which may occur to extenuate or aggravate the of. fence, not only the common law, but the legislature has left much of the degree of punishment to the dis- cretion of the judges who try the case. That dis- cretion must be exercised in public ; and experience has proved that it is, on the whole, wiser and safer to leave it to the natural operations of judicial re- sponsibility, than, by any attempts to define and limit the exact degree of punishment, to run the hazard of introducing other mischiefs, by excluding mercy where it might be most desirable. , No code of laws could be sufficiently minute to embrace all circum- stances; and none could, therefore, provide for a perfect uniformity of punishments, according to the absolute nature of the offence. Another inquiry is, Who are, in a legal sense, capable of committing crimes, so as to be amenable to punishment? The # Indeed, the severity of the punishment sometimes in duces the offender to become more savage and atrocious. Thus, where robbery is punishable with death, it is often attended with murder 9 I, 2 532 general rule of the common law is, that all persons are punishable for disobedience to, and infractions of the law. The exceptions are few, and are clearly defined. They are such as presuppose a defect of reason and understanding, or of intention. A defect of understanding exists in the case of injuries com- mitted by persons in a state of infancy, lunacy, idiocy, or intoxication. A defect of intention exists in the case of offences committed by chance, mistake, and ignorance, wholly without or against the intention of the party. In respect to want of capacity, idiots, madmen, and other persons not at the time in pos- session of reason, such as somnambulists, are gene- rally excused, whatever injuries they may commit. But the common law does not extend this indulgence to crimes committed by persons who are in a state of voluntary intoxication. It considers this circumstance rather in the light of an aggravation of the offence. But a distinction is here to be made. If the party be, at the time of the offence, drunk by the use of strong liquors, he is punishable, though he may be thereby reduced, at the time, to a state of insanity. But if drunkenness be only the remote cause of the insanity, and the party be not, at the time, under the influence of intoxicating liquors, the law treats his case like that of any other insane person. It does not look back to the original and remote cause of the insanity, to ascertain whether it has been produced by crimi- nal indulgence, or neglect of duty, but to the immedi- ate and operating cause, at the time when the crime is committed. The exception, therefore, of the case of insanity by immediate intoxication, is carved out of the general exception in favour of insanity, and arises from, or at least is countenanced by, motives of public policy, to prevent the dangerous effects arising from indulgence in strong liquors. The com- mon law is, in this particular, more severe than the civil law. The latter never punished capitally for an offence committed under such circumstances. (4. B!. Comm. 26.) As to crimes committed by infants. There are various ages of infancy, in the common law, for dif- ferent purposes. The general age of majority for all purposes is, in our law, twenty-one years ; in the civil law, twenty-five years. Children under seven years of age are deemed without discretion, and are universally exempted, by our law, from punishment. Between seven and fourteen years, they are said to be in a dubious stage, in point of discretion. If they, in fact, possess it, if they appear to have judgment and understanding, and a sense of crime, they are liable to punishment; otherwise not. Generally, the rule of presumption is in favour of mercy, that an in- fant under fourteen is doli incapaw; but this presump- tion may be removed by facts establishing a clear sense of the difference between good and evil, to- gether with malice and superior cunning. (4 Bl. Comm. 22, 23.) However, it deserves consideration, Whether this is a sufficient test of rational discern- ment of the nature of crime and duty; and judges may well lean against convictions in such cases, upon principles not merely of humanity, but of philosophical responsibility. After fourteen, the general presump- tion is in favour of an infant being doli capaw, and, therefore, he generally stands upon grounds similar to those of adults, until his actual incapacity is proved. As to crimes committed by lunatics and idiots, the exception on account of want of capacity obviously applies only to cases where it exists at the time of the commission of the offence. Hence it is no ex- cuse, if a person who has been insane commits an of. fence in a lucid interval, or at a time when his reason is clearly restored. So, on the other hand, a person may not be an absolute idiot, so as to have no dis- cernment whatsoever, and yet may be excusable CRIMINAL LAW. from punishment, if his capacity be so weak that he does not, though an adult, understand clearly the distinctions between right and wrong. Extreme old age sometimes reduces persons to a state almost of fatuity, and exposes them to be imposed upon, and even seduced to the commission of offences, under circumstances where they would be held no more liable to punishment than infants. . Everything de- pends upon soundness of mind and real discretion at the time of committing the offence. When a per- son becomes insane after the commission of an of fence, and before trial, he is not, by the common law, ever allowed to be brought to trial, until he is re- stored to his reason. At whatever stage of a public prosecution the insanity occurs, it operates as a sus- pension of all further proceedings. Thus, if it oc- curs before arraignment, the party ought not to be arraigned for the offence; if after arraignment he ought not to be required to plead; if after plea, he ought not to be put to trial; if after trial, he ought not to have judgment or sentence pronounced against him; if after judgment, execution of the sentence ought to be stayed. The ground upon which this rule of law is commonly supposed to stand is, that it ought never to be presumed that the party, if same, might not suggest some defence that, in reason or justice, would entitle him to mercy, or to exemption from punishment. A reason quite as satisfactory is, that the punishment of an insane per- son can produce no good result, either to reform the offender or as a public example. It would shock all the feelings of humanity to inflict punishment on those whom the visitation of Providence had already made objects of wretchedness and of compassion. In all cases where it is doubtful whether the party be insane or not, the fact is, by the common law, to be tried by a jury. In respect to injuries committed without the in tention of the party, as through misfortune or chance. Where an accidental mischief happens in the perfor- mance of a lawful act, in the doing of which the party uses reasonable care and diligence, he is whol- ly free from guilt, and it is deemed his misfortune; but if he does not use reasonable care and diligence, he is liable to punishment according to the nature and extent of his negligence. If guilty of gross negli- gence, he is sometimes punishable in the same man- ner as if the act were intentionally committed; if guilty of slight negligence only, he escapes with a more moderate punishment. If the mischief hap- pen in the performance of an unlawful act, and a consequence ensues which was not intended or fore- seen, the party is not free from guilt. But the de- gree of punishment ought to depend upon the na- ture of the unlawful act itself. A distinction is tak- en, in the common law, between cases where the original act is wrong and unlawful in itself (malum per se), and where it is merely prohibited by statute (malum prohibitum). In the former case, the party is responsible for all incidental consequences of the unlawful act; in the latter, not. An illustration of these principles may be found in cases commonly put in our treatises on criminal law : If a man be at work with a hatchet, and the head flies off, and kills a stander by, this is not any offence, for the party was doing a lawful act without any intention of hurt. So a parent may moderately correct a child, and if, in so doing, death happens, against his intention, it is mere misadventure. But if he corrects the child immoderately, or uses an instrument which is danger- ous to life, or is wanting in reasonable caution, he is guilty either of manslaughter or murder, according to the circumstances and the degree of the punish- ment. If a man, riding a horse with reasonable care, accidentally runs over a child and kills him, he CRIMINAL LAWS. is not guilty of any offence. If he rides him furious- ly in a street where there may be danger, and the like mischief happens, he is guilty of manslaughter at least. If he rides him furiously into a crowd, either from wantonness or thoughtlessness, and the like accident happens, it will be murder. If a per- son in England, duly qualified by law to kill game, accidentally kills another while so doing, he is guilty of no offence. If a person be prohibited by statute from killing game, and the like accident happens by his shooting, he is not answerable in any other man- ner than a person duly qualified. This last case illustrates the distinction as to cases of malum pro- hibitum. On the other hand, if a person, shooting at poultry belonging to another person, by accident kills a man, if his intention was to steal the poul- try, it will be murder, by reason of the felonious in- tent : if his intention was not to steal, but it was an act of mere wantonness, it will be manslaughter only. In these last cases, the act is malum in se. In respect to injuries committed through igno- rance or mistake. This may arise when a man, in- tending to do a lawful act, does what is unlawful. An illustration commonly put is that of a man intend- ing to kill a thief or housebreaker, in his own house, who, by mistake, kills one of his own family. In this case, if he acted under circumstances of reason- able belief that the party killed was the thief or housebreaker, there is no ground to impute criminal- ity to him. His conduct was founded in a mistake of fact, that is, of the person; for it is sometimes law- ful, by the common law, to kill a housebreaker found in your house. But a mistake, or ignorance of law will not justify an act of the like nature. If a per- son supposes he has a right to kill a trespasser or outlaw, or excommunicated person, and he does so, he is guilty of murder. In respect to crimes committed by compulsion or force. The common law recognizes but few cases in which the authority or command of a superior fur- nishes any excuse for the commission of an offence. In the case of children or servants, the commands of the master or parent furnish no excuse. When a wife commits a crime in company with her husband, she is deemed, by the benignity of the law of the Unit- ed States, to act under compulsion, and therefore she is excused in all cases except murder, manslaughter, and treason. These exceptions are founded upon the peculiar danger and atrocity of the offences, and the public policy of discouraging every motive to com- mit them. Where the wife commits the offence alone, without the company or compulsion of her husband, she is personally responsible in the same manner as if she were unmarried. There are other Species of compulsion recognized in the common law, which may excuse the commission of offences. Thus where a person commits an offence in con- Sequence of threats or menace, which induce a fear of death or other bodily harm. This is called duress per minas. But the fear which compels a man to do an illegal act must be just and well ground- ed, such as may intimidate a firm and resolute man, and not merely of such a nature as may operate upon the timid and irresolute, otherwise it will constitute no excuse. Thus, in time of war or rebellion, a man may be excused for doing treasonable acts, if they are caused by the compulsion of the enemy or rebels. But the compulsion must not be a mere threat to do injury to property, nor even slight injury to the person, but a just fear either of death or of great bodily injury; and even in such case, it is the duty of the party to avoid doing such acts as soon as he safely may, by escape or otherwise ; for if he does not, he will be liable to punishment as a volunteer. But even this excuse is not allowed in all cases, but 533 seems principally confined to crimes positively creat- ed by society; for no man can justify or excuse him- self for murdering an innocent person, under the pretence of fear or necessity, though he certainly may kill another in necessary self-defence. Another case of compulsion or necessity often occurs in the reasoning of speculative writers, whether a person in extreme want of food is excusable for stealing to satisfy his hunger. Whatever may be the doctrine of foreign jurists, or the opinion of publicists, it is cer- tain that no such excuse is now admitted in the com- mon law. If the offence should be committed under circumstances of extraordinary suffering, the case would rarely be brought before any tribunal of jus- tice ; and if it should be, the power of pardon in the government, and the humanity of the court itself, would either annul or mitigate the punishment. There is another case often put, where two persons at Sea are shipwrecked, and get on a single plank, and it cannot support both, but both must be drown- ed unless one is displaced : what is then to be dome 2 In such a case, the law of self-preservation has been supposed to justify either party in a forcible dispos- session of the other. The common law seems to recognize this principle, and, in such a deplorable calamity, imputes no blame to the survivor. We now proceed to notice another important dis- timetion, which the common law acts upon in relation to crimes. It is the distinction in guilt and punish- ment which is made between principals and acces- Sories. Persons are called principals in the first degree, who are the actors or perpetrators of the offence. Persons who are present, aiding and abet- ting the perpetrator, are called principals in the second degree. This presence may be either in fact, as where the parties are immediately standing by, or | are within sight and hearing ; or constructive, as when the party, though not within sight or hearing, is on the watch at a convenient distance, ready to assist, and near enough to do so, if required. There are cases, too, in which a person may be the princi- pal in construction of law, although he is absent, and the fact is done through the instrumentality of another; as, in case of murder by poisoning, a man may be the principal felon by preparing or iºn, the poison, with an intention that it should be taken, or by em- ploying an innocent person to administer it, under false pretences, although he is not personally pre- sent when it is taken or administered. Many cases of the like nature may be easily put. An accessory is he who is not the chief actor in the offence, nor present at its perpetration, in the Sense above stated, but who is in some manner concerned in it, either before or after the fact is committed. If he procures, counsels, abets, or commands the crime, and is absent at its commission, he is deemed an accessory before the fact. If, without any such participation in it, he knows that the crime has been committed, and afterwards relieves, assists, comforts, or receives the offender, he is deemed an accessory after the fact. Thus, if he aids the offender to escape, or rescues him from arrest, or conceals or supports him, he is deemed an accessory after the fact ; so if he buys or receives stolen goods, knowing them to be stolen. There are certain classes of offences at the common law which admit of no accessories. Thus, in treason, all the parties concerned are deemed principals prºp- ter odium delicti; and in offences which are under the degree of felony, and in trespasses, all persons concerned are deemed principals for an opposite rea- son, because the law will not condescend, in petty crimes, to ascertain the different degrees of guilt. In all other offences, that is, in all except the highest and the lowest, there may be, technically speaking, accessories. It follows as a maxim, that in such 534 cases, the accessory cannot be guilly of a higher offence than his principal. In respect to punishment, the ancient common law did not make any distinc- tion between accessories and principals; but by statute, many distinctions are now made, and especi- ally regarding accessories after the fact. In the United States, few of the criminal codes have failed to mark out very strong differences in the punishment. There are, in fact, many reasons which require the distinction between principals and accessories to be constantly kept in view. In the first place, in many instances, a man cannot be tried as accessory until after the trial and conviction of the principal. In the next place, if a man be indicted as accessory and acquitted, he may still be indicted as principal. In the third place, as a natural inference from the other considerations, the defence of the accused may, and often must turn upon very different principles, where he is accused as accessory, from what might or could arise if he were accused as principal. g In respect to the mode of presentment and trial for offences. In England, no person can be brought to trial, for any capital offence or felony, except upon the presentment or indictment of a grand jury ; but for inferior offences or misdemeanors, an informa- tion, in the nature of an indictment, may be filed by the king's attorney-general, or other proper officer, upon which the party may be put upon trial. Even in such cases, an indictment also lies. In America, informations are rarely resorted to in any of the states in such cases; and the usual, and, in many cases, the only constitutional course is an indictment by a grand jury. All offences, whether charged by in- dictment or information, are, by the common law, to be tried by a jury composed of twelve men, and their verdict is conclusive upon the facts. In the United States, this privilege of trial by jury is generally se- cured by the constitutions of the state and national governments. A privilege often quite as valuable to the accused, is that of being assisted by counsel in the management of his defence. It is a curious ano- maly in the English jurisprudence, that counsel are admissible in the argument of facts to the jury only in the highest and lowest offences; in treason, by the express provision of statute, and in mere mis- demeanors, by the common law. In all capital cases, except treason, the accused is denied this pri- vilege ; and, however important and useful such a rivilege may be, the introduction of it has been #. successfully resisted in the British parlia- ment. In the United States, a far different, and, as we think, wiser and more humane rule prevails. In all criminal cases, the accused is entitled, as of right, to the assistance of counsel in his defence; and this right, also, is generally secured by the state and na- tional constitutions of government. This is not the place for a discussion of the value of such a right, though to us it seems recommended by principles of policy as well as of justice and humanity. ... The mode of impaneling juries, the right of challenge, and other incidents of criminal trials, belong more appro- priately to other heads. See Courts and Jury. CRIMEA, or CRIMTARTARY, anciently Cher- Sonesus Taurica; a peninsula, situated between the 44th and 46th degrees of north latitude, and in 34 degrees of east longitude. It lies between the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof, and is estimated to be 208 miles in length and 124 in breadth. It was first oc- cupied by wandering tribes of Tartars, who were subdued by the Turks. In 1791, it was ceded to Russia by the Turkish government. It produces wheat, rye, barley, millet, flax, and tobacco. The inhabitants of the Crimea amount to about 160,000 persons. The following cut represents the male costume :— CRIMEA–CRO ATIA. º: ; ''g''|| Sº ſº S})\, | \\? W. *}(\º Fºrmº --~ NJ fr N SN & ſº lº \\ ty. % \ § {\\ - §§ tº & § ºtº - §º- *~wº- They are all Mohammedans—temperate in their ha- bits, and mild in their dispositions. See Taurida. CRISIS (from ×gºvely, to decide), in medicine ; a point in a disease, at which a decided change for the better or the worse takes place. The crisis is most strongly marked in the case of acute diseases, and with strong patients, particularly if the course of the disease is not checked by emergetic treatment. At the approach of a crisis, the disease appears to take a more violent character, and the disturbance of the system reaches the highest point. If the change is for the better, the violent symptoms cease with a copious perspiration, or some other discharge from. the system. In cases where the discharge may have been too violent, and the nobler organs have been greatly deranged, or where the constitution is too weak to resist the disease, the patient's condition be- comes worse. In regular fevers, the crisis takes place on regular days, which are called critical days (the 7th, 14th, and 21st); sometimes, however, a little sooner or later, according to the climate and the constitution of the patient. A bad turn often pro- duces a crisis somewhat Sooner. When the turn is favourable, the crisis frequently occurs a little later. After a salutary crisis, the patient feels himself re- lieved, and the dangerous symptoms cease.—It hardly meed be mentioned, that the word crisis is figuratively used for a decisive point in any important affair or business; for instance, in politics. CRISPIN; the name of two legendary Saints, whose festival is celebrated on the 25th of October. They are said to have been born at Rome, about 303 A.D., and to have travelled to France to propagate Christianity, where they died as martyrs. , 1)uring their mission, they maintained themselves by shoe- making; hence they are the patrons of shoemakers. CRITICAL PHILOSOPHY. See Kant, and Philosophy. * CROATIA ; a kingdom of the Austrian monarchy, connected with Hungary. It is divided into Civil and Military Croatia. The former contains 3665 square miles, 441,000 inhabitants, seven cities, six- teen market towns, 1827 villages, and consists of the three counties of Agram, Creutz, and the Hungarian Littorale (of which the principal place is Fiume). It is watered by the Drave, Save, Culpa, and Unna, and bounded by Hungary, Sclavonia, Bosnia, Dal- matia, Illyria, and Styria. Military Croatia (see (Military Districts) contains 6100, according to some, 4884, square miles, with 414,800 inhabitants, in six cities, six market towns, and 1241 villages. The CROCODILE. inhabitants are Croats and Rascians, mixed with a few Germans and Hungarians. The Croats, a Scla- vonic tribe, are Roman Catholics, and are known as good soldiers, but have made little progress in science and the arts; nay, they have not among them even all of the ordinary mechanics. Their language is the Slavemo-Horwatic dialect. In Turkish Croatia (On the Umma and near Bihatsch), they are Greek Catho- lics. Civil Croatia is fertile, and intersected by heights of very moderate elevation, extending down from Styria and Carniola. Military Croatia, however, towards Bosnia and Dalmatia, has mountains rising to the height of 5400 feet; as, for instance, Wellebit, the Plissivicza mountains, and the mountains of Zrin. The climate is healthier than that of the neighbouring Sclavonia, and mild. The country produces chiefly wine, tobacco, grain of various sorts, including maize, fruits, particularly plums, wood, cattle, horses, sheep, swine, game, fish, bees, iron, copper, and sulphur. CROCODILE (crocodilus); a genus of Saurian, or lizard-like reptile, species of which are found in the old and new world. That inhabiting the Nile and other rivers of Africa has been known for many ages, and celebrated, from the remotest antiquity, for qualities which render it terrible to mankind. As the largest reptile known,” and as the most ferocious and destructive of the inhabitants of the waters, it could not but command the attention, and excite the fears, of those who were near enough to observe its peculiarities. Few persons have read the sublime book of Job, without being struck with the magnificent and terrible description of the attributes of leviathan to which alone the characters of the cro- codile correspond. It is not surprising that the Egyptians, who deified almost everything, should place among their gods animals so powerful and de- structive, though a better reason is to be found in the defence which they afforded against the incur- sions of Arabs and other robbers, who were not fond of adventuring across canals and rivers frequented by crocodiles. A regular priesthood and worship were consecrated to this ferocious deity, and in the temple of Memphis a sacred individual of the species was reared with great care, being abundantly fed, adorn- ed with jewels, and lodged in a spacious basin, hav- ing offerings and sacrifices made to him. Being thus fed and managed, the terrible reptile became suffi- ciently mild and tractable to be led about in ceremo- nial processions. When he died, the priests embalmed his body, and buried it in the royal Sepulchre So much for the wisdom of the nation which is common- ly regarded as the most enlightened of antiquity The most ancient description of the crocodile is that given by Herodotus, in his observations on Egypt, in his first book. This account, though mingled with a considerable share of fable, is generally correct ; and some of the errors still in existence concerning this animal, appear to be derived from his statement: such are the stories of the bird which picks the Cro- codile's teeth, and that the animal moves only the upper jaw. The latter assertion, though utterly in- correct, is repeated, even at this day, by persons who have had opportunities of knowing better from actual observation, had they not been too much blinded by prejudice to profit thereby. The genus is characterized by the following peculiarities:–The tail is compressed or broadest vertically; the posterior feet are wholly or partly palmated ; the tongue attached to the mouth, even to its very edges, without being in the least exten- sible, a single range of simple pointed teeth; the * The skeletons of much larger reptiles have been dis. covered within the last half century; but, from the strata in which they were found, it is certain they had become ex- tinct long before the earth was inhabited by man. 535 male organ single. There are five toes on the front, four on the hind feet, only three toes of each foot being provided with claws. The body, above and below, and the entire length of the tail, are Covered with square scales or plates, most of those on the back having ridges or spines of various lengths: the flanks are only protected by small round scales. Two ranges of spines, forming a double dentated line, are placed at the base of the tail, which subsequently unite or form a single ridge on the remainder of its length. The ears are ex- termally closed by two fleshy slips: the nostrils form a long narrow canal, which only opens interiorly at the back of the throat. The eyes are provided with three lids; and under the throat there are two Small pouches, which secrete a strong musky substance. Cuvier has divided the genus into three sub-genera, viz. gavials, having an elongated narrow beak or snout ; caymans, or alligators, with broad Snouts, and having four lower teeth to fit into holes excavated for them in the upper jaw ; and crocodiles proper, having the head oblong, twice as long as broad, and the four long lower jaw teeth passing by grooves, and not entering into cavities in the upper jaw. The gavials are most common in, if not pecu- liar to, the great rivers of India. The alligators are confined to the new continent, and the crocodile proper, with a single exception, to Africa. These reptiles are truly formidable, from their great size and strength, and, if they were not rendered un- wieldy by the length of the body and tail, might become as dreadful on land as in the water, where they can act to the greatest advantage. Where they abound, it is extremely dangerous to venture into the rivers for the purpose of bathing, or to be Carelessly exposed in a small boat. On shore, their shortness of limb, great length of body, and difficulty of turning, or of advancing otherwise than directly forward, enable men and animals readily to escape pursuit. For a crocodile of twelve, fifteen, or eighteen feet in length, to turn fairly, it must neces- sarily describe a very large circle. In the water, the vast force it can exert by means of the long oar-like tail, amply compensates for want of flexibi- lity, and renders the animal more than a match for any of its enemies. The force with which it darts through the water, in pursuit of prey, resembles the flight of an arrow rather than the progression of a huge animal, and, when engaged in rude gambols, or in combating with others of its kind, the waves are lashed into foam, and may be truly said to “boil like a pot.” The mouth, when expanded, forms a horrible chasm, extending even to the ears, and armed around its border hy strong pointed teeth. This construction, with the absence of lips, and the confined position of the tongue, shows that the action of the mouth is confined simply to seizing and tearing the food. These animals are exclusively carnivorous, feeding on such animals as frequent the waters, on fish, or carcasses thrown into the streams they in- habit. They always prefer their food in a certain State of putrefaction, and are found to keep animals killed by themselves in the mud, until this process has begun. In regard to the general character and habits of crocodiles, we might safely refer to the ac- count given in the first volume of this work, under the title Alligator, which has been more carefully observed. They are so similar in every respect, that what is said of the American species, with very slight modification, will hold good of the African. The crocodile of Egypt is no longer found, except in the upper parts of that country, where the heat is greatest, and the population least numerous. All- ciently, the species was common nearly to the outlet of the Nile ; and it is stated by Pliny, that they 536 used to pass the winter months buried in the mud, in a state of torpidity. They are still common enough in the river Senegal, the Jaire, Joliba, &c. The size to which these creatures grow is very remark- able, and would lead us to believe that they live to a vast age. It is stated by excellent authorities, that individuals have been killed in Upper Egypt measuring thirty feet in length. M. Cloquet, who was one of the French institute engaged in explor- ing that country while the armies of the republic were present, Saw a crocodile twenty-five feet long. A little reflection upon the muscular power of such a reptile will serve to convince us of its ability to commit extensive ravages on the lives of other crea- tures. There are numerous particulars connected with the anatomy of these beings, which are very curious and interesting. Such are the articulations of the lower jaw with the upper, the joint being so far back as to cause almost every incidental observer to believe, that the upper, not the lower, jaw is moved in opening the mouth ; the lateral spines on the vertebrae, which prevent the turning of the body, except in a large circle ; the curious set of ribs designed exclusively for the protection of the belly, aided by two broad bones standing on the anterior edge of the pelvis, which may be compared with the ossa marsupialia of certain quadrupeds ; the construction of the external ears; the apparatus for the protection of the eye, &c., &c. But for such details, we are under the necessity of referring the reader to treatises especially devoted to their illus- tration. The species of crocodile admitted by Cuvier, in the excellent researches contained in the tenth and twelfth volumes of the Annales du Muséum, are the following: 1. the common crocodile of Egypt (C. vulgaris ; 2. the double-crested (C. biporcatus) ; 3. the lozenge crocodile (C. rhombifer); 4. the two- plate crocodile (C. biscutatus); and 5. the Haytian (C. acutus), the only true crocodile found in the new world, according to his definition. The memoirs above referred to contain very minute and satisfactory ac- counts of the discriminating marks of these species, and to that Source the reader who desires such infor- mation may refer with great advantage. CROESUS, the last king of Lydia, lived in the sixth century before Christ. He was brave, and augmented his empire by the conquest of many provinces of Asia Minor. His riches, which he obtained chiefly from mines, and the gold dust of the river Pactolus, were greater than those of any king before him; the expres- Sion, “ riches of Croesus,” came to signify unbounded wealth. Proud of his treasures, he carried his love of splendour to extravagance, and thought himself the happiest of men. Herodotus tells us that Solon visited him at his court, and, on being asked by him who was the happiest man he knew, mentioned first, Tellus, then Cleobis and Biton, all three humble in- dividuals of Greece, who had died in the midst of a virtuous career. The story of these individuals, as related by Solon, is one of the most affecting and charming passages in the work of the father of his– tory. Croesus manifested displeasure that the choice of the Sage had not fallen upon him; but Solon re- minded him that no one can be safely pronounced happy until his death ; and Croesus was soon forced to acknowledge the truth of the reflection, having lost two beloved sons by violent death, and having been conquered himself by Cyrus, against whom he had waged war for the benefit of the Babylonians. He was taken prisoner in his capital, Sardis, and, having been placed on a pile in order to be burnt, he three times exclaimed, “Oh, Solon " Cyrus hav- ing learned the meaning of his exclamation, was much moved, ordered him to descend, took him as his companion in his wars, and treated him well. CROESUS—CROMLECH. The time of the death of Croesus is not known. He was alive in the reign of Cambyses, the son and suc- cessor of Cyrus. He is represented as one of the most pious among the ancients, constantly labour- ing to please the gods. Some historians deny the interview with Solor: ; others do not mention his having been sentenced to be burnt: at all events, the history as it is told in Herodotus is equalled by few marratives, true or fictitious, in touching simpli- city. ëRocus. See Saffron. CROISADE. See Crusade. CROIX, SAINT, is the name of many rivers and places, as is also Santa Croce in Italian, Santa Cruz in Spanish, and the compositions with Kreuz in Ger- man. Among the many St Croix are: St Croia or Schoodic, or Passamaquoddy ; a river of North America, which divides Maine from New Brunswick, and flows into Passamaquoddy bay. It is navigable for ships twenty-five miles. St Croix, ; a river in the North-West Territory, which runs into the Mississippi ninety miles below St Anthony’s falls. It is navigable for boats about 100 miles. St Croix, ; a river of Canada, which runs into the river St Maurice thirty-three miles above Quebec. CROMARTY, a small county in the north of Scotland, comprising a peninsula, having the North Sea on the east, the firth of Cromarty on the west and north, and the firth of Murray and shire of Ross on the south : this is termed the Black Isle or the old shire of Cromarty, to which are to be added nine detached portions situated in various parts of the more extensive shire of Ross, and within the juris- diction of its sheriff, who is sheriff of Ross and Cro- marty. The face of the country is varied; the east- ern, and that portion bordering on the firth of Cro- marty being the most fertile, while the interior is in a great degree mountainous and moorish, producing little but granite, freestone, porphyry, and a few stones like those of Cairngorm. It has no river of any consequence, but contains numerous lakes, well stocked with fish, and the fisheries on the coast are carried on with great success. Pearls, too, have been found near the confluence of the canal with the firth. The town of Cromarty, formerly a royal burgh, is situated almost on a level with the water at the foot of a beautiful verdant hill, on the extreme eastern point of the peninsula, upon which the sea has made considerable encroachments, so that what was once termed the western now constitutes the eastern part of the town. The harbour, however, lies within the firth, which is centred between the two noted pro- montories called the Sutors, a mile and a half asual- der. It is commodious, and affords secure anchorage for vessels of 350 or 400 tons burden, possessing a fine quay, constructed in 1785, a regular ferry to the opposite coast of Ross, a small custom house esta- blishment, a yard for ship-building, a rope walk, Se- veral merchants’ stores, a large brewery, nail forges, and an extensive manufactory of hempen cloth. The parish is in length seven miles, and averages about two and a half in breadth, but the climate being cold and damp, agriculture is far from being in a flourish- ing state. Population of the town in 1831, 2,901. The population of the county is included in that of Ross-shire. CROMLECH, or CROMLEH, in British antiqui- ties; huge, broad, flat stones, lying upon other stones set upon end. They are common in the isle of An- glesea. These monuments are described by Mr Row- land, Dr Borlase, &c., under the name of arae, or al- tars. Mr Rowland, however, is divided in his opin. ion, supposing them to have been originally tombs. CROMWELL. but that, in after times, sacrifices were performed upon them to the heroes deposited within. There is an account of king Harold having been interred be- neath a monument of this kind, in Denmark; and Mr Wright discovered, in Ireland, a skeleton depo- sited in one of them. Mr Toland mentions a crom- lech in Nevern parish, in Pembrokeshire, South Wales, having the middle stone eighteen feet high and nine broad towards the base, but narrowing up- Wards; and by it there lay a broken piece, ten feet in length, which seemed to be of a weight heavier than twenty oxen could draw. But at Poitiers, in France, there is one supported by five lesser stones, much exceeding all in the British islands, as it is fifty feet in circumference. This he conceives to have been a “rocking-stone.” At Boudoyr, in Anglesea, there is a noble cromlech, many of the stones being thirty tons in weight. CROMWELL, OLIVER, protector of the common- wealth of England, Scotland and Ireland,—one of the most powerful characters that ever rose from a revolution; a statesman and general, who, with the bible in one hand, and the sword in the other, raised and ruled the stormy elements of political and re- ligious fanaticism; with a bold, yet artful ambition, achieved great enterprises, and planned still greater; admired, feared, and calumniated, by his contempo- raries, and first truly appreciated by after ages, was born at Huntingdom, April 25, 1599, and descended from a family which traced its genealogy through Richard Williams, who assumed the name of Crom- well from his maternal uncle, Thomas Cromwell, se- Cretary of state to Henry VIII., and through William ap Yevan, up to the barons of the eleventh century. His father, Robert Cromwell, the proprietor of the borough of Huntingdon, had a seat in parliament, but, at the same time, to support a numerous family, undertook a large brewing establishment. Oliver received a careful education. Anticipations of future greatness early seized upon his imagination. When a child, he met with several hair-breadth escapes. During his infancy, a large ape snatched him out of his cradle, and, to the terror of the family, mounted with him to the roof of the house. Some years after, he was rescued by a clergyman from drowning. The unusually strict discipline of the grammar-school at which he was educated, created a disgust in the am- bitious boy for all prescribed tasks. While at school, he performed, with great enthusiasm, in the old play of Lingua, the part of Tactus, who finds a crown and purple mantle. He retained an impression, in after life, of having seen, in his youth, an apparition of a gigantic woman at his bedside, who told him that he would become the greatest man in the kingdom. In his seventeenth year, he went to Cambridge, where he studied with zeal, but, at the same time, carried his fondness for athletic exercises even to a love of' brawls and combats. After staying there a year, his mother sent him to study law in London, where he became a member of Lincoln's Inn, and spent most of his time in dissipated company. After remaining here a short time, he returned to reside upon his paz ternal property, where he continued his dissolute ha- bits, and had a quarrel with his uncle. There was a restlessness in his nature, which made strong excitements necessary to him ; but he early renounced the vices and follies of his youth, when, at 21, he espoused Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James Bourchier, a woman whose conduct was ever irre- pººl. His change of character was owing, however, in a great measure, to his close connexion With a religious sect, which afterwards became formi- dable, in a political view, under the name of Puritans and Independents. At the same time, he became a student of theological and military works. In 1625, he 537 was member of parliament, under the reign of Charles I., from the borough of Huntingdon. Here he saw, with indignation, the abuses of public administration, and, by the persuasion of the famous Hampden and St John, his relations, took the side of the opposition. Both of them hated the established church, and their sentiments were embraced by Cromwell, whose spirit was early inclined to enthusiasm. His heated imagi- nation often made him believe that he was dying, and the physicians pronounced him a “vaporous and fan- ciful hypochondriac.” No one but the penetrating Hampden had a correct idea of his great talents. In the parliament of 1628, he distinguished himself by his zeal against popery. After this, he retired to a farm, made restitution of some money that he had won in earlier years by gaming, and, from 1635, devoted himself wholly to agriculture at Ely, where he had inherited an estate. While in this place, he prevented the draining of the fens, and thereby made himself so popular with the people of the place, that they gave him the title of “lord of the fens.” He afterwards patronized this measure during his protectorate. The storm was already at hand which was to shake the repose of England. The king wished to reign without a parliament, and the arbitrary manner in which he imposed taxes, assisted by the prevailing religious feeling and sectarian animosity, inflamed the passions of men, and urged them into political con- flict. The opponents of the arbitrary measures of the government had so little idea of the impending con- vulsion, that several of them were making arrange- ments to embark with their families for New England. Among those already engaged in this scheme were Cromwell, Hampden, Pym, Haselrigg, and other men, afterwards so formidable in the revolution; but the government forbade their emigration, as the king was fearful that they would help to widen the breach that already existed between the colonies and the English church. Thus did Charles himself counter- act the movements of fortune in his favour. Crom- well returned to Ely, where he lived, for a time, a quiet and pious life. It was at this period that he wrote to his friend St John, that “he was ready to do and to suffer for the cause of his God.” He also held meetings of the sectaries at his house, and not unfrequently preached and prayed himself before them. At length, the king was compelled, by the state of affairs in Scotland, to summon a parliament. Crom- well (who was returned member by the town of Cam- bridge) and others were so loud in their complaints of abuses in church and state, that Charles prorogued the parliament, but, six months after, November, 1640, was obliged to reassemble it. In this parliament, called the long parliament (from November, 1640, to April, 1653), Cromwell attracted notice chiefly by his rustic and slovenly dress, and by the vehemence of his oratory, often degenerating into coarseness. “That sloven,” said Hampden of him, “ hath no or- nament in his speech, but he will be the greatest man in England, if we should ever come to a breach with the king.” In the declaration of grievances, called the remonstrance, which was passed by a small majority, and which brought on the civil war, Crom- well took an active part. He was at this time a sin- cere Puritan ; but his crafty nature soon led him into the windings of intrigue. On the breaking out of the war in 1642, being ap- pointed captain, and afterwards colonel, he raised a troop of horse composed of zealous puritans, who were ready to risk all for the cause of God. The address with which he infused his own spirit into his soldiers, and the strict discipline which he maintained, gave proof of the sagacity with which he afterwards ruled three kingdoms. Iſis first military exploit was 538 the occupation of Cambridge, where, with puritanical zeal, he seized the university plate, in the name of God, to defray the expenses of the war. He then routed the royalists, and made himself master of their supplies. This success very much facilitated the parliament's levies, while it had the opposite effect on those of the royalists. His troops behaved with remarkable order, except on occasions when their religious feelings were excited. He laid the founda- tion of his military fame by the relief of Gainsborough. From that time he rivalled in boldness, in decision, and in presence of mind, the most practised warriors. At Marston Moor, July 2, 1644, the cavalry which he had trained, and which were commanded by Fair- fax and himself, decided the victory. And now his political influence began. Both a puritan and a re- publican, he thought with Ireton and Hampden, but spoke out more boldly and distinctly, and thus be- came the prominent leader of the party that was re- solved to carry matters to the last extremity. But amid all his real and feigned honesty, he was already beginning to play the secret part, for which his sagacity and knowledge of human nature soon suggested the most politic course. He constantly served, as Hobbes remarks, the strongest party, as well as he was able, and carried matters with it as far as it wished. Once, indeed, when he had charg— ed lord Manchester with cowardice, before parlia- ment, because, after the battle of Newbury (1643), he would not permit the cavalry to charge the enemy on their retreat, from fear that, if routed, they would all be treated as rebels and traitors, the earl publicly accused him of an intention of putting himself at the head of the army, and giving the law to king and parliament. Fortunately for Cromwell, the influence of the Independents (q.v.) prevented a thorough in- vestigation of the matter. From that time, however, the English Presbyterians regarded him as a danger- ous man; and the commander-in-chief, Essex, joined with the Scots, who hated Cromwell for his con- temptuous treatment of them, in seeking his down- fall. Upon this, Cromwell, in concert with his friends, planned a measure which may be regarded as the masterstroke of his political cunning. On fast day, he induced the London clergy to preach on the necessity of the parliament freeing itself from the charge of selfish ends, which could be done only by its members resigning all their lucra- tive offices, civil and military, and leaving it to the Lord to choose other instruments for bringing to a conclusion so glorious a work. In consequence of this, the parliament passed what was called the self. denying ordinance, in accordance with which Sir Harry Vane, Cromwell, and others, gave in their re- signations, because the army, as they said, stood in need of a stricter discipline, and, above all, of more Christian leaders. The project was carried through: Essex was dismissed, and the zealous but irresolute Sir Thomas Fairfax was put in his place. As the honourable but weak Fairfax did not feel himself qualified for the duties of general, he obtained an exemption from the above mentioned ordinance for Cromwell, who, uniting ability with boldness, was again placed under him, with the command of the cavalry. Cromwell now introduced into the whole army the excellent discipline in which he had already trained a part of it, and gained the decisive battle of Naseby (June 14, 1645), in which the king was routed with great loss. Cromwell got possession of the correspondence of Charles I. with the queen, from which the parliament published all the passages which would injure the king and queen in public opinion. After this victory, and the capture of Bristol, Cromwell wrote to the parliament, in that wffectedly humble and sanctified strain, with which CROMWELL. he disguised his ambitious designs; “This is none other but the hand of God, and to him alone be- longs the glory.” The spirit in the army, which the officers, and especially Cromwell, excited by their sermons and prayers, had now risen to fanati- cism ; at the same time that good order and morality were so well maintained, that profanity, drunken- ness, robbery, and the like offences, hardly ever occurred. By this course, Cromwell succeeded in crushing the last efforts of the royal party, which he persecuted with fanatical bitterness. Charles I. at last took refuge with the Scottish army; but was given up by them to the parliament (May 5, 1646), on which occasion Cromwell was one of the com- missioners. Contrary to the expectation of the people, Charles was treated as a prisoner by the leaders of the war party and the Independents, who carried their cruelty so far as even to deny him the consolation of having one of his chaplains with him. The parliament was now in possession of the supreme power. It distributed rewards to its adherents, and Cromwell received £2500 a-year, from the estates of the marquis of Worcester. But when the parliament wished to disband the army, which was infected with the famatical spirit of the Independents, the soldiers appointed, from the crea- tures of Cromwell and the wildest visionaries, a council of officers and a body of subalterns and privates, called agitators, who insolently declared to the parliament, that they would not lay down their arms till the freedom of the nation was established. Some of the soldiers conducted themselves with so much boldness, that the parliament ordered their ar- rest; on which occasion Cromwell not only supported the house, but, with tears in his eyes, deplored the sedi- tious temper of the troops, which, he said, had even put his own life in danger. Some of the members, however, saw in him the secret mover of those measures, and accordingly proposed his apprehen- Sion ; but, on that very day, Cromwell repaired to the army, in order, as he wrote to the lower house, to restore the deluded soldiers to their duty, and, at the same time, requested that Fairfax and the other officers would co-operate with him to this end. On the same day (June 3, 1647), one of the agitators, Joyce, forcibly carried off the king from Holmby, and delivered him into the hands of the army. Cromwell seems at this time to have contemplated the restoration of the king. But he was convinced, on a nearer view of the famatical spirit that reigned in the army, that he could not venture such a measure without danger of his life; besides, he was only second in command, and could not reckon on the assistance of the most influential men, Some of whom, as Vane and St John, were his equals in cunning, and others, as Ludlow, Haselrigg, and many more, his equals in courage. They were all zealous republicans, and firmly resolved to destroy monarchy with the monarch. Cromwell seems, too, to have feared the political principles of his son-in-law, Ireton. Thus he was finally obliged to continue in the course which he had begun, and, in order to pre- serve the favour of the army, to make a hypocri- tical show of sentiments which he no longer felt. He personally respected the king as an upright and conscientious man. He is said to have connived at his flight from Hampton court, and to have wished that he might escape from the kingdom ; and spoke with tears of his first meeting with his children; for Cromwell, in private life, was mild and noble in his temper. At last, yielding to the force of circum- stances, he united himself entirely to the common- wealth party, and, in their deliberations about the future form of government, feebly advocated a CR.OMWELL. monarchy, which this party called a mischief and a sin, because they regarded God alone as their Lord and King. Cromwell had now learned the disposition of his people, and, with that coarse levity which was a leading trait in his character, he con- cluded a conference by throwing a cushion at Ludlow's head, and running down stairs, where another was thrown after him in return. The next day, he said to Ludlow, that he thought the aboli- tion of the monarchy was desirable, but hardly practicable. Soon after, Cromwell had a proof of the strength of his party. Major Huntingdon accusing him, in parliament, of a design to raise, in concert with Ireton, an army against the parliament, and esta. blish a military government under the name of the king, the influence of the Independents out- weighed that of the Presbyterians; and, as the in- Surrections of the Welsh and Scots were to be subdued, the parliament did not dare to condemn or dismiss a general whose services were so necessary. Upon this, Cromwell reduced Wales by a sudden at- tack; and, as Fairfax, from Presbyterian scruples, declined the command of the expedition against Scot. land, he undertook it with more eagerness, as he knew the weak condition of the Scottish army, and had, for many years, hearlily hated the Scottish peo- ple. With a much inferior force, he defeated them at Preston, and was received in Edinburgh as a deli- Verer. Now followed the tragedy of the king's execu- tion (see Charles I.), who was beheaded January 29, 1649. Cromwell was induced to consent to this act by the advice of Ireton, and took a conspicuous part in it, as he had not the courage or the power to pre- vent it. He carried his want of feeling so far, as not only to be a spectator of the execution from a win- dow fitted up for him, but even to have the body in the coffin shown to him. The republic was esta- blished, and Cromwell, as a proof of his republican Virtue, resolved on the death of lord Capel, because, as he said, the friendship which he felt for this loyal adherent of the king must be sacrificed to public duty. Yet Cromwell was not naturally cruel. He shed blood from a politic calculation of his own inte- rest. He was more afraid of his old friends, the le- yellers, than of the royalists. At last, he succeeded in putting down the former by strong measures, and then, to the astonishment of his enemies, who wished for nothing more than his absence, he led his army to Ireland. Victory was now to raise him still higher in the favour of the people. . He took Drogheda by storm, (September, 1649,) where he gave orders that nothing should be spared. “This bitterness,” he Said, “will save much effusion of blood, through the goodness of God.” Most of the cities opened their gates without resistance, and Cromwell, trusting to the terror of his name, though his army was greatly Weakened by sickness, marched boldly into the in- terior, where cowardice and treachery everywhere yielded him a submissive welcome. Within six months, the royalist party in Ireland was wholly Crushed. Resigning the command to Ireton, he now under- took, at the request of the parliament, a similar ex- pedition against Scotland, where Charles Stuart, af. terwards Charles II., had been proclaimed king. Cromwell had, at first, desired that Fairfax sº take the command of the army; but Fairfax had taken the covenants (see Covenant), and would not fight against the Scots. Cromwell was, therefore, appoint- ed commander-in-chief, and marched into Scotland. Being ignorant of the nature of the country, and of the Situation of the Scottish forces, his supplies were cut off, his army became sickly, his retreat was inter- cepted, and he must have been forced to surrender 539 at Dunbar, had the Scots avoided a battle. When he saw them advance, he exclaimed, “The Lord hath delivered them into our hands !” The victory at Dunbar (September 3, 1650) rid the fortunate general of his enemies the Presbyterians. He then marched into Edinburgh. Meanwhile king Charles had collected new forces ; but Cromwell, by skilful marches near Stirling, cut him off from his points of support, when, contrary to his expectation, the king entered England, and threatened the metropolis it- self. Everything was done to strengthen the army of Cromwell, who conducted himself like an active and resolute general, while, in the royal camp, irresolution and discord prevailed. Charles was totally defeated at Worcester, September 3, 1651. This victory, which Cromwell called the crowning mercy of God, gave . commonwealth party full power over three king- O]]].S. Cromwell already exerted a weighty influence on the Supreme direction of public affairs. He suc- ceeded in restoring the continental relations of Eng- land, which had been almost entirely dissolved, and regulated them so as to promote the interests of commerce. The navigation act, from which may be dated the rise of the naval power of England, was framed upon his suggestion, and passed in 1651. At the same time, the general, who was honoured by the city of London as the father of his country, was aim- ing at sole sovereignty. The only man whom he feared, Ireton, was dead. At a consultation with Some members of parliament, and the most distin- guished officers, on the form of government to be es- tablished, he recommended a species of monarchy, but was silent when some lawyers in the convention proposed the young duke of Gloucester for king. Meantime the long parliament, which was aiming to establish its own power, was growing more and more unpopular, in consequence of its undisguised tyranny, the war which it had provoked with the Dutch, and its treatment of the prisoners taken at Worcester, Some of whom were put to death in prison, and others sold for slaves in the colonies. A frightful tempest, too, which occurred on the day of the execution of a London clergyman of the name of Love, made a deep impression on the people. And now Cromwell broke silence. He spoke openly to his friends of the am- bition, the godlessness, and injustice of the parlia- ment. Encouraged by their support, he at last ha- Zarded a decisive step, and, with 300 soldiers, dis- persed that body, “for the glory of God and the good of the nation.” He then summoned a council of war, in which the officers finally chose a parlia- ment of 128 persons, selected from the three king- doms, which from Praise-God Barebone, one of the principal characters in it, by trade a leatherseller, was nicknamed Praise-God Barebone's parliament. Cromwell himself opened the session with a speech, in which he said that the day was come on which the saints were to commence their reign upon earth. Fifteen months after, a new annual parliament was chosen ; but, after a session of five months, Crom- well prevailed on this body, who were totally incapa- ble of governing, to place the charge of the common- wealth in his hands. The chief power now devolv- ing again upon the council of officers (December 12, 1653), they declared Oliver Cromwell sole governor of the commonwealth, under the name of lord protec- tor, with an assistant council of twenty-One men. The new protector behaved with dignity and firmness. With the aid of general Lambert, he formed a con- stitution, called the Instrument of government, by which the protector was invested with the power of peace and war, and was to summon a parliament once every three years, which he should not dissolve under five months; bills presented to him were to 540 have the force of laws if not ratified by him within twenty days ; and, on the other hand, he had power to enact laws, with the consent of his council, which should be binding in the intervals of the sessions of parliament. In case of his death, the council were immediately to choose a new protector; but no pro- tector after him was to command the army. Crom- well, having concluded peace with Portugal, turned the resources of the state to the enlargement of its navy and commerce. France and Spain courted the friendship of the fortunate protector, who at length united with cardinal Mazarin, in Order to increase the colonial power of England. To make a thorough re- duction of Scotland, he gave orders to general Monk to plunder every place that made resistance, and put the garrison to the Sword—orders which were so rigorously executed by Monk, that terror insured the most implicit submission. The nobles feared, the clergy hated the protector ; while the people, whom he treated with equity and kindness, loved him, be- cause they enjoyed much more liberty under him than before. The protector treated Ireland with great severity. His act of pardon was, in reality, a des- perate remedy for a desperate evil. The surviving inhabitants of an island wasted by fire, Sword, and pestilence, were compelled to remove, on penalty of death, to a barren tract of the province of Connaught, which was divided among them ; the rest of the island became the property of the conquerors. Such was the bitter hatred occasioned by the unceasing quarrels of the Protestants and Catholics. Here, however, as in Scotland, the protector established an equitable form of government, which, in the course of a few generations, would have very much im- proved the state of the island. ... But, in England, the situation of the protector was far from being secure. A member of parliament loudly declared, that he could not brook, after the overthrow of one tyrant, to see the liberties of the nation shackled by another, whose prerogative had no measure but the length of his sword ; and Cromwell met with so much opposi- tion, that, after the first five months, he dissolved the parliament. On the whole, his political administration was mas- terly, and adapted to the circumstances of his situa- tion. He established large magazines of provisions; the pay of the soldiers was regularly delivered to them a month in advance; yet the public revenues were strictly and economically managed, without any ad- ditional imposts. He appointed for judges the most upright and distinguished men. Among these was the famous Sir Matthew Hale. He never interfered with the proceedings of the courts of justice. In re- ligion, he acted on the principle of toleration. Every man had liberty of conscience. In other things, too, Cromwell, as his own correct judgment prompted, would have governed with mildness and justice, pro- moted the arts and Sciences, and healed the wounds of the nation; but he was obliged to maintain his power, as he had acquired it, against his better will, by a severity often amounting to tyranny. Equally afraid of the royalists and the levellers, he could not rely upon the officers of the army ; he did not place confidence even in the soldiers, and would have taken a regiment of Swiss for his body-guard, had he not been fearful of º himself unpopular, and be- traying his suspicions, by so doing. With the help of the famatics, he kept the royalists in check; and the latter served as a counterpoise to the former. For this reason he rejected, as much from policy as from principle, the proposition, which was repeatedly made in the council of war to massacre all the royalists. They were obliged, however, to give up a tenth part of their property, were always looked upon as ene- mies, and were denied the common privileges of a CROMWELL. court of justice. In order to collect the fines impos- ed on the royalists, to prosecute those whom he sus- pected, perhaps also to disunite the army, the pro- tector divided England into twelve military jurisdic- tions, and placed over each a major-general with ab- solute power, from whose decisions there was no appeal, except to the protector himself; , but he speedily broke up this odious government of pachas. On the other hand, he strengthened the British navy. The famous admiral Blake, and other naval heroes, fought several well contested battles with the Dutch fleets, under De Ruyter, Tromp, and others. In the peace with Holland (April 16, 1654), Eng- land maintained the honour of her flag, and the navi- gation act gave a new impulse to the colonial trade. The skilful and fortunate conduct of the War with Spain, from 1655 to 1658, in which Jamaica and Dunkirk were taken, made the new parliament, from which Cromwell had carefully excluded all re- publicans, so obsequious, that they at last offered him the title of king. "Some individuals, among whom was Lambert, the second in command of the army, who was in hopes of being protector after Cromwell, and the majority of the officers, opposed the mea- sure so resolutely, that Cromwell, fearing the fate of Caesar, declined the title. His brother-in-law, Desborough, and his son-in-law, Fleetwood, also dis- suaded him from accepting it. For this, the parlia- ment, by an act entitled Humble Petition and Advice, gave him the title of highness, and the right of ap- pointing his successor; and he was a second time solemnly invested by the speaker with the ensigns of his office—a velvet mantle of purple colour, symboli- cal of justice and mercy, the Bible, the staff, and the sword. Cromwell received from all quarters marks of the highest respect; yet the incense of admiration did not intoxicate his understanding: he saw things in their true light, with a calm, clear, and care- ful eye. Shakspeare himself has portrayed no situa- tion more dramatic than that of Cromwell; but, unlike the stupified and despairing Macbeth, the protector rose in spirit as he rose in fortune. He renounced the principles with which he had set out, as untenable. Gladly would he have repaired the past mischief; but the men whom he had hitherto used as instruments were opposed to him, and the blood of the king was inexpiable. Charles Stuart, son of the late king, offered to allow him to make his own terms, if he would place him on the throne ; and Cromwell's wife urged him to accept the propo- sal; but he answered, ° if Charles Stuart can forgive me all that I have done against him and his family, he does not deserve to wear the crown of England.” Cromwell, the lord of the three kingdoms, the mightiest potentate in Europe, and worthier than any other of his high station, had he risen by up- right means, was unhappy in the last years of his life. In his heart, he wished to govern on mild and constitutional principles; but self-preservation Com- pelled him to be severe and suspicious. . A usurper must be a despot. He at last governed without a parliament, since none was pliant enough for him ; and the bigots, who once extolled him, now called him a shameful tyrant. Their conspiracies against his life kept him in continual alarm. He never Went out without a guard; no one knew what route he would take; he usually turned back after starting, and took another direction; he wore a shirt of mail under his dress, and seldom slept two nights succes- sively in the same room. According to Ludlow's account, he expressed, on his death-bed, some fears that his memory would be insulted, and his remains trampled upon. He asked his preacher, whether it. was true that the elect could never finally fall; and, when assured that it was so, Cromwell reioined. CROMWELL–CRONOS. “Then I am safe; for I am sure that once I was in a state of grace.” The powerful medicines which were administered to him, while his body was weak- ened by the tertian ague, brought on a kind of in- sanity. He assured his physicians, as the fanatics about him had persuaded him to believe, that he should not die, whatever they might think of his situ- ation; “for God was far above nature, and God had promised his people his recovery.” His last words appeared to be those of a person interceding with God for the people. Cromwell died September 3, 1658, at the age of fifty-nine, and was buried in Westminster abbey. Most of the European courts went into mourning for him, even that of Versailles. Great as a general, Cromwell was still greater as a civil ruler. He lived in a simple and retired way, like a private man, without any parade or ostenta- tion. He was abstemious, temperate, indefatigably industrious, and exact in his official duties. His ex- terior inspired neither love nor confidence; his figure had neither dignity nor grace; his conversa- tion and manners were rude and vulgar; his voice was harsh ; in his public speeches, he expressed him- self with force and fire, but without method or taste. On the other hand, he possessed extraordinary pene- tration and knowledge of human nature; no one knew so well as he the art of winning men, and us- ing them to his purposes. He devised the boldest plans with a quickness, equalled only by the decision and intrepidity with which he executed them. No obstacle deterred him ; and he was never at a loss for expedients. His coins bore the motto, Paw quari- tur bello. Cool and reserved, but full of great pro- jects, he patiently waited for the favourable mo– ment, and failed not to make use of it. Under the guise of piety and virtue, he practised the most sub- tle Machiavelism ; yet he was, in truth, an upright and tolerant Calvinist. As his political inter- est was often at variance with his real sentiments, he sometimes showed himself cruel, sometimes mo– derate, even towards his avowed enemies. In his intercourse with others, he often indulged in low and Scurrilous jests, frivolity, and coarseness, which agreed as ill with his iron sternmess of character, as with the noble spirit which breathes in some of his speeches, and with the force of his oratory, which swayed not only the ignorant and fanatical soldiery, but also the more enlightened parliament. His ele- vation was the fruit of injustice and deceit ; and, on his death, his family soon sank into obscurity. He had appointed his eldest son, Richard, his suc- cessor; but the republican and religious fanaticism of the army and officers, with Fleetwood at their head, now subverted, as it had formerly served, the pro- jects of Cromwell. The mild and virtuous Richard was compelled, by the mutinous officers, to dissolve the parliament; and, a few days after, conscious of is incapacity, he voluntarily abdicated the protector- ship, April 22, 1659. His brother Henry, who had talent, bravery, and mildness of temper, and who, from 1654, had governed Ireland in tranquillity, im- proved its trade, and won the affections of the peo- ple by his upright administration, followed the exam- ple of Richard, and died in privacy in England. Rich- ard lived in narrow circumstances, his property being nearly exhausted in the expenses of his father's fune- ral. At the restoration, he went to the continent, and returned to England in 1680, and, assuming the name of Clark, passed the remainder of his days in tram- quil seclusion, at Cheshunt, in Hertfordshire. He tlied in 1712, at the age of 86. His father's corpse, by the command of Charles II., was dug up in 1661, hanged, and buried under the gallows. For further information respecting the life of Crom- well, the reader may consult Clarendon and Hume, \ 54 I Ludlow's Memoirs, and those of Whitelocke and Noble; also the accounts of him by Banks, Jeudy Dugour (Paris, 1795), and Villemain's Histoire de Cromwell (Paris, 1819, 2 vols.); besides these, the collections of Cromwell's letters and state papers, by Carte, 1736, and Nicholas, 1743, published at Lon- don. A descendant of the family, Oliver Cromwell, published Memoirs of the Protector Oliver Cromwell, and of his Sons, Richard and Henry (London, 1820, 4to). See the following article. CROMWELL, OLIVER, a gentleman recently de- ceased, was the great-grandson of Henry Cromwell, Son of the protector. He practised as a solicitor in Essex street (London) for several years, and was clerk to St Thomas's hospital. He succeeded to the estate of Theobalds, which descended to him through the children of Richard Cromwell, eldest son of the protector, and died at Cheshunt park, Hertfordshire, May 31, 1821, aged 79. He wrote the Memoirs of the Protector, Oliver Cromwell, and his Sons, Rich- ard and Henry, illustrated by Original Letters and other Family Papers (London, 1820, 4to). CROMWELL, THOMAs, earl of Essex, was the son of a blacksmith at Putney, in Surrey, and was born about the year 1490. In his youth, he was employed as clerk to the English factory at Antwerp. In 1510, he went to Rome, and, on his return to England, became the confidential servant of cardinal Wolsey. On his master’s disgrace, i. Trom- well defended him with great spirit, in the ...—e of commons, of which he was then a member, and ef. fectually opposed the articles of treason brought against Wolsey. After the cardinal's death, he was taken into the king's service, into which he entered with zeal, but with little consideration of regard for others. He was knighted and made a privy counsel- lor, and, in 1534, became principal Secretary of state and master of the rolls. In 1535, he was appointed visitor-general of all the monasteries in England, in order to suppress them. In this office, he acted with great severity and injustice. His services were re- warded by the situation of lord keeper of the privy seal, and a seat in the house of peers, with the title of baron Cromwell of Okeham. On the abolition of the pope's supremacy, he was created king's vicar- general, and used all his influence to promote the re- formation. He caused articles of religion to be pub- lished by the royal authority, acknowledging only three sacraments, and speaking doubtfully of purga- tory. He was made chief justice itinerant of the forests beyond Trent, knight of the garter, and finally, in 1539, earl of Essex, and lord high chamberlain. He at length fell into disgrace with the king, for the in- terest he took in promoting his marriage with Ame of Cleves. Her person proved disagreeable to Henry, who fell in love with Catharine Howard, a lady allied to the principal Catholic families; and, in consequence of her influence and the royal displeasure, Cromwell was arrested at the council table on a charge of treason, committed to the Tower, and condemned without a hearing. He was beheaded on Tower-hill, July 28, 1540, declaring that he died in the faith of the Catho- lic church, from which he confessed he had been se– duced. He bore his good fortune with moderation, was charitable to the poor, and willing to benefit the deserving. The Protestants praise him for his indus- try and solidity, and all the qualities which fitted him for the management of important affairs; while the Pa- pists dwell on his violence, ambition, and injustice. He always gratefully returned any favours he had re- ceived while in an humble condition. He left a son, who was created lord Cromwell, which title remained in the family for several generations. CRONION. See Jupiter. CRONOS. Seo Sattºrn. 542 CRONSTADT, or BURZENLAND (in Hunga- rian Brassau); a free royal city of Transylvania, in the Land of the Saxons, 25 leagues E. S. E. of Her- manstadt, 31 N.N.W. of Bucharest, with a citadel; lat. 450 36' 30' N. ; lon. 25° 43' 47" E. It contains six Lutheran, one Roman Catholic, two Greek Catho- lic churches, one Lutheran gymnasium, one normal school; 25,000 inhabitants. Its commerce, chiefly with Walachia, is considerable. CRONSTADT, or KRONSCHTAT; a seaport and fortress of Russia, in the government of St Peters- burg, situated on the south-eastern extremity of the island of Retusari, in the gulf of Finland, two miles from the coast of Ingria, and eight from that of Ca– relia, at the mouth of the Neva. It was founded by Peter I. in 1710. Some of the streets are tolerably regular ; but the houses are in general built of wood, and there are scarcely any pavements. The principal public buildings are the imperial hospital for sailors, the civil hospitals, the barracks, the English and German churches, &c. The population amounts to about 40,000, of' whom at least 10,000 are sailors. The harbour is very spacious, and consists of the three divisions of the merchants’ harbour, the war harbour, and the man of war's mole. The war harbour is the principal station of the Russian fleet. Adjoining it are the docks for building and careening ships of war. They can hold ten men of war, and are faced with stone and paved with granite : they are 40 feet deep and 105 broad. The man of war's mole is an interest- ing structure, enclosed by a strong rampart of gra- mite, built in the sea, under the direction of the late admiral Greig. Here is a foundery for casting can- non, and a ropewalk for manufacturing cables of all sizes, with great magazines of haval stores. Cron- stadt is defended towards the sea by two fortifications, called Cronschlot, on the Neva, where this river is 2000 paces wide, and towards the land by ramparts and bastions. About 1100 vessels enter and leave the port annually. The principal exports from this harbour are iron, flax, hemp, linseed, oil, and tar. twenty-two miles west St Petersburg. Lon. 29° 49' 30' E. ; lat. 59° 59' 26" N. CROSIER ; a tall staff of silver or gold, curved at the upper end, which is carried before bishops, ab- bots, and abbesses, as an ensign expressive of their dignity, while they are exercising the functions of their office; and the figure of which is also borne in their coat of arms. When bestowing the blessing upon the people, they take the staff into their own hands. It was originally a shepherd's crook, the bishops being regarded as the pastors of their dio- ceses. By degrees the humble emblem became high- ly adorned, and was made of costly materials. Artists like Benvenuto Cellini and Giovanni da Bologna were employed to make it. The investiture of the bishop is indicated by the delivery of the crosier. Some Say that the crosier was originally only a simple staff, which, from the earliest times, has been given as an emblem of authority to judges, kings, &c. In conformity to this explanation, St Isidore says that bishops bear the staff because they have the right to Correct the erring, and the duty to support the weak. The excess of splendour lavished in later times upon this instrument, gave occasion to the following sati- rical lines:— Aw temps passé du siècle d'or, Crosse de bois, evesque d'or : Maintenant changent les loia, Crosse d'or, evesque de bois. CROSS; one straight body laid at any angle upon another ; the ensign or emblem of the Christian reli- gion, as being a representation of the instrument of punishment, on which Jesus Christ suffered death irom the Jews; the form in which many churches and CRONSTADT –CROSS. cathedrals are built. The cross of the ancients was simply a piece of wood, fastened across a tree or up- right post, on which were executed criminals of the very worst class. After the crucifixion of Jesus, and the extension of the Christian religion, the cross was assumed as the ensign of his followers. The cross was used emblematically before the Christian era. Upon a multitude of medals and ancient monuments, are to be found crosses placed in the hands of statues of victory, and of figures of emperors. It was also placed upon a globe, which, ever since the days of Augustus, has been the sign of the empire of the world and the image of victory. The shields, the cui- rasses, the helmets, the imperial cap, were all thus de- corated. The cross has also been often stamped upon the reverses of money, as is proved by the old English game of cross and pile. The coins struck at Constantinople, and those of the Franks, from the time of Clovis, were also thus marked. Examples of these are given in the dissertation by Ducange, Sur les Médailles Byzantimes, and in the treatise by Le Blanc, Sur les Monnaies de France. The cross is now the universal Christian emblem, being used upon the arms and banners of the soldier, the vestments of the priest, and in the armorial bearings of nobles. The forms of cathedrals, and often the patterns of their pavements, are adapted to the representation of the cross, which is also sculptured and elevated upon tombs and sepulchres. Sculptured crosses of various descriptions, elevated upon handsome pedestals, were formerly erected in cemeteries and market-places, to designate peculiar events; as the queen's crosses at Northampton, Waltham, &c. Very fine ones are still to be seen in many parts of Great Britain, and par- ticularly in Ireland. In order to understand the meaning of the sign of the cross among the first Christians, it must be kept in mind, that the cross was in their time an instrument of infamous punishment, like the gallows at present, and that they assumed this sign to show that they glori- ed in being the followers of Christ, notwithstanding the infamy which had been attempted to be thrown upon him, by the manner of his execution. The custom of making the sign of the cross, in memory of Jesus, may be traced to the third century. Constantine the Great had crosses erected in public places, in pa- laces and churches. This emperor is generally sup- posed to have been the first who ordered the cross to be used as the sign or emblem under which he would fight and conquer, in remembrance of the miraculous appearance of a cross in the heavens. A certain le- gend relates that, before his battle with Maxentius, a Cross appeared to him bearing the words Tourº vix? (Under this thou shalt conquer, In hoc signo vinces), in consequence of which he had a standard made bearing this image, and called labarum. It was cus- tomary, in his time, to paint a cross at the entrance of a house, to denote that it belonged to a Christian. Subsequently, the churches were, for the greater part, built in the form of this instrument. But it did Ilot become an object of adoration, until the empress Helena (Constantine's mother) found a cross in Pales- time, which was believed to be the one on which Christ suffered, and conveyed a part of it to Constan- tinople. This is the origin of the festival of the find- ing of the cross, which the Catholic church celebrates on the third of May. Standards and weapons were now ornamented with it, and the emperor Heraclius thought he had recovered the palladium of his em- pire, when he gained possession of a piece of the true cross, in 628, which had fallen into the hands of the Persians, in 616. In memory of this event, the festi- val of the exaltation of the cross was instituted, He- raclius having caused the cross to be erected at Jeru- salem, on mount Calvary. This festival is celebrated CROSS— CROUP. on the 14th of September. It is remarkable how this holy relic became multiplied. Numberless churches possessed some parts of it, the miraculous power of which was said to have been proved by the most astonishing facts ; and many persons actually believed that it could be infinitely divided without decreasing. It was in vain that the Iconoclasts, who condemned the worship of images, attempted to overthrow the adoration of the cross. The Crucifix was considered as a principal object of worship, in preference to the images of the Saints, and, in Com- pliance with the teachings of John of Damascus, was adored, during the seventh century, in all the churches of the East. That the West also ascribed a myste- rious power to this symbol, is evident from the use which was made of it in the trials “by the judgment of God,” in the middle ages. There never has existed any sign, which has been so often repeated in works of art as the cross. ... This may be ascribed, in part, to its form being applicable to many more purposes than those of other emblems ; such for instance, as the crescent. The distinguish- ing cipher of the Jesuits is IHS, which signifies In hac cruce salus, or Jesus, in Greek letters, and abbre- viated. Crosses have been the badge of number- less orders, military and civil. To make the sign of the cross, is thought by many people, in Catholic countries, a defence against evil spirits, evil influ- ences, &c. The Greeks make this sign constantly, hardry taking a glass of raky without signing the cross over it. Catholic bishops, archbishops, abbots, and abbesses, wear a small golden cross. The Ca- tholic benediction is generally performed by making the sign of the cross over the object. ferent kinds of crosses, as the common cross, +, St Andrew's cross, x, &c. (See the article Adoration.) Two sorts of crosses are used for the forms of churches, the Greek and the Latin. The Greek cross has its arms at right angles, and all of equal length ; whereas the Latin cross has one of its limbs much longer than the other three. Bramante originally de- signed St Peter's for a Latin cross; Michael Angelo reduced it to the proportions of the Greek cross; but Carlo Maderno again elongated it to the original di- mensions of Bramante. The cathedral of St Paul's, London, is a Latin cross, with its base spread by a sort of second transept, which increases the breadth of the western front. See Crucifixion. Cross, in baptism. In the administration of the ordinance of baptism, the practice of making the sign of the cross on the forehead of the person bap- tized, was adopted at an early period, though not en- joined by any express command, or sanctioned by any known example in scripture. The use of the cross, indeed, was very frequent in the primitive ages of Christianity. Such was the respect paid to it, that it formed, in one mode or another, a distinguishing part of the civil and religious ceremonies of those times. The first Christian writer who mentions it in connex- ion with baptism, is Tertullian, who wrote after the middle of the 2d century. This writer says (De Cov. Mil. c. 2), that “ at every setting out, or entry upon business, whenever we come in or go out from any place, when we dress for a journey, when we go into a bath, when we go to meat, when the candles are brought in, when we lie down or sit down, and what- ever business we have, we make on our foreheads the sign of the cross;” and, speaking of baptism, in his treatise De Carn. Resur., he says, “the flesh is sign- ed that the soul may be fortified; Cross-bearer (porte-croin, cruciger), in the Roman Catholic church, the chaplain of an archbishop, or a primate, who bears a cross before him on solemn oc- casions. The pope has the cross borne before him There are dif- 543 everywhere; a patriarch anywhere out of Rome; and primates, metropolitans, and those who have a right to the pallium, throughout their respective ju- risdictions. Gregory XI. forbade all patriarchs and prelates to have it borne in the presence of cardinals. A prelate bears a single cross, a patriarch a double cross, and the pope a triple one on his arms. CROSS-BAR SHOT are shots with iron bars croSS- ing through them, sometimes standing out six or eight inches at both sides. They are used at sea for injuring the enemy's rigging, and in sieges, for des- troying the palisades in the covert-way, ditches, &c. CROSS-BOW, or ARBALIST; formerly a very common weapon for shooting, but not long used in war after the invention of fire-arms. It is a strong wooden or steel bow, fixed to a stock, stretched by the spanner, and shot off by the trigger fixed to the stock. All kinds of weapons, in which the bow was fastened to the stock, were called cross-bows, some of which were attached to carriages, and drawn by horses. There was a small kind, from which were shot little balls. To the larger sort were attached instruments for bending the bow. There are some societies still existing in Germany, who exercise with the cross-bow; for instance, in Aix-la-Chapelle. See Archery. CROSS EXAMINATION ; the examination of a witness called by one party, by the opposite party or his counsel. CROSS FIRE, in the art of war, is when the lines of fire, from two or more parts of a work, Cross one another. It is frequently made use of to prevent an enemy's passing through a defile. The flanks, as well as the faces of two adjoining bastions, afford the means of cross fire, as do also the faces of two ad- joining redoubts. *, CROTONA, also CROTO, in ancient geography, a Greek republic in Magna Græcia, or South Italy. Livy gives the circumference of the city of Crotona at 12,000 paces. This city was famous for produc- ing the strongest athletae. Milo, e. g., was born here. Under the Romans, Crotona was infamous for luxury and dissoluteness. The ruins of this place are still to be seen above Capo della Colonna. CROTON OIL is expressed from the seeds of an East Indian plant, the croton tiglium, and is one of the most valuable of the late additions to the materia medica. It is"so strongly purgative, that one drop is a full dose, and half a drop will sometimes produce a powerful effect. It is also found to produce the same effect when rubbed upon the tongue, or even upon the skin. It is so active, that it should never be used but under the direction of an experienced physician. In the hands of such, it is of great value, as its small bulk and insipid taste render it serviceable in cases in which no common medicine can be used, and its great power makes it operate when other medicines fail. It has been given to the extent of eight or ten drops, in a bad case of ileus, which is cured, without pro- ducing any bad symptoms. It should, however, be used with great caution. CROUP; a disease that mostly attacks infants, who are suddenly seized with a difficulty of breathing and a crouping noise; it is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the windpipe, inducing the Se- cretion of a very tenacious, coagulable lymph, which lines the air passages and impedes respiration. The croup does not appear to be contagious, whatever some physicians may think to the contrary; but it sometimes prevails epidemically. It seems, however, peculiar to some families; and a child, having once been attacked, is very liable to a return. It is con- fined to young children, and has never been known to attack a person arrived at the age of puberty. The application of cold seems to be the general cause 544 which produces this disorder, and therefore it occurs more frequently in the winter and spring than in the other seasons. It has been said, that it is most pre- valent near the sea-coast; but it is frequently met with in inland situations, and particularly those which are marshy. Some days previous to an attack of the disease, the child appears drowsy, inactive, and fret- ful; the eyes are somewhat suffused and heavy; and there is a cough, which, from the first, has a pecu- liarly shrill sound; this, in the course of two days, becomes more violent and troublesome, and likewise more shrill. Every fit of coughing agitates the pa- tient very much ; the face is flushed and swelled, the eyes are protuberant, a general tremor takes place, and there is a kind of convulsive endeavour to renew respiration at the close of each fit. As the disease advances, a constant difficulty of breathing prevails, and the head is thrown back in the agony of attempt- ing to escape suffocation. There is not only an un- usual sound produced by the cough (something be- tween the yelping and barking of a dog), but respira- tion is performed with a hissing moise, as if the wind- pipe was closed up by some slight, spongy substance. The cough is generally dry; but if anything is spit up, it has either a purulent appearance, or seems to consist of films resembling portions of a membrane. Where great nausea and frequent retchings prevail, coagulated matter of the same nature is brought up. With these symptoms, there is much thirst, and an uneasy sense of heat over the whole body, a continual inclination to change from place to place, great rest- lessness, and frequency of the pulse. In an advanc- ed stage of the disease, respiration becomes more stridulous, and is performed with still greater diffi- culty, being repeated at longer periods, and with greater exertions, until, at last, it ceases entirely. The croup frequently proves fatal by suffocation, induced either by spasm affecting the glottis, or by a quantity of matter blocking up the air passages; but when it terminates in health, it is by a resolution of the inflammation, by a ceasing of the spasms, and by a free expectoration of the matter exuding from the trachea, or of the crusts formed there. The disease has, in a few instances, terminated fatally within 24 hours after its attack; but it more usually happens, that where it proves fatal, it runs on to the fourth or fifth day. Where considerable portions of the mem- branous films, formed on the surface of the trachea, are thrown up, life is sometimes protracted for a day or two longer than would otherwise have happened. JDissections of children, who have died of the croup, have mostly shown a preternatural membrane, lining the whole internal surface of the upper part of the trachea, which may always be easily separated from the proper membrane. There is likewise usually found a good deal of mucus, with a mixture of pus, in the windpipe and its ramifications. The treatment of this disease must be conducted on the strictly antiphlogistic plan. It will commonly be proper, where the patient is not very young, to be- gin by taking blood from the arm or the jugular vein; several leeches should be applied along the fore part of the neck. It will then be right to give a nauseat- ing emetic, ipecacuanha with tartarized antimony, or with squill, in divided doses; this may be followed up by cathartics, diaphoretics, digitalis, &c. Large blisters ought to be applied near the affected part, and a discharge kept up by savin cerate, or other stimulant dressing. Mercury, carried speedily to sali- vation, has in several instances arrested the progress of the disease, when it appeared proceeding to a fatal termination. As the inflammation is declining, it is very important that free expectoration should take place. This may be promoted by nauseating medi- cines, by inhaling steam, and by stimulating gargles, CROUP--CROW. for which the decoction of semeka is particularly recommended. Where there is much wheezing, an occasional emetic may, in a considerable degree, re- lieve the patient, and, under symptoms of threaten- ing suffocation, the operation of bronchotomy has sometimes saved life. Should fits of spasmodic diffi- culty of breathing occur in the latter periods of the disease, opium, joined with diaphoretics, would be most likely to do good. Napoleon, on the occasion of the death of his nephew, the prince of Holland, of this disease, offered a premium of 12,000 francs for the best treatise on the croup. Of eighty-three es- says, which were presented to the committee of twelve members assembled for the examination at Paris, in 1811, two were acknowledged as the best, one by Iurine, in Geneva, and the other by Albers, of Bremen, between whom the prize was divided CROUSAZ, John PETER DE, a celebrated mathe- matician and philosopher, was born at Lausanne, in 1660. He early distinguished himself by his progress in mathematics and philosophy, under able professors at Geneva and Lausanne, applying himself particu- larly to the writings of Descartes. In 1682, he went to the university of Leyden, and thence proceeded to Paris, where he became acquainted with the celebrat- ed father Malebranche, who, with other celebrated men, vainly endeavoured to convert him to the Ca- tholic religion. On returning to his native country, he was ordained minister, appointed honorary pro- fessor, and remained pastor of the church at Lau- sanne. In 1699, he was made professor of Greek and of philosophy in the academy of Lausanne, ap. pointed rector in 1706, and again in 1722. In 1724, he was chosen mathematical and philosophical pro- fessor at the university at Groningen. In 1732, he was nominated counsellor of embassies to the king of Sweden, and, in 1737, elected professor of philosophy and mathematics at Lausanne. His works are dis- tinguished for learning, liberality, and acuteness. The principal are, A System of Reflections that may con- tribute to the Illustration and Extension of Know- ledge, or a new Essay on Logic (in 6 vols., 12mo, 1741); Summa Logica (1724); a Treatise on Educa- tion ; Examen du Pyrrhonisme ancien et moderne; Géométrie des Lignes et des Surfaces rectilignes et circulaires ; Ewamen de l'Essai de M. Pope ; Com- mentaire sur la Traduction de l'Essai de M. Pope, de l'Abbé du Resnel; Traité du Beant ; a Treatise on the Human Understanding. CROW (corvus, L.); a genus of birds remarkable for their gregarious and predatory habits, distinguish ed by the ;. characters: The bill is straight, convex, and compressed, being covered at its base by incumbent, bristly feathers; the upper mandible is curved at tip, the lower is a little shorter, carinated on both sides, and slightly ascending at the extre- mity; the nostrils are placed on the base of the bill, and are patulous, though covered by the incumbent feathers ; the tongue is short, cartilaginous, acute, and bifid at tip; the tarsus scarcely exceeds the mid- dle toe in length ; the toes are separated almost to the base, and the middle one is the longest ; the nails are moderate, pointed, hollow beneath, and sharp- edged, the hind one being generally longest; the wings are subelongated, acute, the first primary short, third or fourth longest; the tail consists of twelve feathers. The raven is the largest species of its tribe, very little inferior in size to a common cock, being twenty- six inches in length, and more than three feet from the tip of one wing to that of the other. The plum- age is of a very glossy black, with some reflections of j purple on the back. The female is less pure- ly black than the male, and a little smaller. The raven, when on the ground, marches at a grave and CROW, stately pace: his favourite haunts are the wast soli- tudes of rocks and forests, from which he seldom emerges except called by hunger, and then never in large flocks, like the crows. the raven, and that which he prefers, is putrefying animal matter, which this bird discovers, by the acuteness of his sense of Smelling, at great distances, and flies to the feast with unerring precision. When carrion is not attainable, the raven feeds on vari- ous fruits, insects, dead fish, &c. Judging by the habits of the crow and other kindred species, there is no question but the raven, when pressed by hunger, will kill small birds or other animals coming within its reach. They have been known to pluck the eyes out of the heads of lambs and sick animals unable to drive them away. Birds so voracious and destruc- tive cannot be regarded otherwise than injurious in a poor country, though in a rich one, their services, as scavengers and destroyers of the larves of noxious insects, might more than counterbalance their mis- chief.” Like most of their tribe, ravens have a con- siderable talent for imitating sounds, and may be taught to pronounce words with remarkable distinct- mess. When domesticated, they become very bold and impudent, fearless of dogs or cats, and fighting fiercely with them when provoked: sometimes, in- deed, their insolence renders them dangerous inmates, as they will wound children, and even grown up per- sons, with their powerful bill. They i. participate in the disposition common to most of their fraternity, to steal and hide pieces of money, plate, and other shining objects, which cannot be of the slightest use to the purloiner. The raven is a model .# conjugal fidelity, having but one female, to whom he remains attached, most probably, for life. Observations were made on one pair by lord Ross, during thirty years, and there can be but little doubt, that the union was only interrupted by death. Their nests are commonly placed in chinks of rocks, lofty old walls, or the tops of tall, insulated trees, and are made externally of roots and branches of shrubs; a second layer is then formed of animal bones, or other hard materials, and this is covered with a bed of soft grass or moss. About the month of March, the female lays five or six pale-green and bluish eggs, speckled with very numerous spots and touches of a darker colour. The incubation continues for twenty days, and both pa- rents participate in it. The male also defends the nest courageously against the approach of hawks and other birds of prey, and provides for the subsistence of his companion. The young remain with the pa- rents throughout the summer succeeding their hatch- ing, and, when able to provide for themselves, are sent off to establish new colonies elsewhere. The flight of the raven is very lofty, and its power of wing great, so that it is able to pass over immense spaces in a short time. Few birds are more numerous and annoying to the farmers of America than the common crow (C. corone), which, throughout a considerable part of the year, col- lects in astonishingly large flocks, and makes destruc- tive descents upon newly planted maize and other grain. In this species, it seems as if all the evil pro- pensities of the race were united and augmented. Ex- ceedingly cunning in detecting every contrivance in- tended for their destruction, they are rarely destroyed to any great extent, except in Seasons of excessive and long protracted cold weather. Then (as during the winter of 1828–9) wast numbers perish from starva- tion, since the earth, brooks, rivers, and bays, being completely locked up, all their sources of supply are # In England, the rook (C. frugilegus) is not allowed to be killed, and a large rookery is considered a valuable ap- pendage to an estate. The young are obtained from the west, and considered very fine for the table. II. The ordinary food of 545 cutoff. At such times, their hunger is so distressing as to force them to the most extraordinary exertions, and they devour substances, which nothing but excessive hunger could induce any animal to swallow. During the hard winter alluded to, immense flocks were ob. served passing from the direction of the famous roost- ing place in the vicinity of Bristol, Pa.. (particularly noted by Wilson), towards the shores of the Sea and bay, and returning regularly in the afternoon. Thou- sands upon thousands, for several hours, moved heavi- ly along in a broad, irregular line; and, from the numbers found dead in the fields, it is most probable that, during the severest weather, but little benefit resulted from their long diurnal pilgrimage. The common crow is voracious at . times, and nearly, if not quite, as omnivorous as the brown rat. Grain of all sorts, but especially Indian corn, insects, carrion, eggs, fish, young birds, the young of various domestic fowls, and even young pigs, are sought for eagerly, and devoured with avidity. This species, from the peculiar excellence of its sight, Smell, and hearing, by which it is very early warned of approach- ing danger, is very audacious, frequently coming close to the farm-houses in search of prey, and per- Severing in efforts to rob the hens of their chickens, until successful. The writer has witnessed several times, in the state of Maryland, America, where crows are far too abundant, the pertinacity of one of these robbers in attempting to seize a young chicken, notwithstanding the fierce defence made by the hen. His approaches appeared to have in view the with- drawal of the hen to a little distance from the brood; then, taking advantage of his wings, he would fly Suddenly over her, and seize the chick. The same attempts were frequently made upon the goose, with a view to seize her goslins, but the vigilant gander, though sorely fatigued by his struggles, never failed to defeat a single crow: it was otherwise, however, when two or more were united for the purpose of feasting on the young. It is not an uncommon thing for farmers to be under the necessity of replant- ing corn several times in the spring, and, when it is just rising above the ground, to be obliged to keep several persons continually on guard in the fields. When the corn has shot up an inch or two above the surface, a host of these black-coated plunderers in- vade the fields, and, having posted sentinels in seve- ral commanding situations, march regularly along the Corn-rows, drawing up the grain, pulling skilfully by the shoot, and then swallowing the germinating corn. Among the most successful experiments made to prevent the crows from doing this mischief is that of coating the seed corn with a mixture of tar, oil, and a small quantity of slacked lime, in powder. The ingredients being mixed in a tub, the seed corn is stirred in it until each grain receives a thorough coat- ing of the mixture. This preparation, as it necessarily keeps the grain from being readily affected by mois- ture, is found to retard the germination about three days. In the instance we witnessed of the trial of this preventive, it was fully successful; for, although the field was daily visited by hosts of crows, they were Content with pulling up enough of corn, in various places, to be satisfied that it was, throughout, equally unpalatable. During their breeding season, which is in the Spring months, the flocks spread over a great extent of country, and build their nests of small sticks, lined with grass, in lofty trees, choosing the most remote and difficult of approach. The young, generally, are two in number, and, until fully fledged, are most soli- citously protected by their parents. When the young crows first begin to receive lessons in flying, nothing is more remarkable and affecting than the efforts made to preserve them, by the parents, when a Sportsman 2 M 546 approaches the vicinity. Every artifice is employed to call attention away from the young, which seem to comprehend the directions or calls of their parents, and remain perfectly silent and motionless. In the mean while, the father and mother fly towards the SportSman, taking care not to remain an instant in one place, and, by the most vociferous outcries, depre- cate his cruelty. These efforts being continued, their voluntary exposure, and the eagerness with which they fly about a particular spot, are almost always successful in withdrawing the sportsman from the place where the young actually are. As soon as they have succeeded in leading him to a sufficient distance, they cease their accents of distress, fly a little farther from their young, and from a lofty perch, which en- ables them to watch all around, utter an occasional cry, which one may readily imagine to be intended for the direction and encouragement of their off- Spring. The most successful mode of destroying crows, is that of invading them in their extensive iº during the night. When they have selected a pine thicket, or other dense piece of wood, for a roosting É. they repair thither with great regularity. very evening, vast flocks come sailing to the retreat, and the trees are literally covered and bowed down. When the state of Maryland received crow scalps in payment of taxes, at three cents each, parties were frequently made to attack the crow roosts. People with guns were stationed at various parts, surround- ing the roosts, and all those of one division fired at Once ; the slaughter was necessarily dreadful, and those remaining unhurt, bewildered by the darkness, the flashing and report of the guns, and the distress- ing cries of their companions; flew but to a little dis- tance, and settled near another party with guns. As Soon as they were fairly at rest, the same tragedy was reacted and repeated, until the approach of day or the fatigue of their destroyers caused a cessation. The wounded were then despatched by knocking them on the head or wringing their necks, and the bill, with so much of the skull as passed for a scalp, was cut off and strung for the payment of the tax- gatherer. The poor people, who had no taxes to pay, disposed of their crow scalps to the store-keepers, who purchased them at rather a lower rate. This premium has long been discontinued, and the number of these marauders is, in many parts of that state, quite large enough to require its re-establishment. CROWN. In the early ages, when men were fond of expressing all their feelings by outward signs, a wreath of flowers or leaves was naturally one of the first emblems of honour or of joy. Such was the ornament of the priest in the performance of sacrifice, of the hero on his return from victory, of the bride at ber nuptials, and of the guests at a feast. The an- cient mythology, which gave everything a distinct beginning and a poetical origin, ascribes the inven- tion of wreaths to Prometheus, who imitated, with flowers, the fetters which he had borne for his love to mankind, whom he had created. According to Pliny, wreaths were first made of ivy, and Bacchus first wore them. In process of time, they were made of very different materials. Those worn by the Greeks at feasts in honour of a divinity; were made of the plant consecrated to the god. Wreaths of roses afterwards became very common. In some cases, wreaths were even made of wool. Wreaths of ivy and amethyst were worn by the Greeks, on the head, neck, and breast, at entertainments, with a view to prevent drunkenness. Mnesitheus and Callimachus, two Greek physicians, wrote entire books on wreaths, and their medical virtues. Corpses were covered with wreaths and green branches. Lovers adorned With wreaths and flowers the doors of their mistresses, CROWN. and even captives, who were to be sold as slaves, wore wreaths; hence the phrase sub corona venire or vendere. The beasts sacrificed to the gods were also crowned. Wreaths, in process of time, were made of metal, in imitation of flowers, or of the fillet which the priest wore round his head when he sacrificed, which was called 31%3n22. This attribute of distinc- tion was early adopted by the kings, when they unit- ed in their persons the temporal and spiritual power. Among the various crowns and wreaths in use among the Greeks and Romans were the following: Corona agonothetarum ; the reward of the victor in the great gymnastic games. Corona aurea (the golden crown); the reward of remarkable bravery. Coroma custrensis ; given to him who first entered the camp of the enemy. Corona civica (See Civic Crown); one of the high- est military rewards. It was given to him who had saved the life of a citizen. Corona convivalis ; the wreath worn at feasts. Coroma muralis; given by the general to the soldier who first scaled the enemy's wall. Corona natalitia ; a wreath which parents hang up before the door at the birth of a child. It was made of olive branches if the child was a boy, and of wool if a girl. Corona navalis ; ÅA. the next in rank after the civic crown, was given to him who first boarded and took an enemy's vessel. Corona nuptialis; a crown or wreath worn by brides. The bridegroom, also, and his relations, on the day of the wedding, adorned themselves with wreaths. At first, the corona nuptialis was of flowers; after- wards, of gold or silver and precious stones. Corona obsidionalis ; CROWN –CRUCIF'IXION. a reward given to him who delivered a besieged town, or a blockaded army. It was one of the highest military honours, and very seldom obtained. It was made of grass; if possible of such as grew on the delivered place. Corona triumphalis; a wreath of laurel which was given by the army, to the imperator. He wore it on his head at the celebration of his triumph. An- other crown of gold, the material of which (corona- rium aurum) was furnished by the conquered cities, was carried over the head of the general. The wreaths, conferred at the great games of Greece, were of different kinds; at the Olympic games, of wild olive; at the Pythian games, of laurel; at the Nemean games, first of olive them of parsley; at the Isthmian games, a wreath of pine leaves, afterwards of parsley; subsequently pine leaves were resumed. In the middle ages, crowns became exclusively appropriated to the royal and imperial dignity; the coronets of nobles were only borne in their coats of arms. (See Coronet, also Tiara.) From the Jewish king being called, in the scriptures, the anointed of the Lord, a kind of religious mys. tery and awe became attached to crowned heads, which, in most countries, continues to the present day, though history has shown us abundantly that crowns often cover the heads of very weak or very wicked individuals, and that there is no great mys- tery about their origin; some having been obtain- ed by purchase, some by crime, some by grants from a more powerful prince, some by contract, Some by choice, but, on the whole, comparatively few in an honest way. The iron crown of Lombardy, preserved at Monza, in the territory of Milan, is a golden crown set with precious stones, with which in former times the Lombard kings were crowned, and, at a later period, the Roman-German emperors, when they wished to manifest their claims as kings of Lombardy. An iron circle, made, according to the legend, out of a nail of Christ's cross, which is fixed inside, gave rise to the name. Agilulf, king of Lombardy, was the first person crowned with it (in 590). Charlemagne was crowned with it in 774. Na- poleon put it on his head in 1805, and established the order of the iron crown. In 1815, when Austria es- tablished the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, the em- peror admitted the order of the iron crown among those of the Austrian empire.—Crown is used figu- ratively, for the royal power, in contradistinction either to the person of the monarch or to the body of the nation, with its representatives, interests, &c. Thus, in modern times, the word crown is used on the European continent, to express the rights and prerogatives of the monarch considered as a part of the state, which includes all powers—the legislative, judicial, &c. Thus the crown domains are distinguish- ed from the state or national domains. In France, a difference is even made between the crown domains and the private domains of the king; the former are inalienable, and belong to the reigning monarch, whilst the second may be treated like any other pri- vate property. The distinction between crown and State, of course, does not exist in perfectly arbitrary governments. Crown, in commerce; a common name for coins of Several nations, which are about the value of a dol- lar. See Coins, Table of. Crown, in an ecclesiastical sense, is used for the tonsure, the shaven spot on the head of the Roman Catholic priests where they received the ointment of COnsecration. See Tom Søre. CROWN GLASS, the best kind of window-glass, the hardest and most colourless, is made almost en- tirely of sand and alkali and a little lime, without lead or any metallic oxide, except a very small quantity 547 of manganese, and sometimes of cobalt. , Crown glass is used, in connexion with flint glass, for diop- tric instruments, in order to destroy the disagreeable effect of the aberration of colours. Both kinds of lass are now made, in the highest perfection, in enedictbeurn (q.v.), where Reichenbach’s famous manufactory of optical instruments is situated. CROWN OFFICE. The court of king's bench is divided into the plea side and the crown side. In the plea side, it takes cognizance of civil causes; in the Crown side, it takes cognizance of criminal causes, and is thereupon called the crown office. In the crown office are exhibited informations in the name of the king, of which there are two kinds: 1. those which are truly the king's own suits, and filed, ew officio, by his own immediate officer, the attorney- general; 2, those in which, though the king is the nominal prosecutor, yet some private person, as a common informer, is the real one : these are filed by the king's coroner and attorney, usually called mas- ter of the crown office. CROWN POINT ; a post-town in Essex county, New York, on lake Champlain; twelve miles N. Ticonderoga, ninety-six N. Albany; population, in 1820, 1522; lat. 449 3 N. ; lon. 720 29' W. This town received its name from a moted fortress, much celebrated in the history of the American wars. The fortress, which is now in ruins, is situated in the north-east part of the township, on a point of land projecting some distance into the lake, elevated forty-seven feet above the surface, and fifteen miles north of fort Ticonderoga. It was an expensive and regular fortification, about 1500 yards square, sur- rounded by a deep and broad ditch, cut in rock, with immense labour. The walls were of wood and earth, twenty-two feet thick and sixteen high, and are only partially decayed. CROZAT, Joseph ANTONY, marquis du Chatel, born in 1696, at Toulouse, a great lover and collec- tor of works of art, inherited a large fortune from his father (who was a financier during the last years of the reign of Louis XIV.), was counsellor of the par- liament of Toulouse, and subsequently reader to the king. The whole of his life was dedicated to the works of art which he had collected, and to thº, artists who wished to profit by them. The sketches in his collection exceeded 19,000, and he had ex- pended above 450,000 livres in this particular branch. During the sixty years which he employed in collect- ing, no cabinet was sold in any part of Europe, of which some part was not purchased by him. Crozat went to Italy, in 1714, for the purpose of increasing his collection. Corn. Vermeulen came yearly from Antwerp to Paris, to bring the works of the artists of the Netherlands. He was also presented with several valuable collections. His cabinet of antiques and sculpture, particularly of gems, was equally valu- able, and contained about 1400 pieces. This treasure became more famous from the description which Mariette gave of it, when in the possession of the duke of Orleans, in 1742. It is at present at St Petersburg. On Crozat's death (1740), his collec. tion came into the possession of his brother, the marquis du Chatel. Mariette's Description sommaire des Collections de M. Crozat, avec des Réflewions sur la Manière de Dessiner des principawa Maitres (Paris, 1741), is the only account we now have of this great IllulSell Iſl. CRUCIFIXION; a mode of inflicting capital punishment, by affixing criminals to a wooden cross. This was a frequent punishment among the ancients, and practised by most of the nations whose history has reached our knowledge: it is now chiefly confin- ed to the Mohammedans. There were different kinds of crosses, though it cannot be affirmed which was in 2 M 2 548 general use ; such as that most familiar to us, con- sisting of two beams at right angles, and St Andrew’s cross. It is necessary to observe, that the numerous and diversified crosses and Crucifixes exhibited in sculpture and p. are entirely fictitious. These were gradually introduced, as the cross itself became an object of superstitious veneration, and when the devout conceived that their salvation was promoted by constantly introducing some allusion to it. Thus it became a universal emblem of piety among them; and crossing the legs of an effigy on a tomb-stone de- noted that a Christian was interred below. On con- demnation, the criminal, by aggravated barbarity, was scourged before suffering death; and perhaps this part of his punishment was scarcely inferior to the other. The scourge was formed of cords armed with bits of lead or bone; or it consisted of simple rods of iron and wood, which latter were called scorpions, when covered with spines. While he suffered, he was bound to a column; and that where Christ un- derwent scourging, was still extant during the days of St Jerome, in the fifth century. This being the common custom, and preceding not only crucifixion, but other kinds of capital punishment, it is an error to suppose that Pilate scourged Christ from motives of greater severity towards him. The criminal was compelled to carry his own cross to the place of execution, which was generally at some distance from the habitations of men. This is still the custom in several countries with respect to their capital punishments; and it is probable that inflicting these within the walls of cities was less fre- quent of old than it is now. A certain gate had its specific name from being the exit of criminals on the way to punishment. It was not the whole cross, according to some, which was borne by the offender, but only the transverse beam, or patibulum, because they suppose the upright part to have remained sta- tionary in the ground, whereas the other was mov- able. The criminal, having reached the fatal spot, was stripped nearly naked, and affixed to the cross by an iron spike, driven through each hand and each foot, or through the wrists and ankles. Authors are, nevertheless, greatly divided concerning the number and position of the nails in ancient punishments; and it has been conjectured, that in the most simple Cru- cifixion, whereby both hands were nailed above the criminal, and both feet below, all on one perpendi- cular post or tree, only two were used. The sounder opinion, and that which coincides with modern prac- tice, bestows the nail on each member. That the weight of the body might be the better supported, the arms and legs were encircled by cords, an instance of which occurs in a crucifixion at Algiers, which is thus described by a spectator :—“The criminal was mailed to a ladder by iron spikes through his wrists and ankles, in a posture resembling St. Andrew's cross, and, as if apprehensive that the spikes would not hold from failure of his flesh, the executioners had bound his wrists and ankles with small cords to the ladder. Two days I saw him alive in this torture; and how much longer he lived I cannot tell.” If, instead of being mailed to the cross, the criminal was bound to it by cords, it was designed as a more cruel punishment. The criminal, being fixed on the cross, was left to expire in anguish, and his body remained a prey to the birds of the air. His death, however, was not immediate, nor should it be so in general, considering that the vital organs may escape laceration. We learn from the distinct, nar- rative of the evangelists, that conversations could be carried on among those who suffered, or between them and the by-standers; and Justin, the historian, relates that Bomilcar, a Carthaginian leader, having been crucified, on an accusation of treason against CRUCIFIXION. the state, he bore the cruelty of his countrymen with distinguished fortitude, harangued them from the cross as from a tribunal, and reproached them with their ingratitude, before he expired. There are repeated instances of persons crucified having per- ished more from hunger than from the severity of the punishment. The Algerine before spoken of Sur- vived at least two days; St Andrew lived two or three ; and the martyrs Timothéus and Maura did not die during mine days. By the Mohammedan laws, certain delinquents are to be punished with crucifixion, and killed on the cross by thrusting a spear through their bodies; and here we find an example of what is narrated in scrip- ture, of a soldier piercing the side of Jesus Christ with a lance, though he was dead. Among the Jews, we may conclude, from the treatment of the two thieves crucified along with Christ, that it was cus- tomary to break the legs of criminals; but whether as a coup de grace, like the former, and resembling some modern European punishments, is not evident. It is denied by Lipsius to have been part of the pun- ishment of crucifixion, or attached to it in particular ; yet there are passages in Seneca and Pliny from which we might rather infer that the reverse was the case, at least with the Romans. Certainly it cannot be considered an effectual means of hastening death. We know, however, that there was a peculiar pun- ishment of this description, and perhaps a capital one, called crurifrangium by the ancients, inflicted on Roman slaves and Christian martyrs, as also on women or girls. Augustus ordered the legs of one to be broken who had given up a letter for a bribe ; and Ammianus says, “Both the Apollinares, father and son, were killed, according to the Sen- tence, by breaking their legs.” Under the reign of Diocletian, twenty-three Christians suffered martyr- dom in the same manner. The legs of the criminal were laid on an anvil, and, by main force, fractured with a heavy hammer, somewhat similar to the modern barbarous custom of breaking offenders’ bones on the wheel by an iron bar. From the nar- rative of the evangelists, we may conclude, that breaking the legs of the thieves was to promote their death, that they might be taken down the same day from the cross. That spectators might learn the cause of punishment, a label, or inscription, indicating the crime, frequently surmounted the head of the criminal. The offence charged against Jesus Christ was having called himself king of the Jews... AC- cordingly, the inscription on his cross was, “This is Jesus, the king of the Jews.” By our own customs, a label is sometimes hung from the neck of an of fender condemned to lesser punishments, describing his guilt, which is meant to aggravate the ignominy. But, among the Romans, this was perhaps also the warrant for putting the sentence in execution. That the object of crucifixion might be fulfilled in ex- posing the body of the criminal to decay, sentinels were commonly posted beside the cross, to prevent it from being taken down and buried. Privation of sepulture was dreaded as the greatest evil by the ancients, who believed that the Soul could never rest or enjoy felicity so long as their mortal remains continued on the earth. Thus it was a great aggra- wation of the punishment. - Besides these, the ordinary modes of inflicting the punishment of crucifixion, assuredly sufficiently cruel in themselves, mankind have sought the gratification of vengeance in deviating from them. Such was the conduct of the Roman soldiers, under Titus, at the siege of Jerusalem, where the miserable Jews were crucified in various postures by their Sanguinary ene- mies. Seneca speaks of crucifixion with the head downwards ; and of this we have a noted example in CRUISERS–CRUSADES. the history of St Peter, during the first century of the Christian era. Having been seized by the Ro- man government, and condemned to die on the cross, it is said that he solicited, as a greater degradation, that he might be crucified with his head downwards. It appears that delinquents were sometimes affixed to the CrOSS, and burnt or suffocated to death. With respect to the persons on whom this punishment was inflicted, we have seen that the Carthaginian leaders were not exempt from it; but elsewhere, especially among the Jews and Romans, only the lowest male- factors were condemned to the cross. It was pecu- liarly appropriated for slaves. The Cross has been made a more terrible instru- ment of destruction to a vanquished enemy. Thus Alexander the Great, after putting eight or ten thou- Sand Tyrians to the Sword, on taking their city, cru- cified 2000 more along the shores. , Not less Sam- guinary was the vengeance of the Romans against the Jews; Minutius Alexander crucified 800, and Quinctilius Varus 2000, on account of some revolt. Titus, whom we are wont to esteem as humane and merciful, crucified above 500 in a day; and, at the Sack of Jerusalem, under his command, the Romans, wherever they could seize the affrighted fugitives, either in hatred or derision, nailed them to crosses about the walls of the city, until the multitude was so great that room was wanting for the crosses, and crosses for the bodies. Crucifixion has been considered the most cruel of all punishments, and merited by the most atrocious offences only. That the pain of the cross is cruel Cannot be denied; yet we are, perhaps, accustomed to exaggerate it. Examples are not wanting of per- Sons having been taken down from the cross alive, and surviving the laceration of their members. Jo- sephus, the historian, relates, that, on leaving a par- ticular town in Judea, he saw a great many of the enemy crucified; but it grieved him much to recog- nize three of the number with whom he had been in intimate habits. He hastened to inform Titus of the fact, who immediately ordered them to be taken down, and their wounds carefully healed. Two, nevertheless, perished; but the third survived. CRUISERS, in naval affairs; vessels, as the name imports, employed on a cruise. The name is com- monly given to men of war, made use of to secure merchant ships and vessels from the enemy's small frigates and privateers. They are generally formed for fast Sailing, and well manned. CRUSADES are the wars which were carried on by the Christian nations of the west, from the end of the 11th to the end of the 13th century, for the con- quest of Palestine. They were called crusades be- cause all the warriors who followed the holy banner (crusaders,) wore the sign of the cross. The Chris- tian and Mohammedan nations had been, during a long period, in a state of war, not only in Asia, but also in Europe, where the Moors, Mohammedans by religion, had taken possession of part of the Spanish peninsula. The nations of the west were grieved that the Holy Land, where Jesus had lived, taught, and died for mankind, where pious pilgrims resorted to pour out their sorrows, and ask for aid from above, at the tomb of their Saviour, should be in the power of unbelievers. The pilgrims, on their return, relat- ed the dangers they had encountered. The caliph Hakem was particularly described as a second Nero. Being the son of a Christian woman, he shed the blood of Christians without mercy, to prevent the suspicion of his being secretly attached to that reli- gion. . These representations kindled the religious zeal of Christian Europe into a flame, and a general ardour was awakened to deliver the sepulchre of Christ from the hands of the infidels. In order to 549 understand this general excitement, we must remem. ber that, at this period, the confusion and desolation which had followed the irruption of the barbarians into the South and west of Europe, had ceased, and the dawn of civilization and intellectual cultivation had commenced. In this mental º Innell Were just in a state to receive a strong religious excite- ment. The idea of the Virgin, too, harmonized well with the Teutonic reverence for the female sex; and to fight in her cause was gratifying to the spirit of Chivalry. The undisciplined minds of men were bent upon adventure, and their imaginations were easily roused by the reports of the riches of the East. The joys of paradise were the sure reward of all who fell in the holy cause. Thus a crowd of the strongest feelings, chivalrous devotion to the female sex, the hope of adventure, of wealth, of honour, and of hea- ven, stirred up the spirit of Europe, and impelled her Sons into the East. See Chivalry. The pope considered the invasion of Asia as the means of promoting Christianity amongst the infidels, and of winning whole nations to the bosom of the church; monarchs expected victory and increase of dominion; the peasant, who, in the greater part of Europe, was struggling with wretchedness in the de- grading condition of bondage, was ready to follow to a country which was pictured as a paradise. The East has always had a poetical charm for the people of the West, which has by no means ceased in our time. The crusades, and the ardour with which whole nations engaged in them, must be attributed to the above causes. Peter of Amiens, or Peter the Hermit, was the immediate cause of the first crusade. In 1093, he had joined other pilgrims on a journey to Jerusalem. On his return, he gave pope Urban II. a description of the unhappy situation of Christians in the East, and presented a petition from the patriarch of Jerusalem, in which he anxiously entreated the assistance of the Western Christians for their suffering brethren. The pope disclosed to the council which was held at Piacenza, in 1095, in the open air, on account of the number of people assembled, the mes- sage which Christ had sent through Peter the Hermit, caused the ambassadors of the Greek emperor Alex- ius to describe the condition of Christianity in the East, and induced many to promise their assistance for the relief of their oppressed brethren. The sen- sation which he produced at the council assembled at Clermont, in 1096, where ambassadors from all na- tions were present, was still greater; he inspired the whole assembly so completely in favour of his plan, that they unanimously exclaimed, after he had describ- ed the miserable condition of the Oriental Christians, and called upon the West for aid, Deus vult (It is God's will) . In the same year, numberless armies went forth in different divisions. This is considered the first cru- sade. Many of these armies, being ignorant of mili- tary discipline, and unprovided with the necessaries for such an expedition, were completely destroyed in the different countries through which they had to pass before reaching Constantinople, which had been chosen for their i. of meeting. A superficial knowledge of these holy wars throws a false glare round the character of the crusading armies. They contained, indeed, some men of elevated character; but the greater part consisted of crazy fanatics and wretches bent on plunder. A well conducted, re- gular army, however, of 80,000 men, was headed by Godfrey of Boulogne, duke of Lower Lorraine, Hugh, brother to Philip king of France, Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, Robert of Flanders, Raymond of Toulouse, Bohemond, Tancred of Apulia, and other heroes. With this army, the experienced Com- manders traversed Germany and Hungary, passed 550 over the strait of Gallipoli, conquered Nice in 1097, Antioch and Edessa in 1098, and, lastly, Jerusalem in 1099. Godfrey of Boulogne was chosen king of Jerusalem, but died in 1100. The news of the con- quest of Jerusalem renewed the zeal of the West. In 1102, an army of 260,000 men left Europe, which, however, perished partly on their march, and partly by the sword of the sultan of Iconium. The Genoese, and other commercial nations, undertook several ex- peditions by sea. The second great and regularly conducted crusade was occasioned by the loss of Edessa, which the Saracens conquered in 1142. The news of this loss produced great consternation in Europe, and it was apprehended that the other ac- quisitions, including Jerusalem, would fall again into the hands of the infidels. In consequence of these fears, pope Eugene III., assisted by St Bernard of Clairvaux, exhorted the German emperor, Conrad III., and the king of France, Louis VII., to defend the cross. Both these monarchs obeyed the call in 1147, and led large bodies of forces to the East; but their enter- prise was not successful, and they were compelled to withdraw, leaving the kingdom of Jerusalem in a much weaker condition than they had found it. When sultan Saladin, in 1187, took Jerusalem from the Christians, the zeal of the West became still more ardent than at the commencement of the Crusades; and the monarchs of the three principal European countries—Frederic I., emperor of Germany, Philip Augustus, king of France, and Richard I., king of England—determined to lead their armies in person against the infidels (1189). This is regarded as the third crusade. Frederic's enterprise was successful; but the kings of France and England succeeded in gaining possession of Acre, or Ptolemais, which, un- til the entire termination of the Crusades, remained the bulwark of the Christians in the East. The fourth crusade was conducted by the king of Hungary, Andrew II., in 1217, by Sea. The empe- ror Frederic II., compelled by the pope, who wished for his destruction, to fulfill a promise made in early youth, undertook the fifth crusade, and succeeded in regaining Jerusalem, although he could not secure the permanent possession of the country. The list of heroes who conducted the crusades is honourably clos- ed with St Louis, king of France (who conducted the sixth crusade, commencing in 1248), although fate frustrated his plan, which was ably conceived, and bravely executed. While Louis was still in Egypt (for he proposed conquering the Holy Land by an in- vasion of Egypt, the seat, at that time, of the rulers of Palestine), a revolution broke out in that country, which proved decisive with regard to the possession of the Holy Land. The house of Saladin was de- throned, and the dominion of the Mamelukes and sultans established. These directed their efforts against the possessions of the Christians in Palestine. Tripoli, Tyre, Berytus, fell into their hands succes- sively, and on the fall of Acre, or Ptolemais, the last bulwark and the last remains of the Christian empire on the continent of Asia, were overthrown. By means of these joint enterprises, the European na- tions became more connected with each other, the Class of citizens increased in influence, partly because the mobility suffered by extravagant contributions to the crusades, and partly because a commercial inter- course took place throughout Europe, and greatly augmented the wealth of the cities; the human mind expanded, and a number of arts and sciences, till then unknown in Europe, were introduced there. The present civilization of the European world is, in a great degree, the result of these crusades. It be— longs to a history of poetry to describe how much CRUSADES--CRUST ACEA. and the extent to which they had given currency to a certain class of ideas that has prevailed ever since. Some of the best works on the crusades are Frederic Wilkin's Geschichte der Kreuzzuege nach morgenlaen- dischen und abendlaendishen Berichten, Leipsic (the three first volumes appeared in 1807–19: volume four, which treats of the period from 1188 to 1195, appeared in 1826); Histoire des Croisades, by De Michaud, a member of the French academy, fourth edition, Paris, 1825; Charles Mills's History of the Crusades, London, 1820; Heeren's Persuch einer Entwickelung der Folgen der Kreuzzuege fuer Europa, Goettingen, 1808. CRUSADE, and CRUSADA. See crusada, old and new, in the article Coins, under the division Portugal. CRUSCA, ACADEMIA DELLA. See Academies. CRUSTACEA ; a term applied to those animals which are covered with a soft shell or crust. These consist of crabs, lobsters, prawns, and shrimps. The testaceous shells, such as oysters, muscles, and their congeners, are also included in the general appel- lation. The Greeks termed the Crustacea, a2Az- zóa reaxos, as signifying that they were animals whose covering was less compact, than that of testace- ous shell-fish of the oyster, cockle, and muscle kinds. The crustacea rank as the sixth class of animals which are destitute of a back bone ; and are com- prehended in the third division, which is termed Articulata, or those animals whose members or limbs consist of segments or rings, articulated into each other, to the inside of which their muscles are at- tached. Chemists have found the shells of crustaceous ani- mals to consist of phosphate of lime, in combination with animal matter, while those of the testaceous mollusca are composed of lime along with the gelati- nous substance. But a still more obvious distinction exists between these animals; the shells of oysters and other testaceous animals generally consist of one or two pieces, enveloping the whole animal, (except in the Cirripedes, see article Conchology) and adheres permanently during life; while the coverings of the crustacea are cast and renewed periodically, and invest the animals as it were in a coat of mail. When the animals are first denuded, the whole surface of their bodies is extremely soft, and it is not for some time that the substance which has been exuded from the pores on the surface of their skin, acquires a hard consistence. It is at this time that many of them fall a prey to their numerous enemies; consequently many of them, at this period, seek concealment in holes, and in soft muddy bot- toms of the sea. Naturalists have experienced much difficulty in finding an appropriate place for this class of ani- mals. Linnaeus placed them between the fishes and mollusca, uniting them to his class Insecta. In the earlier writings of Cuvier and Latreille, they adopted the views of Linnaeus, while Lamarck followed the ideas of Brisson, who formed them into a separate class, as well as spiders; giving the for- mer the name Crustacea and the latter Arachnoides. This improvement has been generally acknowledged, and followed by subsequent writers on Natural His- tory. Crustaceous animals present remarkable physiologi- cal distinctions. They respire by means of branchiae, or by branchial plates, usually attached to their feet or to their jaws; they have from five to seven pairs of feet; their head is frequently not distinct from the trunk, provided with from two to four jointed, seta- vontemporary poetry was affected by the crusades, | ceous antennae; and two compound movable eyes CRUST ACEA. seated on peduncles, which are sometimes movable, and at others fixed : they have a distinct heart, and a regular circulating system: their organs of repro- duction are placed either in the feet or tail. In those genera where the head is not separated from the trunk, the shield or covering envelopes the whole thorax. In other genera the head is distinct from the body, which is divided into seven segments, to the lower sides of which the feet are attached; these for the most part have a tail, consisting of many segments. The limbs vary from ten to four- teen, each having six articulations. The two ante- rior limbs, and sometimes even three on each side, are provided with forceps; at other times they are terminated by simple hooks, and in many instances by appendages which fit them for swimming. The branchiae in crustaceous animals, unlike those of fishes, are external, although frequently conceal- ed, and placed at the sides of the feet limbs, or under the tail; they are, however, more frequently at the sides of the feet; and consist either of fila- mentary tufts, or pyramidal laminæ. The mouth has usually two mandibles, a labium, or lip below, and from three to five pairs of jaws. The first, or first three pairs of these have been termed feet jaws. These small leg-shaped appen- dages are not fitted for locomotion, but, being situat- ed near the mouth, assist in the operation of feeding. The mervous system consists of a ganglion or brain, situated above and before the intestinal Canal, with a continuous elongated double chord, having ganglions placed on the lower surface of the body, extending, in some instances, its whole length; while in others, it consists of a central medullary circle, with radiated elongations. Many of the crustaceous animals have an acute faculty of sight; a number of them also possess the senses of smell and taste ; but from their shelly envelope their sense of feeling must be very blunt: while their touch must be very sensible, from the number of tentacula possessed by many of them. Since the phrenological system of Gall and Spurz- heim has become known, it has suggested to various naturalists a more definite mode of investigating specific distinctions. The celebrated French natur- alist Desmarest, has most successfully availed him- self of the developments of the principal organs, in the upper surface of the shield in crustaceous ani- mals, in ascertaining and describing fossil species. The different parts thus indicated have been termed regions; such as the stomachal region, occupying that portion of the shield immediately behind the eyes; behind which, and near the centre is the genital re- gion ; still farther back is the cardial region ; on each side of the stomachal region, is placed the an- terior heptic one; and extending on each side behind the cardial and genital regions, to the posterior mar- gin of the shield, is situate the branchial region. Crustaceous animals live in various situations, suit- ed to their organization; some inhabit considerable depths of the ocean, others are found on rocky shores, or in muddy shallows; some, such as Craw- fish, inhabit rivers, under stones and banks, while the land-crab, a tropical species, takes up its abode in inland situations, making periodical journeys to the coast in immense numbers, for the purpose of deposit- ing its eggs. The facility with which these animals can detach one of their limbs, which may be seized upon by an enemy, is not the least striking part of their history. And this amputated limb they have the faculty of reproducing; which, however, is always of a less size than the others, until it has once or twice chang ed its crust. Some of the crustacea have the property of emit- 551 ting light in the dark. A singularluminous appear- ance was noticed in the sea by Sir Joseph Banks, while on his passage between the island of Madeira and Rio de Janeiro. On a bucket of water being drawn up, he discovered in it innumerable prawn-like Crus- tacea, to which he gave the name cancer fulgens. The light was found to be sent forth from every part of the body. Other species have the same property, but in some it is confined to the region of the brain. - Lamarck divides the Crustacea into five orders. OR DER. I.--DECA PODA. The head is not distinct from the trunk; branchiae, formed like leaflets, close to the base of the four feet-jaws, and hidden under the sides of the shell. SECTION I.- BRACHYURA. Branchiae, seven on each side, moving on a common axis ; post-abdomen, bent underneath; generally received into a ca- vity beneath the prae-abdomen ; without a fin at the termina- tion. FAMILY I.—QUADRILATER A. Thorax nearly square, frequently heart-shaped ; anterior angles expanded ; posterior extremity transversely truncated ; front protruded, more or less inclined ; none of the feet termi- mated by a fin. The genera of this family are Octypoda, Gelasimus, Myctris, Pinnotheres, Gecarcinus, Plagusia, Grapsus, Gonoplax, Thel- phusa, and Eriphia. * Thelphusa fluviatilis, pl. 30, fig. 1. With very short exterior antennae, placed near the ocular pedicles; having approximate jaw-feet, which cover the mouth; forceps, large, and nearly equal ; hands, granular and oval; the third pair of feet the longest; shell, cordiform, smooth, and depressed ; posteriorly truncatéd, having the form of an H impressed on the middle; eyes, lateral, seated on short, thick peduncles. FAMILY II.—A RCUATA. The shell anteriorly arched, to nearly the centre of the sides ; posteriorly narrowed and truncated. * - The genera are, Pilumnus, Cancer, Pirimela, Atelecyclus, Podophthalmus, Lupa, Portunus, 'Thia, and * Portunus corrugatus, pl. 30, f. 2. Eyes, diameter of their pe- duncles, with entire orbits; anterior pair of Jegs equal, forceps long; claws of the rest compressed, their base internally di- lated; fifth pair with depressed foliaceous claws ; transverse and longitudiual diameters of the shell alike. FAMILY III.-O RBICULATA. Orbicular, narrowed before, usually with two furrows; ex- terior feet-jaws with their third joint triangular. The genera are, Matuta, Orithyia, Corystes, Leucosia, and Hepatus. Lewcosia Urania, pl. 30, f. 3. Subrotund, very convex; sides, deeply canaliculated; antennae, small, approximate, placed be- tween the eyes, which are small; anterior pair of legs thickest, provided with forceps. FAMILY IV.-CRYPTOPODA. Nearly triangular ; vaulted, and dilated at the posterior an- gles, for the feet in répose ; with large, crested, and compressed forceps. The genera are, CEthra and Calappa tuberculata, pl. 30, f. 4. Short, convex, posteriorly broadest ; forceps, large, unequal, and compressed ; the other feet short and simple ; exterior antennae short, inner ones fold- ed under the head ; third joint of the feet-jaws acute. IFAMILY W.—TRIGONA. Subovoid or triangular; anterior extremity compressed and pointed ; claws in the males frequently longer than in the fe- males. The genera are, Parthenope, Furynome, Pisa, Maia, Steno- pus, Hyas, Inachus, Macropodia, Leptopodia, Pactolus, and Lithodes. - Pisa, tetraodon, pl. 30, f. 5. Triangular, tuberculous, villous, laterally and anteriorly dentated ; arbits having two slits be: himd, and one below ; last five pairs of feet with čentated claws. FAMILY WI.-NOTOPODA. Having two or four posterior feet, inserted on the back, or somewhat above the line of the rest. The genera are, Homola, Ranina, Dromia, and Dorippe modulosa, pl. , 30, f. 6. Depressed, truncated, and spinous in front, sinuous behind; surface, with elevations ; for- ceps, small, short, equal ; the rest long, compressed; third pair longest, two last dorsal; exterior antennae setaceous : third joint of outer feet-jaws narrow, elongated, acute. SECTION II.—MACROURA. Bodies longer than in former section; post-abdomen carinated above ; antennae terminated by filaments, FAMILY I.—HIPPIDEs. Last abdominal segment lengthened, and foliaceous; two an- terior feet, tapering ; frequently with a monodactyluus haud i 552 sometimes with a claw ; the other six feet with their last joint fin-shaped. The genera are, Albumea, Hippa, and Remipes testwdinarius, pl. 30, f. 7. Lateral and middle an- tennae short, bent, and nearly equal; exterior feet jaws arm- shaped, terminated by a hook; first pair of feet ending in point- ed plates, the rest with ciliated pointed fins. FAMILY II.-PAGURII. Shell but slightly crustaceous; two anterior feet didactyle; next four pairs with long acute tarsi ; last four pairs Smaller, terminating with a forceps; sometimes with a pointed hook. The genera are, Birgus, and Pagurus laticauda, pl. 30, f. 8. Oblong ; tail, long, maked, and rarely divided into segments; anterior feet with forceps, and unequal ; last four pairs very small ; exterior antennae long ; interior, short, approximate. FAMILY III.-PALINUR IN 1. Terminated by a fan-shaped post-abdomen, produced by the lateral appendages of the last and preceding segments. There is but one genus : Palinurus locusta, pl. , 30, f. 9. Outer antennae, very long, spined, or hairy; two middle ones, shorter and bifid ; exterior feet-jaws, formed like feet; feet, middling long, with short claws; shell, somewhat cylindrical, and spiny; abdomen, six- jointed, elongated, with a termination consisting of five laminae, fan-shaped; eyes seated on peduncles. FAMILY IV.-SYLLAR IDEs. Having the peduncle formed like a depressed crest. The genera are, Themus and Scyllarus. FAMILY W.-GALATHINAE. Feet all alike, but the two anterior, which are didactyle. The genera are, Eryon, Magalopa, Galathea. Porcellama platycheles, pl. 30, f. 10. Lateral antennae long, setaceous, placed on the exterior side of the eyes; interme- diate ones in grooves; body, orbicular, somewhat depressed ; tail, with a ciliated margin, and bent below; ten feet, posterior two small, anterior didactyle. FAMILY WI.-ASTAcINAE. Four or six of the anterior feet didactyle ; terminating abdo- mimal exterior leaflets, entire in some, and in others divided by A Suture. The genera are, Thalassina, Gebia, Axius, Callianassa, Ne- phrops, and Astácus Marimus, pl. 30, f. 11. Antennae four, unequal, mid- dle ones shortest ; peduncle, with scale-shaped teeth; exterior feetjaws long, two first joints with stiff hairs; body, oblong, sub-cylindrical, with a projecting beak in front; terminatin six fan-shaped ; six anterior legs, didactyle, first, long an tlick; forceps, tuberculated and spined. FAMILY WII.-CARIDEs. Intermediate antennae placed above the lateral ones, pro- truding with two or three filamentary terminations. The genera are, Penaeus, Stemopus, Alpheus, Hippolyte, Autonomea, Gnathophyllum, Hymenocera, Nika, Athanas, Atya, Egeon, Crangon, Pandalus, Pasiphaea, and Palaemon Serratus, pl. 30, f. 12. Intermediate antennae con- sisting of three filaments, one short and thick, two long and setaceous; lateral ones longer than the body; four anterior legs didactyle; anterior, smaller than the second pair; last joint of exterior feetjaws shorter than the preceding; shell, thin, elongated, cylindrical, with two sharp points before; ros- trum, long and Serrated. FAMILY VIII.-Schizopod A. Feet slender, filiform, fitted for swimming only; none of them hand-shaped, but having either a long, lateral appendage, or deeply cleft, or multifid at their extremity. The genera are, Mysis, Zoea, and Nebalia. Herbstić, pl. , 30, f. 13. Thorax having a movable rostrum anteriorly; anterior pair of legs simple and longest, the rest approximate and simple; the Jast joint cleft; anten- I).39 i. placed above the eyes, the last joint bifid and multi-ar- ticulate. ORIDER II.-STOMIA PODA. The branchiae suspended, in the form of tufts, on the lower appendages of the post-abdomen; head, distinct from the trunk, large, and separated into two parts; shell, membranaceous; in- termediate antennae with two or three filaments at their termi- .# six posterior feet filiform ; body terminated by a folia- CéOUIS 1111. FAMILY I.—UNIPELTATA. With an elongated and marrow body; eyes and intermediate antennae placed on an anterior elongation of the thorax; ex- terior feet jaws, and four anterior limbs, terminated by a mono- dactyle forceps; the other six limbs fitted for swimming, with the last joint brush-shaped; lateral antennae having a scale at the base; intermediate ones trifilamentary. The genera are, Squilla, Erichthus, and Alima hyalina, pl.:30, f. 1. . Shield and body much elongated; intermediate antennae seated on a very long three-jointed pe- duncle, terminated by three filaments; eyes, very large; shell, broadest behind ; first segment destitute of feet; the next three with very small limbs; the five next segments provided with a pair of oval plates, CRUST ACEA. FAMILY II.-B1 PELTATA. Body, depressed, membranous, and thin ; thorax with twin shields; anterior, very large, oval; posterior one supporting the feet-jaws, and five pairs of transverse and angular feet ; intermediate antennae with two filaments. It has but one genus, Phyllosoma. ORDER III.-L.A. MO DIPOIDA, Head not distinct from the trunk; the second and third seg- ments, having four vesicular bodies under them; antennae four, multi-articulate; mandibles destitute of palpi; post-abdomera short. FAMILY I.—O VALIA. An oval body with transverse segments; limbs strong, of medium length; those of the second and third segments im- perfect, with a long, cylindrical, blunt termination, each pro- vided with an elongated vesicle at the base. It has but one genus. Cyamws ceti, pl. 30, f. 15. With a small, conical, truncated head; body, orbicula, depressed; having ten segments; eyes compound; lateral antennae four, jointed and-Setageous ; feet eight, unguiculated, second and third segments with two pairs of spurious ones, to which are attached the branchial vesicles. FAMILY II.-FILIFoRMIA. With an elongated, linear body, and narrow longitudinal seg- ments; limbs long and slender; last portion of the upper all- tennae jointed. The genera are Caprella, Proto, and Leptomera. ORDER IV. —AMPHHPODA. Head separate from the segment, to which the anterior feet- jaws are attached ; post-abdomen provided with branchial and swimming appendages beneath. They are narrow, lengthened, and multi-articulate, transversely striated, or branched; man dibles provided with palpi; some of the feet having vesicles. FAMILY I.—GAMMARINAE. Body posteriorly furnished with cylindrical or comical styli- form appendages, or with none in Some genera. The genera are Cerapus, Melita, Amphithoe, Dexamine, Gammarus, Pherusa, Orchestia, Talirus, Atylus, Corophium, Podocerus, Jassa, Phronima, and Leucothoe articulosa, pl. 30, f. 16. First pair of limbs didac- tyle, with a double articulate thumb; second pair with a dilated, compressed hand, the thumb of which is crooked; abdominal extremity bent downwards. FAMILY II.-UROPTERA. Lateral appendages at the posterior extremity of the body, in the form of leaflets, and acting as fins. The genera are Hyperia and Phrosine. FAMILY III.-D Ece A, PEDES. Animals provided with ten feet only. - The genera are Typhis, Anceus, and Pramiza. FAMILY IV.-HETEROPA. With fourteen feet, in most instances all fitted for Swimming on the four last only. The genera are Ione, and Apseude talpas, pl. 30, , f. 17. . Antennae, four, two external longest; body elongated, of six joints; tail elongated, consist- ing of fifteen segments; two anterior feet didactyle, last 1our ciliated, and directed backwards, fitted for swimming. O RIDER. V.- ISOPOIDA. Having a distinct head; mandibles devoid of palpi; three pairs of jaws, the lower ones appearing like two small feet united at their base, or a lip having two palpi; body somewhat de- pressed, divided into from three to seven segments; feet ten or fourteen ; tail varying from one to mine segments, with branch- ials; destitute of shell; eyes granulated; antennae generally foul". SECTION I.-A QUATICA. Antennae four, anterior with three or four joints; sometimes without antennae; lower appendages of post-abdomen usually vesicular, having no openings for the entrance of air. TAMILY I.—EPICARIDES. Body much depressed above, and concave below, having neither eyes, antennae, mandibles, nor caudal fin. But one genus, Bopyrus. FAMILY II.-CYMOTHOA l'ES. Eyes and antennae four, sometimes indistinct; mandibles horny; feet fitted for walking and prehension; posterior extre- mity with a fin on each side; post-abdomen with four or six Segments. e e - The genera are Cymothoe, Cirolama, Eurydice, Nelocira, Limnoria, Serolis, and - • AEga Marginata, pl. 30, f. 18. Upper antennae with two first joints, broad and compressed; eyes large, somewhat convex; tail foliaceous; abdominal joints imbricated on their edges. FAMILY III.—SPHAEROMIDES. Post-abdomen with three segments, the last with two leaflets. The genera are Zuzara, Sphaeroma, Campecopea, Neša Dynamene, Cymodocea, an CRUST ACEA-CRYPTOG AMIA. Anthºro gracilis, pl. , 30, f. 19. Antennae nearly equal ; body linear; antérior feet with a movable claw; lateral laminae of the tail foliaceous. FAMILY IV.-As ELLOTA. Last abdominal segment devoid of swimming appendages. The genera are Asellus, Janira, and Jaera. FAMILY W.—IDOTEIDEs. Branchial appendages situated under the post-abdomen, co- vered by the valves of the last segment; four antennae in a transverse line, lateral ones with a filamentous termination; post-abdomen of three segments, The genera are Idotea, and Stenosoma lineare, pl. 30, f. 20. Body oblong, of seven trans- verse segments; exterior antennae as long as the body, third joint longer than the fourth. SECTION II.-TERRESTRIA. . The two intermediate antennae hardly visible, one or two jointed; post-abdomen of six segments; posterior margin of the last with two or four cleft styles. FAMILY WI.-ONIscIDEs. Consisting of the true Oniscae. The genera are Ligia, Philoscia, Oniscus, Porcellio, and Armadillo Vulgaris, pl. 30, f. 21. Exterior antennae,Seven, jointed, placed on each side of a notch of the hood ; eyes gra- Ilular and lateral ; body gibbous and arched; tail consisting of Six segments, the last triangular and short, but its appendages not projecting ; seven pairs of limbs. ORDER WI.-LOPHY ROPODA. Head not distinct from the trunk; eye, or eyes, compound and sessile; shell sometimes of two pieces, usually large; no palpi on the mandibles; jaws destitute of branchiae; feet va- riable in number, fitted for swimming, simple, or branched, or formed , of hairy laminae, organs of respiration supposed to be situated in them. FAMILY I.—UNIVALVIA. Shell in one piece, the most part of the body being un- covered. Cyclops guadricornis, pl. 30, f. 22. Elongated, conical, and oval ; one-eyed; four simple antennae; two mandibles; no palpi, but having processes behind, which represent jaws and pedipalpi; eight feet; tail long, forked. FAMILY II.-OSTRACODA. Shell either folded in two, or in the form of two valves united by a hinge, and enveloping the body. The genera are Polyphemus, Daphnia, Lynceus, Ceytherina, §I) Cyprès ornata, pl. 30, f. 23. Body and head united without any yisible segment; tail soft, folded below, having two fila- ments at its point; shell bivalve, oval ; provided with a large spherical eye, beneath which are two long setaceous antennae, terminated by a bundle of twelve or fifteen hairs; feet six. ORDER WII.-PHYLLOPODA. Head not distinct from the trunk; eyes sessile, smooth, and approximate; antennae very short ; shield crustaceous, free behind; mandibles two ; destitute of palpi; the first pair of feet oar-shaped, the other sixty set in pairs, and fitted for swim- In IIlg. an FAMILY I.—As PIDIPHoRA. Eyes not placed on peduncles. The genera are Limnadia and Apus. FAMILY II.-CERATOPHTHALMA. Having no shell, and the eyes seated on peduncles. The genera are Artemia an Branchipus stagnalis, pl. 30, f. 24. Elongated ; nearly filiform and soft ; head distinct, having two or four filiform antennae; two reticulated eyes; two kinds of horns in front, those in the males largest; feet of equal lengths, formed for swimming; tail of six or nine segments, the posterior two with elongated leaf- lets. e ORDER VIII.-XY PHOSURA. Body in two parts; without a siphon; base of the feet, ex- cept the last, spinous, which serve as jaws; with a hard twin shell covering the whole body, having longitudinal furrows above ; termination of the body sabre-shaped. This order consists of but one species, Limulus Polyphemus. ORIDER IX. —SIPHON OSTOMA. FAMILY I.—CALIGIDEs. Body somewhat oval, with a distinct shell. The genera are Argulus, Caligus, Cecrops, and Anthosoma Smithii, pl.:30, f. 25. Rounded ; antennae six-joint- ed; abdomen narrow, with two foliaceous laminae on the back, and six under the belly; twelve feet, the beak between the first and sixth anterior provided with hooks; extremity of the abdomen with two oviferous, cylindrical, and elongated tubes. FAMILY. II.-LERNAEIFoRMEs. l Destitute of shell; body nearly cylindrical, jointed, and worm- shaped. . This family consists but of one species, Dichelesthium Stu- *10th 18. Many fossil species have been found, which naturalists refer to existing genera. 553 CRUZ, SANTA (Spanish; Holy Cross). Among the various places of this name, the most important are, 1. An island in the West Indies, belonging to Denmark, the most southerly of the Virgin isles; lat. 17o 45' N. ; lon. 64° 35' W. It is about 24 miles in length, with an area of 84 square miles, and contains 33,000 inhabitants, of which 30,000 are slaves. The country is mostly level, the climate unhealthy at cer- tain seasons, the water scarce and bad. The soil is fertile, producing cotton, sugar cane, Some coffee and indigo, and tropical fruits. About 9,000,000 gallons of rum are annually exported. The best ports are Christianstadt and Frederickstadt. The former, si- tuated on the northern coast of the island, is the ca- pital of all the Danish West Indies. After having been successively in the hands of the Dutch, British. French, and Spaniards, Santa Cruz was ceded to Den- mark in 1733. In 1807, it was taken by the British, but was restored to the Danes by the peace of Paris, in 1814. 2. A city on the island of Teneriffe ; lat. 280 28' N. ; lon. 16° 30' W. The road is much vi. sited by European vessels, on their way to the Indies and to America, for water and provisions. The po- pulation is 8400. The principal article of export is Teneriffe wine. See Teneriffe. CRUZADA (Spanish). A bull, called the bull of the crusade, is a source of considerable revenue to the Spanish crown. Pope Calixtus III. first issued this bull, during the reign of king Henry of Castile, in 1457, granting an absolution for past offences to all who would fight against infidels, or pay a certain sum (200 maravedis), to aid the crown in carrying on war against them; and, as this bull is granted only for five years, the king has the power of renewing it. It confers also certain immunities, such as the right to eat some kinds of prohibited food in Lent. It has not been customary to renew the grant since 1753. These bulls were formerly sold, in a printed form, by priests and monks, who very often abused their autho- rity, and would not confess people, or give them ex- treme unction, unless they would buy the bulls. The revenue thus received by the crown was estimated, for Spain and Spanish America, at 1,500,000 dollars. Portugal also received such a bull in 1591, for the support of her fortifications in Africa. Mendoza, in one chapter of his Pida de Lazarillo de Tormes, de- scribes the abuses by which the bullarios, or sellers of bulls, extorted money from the people. CRYPT, in architecture; a hollow place or vault constructed under ground. The tombs of the Chris- tian martyrs also were so called, where the early Christians met to perform their devotions, for fear of persecution. Hence crypt came to signify a church under ground, or the Iower story, like that of St Paul's, London, Lastingham priory, and many of the ancient ecclesiastical edifices of England, Germany, and France. When crypts are on a large Scale, like those of Rome, Naples, and Paris, they are then called catacombs. (See Catacombs.) Bartoliand Bellori have published engravings of paintings found in the crypts of Rome, of which there are several editions. The One of 1738 is in Latin. CRYPTO; a prefix from the Greek zavºrràs (se. Cret), used in several compounds; for instance, cryp- tography (q. v.), cryptogamy (q. V.), Crypto-Calvi. mists (q.v.). When the Jesuits were dissolved by a papal bull, much was said of Crypto-Jesuits. In France, we hear sometimes of crypto-republicans, &c. CRYPTO-CALVINISTS (crypto, from the Greek wevorrès, secret); a name given to the favourers of Calvinism in Saxony, on account of their Secret at- tachment to the Genevan doctrine and discipline. See Concord, Form of. CRYPTOGAMIA, in botany; the twenty-fourth and last class of the sexual system of Linnaeus, includ- 554 ing several very numerous families of plants, in which the parts essential to their fructification have not been Sufficiently ascertained, or are too small to admit of their being accurately described and referred to any of the other classes. CRYPTOGRAPHY (from the Greek revºrk, se- Cret, and yéºw, to write); the art of transmitting secret information by means of writing, which is in: tended to be illegible, except by the person for whom it is destined. The ancients sometimes shaved the head of a slave, and wrote upon the skin with some indelible colouring matter, and then sent him, after his hair had grown again, to the place of his destina- tion. This is not, however, properly secret writing, but only a concealment of writing. Another sort, which corresponds better with the name, is the fol- lowing, used by the ancients. They took a small Stick, and wound around it bark, or papyrus, upon which they wrote. The bark was then unrolled, and Sent to the correspondent, who was furnished with a stick of the same size. He wound the bark again round this, and thus was enabled to read what had been written. This mode of concealment is evident- ly very imperfect. Among the methods which Ovid teaches young women, in order to deceive their guardians, when they write to their lovers, he men- tions that of writing with new milk, and of making the writing legible by means of coal dust or soof. Ansonius proposes the same means to Paulinus. It is now well known that several metallic solutions may be employed for this purpose; and that these, on being exposed to the action of certain vapours, become visible, and thus exhibit the characters which had been written with them. Cryptography properly consists in writing with signs, which are legible only to him for whom the writing is intended, or who has a key, or explai nation of the signs. The most simple method is to choose for every letter of the alphabet some sign, or only another letter. But this sort of cryp- tography (chiffre) is also easy to be deciphered with- out a key. Hence many illusions are used. No se– paration is made between the words, or signs of no meaning are inserted among those of real meaning. Various keys likewise are used, according to rules before agreed upon. By this means, the deciphering of the writing becomes difficult for a third person, not initiated ; but it is likewise extremely trouble- Some for the correspondents themselves; and a slight mistake often makes it illegible, even by them. Ån- other mode of communicating intelligence secretly, viz., to agree upon some printed book, and mark the words out, is also troublesome, and not at all safe. The method of concealing the words which are to Convey the information intended in matter of a very different character, in a long letter, which the corres- pondent is enabled to read, by applying a paper to it, with holes corresponding to the places of the signifi- cant words, is attended with many disadvantages: the paper may be lost; the repetition of certain words may lead to discovery; and the difficulty of connect- ºng the important with the unimportant matter, so as to give the whole the appearance of an ordinary let- ter, is considerable. If this is effected, however, this mode has the advantage of concealing the fact that any secrecy is intended. Writing with sympathetic ink, or milk, lemon juice, &c., is unsafe, because the agents to make the letters visible are too generally known. Hence the chiffre quarré, or chiffre indé- chiffrable, so called, has come very much into use, because it is easily applied, difficult to be deciphered, and the key may be preserved in the memory merely, and easily changed. It consists of a table, in which the letters of the alphabet, or any other signs agreed upon are arranged under one another, thus: CRYPTOGRAPHY-CRYSTALs. Z It © p r ! Z Z 3. à. C € Any word is now taken for a key; Paris, for exam- ple. This is a short word, and, for the sake of se- crecy, it would be well to choose for the key some one or more words less striking. Suppose we wish to write in this cipher, with this key, the phrase “We lost a battle;” we must write Paris over the phrase, repeating it as often as is necessary, thus:- P & y & S P & ºr ? S P & ºr We lost a b a t t le. We now take, as a cipher for w, the letter which we find in the square opposite w in the left marginal co- lumn, and under p on the top, which is m. Instead of e, we take the letter opposite e and under a, which is f; for l, the letter opposite l and under r, and so on. Proceeding thus, we should obtain the following series of letters:— mfoxlibtkmimw The person who receives the epistle writes the key over the letters; as, P & q' 3 S P & ºr ? S P a r m f c x 1 i b t k m i m w He now goes down in the perpendicular line, at the top of which is p, until he meets m, opposite to which, in the left marginal column, he finds w. Next, go- ing in the line of a down to f, he finds on the left e. In the same way, r gives l, i gives 0, and so on. Or you may reverse the process; begin with p, in the left marginal column, and look along horizontally till you find m, over which, in the top line, you will find w. It is easily seen, that the same letter is not al- ways designated by the same cipher; thus, e and a occur twice in the phrase selected, and they are de- signated respectively by the ciphers f and w, b and A. The key may be changed from time to time, and a different key may be used with each correspon- dent. The utmost accuracy is necessary, because one character, accidentally omitted, changes the whole cipher. The correspondent, however, may ascertain this with considerable trouble. See Deciphering. CRYSTALS, in chemistry and mineralogy; any inorganic body, which, by the mutual attraction of its particles has assumed the form of some one of the regular geometric solids, being bounded by a certain number of plain surfaces. The chemist procures crystals, either by fusing the bodies by heat, and then allowing them gradually to cool, or by dissolving them in a fluid, and then abstracting the fluid by slow evaporation. The nature of crystals has, from its great importance, been a subject of investigation to many eminent men; but, more particularly to Rome de l'Isle, Bergman, and U. R. J. Hany. This last philosopher, from an observation of the well known fact, that crystals can be divided only in certain directions, so that the fraction may have a smooth CRYSTALS--CUBA. surface, deduced an ingenious and useful theory of the forms of these bodies. This theory being founded on abstruse mathematical principles, we cannot here enter into its minute details; but we shall lay down the leading results. The carbonate of lime is founded in crystals of six sides or hexahedrons. Now, if we take One of these crystals, and endeavour to divide it parallel to the edges by introducing a sharp knife at the base, we will find that only three will divide at each end, the three at the one base being alternate to the three at the other. There will then remain a Solid bounded by six trapeziums, each having a Justre which shows that it is one of the natural joints of the crystal. Continuing the divisions parallel to the first Sections, it will be found, that the bases will con- tinually diminish until they disappear altogether, and also that the altitudes of the lateral sides diminish until we arrive at a twelve-sided solid (dodecahedron) bounded by pentagons; but by continuing the sections, we arrive at faces of a triangular form, and continu- ing still farther, we arrive at an obtuse rhomboid, which is called the nucleus or primitive form of the crystal. The nucleus of one crystal may and often does differ from that of another inform, but the nucleus of the same crystallized substance is always the same. The nucleus or primitive form of carbonate of lime is an obtuse rhomboid; all the other forms which pre- ceded it in the division are called secondary. This mechanical division may, however, be carried still farther by separations, parallel to the bounding Sur- faces, and sometimes division is practicable in other directions until we arrive at last at the integrant mole- cule, which is no longer divisible excepting by the ac- tion of chemical agents. The form of the integrant molecule of a crystal is always one of these three, the tetrahedron, the triangular prism or the parallelo- piped, these figures being the simplest class to which they belong. The integrant molecules or particles of crystals have been supposed by Dr Wollaston, to be composed of spherical atoms, which formed differ- ently shaped molecules, according to their number. Three would form a triangular pyramid, four a cube, and with two added, one at each end, an acute rhomboid, &c., &c.; which figures may be imitated with leaden bullets. These atoms, being attracted, form the particles that cohere from the nucleus, which again is surrounded by laminae, formed by the particles, and these laminæ decrease in magni- tude by the subtraction of molecules, as they advance from the nucleus to the surface of the crystal. The angles of crystals are measured by an instrument called the gonometer (q.v.). We shall conclude this article by referring for further particulars to Dr Ure's Che- mical Dictionary. We subjoin an outline of a few of the crystals. 555 CUBA; the largest and most westerly of the Antilles. Its configuration, extent, geographical position, great number of ports, fertility, and climate, contribute to render it one of the most interesting countries of America. Its length, from cape St Antonio to point Maisi, in a direction from W. S. W. to E. N. E., and then from W. N. W. to E. S. E., is 257 leagues, and its greatest width, in the direc- tion north to south, is 38 leagues. The learned geographer don Felipe Bausá calculated, in June, 1825, that the surface of Cuba contained 3615 Square marine leagues (20 to a degree). Cuba is situated between lon, 73° 56' and 850 W., and between lat. 190 48' 30" and 230 12ſ. 450 N. It lies fourteen leagues west from cape Nicolas, in the island of St Domingo, thirty-four south from point Morant, in Jamaica, twenty-seven east from cape Catoche, and thirty-seven south from cape Florida. The gulf of Mexico, which is very nearly of a circular form, of more than 250 leagues in circum- ference, is closed by the island of Cuba, with the exception of two narrow passages, the one to the South, between Cape Catoche and cape St Antonio, and the other to the north, between Bahia Honda and the Florida shoals. Along the coast of Cuba are many keys and small islands, which are in- cluded in the same government with the large island. The navigation of the coast is very unsafe On account of the rocks and shoals which encompass it almost without interruption, and often extend from two to three miles into the sea. The broken outline of this vast extent of coast, however, affords more than fifty ports and anchoring places; which are equally safe and easy of access. The most remark- able, in a commercial point of view, are those of Havannah, Matanzas, Nuevitas, Jibara, and Bara- coa, on the north; St Jago, Manzanillo, Trinidad, Jagua, and Batabano, on the south side of the island. There is another port between Manzanillo and Trinidad, called Santa Cruz, which, in February, 1829, was declared a free port, and which, undoubt- edly, will be much frequented, furnishing great facilities for trading with Puerto Principe (the second city in Cuba in point of population), being the only good harbour in its vicinity on the south side of the island, and distant from it but twenty leagues. The harbours of Bahia, Honda, Nipe, Naranjo, and Guantanamo, also deserve to be men- tioned, as they are very spacious, and have plenty of water for such large vessels as may be in want of a safe port. A ridge of mountains traverses the whole of the island, from the east to the west, dividing it into two parts. At the foot of these, the country opens into extensive Savannas. A consider- able number of small streams from these heights water the island on both sides. These streams abound in fish of different kinds, and are said to bring down considerable quantities of gold. There are likewise many salt ponds, which furnish abundance of fish and game; also several springs of mineral water, which have proved very useful for the cure of many diseases. The most remarkable are those of St Diego, forty leagues west of Havan- mah; those of Madruga, fourteen leagues S.W. of the said city; those of the town of Guanabacoa ; and those of Camugiro, one and a half league from Puerto Principe. Those of St Diego are the only ones which have been analyzed. They consist of two wells (Tigre and Templado), and according to the analysis of sennor Esteves, a pound of the Water contains 0.46 grains of Sulphureted hydrogen gas, 10-5 of sulphate of lime, 1-0 of hydrochlorate of magnesia, and one grain of carbonate of magnesia. They are particularly useful in cases of scrofula, cutaneous diseases, &c. 556 The island is very rich in minerals, particularly in copper, iron, and loadstone. In 1813, Some persons endeavoured to work a mine which they found near the city of Trinidad, and from which they obtained food gold and silver. They were, however, obliged, from want of funds, to desist, though it was highly probable that, with a sufficient capital, it could have been made profitable. For the same reason, together with the want of protection from the government, a very rich mine of coal, which was opened in 1816, near Bacuranáo, was abandoned. In 1827, a silver mine was discovered, yielding 7.5 of pure silver to a quintal of ore. Iron seems to be abundant, as it shows itself in parts of the great cordillera of Sierra Maestra. Loadstone is found in the mountains of Paragua and on the northern coast. Marbles of various kinds, serpentine, chalcedony of excellent quality, quartz, mineral bitumen, &c., are likewise found in the island. . Our knowledge of the geologi- cal and mineralogical structure of Cuba, however, is comparatively small, on account of the thickness of the forests and the asperity of the mountains, parti- cularly on the eastern part. Most that we know on this subject is derived from the researches of Alex- ander von Humboldt. The soil of Cuba is so productive that it yields two, and even three crops of corn in a year. The fields, during the whole year, are covered with aro- matic plants and trees in blossom. The climate is dry and warm. In the months of July and August, the thermometer ranges from 28° to 29° Réaumur (95° to 970 Fahrenheit), and in those of December and January, which are the coldest, commonly between 170 and 210 of Réaumur (700 and 79° Fahrenheit). It never freezes, not even on the highest moun- tains. The coasts of the island are well known to be unhealthy; but this is not the case with the mountains. Among the animals indigenous in the island or the surrounding sea, are the cayman or alligator (q.v.), the manatior sea cow, the iguana (a species of lizard), the turtle, &c. Europe have been introduced. A great number of swine, and also of bees, are reared. Lately, the breeding of mules has been carried on to a consider- able extent. Birds are numerous in the forests. Among them are the canary bird, the linnet, also a bird resembling the nightingale, the cardinal gross- beak, the bunting, &c. The rivers, though they have but a short course, and are deficient in Water, abound, at certain seasons, with excellent fish. Reptiles are extremely numerous. Among the insects, of which there are very many, are the mosquitoes, verdaderamente una plaga que infesta los cayos, costas y terremos pantanosos, to use the words of the Cuadro Estadistico mentioned below. They are divided into different species—mosquito proper, coracá, 2ancudo, rodador, jagüey, and lance- tero. In the rainy season, they follow men and beasts into the interior of the island. The gregen, which is almost invisible, is exceedingly numerous and very troublesome. Among the spiders the peluda is the most disagreeable in appearance, and its bite produces fever, yet without danger to life. There are other kinds particularly troublesome to particular animals. The vegetable kingdom of Cuba is extremely rich. Here are to be found the mahogany-tree, the cedar, and lignum-vitae, various kinds of ebony, besides numerous woods suitable for building houses, ships, &c.; also palm-trees, among which the palma real is remarkable for the utility of every part to man and various animals; Sarsapa- rilla and many other plants useful in medicine; also the chestnut, the pine-apple, the annona or custard- apple, the medlar, plantain, orange, and various Many of the domestic animals of CUBA. kinds of melons. Among the agricultural plants, maize is the most important ; rice, beans, peas, garbanzos, are also cultivated. The culture of wheat is abandoned. - The true riches of the country consist in its great articles of export—sugar, coffee, tobacco, wax, cocoa, molasses, rum, maize, &c. According to a very recent and complete official publication—Cuadro Es- tadistico de la Siempre fiel Isla de Cuba correspondiente al anno de 1827, formado por una Comission de Geſes y Oficiales de orden y bajo de la Direccion del Ewce/smo. Sr. Capitan General D. Fr. Dionísio Pives, Habana, 1829—the export of sugar, in 1827, was 5,878,924: arrobas (an arroba is equal to 25 pounds), or includ- ing tare, &c., 6,300,000 arrobas. The whole amount produced was 8,091,837 arrobas ; consumed on the island, 1,791,837. Of coffee, the export, in the same year, was 2,001,583; arrobas, and the amount con- sumed in the island, 881,944%. Of tobacco, the amounts have not been So well ascertained. This article pays a duty of six per cent. to the king (ordi- nance of Oct. 8, 1827). In 1827, there were ex- ported 61,898 cargas, or about 500,000 arrobas, of which 79,106; were en rama (in the leaf). Of wax, the export, in 1827, was 22,402; arrobas ; the whole production, 63,160. Of cotton, the export, in the same year, was 23,414 arrobas; whole quantity raised 38,142. Of cocoa, the export was only 1953 arro- bas, while the whole quantity raised was 23,806 arro- bas. Indigo began to be cultivated in 1795, but little has as yet been raised—in 1827, only 56 arro- bas—and of wheat only 120 arrobas. The export of molasses, in 1827, was 74,083 bocoyes (hogsheads); of rum (aguardiente de canna,) 2457 pipes. Rice is raised in large quantity, but not enough to supply the great home consumption. In 1827, 520,897 arrobas were produced on the island, and 590,820; arrobas im- ported. Of maize, 1,617,806 fanegas were raised, (a famega is about 100 pounds) and yet there were imported 70,497 arrobas of the corn, and 4,952 bar- rels of the meal. Of beans (frijolles), there were produced, in 1827, 134,185 arrobas, and imported, 58,418%. , Notwithstanding this great production, it is believed that only a seventh part of all the land suitable for cultivation is actually brought into use. The commerce of the country has increased lately very much. The island enjoys great privileges in comparison with other countries under the yoke of Spain. The trade of Cuba is carried on chiefly through Havannah, the capital. There have been times when the exports of the island amounted to 12,000,000 dollars, and its imports were over 15,000,000 dollars. In the year 1827, 17,352,854 dollars’ worth of merchandise was imported, and 3,561,887 dollars’ worth exported, making the con- Sumption amount to 13,791,267 dollars, which, after the subtraction of articles of food imported for the slaves, leaves 12,291,267 dollars for the value of im- ported articles consumed by the 337,126 white and 106,494 coloured free persons, which gives 28 dollars as the average consumption of each individual during the year. The total value of the produce of the is- land was lately estimated at 44,634,343 dollars. In 1827, the commerce of Havannah contributed to the royal revenue 4,383,262 dollars, whilst, in 1815, it paid only 1,726,963; dollars. The interior adminis- trations furnished to the revenue, in 1827, 2,272,808 dollars. The whole revenue of the island has been estimated at 7,500,000 dollars, and the expenses of the government at 6,500,000 dollars. According to the Balanza Mercantil of Havannah, for the year 1829 it appears, that the imports in American vessels from the United States into Havannah, in 1829, amounted to the sum of 4,086,230 60 dollars. CUBA. Bollars. From the United States in Spanish vessels, . . 610,797 12 France, . . . . . . . dollars 1,048,965 63 Hanseatic cities, & * 913,601 00 Denmark, 12,662 75 England, e • * 1,548,779 37 I raly, . . . . . . . . . . . 29,773 12 Netherlands, . * ſe . 289,758 88 Portugal, . . . . 56, 144 88 dollars 3,899,985 53 Of which imports one-fourth, at least, was brought in American bottoms, say, . . 974,996 44 From Spain in foreign bottoms, 3,097,590 38 dollars, of which two-thirds, at least, were under the United States’ flag, * & Making a total of imports, in 1829, under the American flag, including the imports from the United States in Spanish vessels, of . The whole value of imports for 1829, º 14,925,414 50 Havanna, . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,065,060 24 == * 7,737,084 49 *-a-º-º-º: ********----------issº Supplied by the United States and º American vessels, . . . . . . . . . 7,737,084 49 Leaving, for all other flags, including *} 7,188,330 01 Spanish, e e s e e º e s e “ * ******** ** The tonnage was, Thus, from the United States alºne; 67,664 tons. (American tonnage) came, . . duty paid by American *} 234,932 One-fourth of foreign tonnage from; 6, 172 other countries, © e g º & ..? Two-thirds of tonnage of º 20,133 vessels from Spain, . . . , am=s=s* Total American tonnage, 93,969 tons, at 2.53, 234,922 From the above notes, it seems that the United States and her ships have supplied more than 50 per cent. of the entire imports of Havannah for the last €a I’. y The island is subject to the king of Spain, and, for the purposes of government, is divided into two po- litical divisions. That on the west is under the im- mediate control of the captain-general residing in Havannah. The other is under a governor appointed by the king, but subject, in many respects, to the captain-general. It is also divided into two ecclesias- tical jurisdictions, the one governed by an archbishop, who resides at St Jago, the other one by a bishop, who resides at Havannah. These jurisdictions have their limits 20 leagues east of the town of Espiritu Santo. Since the beginning of 1826, the island has been divided, for the purpose of defence, into three military departments; these again into districts, and the districts into sections. The departments are commanded by a general officer. The eastern de- partment embraces the districts of St Jago, Baracoa, Holguin, Jibara, Jiguani, Cobre, Tiguabos, Manza- millo and Bayamo; the central, those of Puerto Principe, Nuevitas, Trinidad, Espiritu Santo, Villa de Santa Clara, and St Juan de los Remedios; the west- ern, those of Havannah, St Antonio de Compostela, St Felipe, and St Jago del Bejucal, St Antonio Abad de los Bannos, Guanajay, Guanabacoa, Filipinia, Ja- ruco, Guines, Matanzas, and Guamutas. These same divisions serve as limits for the jurisdictions of the three intendencies which are established for the col- lection and administration of the public revenue, and the heads of which reside at Havannah, Puerto, Prin- cipe, and St Jago, the capital cities of the three de- partments. Education is in a very low state; but, according to Abbot's Letters on Cuba (Boston, 1829), it is improving. The morals of the people are loose; the police is weak or inactive: murders are frequent. The laws are very numerous and contradictory, and much bribery and corruption prevail in the adminis- tration of justice. In 1821, the importation of slaves was prohibited by law; and, though it is yet carried 557 on, and tolerated by the authorities of Cuba, in spite of the laws against it, there is no doubt that it has diminished a great deal, in consequence of the efforts and vigilance of the English cruisers. The emanci- pation of Colombia, Mexico, and the Spanish part of St Domingo, has brought to Cuba almost all the Spaniards who were settled in those countries, to- gether with many of the Creoles. The number of the aboriginal population cannot now be ascertained. The European and African population, in 1511, did not include more than 300 persons. Within the last 52 years, the population has more than quadrupled : the coloured population has increased faster than the white. According to the census of 1827, given in the Spanish report mentioned above, the population then stood thus:— Males. Females. Total. Whites, - . * e 168,653 142,398 311,051 Free Mulattoes, te 28,058 29,456 57,514 Free Negroes, . . . . . 23,904 25,076 48,980 Mulatto and Negro slaves, 183,290 103,652 286,942 Grand total, 704,487 of which 311,051 are white, and 393,536 are co- loured. It is generally believed, that the inhabitants are not desirous of separating from the Spanish govern- ment, partly because Spain treats them tolerably well, and partly because of the distracted condition in which they behold those parts of Spanish America which have shaken off the Spanish yoke. A con- spiracy was discovered, however, in 1830, the object of which was the independence of the island. A ri- diculous expedition was sent from Cuba, in 1829, against Mexico, under general Barradas, who was forced to capitulate at Tampico, on September 11 of that year. The principal cities of the island are the capital, Havannah (siempre fidelisima ciudad de S. Cristobal de la Habana), with 237,828 inhabitants, St Jago de Cuba, St Salvador, St Carlos de Ma- tanzas, St Maria de Puerto Principe, &c. (See these articles.)—For further information respecting the island, the reader is referred to Humboldt's Per- sonal Narrative, and the Cuadro Estadistico already mentioned. Cuba was discovered, in 1492, by Christopher Co- lumbus. In 1511, don Diego Velasquez sailed from St Domingo, with four vessels and about 300 men, for the conquest of the island. He landed, on the 25th of July, near the bay of St Jago, to which he gave its name. The natives, commanded by the cacique Hatuey, who had fled from St Domingo, his native country, on account of the cruelties of the Spaniards, in vain endeavoured to oppose the pro- gress of the invaders. The noise of the fire-arms was sufficient to disperse the poor Indians. Hatuey was taken prisoner and condemned to be burned alive, which sentence was executed after he had re- fused to be baptized. This diabolical act filled all the other caciques with terror, and they hastened to pay homage to Velasquez, who met with no more op- position. The conquest of Cuba did not cost the Spaniards a single man. The conquerors, not find ing the mines sufficiently rich to induce them to work them, gradually exterminated the natives, whom they could not employ. After the conquest of Cuba, more than two centuries elapsed without the occurrence of any memorable incident. In 1741, the English admiral Vernon sailed, in July, from Jamaica, and entered the bay of Guantanamo, which he named Cumberland. He landed his troops twenty miles up the river, where they remained in perfect inaction until November, when they went back to Jamaica. Notwithstanding the disastrous termination of this expedition, the English government did not relinquish the idea of taking possession of Cuba. In 1762, they 558 sent from England a formidable expedition, which, after its junction with the naval force that had been already serving in the West Indies, consisted of nineteen ships of the line, eighteen small vessels of war, and 150 transports, which conveyed 12,000, troops. The whole of the fleet appeared off Havan- nah, June 6, 4000 more troops went from North America, in July, to re-enforce them. The Spaniards used every effort to defend the city. The British were several times repelled, but at last the Spaniards surrendered, August 13. The booty obtained by the British was great. About three millions of dollars in specie, and a large quantity of goods, fell into their hands, besides a great quantity of munitions of war, nine ships of the line, and four frigates. In 1763, the conquerors, notwithstanding the high opinion that they had of the importance of Cuba, re- stored it to Spain, in exchange for the Floridas. Since then, Cuba has been a Spanish island, and has been So well fortified, that it is now not in much dan- É. from any attack that can be made upon it. The orces of the island consist of 9886 regular troops, and 14,560 militia. The navy contains two seventy- fours, three frigates of fifty guns, one of forty, one sloop of war, and two brigs of twenty-two guns each, one brig of twenty, one of sixteen, and six schooners mounting thirteen guns. CUBATURE OF A SOLID, in geometry; the measuring of the space contained in it, or finding the solid content of it. CUBE, in geometry; a solid body consisting of six equal square sides. The solidity of any cube is found by multiplying the superficial area of one of the sides by the height. Cubes are to one another in the triplicate ratio of their diagonals; and a cube is supposed to be generated by the motion of a square plane along a line equal to one of its sides, and at right angles, thereto; whence it follows, that the planes of all sections, parallel to the , base, are squares equal thereto, and, consequently, to one another. CUBE, or CUBIC NUMBER, in arithmetic; that which is produced by the multiplication of a square number by its root ; thus 64 is a cube number, and arises by multiplying 16, the square of 4, by the root. 4. CüßE, or CUBIC QUANTITY, in algebra; the third power in a series of geometrical proportionals continued; as, a is the root, a, a the square, and a, a, a the cube. CUBE ROOT of any number or quantity is a number or quantity, which, if multiplied into itself, and then again by the product thence arising, gives a product equal to the number or quantity whereof it is the cube root; as, 2 is the cube root of 8, be- cause twice 2 are 4, and twice 4 are 8. CUBIC FOOT of any substance; so much of it as is contained in a cube whose side is one foot. See Cube. CUBIT, in the mensuration of the ancients; a long measure, equal to the length of a man's arm, from the elbow to the tip of the fingers. Doctor Arbuthnot makes the English cubit equal to 18 in- ches, the Roman cubit equal to 1 foot, 5-406 inches, and the chief cubit of scripture equal to 1 foot, 9.888 inches. - CUCKINGSTOOL ; an ancient instrument of punishment, described, in Doomsday Book, as cathe- dra stercoris. Scolds, cheating bakers, or brewers, and other petty offenders, were led to this stool, and immerged over head and ears in stercore, or stinking Water. CUCKOO (cuculus, LIN.); a genus of birds, cha- racterized by a bill of moderate size, short tarsi, and tail composed of ten feathers, The bill is compress- CUBATURE OF A SOLID—CUCKOO. ed, and slightly arched. The greater number of species belonging to this genus are found on the an- cient continent. Only one species is a native of Great Britain, and very few belong to Europe. In America, no true cuckoos are found, for the genus coccyzus differs very essentially from them in its habits. The cuckoos are especially distinguished by their ha- bit of laying their eggs in the nests of other, and, generally, much smaller birds. What is still more singular, it has been found, by very careful observa- tions, that the young cuckoo, shortly after being hatched, throws out of the nest all the other young or eggs, and thus engrosses to itself the whole pa- rental care of the bird in whose nest it has been lodged. The manner in which this ejectment is effected is thus described by Jenner, in the second part of the Philosophical Transactions for 1788, article 14:—“The little animal, with the assistance of its rump and wings, contrived to get the bird on its back, and, making a lodgment for the burden by elevating its elbows, clambered backwards with it up the side of the nest, till it reached the top, where, resting for a moment, it threw off its load with a jerk, and quite disengaged it from the nest. It remained in this si- tuation a short time, feeling about with the extremity of its wings, as if to be convinced whether the busi- ness was properly executed, and then dropped into the nest again. With these (the extremities of its wings) I have often seen it examine, as it were, an egg or nestling before it began its operations; and the nice sensibility which these parts appeared to possess seemed sufficient to compensate the want of sight, which, as yet, it was destitute of. I after- wards put in an egg, and this, by a similar process, was conveyed to the edge of the nest, and thrown out. These experiments I have since repeated several times, in different nests, and have always found the young cuckoo disposed to act in the same manner. In climbing up the nest it sometimes drops its burden, and thus is foiled in its endeavours; but, after a little respite, the work is resumed, and goes on almost in- cessantly till it is effected. It is wonderful to see the extraordinary exertion of the young cuckoo, when it is only two or three days old, if a bird be put in the nest with it, that is too weighty for it to lift out. In this state, it seems ever restless and uneasy. But this disposition for turning out its companions begins to decline from the time it is two or three till it is twelve days old; when, as far as I have seen, it ceases. Indeed, the disposition for throwing out the egg appears to cease a few days sooner; for I have frequently seen the young cuckoo, after it has been hatched nine or ten days, remove a nestling that had been placed in the nest with it, when it suffered an egg, put there at the same time, to remain unmolest- ed. The singularity of its shape is well adapted te these purposes; for, different from other newly hatched birds, its back, from the scapula: downwards, is very broad, with a considerable depression in the middle. This depression seems formed by nature for the purpose of giving a more secure lodgment to the egg of the hedge-sparrow or its young one, when the young cuckoo is employed in removing either of them from the nest. When it is about twelve days old, this cavity is quite filled up, and then the back assumes the shape of nestling birds in general. A young cuckoo that had been hatched by a hedge- sparrow about four hours, was confined in the nest in such a manner, that it could not possibly turn out the young hedge-sparrows, which were hatched at the same time, though it was almost incessantly making attempts to effect it. The consequence was, the oiſ birds fed the whole alike, and appeared, in every respect, to pay the same attention to the young cuckoo as to their own young, until the 13th day, CUCUMBER—CUENZA. when the nest was unfortunately plundered. The smallness of the cuckoo's egg, in proportion to the size of the bird, is a circumstance that hitherto, I believe, has escaped the notice of the ornithologist. So great is the disproportion, that it is, in general, smaller than that of the house-sparrow ; whereas, the difference in the size of the birds is nearly as five to one. I have used the term in general, because eggs produced at different times by the same bird, vary very much in size. I have found a cuckoo's egg so light, that it weighed only 43 grains, and one so heavy, that it weighed 55 grains. The colour of the cuckoo's eggs is extremely variable. Some, both in ground and penciling, very much resemble the house-sparrow's ; some are distinctly covered with bran-coloured spots; and others are marked with lines of black, resembling, in some measure, the eggs of the yellow hammer.” The cause of this singular habit of the common cuckoo of Europe (cuculus canorus) has been long a subject of discussion, without having been very satis- factorily determined. The opinion of the observer above cited appears to be as near the truth as We may hope to arrive. He attributes it to the short stay made by the bird in the country where it is under the necessity of propagating its species. Were it not to resort to some such expedient, it would be im- possible that the species could be continued. The cuckoo first appears in England about the 17th of April. Its egg is not ready for incubation sooner than the middle of May. A fortnight is taken up by the sitting bird in hatching the egg. The bird generally continues three weeks in the nest before it flies. The foster parents feed it for more than five weeks after this period; so that, if the cuckoo took care of its own eggs and young, the newly hatched bird would not be fit to provide for itself before its parent would be instinctively directed to seek Some new residence, and be thus compelled to abandon its young one; for the old cuckoos take their final leave before the first week in July. The young cuckoos forsake the nest as soon as fully fledged, and capable of providing for themselves. Their migra, tions from Europe are thought to be chiefly directed towards Africa; thence they regularly return with the spring, and, from some dead tree or bare bough, the male pours forth his monotonous song, cuckoo ! cuckoo ! In America, there is a bird of a very different genus, which resembles the cuckoo in depositing its egg in the nests of other birds, to be fostered by them. This will be described under the title Emberiga. CUCUMBER. The genus cucumis, to which the common cucumber belongs, contains seventeen spe- cies, several of which are of considerable importance. Cucumis colocynthis, producing the medicine called coloquintida, is a native of Africa. Cucumis angºria, the round, prickly cucumber, is a native of the West Indies, where it is used, with other vegetables, in Soups. Cucumis melo, the common melon, is Sup- posed to be a native of Persia: it was cultivated in Europe in the 16th century. Cucumis sativus, the common cucumber, is a native of the East Indies. The varieties of this, as well as of the melon, are easily produced. Those with the smoothest rind and fewest seeds are most esteemed. Cucumis anguinus, the Snake cucumber, bears fruit sometimes from three to four feet long. It is only raised as a curiosity, the flavour being bitter. Several other species pro- duce fruits that are eaten by the inhabitants of the Countries of which they are natives. The cucumber Was One of the luxuries of which Tiberius was parti- cularly fond ; and, by the dexterous management of his beds, he procured one every day, at all seasons of the year. 559 The common cucumber (cucumis sativus) is an ob- long, rough, and cooling fruit, supposed to have been originally imported into Europe from Some part of the Levant. It belongs to the twenty-second class of Linnaeus, and is a trailing and climbing plant. The fruit is generally eaten cut in slices, with vine- gar, pepper, &c. Some people think it unwholesome. Sometimes cucumbers are eaten stewed. When young, they are pickled (in England under the name of gerkins, which is connected with the German gwrken), with vinegar and spices, or preserved in Sirup as a Sweetmeat. It is better to lay the fruit on slate or tiles than upon the bare ground. Cucum- bers are raised in England in very great quantity. The village of Sandy, in Bedfordshire, has been known to furnish 10,000 bushels of pickling cucumbers in one week. In March, cucumbers have been known to fetch, in the London market, a guinea a dozen ; in August and September, one penny a dozen. CUCUTA (Rosario de Cucuta), a town in Colom- bia, forty miles north of Pamplona, known by the congress which assembled here, May 1, 1821, and finished its sittings in October of the same year. It was this body which framed the constitution of Co- lombia; and it is considered as the first Colombian congress, being the first convened under the funda- mental law for uniting Venezuela and new Grenada into a single republic. CUDWORTH, RALPH, a learned English divine and philosopher, was born at Aller, in Somersetshire, of which parish his father was rector, in 1617. He was admitted a pensioner of Emanuel college, Cam- bridge, at the age of thirteen. His diligence as an academical student was very great; and, in 1639, he took the degree of M. A., and was elected fellow of his college. He became so eminent as a tutor, that the number of his pupils exceeded all precedent, and in due time he was presented, by his college, to the rectory of North Cadbury, in Somersetshire. In the year 1642, he published a Discourse concerning the true Nature of the Lord's Supper, and The Union of Christ and the Church shadowed, or in a Shadow. The first of these productions, which maintained that the Lord's supper is a feast upon a sacrifice, produc. ed considerable controversy long after the author's death. In 1644, he took the degree of B. D., and was chosen master of Clare-hall, and, in the following year, was made regius professor of Hebrew. In 1651, he was made D. D., and in 1654, chosen master of Christ's college, Cambridge; where, having taken a wife, he spent the remainder of his days. In 1678, he published his grand work, entitled The true In- tellectual System of the Universe; the First Part, wherein all the Reason and Philosophy of Athéism is confuted, and its Impossibility demonstrated (folio). This work, which is an immense storehouse of ancient learning, was intended, in the first instance, to be an essay against the doctrine of necessity only ; but per- ceiving that this doctrine was maintained by several persons upon different principles, he distributed their opinions under three different heads, which he intend- ed to treat of in three books; but his Intellectual Sys- . tem relates only to the first, viz., The material Neces- sity of all Things without a God, or absolute, Athe- ism. It is a work of great power and erudition, al- though the attachment of the author to the Platonism of the Alexandrian school has led him to advance some opinions which border on incomprehensibility and mysticism. The moral as well as intellectual character of this eminent Scholar stood very high ; and he died universally respected, in 1688, in the seventy-first year of his age. CUENZA (anciently Canca); a city of Spain in New Castile, capital of a province ; 28 leagues E. S. E. Madrid; lon. 20 16 W.; lat. 40° 10' N. ; 560 population, 6000. It is a bishop's see. It contains a cathedral, thirteen parishes, six monasteries, an hos- pital, a seminary, and three colleges. It was built by the Moors, on a high and craggy hill, between the rivers Xucar and Huescar, which makes it natu- rally strong. Here the painter Salmeron, and the famous Jesuit Molina, were born. The north and east part of the province is mountainous, and fit only for sheep pasture; the other parts are fertile, pro- ducing corn, hemp, fruit, &c. Population of the province, 296,650; square miles, 11,884. CUENZA, or BAMBA.; a town of Colombia, in Quito, capital of a province; 150 miles S. Quito ; lon. 79° 18' W.; lat. 20 55' S.; population 15 or 20,000. The streets are straight and broad, and the houses mostly of adobes, or unburnt bricks. The en- virons are very fertile and pleasant. The town con- tains three churches, four convents, two nunneries, an hospital, a chamber of finance, &c. CUENZA, SIERRA DE; a chain of mountains which runs through the province of the same name. See Cuenza. CUEVA, JoHN DE LA; a poet, born in Seville, about the middle of the 16th century. A great facility in the composition of verses, in which Ovid was his mo- del, determined him to apply himself to the dramatic art, in which Torres Naharro had successfully resisted the attempts of some learned theatrical amateurs to force the Greek and Latin drama upon the people. In connexion with Naharro, Lope de Ruedra, and Christopher de Castillejo, he confirmed the old divi- sion into comedias divinas y humanas, while he made his pieces more interesting than those of his prede- cessors, by introducing greater variety in the drama- łis personae, by more finished verses, and by the divi- sion into three formados, or acts. His works, which are now rare in Spain, may be found in the Parmaso Espanno! (vol. 8. 16). The earliest of his composi- tions are Poesias Lyricas (Seville, 1582), of the same character with the Coro febeo de Romances historiales (Seville, 1588). His heroic poem, La Conquista de la Betica, in 20 cantos (Seville, 1602, also in Fernan- dez's collection, vols. 14, 15), has beauties enough in the execution to make amends for the defects of the plan. The Comedias y Tragedias, published at Seville, in 1588, were received with applause in their time, in this poetical city, but offended, even then, by the introduction of allegorical personages in the action. Cueva's, written in terzets, on the art of poetry, which contains many interesting facts with regard to the old Spanish drama. Cueva died at the commence- ment of the seventeenth century. CUFIC WRITING and CUFIC COINS. The Written characters of which the Arabians now make use, and with which we meet in printed works, viz., the Neskhi characters, are an invention of the fourth century of the Hegira. Before this time, the Cuſic characters, so called from the town of Cufa, where they are said to have been invented, were in use. These old characters have so much resemblance to the ancient Syriac writing, the Estrangel, that it hardly admits of a doubt, that the Arabians borrow. ed them from the inhabitants of Syria. Historical traditions confirm this supposition. The Cufic cha- racters, and, perhaps, others at an earlier date, which essentially resembled them, were probably first in- troduced among the Arabians a short time before Mohammed. Although we are, at present, ignorant of the characters which were previously in use among them, and although the imperfect accounts of the Mussulman writers throw very little light upon the Subject, yet it is scarcely credible that the Arabians remained destitute of a written character until the Sixth century of the Christian era. Perhaps traces of In the Parnaso Espannol there is a work of CUENZA–CUFIC WRITING AND COINS. the earlier character are to be found in the Palmy- rene and Phoenician inscriptions, and also on the coins of the Sassanides. We find the transition of the Cuſic to the Neskhi on the ruins of Chilminar. The influence which the school of Cufa exerted on Islamism caused the use of the character which pro- ceeded from it; and when the others had fallen into oblivion, Cuſic writing was the name commonly ap- plied to all kinds of Arabic writing, previous to the change made by Ebn Mokla. A knowledge of it is important on account of the many monuments in which it is preserved ; especially the coins inscribed With Cufic characters and made in the first centuries of the Hegira. Under the name of Cuſic coins are comprehended the ancient coins of the Mohammedan princes, gene- rally without emblems, inscribed and circumscribed on both sides, which have been found, in modern times, to be important documents for illustrating the history, languages, and religions of the East. The little art displayed in the impression of these coins, is the reason why the earlier travellers through the East too often overlooked them. These coins are Some of gold (dinar), others of silver (dirhem), and others of brass (fuls). The silver coins, however, are the most frequent, and the discovery of large treasures of them on the shores of the Baltic has par- ticularly attracted to them the attention of learned men. Their form was borrowed by the Arabian Caliphs from that of the Byzantine and Chosroean silver and copper coins. They are to be considered as the earliest of this class of coins, now daily in- creasing. Agreeably to Adler's suggestion, who first accurately investigated these coins (Museum Cuſicum Borgianum), they are divided, according to the dynasties under which they were made, into twelve classes, in which, without any refer- ence to the country to which they belong, every- thing which ought to be connected with them is com- bined. In the countries around the Baltic, as well as in the central provinces of European Russia, the silver coins most frequently found are those of the caliphs, the Ommiades as well as the Abbassides; then those of the emirs of the Soffarides, the Buwai- hides, &c., but especially of the dynasty of the Sama- mides, which were struck between the middle of the seventh and the beginning of the eleventh centuries of the Christian era. Those of the tenth century are the most common. This fact has not been satisfac- torily explained. Amber, girls for the harem, as well as costly furs, which the Russians at that time brought for sale to the Wolga, according to Fosslan's ac- count of a journey at the beginning of the tenth cen- tury of the Christian era, appear to have been most frequently exchanged for them. Gold, in this com- merce, was used only in bars; and, in order to make payments, in their transactions, with greater facility, or in order to have a medium of exchange for things of little value, the coins were broken ; of which we have abundant evidence. By accurate investigations in the countries where this money is found, the dili- gence and learning of the orientalists, Adler, Reiske, Ol. Tychsen, Silv. de Sacy, Hallenberg, Malm- stroem, Rasmussen, Fraehn, Castiglioni (who has pub- lished a valuable work upon the Cufic coins of the imperial museum at Milan), Muenter and Th. Tych- sen, have succeeded in arranging a tolerably perfect series of the several dynasties. Th. Tychsen's treatise De Defectibus Rei Numaria Muhammedanor. (in the 5th volume of the Comment. Soc. Gott, recen- tior.), will enable the student to understand the de- ficiences of this science. Fraehn, of Petersburg, now counsellor of state (author of a commentary upon the cabinet of the Mohammedan coins in the Asiatic museum at Petersburg), has been reputed to be the CUIRASS—CULDEES. most thorough judge of this department, having had at his disposal the collections of the imperial acade- my, as well as those of private individuals, much ex- ceeding in richness any to be found elsewhere. In connexion with these coins are to be considered the small pieces of glass, which were introduced, particularly in Sicily, under the dominion of the Mo- hammedans, instead of money, or, perhaps, under the Sanction of public authority, obtained currency as standards of the weight of coins. Among Cufic coins, those are particularly sought for which bear images, because the forms represented upon them appear to be opposed to the precepts of the Koran. But their commerce with the Greeks may, at first, have made the engravers of the Mohammedan coins less strict; and, in the course of time, they ventured to give them figures agreeable to the peculiarities of the Oriental taste; in doing which they were aided by the armorial bearings (tamghas) of the prin- ces of the Turkish family. Finally, they marked them with Zodiacal and planetary figures, to which they attributed the power of amulets. (This reminds us of the renowned Nurmahal-rupees.) The ori- ginal use of these coins is made still more manifest from inscriptions in many languages; even Russian- Arabic coins are found in rich cabinets. Every day adds to our information in this department. Ol. Tychsen’s Introductio in Rem Numar. Muhammeda- zlor. (Rost., 1794), has, therefore, ceased to be com- plete. The abbé Reinaud, in the Journal Asiatique (1823), has communicated many excellent observa- tions concerning the study of Arabic coins. A work by him, concerning this branch of numismatics, with an historical explanation of the coins in the cabinet of the duke of Blacas, and in the royal French col- lections, had also appeared. CUIRASS ; an article of defensive armour, pro- tecting the body both before and behind. Meyrick, in his dissertation on ancient armour, has thus dis- tinguished the cuirasses of different nations:–1. Leathern, with a belt of the same material, worn by the Medes and Persians, before the reign of Cyrus the Great. which the fore-part covered the breast, the front of the thighs, and foreparts of the hands and legs; the posterior part, the back, neck, and whole of the head; both parts being united by fibulae on the sides: these belonged to the Parthian cavalry. 3. Scales made of horses’ hoofs, sewed together with the Sinews of oxen, were worn by the Sarmatians. 4. The ºrga, padded with wool, covered with flat rings or Square pieces of brass, fastened at the sides, and cut round at the loins; the £482%, or gorget; the £ogräg or girdle, to which was appended the @go, a kind of petticoat, belonged to the Homeric chiefs. 5. The Etruscans wore plain, scaled, laminated, ringed or quilted cuishes, with straps depending from them, either of leather solely, or plated with metal; and these straps, as well as the cuirasses, were adopted by the Romans, who termed them lorica. On the Trajan column, the lorica of the hastati and principes (the two first ranks) consist of several metal bands wrapped half round the body, and fastened before and behind, over a leathern or quilted tunic. Some- times the Roman cuirass was enriched with embossed figures. The lorica of the triarii (the third rank) were of leather only. Domitian, according to Mar- tial, adopted the Sarmatian cuirass, which he made of the hoofs of boars. The Roman cavalry of the early period did not wear lorica: ; but even before the cataphractes of Constantine (who wore flexible ar- mour of scales and plates and rings, held together by hooks and chains, the lorica hamata of Virgil— 4.0 icam consertam hamis auroque trilicem, Aen. iii. 467), we read of horsemen who were loricati. 2. Plumated or scaled lorica of steel, of 561 Among the moderns, the Anglo-Saxons wore leathern cuirasses (corietae), which, towards the end of the ninth century, were formed of hides fitted close to the body, and jagged or cut into the shape of leaves below. The leathern cuirass, covered with rings, was appropriated to the blood royal, or chiefs of high rank: it was borrowed from the Gauls, and j nzael, whence our coat of mail. The cuirass appears to have been disused in England in the time of Charles II., when bullet-proof silk was introduced. The lance having, of late years, again become an offensive weapon, the cuirass has been revived among the European cavalry. The finest part of Napoleon's cavalry were cuirassiers; and the weight of these heavily armed soldiers gave great momentum to their charge. The cuirass leaves many vulnerable parts exposed, but, as it protects almost all the trunk, it materially diminishes the chance of wounds, and gives confidence to the soldier. CUJAS, JAcQUEs, or CUJACIUS; son of Cujaus, a tanner in Toulouse; born in 1520. While yet a student of law under Armould Ferrier, he attracted attention by his industry and talents. After having delivered private lectures at Toulouse, he received an invitation to be professor of law at Cahors in 1554; but he had been there only a year, when Margaret de Valois invited him, through her chan- cellor l’Hopital, to Bourges, where he lectured till 1567. He then went to Valence, and gave great reputation to the university of that place by his in- Structions. On account of the civil commotions in France, he returned to Bourges in 1575, and remain- ed there, after a short stay at Paris, as teacher of the law, notwithstanding the most advantageous invita- tions to Bologna. Cujas owed his great reputation to his profound study of the original works on the Roman law, of which he had collected more than 500 manuscripts. The corrections which he made in ancient works on the law (to say nothing of a great many Greek and Latin works on other subjects) were remarkable for number and acuteness. In fact, he may be considered as the founder of Scientific jurisprudence. He made himself popular, also, by the interest which he took in the personal fortunes of his disciples, by his prudence in regard to the theological quarrels of his time (Nihil hoc ad edictum praioris was his maxim), and his faithful adherence to the cause of Henry IV. His grief for the afflictions of his country is said to have accele- rated his death (Oct. 4, 1590). He was in the habit of studying and writing lying on the ground. The booksellers at Lyons purchased his manuscripts for waste paper. The edition of his works, which he published himself in 1577, is correct, but incom- plete; that by Fabrot (Paris, 1658, 10 vols. folio) is complete. The Promptuarium Operum Iac, Cujacii, auctore Dom. Albunensi (Naples, 1763, 2 vols. folio), is of great assistance in the study of this collection. His children, by two marriages, acquired a sort of celebrity by their immorality. See Cujas and his Contemporaries, by E. Spangenberg. CULDEES; a religious order, which, at one period, had considerable establishments in almost every part of Great Britain and Ireland. The name is of uncertain etymology; some derive it from the Latin cultor Dei (a worshipper of God), while others think they discover its origin in the Gaelic kyldee (from cylle, a cell, and dee, a house), a building com- posed of cells. The history of the Culdees, has acquired a factitious importance in the quarrels of the Episcopalians and Presbyterians; the latter asserting that they were of very great antiquity, and were Presbyterians in their ecclesiastical policy; the former maintaining that neither of these positions is correct, that there is no mention of them in the 2 N Hi , 562 early British writers, but that they are first spoken, of subsequent to the year 854, and that they then appear in the attitude of maintaining their right to confirm the election of the bishops of the Several sees where they had establishments. Their origin is, by some, attributed to St Columba, in the middle of the sixth century. After having exercised a great influence throughout the country, they are said to have been overthrown by the increase of the papal power, and the institution of monasteries more con- genial to the aspiring views of the see of Rome. CULLEN, WILLIAM, a celebrated physician and medical writer, was born in the county of 'Lanark, in Scotland, in 1710. He was apprenticed to a surgeon and apothecary at Glasgow, after which he made some voyages to the West Indies as surgeon to a merchant vessel. He subsequently settled as a medical practitioner at Hamilton, where he formed a partnership with William Hunter, who afterwards became so distinguished. The object of their con- nexion was not so much pecuniary emolument as mutual convenience in the pursuit of their profession. In 1740, Cullen took the degree of M. D., and, settling at Glasgow, he was, in 1746, appointed lecturer on chemistry at the university there. In 1751, he was chosen regius professor of medicine. In 1756, he was invited to take the chemical profes- sorship in the university of Edinburgh. In 1760, he was made lecturer on the materia medica there, and subsequently resigned the chemical chair to his pupil, doctor Black. From 1766 to 1773, he gave, alternately with doctor Gregory, annial courses of lectures on the theory and practice of physic—an ar- rangement which continued till the death of doctor Gregory, in 1773, left his rival in complete posses- sion of the medical chair. As a lecturer on medi- cine, doctor Cullen exercised a great influence over the state of opinion relative to the mystery of that science. He successfully combated the specious doctrines of Boerhaave, depending on the humoral pathology; though he has not been equally success- ful in establishing his own system, which is founded on an enlarged view of the principles of Frederic Hoffmann. His death took place, Feb. 5, 1790. His principal works are lectures on the Materia Medica; Synopsis Nosologia Practica: ; and First Lines of the Practice of Physic, which must be con- sidered as his magnum opus, and which, amidst all the recent fluctuations of opinion on medical theory, has retained its value. See his Life by Dr Thom- son, 1832, 8vo. - CULLODEN MOOR ; a heath in Scotland, four miles east of Inverness. It is celebrated for a victory obtained in the year 1746, by the duke of Cumberland, over the partisans of the house of Stuart. The battle of Culloden was the last battle fought on British soil, and the termination of the attempts of the Stuart family to recover the throne of England. (See Edward, Charles, Great Britain, and James III.) The son of James III., Charles Edward, in his daring expedition in 1745, had con- tended, with various success, against the English, and, indeed, was at one time only about 100 miles from London, where terror and consternation pre- vailed. But, by a combination of unfavourable circumstances, he was compelled to retreat to Scot- land, where fortune again seemed to smile on him at the battle of Falkirk. But the duke of Cumber- land, marching against him, baffled the whole enterprise by the decisive victory of Culloden, April 27, (16th, O. S.,) 1746. Edward's army was defi- çient in subordination. Though his troops were faint with fatigue and hunger when the battle began, they fought with spirit. The impetuous bravery of the Highlanders, however, at length yielded to the CULLEN–CUMANA. well served artillery of the English. The victors massacred the wounded Highlanders on the field of battle. Charles Edward was exposed, in his flight, to a thousand dangers, but at length escaped. His followers suffered the vengeance of the victors. The most distinguished of them died on the scaffold, and the districts which had been the theatre of the rebellion were laid waste. The English government henceforward took measures to prevent the recur- rence of similar attempts. Finding that the attach- ment of the Highlanders to the old royal line arose principally from the peculiarity of their customs and mode of life, they resolved to abolish their institu- tions. Since that period, the primitive Highland manners and usages have been continually dwindling away and disappearing. CULM ; a village in Bohemia, three leagues east of the well known watering place of Teplitz, and near the frontier of Saxony; famous on account of the battle of Aug. 30, 1813, in which the French, under Vandamme, were beaten by the Prussians and Russians. Vandamme was taken prisoner, with three generals and 10,000 men. The battle was one of the bloodiest in the whole war. The allies had, a few days previous (Aug. 26), been repulsed by Napoleon in their attack on Dresden. On the 29th, a bloody battle took place between Vandamme and the allies, who defended the frontiers of Bohe- mia, to cover the retreat of the Russians. The night put an end to the battle. On the 30th, it was re- newed with fury, and ended with the victory of Culm. This victory was decisive ; for the allies were enabled to save Bohemia, on which Napoleon was pressing with all his might. A few days before (Aug. 26), on the same day with the battle at Dresden, the French had been beaten by Bluecher on the Katzbach; and from this time, the series of disasters is to be dated, which ended with the de- thronement of the French emperor. CULMINATION, in astronomy; the passing of a star through the meridian, because it has at that moment reached the highest point (culmen) of its path, with reference to the observer. Hence culmination is used, metaphorically, for the condition of any person or thing arrived at the most brilliant or important point of its progress. CUMA, CYME ; the largest and most important city of Æolis (Asia Minor), and, at the same time, one of the most ancient places on the AEgean sea. From this place the Cumaean Sibyl took her name. Hesiod was born here. According to Strabo, the inhabitants of Cuma were considered as somewhat deficient in talent. CUMAE, a very ancient city in Campania, and the oldest colony of the Greeks in Italy, was founded about 1030 B.C., by Chalcis of Euboea, and peopled by Asiatic Cumaeans and by Phocians. The com- mon belief of the inhabitants made it the residence of the Cumaean sibyl, though her home was really in Asia. (See the preceding article.) The Grotto of Truth was situated in the wood sacred to the goddess Trivia, and in its neighbourhood was the Acherusian lake. In this region Cicero had a country seat. Cumae had a considerable territory, and a naval force in her port, Puteoli. She founded Naples (Neapolis), and in Sicily, Zancle or Messina. In 420 B.C., Cumae was taken by the Campanians, and came with them under the power of Rome (345 B. C.). It was destroyed A. D. 1207. CUMANA ; a province of Colombia, bounded N. and E. by the Caribbean sea, S. by the Orinoco. In the western part, towards the coast, the soil is tolerably fertile. The eastern part is dry and sandy, affording nothing but an inexhaustable mine of marine and mineral Salt. On the Oronoco, the CUMANA–CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS. country is fit only for the pasturage; other parts are exceedingly fertile. In the interior is a range of mountains, of which Tumeriquisi, the most elevated, is 5900 feet high. CUMANA, or NEW CORDOVA ; a town of Colombia, and capital of a province of the same name ; lon. 64° 10' W. ; lat. 100 28' N. ; popula- tion, estimated by Humboldt at 18 or 19,000; by Depoms, at 24,000. It is situated near the mouth of the gulf of Cariaco, about a mile from the sea, on an arid, Sandy plain. The climate is hot, earthquakes are frequent, and the houses low and lightly built. On the 14th Dec., 1797, more than three-fourths of them were destroyed by an earthquake. The in- habitants carry on a considerable trade in cocoa, and other productions of the country. The road is commodious for its depth, and of a semicircular form, which defends it from the violence of the winds. CUMBERLAND ; the extreme north-western county of England. It is bounded on the north by the Solway Firth, the Roman wall, and the river Liddel; on the west by the Irish sea; on the South by Westmoreland and Lancashire, and on the east by Northumberland and JDurham. Before this island was conquered by the Romans, Cumberland was probably occupied by the Caledonians; and Richard of Cirencester states that it formed a part of the territories of a British tribe called the Sistuntii. Under the Roman government it belonged to the province of Maxima Caesariensis; and subsequently it was included in the kingdom of Cumbria, which seems to have been the hereditary domain of the renowned king Arthur. The inhabitants maintained their independence after the other parts of England had been conquered by the Saxons; but they were at length obliged to submit to the yoke, and the county was made a part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. At an early period the kings of Scotland acquired some kind of feudal authority over this county, which was the subject of fre- quent disputes between the English and Scottish sovereigns, but it ultimately remained in pos- Session of the former; and it thus became exposed to the perpetual inroads of the Scots, and was the principal scene of border warfare, which had a con- siderable effect on the character and manners of the inhabitants. The union of the two kingdoms under James I. removed the causes of national animosity, and since that time those habits of rapine and violence, for which the borderers were distinguished, have been exchanged for more peaceful pursuits, and commerce, literature, and the arts, flourish in districts formerly desolated by continual warfare. There is great variety of surface in different parts of the county. Two ranges of lofty mountains may be traced, one towards the north, to which belongs the ridge called Crossfell; and the other to the south-west, of which the highest peak is Skiddaw, 3166 feet above the level of the sea. Between these grand heights are many hills of various eleva- tion, intersected by valleys, some of which are fertilized by brooks and rivers. Among the most important of the latter are the Eden, Eamont, Duddon, Therwent, Greata, Cocker, Calder, Esk, Liddel, and Irthing. There are also several lakes, the largest of which are the Ullswater, Derwent- Water, Bassenthwaitewater, Overwater, Lowes- water, Crummockwater, Buttermere, Ennerdale- Water, Wastwater, and Devockwater; and there are likewise some smaller pieces of water provin- Cially called tarns. The mountains of Cumberland are rich in mineral products. Plumbago, or black- lead, is almost exclusively procured from a mine in this county; and it also furnishes abundance of lead, coal, and limestone, all which are largely jointly by the Presbyterians and Episcopalians. 563 exported ; with blue slate, chiefly used in the county. The principal lead mines are on the Derwentwater estate belonging to Greenwich hospital. Here are copper mines, but they are scarcely wrought at present. Iron, cobalt, anti- mony, manganese, and gypsum, are also found here. The mountainous regions, termed fells, are, in general, externally rocky and barren ; but the lower eminences are covered with herbage furnishing food for sheep, and the low grounds are well watered and fruitful. Cranberries grow abundantly in some parts of the county. Salmon is caught in the rivers; and that delicate fish, the char, is said to be found nowhere but in the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland. A small stream, called the Irt, which falls into the sea, a little to the north of Ravenglass, it is said, affords muscles in which pearls have been discovered. The climate, in general, is cold, but dry and healthy. The scenery of the loftier mountains is bold, abrupt, and precipitous; whilst that part of the county which is included in the district of the lakes, displays scenes, the picturesque beauties of which have often been described both in poetry and prose. Among the principal remains of antiquity in this county are stone circles and other monuments, supposed to be Druidical; and the rampart called the Picts’ Wall, which extended from Solway Firth, in the north-western part of Cumberland, to the mouth of the Tyne in Northumberland, and which was built by order of the Roman emperor Severus, about A. D. 208. The five wards, or primary divi- Sions of the county, are Allerdale above Derwent, Allerdale below Derwent, Cumberland ward, Esk- dale, and Leath ward; the only city is Carlisle, and the only borough, Cockermouth : the sea ports are, Whitehaven, Workington, Maryport, and Harring- ton; and the market towns are Penrith, Langtown, Allanby, Ireby, Keswick, Egremont, Ravenglass, Brampton, St Bees, Millom, Holm Cultram, and Kirk Oswald. Cumberland, by the reform bill, returns four members to parliament. Population in 1831, 169,681. CUMBERLAND ; a post-town, and capital of Alleghany county, Maryland, on the Potomac, at the junction of Will's creek, seventy miles W. Hagerston, 130 E. S. E. Wheeling, 150 W. by N. Baltimore. It is a considerable town, and contains a court-house, a jail, a market-house, a bank, and four houses of public worship—one for Lutherans, one for Roman Catholics, one for Methodists, and one built The mountains in the vicinity abound in stone-coal, great quantities of which are transported down the Poto- mac in flat and keel boats. The Cumberland or Great Western road extends from this town to the banks of the Ohio at Wheeling. It was made by the government of the United States, at the expense of 26405,000; and a survey has been taken thence to the Mississippi, 600 miles farther. CUMBERLAND ; a river which rises in the Cumberland mountains, Virginia, and runs through Kentucky and Tennessee into the Ohio, sixty miles from the Mississippi. It is navigable for steam boats to Nashville, near 200 miles, and for boats of 15 tons, 300 miles farther. At certain seasons, vessels of 400 tons may descend 400 miles, to the Ohio. CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS, in Tennessee. The range commences in the S. W. part of Pennsyl- vania, and, in Virginia, it takes the name of Laurel mountain, passes through the S.E. part of Kentucky, and terminates in Tennessee, 80 miles S. E. Nash- ville. A considerable portion of this mountain in Tennessee is composed of stupendous piles of craggy rocks. It is thinly covered with trees, and has springs impregnated with alum. Lime-stone is found on both sides of it. 2 N 2 564 CUMBERLAND, duke of; second son of George II. of England; born in 1721, and died October 30, 1765. At the battle of Dettingen, he was wounded, when fighting at the side of his father. At Fontenoy, he was compelled to yield to the Superior experience of marshal Saxe ; but rose in reputation by subduing the insurrection in Scotland, caused by the landing of Charles Edward Stuart (see Culloden and Edward), 1745; which, however, was more in consequence of the discord and irresolution prevailing in the camp of his brave antagonists, than from any distinguished talent ..º. by him. Charles Edward, when only two days’ march from London, commenced his retreat into Scotland from Carlisle (January, 1746), and was completely defeated (April, 1746), at Cullo- den. The duke obscured his fame by the cruel abuse which he made, or suffered his soldiers to make, of the victory; which was the more dishonourable, as the followers of the pretender, on their march through the Scottish lowlands, and in England, had evinced great forbearance. In 1747, Cumberland was de- feated by marshal Saxe, at Lafeld. In 1757, he lost the battle of Hastenbeck, against D’Estrées, and, September 8, concluded the convention at Closter- Seven, upon which he was recalled, and Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, received the command of the allied army. CUMBERLAND, RICHARD, a dramatic and mis- cellaneous writer, Son of the reverend Denison Cum- berland, bishop of Clonfert, by the daughter of doctor Bentley, was born in the master's lodge, in Trinity college, Cambridge, February 19, 1732. He received his early education at Westminster, and in his four- teenth year, was admitted of Trinity college, where he studied very closely, and obtained his bachelor's degree at the age of eighteen, and soon after was elected fellow. He became private secretary to lord Halifax, and made his first offering to the press in a small poem, entitled an Elegy written on St Mark’s Eve, which obtained but little notice. His tragedy entitled the Banishment of Cicero, was jºi by Garrick, and printed by the author in 1761. In 1769, he was married, and, his patron being made lord lieutenant of Ireland, he accompanied him to that kingdom. When lord Halifax became secretary of state, he procured nothing better for Cumberland than the clerkship of reports in the office of trade and plantations. In the course of the next two or three years, he wrote an opera, entitled the Sum- mer's Tale, and his comedy of the Brothers. His West Indian, which was brought out by Garrick in 1771, proved eminently successful. The Fashionable Lover not obtaining the success of the West Indian, he exhibited that soreness of character which exposed him to the satire of Sheridan, in his sketch of Sir Fretful Plagiary, and which induced Garrick to call him the man without a skin. The Choleric Man, the Note of Hand, and the Battle of Hastings, were his next productions. On the accession of lord George Germaine to office, he was made Secretary to the board of trade. In 1780, he was employed on a con- fidential mission to the courts of Lisbon and Madrid, which, owing to some dissatisfaction on the part of the ministry, involved him in great distress, as they withheld the reimbursement of his expenses to the amount of £5000, which rendered it necessary for him to dispose of the whole of his hereditary pro- perty. To add to his misfortune, the board of trade was broken up, and he retired with a very inadequate pension, and devoted himself entirely to literature. The first works which he published, after his return from Spain, were his entertaining Anecdotes of Spa- mish Painters, and the most distinguished of his col- lection of essays, entitled the Observer. To these may be added the novels of Arundel, Henry and CUMBERLAND–CUMNOR. John de Lancaster, the poem of Calvary, the Exodiad (in conjunction with Sir James Bland Burgess), and, lastly, a poem called Retrospection, and the Memoirs of his own Life. He also edited the London Re- view, in which the critics gave their names, and which soon expired. His latter days were chiefly spent in London, where he died, May 7, 1811. The comic drama was his forte; and, although he wrote much, even of comedy, that was very indifferent, the merit of the West Indian, the Fashionable Lover, the Jew, and the Wheel of Fortune, is of no common description. His Observer, since his acknowledg- ment of his obligations to doctor Bentley's manu- Scripts, no longer supports his reputation as a Greek Critic; and as a poet, he was never more than a versifier. CUMBERNAULD, a parish of Scotland, forming the eastern limit of Dumbartonshire, seven miles in length, and four in breadth. It abounds in coal, lime, and freestone. The village of Cumbernauld is situated thirteen miles east of Glasgow, and is nearly surrounded by the pleasure grounds of Cumbernauld House, the seat of admiral Fleming. Population of the parish in 1831, 3080. CUMBRAY, THE GREATER AND LEssBR, two islands lying in the firth of Clyde, betwixt the isle of Bute and Ayrshire, and belonging to the county of Bute. The Greater Cumbray is two and a half miles in length, and one and a half in breadth. Most of it is under cultivation. The only town upon it is Milnport, a thriving little place, with a good harbour. The Lesser Cumbray is about a mile in length, by half a mile in breadth. A lighthouse is erected on the western side of it, in lat. 52°43'; long. 40 57' W. Its light is stationary. Population of the Greater Cumbray in 1831, 877; of the Lesser, 17. CUMMAZEE, or COOMASSIE ; a town of Africa, capital of Ashantee; 120 miles N. N. W. Cape Coast Castle; lon. 20 6' W.; lat 6° 30' N. ; population estimated by Mr Bowdich, in 1818, at 15,000; stated by the inhabitants at 100,000. It is situated in a vale, surrounded by an unbroken mass of the deepest verdure. Four of the principal streets are half a mile long, and from 50 to 100 yards broad. The houses are low and small, of a square or oblong form, composed of canes wattled together, and plastered with clay and sand. The town has considerable trade. The king's harem is said to contain 3333 women CUMNOCK, a district of Ayrshire, which an- ciently composed one parish, but was divided into two, in 1650, under the names of Old and New Cum- nock. The parish of Old Cumnock is about ten miles in length, by two in breadth, and is generally well cultivated. The town of Old Cumnock is situated on the Lugar water, about fifteen miles east from Ayr. It is celebrated for the manufacture of wooden Snuff-boxes, in which the hinges are so constructed as to be nearly invisible. Many of these boxes are exported to the continent. The parish of New Cum- nock forms the eastern boundary of that of Old Cumnock, and is twelve miles in length by eight in breadth. It is mostly hilly, and appropriated to pas- ture. The Nith has its source here, besides which river and the Afton, several small lakes water the lower ground. Coal and limestone, and a mine of lead ore are worked within the parish. The village of New Cumnock is small, and used to be distin- guished by the remains of an ancient castle, now removed. Population of the parish of Old Cumnock in 1831, 2763; of New Cumnock, 2184. CUMNOR, a parish of England, in Berks. Popu- lation in 1831, 1364. In a large monastic building, called Cumnor Place, Amy Robsart, wife of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, and favourite of Queen CUNDINAMARCA–CUPICA. Elizabeth, was cruelly murdered, as it is presumed with the commivance of her husband, on which fatal event Sir Walter Scott has founded his tale of Kenil- worth. This mansion was formerly the seat of the abbots of Abingdon, by whom it is supposed to have been built. The parishioners, who pay tithes, have a custom of repairing to the vicarage immediately after the conclusion of prayers on the afternoon of Christmas-day, where they are entertained with bread and cheese and ale. They claim on this occasion two bushels of wheat made into bread, half a hundred weight of cheese, and four bushels of malt brewed into ale and small beer. The fragments are distri- buted among the poor on the following day, CUNDINAMARCA ; the northern part of New Grenada. Colombia, and comprehends the provinces of Bo- gota, Antioquia, Mariquita, and Neiva, with 371,000 inhabitants. The chief place is Santa Fe de Bo- Ota. CUNERSDORF; a village near Frankfort on the Oder, known on account of the bloody battle in which Frederic the Great was defeated, Aug. 12, 1759. It is only about fifty miles distant from Berlin, his capi- tal. Opposed to him were the Russians under Solti- koff, and the Austrians under Laudon. Victory seemed, at first, likely to declare in favour of Fre- deric, but eventually, he lost all his artillery and 20,000 men. (See Seven Years' War.) The king at first gave up all hope, but soon recovered his spirits, when Soltikoff, with inconceivable tardiness, neglected to follow up his victory. ČUNNINGHAM, the northern district of Ayr- shire, and the most fertile, in which are situated several populous towns and villages, such as Irvine, kilwinning, Saltcoats, Ardrossan, Dalry, Beith, Hargs, &c. (q.v.) CUNNINGHAM, ALEXANDER, an historian of Bri- tain, was born in the year 1654, in the county of Sel- kirk, and parish of Ettrick, of which his father was minister. Having acquired the elementary branches of learning at home, he, according to the prevailing custom among Scottish gentlemen of that period, proceeded to Holland to finish his education, and it is believed that it was there that he made those friends, among the English refugees at the Hague, who after- wards contributed so powerfully to the advancement of his fortunes. He came over to England with the prince of Orange in 1688, and was honoured with the intimacy of the leading men by whom the revolution was accomplished, more especially with that of the earls of Sunderland and Argyle. After his return to Britain he was employed as tutor and travelling companion to the Earl of Hyndford, and also to that nobleman's brother, the honourable Mr William Car- michael, who was solicitor-general of Scotland in the reign of queen Anne. Mr Cunningham was after- wards travelling companion to Lord Lorne, better known under the title of John the great Duke of Ar- gyle. Through the interest and friendship of Argyle and Sunderland, and of Sir Robert Walpole, Mr Cun- mingham, on the accession of George I., was sent as British envoy to the republic of Venice, where he re- mained from the year 1715 to 1720. His despatches from Venice have been collected and arranged by Mr Astle. For many years after Mr Cunningham's re- turn from Italy, he passed his life in studious retirement in London. He died in 1737. His history of Britain, which was originally written in Latin, but afterwards translated into English by Dr William Thomson, was first published in 1787, many years after his death, in two vols. 4to. Britain from the revolution of 1688 to the accession of George I...; and being written by a man who was not only well versed but deeply concerned in many It forms a department of the republic of This work embraces the history of 565 of the political events of the period, and who was intimately acquainted with most of the leading men of the age, it is a production of great historical importance. His work abounds in just observa- tions on the political events of the times, and his facts are related with much perspicuity, and Occa- sionally with great animation. A coincidence of name has led to the confounding of this historian with Alexander Cummingham, the celebrated editor and emendator of Horace, and the antagonist of Bentley; the latter was a native of Ayrshire, and died at the Hague, in 1730. CUPAR, the name of a parish and town in Fife- shire, the former extending about five miles each way. The town of Cupar is capital of the county, and finely situated on the river Eden, at the distance of ten miles west from St Andrews. Though of high antiquity, its appearance is that of a modern thriving town, being well built, paved, and lighted, and con- taining several elegant public edifices. Its chief trade consists in the manufacture of linen, leather, and ropes, and the making of bricks. It has a public library, a weekly newspaper, and a printing establish- ment, from which have issued some excellent editions of the classics. The knights templars had great possessions here; and at the foot of Castle Hill, there was a convent of Dominican friars, with an elegant chapel, founded by the Macduffs ; near which is a place, termed the Play-field, where theatrical pieces, called mysteries, were formerly exhibited. Carslogie House is very ancient, and was originally a place of great strength; and Garlie Bank is celebrated for the treaty concluded there in 1559, between the partizans of the Queen Regent and those of the con- gregation. Population of town and parish in 1831, 6473. CUPAR-ANGUS, a parish and town, both situated partly in Perthshire and partly in Angus-shire, and the former extending about five miles in length and from one to two in breadth. The town stands on the banks of the river Isla, at a distance of about twelve and a half miles east by north of Perth. It is neatly built, and contains an excellent coffee-room and public library. Its trade consists chiefly in the manufacture of linen and tanning of leather. Popu- lation in 1831, 2615. CUPEL; a shallow earthen vessel, somewhat re- sembling a cup, from which it derives its name. It is formed of bone-ashes, and is extremely porous. It is used in assays, to separate the precious metals from their alloys. The process of cupellation con- sists in fusing an alloy of a precious metal, along with a quantity of lead, in a cupel. The lead is extremely susceptible of oxidation, and, at the same time, it promotes the oxidation of other metals, and vitrifies with their oxides. The foreign vessels are thus removed ; the vitrified matter is absorbed by the cupel, or is driven off by the blast of the bellows, as it collects on the surface; and the precious metal at length remains nearly pure. CUPELLATION. See Cupel. CUPICA; a seaport and bay of Colombia, on the S. E. side of Panama, following the coast of the Pa- cific ocean, from cape St Miguel to cape Corrientes. This is thought by Humboldt the most favourable point for connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by a canal. From the bay of Cupica, there is a pas- sage of only fifteen or eighteen miles, over a country quite level, and suited to a canal, to the head of the navigation of the river Naipi, a branch of the river Atrato, which flows into the Atlantic. Gogueneche, a Biscayan pilot, is said to have first pointed out this spot as almost the only place where the chain of the Andes is completely interrupted, and a Canal thus made practicable. 566 CUPID ; a celebrated deity among the ancients; the god of love, and love itself. There are different traditions concerning his parents. Cicero mentions three Cupids; one, son of Mercury and Diana; another, son of Mercury and Venus; and the third, son of Mars and Venus. Plato mentions two. Hesiod, the most ancient theogonist, speaks only of one, who, as he says, was produced at the same time as Chaos and the Earth. There are, according to the more received opinions, two Cupids, one of whom is a lively, ingenious youth, Son of Jupiter and Venus, whilst the other, son of Nox and Erebus, is distinguished by his debauchery and riotous disposi- tion. Cupid is represented as a winged infant, naked, armed with a bow, and a quiver full of arrows. On gems and all other antiques, he is represented as amusing himself with some childish diversion. Some- times he appears driving a hoop, throwing a quoit, playing with a nymph, catching a butterfly, or with a lighted torch in his hand. . At other times, he plays upon a horn before his mother, or closely embraces a swan, or, with one foot raised in the air, he, in a musing posture, seems to meditate sometrick. Some- times, like a conqueror, he marches triumphantly, with a helmet on his head, a spear on his shoulder, and a buckler on his arm, intimating that even Mars himself owns the superiority of love. His power was generally shown by his riding on the back of a lion, or on a dolphin, or breaking to pieces the thun- derbolts of Jupiter. Among the ancients, he was worshipped with the same solemnity as his mother, Venus, and his influence was extended over the heavens, the sea, and the earth, and even the empire of the dead. His divinity was universally acknow- ledged, and vows, prayers, and sacrifices were daily offered to him. According to some accounts, the union of Cupid with Chaos gave birth to men, and all the animals which inhabit the earth; and even the gods themselves were the offspring of love, be- fore the foundation of the world. See Amor. CUPOLA (Ital.), in architecture; a hemispheri- cal roof, often used as the summit of a building. The Italian word cupola signifies a hemispherical roof, which covers a circular building, like the Pantheon at Rome, and the round temple at Tivoli. Many of the ancient Roman temples were circular; and the most natural form of a roof for such a building was that of a half globe, or a cup reversed. The invention, or at least the first use, of the cupola be- longs to the Romans; and it has never been used with greater effect than by them. The greater part of modern cupolas (unlike those of the ancients, which are mostly hemispherical) are semi-elliptical, cut through their shortest diameter. The ancients sel- dom had any other opening than a large circle in the centre, called the eye of the cupola ; while the mo- derms elevate lanterns on their top, and perforate them with luthern and dormant windows, and other disfigurements. The ancients constructed their cupo- las of stone; the moderns, of timber, covered with lead or copper. Of cupolas, the finest, without any comparison, ancient, or modern, is that of the Ro- tundo or Pantheon at Rome. Of modern construc- tions, some of the handsomest are the cupola on the bank of England, that of St Peter's at Rome, those of St Paul’s, London, the Hotel des Invalides, and the church of St Genevieve at Paris, Santa Maria da Fiori at Florence, and St Sophia at Constantinople. CURACAO ; an island in the Caribbean sea, about 75 miles from the continent of South America, belonging to the Netherlands; 30 miles long, and 10 broad; producing Sugar and tobacco, also large and small cattle; but not generally fertile. It has Several good ports, particularly one on the southern coast, called St. Barbara, where a great trade was CUPID—CURDS. formerly carried on by the Dutch in African slaves. Lon. 690 26' W. ; lat. 12° N. ; population, 8500. The principal towns are Curagao and Williamstadt. The city of Curagao is well situated, and elegantly built. It is full of store-houses, and provided with every species of merchandise. Williamstadt is con- sidered the capital. CURASSOA ORANGES (aurantia curassaventia), or small oranges fallen from the tree long before their maturity, have properties similar to those of the orange peel: they are, however, more bitter and acrid. They are used in the United States and in England for the same purposes as the orange peel, and also as issue peas. CURDS ; a wandering people, divided into many tribes, and dwelling in the country which lies between the foot of mount Caucasus and the Black Sea, and stretches to the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates. Their incursions into the Russian terri- tories have been checked by the troops on the frontier, and they have preferred to leave Persia rather than to become settled and tributary to the shah. They are Mohammedans, but neither of the Turkish nor Persian sect. The most unprincipled part of the Curds are the Yezides, who esteem the plunder of caravans, murder, theft, and incest lawful. There are no Armenian Christians among this people, who, in spite of the repeated demands of the pacha, have never paid to the Porte either poll-tax or taxes on their property (miri). They, however, sometimes propose to the Porte the persons whom they wish as pachas and beys, and the Porte has never failed to comply with their request. It is said that the Curds are descended from the Usbeck Tartars or from the Mongols; but their external appearance is very unlike that of the Tartars. The Curds wear a cloak of black goatskin, and, instead of a turban, a high, red cap. The Turkish dress is never worn, because they consider that it would mark them as vassals of the Sultan. The young men wear mustachios ; the old men suffer their beards to grow. The Curd is a good rider, and uses his lance with skill. He is fond of music, and sings in ballads the exploits of his nation. There are some of this people settled in the plains of Armenia, but no branch acknowledges itself tributary to the Porte. If the winter among the high- lands proves too cold for the wild mountain Curd, he descends to these plains, and lives in low tents of dark, coarse limen. An enclosure made of reeds, near his tent, surrounds the place where he keeps his cat- tle, which he has brought from the mountains. This people, who live by Fº respect the rights of hospitality, and usually make their guest some present when he departs. The patriarchal authority of parents is very great. A son never marries without their consent. Although otherwise so deficient in moral principle, they believe that no one can refuse the request of an unfortunate mark without being punished by God. . Mithridates, king of Pontus, took advantage of this belief to supply the losses of his army in his wars with the Romans. The more wonderful the escapes of the unfortunate individual, the more confident are they that he will experience a change of fortune. On this account, these mountains are the refuge of the enemies of the Turkish pachas; and they often return from them more formidable than they were before. Pot- tage, milk, and honey form the principal food of the Curds. They drive annually to Constantinople alone 1,500,000 sheep, and goats in flocks of 1500–2000, the shepherds being from fifteen to eighteen months On the road, in going and returning. - Northern Curdistan produces grain, Sulphur, and alum; the southern and warmer parts of the country produce corn, rice, sesamum, fruits, cotton, tobacco, CURETES–CURLEW. honey, wax, manma, and gall-nuts, exported by the way of Smyrna. Curdistan has sangiacks at Bayazid, Mouch, Van, Julamerk, Amadia, Suleihmanieh, Kara-Djiolan, and Zahou. Of all these Sangiacks, the Porte appoints only that of Van. Each Sangiack governs a number of the tribes of his nation, who obey his commands in war, but are wholly indepen- dent of him in time of peace. The Christians, who constitute the principal population of the plains of Armenia, suffer every year from the incursions of the Curds, and, the Porte being unable to protect them, they are compelled continually to remove farther to the South, where they are also liable to be plundered by the Bedouins or Wechabites. Their only hope is in the increasing power of the Russian army on the Turkish, Curdish, and Persian frontiers, and in the expectation that the Russians will at last put an end to the robberies of the Turks and the oppression of the pachas. CURETES. See Corybantes. CURIA, PAPAL, is a collective appellation of all the authorities in Rome, which exercise all the rights and privileges the pope enjoys as first bishop, superintendent, and pastor of Roman Catholic Chris- tendom. The right to grant or confirm ecclesiastical appointments is exercised by the dataria. This body receives petitions, draws up answers, and collects the revenues of the pope for the pallia, spolia, benefices, &nmates, &c. It is a lucrative branch of the papal go- vernment, and part of the receipts go to the apostolic chamber. There is more difficulty attending the pusiness of the rota, the high court of appeal. In former times, the cardinal grand penitentiary, as president of the penitenzieria, had a very great in- fluence. He issues all dispensations and absolutions in respect to vows, penances, fasts, &c., in regard to Which the pope has reserved to himself the dispensing power; also with respect to marriages within the degrees prohibited to Catholics. Besides these au- thorities, whose powers extend over all Catholic Christendom, there are, in Rome, several others, occupied only with the government of the Roman state ; as the sagra consulta, the chief criminal court, in which the cardinal secretary of state presides; the signatura di giustizia, a court for civil cases, consist- ing of twelve prelates, over which the cardinal-prov- weditore, or minister of justice of the pope, presides, and with which the signatura di grazia concurs; the apostolic chamber, in which twelve prelates are em- ployed, under the cardinale camerlingo, administering the property of the church and the papal domains, and receiving the revenue which belongs to the pope as temporal and spiritual sovereign of the Roman state; also that which he derives from other countries that stand immediately under him, and are his fiefs. Be- sides these, there is a number of governors, prefects, procuratori, &c., in the different branches of the administration. The drawing up of bulls, answers, and decrees, which are issued by the pope himself, or by these authorities, is done by the papal chancery, consisting of a vice-chancellor and twelve abbrevia- tori, assisted by several hundred secretaries; the breves only are excepted, and are drawn up by a particular cardinal. All these offices are filled by clergymen; and many of them are so lucrative, that considerable sums are paid for them, somewhat in the Same manner as commissions are purchased in the British army. At the death of Sixtus V. there ex- isted 4000 venal offices of this kind; but this number has since been diminished, and many abuses have been abolished. The highest council of the pope, corresponding, in Some , measure, to the privy council of a mon- arch, is the college of the cardinals convened when- ºver the pope thinks fit. The sessions of this senate, 567 which presides over all the other authorities in Rome, are called consistories. They are of different kinds. The secret consistory is held, generally, twice a- month, after the pope has given private audience to every cardinal. In these sessions, bishops are elected, pallia granted, ecclesiastical and political affairs of importance transacted, and resolutions adopted on the reports of the congregations delegated by the consistory : beatifications and canonizations also Originate in this body. Different from the secret consistories are the semi-secret ones, whose deli- berations relate principally to political affairs, and the results of them are communicated to the ambas- Sadors of foreign powers. The public consistories are seldom held, and are, principally, ceremonial assem blies: in these the pope receives ambassadors, and makes known important resolutions, canonizations, establishments of orders, &c. According to rule, all Cardinals residing in Rome should take part in the consistories; but, in point of fact, no one appears without being especially summoned by the pope. The pope, if able to do so, always presides in person, and the cardinal secretary of state (who is minister of the interior and of foreign affairs) is always present, as are likewise the cardinals presidents of the au- thorities. At present, there are twenty-two congre- gations of cardinals at Rome: 1. the holy Roman and general inquisition, or holy office (santo officio); 2. visita apostolica ; 3. consistoriale; 4. vescovi regolari; 5. de concilio (Tridentino); 6. residenza divescovi ; 7. immunita ecclesiastica ; 8. propaganda ; 9. indici (of prohibited books); 10. Sagri rità (of the holy rites); 11. ceremoniale; 12. disciplina 'regolare (orders of monks); 13, indulgemze e sagre reliquie ; 14. esame de: vescow; ; 15. correzioni dei libri della chiesa Orient. ale; 16. fabbrica di S. Pietro (who have charge of the repairs of St Peter's); 17. consulta; 18. Bºton- governo; 19. Loretto ; 20. hydraulic works and the Pontine marshes; 21. economica ; 22. extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs. Few, however, of these con- gregations, are fully supplied with officers. CURIAE ; certain divisions of the Roman people, which Romulus is said to have established. Accord- ing to Liv. i. 13, he divided Rome into 30 curiæ, and assigned to each a separate place, where they might celebrate their feasts, under their particular priest (curio). At the comitia, the people assembled in curiae, to vote on important matters. The whole Roman people were divided by Romulus (Dionys. Halic. ii. c. 62) into three tribes, each tribe into 10 curiae, each curia into 10 decuriae. To vote curiatim, therefore, is to vote by curiae. The division into curiae was founded on locality, and therefore contradistin guished from the division according to tribes (a num ber of families of the same descent). Niebuhr, in his Roman History, treats this subject with uncommon erudition and perspicuity in vol. i., chapter The Patri- cian Houses and the Curiae.—Curia also signified a public building ; as, curia municipalis, &c. CURIATII. See Horaţă. CURIUS DENTATUS, MARCUs ANNIUs ; an il- lustrious Roman, who was three times consul, and twice obtained the honours of a triumph. He vanquished the Samnites, Sabines, and Lucanians, and defeated Pyrrhus, near Tarentum, B. C. 272. When the de- puties of the Samnites appeared before him for the purpose of º a peace, they found him on his farm boiling vegetables in an earthen pot. They at tempted to purchase his favour by offering him ves- sels of gold, but the noble Roman disdainfully refused their offers. “I prefer,” said he, “my earthen pots to your vases of gold. I have no desire for wealth, and am satisfied to live in poverty, and rule over the rich.” CURLEW (numenius, Briss.) ; a genus of birds belonging to the order grallaº, or waders, and family 568 Jimicolae, whose most remarkabre characteristic is, that the bill is wholly or partially covered by a soft, Sensitive skin, which enables them to obtain their food from the mud with facility, though unable to dis- cover it by sight. The genus is characterized by a very long, slender, almost cylindrical, compressed, and arcuated bill, having the upper mandible longer than the lower, furrowed for three-fourths of its length, and dilated and rounded towards the tip. The mostrils are situated in the furrow, at the base, and are lateral, longitudinal, and oblong. The tongue is very short and acute. The feet are rather long, slender, and four-toed ; the tarsus is one half longer than the mid- dle toe. The fore toes are connected, at the base, by a short membrane, to the first joint. The nails are compressed, curved, acute, and the cutting edge of the middle one is entire. The first primary is the longest ; the tail, which is somewhat rounded, consists of twelve feathers. The plumage of the curlew is generally dull, being grayish-brown, rusty-white, and blackish, in both sexes, which are similar in size. The young bird also differs very little from the parents, except that the bill is much shorter and straighter, Their favourite resorts are marshy and muddy places, in the vicinity of water, over which they run with great quickness. They feed on various worms, Small fishes, insects, and molluscous animals, and are very shy, wary, and vigilant of the approach of man. They are monogamous, and pass most of their time separate from the rest of their species. Their nests are built on tufts or tussocks in the marshes, and during incuba- tion, both parents assiduously devote themselves to their charge. The eggs are usually four, being much larger at one end than the other, or pyriform in shape. The young, as soon as hatched, leave the nest to seek their own subsistence. At the period of migration, the curlews unite to form large flocks, and their flight is high, rapid, and protracted. They utter a loud, whistling note, easily recognized when once heard, but not easy to be characterized by description. Three species of curlew are inhabitants of America— the long-billed curlew (N. longirostris, Wills.), the Esquimaux curlew (N. Hudsonicus, Lath.) and the boreal curlew (N. borealis, Lath.). CURRAN, John PHILPOT, a celebrated Irish ad- vocate, was born at Newmarket, near Cork, in 1750. He was educated at Trinity college, Dublin, after which he repaired to London, and studied at one of the inns of court. In due time, he was called to the bar; shortly after which he married Miss O'Dell, an Irish lady of a very respectable family. By the in- fluence of his talents, he gradually rose to great re- putation; and, during the administration of the duke of Portland, he obtained a silk gown. In 1784, he was chosen a member of the Irish house of commons. His abilities now displayed themselves to advantage, and he became the most popular advocate of his age and country. During the distracted state of Ireland, towards the close of the last century, it was often his lot to defend persons accused of political offences, when Mr Fitzgibbon (afterwards lord Clare), then attorney-general, was his opponent. The profes- sional rivalry of these gentlemen degenerated into personal rancour, which at length occasioned a duel, the result of which was not fatal to either party. On a change of ministry during the vice-royalty of the duke of Bedford, Mr Curran's patriotism was re- warded with the office of master of the rolls. This situation he held till 1814, when he resigned it, and obtained a pension of £3000 a-year. With this he retired to England, and resided chiefly in the neigh- bourhood of London. He died in consequence of a paralytic attack, at Brompton, Nov. 13, 1817, at the age of sixty-seven. Curran possessed talents of the highest order: his CURRAN–CURRANTS. wit, his drollery, his eloquence, his pathos, were ir- resistible; and the splendid and daring style of his oratory formed a striking contrast with his personal appearance, which was mean and diminutive. As a companion, he could be extremely agreeable; and his conversation was often highly fascinating. In his domestic relations, he was very unfortunate; and he seems to have laid himself open to censure. The infidelity of his wife, which was established by a legal verdict, is said to have been a subject on which he chose to display his wit, in a manner that betrayed a strange insensibility to one of the sharpest miseries which a man can suffer. Mr Curran appears never to have committed anything to the press, but he is said to have produced some poetical pieces of con- siderable merit. A collection of his forensic speeches was published 1805 (1 vol. 8vo.). Memoirs of his life have been published by his son, by Mr Charles Phillips, and by Mr O’Regan. CURRANTS. Red currants, black currants, and gooseberries are the fruit of well known shrubs, which are cultivated in gardens, and which also grow wild, in woods or thickets, in various parts of Europe and America. The utility of all these fruits in do- mestic economy has long been established. The juice of the red species, if boiled with an equal weight of loaf sugar, forms an agreeable substance, called currant jelly, which is much employed in Sauces and for other culinary purposes, and also in the cure of sore throats and colds. The French frequently mix it with sugar and water, and thus form an agreeable beverage. The juice of currants is a valuable remedy in obstructions of the bowels; and, in febrile complaints, it is useful on account of its readily quenching thirst, and for its cooling effect on the stomach. This juice, fermented with a proper quan- tity of sugar, becomes a palatable wine, which is much improved by keeping, and which with care, may be kept for twenty years. The inner bark of all the species, boiled with water, is a popular remedy in jaundice, and, by some medical men, has been administered in dropsical complaints. White and flesh-coloured currants have, in every respect, the same qualities as the red species. The berries of the black currant are larger than those of the red, and, in Some parts of Siberia, are even said to attain the size of a hazel-nut. They are occasionally made into wine, jelly, rob, or sirup. The two latter are frequently employed in the cure of sore throats; and, from the great use of black currants in quinsies, they have sometimes been denominated squinancy, or quinsy berries. The leaves are fragrant, and have been recommended for their medicinaſ virtues. An infil. sion of them in the manner of tea is very grateful, and, by many persons, is preferred to tea. The ten- der leaves tinge common spirits so as to resemble brandy; and an infusion of the young roots is useful in fevers of the eruptive kind. The dried currants of the shops do not belong to this family, but are a small kind of grape. None of these fruits are so much esteemed for the table as gooseberries. For culinary purposes, gooseberries are generally em- ployed before they are ripe; but this is founded on erroneous motions of their chemical properties, since, either for sauces or wine, though they are more cool and refreshing, they do not possess the delicate flavour and rich saccharine qualities which belong to the ripe fruit. Wine made of gooseberries has great resemblance to Champagne. The skins of the fruit, after the juice has been expressed, afford, by distillation, a spirit somewhat resembling brandy. Vinegar may be made from gooseberries. Some of the kinds are bottled while green, and kept for win- ter use; and the others are, for the same purpose, preserved with sugar. Gooseberries vary much in CU f{RENCY-CU RRENTS. colour, size, and quality. Some are smooth, and others hairy. Some are red others green, and others yel- low or amber-coloured. Wild gooseberries are greatly inferior in size to those which are cultivated in gardens. CURRENCY. See Circulating Medium. CURRENTS, in the ocean, are continual move- ments of its waters in a particular direction. In lat. 39° N., lon. 13° 40'W., we begin to feel the effects of the current which flows from the Azores to the straits of Gibraltar and the Canaries. Between the tropics, from Senegal to the Caribbean sea, the gene- ral current, and that longest known flows from east to west. Its average rapidity is from nine to ten nautical miles in forty-two hours. It is this current which is known by the name of equatorial current. It appears to be caused by the impulse which the trade- winds give to the surface of the water. In the cham- nel which the Atlantic has hollowed between Guiana and Guinea, under the meridian of 18° or 21° from 8° or 9° to 2° or 3° N. lat., where the trade-winds are often interrupted by winds which blow from the south and South-west, the equatorial current is less uniform in its direction. Near the coast of Africa, vessels are often drawn to the South-east, whilst near the bay of All-Saints and cape St Augustine, upon the coast of America, the general direction of the waters is interrupted by a particular current, the effects of which extend from cape St Roche to Trinity island. It flows towards the north-west, at the rate of one foot, or one foot five inches a second. The equatorial current is felt, although slightly, even be- yond the tropic, in latitude 28° north. In the basin of the Atlantic ocean, six or 700 leagues from the coast of Africa, vessels, whose course is from Europe to the West Indies, find their progress accelerated before they arrive at the torrid zone. Farther north, between the parallels of Teneriffe and Ceuta, in lon- gitude 44° to 46° W., no uniform motion is observed. A Zone of 140 leagues separates the equatorial cur- rent from the great mass of water flowing to the east, which is distinguished by its elevated tempera- ture, and of which we shall now speak particularly. The equatorial current impels the waters of the At- lantic Ocean towards the Musquito shore and the coast of Honduras, in the Caribbean sea. The new conti- ment opposes this current ; the waters flow to the north-west, and passing into the gulf of Mexico, by the strait which is formed by cape Catoche (Yuca- tan) and cape St Antoine (Cuba), they follow the windings of the American coast to the shallows west of the southern extremity of Florida. Then the current turns again to the north, flowing into the Bahama channel. In the month of May, 1804, A. von Humboldt observed in it a rapidity of five feet a second, although the north wind blew violently. Under the parallel of Cape Canaveral, the current flows to the north-east. Its rapidity is then some- times five nautical miles an hour. This current, called the gulfstream, is known by the elevated temperature of its waters, by their great saltness, by their indigo- blue colour, by the train of sea weed which covers their surface, and by the heat of the surrounding at- mosphere, which is very perceptible in winter. Its rapidity diminishes towards the north, at the same time that its breadth increases. Near the Bahama bank, the breadth is 15 leagues; in lat. 28° 30' N. it is seventeen leagues, and, under the parallel of Charleston, from forty to fifty leagues. To the east of the port of Boston, and under the meridian of Ha- lifax, the current is almost eighty marine leagues in breadth. There it turns suddenly to the east, and grazes the southern extremity of the great bank of Newfoundland. The waters of this bank have a temperature of from 8° 7 to 109 centigrade (7° to 569 80 R., 160 to 180 Fahr.), which offers a striking coil- trast to the waters of the torrid Zone, impelled to the north by the gulf stream, and the temperature of which is from 210 to 22° 5' (170 to 180 R., 380 to 40}o Fahr.). The waters of the bank are 160 9. Fahr. colder than those of the neighbouring ocean, and these are 50 4: Fahr. colder than those of the current. They cannot be equalized, because each has a cause of heat or cold which is peculiar to it, and of which the influence is permanent. From the bank of Newfoundland to the Azores, the gulf stream flows to the E. or E. S. E. The waters still preserve there a pºrt of the impulse received in the strait of Florida! Under the meridian of the islands of Corvo and Flores, the current has a breadth of 160 leagues. In lat. 339, the equatorial current approaches very near the gulf stream. From the Azores, the current flows towards Gibraltar, the island of Madeira, and the Canaries. South of that island, the current flows to the S. E. and S. S. E., to- wards the coast of Africa. In lat. 250 and 260, the current flows first S., then S. W. Cape Blanc ap- t pears to influence this direction, and in its latitude the waters mingle with the great current of the tro- pics. Blagden, Benjamin Franklin, and Jonathan Wil- liams first made known the elevated temperature of the gulf stream, and the coldness of the shallows, where the lower strata unite with the upper, upon the borders or edges of the bank. A. von Humboldt collected much information, to enable him to trace, upon his chart of the Atlantic ocean, the course of this current. The gulf stream changes its place and direction according to the season. Its force and its direction are modified, in high latitudes, by the vari- able winds of the temperate zone, and the Collection of ice at the north pole. A drop of water of the current would take two years and ten months, to re- turn to the place from which it should depart. A boat, not acted on by the wind, would go from the Canaries to the coast of Caracas in thirteen months; in ten months, would make the tour of the gulf of Mexico; and, in forty or fifty-days, would go from Florida to the bank of Newfoundland. The gulf stream furnished to Christopher Columbus indications of the existence of land to the west. This current had carried upon the Azores, the bodies of two men of an unknown race, and pieces of bamboo of emor- mous size. In lat. 450 or 500 near Bonnet Flamand, an arm of the gulf stream flows from the S.W. to the N. E., toward the coasts of Europe. It deposits upon the coasts of Ireland and Norway trees and fruits belonging to the torrid zone. Remains of a vessel (the Tilbury), burnt at Jamaica, were found on the coast of Scotland. It is likewise this river of the Atlantic, which annually throws the fruits of the West Indies upon the shore of Norway. The causes of currents are very numerous. The waters may be put in motion by an external impulse, by a difference of heat and saltness, by the inequality of evaporation in different latitudes, and by the change in the pressure at different points of the surface of the ocean. The existence of cold strata, which have been met with at great depths in lowlatitudes, proves the existence of a lower current, which runs from the pole to the equator. It proves, likewise, that Saline substances are distributed in the Ocean, in a manner not to destroy the effect produced by different tem- peratures. The polar currents, in the two hemis- pheres, tend to the east, probably on account of the uniformity of west winds in high latitudes. It is very probable that there may be, in some places, a double local current; the one above, near the surface of the water, the other at the bottom. Several facts seem to confirm this hypothesis, which was first proved by 570 the celebrated Halley. In the West Indian seas, there are some places where a vessel may moor her- self in the midst of a current by dropping a cable, with a sounding lead attached, to a certain known depth. At that depth, there must, unquestionably, be a current contrary to the one at the surface of the water. Similar circumstances have been observed in the Sound. There is reason to believe, that the Mediterranean discharges its waters by an inferior or concealed current. Such a mass of ocean water, flowing constantly from the torrid zone towards the northern pole, and, at any given latitude, heated many degrees above the temperature of the adjacent Ocean, must exert great influence on the atmosphere. An interesting ii. in Darby's View of the United States, Philadelphia, 1828 (page 363), shows this in- fluence in a striking way. See Malte-Brun's Geo- graphy, vol. i., and Humboldt's Personal Narrative. CURRIE, JAMEs, M.D., the biographer of Burns, was the son of the minister of Kirkpatrick Fleming, near Moffat, in Dumfries-shire, and was born there on the 31st May, 1736. He received the rudiments of his education at the parish school of Middlebie, and was sent at the age of thirteen to a seminary at Dum- fries, conducted by a Dr Chapman, author of a work on education, in whose house he was boarded, and by whom he was well grounded in mathematics and Practical Geometry. Having accompanied his father on a visit to Glas- gow, he was induced to enter there into the service of a company of merchants, who were going out to Virginia on a mercantile speculation. This voyage proved most unfortunate, owing to the breaking out of the dissensions between America and the mother country, and he was but indifferently treated by his employers who were soured probably by the failure of their commercial plans. About this time also, he had the misfortune to lose his father, and his mother having died when he was very young he was thus left an orphan. He had now the generosity to re- nounce all claim on the property bequeathed him by his father, and kindly divided it amongst his sisters. Abandoning the pursuits of commerce, with which he was sickened, he turned his thoughts towards politics, and espousing the cause of the mother country, he pub- lished a series of letters in an American paper, under the signature of “An Old Man.” Soon afterwards having gone to reside with his near relation, Dr Currie of Richmond, America, he was decided by his advice to return to his original intention of study. ing Inedicine. In consequence he left America, where he had Spent very unprofitably five years of his life, and all direct intercourse with England being then cut off by the war, proceeded round by the West Indies and arrived in London in 1776, whence he went on to Edinburgh, where he pursued his medical studies with great assiduity till 1780. He was now appoint- ed to an ensigncy and assistant surgency in the army through the interest of general Sir William Erskine. But soon thereafter, with a view to obtaining the situ- ation of physician or assistant physician to the for. ces, with an expedition then going out to Jamaica, he proceeded to Glasgow, where he took his degree as doctor in medicine. Having been disappointed, however, in his views, he was about to go out and Settle himself in the West Indies, when he was at- tacked with a pulmonic complaint, on recovering from which he was induced by the advice of his friends to go and settle at Liverpool, in October, 1780. Here he was soon elected to be one of the physicians to the Infirmary, and rose to high emi- mence in his profession. And here also, in 1783, he married Miss Lucy Wallace, daughter of a respect- CURRIE–CURRYING. able merchant, and a lineal descendant of the celo- brated Scottish warrior Sir William Wallace, by whom he had several children. In the year 1791, he presented a paper to the Royal Society, “On the remarkable effects of a Ship- wreck on some mariners, with experiments, and ob- servations on the influence of immersion in fresh and salt water, hot and cold, on the powers of the living body,” which gained him the honour of being electe a Fellow of that learned body. In the year 1797, he extended these reflections into a work entitled “Medical reports on the effects of water, cold and warm, as a remedy in fever and other diseases, whether applied to the surface of the body or used internally,”—a work which extended his reputation as a physician, and effected a considerable revolu- tion in the mode of treating the most fatal and fre- quent class of diseases. It was about this time too, that Dr Currie's cele- brated letter to Mr Pitt, appeared under the signa- ture of Jasper Wilson, which, although never avowed by him, yet procured an accession of great literary fame, and a host of powerful enemies. Having made an excursion into Scotland in 1792, he had become personally acquainted with Robert Burns, with whose wonderful powers he was fasci- mated, and upon the death of the poet he was induced at the request of his old friend Mr Syme, to become the editor of a complete edition of his works, to which he added a memoir. This work added pro- digiously to Dr Currie's reputation both as a writer and a man. In the year 1784, Dr Currie's life had been threat- ened by a severe pulmonary attack, which, after ho- vering over him for upwards of twenty years, return- ed upon him with great severity in 1804, and obliged him to relinquish liis practice at Liverpool. Iſe spent the ensuing winter alternately at Bath and Clifton, and feeling himself somewhat recovered, was induced in the following spring to take a house in Bath, and Commence practice there. But all his complaints Soon returning with increased violence, he went as a last resource to Sidmouth in Devonshire, where, after much suffering, borne with manly fortitude and resig- nation, he expired on the 31st August, in the fiftieth year of his age. On opening his body, his disease was ascertained to have arisen from an enlargement and flaccidity of the heart, accompanied by a remark- able wasting of the left lung, but without either tu- bercle or ulceration. Great as a physician, amiable, Cstimable, generous, and humane as a man, Dr Currie was conspicuous in every relation of social and do- mestic life, and died lamented by all those who knew him either as a writer or as a physician. Most of the public institutions, literary or benevolent, of Liver- pool were either suggested, improved, or perfected by his advice or assistance. CURRYING is the art of dressing cow-hides, calves'-skins, seal-skins, &c., principally for shoes; and this is done either upon the flesh or the grain. In dressing leather for shoes upon the flesh, the first operation is soaking the leather in water until it is thoroughly wet: then the flesh side is shaved on a beam about seven or eight inches broad, with a knife of peculiar construction, to a proper substance, according to the custom of the country and the uses. to which it is to be applied. This is one of the most curious and laborious operations in the whole busi- ness of currying. The knife used for this purpose is of a rectangular form, with two handles, one at each end, and a double edge. After the leather is properly shaved, it is thrown into the water again, and scoured upon a board or stone commonly ap- propriated to that use Scouring is performed by CURRY... POWT) ER—CUSHING. rubbing the grain or hair side with a piece of pu- mice stone, or with some other stone of a good grit. These stones force out of the leather a white sub- stance, called the bloom, produced by the oak bark in tanning. The hide or skin is then conveyed to the shade or drying place, where the oily substances are applied, termed stuffing or dubbing. When it is thoroughly dry, an instrument, with teeth on the under side, called a graining-board, is, first applied to the flesh-side, which is called graining ; then to the grain-side, called bruising. The whole of this opera- tion is intended to soften the leather to which it is applied. Whitening, or paring succeeds, which is performed with a fine edge to the knife already de- scribed, and used in taking off the grease from the flesh. It is then boarded up, or grained again, by applying the graining-board first to the grain, and them to the flesh. It is now fit for waxing, which is performed first by colouring. This is effected by rubbing, with a brush dipped in a composition of oil and lamp-black, on the flesh, till it be thoroughly black: it is then sized, called black-sizing, with a brush or sponge, dried and tallowed; and, when dry, this sort of leather, called waved or black on the jlesh, is curried. The currying leather on the hair or grain side, called black on the grain, is the same with currying on the flesh, until we come to the operation of scouring. Then the first black is ap- plied to it while wet ; which black is a solution of the sulphate of iron called copperas, in fair water, or in the water in which the skins, as they come from the tanner, have been soaked. This is first put upon the grain after it has been rubbed with a stone; then rubbed over with a brush dipped in stale urine; the skin is then stuffed, and, when dry, it is seasoned, that is, rubbed over with a brush dipped in copperas water, on the grain, till it is perfectly black. After this, the grain is raised with a fine graining-board. When it is thoroughly dry, it is whitened, bruised again, and grained in two or three different ways, and, when oiled upon the grain, with a mixture of oil and tallow, it is finished. CURRY_POWDER. See Thºmeric. CURTIUS, MARCUs; a noble Roman youth, known by the heroic manner in which, according to tradition, he sacrificed himself for the good of his country. In the year of Rome 392 (B. C. 362), it is said, a chasm opened in the Roman forum, from which issued pestilential vapours. The Oracle de- clared that the chasm would close whenever that which constituted the glory of Rome should be thrown into it. Curtius asked if anything in Rome was more precious than arms and valour; and, being answered in the negative, he arrayed himself in ar- mour, mounted a horse splendidly equipped, Solemnly devoted himself to death, in presence of the Roman people, and sprang into the abyss, which instantly closed over him. CURTIUS RUFUS, QUINTUs, the author of a History of Alexander the Great, in ten books, the two first of which are lost, has been supposed to be the son of a gladiator. He recommended himself by his knowledge to Tiberius, and during his reign, re- ceived the praetorship; under Claudius, the consul- ship, also the emperor's consent to celebrate a tri- umph, and finally the proconsulship of Africa. He died in Africa, A. D. 69, at an advanced age. We should have had more complete accounts concerning him, if the first books of his work had been pre- served. Curtius deserves no great praise as an his- torian. His style is florid, and his narratives have more of romance than of historical certainty. The lost parts have been supplied by Christopher Bruno, a Bavarian monk, in a short and dry manner; by Freinshemius, in a diffuse style; and by Christopher 57] Cellarius, in a style which forms a medium between the two. The best edition is by Snakenburg (Ley- den, 1724, 4to). Among the new editions are that by Schmieder (Goettingen, 1814). Buttmann, Hirt, and Niebuhr (the Roman historian), have writter treatises on his life. The last named gentlemar read, in 1821, before the academy of Berlin, a dis- quisition on the period of Curtius—a performance distinguished for critical acumen and erudition. Nie- buhr thinks that the work was under Severus, and not under Vespasian. The essay is to be found in his Kleine historische und philologische Schriften, erste Sammlung (Bonn, 1828). - CURVES (from the Latin curvus, crooked, bent), in geometry. The simplest objects are the most dif- ficult to be defined, and mathematicians have never succeeded in giving a definition, satisfactory to them- selves, of a line. It is equally difficult to give a Satisfactory definition of a curve. Perhaps the sim- plest explanation of it is, a line which is not a straight /ine, nor made up of straight lines. This definition, however, is deficient in mathematical precision. Since Descartes' application of algebra to geometry, the theory of the curves has received a considerable ex- tension. The study of the curves known to the an- cients has become much easier, and new ones have been investigated. Curves form, at present, one of the most interesting and most important subjects of geometry. Such as have not all their parts in the Same plane, are called curves of a double curvature. The simplest of all curves is the circle. The spiral of Archimedes, the conchoid of Nicomedes, the cissoid of Diocles, the quadratrix of Dinostratus, &c., are celebrated curves. CUSCO, or CUZCO ; a city of Peru, capital of an intendency of the same name, the ancient Capital of the Peruvian empire; 550 miles E. S. E. of Lima ; lon. 71° 4' W.; lat. 139 42 S.; population stated from 20 to 32,000. It is a bishop's see. It was founded, according to tradition, in 1043, by Manco Capac, the first inca of Peru, on a rough and unequal plain, formed by the skirts of various mountains, which are washed by the small river Guatanay. The wall was of an extraordinary height, and built of stone, with astonishing neatness. The Spaniards, in 1534, found the houses built of stone; among them a temple of the Sun, and a great number of magnificent palaces, whose principal ornaments were of gold and silver, which glittered on the walls. Cusco is, at present, a large city: the houses are built of stone, and covered with red tiles; the apartments are well distributed; the mouldings of the doors are gilt, and the furniture not less magnificent. The cathedral church is large, built of stone, and of an elegant and noble archi- tecture. About three-fourths of the inhabitants are Indians. CUSHING, THOMAs; an American patriot, was born at Boston, in 1725, and finished his education at the college of Cambridge (New England), in 1744. Both his grandfather and father had spent a consider- able portion of their lives in the public service, the latter having been, for several years previous to his death, speaker of the house of representatives in Massachusetts. He engaged early in political life, and was sent, by the city of Boston, as its represen- tative to the general court, where he displayed such qualifications for the despatch of business, that, when overnor Bernard, in 1763, negatived James Otis, the father, as speaker, he was chosen in his place, and continued in the station for many consecutive years. While he was in the chair, he had frequent opportunities of evincing his patriotism and aversion to the arbitrary course of the British government; and, as his name was signed to all the public docu- ments, in consequence of his office, he acquired. 572 great celebrity, and was generally supposed to exert a much greater influence in affairs than he actually did. This circumstance led doctor Johnson, in his pamphlet Taxation no Tyranny, to make this foolish remark—“ One object of the Americans is said to be, to adorn the brows of Mr Cushing with a diadem.” Though decidedly patriotic in his principles, Mr Cushing was moderate and conciliatory in his con- duct, by which he was enabled to effect a great deal of good as a mediator between the two contending parties. He was an active and efficient member of the two first continental congresses, and, on his return to his state, was chosen a member of the council. He was also appointed judge of the courts of common pleas and of probate in the county of Suffolk, which stations he occupied until the present constitution was adopted, when he was elected lieu- tenant-governor of the state, and continued so until his death, which took place, Feb. 19, 1788, in the 63d year of his age, in consequence of gout. CUSTOMS. See Revenue. CUSTOS ROTULORUM ; an officer, in England, who has the custody of the rolls and records of the Sessions of the peace, and also of the commission of the peace itself. He is usually a nobleman, and always a justice of the peace, of the quorum in the county where he is appointed. He may execute his office by a deputy, and is empowered to appoint the clerk of the peace; but he is prohibited from selling his office under divers penalties. CUSTRIN (in German, Kuestrin); a fortress in the province of Brandenburg, Prussia, at the conflu- ence of the Warte and Oder, containing 460 houses and 6000 inhabitants. In 1806, it was disgracefully surrendered to the French, and garrisoned by them until 1814, when it surrendered to the Prussians. CUTICLE ( from cuticula, the Latin diminutive of cutis, skin) is a thin, pellucid, insensible membrane, of a white colour, that covers and defends the true skin, with which it is connected by the hairs, exhal- ing and inhaling vessels, and the rete mucosum. CUTLASS ; a short sword used by seamen. The art of fencing with it is different from that with the small sword or broad sword. A guard over the hand is an advantage. It is, if well understood, a very effectual weapon in close contest: on account of its shortness, it can be handled easily, and yet is long enough to protect a skilful swordsman. CUTLERY, is a term applied to all cutting in- struments made of steel. Particular cities and countries have been famous at different periods for the manufacture of good cutlery. Thus Toledo in Spain, Ferrara in Italy, and Damascus in Asia, for the exquisite temper and beauty of their sword blades; and London, and Salisbury, and Sheffield, at the pre- sent time, for exquisitely tempered penknives, and surgical instruments. The sword blades of Damas- cus are remarkable, as much for their hardness and strength, as for a beautiful waving appearance called the water, and are said to be made from the inter- lacing of very minute wires of steel and iron welded together in alternate wormings, while the waving is caused by washing or quenching the blade in a solu- tion of common alum. To give the reader some idea of the mode of ma- nufacturing cutlery, we shall describe the way in which a common razor is made. The workman, being furnished with a bar of cast steel, forges his blade from it, using a forge similar to that of a Smith. The brow of his anvil and his hammer being convex, enable him to give to the blade a degree of convexity which greatly facilitates and accelerates the subsequent work of grinding. The blade is then brought more exactly into shape by a file. It is again exposed to a cherry-red heat, and instantly CUSTOMS--CUTLERY. quenched in cold water. In this state the blade is extremely hard and requires to be tempered—a pro- cess generally performed by first brightening one side and then heating it over a fire free from flame and Smoke, until the bright surface acquires a straw colour. It is again quenched, and is then ready for being ground. This method being liable, however, to several objections, a tempering bath with a thermo- meter has been lately suggested, and is used in this manner: a plate of steel ſidely polished, is to be laid so as to float upon the surface of a bath of quick- silver, or of the fusible alloy of tin, lead, and bismuth ; the bulb of a thermometer, graduated up to 600 degrees of Fahrenheit, is then to be plunged into the bath, which may be heated by the flame of a good argand lamp. No change of colour will be visible on the polished steel, until the mercury shall have risen to 430 degrees, and it will then be so faint as only to be perceptible, when compared with a plate that has not been heated. At 450 degrees the colour will be a fine pale straw ; this, as the heat increases, will become deeper, and succeeding changes will take place till heated up to the boiling point of mer- cury. In this way one blade or ten thousand blades may be heated in the same bath, and after the first experiment it is unnecessary that the bath be me- tallic, as oil will answer the purpose equally well. As to the best cooling fluid, water, about 40 degrees of Fahrenheit, is found to answer as well as any other. As to grinding and polishing the blade, this hardly requires much explanation. The diameter of the stone is chosen according to the degree of concavity required, and in polishing care is necessary to avoid heating the blade by friction, which would destroy its temper and render it useless. In preserving the surface from rust, the common blue mercurial oint- ment is sometimes used—or goose grease, or a solu- tion of elastic gum caouchouc in ether, which last is employed by the engravers on steel to preserve their plates. Etherial solutions of gold and muriate of platina have been also used for the same purpose. A species of steel, brought from India, and called Wootz, has been lately brought into use by the cut- lers, on the suggestion of the late Sir Joseph Banks, and is found to answer very well, but requires to be fused first ; as, in the state in which it is brought to this country, the metal is found to be unequal in quality. The cast steel of England requires 5700 of heat to give it temper, but Wootz cannot be tem- pered with less than 600° ; or the full boiling heat of mercury. The edge is given to surgical instruments by rubbing them on a fine German hone, moistened with oil. As to lancets, it is necessary to finish their edge by rubbing them on a beautiful green stone, found in some parts of the old pavement of London; which is found to be the only material capable of giving per- fect smoothness to these and other very delicate sur- gical instruments. The way of putting their points to the proof is to push them through a fine piece of leather; and if they pass through it with the most perfect facility, without the least resistance or sound being imparted to the senses of the operator, the edge is considered perfect. A minute alloy of nickel has been used, also, in making Surgical instruments, that metal having been found to prevent the steel from being so very susceptible of rust as it otherwise IS. The beauty and elegance of polished steel is no- where displayed to more advantage than in the ma- nufacture of the finer kinds of scissors. The steel employed for the more valuable Scissors should be cast steel of the choicest qualities: it must possess hardness and uniformity of texture, for the sake of CUTTER—CUVIER. assuming a fine polish ; and great tenacity when hot, for the purpose of forming the bow or ring of the scissors, which requires to be extended from a solid piece, having a hole previously punched through it. it ought also to be very tenacious when cold, to al- low that delicacy of form observed in those Scissors termed ladies' scissors. After the scissors are forged as near to the same size as the eye of the workman can ascertain, they are paired, and the two sides fitted together. The bows and some other parts are filed to their intended form ; the blades are also roughly ground, and the two sides properly adjusted to each other, after being bound together with wire, and hardened up to the bows. They are afterwards heated till they become of a purple colour, which in- dicates their proper temper. Almost all the remain- ing part of the work is performed at the grinding mill, with the stone, the lap, the polisher, and the brush. The very large scissors are partly of iron and partly of steel, the shanks and bows being of the former. These, as well as those all of steel which are not hardened all over, cannot be polished : an infe- rior sort of lustre, however, is given to them by means of a burnish of hardened, polished steel, which is very easily distinguished from the real polish by the irregularity of the surface. For Swords, see Sword. CUTTER ; a small vessel, furnished with one mast, and rigged as a sloop. Many of these fast- sailing vessels are used by smugglers, and are also employed for the purpose of apprehending them. In the latter case, they are called revenue cutters. The clippers—a kind of vessels built at Baltimore— are particularly adapted for fast sailing, but require great skill in navigating them, to avoid being upset. See Boat, Ship. CUTTY-STOOL ; a low stool; the stool of repent- ance; a seat formerly set apart in Scottish kirks, on which offenders against chastity were exhibited be- fore the congregation, and submitted to the minister's rebukes, before they were re-admitted into church privileges. This old remnant of popish discipline, the terrors of which drove many an unfortunate wo- man to the crime of infanticide, in order to hide her misconduct, is now, fortunately, nearly entirely ex- ploded from the Scottish church ; being only retained in some remote districts, where modern refinement has not penetrated. CUT-WATER ; the sharp part of the head of a ship, below the beak, so called because it cuts or di- vides the water before it comes to the bow, that it may not come too suddenly to the breadth of the ship, which would retard it. CUVIER, GEORGE LEOPOLD CHRISTIAN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, baron of ; a distinguished modern natu- ralist, was born, August 23, 1769,” at Montbéliard, then belonging to the duchy of Wuertemburg. His brilliant talents very early excited great expectations. His father was an officer. As the son's health was too feeble to allow him to become a soldier, he re- Solved to be a clergyman. He was obliged to pass an examination for the stipend, by the help of which he expected to study at Tuebingen. A malicious ex- aminer rejected him. The affair, however, was marked by so much injustice, that prince Frederic, brother of the duke, and governor of the district, thought it his duty to compensate Cuvier by a place in the Charles academy at Stuttgart. Here he gave up his intention of becoming a clergyman. In Stutt- gart, he studied at first the science of law, though he was particularly fond of natural history. To this * It is somewhat remarkable, that the same year gave birth to Bonaparte, the Duke of Wellington, and Lord Cas- tlereagh ; also to three of Bonaparte's most distinguished Imarshals, Ney, Soult, and Lannes. l journey by Noel. 573 period of his life he was indebted for his accurate knowledge of the German language and literature. The narrow circumstances of his parents compelled him to accept the office of private instructor in the family of count D'Hericy, in Normandy. Here he was at liberty to devote his leisure to matural science. Cuvier Soon perceived that Zoology was far from that perfection to which Linnaeus had carried botany, and to which mineralogy had been carried by the united labours of the philosophers of Germany and France. The first desideratum was a careful observation of all the Organs of animals, in order to ascertain their mutual dependence, and their influence on animal life; then a confutation of the fanciful systems which had obscured rather than illustrated the study. Examinations of the marine productions, with which the neighbouring ocean abundantly supplied him, served him as a suitable preparation. A natural classification of the numerous classes of vermes (Linn.) was his first labour, and the clearness with which he gave an account of his observations and ingenious views procured him an acquaintance with all the na- turalists of Paris. Geoffry St Hilaire invited him to Paris, opened to him the collections of natural his– tory, over which he presided, took part with him in the publication of several works on the classification of the mammalia, and placed him at the central school in Paris, May, 1795. The institute, being re-esta- blished the same year, received him as a member of the first class. For the use of the central school, he Wrote his Tableau Elémentaire de l’Histoire Naturelle des Animaua (1798), by which he laid the foundation of his future fame. From this time, he was considered one of the first Zoologists of Europe. He soon after displayed his brilliant talents as professor of compar- ative anatomy. His profound knowledge was not less remarkable than his elevated views, and the ele- gance with which he illustrated them before a mixed audience. In the lecture-room of the Lycée, where he lectured several years on natural history, was as- Sembled all the accomplished society of Paris, at- tracted by the ingenuity of his classifications, and by his extensive surveys of all the kingdoms of nature. In January, 1800, he justly received the place for- merly occupied by D’Aubenton, in the collége de France. In 1803, Cuvier married Madame Duvan- cel, widow of a fermier-général, who had perished on the scaffold in 1794. By this marriage, he had four children, who all died before him. The last that he lamented was a daughter—a beautiful young lady who died when on the eve of marriage. His merits did not escape the Sagacity of Napoleon. In the de- partment of public instruction, in which, one after another, he filled the most important offices, he exer- cised much influence by his useful improvements and indefatigable activity. He delivered a report very honourable to Germany, in 1811, when he returned from a journey in Holland and Germany, as superin– tendent of instruction. He was accompanied, in this In 1813, the emperor appointed him mažtre des requêtes to the council of state, and committed to his care the most important affairs in Mentz. Louis XVIII. confirmed him in his former offices, and raised him to the rank of counsellor. As such, he belonged at first to the committee of legislation, and afterwards to that of the interior. As a politician, he drew upon himself the reproaches of the liberals. In general, the political course of Cuvier formed such a contrast with his scientific one, and is, besides, of so little importance, that we are very willing to pass it by in silence. The measures of the abbé Frayssinous, then chancellor of the uni- versity of Paris, determined him to resign the office of university-counsellor, in December, 1822. Notwithstanding his political engagements, Cuvier 574 devoted himself continually to the study of natural history, which he has greatly extended by his disco- veries. We mention only his Recherches sur les Os- semens Fossiles, 1821—24; 3d edition, 1826, 5 volumes, 4to, with plates (the classical introduction to this work is printed separately); Discours sur les Révolutions de la Surface du Globe, et sur les Change- onens qu’elles ont produit dans le Règne animal (3d edition, Paris, 1825); also, Le Régne animal (1817, 4 vols.); Leçons d’Anatomie Comparée, recueillies par Duméril et Duvernoy (1805, 5 vols.); Recherches anatomiques sur les Reptiles regardés encore comme douteuw (1807, 4to); Mémoires pour servir à l’His- toire de l’Anatomie des Mollusques 1816, 4to). As perpetual secretary, &c., of the academy, in the class of physical Sciences, he pronounced €loges on the deceased members of the institute. The Recueil d’Eloges Historiques (Paris, 1819, 2 vols.) contains models worthy of imitation. The French academy received him, in consequence, among their forty Imembers. Almost all the learned societies of the world sent him honorary diplomas. France is in- debted to him for the establishment of a cabinet of comparative anatomy, which is the finest Osteological collection in Europe. Cuvier visited England twice, first in 1818, and afterwards in 1830, when he was honoured with a public dinner, given to him by a number of scientific and literary gentlemen. His death took place at Paris, on the 13th May, 1832. In person he was tall, and in youth slight, but, as he advanced in years, he became somewhat corpulent, and his extreme short-sightedness induced a slight stoop of the shoul- ders. His features were regular and handsome, the nose aquiline, the mouth marked with benevolence, the forehead most ample, and the eyes full of viva- city and sweetness. A very interesting memoir of his life has been published by Mrs Lee (formerly Mrs IBowditch), London, 1833, 8vo. CUXHAVEN ; a village in Ruetzebuettel, a baili- wick of Hamburg, at the mouth of the river Elbe. It is important for all navigators going to Bremen or Hamburg. Its lighthouse is 8° 43' 1" E. lon., and 530 52' 51" N. lat., 6.1 miles W.N.W. of Hamburg. The harbour is large and commodious, one of the safest on the coast, and is resorted to in cases of danger. Here vessels generally take pilots to go up the river to Hamburg, &c. These pilots are privi- leged, and, by their statutes, are compelled always to keep a yacht out at Sea, near the Outermost buoy, called the red buoy, with men ready to conduct any vessel which may demand assistance. These pilots very often go as far as the channel, and even through it, to meet vessels. From this village, there is a regular packet line, maintained by the British go- vernment, to Harwich. Here is also a quarantine, where vessels are often subjected to much unneces- sary delay; sent to Norway, for instance, to take an airing, when they are bound to Hamburg. A bath- ing-house has been established here, with many other improvements, by the senator Abendroth. In the middle ages, a family named Lappen were in the habit of sailing from this place for the commission of piracy. Hamburg conquered it in the 14th century. With this city, it came under the French dominion, and in 1814, was again declared a province of Hamburg. The whole bailiwick of Ruetzebuettelis subject to, not a component part of, Hamburg. CUYABA, or JESUS DE CUYABA ; a town of Brazil, capital of Matto Grosso, on the river Cuyaba, nearly 300 miles above its entrance into Paraguay; 280 miles W. Villa Rica; population, 30,000. In the neighbourhood of this town are the most western mining stations in Brazil, long celebrated for the quantity of gold they produce. The town is well pro- CUXHAVEN–CYCLE. vided with meat, fruits, and vegetables, and the Sur- rounding country is fruitful. CYANOGEN. See Prussie Acid. - CYBELE was originally a particular goddess of the Phrygians, like Isis, the symbol of the moon, and what is nearly connected with this, of the fruitfulness of the earth ; for which reason she is confounded with Rhea, whose worship originated in Crete, and in whom personified nature was revered. When the worship of Cybele was introduced among the Greeks, the goddess was already surrounded with a cloud of mythological traditions. According to Diodorus, Cybele was the daughter of the Phrygian king Maeon, and his wife Dindyma. At her birth, her father, vexed that the child was not a boy, exposed her upon mount Cybelus, where she was nursed by lions and panthers, and afterwards found and brought up by the wives of the herdsmen. She invented fifes and drums, with which she cured the diseases of beasts and children, became intimate with Marsyas, and fell violently in love with Atys. (See Atys.) She was afterwards recognized and received by her parents. Her father, discovering her love for Atys, had him seized and executed, and left his body un- buried. The grief of Cybele, on this occasion, de- ranged her understanding. She wandered about, in search of Atys, with dishevelled hair, escorted by the sound of the drums and fifes which she had in- vented, through various countries, even to the Hyper- boreans, the most distant inhabitants of the North. During her absence, a famine arose in Phrygia, which did not cease until divine honours were paid to Cybele, by the command of the oracle, and the statue of Atys interred, as his body could not be found. Some traditions say that Atys, in a fit of in- Sanity, emasculated himself. Other traditions give a different account of the cause of his misfortune. In memory of him, the priests of Cybele were eunuchs. Her worship was celebrated with a violent noise of instruments, and rambling through fields and woods. In Crete, she was confounded with Rhea. She was also blended with the old Latin goddess Ops. Her original statue was nothing but a dark quadrangular stone. Afterwards she was represented as a matron, with a mural crown on her head, in reference to the improved condition of men, arising from agriculture, and their union into cities. A common attribute of the goddess is the veil about her head, which refers to the mysterious and incomprehensible in nature. In her right hand she often holds a staff, as an em- blem of her power, and, in her left, a Phrygian drum. Sometimes a few ears of corn stand near her. The sun, also, is sometimes represented in her right hand, and the crescent of the moon in her left. We some- times see her in a chariot, drawn by lions ; or else she sits upon a lion, and, as omnipotent nature, she holds a thunderbolt ; or a lion lies near her. (See Atalanta.) These symbols are all representations of her dominion, and of the introduction of civilization, by her means, in the period of barbarism. CYCLADES, in ancient geography; a group of islands in the Archipelago, S.E. of Euboea and Attica, inhabited mostly by Greeks. Nearly in the middle lies the largest island, Naxos. The most southerly is Melos. Paros also is one of this fertile and charm- ing group. CYCLE (Greek x9xxos, a circle) is used for every uniformly returning succession of the same events. On such successions or cycles of years rests all chro- nology, particularly the calendar. Our common solar year, determined by the periodical return of the Sun to the same point in the ecliptic, every body knows, contains 52 weeks and 1 day, and leap-year a day more. Consequently, in different years, the same day of the year cannot fall upon-the same day of the CYCLIC POETS-CYCLOPS. week; but, as, for example, the year 1814 began with Saturday, 1815 with Sunday, 1816 with Mon- day; but 1817, because preceded by a leap-year, began, not with Tuesday, but with Wednesday. If we count only common years, it is manifest that, from seven years to seven years, every year would begin again with the same day of the week as the seventh year before ; or, to express the same in other words, after seven years, the dominical letter would return in the same order. But as every fourth year, in- stead of a common year, is a leap-year, this can only take place after 4x7, or 28 years. Such a period of 28 years is called a solar cycle, and serves to show the day of the week falling on the first day of Janu- ary in every year. For this purpose, it is only requi- site to know with what day of the week a particular year began, and then to prepare a table for the first days of the 27 following years. It is the custom now to fix the beginning of the solar cycle at the ninth year B. C., which was a leap-year, and began with Monday. If you wish to know what day of the week the new-year's day of any year of our reckoning is, you have only to add nine to the number of the year, and them, after dividing this sum by 28, the quotient gives, of course, the number of complete cycles, and the remainder shows what year of the solar period the given year is, of which the table above mentioned gives the day of the week with which it begins. But this reckoning is only adapted to the Julian calendar. In the Gregorian, it is interrupted by the circumstance that, in 400 years, the last year of the century is three times a common year. Hence this reckoning will not give the day of the week for the first day of the year; but, from 1582 (the commencement of the Gregorian calendar) to 1700, for the 11th, from 1700 to 1800 for the 12th, in the 19th century for the 13th day of the year, and so on, from which we must then reckon back to the new-year's day. Hence it is far more convenient to prepare a table for the beginning of a century (for example, for 1801, which began with Thursday), and divide by 28 the number of years from that to the given year, and, with the remainder, seek in the table the day of the week for the first day of the year. Besides this, another cycle is necessary for the determination of festival days, by the aid of which the feast of Easter, by which all the movable feasts are regulated, is to be reckoned. Easter de- pends on the first full moon after the vermal equinox. (See Calendar.) The lunar cycle is a period of nine- teen years, after which the new moon falls again On the same day of the month. January 2, 1813, there was a new moon ; January 2, 1832, there was a new moon again. As the time from one new moon to an- other, as astronomy teaches, is about 29; days, a table of the new moons for 19 years may be very easily prepared. It is only necessary to observe that this lunar cycle always begins with a year, of which the first new moon falls on the first of January, and that this was the case the first year B. C. Divide by 19 the number of the year plus 1, and the remainder will show what year in the lunar period the given year is. The number of the year is called the golden number. (See Calendar, and Epact.) Besides these two cycles, which are indispensable for the calcula- tions of the calendar, there are some others, several of them known by the name of periods. See the ac- counts given under the heads Calendar and Era. The Germans make much use of the word Cyclus in Science, meaning by it any series of events, works, ob- servations, &c., which forms a whole in itself, and reminds us of a circle; thus they speak of the Cyclus of works in a certain science, and Cyclus of discove- ries by a philosopher, &c., wherever the Series forms a well-connected whole. CYCLIC POETS. See Greek Literature. 575 CYCLOID ; the line described by any point in the rim of a moving wheel. C Imagine a circle, D, E, H, B, which is rolled per- pendicularly along a straight line, A, D, a, till the point first at rest is brought to rest again, after an entire revolution. The curve, A, F, G, B, a, thus described by this point, is called a cycloid, because every point in the circumference of a revolving wheel describes a similar curve. The circle, D, E, B, is called the generating circle; the line, A, D, a. On which it is described, the base of the cycloid. ... The length of the cycloid is always four times the diame- ter of the generating circle, and its area three times the area of this circle. This line is very important in the higher branches of mechanics. Imagine a pen- dulum, C, B, suspended by a thread, in such a Way that, in the swinging of the pendulum between two plates, C, A, c, d, each of which is bent in the form of a cycloid, the thread rolls and unrolls itself. Then the longest vibrations will be performed in the same time as the shortest, producing an isochronism, and the cycloid is hence called an isochrone or tanto- chrone. The name of brachystochrone has also been given to the cycloid, because it is the line in which a heavy body, falling in a direction oblique to the horizon, would pass in the shortest time between two points. CYCLOPAEDIA. See Encyclopaedia. CYCLOPEAN WORKS, in ancient architecture ; masonry performed with huge blocks of stone, much of which is to be seen in Sicily, said, by the ignorant, to be the works of an ancient and fabulous gigantic race of people; as Stonehenge is said by the country people to have been built by the devil. Some, of these works, called Cyclopean, were the walls of Ar- gos and Sicyone. Near to Nauplea, in Argolis, there were caverns, which, according to Strabo, were called Cyclopean. As servants of Vulcan, the Cyclops were celebrated in mythology and fabulous history for their marvellous works. See Cyclops. CYCLOPS ; the name of celebrated giants in the mythology of Greece. They are of two kinds: the former are the sons of Neptune, and the latter the sons of Uranus and Gaia (Heaven and Earth.) The latter, three in number, Arges, Brontes, Steropes (Thunder and Lightning), were those powerful giants who forged thunderbolts for Jupiter, in the Workshºp of Vulcan, for which Apollo killed them. Wholly different from these are the sons of Neptune, of whom some enumerate seven; others, nearly a hundred. The most distinguished of them is Polyphemus. With him is commected the whole nation of the Cyclops, who are described in the Odyssey (ºx. 106, et seq.) as wandering savages, uncouth giants, without agricul; ture or civil union, dwelling in mountain caves, and supporting themselves by the breeding of cattle. According to Homer, they resided on the west side of Sicily, near the dark Cimmeria. . As geographical knowledge increased, the region of Cimmerian dark- ness was placed at a greater distance, and this nation was described as dwelling on the Riphaean mountains, rich in beds of metal. The one-eyed people, some- times called Cyclops, sometimes Arimaspians, dug up 576 the Riphaean ores, and wrought them, though dis- turbed by the griffins which watched the gold. From this time, the two classes of Cyclops are confounded. A part of these Cyclops forged Jupiter's thunder- bolts; another part went on an adventure to Greece, where they left several buildings, as monuments of Cyclopean art. (O. Mueller understands, by the Cy- clops, whole nations, united under an ecclesiastical government. This wall-building people might have been humble Argos (which is especially called the Cyclopean region), tributary to the Achaeans.) When men's acquaintance with the surface of the earth became still more increased, the fabled Riphaean hills were carried still farther into the undiscovered night of the North; and here the history of the one-eyed nation is wrapped in confusion. Some authors place them still on the Riphaean hills to the North : most writers, however, treat them as dwelling again in Sicily, en- gaged in the service of Vulcan, but working under AEtna, or among the flaming crags of the Lipari islands. The mountains emitting fire were their forges; and the roaring within them, the sound of their hammers. How they acquired the character of being one-eyed is unknown, as their name only attri- butes to them round eyes. Polyphemus, in many figures, is represented with two eyes. Among the Greek pastoral poets, we find the Cyclops exhibited in a rustic and natural character. Cyclops is likewise a name which Zoologists give to a certain minute aquatic animal. CYDER. See Cider. CYLINDER ; the name of a geometrical solid, formed by two parallel circular surfaces, called the superior base and the inferior base, and a convex surface terminated by them. There is a distinction between rectangular cylinders and oblique cylinders. In the first case, the axis, that is, the straight line joining the centre of the two opposite bases, must be perpendicular; in the second, the axis must form an angle with the inferior base. The solidity of a cy- linder is equal to the product of the base by the altitude. Archimedes found that the solidity of a sphere inscribed in an equilateral cylinder, that is, of a sphere whose diameter is equal to the height, and also to the diameter of the base of the cylinder, is equal to two-thirds of the solidity of the cylinder. The cylinder is one of those figures which are con- stantly in use for the most various purposes. CYLINDER GIASS. See Glass. CYMBALS, among the ancients; musical instru- ments, consisting of two hollow basins of brass, which emitted a ringing sound when struck together. The brazen instruments which are now used in military music, and have been borrowed by Europeans from the East, seem to have taken their rise from these. The invention of them, according to some writers, must be referred to the worship of Cybele. CYNICS. After the Greeks had explored, with unparalleled rapidity, all the regions of philosophy, and sects of the most various kinds had formed them. selves, it was not unnatural that a school should arise which condemned speculation, and devoted itself to the moral reformation of society. The Cymics were founded by Antisthenes, a scholar of Sočrates, at Athens, about 380 B.C. The character of this phi- losophy for the most part remained true to the Socratic, particularly in making practical morals its chief, or rather its only object, and in despising all speculation. There were some noble features in the doctrines of the Cynics. They made virtue to con- sist in self-denial and independence of external cir- cumstances, by which, as they thought, man assimi- lates himself to God. This simplicity of life, however, was soon carried so far by the Cynics, that it de- peasants in the Pelasgian plains of CYI)ER—CYPRESS. generated into carelessness, and even neglect of decency. In their attempts at living conformably to nature, they brought themselves down to the level of savages, and even of brutes. No wonder, then, that the Cynics soon became objects of contempt. The most famous of their number were, besides their founder, the ingenious zealot Diogenes of Sinope, Crates of Thebes, with his wife Hipparchia, and Menippus, who was the last of them. After him, this philosophy merged in the Stoic, a more worthy and honourable sect.—The word cynicism is still used to mark an uncommon contempt or neglect of all external things. CYNOSURA; a nymph of mount Ida, who edu- cated Jupiter, and was afterwards placed in the con: stellation of the Little Bear. By this star, the Phoe- nicians directed their course in their voyages.— Cynosure, in a figurative sense, is hence used as synonymous with pole-star or guide. CYNTHIUS; a surname of Apollo, from mount Cynthus, on the island of Delos, at the foot of which he had a temple, and on which he was born. Diana, his sister, is called Cynthia, from the same moun- tain, because it was also her birth-place. CYPRESS. The cypress-tree (cupressus semper- virens) is a dark-coloured evergreen, a native of the Levant, the leaves of which are extremely small, and entirely cover the slender branches, lying close upon them, so as to give them a somewhat quadrangular shape. In some of the trees, the branches diminish gradually in length, from the bottom to the top, in such a manner as to form a nearly pyramidal shape. In many of the old gardens in Europe, cypress-trees are still to be found; but their generally sombre and gloomy appearance has caused them, of late years, to be much neglected. They are, however, very valuable, on account of their wood, which is hard, compact, and durable, of a pale or reddish colour, with deep veins and a pleasant smell. We are in- formed by Pliny, that the doors of the famous temple of Diana, at Ephesus, were of cypress-wood, and, though 400 years old at the time that he wrote, ap- peared to be nearly as fresh as when new. Indeed, this wood was so much esteemed by the ancients, that the image of Jupiter, in the capitol, was made of it. The gates of St Peter's church, at Rome, are stated to have been of cypress, and to have lasted more than 1000 years, from the time of the emperor Constantime until that of pope Eugenius IV., when gates of brass were erected in their stead. As this wood, in addi. tion to its other qualities, takes a fine polish, and is not liable to the attacks of insects, it was formerly much esteemed for cabinet furniture. By the Greeks, in the time of Thucydides, it was used for the coffins of eminent warriors; and many of the chests which enclose Egyptian mummies are made of it. The latter afford very decisive proof of its almost incorrup- tible nature. The name of this tree is derived from the island of Cyprus, in the Mediterranean, where it still grows in great luxuriance. Its gloomy hue caused it to be consecrated, by the ancients, to Pluto, and to be used at the funerals of people of eminence. Pliny states that, in his time, it was customary to place branches of cypress-tree before those houses in which any person lay dead. Its perpetual verdure served the poets as the image of eternity, as its dark and silent leaf, unmoved by gentle breezes, is, perhaps, a proper symbol of melancholy. Large collections of cypresses, as they are often seen surrounding Turkish minarets, have a gloomy and interesting ap- pearance. In the western parts of the United States, upon the Mississippi and other rivers, the cypress constitutes large forests of a most sombre and pecu- liar character. The dark, dense nature of their foliage, the shade, impenetrable to the Sun, which CYPRIANS-CYRIL. they form, render them the fit abode of wild beasts and reptiles, and almost inaccessible to man. They cover tracts hundreds of miles in extent, and are visited only by the traveller and the woodcutter. CYPRIANS ; a term used for courtesans, like that of Corinthians, because Venus, the Cyprian goddess, was particularly worshipped in the island of Cyprus. CYPRIAN, ST., born A. D. 200, at Carthage, was descended from a respectable family, and was a teacher of rhetoric there. In 246, he was converted to Christianity, distributed his property among the poor, and lived in the greatest abstinence. The church, in Carthage, soon chose him presbyter, and, in 248, he was made bishop. He was the light of the clergy, and the comfort of the people. During the persecution under the emperor Decius, he fled, but constantly exhorted his church to continue firm in the Christian faith. In 251, he summoned a council, at Carthage, to decide concerning those who had aban- doned their faith during the persecution, but desired to be readmitted through penance. When the per- secution of the Christians was renewed, A. D. 257, he was banished to Curubis, twelve leagues from Carthage. Sept. 14, 258, he was beheaded, at Car- thage, Tecause, in opposition to the orders of the overnment, he had preached the gospel in his gar- ens, near Carthage. Lactantius calls him one of the first eloquent Čhristian authors. His style, how- ever, retained something of the hardness of his teacher Tertulliam. We have from him an expla– nation of the Lord's prayer, and eighty-one letters, affording valuable illustrations of the ecclesiastical history of his time. Baluze published his works com- plete (Paris, 1726, fol.). CYPRIS (Cypria) a surname of Venus, from the island of Cyprus, where was her first temple. CYPRUS ; an island in the Mediterranean, be- tween Asia Minor and Syria, famous in antiquity for its uncommon fertility and its mild climate. It con- tains 7264 square miles, and 120,000 inhabitants, of whom 40,000 are Greeks. Cyprus is the native place of the cauliflower. Wine, oil, honey, wool, &c., are still, as formerly, the principal productions. The country is distinguished by remarkable places and mountains; as Paphos, Amathusia, Salamis, and Olympus, once adorned with a rich temple of Venus. Venus was particularly venerated here, because, ac- cording to tradition, the delightful shores of Cyprus received her when she emerged from the foam of the Sea. The oldest history of this island is lost in the darkness of antiquity. When Amasis brought it under the Egyptian yoke, 550 B.C., Ionian and Phoenician colonists had formed several small states in the island. It remained an Egyptian province till 58 B. C., when it was conquered by the Romans. After the division of the Roman territories, Cyprus continued Subject to the Eastern empire, and was ruled by its own governors of royal blood, of whom Comnenus I. made himself independent, and his family sat upon the throne till 1191, when Richard of England re- warded the family of Lusignan with the sceptre. After the extinction of the legitimate male line of Lusignan, James, an illegitimate descendant, came to the government. His wife was a Venetian (Catharine Cornaro, q.v.), and, as she had no children at his death, the Venetians took advantage of this circum- stance to make themselves masters of the island (1473). They enjoyed the undisturbed possession of it till 1571, when Amurath III., notwithstanding the bravest resistance on the part of Marco Antonio Bra- gadino, who defended Famagusta eleven months, conquered Cyprus, and joined it to the empire of Turkey. Nicosia, the chief city, is the seat of the Turkish governor, a Greek archbishop, and an Ar- menian bishop. The wines of Cyprus are red when II. 57.7 they first come from the press; but after five or six years, they grow pale. Only the Muscatel wine is white at first; and even this, as it grows older, be- comes redder, till, after a few years, it attains the thickness of sirup. It is very sweet. The wines of Cyprus are not equally agreeable at all seasons of the year; they are best in spring and summer. Exces- sive cold injures them, and destroys their flavour and colour. They are put up at first in leather bags covered with pitch, whence they acquire a strong pitchy flavour, which is several years in escaping. They are brought to the continent in casks, but can- not be kept unless drawn off after some time into bottles. The best is distinguished by the name of Commandery. See Penus. CYR, ST; a French village in the department of the Seine-and-Oise, one league west of Versailles (population, 1000), famous for the seminary which Louis XIV. founded here, at the persuasion of ma- dame Maintenon, in 1686. Here 250 noble ladies were educated, free of expense, until their twentieth year. Forty females of the order of St Augustine instructed the scholars. Madame Maintenon gave all her attention to this establishment. She is buried at St Cyr. During the Revolution, this institution was overturned, and a military preparatory school was founded by Napoleon, which survived his fall, and educates 300 pupils. Napoleon established la maison impériale d’Ecouen, an institution similar to the one at St Cyr, and placed madame Campan at the head of it. CYRENAICA (originally a Phoenician colony), Once a powerful Greek state in the north of Africa, west of Egypt, comprising five cities (Pentapolis), among which was Cyrene, a Spartan colony, is at present a vast, but unexplored field of antiquities. The ancient site of Cyrene is now called Grenne or Cayron, in the country of Barca, in the dominion of Tripoli. Till the fifth century, Cyrenaica was the seat of the Gnostics. (q.v.) The antiquities there are described by the physician P. Della Cella, in his work Piaggio da Tripoli di Barbarie alle Frontieri Occidentali dell' Egitto, fatto nel 1817 (Genoa, 1819, 8vo). J. R. Pacho, who has travelled over Africa since 1819, made many observations, likewise, in Cyrenaica, for which he received the geographical prize of 3000 francs, on his return to Paris, in 1826. (Poyage de M. Pacho dans la Cyrenaique.) Of the famous inscription found among the ruins of Cyrene, and brought to Malta, some account has been given by Gesenius (Halle, 1825, 4to), and Hamacker, pro- fessor at Leyden (Leyden, 1825, 4to). At present, the country is called, by the Arabians, Djebel Akhdar, or Green Highland. Surrounded by sterile and dry countries, Cyrenaica itself is very fertile and well watered. Its hills are covered with wood, and ex- hibit many melancholy traces of former cultivation. In ancient times, the inhabitants suffered much from the attacks of the people of the interior and the Car- thaginians. The ruins of Cyrene have given rise among the present inhabitants, to a belief in a petri- fied city. There are at present about 40,000 people in Djebel Akhdar. k CYRENAICS; a philosophical sect, whose founder was Aristippus, born in Cyrene, a pupil of Socrates. (See Aristippus.) The most distinguished of his followers were Hegesias, Anniceris, Theodore the Atheist, who, for his denial of the existence of virtue and the Deity, was banished from Athens. CYRENE. See Cyrenaica. CYRIL. Ecclesiastical history mentions three saints of this name. 1. Cyril of Jerusalem, born there about the year 315, was ordained presbyter in 345, and, after the death of St Maximus, in 350, became patriarch of 2 9 578 Jerusalem. Being a zealous Catholic, he engaged in a warm controversy with Acacius, the Arian bishop of Caesarea. In addition to their dispute upon doctrinal points, Acacius accused him of having sold some valuable church ornaments, which he had in- deed done, but for the laudable purpose of support- ing the needy during a famine. A council assem- bled at Caesarea, by Acacius, in 357, deposed Cyril; hut the council of Seleucia, in 359, restored him and deposed his persecutor. Acacius, by his artifices, succeeded in depriving him again of his dignity the 11ext year, and, after the emperor Constantius, on his accession to the throne, had once more recalled him, he was a third time deposed by the emperor Valens, after whose death he finally returned to Jerusalem. In 381, the council of Constantinople confirmed him. He died in 386. We have twenty-three catecheses composed by him, in a clear and simple style, which are esteemed the oldest and best outline of the Chris- tian dogmas (Paris, 1720, folio). - 2. Cyril of Alexandria was educated by his un- cle Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria; and spent five years in the monasteries of Nitria, where he was instructed by the abbot Serapion. He then went to Alexandria, where his graceful form and pleasing delivery gained him so many adherents, that after his uncle's death, in 1412, he succeeded him in the patriarchal dignity. Full of zeal and ambition, he was not satisfied with ecclesiastical honour alone, but exercised secular dominion also. To punish the Jews, by whom Christian blood had been shed, dur- ing an insurrection, he assailed them, at the head of the populace, destroyed their houses and their furni- ture, and drove them out of the city. Orestes, the prefect of Egypt, who complaimed of such lawless violence, so inconsistent with the character of a bishop, was soon after attacked in the streets by 500 furious monks, one of whom, having wounded Orestes, was apprehended, condemned to death, and expired under the blows of the lictors. Cyril caused his body to be carried in a solemn procession to the cathedral, gave him the name of Thaumasius, and extolled him as a martyr and a saint. The assassination of Hy- patia, the learned daughter of Theon, the mathema- tician, who had excited the envy of Cyril, by the ap- plause which she had gained by her knowledge of geometry and philosophy, took place at his instiga- tion. In the motorious synod of 403, in concurrence with his uncle, he had planned the condemnation of St Chrysostom, and it was only after an obstinate re- sistance, that he was persuaded to submit to the de- crees of the Catholic church, in respect to that pre- late. Still more fierce were his disputes with Nes- torius, successor to Chrysostom, who distinguished between the divine and human nature of Christ, acknowledging Mary as the mother of Christ, but refusing to her the appellation of mother of God. Cyril contended .# and violently against these doc- trines, and appointed pope Celestine umpire, who im- mediately condemned them. He drew up twelve anathemas, directed against John, patriarch of Anti- och, which, in the opinion even of theologians, are not wholly free from heresy, and called upon Nestorius to subscribe them. To settle the dispute between these two prelates, the council of Ephesus was sum- moned. Both parties appeared with a great number of adherents and servants between whom innumer- able disputes arose. Cyril opened the council before the arrival of the patriarch of Antioch; and although Nestorius refused to recognize his enemies as judges; although sixty-eight bishops were in his favour, and a magistrate, in the name of the emperor, demanded a delay of four days; yet, in a single day, Nestorius Was Condemned, deposed, and declared to be a second Judas. Soon after, the patriarch of Antioch arrived, CY RII,-—CYRUS. and held a synod of fifty bishops, who, with equal haste, condemned Cyril as guilty of heresy, and de- clared him a monster born for the ruin of the church. Both parties rushed to arms: the streets of the city, and the cathedral itself, became the theatre of their fury, and were polluted with blood. The emperor Theodosius sent troops to Ephesus, to disperse this pugnacious council. This measure, however, only changed the theatre of the war; for it was continued three years longer, between John of Antioch and Cyril. Soon after, Nestorius, not less violent than Cyril, obtained from the emperor a command for Cyril to appear again before a council at Ephesus. Both parties appeared, with their adherents in arms. Cyril was maltreated and even imprisoned. He es- caped from his keepers, however, and fled to Alex- andria. From that place, he contrived, by distribut- ing bribes, to excite an insurrection in Constanti- nople, which struck terror into the timid emperor. Negotiations were begun: Cyril was prevailed upon to mitigate his amathema, and, against his will, to acknowledge a two-fold nature in Christ. But Nes- torius, as he was determined never to renounce his Opinions, was compelled to lay down his offices, and to retire to a monastery. He was afterwards banished to Thebais. In 339 or 340, he died. Cyril closed his restless career in 344. His opinions prevailed both in the Eastern and Western empire, and the church gave him a place among the saints. The best edition of his works, in which there is neither clear- ness nor accuracy of style, is that of 1638, in folio. 3. St Cyril, a native of Thessalonica, by way of distinction, was called Constantine, and, at Constan- tinople, where he studied, received the name of the Philosopher. At the recommendation of St Ignatius, the emperor Michael III. sent him to the Chazars—. a people of the stock of the Huns. He converted the khan, after whose example the whole nation were baptized. He then preached the gospel, with Methodicus, to the Bulgarians, and baptized their king Bojaris, A. D. 860. They had the same suc- cess in Moravia and Bohemia. Still later, they went to Rome, where they both died. According to 1)o- browsky, Cyril died in 868: according to Xav. Rich- ter, he died in 871 or 872. The two apostles were both declared saints. The Greeks and Russians cele- brate the festival of St Cyril on Feb. 14. He was the inventor of the Cyrillian Letters which took their name from him, and is probably the author of the Apologies which bear his name. CYRILLIAN LETTERS ; characters called, in Sclavonic, Czuraliza ; one of the modes of writing the Sclavonic language, of which there are three:- 1. Roman or German letters, used by the people of Poland, Bohemia, and Lusatia; 2. Cyrillian, so called from their inventor, Cyrillus. They are much used by the Russians. 3. From these Cyril- lian characters, probably through the artifices of cal- ligraphy, a peculiar alphabet was formed, which is sometimes used in printed books, but nowhere in common life. CYRUS; a celebrated conqueror. The only two original authorities concerning him, Herodotus and Xenophon, differ so greatly, that they cannot be re- conciled. According to Herodotus, he was the son of Cambyses, a distinguished Persian, and of Man- dane, daughter of the Median king Astyages. He founded the Persian monarchy. (See Assyria.) A short time before his birth, the soothsayers at the court of Astyages divined from a dream of his, that his future grandson was to dethrone him. Upon this, he gave orders that Cyrus should be destroyed immedi- âtely after his birth. For this purpose he was deliv- ered to a herdsman, who, moved with compassion, brought him up, and named him Cyrus. His Cour- CYRUS—CZIRKNITZ. age and spirit betrayed his descent to the king. On one occasion, playing with other boys, being chosen king by his companions, he caused the son of one of the first men in the nation to be beaten. The father of the boy complained to Astyages, who reprimanded young Cyrus ; but he appealed to his right as king of his companions, and replied with so much bold- mess and good sense, that Astyages became interested in him, and instituted inquiries, which led to the dis- covery of his birth. The Magi having succeeded in quieting the uneasiness which the discovery occa- sioned him, he sent Cyrus to his parents in Persia, with marks of his favour. But the young man soon drew together a formidable army of Persians, and conquered his grandfather, B. C. 560. A similar fate befell Croesus, the rich and powerful king of Lydia, and Nabonadius, king of Babylon, whose capital he took, after a siege of two years. He also subdued Phoenicia and Palestine, to which he caused the Jews to return from the Babylonish captivity. While Asia, from the Hellespont to the Indies, was under his dominion, he engaged in an unjust war against the Massageta-—a people of Scythia, north- east of the Caspian sea, beyond the Araxes, then ruled by a queen named Tomyris. In the first bat- tle, he conquered by stratagem ; but in the second, he experienced a total defeat, and was himself slain, B. C. 529, after a reign of twenty-nine years. He was succeeded by his son Cambyses. The stories related by Xenophon (q. v.), in the Cyropaedia (Account of the Life and remarkable Traits in the Character of Cyrus), that he received a splendid education at the court of Astyages, inherited his kingdom, and ruled like a genuine philosopher, are either mere romance, deserving not the least histori- cal credit (Xenophon's design being to represent the model of a king, without regard to historical truth, and, in this way, perhaps, to exhibit to his country- men the advantages of a monarchy), or else the two accounts are founded on different traditions, perhaps of two different persons named Cyrus. Another Cyrus was the youngest son of Darius Nothus, or Ochus, who lived nearly 150 years later than the former. In the sixteenth year of his age, he obtained the Supreme power over all the provinces of Asia Minor. His ambition early dis- played itself; and when, after his father's death, his eldest brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon, ascended the throne, Cyrus formed a conspiracy against him, which was, however, discovered before it came to maturity. Instead of causing the sentence of death to be executed upon him, his brother kindly released him, and made him governor of Asia Minor. Here Cyrus assembled a numerous army, to make war upon Artaxerxes, and dethrone him. Among his forces were 13,000 Greek auxiliaries, who were ignorant, however, of the object of the expedition. Being in- formed of his brother's design, Artaxerxes marched against him with a much larger army. In the plains of Cynaxa, in the province of Babylon, the two armies encountered each other. After a brave resis- tance, especially on the part of the Greeks, the army of Cyrus was overcome, and he himself slain by the hand of Artaxerxes. CYTHERA (now Cerigo;) one of the seven Ionian islands, separated by a narrow strait from the South shore of Laconia, was particularly celebrated for the worship of Venus Urania, whose temple in Cythera, the chief city, was the oldest and most Splendid of her temples in Greece. The ancient Cythera is now demolished, and exhibits nothing but a few ruins. On the shore of this island, according to one tradition, Venus first ascended from the sea, and took possession of the land; i. e., Phoenician naviga- tors here first introduced the worship of Venus into Greece. The island is rocky and unfruitful. From this place, Venus has her name Cytherea. Popula- tion about 8000. CZAR, ZAR, or ZAAR ; a title of the autocrat of Russia. The word is of old Sclavonic origin, and is nearly equivalent to king. The emperor is called, in the same language, kessar. Until the sixteenth century, the rulers of the several Russian pro- Vinces were called grand-princes (weliki knaes). Thus there were grand-princes of Wladimir, Kiev, Moscow, &c. The grand-prince Wasilie was the first who re- ceived, in 1505, the title of samodersheta, which is equivalent to the Greek word autocrat. The son of Wasilie, Ivan II., adopted, in 1579, the title of Czar of Moscow, which his descendents bore for a long time. In 1721, the senate and clergy conferred on Peter I., in the name of the nation, the title of em- peror of Russia, for whicn in Russia, the Latin word imperator is used. Several European powers declin- ed to acknowledge this title, until the middle of the last century. The eldest son and presumptive heir of the czar was called czareviz (czar's son); but, With the unfortunate Alexis, son of Peter I., this title Ceased, and all the princes of the imperial house have been since called grand-princes. The emperor Paul I. renewed the title czareviz, or czarewitch, in 1799, for his second son, Constantine. The rulers of Georgia and Imiretta, now under the Russian scep- tre, called themselves cºars. CZENSTOCHOW, or CZENSTOCHOW A ; a fortified monastery, belonging to the order of St Paul the Hermit, in Poland, province of Kalisch, near the Wartha and the frontier of Silesia. In this fortifica- tion, well provided with artillery, the monks former- ly had their own garrison, and chose commandants from their own number. In the diet of 1765, however, it was determined to occupy this place with a secular force. Frequent pilgrimages are made to the miracu- lous image of the Virgin, in the church of the monas- tery. At the foot of the mountain lies New Czensto- Chow, with a population of 1300, and, a few miles dis- tant, Old Czenstochow, with a population of 1700. In 1812, Czenstochow was occupied by a garrison of French Soldiers, who were compelled to surrender to the Russians in January, 1813. CZERNY, GEORGE. See Servia. CZIRRNITZ. See Zirkmitz. £ 44, 2 58() D; the fourth letter in our alphabet, of the order of mutes. (See Consonant.) According to M. Cham- pollion's recent discoveries, the d, in the hieroglyphic writing of the old Egyptians, corresponding to the dau of the Copts, is a segment of a circle, similar to a G. The Greek delta was a triangle, A, from which the Roman D has been borrowed. T), as an ini- tial letter on medals, indicates the names of countries, Cities, and persons, as Decius; also the words devotus, designatus, divus, dominus, &c.; D. M., diis mani- bus ; D. O. M., Deo optimo maalimo. The Greek A represented the number four. Among Roman nu- merals, D signifies 500, but was not used as a nu- merical designation until 1500 years after Christ. The Romans designated a thousand in this way,+ CID. The early printers, it is said, thought it best to express 500 by half the character of 1000, and therefore introduced ID, which soon grew into D. If a line was marked over it, it signified 5000. In inscriptions and manuscripts, D is very often found in the place of B and L; des for les, dachrumae for lach- rumae. In dedications, D., thrice repeated, signifies Dat, Donat, Dicat, or Dat, Dicat, Dedicat. As an abbreviation of the jurists, D signifies the pandects (Digesta). D stands for doctor in M. D.; in D. T., doctor of theology; LL. D., doctor of laws, &c. D., on French coins, signifies Lyons; on Prussian, Aurich; on Austrian, Graetz. In music, D designates the Second note in the natural diatonic scale of C, to which Guido applied the monosyllable re. DA CAPO (Ital, ; from the head or beginning); an expression written at the end of a movement, to acquaint the performer that he is to return to, and end with, the first strain. It is also a call or accla- mation to the singer or musician, in theatres or con- certs, to repeat a piece which has just finished—a request very often made mercilessly by the public, without regard to the fatigue caused by a perform- all Ce. DACCA JELALPORE ; an extensive and rich district of Bengal, situated principally between 230 and 24° of N. lat. It is intersected by the Ganges and Brahmapootra, two of the largest rivers in India, which, with their various branches, form a complete inland navigation, extending to every part of the country; so that, every town having its river or canal, the general mode of travelling, or conveying goods, is by water. DACCA; a large city, capital of the above named district, and, for eighty years, the capital of Bengal. It is situated on the northern bank of a deep and broad river, called the Boor Gunga (Old Ganges), at the distance of 100 miles from the sea. In this city, or its vicinity, are manufactured beautiful muslins, which are exported to every part of the civilized World. It has also an extensive manufacture of shell bracelets, much worn by the Hindoo women. The neighbourhood of the city abounds with game of all sorts, from the tiger to the quail, and is, on this ac- count, a great resort of Europeans, during the three cold months. 180 miles from Calcutta by land; lon. 90° 17' E.; lat. 239 42 N. T}——DACIER, DACH, SIMON, a German poet of the seventeenth Century, was born at Memel, July 29, 1605, and lived in an humble condition, until he was appointed professor of poetry in the university of Koenigsberg. He remained in this office until his death, April 15, 1659. His secular songs are lively and matural. His sacred Songs are distinguished for deep and quiet feeling. DACIA. The country which anciently bore this name, according to Ptolemy's description, comprised the present Banat, a part of Lower Hungary, as far as the Carpathian mountains on the west, Transyl- vania, Moldavia, Walachia, and Bessarabia. Some include Bulgaria and Servia, with Bosnia, or the ancient Upper and Lower Moesia. The inhabitants of this country, called Daci, also Davi, made them- selves, for a long time, terrible to the Romans. When Trajan conquered Dacia, in the second cen- tury, he divided it into, 1. Dacia Riparia or Ripensis (the present Banat, and a part of Hungary), so called because it was bounded on the west by the Theiss, and on the east by the Danube; 2. Dacia Mediter- 'ranea (now Transylvania), so called, because it was situated between the two others; and, 3. Dacia Transalpina (now Walachia, Moldavia, and Bessara- bia), or that part of Dacia lying beyond the Car- pathian mountains. He governed each of these three provinces by a prefect, established colonies in them, and sent colonists from other parts of the Ro- man empire, to people them, and supply cultivators of the soil. When Constantine the Great divided the Roman empire anew, Dacia became a part of the Illyrian prefecture, and was divided into five provinces or districts. Upon the fall of the Roman empire, it was gradually overrun by the Goths, Huns, Gepidae, and Avars. Since that time, the his. tory of this country, which then lost the name of Dacia, is to be sought for in that of the provinces of which it formerly consisted. DACIER, ANDREw ; a learned Frenchman, was born at Castres, in Upper Languedoc, 1561, and stud- ied at Saumur, under Tanneguy Lefevre, whose daughter Anna was associated in his studies. After the death of Lefèvre, in 1672, he went to Paris. The duke of Montausier, to whom his learning was known, intrusted him with the editing of Pompeius Festus (in wsum delphini). The intimacy growing out of their mutual love of literature led to a marriage between him and Anna Lefèvre, in 1683, and, two years after, they both embraced the Catholic religion. They received from the king considerable pensions. In 1695, Dacier was elected a member of the aca- demy of inscriptions, and of the French academy; of the latter he was afterwards perpetual secretary. The care of the cabinet in the Louvre was intrusted to him. He died in 1722. Dacier wrote several indifferent translations of the Greek and Latin authors. Besides the edition of Pompeius Festus, and the CEuvres d’Horace, en Latin et en Francais, with the Nouveaua, Eclaircissemens sur les CEuvres d’Horace, and the Nouvelle Traduction d’Horace with critical annotations, he prepared an edition of Wale- !) ACIER—1) ACTYLOLOGY. rius Flaccus, a translation of Marcus Antoninus, of Epictetus, of Aristotle's Art of Poetry, with annota- tions, of the Lives of Plutarch, of the GEdipus and Electra of Sophocles, of the works of Hippocrates, and of several dialogues of Plato. DACIER, ANNA LEFEVRE ; wife of the preced- ing; born at Saumur, in 1651. After the death of her learned father, who had instructed her, and cul- tivated her talents, she went to Paris, where she dis- played her learning by an edition of Callimachus (1675), which she inscribed to Huet, the under tutor of the dauphin. The duke of Montausier, in conse- quence, intrusted her with the care of several edi- tions of the classics (in usum delphini). She first edited Florus (q.v.), with a commentary. Her learned works were not interrupted by her marriage. Her feeble translation of Homer attracted a good deal of attention, and led to a dispute between her and Lamotte, in which it appeared that madame Dacier understood much less of logic, than Lamotte of the Greek language. In her Considérations sur tes Causes de la Corruption du Goiſt, she defended Homer with the acuteness of a profound commenta- tor, and Lamotte replied with a great deal of wit and elegance; on which account it was said, Lamotte wrote like an ingenious woman, madame Dacier like a learned man. Lamotte introduced her to the notice of queen Christina, who persuaded her to em- brace the Catholic religion. In her Homere défendu, she showed little mercy to Hardouin, who had writ- ten a satirical eulogy of this poet. On this occasion, she was said to have uttered more invectives against the reviler of Homer, than the poet himself had placed in the mouths of all his heroes. She trans- lated Terence, and three pieces of Plautus, in the prologue of which she treats of the origin, the culti- vation, and changes of dramatic poetry with acute- ness. Her translation of the Plutus and the Clouds of Aristophanes, deserves indulgence, as the first translation of the Greek comic poet. Her translation of Anacreon and Sappho, with a defence of the latter, met with success. She also wrote annotations on the Bible, but did not publish them. Her life was en- tirely devoted to literature, and her domestic duties. She died in 1720. Equally estimable for her charac- ter and her talents, she gained as many admirers by her virtue, constancy, and equanimity, as by her Works. She was member of several academies. DACTYLE. See Rhythm. T)ACTYLIOTHECA (Greek); a collection of en- graved gems. The art of engraving gems was no- where carried to greater perfection than in Greece, where they were worn, not only in rings (from which the name of 3ozºriſatos, ring), but in seals, and were much used for other ornamental purposes. The Ro- mans were far behind the Greeks in this art; but they were the first who made collections of precious Stones. Scaurus, the son-in-law of Sylla, introduced the custom (Pliny, Hist. Nat., 37, 5). Pompey the Great transferred the collection of Mithridates to Rome, and placed it in the capitol. A much larger collection was exhibited by Caesar in the temple of Venus Genitrix, and, afterwards, under Augustus, by M. Marcellus, in the temple of Apollo Palatinus. In modern times, the princes of Italy vied with each other in collecting these treasures of art. The fa- ſmily of Gonzaga established the first dactyliotheca, and was followed by the family of Este at Modena, that of Farnese, and by Lorenzo de' Medici in Flo- rence. The gems collected by him are marked with Lor., or Lor. de' M., or with M. alone. His collec- tion was divided and scattered, but the Medici esta- blished a new one, the foundation of the present D. Florentina, the most important existing, as it contains about 4000 gems. In Rome, collections of no great 581 value were made under Julius II. and Leo X. Ma- ria Piccolomini, a Roman prelate, had the best in that city; and Lucio Odescalchi, afterwards duke of Bragiani, inherited that of Christina, queen of Sweden. Rome afterwards received the collections of the Va- tican (formed more at random than on any connected plan), of the Barberini, and of the Strozzi (containing Some masterpieces of the art now in St Petersburg). The D. Ludovisia, belonging to the prince of Piom- bino, and that of the cardinal Borgia at Welletri, famous for its Egyptian gems and scarabaei, are still celebrated. Naples has beautiful gems in the cabi- net at Portici and at Capo di Monte. The prince Piscari formed a collection at Catanea, in Sicily, consisting entirely of gems found in Sicily. In France, the first collection was begun by Francis I., but was dispersed in the civil war. In the reign of Louis XIV., Louvois laid the foundation of the pre- sent fine collection of antiques in the royal library. The collection of the duke of Orleans, which he in- herited from the Palatinate, was celebrated. Besides these, there were several private collections of value. The most celebrated in England are those of the dukes of Devonshire, Bedford, and Marlborough, and the earls of Carlisle and Desborough. Germany has also collections. In the palace of Sans Souci, a Potsdam, near Berlin, several are united, among which is that of Muzel Stosch, rendered famous by the description of Winckelmann. Vienna has a sepa- rate cabinet of gems. The collection of Dresden is good. The city library of Leipsic possesses some good gems. The collection at Cassel is extensive, but not very valuable. Munich has some beautiful pieces. There are also many private collections. In the Netherlands, the cabinet of the king is valuable. In the royal palace at Copenhagen, there are some vases inlaid with gems; and Petersburg, has, besides the imperial collection, the foundation of which was that of the engraver Natter, the rich collection of count Poniatowski. To multiply elegant and ingeni- ous or remarkable designs on gems, engravings, or Casts are taken. Thus not only single designs, but all those of the same class, or those of a whole cabinet, are represented by engravings. The impressions of various classes of gems have been collected. Bellori collected the portraits of philosophers and others; Chifflet, abraxas stones (see Abrawas and Gnosis); Gori, gems engraved with stars; Ficoroni, gems with inscriptions; Stosch, gems bearing the names of the artists. Representations of whole collections have been given; as, by Gori, of those contained in the Museum Florentinum ; by Wicar and Mongez, of those in the gallery of Florence; by Mariette, of the former French collections; by Leblond and Lachaux. of that of the duke of Orleans; by Eckhel, of that of Vienna. We might also mention the copies of the Museum d’Odescalchi, of the cabinets of Gravelle, Stosch, Bossi, and the duke of Marlborough. But, although some of these impressions are very beautiful, the preference ought to be given to the casts. . The collections of such casts are also called dactyliothecae : for instance, the dactyliotheca of Lippert, consisting of 3000 pieces. Tassie, in London, has executed the largest collection of casts yet known, amounting to 15,000. These are important aids in the study of the branch of antiquities with which they are connected. DACTYLIOMANCY, from 32xtáxios, a ring, and Azava siz, divination); the pretended art of divining by means of rings. DACTYLOLOGY or DACTYLONOMY (from 242-9xas, the finger), is the art of numbering with the fingers; or, in a wider sense, of expressing one's thoughts in general with the fingers. It is usually taught in institutions for the education of the deaf and dumb. 582 DADUCHUS (Latin; A230520s, Greek); literally a torch-bearer, but applied as an epithet to many of the ancient divinities, who were always represented as bearing a torch or flambeau. Daduchi were also those persons, who, in certain ceremonies and reli- gious processions, carried the flambeaus or Sacred torches. The Daduchic deities are Ceres, when represented as searching for her lost daughter Pro- serpine ; Diana, Luna, Hecate, and Sol, when in their cars, employed in the business of lighting the earth; Venus, Cupid, and Hymen, when bearing the torch of love; Rhea or Cybele, and Vesta, in the temples where the vestals guarded the sacred fire of those goddesses; Vulcan, in whose honour, conjointly with Prometheus and Pallas as Daduchi, the Athe- nians instituted a festival, which they called Lampade- ohoria, Azºroºnºogío. (see Lampadephoria); Bellona, the Furies, Aurora, Hymen, Peace (on a medal of Vespasian); Comus in an ancient painting described by Philostratus); Night, Sleep, and Death, or Tha- natus, (6%vo, ros). DAEDALUS (Azſäzxog). The name of Daedali is given to full-length figures or images, with the feet in an advancing posture. But whence this appella- tion is derived is a contested point. Winckelmann, following Palaephatus and Diodorus, says “Daedalus began to separate the lower part of the Hermes into legs; and the first statues are said to have received from him the name of Daedali.” The common opin- ion is, that Daedalus first separated the legs of the statues in an advancing posture, which explains the saying that his statues moved, since all previous sculp- tors formed their statues with the arms hanging down, not divided from the body, and the legs not separated, like the mummy-shaped figures of the Egyptians. Ac- cording to Pausanias, Daadalus received his name from the statues (the name of which is said to have been de- rived from 32.3%xxsw, to work with skill). Boettiger (in his Lectures on Archaeology, Dresden, 1806) supposes that Daedalus is not a proper name, but the common appellation of all the first architects, metallurgists, and sculptors in Grecian antiquity ; also, in general, an artist, as daedalic means artificial, skilful. In early periods, every art is confined to the family and friends of the inventor, and the disciples are called sons. Thus the ancients speak of the Daedalian family of artists, including Talos, Perdix, Diopoenos, Scyllis, and others. According to the common opinion, Dae- dalus lived three generations before the Trojan war, was distinguished for his talents in architecture, sculpture, and engraving, and the inventor of many instruments; for instance, the axe, the saw, the plummet, the auger; also of glue, and masts and yards for ships. As a sculptor, he wrought mostly in wood, and was the first who made the eyes of his statues open. This he did in Athens, which he was compelled to leave on account of the murder of his disciple Talos, of whose skill he was jealous. He built the famous labyrinth in Crete ; executed for Ariadne a group of male and female dancers, of white stone, and for Pasiphae the notorious wooden cow. Being imprisoned, with his son Icarus, he in- vented instruments for flying. The wings were com- posed of linen, or according to Ovid, of feathers, and fastened with wax, which caused the death of Icarus ; whence the Icarian sea is said to have received its name. Daedalus himself reached Sicily, on the sou- thern coast of which a place was called, after him, Daedalium. A festival, called Daedala (image-festi- wal), was celebrated in Boeotia, mostly at Plataea. We must not confound this Daedalus with a later sculptor, Daedalus of Sicyon. Many stories of differ- ent artists have, probably, been blended, to form the character of Daedalus. DAENDELS, HERMANN WILLIAM, a 3Dutch gene. DADUCHUS—DAHOMEY. ral, was born in 1762, at Hattem, in Guelderland. He took an important part in the troubles which began in Holland, in 1787, on the side of the patriots, and, with many of his countrymen of the same party, was compelled to take refuge in France, where he engaged in commercial speculations, in Dunkirk. In 1793, he was appointed colonel in the new legion of volunteers, Franc étranger, and was of great service to Dumouriez, in his expedition against Holland. He rendered still greater services to Pichegru, in the campaign of 1794, which made the French commander master of all Holland. Daendels now became lieu- tenant-general in the service of the Batavian repub- lic, and took an important part in the change of the government. When Louis Bonaparte ascended the throne, he loaded him with honours, and appointed him governor-general of Batavia. After the union of Holland with France, Napoleon recalled him. Daendels arrived in Europe in the summer of 1812. He employed his leisure time in publishing a Compte rendu of his government in Java (4 vols., folio), in which he throws much light on the statistics and ge- neral condition of that country. He was afterwards appointed, by the king of the Netherlands, to orga- nize the restored colonies on the coast of Africa. Here he displayed his usual energy ; he promoted peace between the neighbouring Negro states, encouraged the establishment of new plantations on the West In- dia plan, and checked the slave trade, until the time of his death. DAFFODIL. See Narcissus. DAGH ; a Persian word, signifying mountain— Daghistan, land of mountains. DAGOBERT I. (called the Great on account of his military successes), king of the Franks, of the Merovingian race, in 628 succeeded his father, Clo- thaire II., who had reunited the divided members of the French empire. He waged war with success against the Sclavonians, Saxons, Gascons, and Bre- tons; but he stained the splendour of his victories by cruelty, violence, and licentiousness. After he had conquered the Saxons, it is said that he caused all those whose stature exceeded the length of his sword to be put to death. He deserves praise for his im- provement of the laws of the Franks. He died at Epinay, 638, at the age of 32 years, and was buried in St Denis, which he had founded six years before. D’AGUESSEAU. See Aguesseau. DAHLIA ; the name of a genus of plants belonging to the natural order compositae, or compound flowers. The D. pinnata, within a few years, has become com- mon in the gardens of the Northern and Middle States of America, where it is cultivated as an ornament, and is very conspicuous in the latter part of the season. The root is perennial, composed of fascicles of tubers, which are oblong and tapering at each end, and about six inches in length. The stem is straight, branch- ing, thick, and reaches the height of seven feet and upwards. The leaves are opposite, connate, and simply or doubly pinnated. The flowers are solitary, at the extremity of long, simple branches, deep pur- ple, with a yellow centre; by cultivation, however, they have been doubled, and made to assume a Vari- ety of colours. The roots are a wholesome article of food, and much eaten by the Mexicans, though the taste is not very agreeable. It is reproduced from the seed, or by the division of the roots, which is the most approved mode. It requires frequent Watering. In autumn, the roots should be taken out of the ground, covered with dry sand, and kept out of the reach of frost during the winter. All the species are natives of Mexico. DAHOMEY ; a kingdom in the interior of West- ern Africa, behind the Slave Coast. The country is very little known to Europeans. The parts which 1) A LRE—D AIR.Y. have been visited are very beautiful and fertile, and rise, for about 150 miles, with a gradual slope, but without any great elevation. The soil is a deep, rich clay, yielding maize, millet, and Guinea corn, in abundance. The inhabitants are warlike and fero- cious. The government is an absolute despotism. The ferocity which prevails among this nation almost surpasses belief. Human skulls form the favourite ornament in the construction of the palaces and tem- ples. The king's sleeping chamber has the floor paved with the skulls, and the roof ornamented with the jaw- bones of chiefs whom he has overcome in battle. i)AIRE, or DAIRO. See Japan. DAIRY (from dey, an old English word for milk); a building appropriated to the purpose of preserving and managing milk, skimming cream, making butter, cheese, &c., with sometimes the addition of pleasure rooms for partaking the luxuries of the dairy, as syl- labubs, cream with fruit, iced creams, &c. In the erection of such buildings as are necessary for dairy purposes, two things ought always to be kept carefully in view, conveniency of situation, and the preservation of a proper temperature. If the buildings are inconveniently situated, much labour will be lost ; and, if the air in them be either too hot or too cold, no process will go on as it should do. Their size will be proportioned to the number of cows Kept, and their interior arrangement to the busi- ness intended to be carried on, whether this be cheese- making, butter-making, or merely the preservation of milk for sale. A dairy-house for forty cows may be twenty feet by sixteen ; and for a hundred cows, forty feet by thirty. Ornament is sometimes studied in the erection of a dairy-house ; and this, when it happens to be the case, will, of course, regulate in a great measure the situation of the building. A butter dairy, when well constructed, consists of three apartments or rooms; one for depositing the milk, one for performing the operation of churning, and another for containing and cleaning the neces- sary utensils. A cheese dairy should consist of four rooms ; a milk room as before, a room for making and pressing the cheese, another for the process of salting, and a fourth for stowing and preserving the cheeses, till they are ready to be brought to market. This last may be conveniently placed as a sort of loft over the other three. The milk dairy properly requires only two apartments; one for the milk, and the other for serving it out, scalding, and cleaning the different utensils. Temperature in a dairy is of the first importance ; for, if too much heat be admit- ted, the milk will quickly become sour, and if too cold an atmosphere prevails, neither butter nor cheese making can be carried on with success. Different plans have been proposed for securing a tºº. degree of heat. Touble walls and roof have been recommended by Dr Anderson ; others have proposed hollow walls; and Mr Loudon, in his Treatise on Country Residences, thinks that, for com- mon purposes, a vacuity of eight or ten inches left betwixt the wall and the lath and plaster, will be sufficient. A fountain, or jet d'eau, where such can be commanded, will always be a very agreeable and convenient acquisition in a dairy. Mr Marshall, who has paid much attention to this subject, advises that the walls shall be at least six feet thick, a foot on the inside to be of brick or stone, the outside to be constructed of sod, and the space between to be closely filled with earth. The roof, he says, should be of thatch, three feet thick at the least, and should project completely over the walls on each side. The materials of such a building being all bad conductors of heat, it would, he conceives, if provided with dou- ble doors, naturally preserve in this climate a tem- perature of about fifty to fifty-five degrees of Fahren- 583 heit at all seasons of the year. But, as the milk it. self, when brought in warm, would naturally tend in summer to raise the temperature too high, an ice- house is recommended to be attached to the dairy, of a simple and ingenious construction. A Small quantity of ice, placed, when necessary, in the milk room, would soon lower the temperature to any de- gree that might be wanted ; and if the cold, in win- ter, should become too great, a barrel of hot water, close stopped, or a few hot bricks placed on the floor or table of the milk room, would readily counteract its effects. A chaffing-dish, with burning coals, should never be used, as it is apt to communicate a bad taste to the milk. Many other simple and cheap forms of dairy-houses are found to answer well. Mr Marshall tells us, that, in Wiltshire, the rooms of the dairies have commonly outer doors, which open under a pent-house or lean-to shed. This he considers as a great advantage, for it communicates, by affording shade, a beneficial degree of coolness to the whole building. The utensils required in a dairy are principally the following: milk-pails, milk-strainers or sieves, milk-cowls, coolers or pans, milk-skeels or creaming dishes, lading dishes, skimming dishes, cheese lad, ders, cheese vats, cheese presses, and churns. Wood has, in general, been employed in their construction, and is probably, upon the whole, the most eligible material. Lead, brass, and copper, are altogether inadmissible; for the acid contained in milk (which is now known to be the acetic) combines with these metals, and forms with them poisomous compounds. The same may be said of earthen vessels glazed with lead ; and it is obvious that true porcelain, or glass, can never come into general use for dairy purposes. Cast iron, itself, is far from being unobjectionable, because, though the acid of milk does not form with iron a compound that is poisonous, it forms with it one, which may, in a considerable degree, alter the taste and quality of dairy products. The least objec- tionable of all the metallic milk dishes, are probably those invented by Mr Baird, of the Shotts ironworks, in Linlithgowshire. They are made of cast iron, softened by annealing in charcoal, so as not to be liable to break by an ordinary fall, turned Smooth in the inside, and laid over with a coat of tin, to prevent the iron from coming in contact with the milk. Even these, however, we do not think quite free from objec- tion, because, though the iron does not come in contact with the milk, the tin does ; and, though the acetic acid acts upon tin only in a slight degree, still it acts upon it, and forms with it a compound, which, when evaporated, is viscid, and has a very fetid, disagreeable smell. It may, therefore, be supposed to injure, in some degree, the products of the dairy. They are, however, much more easily kept clean than wooden dishes, and their superior power of conducting heat, cools the milk put into them so much faster, that Sir John Sinclair says, “the farmers' wives, who have given them a fair trial, affirm that they throw up one-third more cream from an equal quantity of milk.” It has been lately found that slate makes very good milk coolers; and in some of the midland counties of England, the com- mon flag, or transition slate, has been employed for this purpose. Still more recently it has been disco- vered, that milk vessels lined with zinc produce a greater quantity of cream, and in a shorter time, than any other vessels, and that the cream produced is destitute of acidity, Dairy farms, in general, consist chiefly of meadow and pasture, with only a small portion of the land under tillage. But Mr Holland, in his Survey of Cheshire, and Mr Curwen of Workington, in the fifth volume of Communications to the Board of Agri- 584 # culture, have shown that stall-feeding with green crops is a most important improvement in the man- agement of cows. In this way, they can be kept in milk not only for a month longer in autumn than by the common modes, but even through the whole win- ter season. Mr Curwen's extensive experiments on this subject have put the matter beyond all doubt, and it is now pretty generally practised. The greatest dairy farms in Britain are found in Cheshire, Gloucestershire, Buckinghamshire, Essex, Cambridgeshire, Dorset, and Suffolk, some of the midland counties, and in Ayrshire. Essex, Cam- bridgeshire, Suffolk, and Dorset, are chiefly famed for butter, the rest for cheese. A proper choice of cows is of the greatest conse- quence, because certain species of this animal, as well as certain individuals of the same species, afford vastly more abundant and richer milk than others. All the black cattle of the island have been divided into four classes. 1. The short-horned or Dutch. 2. The long-horned, or Lancashire. 3. The polled, or Galloway. 4. The kyloes, or Highland. But in each of these classes there are many varieties. The cows of the first class yield much milk; those of the Second, less, but its cream is more abundant, and richer. The same quantity of the milk also yields a greater proportion of cheese. The polled, or Gallo- way cows are excellent milkers, and their-milk is rich. A sort called the Suffolk duns, said to be a variety of the Galloways, are much esteemed for the abundance of their milk, and the excellence of the butter it produces. Two-thirds of these, with one- third of the small Alderney or French cow (mixing the milk), are recommended by some as the best dairy stock that can be kept. Ayrshire, or Kyle cows, are much esteemed in Scotland; and, in Eng- land, the improved breed of the long-horned cattle, by Mr Bakewell, of Dishly, in Leicestershire, is highly prized in many dairy districts. The limits of this ar- ticle will not permit us to mention a variety of other good breeds that might be pointed out. Every judi- cious selector, however, will always, in making his choice, keep in view not only the different sorts and individuals of the animal, but also the nature of the farm on which his cows are to be put, and the sort of manufactured produce he is anxious to bring to mar- ket. The best age for a milk cow is betwixt four or five and ten. When old, she will give more milk, but it is of an inferior quality, and she is less easily supported. See Milk. DAISY ; the name of a plant which is very fami- liar, and a great favourite in Europe (bellis perennis, L.). It is one of the earliest in spring, and its ele- gant flowers, appearing at intervals in the green Sward, have been compared to pearls. During cloudy weather, and at night, they close. It conti- nues flowering during the whole season, and is not used for food by any animal. It belongs to the natu- ral order compositae. The leaves are all radical, spa- thulate, obtuse, more or less dentate, slightly hairy, and spread upon the ground. Its naked stem is a few inches high, and terminated by a white flower, having a tinge of red, and a yellow centre. . In the United States of America, it is only seen cultivated in gardens. One species of bellis (B. integrifolia, Mx.) inhabits the United States, but is a rare plant, and only found in the South-western States, in Tenessee and Arkansas. DAL ; a Swedish word, signifyin man THAL, valley, as in Dalecarlia. DALAI LAMA. See Lama. DALBERG, family of the barons of ; also DAL- BURG. ‘Is there no Dalberg present P’ the imperial herald was formerly obliged to demand, at every Cºronation of the German emperors; and the Dalberg g, like the Ger- DAISY-DALE. present bent his knee before the new sovereign, and received the accolade as the first knight of the em- pire. So illustrious were the ancestors of the present Dalbergs, the ancient chamberlains of Worms . The family obtained the rank of barons of the empire in the seventeeth century. Many Dalbergs have distin- guished themselves as patrons of German literature. DALBERG, Charles Theodore Anthony Maria, of the noble family of Talberg, barons of the German empire, was chamberlain of Worms, elector of Mentz, archchancellor, and subsequently prince-primate of the confederation of the Rhine, and grand-duke of Frankfort ; finally archbishop of Ratisbon and bishop of Worms and Constance ; born February 8, 1744, at Hernsheim, near Worms. In 1772, he became privy-counsellor and governor at Erfurt. During many years’ residence in that place, he was distin- #. for industry, regularity, and punctuality in the ischarge of his duties. An incorruptible love of justice, and inflexible firmness in maintaining what he considered just and politic, animated him. He encouraged science and the arts by his patronage of learned men and artists, and wrote several learned treatises and ingenious works. In 1802, after the death of the elector of Mentz, he was made elector and archchancellor of the German empire. By the new political changes in Germany in 1803, he came into possession of Ratisbon, Aschaffenburg, and Wetz- lar. In 1806, he was made prince-primate of the confederation of the Rhine. At Ratisbon, he erected the first monument to the famous Kepler. In 1810, he resigned the principality of Ratisbon, to Bavaria, and obtained, as compensation, a considerable part of the principalities of Fulda and Hanau, and was made grand-duke. In 1813, he voluntarily resigned all his possessions as a sovereign prince, and return- ed to private life, retaining only his ecclesiastical dignity of archbishop. He retired to Ratisbon. He was a member of the French national institute. His works are mostly philosophical. Among them are the Reflections on the Universe (5th edition, 1805), the Principles of AEsthetics (Erlangen, 1791), and Pericles, or the Influence of the Liberal Arts on Public Happiness (Erfurt, 1806). He wrote several of his works in French. He is also the author of several legal treatises. Although he was fond of theoretical speculations, yet he devoted his attention more particularly to practical studies, such as the phi- losophy of the arts, mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, mineralogy, scientific agriculture, &c. Dal- berg died February 10, 1817. DALE, David, an eminent manufacturer and mer- chant in Glasgow, whose active benevolence and public spirit entitle him to remembrance, was born in the town of Stewarton, Ayrshire, on the 6th January, 1739. His father being in humble circumstances, he was early apprenticed to the weaving business, at which he continued till manhood, but, disliking Se- dentary employment, he afterwards commenced deal- ing in linen yarn at Glasgow, importing, namely, Frenchyarn from Holland, and selling it to the manu- facturers there, by which the foundation of his for- tune was laid. He was the projector of the cotton mills at New Lamark, to which Mr Owen has given a notoriety. Mr Owen married a daughter of his, and may be said to have borrowed many of his phi- lanthropic views, from witnessing the estimable con- duct of his father-in-law in the management of these mills. In connexion with another gentleman, Mr Dale also established the first works in Scotland, for dyeing cotton turkey red, and was a partner in a manufactory of inkles or tapes. By these means, and his own natural sagacity, he amassed a great fortune, and ultimately became a magistrate of Glasgow, in which situation he distinguished himself as the active DALE–DALLAS. patron of every . and laudable undertaking. In his own establishments, he paid the utmost atten- tion to the comfort and education of his workers, and there the poor and destitute seldom failed to find an asylum. On one occasion, when a vessel, freighted with Highland families emigrating to America, was driven back on the coast, under circumstances of dis- tress, he took the greater part under his protection, and established them comfortably at New Lanark. Mr Dale died on the 17th March, 1806. His public exertions in the cause of the poor and uneducated, as well as his private charities, have made his name venerated in the west of Scotland. Mr Dale was the founder of an independent religious sect in Glasgow, which somewhat resembles, in doctrine and practice, the Glassites, and of which little congregations still exist in some parts of Scotland, under the name of Daleites. DALE, RICHARD, an American naval commander, was born in Virginia, November 6, 1756. At twelve years of age, he was sent to sea, and, in 1775, he took the command of a merchant vessel. In 1776, he entered, as a midshipman, on board of the Ameri- can brig of war Lexington, commanded by Captain John Barry. In her he cruised on the British coast the following year, and was taken by a British cut- ter. After a confinement of more than a year in Mill prison, he effected his escape into France, where he joined, in the character of master's mate, the cele- brated Paul Jones, then commanding the American ship Bon Homme Richard. Jones soon raised Dale to the rank of his first lieutenant, in which character he signalized himself in the sanguinary and desperate engagement between the Bon Homme Richard and the English frigate Serapis. He was the first man who reached the deck of the latter when she was boarded and taken. In 1781, he returned to America, and, in June of that year, was appointed to the Trumbull frigate, commanded by captain James Ni- cholson, and soon afterwards captured. From 1790 to 1794, he served as captain in the East India trade. At the end of this period, the government of the United States made him a captain in the navy. In 1801, he took the command of the American Squa- dron of observation, which sailed, in June of that year, from Hampton roads to the Mediterranean. His broad pendant was hoisted on board the frigate Pre- sident. Efficient protection was given by Dale to the American trade and other interests in the Mediter- ranean. In April, 1802, he reached Hampton roads again. He passed the remainder of his life in Phila- delphia, in the enjoyment of a competent estate, and of the esteem of all his fellow citizens. He died February 24, 1826. Captain Dale was a thorough, brave, and intelligent seaman. He was several times severely wounded in battle. The adventures of his early years were of the most romantic and perilous cast. No man could lay claim to a more honourable and honest character. DALECARLIA ; a province of Sweden. See Swe- den. DALIN, OLOF or OLAus of ; the father of the Swe- dish literature of the eighteenth century. He exerted much influence by his periodical paper, The Swedish Argus (1733–34), and still more by his spirited Uoems, particularly Satires (1729), an excellent poem on the liberty of Sweden (1742), many Songs, epigrams, and fables. The best edition of his poetical works appeared at Stockholm, 1782–83, in 2 vols. He acquired equal reputation by his able history of Swe- den (Stockholm, 1777, 3 vols. 4to, translated into German by Benzelstierna and Daelmert, Greifswalde, 4 vols., 4to), on which account he was appointed historiographer of the kingdom (1756). He also par- ticipated in the foundation of the academy of belles 585 lettres by Ulrica Eleonora, 1753. He was born in the district of Winberga in Halland, 1708; and died chancellor of the court of Sweden, in 1763. DALKEITH, a parish in the county of Edin- burgh, extending about four miles in length, and about two or two and a half in breadth. The town of Dalkeith (six miles S.S.E. from Edinburgh) is capital of the parish, and is finely seated on a tongue of land formed by the rivers North and South Esk, the banks of which are fringed with wood and further adorned with elegant villas occupied by families of distinction. Among these, upon the site of a castle, for ages the chief seat of the noble family of Morton, stands the mansion of the duke of Buc- cleugh, who is earl of Dalkeith and superior of the whoſe parish, which, before the abolition of heredi- tary jurisdictions in 1747, was a burgh of regality. The town comprises a spacious, well built street with several inferior streets branching from it. The public buildings and establishments are, the church built in the reign of James VI., an elegant stone bridge over the North Esk, an ancient jail, the gram- mar-school, in which many whose reputation stands high in literature commenced their studies, several other good Seminaries, a penny-post office, and a com- modious workhouse for the poor. The market here for corn is considered the greatest in Scotland. Po- pulation of town and parish in 1831, 5,586. DALLAS, ALEXANDER JAMEs, was born June 1, 1759, in the island of Jamaica. When quite young he was sent to school at Edinburgh, and afterwards at Westminster. His father was an eminent and wealthy physician in the island of Jamaica. In 1781, after the death of his father, he left England for Jamaica. It was found that the whole of Mr T]allas's property was left at the disposal of his widow, who married again, and no part of it ever came to the rest of the family. The subject of this article left Jamaica in April, 1783, and arrived at New York, June 7, and at Philadelphia a week after. June 17, he took the oath of allegiance to the state of Pennsylvania. In July, 1785, he was admitted to practise in the supreme court of Pennsylvania, and, in the course of four or five years, became a practi. tioner in the courts of the United States. During this period, his practice not being extensive, he pre- pared his Reports for the press, and occupied himself in various literary undertakings. He wrote much in the magazines of the day. Of the Columbian Magazine he was at one time editor. His essays will bear a comparison with those of his contempo- raries; and this is no small praise, for Franklin, Rush, and Hopkinson, were of the number. Jan. 19, 1791, he was appointed secretary of Pennsylva- nia by governor Mifflin. In December, 1793, his commission was renewed. Not long after, he was appointed paymaster-general of the forces that marched to the west, and he accompanied the expe- dition to Pittsburg. In December, 1796, the office of secretary was again confided to him. While he held this office, he published an edition of the laws of the commonwealth, with notes. Upon the election,of Mr Jefferson, in 1801, he was appointed attorney of the United States for the eastern district of Pennsyl- vania, and he continued in this office until his re- moval to Washington. October 6, he was appointed secretary of the treasury of the United States. The circumstances under which he entered this difficult situation, the boldness with which he assumed its re- sponsibilities, his energy of character, and the gene- ral confidence and approbation with which his ca- reer was accompanied, belong to the history of the times. March 13, 1815, he undertook the additional trust of secretary of war, and performed with suc- cess the delicate task of reducing the army of the 586 United States. In November, 1816, peace being re- stored, the finances arranged, the embarrassment of the circulating medium daily diminishing, and soon to disappear under the influence of the national bank, which it had so long been his effort to establish, Mr Dallas resigned his honourable station, and returned to the practice of the law in Philadelphia. His busi- mess was considerable, and his talents as an advocate were employed not only at home, but from almost every quarter of the Union. In the midst of his brilliant prospects, exposure to cold, and great pro- fessional exertions in a very important cause, brought on an attack of the gout in his stomach, at Trenton, of which he died, Jan. 16, 1817. DALLAS, RoberT CHARLEs, one of the friends and biographers of Lord Byron, was born in Ja- maica, and studied law in the Inner Temple. When he came of age, he married, and went to Jamaica, where he had received a lucrative appointment, but was obliged to leave the island on account of the ill health of his wife. He went to France, then to America, with a view to settle there, but, being dis- appointed, returned and devoted himself to literature. His productions, including translations, are numer- ous. His novels have been collected and published in seven volumes, 12mo, Lord Byron made him a present of the copyright of Childe Harold and some other of his early works, which afforded him much pecuniary advantage. DALMATIA ; an Austrian kingdom, including four circles—Zara, Spalatro and MacarSca, Ragusa, Cattaro–lying on the Adriatic Sea, bounded by Cro- atia, Bosnia, and Albania, and having several islands belonging to it. Since 1814, with the exception of the Turkish part, it has been entirely subject to the emperor of Austria, and contains 5800 square miles, 320,000 inhabitants, in twenty-two towns, thirty- three boroughs, and 914 villages. , Dalmatia, for- merly an important kingdom, was, after many unsuc- cessful attempts, subjected by the Romans under Au- gustus. After the decline of the Western Empire, it was first under the dominion of the Goths, then under that of the Eastern Emperors. In the first half of the seventh century, it was conquered by the Sclavo- mians, who erected it into a kingdom, which lasted till 1030, when it was, in part, united with Hungary, under king St Ladislaus; another part placed itself under the protection of the then powerful republic of Venice for security against the attacks of the Turks, who, however, afterwards, took a part from the Venetians. By the peace of Campo-Formio (October 17, 1797), the Venetian part of Dalmatia, as well as Venice itself, was made over to Austria; but, by the treaty of Presburg, in 1805, Austria ced- ed it to the French emperor, who first united it with the kingdom of Italy, and in 1810, with Illyria, al- though he caused it to be governed by a general- wrovveditore. The causes of the small population of this fertile but poorly cultivated country, are the excessive use of spi- rituous liquors, the noxious exhalations of the marshes in various districts, the frequent emigrations, and the habit of private revenge, which extends even to the third and fourth generations. It contains impenetra- ble forests, and regions covered with marshes. The Dalmatians are a handsome race, bold seamen, and good soldiers, if they are well commanded. The for- mer military power of Venice rested entirely upon this province. The Dalmatians, in general, are ac- cused, and probably not unjustly, of deceitfulness and rapacity: the desire of independence is almost universal. A peculiar feature of their character is, that many of them prefer the heroic death (as they term it) by the spear, to a natural and peaceful death in the midst of their family. They speak a Sclavonic t IDALLAS–DALRYMPLE. dialect. The Morlachians, who dwell in the inte- rior of the country, and among the mountains, and in the Turkish government of Herseck, constitute but a part of the nation. They are excellent soldiers, but have a strong inclination for robbery and drinking; yet they are hospitable, benevolent, and faithful in their promises. Averse to every kind of restraint, they live in a sort of natural condition. They have always been a good wall against the attacks of the Turks. The inhabitants of the islands are principally em- ployed in fishing, and are servants on the continent, or sailors in merchant-ships. The islands are not very productive. Several have good harbours, and afford much timber for ship-building. The inhabi. tants of the continent are employed in agriculture and the breeding of cattle. They have some com- merce, and devote themselves chiefly to the sea. As long as their soil produces no more than it does at present, their trade and industry cannot be important, more particularly since the great commons, according to the ancient Dalmatian custom, are not separated, and the overgrown landed estates of individuals are not divided on their decease. The Dalmatians export tallow, hare-skins (which latter are brought from Bosnia), some oil, figs, wine, brandy, wax, and salt fish, from different ports; and receive, in exchange, linen, cloth, coffee, and sugar, but only in small quan- tities, so that the money-balance is on their side. There are gold, iron, and coal mines in the country, but they remain unwrought. Zara, the capital, and the seat of the governor, has 5000, Spalatro 6800, inhabitants, The district of Cattaro, which is under the dominion of Austria, is sometimes comprised in Dalmatia, but properly belongs to Albania, and lies in a semicircular form, round the gulf. The thirteen famous inlets (Bocche di Cattaro) form the safest harbours on the Adriatic sea, and present some fine prospects. The inhabitants of the district are esti- mated at 30,000. They are excellent seamen, and were inclined, under the lax government of the Vene- tians, to robbery, particularly by sea. By land, their resolution and boldness render them the most for- midable enemies of the Turks in that quarter. The steep, rough, and barren heights of Montenegro sur- round this province in a semicircular form. The Turkish port of Dalmatia, which extends from Bos- nia to Albania, and belongs to Bosnia, contains the province of Herzegovina, with the town of that name, and the towns of Scardona and Trevigno. See the Travels to Dalmatia and Ragusa, by E. F. Germar (Leipsic, 1817), which is particularly rich in natural history. The splendid work on Dalmatia by general Dejearo (Paris, 1825) exhibits the entomological wealth of the country. DALMATICA; a long, white gown, with white sleeves, formerly worn by the Dahmatians, and, since the time of pope Sylvester I., by the Roman Catholic deacons, over the alba and stola-Also, a part of the ornamental dress formerly worn by the German emperor at the time of his coronation. It was kept in Nuremberg, and put on in Frankfort. DALRYMPLE, ALEXANDER, an eminent modern hydrographer, was the son of Sir James Dalrymple, of Hailes near Edinburgh, where he was born in 1737. In 1752 he went out to India as a writer in the service of the East India Company. While there he made hydrography his particular study; and in 1759 he was engaged in a voyage of observation, in the course of which he displayed his talents to advan- tage. In 1763 he returned to England; and when it was determined to send an expedition to the South Sea, to observe the transit of Venus, Mr Dal- rymple would have been employed to conduct it, but he insisted on having the command of the vessel T) ALRYMPLE-DAMASCUS. 587 engaged for the occasion ; which, as he had never shaved his beard, which grew white and bushy, and served in the navy, could not be allowed, and his place was supplied by Cook. In 1775 Mr Dalrym- ple went to Madras, whence he returned in 1780. In 1795 he obtained the appointment of hydrographer to the Admiralty, as well as to the East India Com- pany. The former situation he lost a short time be- fore his death, which happened in 1808. His most important publications are — Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean, 8vo; A Collection of South Sea Voyages, 2 vols. 4to ; A Relation of Expedi- tions from Fort Marlborough to the Islands of the West Coast of Sumatra, 4to ; A Collection of Voyages in the South Atlantic Ocean, 4to; A Me- moir of a Map of the Land round the North Pole, 4to ; Journal of the Expeditions to the North of California, 4to ; The Oriental Repertory, 2 vols. 4to. He was also the author of many historical and politi- cal tracts on the affairs of the East India Company. DALRYMPLE, Sir DAVID, better known by the name of lord Hailes, a Scottish lawyer, antiquary, and historian of eminence. He was elder brother of the preceding, and was born at Edinburgh, and educated at Eton, after which he studied the civil law at the university of Utrecht. In 1748 he was called to the bar, and practised in the Scottish courts. In 1766 he was made a judge of the Court of Session, when he assumed the title of lord Hailes, by which he is best known. On the resignation of his father-in-law, lord Coalston, in 1776, he was made a commissioner of the justiciary. He died November 29th, 1792, aged sixty-six. The private character of lord Hailes was extremely estimable ; and he was much respected by Dr Samuel Johnson and other literary friends, with whom he carried on an extensive correspon- dence. His publications were very numerous, but they principally consist of new editions and transla- tions of old works, and editions of manuscript papers. Of his original productions, The Annals of Scot- land, from the Accession of Malcolm Canmore to the Accession of the House of Stuart, 2 vols. 4to, 1776 till 1779, is by far the most important. DALRYMPLE, JAMEs, the first viscount Stair, an eminent Scottish lawyer and statesman, was born in Ayrshire, 1607. In the civil war he sided with the parliament, but soon relinquished that party, and became professor of philosophy at Glasgow. On the restoration he received the honour of knighthood, and in 1671 was made president of the court of session; but he was dismissed from all his employments in 1682. He then retired to Holland, and became a favourite with the prince of Orange, who, after the Revolution, raised him to the peerage. He died in 1695. He wrote—The Institution of the Laws of Scotland, folio; Decisions of the Court of Session ; Philosophia mova experimentalis; Vindication of the T)ivine Perfections; and An Apology for his own Conduct. His son, John Dalrymple, second lord Stair, (born in Edinburgh, 1673; died there 1747) was an accomplished and patriotic nobleman, and distinguished himself in the wars of Marlborough. DAL SEGNO (Italian) means from the sign. In music, this expression denotes, that the singer or player ought to recommence at the former place, where the same mark is put. I)ALYELL, THOMAs, of Binns in West Lothian ; a Scottish officer on the royalist side, who was taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester, and confined in the Tower, from which he escaped to Russia, where the czar made him a general. At the restoration, he returned to England, and Charles II. made him com- #nander-in-chief of his forces in Scotland, where his memory is still execrated for his cruel persecution of the covenanters. He was singular in his dress and appearance. After the death of Charles I, he never; descended to his middle. He generally went to London once or twice a-year to kiss the king's hand, and the singularity of his appearance drew crowds of boys after him. He is mentioned by Scott in his description of the defeat of the Covenanters in Old Mortality. He died in 1685. DAM, DAMM ; the end of many German and Tutch geographical words, signifying a dam or sluice as in Amsterdam, the sluices of the Arnstel. DAMAGE-FEASANT. Beasts are said to be damage-feasant, or doing damage, when those of one person are found upon the land of another without his permission and without his fault; for if the owner of a field or enclosure adjoining upon another enclo- sure neglects to repair his fences, and the beasts pass through, he cannot seize them as damage-feasant. But # the beasts break into a close from the high- way, where they were wrongfully left to run at large, the owner of the close may take them up, or distrain them as damage-feasant, though the fence of the close on the side next the highway was defective; for the owner is not obliged to make a fence against beasts where they cannot be lawfully left at large. The owner of land has a right to sue the owner of the beasts in trespass for the damage done by them to his crops, &c., but the law gives him; also the means of stopping the damage, for he may distrain and impound the beasts. DAMASCENUS, John ; John of Damascus, after- wards called also John Chrysorrhoas ; author of the first system of Christian theology in the Eastern church, or the founder of scientific dogmatics. He first endeavoured to give a full system of dogmatics, founded on reason and the Bible, which had hitherto been elaborated in the Greek church only in parts, as ecclesiastical controversies arose. His explanation of the orthodox faith, in four volumes, enjoyed, in the Greek church, a great reputation. He also wrote Dialectics, a system of logic on the principles of Aristotle, and prepared a collection of philosophical passages, extracted from ancient works, in alphabeti- cal order, &c. The best edition of his Greek works is that by P. Mich. Lequien (Paris, 1712, 2 vols. fol.). After being in the service of a caliph, he became a monk in the convent of.Saba, near Jerusalem, and died about 760. He must not be confounded with Nicholas of Damascus. DAMASCUS ; a city of Syria, the capital of the pachalic of the same name, situated in a fertile plain amidst extensive gardens, forming a circuit of be- tween 25 and 30 miles. The streets are in general narrow, of regular width, though “not in straight lines: they are well paved, and have elevated foot- paths on each side. Damascus contains above 500 large and magnificent houses, which are entitled to the name of palaces: each house has a canal or foun- tain. The mosques and chapels are also numerous, and the grand mosque is of great extent and magni- ficence. An hospital for the indigent sick is º to the edifice. This mosque is said to have been, originally, a Christian church, and the cathedral of Damascus. The mosques are mostly fronted by a court. One mosque is beautifully adorned with all kinds of fine marble, like Mosaic pavement; and the tower or minaret of another is entirely cased with pantiles. There are several hospitals here, of which the finest is that constructed by the Sultan Selim, consisting of a spacious quadrangle, lined by an in- terior colonnade, which is entirely roofed by forty small domes, covered with lead. On the South side of the court is a mosque, with a magnificent portico and two fine minarets, which is surmounted by a spa- cious cupola. There is a Greek, Maronite, Syrian. and Armenian church. There are eight synagogues 588 of the Jews. The castle, situated towards the south- west part of the city, and about three quarters of a mile in circuit, is a fine rustic edifice, with three square towers in front, and five on each side. This city is the seat of a considerable trade. It was cele- brated for the manufacture of Sabres, of such peculiar quality as to be perfectly elastic and very hard. Ex- tensive manufactures are carried on in silk and cotton stuffs. Leather is likewise an article of manufacture here, but no linen is made. A great quantity of soap is fabricated, and exported to Egypt. Dried fruits and sweetmeats are sent to Turkey. Cotton cloths, handkerchiefs, slippers, copper kettles, horse-shoe nails, tobacco-pipes, and spiceries, shawls, and the rich fabrics of Surat, are brought through Bagdad; iron, lead, tin, cochineal, broadcloth, Sugar, .# such other European articles as are required in the city, come through Saida, Bairout, and Tripoli. Commerce is carried on chiefly by caravans, of which the principal is that in which the pilgrims annually proceed to Mecca. Three caravans besides, each accompanied by above 2500 armed men, go thrice a- year to Bagdad, the journey occupying thirty days; those to Teppo travel twice or thrice a-month; besides which, there are many to different parts of Syria. Damascus is a place of great antiquity, and is alluded to in the account of the time of Abraham. The population amounts, according to Burckhardt, in his Travels through Arabia, to 250,000, including many Catholics and Jews; the remaining inhabitants are Mohammedans. 136 miles N. Jerusalem. Lon. 360 30' E.; lat. 380 30' N. T)AMASK ; an ingeniously manufactured stuff, the ground of which is bright and glossy, with vines, flowers, and figures interwoven. At first, it was made only of silk, but afterwards of linen and wool- len, as, for example, damask table-cloth. According to the opinion of some, this kind of weaving was derived from the Babylonians; according to others, invented at a later period, by the inhabitants of Dā- mascus, from which latter place it is thought to have derived its name. The true damasks are of a single colour. If they consist of variegated colours, they are called ras de Sicile. The gauze damask also be- longs to the silk damask. In modern times, the Italians and Dutch first made damask; and Europe was supplied, as late as the seventeenth century, from Italy alone, chiefly from Genoa. But the French soon imitated it, and now surpass the Italians. Damask is also brought from India and China, which is very well imitated by the British. At present, damask is made in great quantities in Germany, of three different kinds, Dutch, French, and Italian. DAMASKEENING, or DAMASKING, the art of inlaying iron or steel with other metals, especially gold and silver, is of great antiquity. It is princi- pally used at present for Sword-blades, guards, gripes, cocks of pistols, &c. Herodotus mentions a saucer so ornamented: as also were the shields of some of the forces of the Samnites which fought against Rome. It was a favourite manufacture with the ancients. We know not at what time it so flourished at Damascus as to have derived its name from this city. DAMIENS, RoPERT FRANCIs ; notorious for his attempt to assassinate Louis XV. ; was the son of a poor farmer, and born in 1715, in the village of Tieulloy, in the former province of Artois. His vicious inclinations early obtained him the name of Robert-le-diable. He twice enlisted as a soldier, and was afterwards a servant (cuistre) in the college of the Jesuits at Paris, but, in 1738, left this service in order to marry. He then served in different houses of the capital, poisoned one of his masters, stole 240 louis-d'or from another, and saved himself by flight. DAMASK–T) AMON. He then lived five months at St Omer, Dunkirk, and Brussels, and expressed himself in the most violent manner concerning the dissensions between the king and the parliament. At Poperingue, a little village near Ypres, he was heard to say, “If I return to France, I shall die; but the first of the land will die also, and you will hear of me.” His mind was dis- ordered when he returned to Paris, at the end of 1756. In the beginning of the next year, he went to Versailles, took opium for two or three days, and prepared for the crime, which he attempted January 5th. As Louis XV. was on the point of getting into his carriage, to return from Versailles to Trianon, Damiens stabbed him, although he was surrounded by his train, in the right side with a knife. The as- sassin was seized. The most cruel tortures he bore with resolution, and could not be induced to confess that he had any accomplices. He asserted that he should not have committed the act had he been bled, as he requested, and that he thought it meritorious. He was condemned to be torn in quarters by horses, and the sentence was executed, March 28, 1757, on the Place de Grève at Paris. DAMIETTA, or DAMIAT; a large city of Lower Egypt, first built at the east mouth of the Nile, and called Thamiatis, under the government of the Lower Empire; 85 miles N. N. E. Cairo; lon. 51° 49' 45" E.; lat. 31° 25' N. : population, according to Binos, 30,000; according to Savary,80,000. Damietta daily increased as Pelusium declined. The chief disadvan- tage of Damietta is the want of a harbour; yet it is the emporium of commerce between Egypt and Syria, situated on the Phatmetic branch of the Nile. The city is without walls, built in the form of a cres. cent, on the winding bank of the river, six miles from the sea. It is larger and not less agreeable than Rosetta, and has several squares. Bazaars filled with merchandise, okals, or khans, under the porti- coes of which are Indian stuffs, silks from mount Le- banon, Sal ammoniac, and quantities of rice, bespeak it a commercial place. The houses, especially near the river, are very high. Most of them have plea- sant saloons built on the terraces; from which charming places, open to every wind, there is a view of the grand lake lying on the other side, and of the Nile, which traverses a rich country between them both. Various grand mosques, with high minarets, ornament the city. The public baths, faced with marble, are similar to those of Cairo. Multitudes of boats and small vessels incessantly fill the port of Damietta. Some, named sherm, serve to load and . unload ships that anchor in the road; others are coasting pilot-boats. There is a great trade between this city and Syria, Cyprus, and Turkey. DAMON and PYTHIAS ; two illustrious Syra- cusans, celebrated as models of constant friendship. Pythias had been unjustly condemned to death, by Dionysius, tyrant of Sicily, but obtained permission to arrange his affairs in a neighbouring place, on condition that his friend should remain as a pledge of his return. Damon surrendered himself at the prison, ready to suffer death instead of Pythias, if he did not return at a fixed time. Unexpected impedi- ments detained him. Damon, still fully convinced of the faithfulness of his friend, is already on the way to the place of execution; already the people begin to murmur, and to pity his credulity, when Pythias suddenly rushes through the crowd into the arms of his friend. While they demand each to die for the other, the spectators melt into tears, and Dionysius himself approaches, pardons them, and en- treats them to admit him a third in their friendship. Schiller has described this adventure in an excellent ballad (Die Buergschafs), and it is the subject of a popular English tragedy. DAMPERS–DANAE, DAMPERS ; certain movable parts in the inter- mal frame of a piano-forte, which are covered with cloth, and, by means of a pedal, are brought into contact with the wires, in order to deaden the vibra- tiQI]. DAMPIER, WILLIAM, a celebrated English navi- gator, was born in 1652. He was descended from a good family in Somersetshire; but, losing his father when young, he was sent to sea, and soon distin- guished himself as an able mariner. In 1673, he served in the Dutch war, and was subsequently an overseer to a plantation in Jamaica. He next visited the bay of Campeachy as a logwood-cutter, and, after once more visiting England, engaged in a band of privateers, as they called themselves, although in reality pirates, with whom he roved on the Perúvian Coasts. He next engaged, in Virginia, in an expedi- tion against the Spanish settlements in the South seas. They accordingly sailed in August, 1683, and, after taking several prizes on the coasts of Peru and Chili, the party experienced various fortune, but no very signal success. Dampier wishing to obtain Some knowledge of the northern coast of Mexico, joined the crew of a captain Swan, who cruised in the hopes of meeting the annual royal Manilla ship, which, however, escaped them. Swan and Dampier were resolved to steer for the East Indies, and they accordingly sailed to the Piscadores, to Bouton island, to New Holland and to Nicobar, where Dampier and others were left ashore to recover their health. Their numbers gave them hopes of being able to navigate a canoe to Achin, in which they succeeded, after en- countering a storm, which Dampier has described with great force and nature. After making several trading voyages with a captain Weldon, he entered, as a gunner, the English factory at Bencoolen. Upon this coast he remained until 1691, when he found means to return home, and, being in want of money, Sold his property in a curiously painted or tattooed Indian prince, who was shown as a curiosity, and who ultimately died of the small-pox at Oxford. He is next heard of as a commander, in the king’s service, of a sloop of war of twelve guns and ; men, probably fitted out for a . of discovery. After experiencing a variety of adventures with a discontented crew, this vessel foundered off the Isle of Ascension, his men with difficulty reaching land. They were released from this island by an East India ship, in which Dampier came to England. Here ends his own account of his extraordinary adventures; but it seems that he afterwards commanded a ship in the South seas, as also that he accompanied the well known expedition of captain Woodes Rogers as pilot. Dampier's Voyages, in three volumes, have been many times repriñted. They are written by himself in a strongly descriptive style, bearing all the marks of fidelity; and the nautical remarks display much professional and even philosophical knowledge. His observations on natural objects are also extremely clear and particular; and he writes like a man of good principles, although he kept so much indifferent Company. DAMPS are certain deleterious gases which are extricated in mines. They are distinguished by miners under the names of choke-damp and fire-damp. The former is found in the deepest parts of mines. It extinguishes candles, and often proves fatal when it has been suffered to accumulate in large quantities. It consists for the most part of carbonic acid gas. The fire-damp, which prevails almost exclusively in coal mines, is a mixture of light carbureted hydro- gen and atmospheric air, which explodes with tre- mendous violence whenever it comes in contact with flame. The injuries which formerly occurred so frequently, both to the machinery and to the lives of 589 miners, arising from the fire-damp, are now almost Completely obviated by the fine invention of Sir Humphrey Davy, the safety-lamp. It consists of a cylinder of wire gauze, about four inches in diameter and one foot in length, having a double top, se. curely fastened by doubling over to a brass rim, which screws on to the lamp itself below. The whole of the wire gauze is protected, and rendered con- venient for carrying, by a triangle wire frame and a ring at the top. The wire gauze is made either of iron or copper, the wire being at least one-thirtieth of an inch in diameter, and woven together so as to leave 625 apertures in a square inch. The body of the lamp is of riveted copper, or of massy cast brass or cast iron, the Screws fitting so completely as to leave no aperture into the body of the lamp. When the lamp is lighted, it affords the miner all the light which he requires, and renders him perfectly secure, even though entirely enveloped with the explosive mixture, which, with an ordinary light, would im- mediately prove fatal. The first effect of the fire- damp atmosphere is to increase the length and size of the flame. When the carbureted hydrogen forms as much as one-twelfth of the volume of the air, the gauze cylinder becomes filled with a feeble blue flame, but the flame of the wick appears burning brightly within the blue flame, and the light of the wick augments until the inflammable gas increases to one-sixth or one-fifth, when it is lost in the flame of the fire-damp, which now fills the cylinder with a pret- ty strong light. As long as this explosive mixture of gas exists in contact with the lamp, so .# it will give light; and when it is extinguished, which happens when the foul air constitutes as much as one-third of the volume of the atmosphere, the air is no longer proper for respiration; for though animal life will continue when flame is extinguished, yet it is always with suffering. A coil of platinum wire being fixed above the wick of the lamp, within the gauze cylinder, the metal continues to glow long after the lamp is extinguished, and affords a sufficient light to enable the miner to make his escape. The effect of the safety-lamp is supposed to depend on the cooling agency of the wire gauze, exerted on the portion of :as burning within the cylinder. Hence a lamp may e secure where there is no current of an explosive mixture to occasion its being strongly heated, and yet not safe when the current passes through it with great rapidity. But any atmosphere, however explosive, may be rendered harmless by increasing the cooling surface, which may be done either by diminishing the size of the apertures, or by increasing their depth, both of which are perfectly within the power of the manufacturer of the wire gauze. DAN (perhaps from dominus like the Spanish don, and the Italian donna, from domina); the old term of honour for men, as we now say master. It is used by Shakspeare, Spenser, and Prior. DAN (Hebrew ; meaning judgment); one of the twelve patriarchs, the fifth son of Jacob. The Dan- ites were one of the twelve tribes of Israel. DINAE, in fabulous history; daughter of Acri- sius, king of Argos. She was shut up by her father in a brazen tower, because an oracle had declared, that a son of his daughter should put him to death. But Jupiter, inflamed with passion for the charming virgin, transformed himself into a golden shower, and descended through the apertures of the roof into her embraces. When Acrisius discovered that his daugh- ter had become a mother, he exposed her, with her child, in a frail boat, to the violence of the Waves. But the sea-goddesses, anxious for the preservation of the son of Jove, commanded the billows to Waft the skiff safely to Seriphos, one of the Cyclades. Polydectes, or rather Dictys, the governor of the 590 island, received her, and educated the child, which he named Perseus. (q.v.) DANAIDES ; in fabulous history; the fifty daugh- ters of Danaus, who was a Son of Belus, and, at first, lived in Libya, with his brother Ægyptus, who had fifty sons. In consequence of a quarrel with his bro- ther, Danaus, with his daughters, fled to Argos. The fifty sons of Ægyptus followed him thither, ex- pressed a desire for a reconciliation, and asked the daughters of Danaus in marriage. He was obliged to consent to the proposal; but, as he put no confi- dence in his nephews, and had, moreover, been in- formed by an oracle, that one of his sons-in-law should slay him, he bound his daughters, by a Solemn oath, to murder their husbands on their bridal night. They all kept their promise except Hypermnestra, who saved the life of her husband Lynceus. As a pun- ishment for their crime, the daughters of Danaus, in the infernal world, were condemned perpetually to draw water in Sieves. Of this tradition the ancients gave the following historical explanation :-The daughters of Danaus were said to have discovered fountains in the dry country of Argolis, and constructed cisterns there. DANCING. The disposition to rhythm and mea- sured motion, is deeply implanted in human nature. As soon as man, in a rude state, wishes to express elevated feelings, whatever be their cause—joy, de- votion, patriotism—he makes use of rhythm, of mea- sured language, and the dance, or measured move- ments. This is the origin of the symbolical dance, which, among all nations, in the first stages of civili- Zation, is used as an expression of excited feeling. The operation of the principle of imitation, which led to the invention of the drama, gave birth also to the imitative dance—the pantomime. Dancing, in the Course of time, took the character of an art. Grace became one of its chief objects, and it was much cul- tivated as an elegant amusement in the intercourse of Society, and an elegant spectacle in public enter- tainments. Its ancient character, however, of an ex- pression of religious or patriotic feeling, gradually declined, as the progress of refinement and civilization produced its invariable effect of restraining the full expression of the feelings and emotions. This cir- cumstance, added to the chastened and didactic character of the Christian religion, probably prevent- ed the dance from being admitted among the rites of the Christian religion; but it has always been culti- valed among Christians, as an agreeable amusement and elegant exhibition. As an amusement of social assemblages, the dance has sunk much below the character of an art. The polite assemblies of the present day are too much crowded to leave room for graceful dancing. . But national dances, as those of the Bohemian, Polish, Hungarian, Italian, and Span- ish peasantry, still retain the expression of joyous feeling, and often exhibit much imitative power. There is reason to suppose that the dance had a place among the religious rites of the Jews; to what extent, however, is not known, and some persons deny the fact altogether ; but it appears pretty evident that this doubt is unfounded, and its admission may be easily explained by the origin which we have as- cribed to dancing in general. With the Greeks and Romans, regulated movements, quick or slow, i.e., dancing, were introduced in most religious célebra. tions... The Greeks, developing the element of the beautiful in every branch of art, were also masters in the religious dange. In the exhibitions of the theatre, they united the dance with many other performances, and the dances of the ancients which commemorated the adventures of Achilles, Alexander, the loves of Venus and Mars, &c., are to be understood as pan- tomimic performances, the word saltare, with the DANAIDES-DANIDOH.O. Romans, having a very extensive meaning, and 36.2%als with the Greeks, including the mimic art in general. From the Romans, the dance was transmitted to the na- tional theatre of the Italians. As early as the sixteenth century, several Italians (Rinaldo Corso, Fabric. Caroso, &c.) wrote on dancing. They and the French have cultivated the modern art of dancing to the de gree of perfection in which we find it ; so that the ballet of the Parisian opera was long considered the highest perfection of the art of dancing, and, in some respects, still is. There exist, at present, two differ- ent Schools—the Italian and French. Of the two, the Italian is the least artificial. The modern French ballet Sometimes degenerates to a mere display of skill and agility, at the expense of grace and beauty, which ought always to remain the chief object of dancing. - Dancing owes much to the famous Noverre (q.v.), whose writings on the subject much surpass those of D’Arbeau and Rameau. A general work on danc- ing, treating the religious and secular dances of the different nations, would be interesting. As regards the European dances, ancient and modern, and that of the Jews, the following works are some of the best: Bourdelot's Histoire de la Danse sacrée et pro- fame, ses Progrès et ses Révolutions depuis son Ori- gine, &c. (Paris, 1724, 12mo), and Cahusac's Traité de la Danse ancienne et moderne (Paris, 1753, 3 vols. 12mo). For the dances of the Greeks and Romans, See also Potter's Archaeologia Graeca ; Zeltner De Cho- weis veteribus Judaeorum Diss. (Altorf, 1726, 4to), and Renz’s work, De Religiosis Saltationibus veteribus Ju- datorum (Leipsic, 1738, 4to); Memoires sur les Danses Chinoises, in the Pariétés littéraires (vol. 1 and 2); Lafiteau's Moeurs des Sauvages (vol. 1). Since No- verre, few good treatises have been written, giving instructions on the art of dancing. We mention only the Essai sur la Danse antique et moderne (Paris, 1823, by mad. Elise Voiart), and Baron's Entreſſiens sur la Danse ancienne, moderne, religieuse, civile, et théatrale, (Paris, 1825). The only Christian sect, that has admitted dancing among its religious ceremonies, are the Shakers of America. DANCOURT, FLORENT CARTON; a French actor and comic poet; born in 1661, at Fontainebleau, of a respectable family. At the age of twenty-three, he became enamoured of an actress, and left every other employment for the stage. Although he personated the first characters in high comedy, he succeeded best, as an author, in low comedy. He displayed much ingenuity and wit in introducing upon the stage amusing subjects of real occurrences in his time. Louis XIV. was very fond of humorous pieces, and Dancourt often used to read his productions to the king before they were played. He left the theatre in 1718, and died in 1726. A good edition of his complete works appeared in twelve volumes, 12mo, 1760. DANDELION. See Leontodon. DANDOLO, HENRY, one of the most illustrious of the doges of Venice, was chosen to that office, in 1192, at the advanced age of eighty-four., . He had a defect of sight, approaching nearly to blindness; but neither that circumstance nor his age impaired the vigour of his administration, the events of his govern- ment being among the principal causes of the Vene- tian greatness. On the formation of the league for the fourth crusade, under Baldwin, earl of Flanders, Dandolo induced the senate to join in it, and by his policy the first hostilities of the armament were di- rected against Zara, which had revolted from Venice. On the storming of Constantinople, the aged doge, standing on the prow of his galley, with the great standard of St Mark borne before him, commanded his men to run up to the walls, and was the first wine T}.ANDOLO-DANT E. Ieaped on shore. After various changes in the im- perial throne, succeeded by a second siege, in which Constantinople was stormed and pillaged by the cru- saders, the latter proceeded to the election of an em- peror, and Dandolo was first nominated, although, in consequence of his age, and the incompatible cha- racter of doge, the choice ultimately fell on Baldwin. In the sharing of the imperial dominions, Venice ob- tained a full moiety, and Dandolo was solemnly in- vested with the title of despot of Romania. He end- ed his eventful life at Constantinople, in 1205 (if the records are to be trusted), at the advanced age of ninety-seven. DANDOLO, ANDREw, doge of Venice, and one of the earliest Italian historians, was born about 1310, and made doge in 1343. He carried on a war against the Turks with various success, and greatly extended Venetian commerce, by opening a trading connexion with Egypt. The jealousy entertained by the Genoese of this new trade produced a war be- tween the two states, which gave rise to a correspon- dence between the doge and Petrarch, who exhorted him to peace. He died in September, 1354. To Andrew Dandolo is ascribed the compilation of the sixth book of Venetian statutes; but he is most dis- tinguished for his Chronicle of Venice, which is writ- ten in Latin, and comprehends the history of the re- public from its commencement to 1342. It is prais- ed for its impartiality, and for its judicious use of au- thentic documents, and was first published by Mu- ratori in his collection of original Italian writers of history. DANEGELT (from the Saxon gelt, money), an ancient annual tax of the Anglo-Saxons, to maintain forces to resist the Dames. DANIEL, the prophet, a contemporary of Eze- kiel, was born of a distinguished Hebrew family. In his youth, B. C. 600, he was carried captive to Ba- bylon, and educated in the Babylonish court, for the service of king Nebuchadnezzar. After three years, he entered into the service of this monarch, and dis- charged his employments with much credit to him- self, and without violating his conscience. A decree of the king, which he could not conscientiously obey, occasioned his being thrown into the lions' den. Pre- served by a miraculous providence he lived after- wards in happiness and honour. He was elevated to the office of governor and prime minister in the court of the Persian king Darius. Cyrus finally gave him permission to return, with his people, to Palestine. Daniel was a man of high mental cultivation and strict virtue. Being well acquainted with the go- vernment and condition of all the great kingdoms then known in the world, and particularly favoured by the Deity, he could foresee coming events with the great- est accuracy, and, for this reason, deservedly receiv- ed the name of Nabi (prophet), although most of the Jews exclude him from the number of the prophets. His prophecy has come down to posterity, and is in- cluded in the Hebrew canon. Probably only the second part of it is by him. It is wholly symbolical, full of dreams and visions. The hand-writing on the wall of Belshazzar's palace was interpreted by Daniel. DANIEL, GABRIEL ; one of the French historians, was born at Rouen, in 1649. At the age of eighteen, he entered the Jesuits’ college, instructed in several places with much success, and died in 1728. “He sought,” as the German Bouterwek says of him, “in his history of his own country, which has earned him his reputation,” (Histoire de France, of which many editions have appeared since 1713, particularly that of Paris, 1755–1757, in 17 vols., 4to; also numer- ous abridgments, and a German translation, Nurem- berg, 1756–65,16 vols. 4to,) “to connect the flattery of the court, the nobility, and the clergy, with the 591 duties of an historian.” We often feel the want of profound research and historical fidelity in his work. He seems to have been destitute of the art of histori- cal description. His thoughts on the proper Inode of writing history, he has given to the world in the Somewhat tedious introduction to his prolix narrative. His Histoire de la Milice Française is still known : less so is his Recueil des Ouvrages Philosophiques, Théologiques, Apologétiques, &c. (1724, 4to), which Contains his Poyage du Monde de Descartes (first pub- lished separately, and translated into English and Italian)—a caustic satire on the opinions of this phi- losopher. DANIEL, SAMUEL, an English historian and poet, Contemporary with Shakspeare, was born in 1562. He had an appointment at the court of queen Eliza- beth, and also of Ann (wife of James I.); but he Commonly lived in the country, employed in literary pursuits. As an historical poet, Lucan seems to have been his pattern. He employed his brilliant talents in writing an epic on the most remarkable occurrences in the history of his country. He be- Stowed much labour on the poem which describes, in eight books, the civil wars between the houses of York and Lancaster (History of the Civil Wars be- tween the Houses of York and Lancaster, reprinted with the Rest of the poetical Works of this Author, and Some Account of his Life, in Anderson's British Poets, vol. 4). The poetical value of this work, as of Lucan's, consists in a beautiful style. Daniel con- tributed much to the improvement of the poetical dic- tion of England. His stanzas, formed with a careful attention to the Italian octave, have more dignity and euphony than most verses of this sort in English litera- ture, in the first half of the seventeenth century. He is not wanting in rhetorical beauty and force. He was also the author of some poetical epistles, pastorals, fifty-seven sonnets, and a few tragedies. The first seem to have excited much attention. During the reign of queen Elizabeth, he wrote a sketch of the history of England, till the time of Edward III.— a work learned and clear, without ostentation, and containing useful and acute views. Daniel died in 1619. DANISH LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, AND ART. See Denmark. DANISHMEND ; a Turkish ecclesiastic of low rank; also a talisman. DANTE (properly, Durante Alighieri), one of the most distinguished men of whom history makes men- tion, was born in Florence, in 1265. Of the first years of this greatest and earliest of the modern poets of Italy, we know little more than that (as he himself tells us, in his Inferno, xv. 8th) he was a scholar of Brunetto Latini, a Florentine, distinguished as a poet, a scholar, and a politician. His very early love for Beatrice Portinari (who died in 1290) aroused his spirit, and afforded images and figures to his poetical mind, as long as it created. He studied philosophy at Florence, Bologna, and Padua, and afterwards theology at Paris. He was also familiar with Latin literature, and wrote the language well for that time. While he cultivated his mind, he, at the same time, served his country as a soldier and a statesman. In 1289, he fought in the memorable battle at Campal- dino against the Ghibelines of Arezzo, and, in 1290, at Caprona, against the Pisans. He went on several embassies from the Florentine republic to Rome, and to the courts of different sovereigns. In 1291, he married Gemma, the daughter of Manetto Donati, by whom he had several children. This marriage was not happy, and a separation finally ensued. In 1300, Dante was, unfortunately for himself, made one of the priors, or superior magistrates, of his native city. Florence was, at that time, divided 592 between two parties—the Bianchi and Neri (the White and Black). The former, being the weaker, sought assistance from pope Boniface VIII.; and the pope determined to send Charles of Valois, brother of Philip IV. of France, who was at that time in Rome, to quiet the troubles in Florence. Dante, as prior of the city, resisted this interference, apprehending dangerous consequences to the state, and was there- fore banished, in 1302, together with the leaders of the Bianchi, and his property confiscated, because he was unable to pay a fine of 8000 lire, which was imposed upon him. His life was now an almost un- interrupted series of misfortunes. He and his com- panions in adversity, according to Some writers, join- ed the party of the Ghibelines, or adherents of the emperor, through whose assistance alone they could hope to return to their country. The proofs of this are found in numerous passages in his poems, which contain the bitterest invectives against Boniface, the head of the church, whom he places in hell. Dante then lived some time in Arezzo; but, the attempt of the Bianchi, in 1304, to force their way back to Flo- rence, having failed, he left Tuscany, and took refuge in Verona, with Alboin della Scala, who had gained among his contemporaries the name of the Great, from the support which talent and merit always found in him. But Dante, constantly in a state of inquie- tude, and in expectation of his recall, could not, as Petrarch relates, conceal his dejection and bitterness from his benefactors; and this seems to be the rea- son why he nowhere found a permanent residence. He speaks in a very touching manner, in his Inferno, of the pain of having to “ascend the stairs of other men,” as he describes his state of dependence. On this account, several cities could pretend to the ho- nour of having had the Divina Commedia composed within their walls. Besides visiting many places of Italy, Dante likewise went to Paris. He endeavour- ed, at length, to effect his restoration to Florence, by means of the emperor Henry VII., then in Italy, on which occasion, he wrote a work on monarchy, De Monarchia, about the year 1309 (Basil, 1559; also contained in four vols., in the Venetian edition of his works); but this hope was disappointed. During the last years of his life, he resided at Ravenna, with Guido Novello da Polenta, the lord of that city, who, as a friend of the muses, willingly afforded him pro- tection. His death took place in this city, Septem- ber 14, 1321, and he was buried in the church of the Minorites, where, in 1483, a Venetian nobleman, Bernardo Bembo, father of the celebrated cardinal of that name, erected a splendid monument to his me- mory. The Florentines, who had banished and per- secuted their great countryman, now, like the Athe- nians after the execution of Socrates, endeavoured to expiate their injustice, by paying that honour to his memory which they had denied to him during his life. They caused his portrait, painted by Giotto, to be hung up in a public place in the city, demanded, al- though in vain, his remains from the inhabitants of: Ravenna, and appointed distinguished scholars to lec- ture on his poem. Boccaccio, in his Pita di Dante, describes him as a man of firm, but yet gentle and engaging character, altogether different from the account of Giovanni Villani. His face, of which many portraits exist, is characterized by the sharpness and extenuation of the features, and the stern melancholy of the expression. Of the six children whom Dante left, his own eldest Sons, Pietro and Jacopo, made themselves known as scholars, and, among other works, wrote a commen- tary upon the poem of their father, which has not, however, been published. This great poem, since the year 1472, has passed through nearly sixty editions, and has had a greater DANTE. number of commentators than any other work since the revival of letters. Early in the seventeenth century, an edition was projected, in a hundred volumes, by Cio- nacci, a Florentine noble, wherein he purposed, by appropriating a volume to each canto, to comprise, in chronological order, all the commentaries then ex: isting, together with a Latin translation in the Strozzi library. Since that period, new editions have repeat- edly made their appearance. The last is that of Ga- briele Rosetti, to be completed in six volumes, two of which (London, 1826, comprising L'Inferno) are published. In many respects, this last must be con- sidered a singular commentary. The greatness of Dante is very often measured by the immense variety of commentators on his work, and their declaration that they believe Dante yet imperfectly understood. We do not think so, nor conceive that the passages which are most unintelligible shed the greatest lustre on the author. A passage which has been different- ly understood by every interpreter for centuries, and allows every one to assign a new meaning to it, naturally induces a doubt whether the writer him- self attached to it any clear idea, or whether the idea was not so distorted as not to admit of being traced. Should we consider the Sibylline books as containing profound treasures of wisdom, because their obscure prophecies admitted of any interpreta- tion ? or the Koran, because it has had thousands of commentators P or do we think that law in a code the wisest, about the meaning of which there has been most dispute? The poem of Dante, like so many productions of antiquity, is, on the whole, a grand exhibition of genius; and, therefore, com- mentators have felt themselves obliged to seek per- severingly for a meaning to every passage; and a Commentary, once made, was a fruitful source of more, by stimulating men's vanity to discover new interpretations, the human mind, as we all know, being often much more busily employed in displaying its ingenuity than in sincerely seeking for truth. Pante describes, in his Hell, the sufferings of the damned with an inexhaustible ingenuity and a truly poetical penetration into human life and character. In the Purgatory, he portrays the state of souls between heaven and hell, and in his Heaven, the state of the happy. The poem, like every great poetic production, bears a decisive stamp of the most characteristic features of the time when it was com- posed. It is essentially allegorical: it displays an ardent love for the learning of the ancients, and treats the Romans as forefathers, with whom the Italians of the author's age were in views and senti- ments still intimately connected. Hence arises the frequent reference to the ancient mythology, and the constant blending of it with the sacred writings. Why he chose Virgil as his guide through hell and purgatory, is easy to explain. It was iecause he was a Roman, and the greatest epic poet then known (Homer being comparatively little read, and it being not then understood how much Virgil copied from Homer), and because Virgil manifests a con- stant reverence for the emperor—an important point in Dante's view, who, as an inveterate Ghibeline, wished all power and splendour to centre in the emperor, and hated the Guelphs and the pope. Not a single pope or cardinal has been admitted into his heaven, whilst hosts of them are to be found in the hell. Virtue and vice are the basis upon which reward and punishment are distributed in the poem ; but the standard by which Dante measures these, the forms in which he clothes them, the images under which the poet represents his abstract ideas, are taken from the character of his time, or his personal character and theological views. Dante showed immense power in the composition of an epic on an f) ANTE. entirely imaginary subject, and filled with learning, which yet keeps the interest of the reader awake throughout. Other great epics are founded on tales or historical facts, preserved in the memory of the poet's countrymen; but, with him, the whole was fiction, at least everything beyond the common dogma of hell, purgatory, and heaven. At the same time, it cannot be denied, that his learning sometimes, though seldom, renders him unpoetical ; for instance, when he gives long astronomical de- scriptions. It has often been said, and often denied, that, in his Heaven, the interest diminishes. We must assent to the first opinion, which is founded, indeed, on human mature; for evil and suffering are far more exciting, and, on this account, more in- teresting than tranquil happiness. , Does not every comedy close as soon as the couple are united, and the tragedy, when the wicked are punished P The name Commedia is derived from Dante's idea concerning the forms of eloquence, which were, in his opinion, tragic, comic, and elegiac, as he relates in his work De vulgari Eloquentia, which was pro- bably first written in Latin. What he called tragedy was a piece commencing with happy and peaceful scenes, and ending with events of a painful and terrible character; and what he called comedy was a piece which, beginning unpleasantly, terminated happily. The qualifying word divina was, how- ever, added by others; but, in the oldest editions, the poet himself was called by the appellations of I/ ADiving and Il Teologo. The poem of Dante has been considered, by some persons, but, in our opinion, unworthily, to have taken its rise from the author's circumstances. We may also mention the opinion maintained in 1753, by Bottari, that Dante made use of the Vision of Alberico, a monk who lived in the twelfth century, in a monastery on monte Cassino, in Naples. There have been many such visions, from the earliest ages of Christianity; as, for in- stance, the vision of an English monk, which Matthew Paris mentions, in his history of England (in the year 1196), and which resembled Dante's poem much more than the vision of Alberico, pub- lished by Cancellieri, in 1814, at Rome, with obser- vations (Osservazioni intorno alla Questione sopra la Originalità della Divina Commedia di Dante); and, moreover, the vision of a gentleman named Tundall, in Ireland, which also falls in the first part of the twelfth century. It is, therefore, very possible that Dante here and there may have borrowed a thought or image from those visions; but this is no fault: the recollections of great men are sparks which serve to kindle mighty flames. There is no poet who bears so distinctly, the impress of his age, and yet rises so high above it, as Dante. The Italians justly regard him as the creator of their poetical language, and the father of their poetry, which, regulated and controlled by his genius, at once assumed a purer and far nobler form than it had previously worn. The terzina first reached its perfection in the time of Dante, on which account he has been erroneously regarded as the inventor of it. The best editions of the Divina Commedia are those of Lombardi (Rome, 1791, three vols., 4to), and the edition of Milan (in 1804, in three vols.). Of the former, a second and much improved edition appeared in 1815–17, at Rome, published by Romano de' Romani, in which the vision of Alberico is also contained. In 1821, Luigi Fantoni published an edition of the Divina Commedia, stated to have been printed from a manuscript in the hand-writing of Boccaccio. An Italian professor at Paris, Biagioli, also published an edition of this poem, from the text of the Crusca edition, in 1818, together with a §93 good commentary, in three volumes. Dante's com- plete works appeared in Venice in 1757–58, published by Zatta (in five vols., 4to). His lyric poems, sonnets, and canzonets, of which some are beautiful, others dull and heavy, were written at different periods of his life. We have yet to men- tion his Banquet (Il Convito)—a prose work, worthy, says Bouterwek, to stand by the side of the best works of antiquity. It contains the substance of all his knowledge and experience, and thus illustrates his poetry and his life. The marquis Trivulzio edited a new edition of it, in 1826, in Milan. A work containing much valuable matter to elucidate Dante is Del Peltro Allegorica di Dante (Florence, 1826, 8vo., with an interesting appendix), extracted from a very old Codew Mediceus, belonging, at pre- Sent, to the Biblioteca Lawrenziana, marked No. viii. bench xxix. Among the best modern commentaries on Dante are the treatises of doctor Witte in the Hermes, and also in the Silesian Provinzial-Blattern, in 1825. There is a good English translation of the Divina Commedia, by Mr Carey (London, 1819, three vols., 8vo). There is also a good English translation by Wright. In one respect, TXante stands unrivalled by any man, as he, we might almost say, created the language, which he elevated at once to its highest perfection. Before him, very little was written in Italian, Latin being the literary language; but no one attempted to use the lingwa volgare for the pur- poses of dignified composition. The poet, indeed, thought it necessary to excuse himself for having written in Italian, after having attempted to com- pose his poem in Latin. Thus he is to be regarded as the founder of Italian literature. One of the strangest productions of Dante is his De Monarchia, already mentioned. He labours, in this work, to prove that the emperor ought to have universal authority, and draws his arguments from the Sacred Scriptures and from profane writers, which, in this book, appear very often with equal authority. The dialectics of the schoolmen are here exhibited in a most characteristic way. The De Monarchia is valuable as a source of information respecting the great struggle of the Guelphs and Ghibelines, and its influence upon the Christian world at that time. This struggle was a part of the great convulsion attending the separation of the civil power from the ecclesiastical, with which, in the earliest ages, it is always united. On the whole, Dante's works are important chiefly in three respects—as the produc- tions of one of the greatest men that ever lived, as one of the keys to the history of his time, and as ex- hibiting the state of learning, theology, and politics in that age. To understand Dante, it is necessary to be acquainted with the history and spirit of his time, particularly with the struggle of the Guelphs and Ghibelines, the state of the north of Italy, and the excitement caused by the beginning of the study of the ancients; also to have studied the Catholic theology and the history of the court of Rome, and to keep always in mind that Dante was an exile, deprived of home and happiness. The Germans, at present, pay much attention to Dante. They have some excellent translations, by Kannegiesser and Streckfuss, and valuable works on the poet by Abeken, in Berlin, and others. Pietro Vincenzio, of the family of Rainaldi, was surnamed Dante, because he endeavoured to imitate this great poet. He and his whole family were celebrated for their knowledge of mathematical Science. Giovanni Battista Dante, of Perugia, probably belonging to the same family, is well known by the surname of Dadalus, which he obtained on account j} 2 P 594 of his mechanical ingenuity. In the fifteenth ceil- tury, he made an attempt to fly, and is said to have succeeded in passing the lake of Perugia. DANTON, GEORGE JAMEs, a French advocate by profession, was born at Arcis-sur-Aube, Oct. 26, iT59, and beheaded April 5, 1794. He played a very important part during the first years of the French revolution, of which he was an active and zealous promoter. His external appearance Was striking; his stature was colossal; his frame athletic ; his features harsh, large, and disagreeable; his voice shook the dome of the chamber of the assembly; his eloquence was vehement; and his imagination was as gigantic as his person, which made every one recoil, and “at which,” says St Just, “Freedom herself trembled.” These qualities con- tributed to extend his influence, and he became one of the founders of the club of the Cordeliers (q.v.). After the imprisonment of Louis at Varennes, he took the lead in the meeting of the Champ-de-Mars, which demanded the dethronement of the king. In November, he was appointed assistant to the pro- curator of the commune of Paris. His importance in the capital increased in 1792, where he became one of the instigators of the events of June 20th, and a leader on the 10th of August. After the fall of Louis XVI., Danton was a member of the provi- sional executive council, was made minister of jus- tice, and usurped the appointment of officers in the army and departments. He thus raised up a great number of creatures entirely devoted to his views. Money flowed from all sides into the hands of the minister, and was as profusely squandered on his tools and partisans. His violent measures led to the bloody scenes of September. He endeavoured, by the terrors of proscription, to annihilate all hope of resistance on the part of the royalists. The invasion of Champagne by the Prussians, Sept. 3d, spread consternation through the capital, and among the members of the government. The ministers, the most distinguished deputies, and even Robespierre himself, who was, at that time, in fear of Brissot, now assembled around Danton, who alone preserved his courage. He assumed the administration of the state, and prepared measures of defence: he called on all Frenchmen, capable of bearing arms, to march against the enemy, and prevented the removal of the assembly beyond the Loire. Danton showed, on this occasion, undaunted courage. From this time forward, he was hated by Robespierre, who could never pardon the superiority which Danton had shown on that occasion. Being called on to render an account of the Secret expenditures during his ministry, Danton maintained that the ministers should give in their reports collectively; and this view was adopted. He voted for the capital punish- ment of all returning emigrants, and undertook the defence of religious worship. The contest between the Girondists and the Mountain daily assumed a more serious aspect, and Danton appeared to fear the consequences of these dissensions. The 26th of November, on the occasion of the festival of reason, in which the adherents of Hébert acted a conspicuous part, he declared himself anew against the attack on the ministers of religion, and subsequently united with Robespierre to bring Hébert and his partisans to the Scaffold. But their connexion was not of long duration, and the secret hate which had long existed between them soon became public. Danton wished to overthrow the despotism of Robespierre, and the crafty Robespierre endeavoured to undermine him, in order to get rid of a dangerous rival. St Just denounced him to the committee of safety, and Danton was arrested on the night of March 31, together with those who were called his accomplices. DAN'I'ON--—DANTZIC. Being thrown into prison in the Luxembourg, he maintained the appearance of serenity. When he was transferred into the Conciergerie, his coun- tenance became dark, and he appeared mortified at having been the dupe of Robespierre. All his dis- courses were a strange mixture of sorrow and pride. At his trial, he answered, with perfect composure, “I am Danton, sufficiently known in the revolution; I shall soon pass to nothingness, but my name will live in the Pantheon of history.” April 5, the revo- lutionary tribunal condemned him to death, as an accomplice in a conspiracy for the restoration of monarchy, and confiscated his large property. He mounted the fatal car with courage, and without resistance; his head was elevated ; his look com- manding and full of pride. Before ascending the Scaffold, he was, for a moment, softened: “Ö my wife, my dear wife, shall I never see you again P” he exclaimed; but checked himself hastily, and, call- ing out, “Danton, no weakness,” ascended the scaf. fold.—Danton was one of the most remarkable cha- racters of the French revolution—a strange mixture of magnanimity, ability, and courage, with cruelty, avarice, and weakness. He was thirty-five years old at the time of his death. DANTZIC (Danzig); a commercial city and for, tress on the west bank of the Vistula, about five miles from the Baltic, in the government of the same name, in the Prussian province of West Prussia, and 300 miles from Berlin. It has a very agreeable situa- tion, in the midst of a beautiful country. Exclusive of the suburbs, it is about two and a half miles in circuit, and is neither regularly nor handsomely built. Including the suburbs, it contains 5172 houses, and 54,756 inhabitants, of whom 2148 are Jews. Its fine harbour and advantageous situation have procured it an extensive commerce by land and sea. It was an important member of the Hanseatic league, and was often called the granary of the North. As early as the tenth century, it was called Gedance (Gedansk). For a long period, it continued to change masters, with the territory in which it lies. The Danes, Swedes, Pomeranians, and Teutonic knights con tended for its possession. In 1310, it fell into the hands of the last. The industry of the inhabitants Soon restored its importance and prosperity, which had been diminished by the frequent wars, and in- Spired the citizens with such energy, that, in 1454, Dantzic declared itself independent, and was soon after recognized as such by the republic of Poland. The city then struck its own coins, with the image of the king of Poland, maintained a secretary at War- saw, and voted in the diets of the kingdom, and at the election of king, by a deputy. In 1772, the city was almost surrounded by the Prussian dominions; its trade, industry, and population gradually declined, and the last king of Poland declared that he must leave Dantzic to its fate. May 28, 1793, the Prus- sians took possession of the outworks: the people immediately flew to arms, and a short struggle en- Sued, which, after a few days, terminated with the Surrender of the city. It soon after regained its for- mer prosperity under the Prussian government, and continued to flourish till the breaking out of the war between France and Prussia. March 7, 1807, Dant- Zic was besieged by marshal Lefevre, and surrendered On the 24th of May. The marshal was afterwards rewarded with the title of duke of Dantzic. A mili- tary contribution of 20,000,000 francs, to be paid by instalments, was levied on the city. By the peace of Tilsit, however, Dantzic was recognized as a free city, with a jurisdiction of two leagues in extent, which was afterwards enlarged to ten miles by Na- poleon, under the protection of France, Prussia, and Saxony; but, being occupied by a French garrison, DANUBE—DAPHNIN. it was not allowed to enjoy its independence. A French governor, general Rapp, continued in the garrison. In 1808, the Code Napoléon was intro- duced; and, by the continental system, its most im- portant branch of support, the commerce with Bri- tain, was cut off. Under such unfavourable cir- cumstances, the year 1812 drew nigh, bringing the heavy burdens of the Russian war. December 31, the city was declared in a state of blockade. After a very obstinate defence of nearly a year's continu- ance, a capitulation was entered into, Jan. 1, 1814. On this day, all the Poles and Germans were dis- missed, and, on the 2d, the French marched out, to be conducted, as prisoners of war, to the interior of Russia. During this blockade and siege, 309 houses and warehouses were burnt, 1115 buildings damaged, and ninety men perished by hunger. Feb. 3, 1814, Dantzic fell again under the dominion of Prussia. Tec. 6, 1815, great damage was done by the explo- sion of a powder magazine. There are, in this city, important manufactories of gold and silver lace, cloth, woollen stuffs, and Coy- dovan leather : the dye-houses, sugar refineries, brandy, and other distilleries, vitriol, potash, &c., manufactories, are likewise considerable. An im- portant article of commerce in Dantzic is corn, which is brought down the Vistula from Poland, and ex- ported to Britain, Holland, and the Hanse towns. Other articles of export are timber, leather, wool, furs, butter, tallow, wax, honey, potash, hemp, and flax. The principal edifices worthy of mention are, the high church of St Mark (in which is the Judg- ment Day, by Van Eyck), the synagogue, the aca- demical gymnasium, the marine institute, the build- ings of the Society of natural history, including their observatory. This society celebrated its eighty- fourth anniversary, Jan. 2, 1826. It has published memoirs. . In 1823, there were 747 ships entered, and 768 cleared, at this port. On the side of the city between the Vistula and Nogat, is the fertile island of Werder, which supports numerous herds of cattle ; and at the mouth of the former lies the fort of Munde, which defends the roads of Dantzic, called Neufahrwasser. April 9, 1829, the Vistula, swollen by the melting of the snow in the interior, and choked by masses of ice, broke through the dyke, which ex- tends twenty-five miles up the river, overwhelming fifty villages. The lower town of Dantzic was inun- dated, and the houses filled to the roofs. The tor- rent swept over the city, carrying away many houses, and whatever they contained. On the 12th, the waters began to abate; but, as late as the 14th, many sufferers were still remaining on the roofs of the houses, unable to obtain relief, and destitute of relief, and destitute of food. (For an account of the last siege of this city, see the Relation de la Défense de Dantzic en 1813, Paris, 1820; and also the Mili- tary Annals of Austria, 1825, 8th and 9th editions.) DANUBE (in German, Donau, i. e. deep water); a river, which was called by the Romans, from its Sources to Vienna, Danubis, and lower down, Isfer. It has three sources, the Brege, Brigach, and a little fountain in the yard of the castle of prince Donaues- chingin, in Baden, 2050 feet above the level of the Sea (lon. 10° 30' 15" E., lat. 470 58' N.), near which the united waters receive the name of Danube. Af. ter its junction with the Iller, above Ulm, it becomes navigable, being from eight to twelve feet deep, runs through the kingdom of Bavaria, then from Engel- hartszell to Orsowa (644 miles), through Austria, and finally through Turkey, until it falls into the Black sea, after a course of 1547 miles, and after having received thirty navigable rivers and ninety other streams. It discharges itself through five mouths, called Kili, Suline, Kedrillo, Portessa, and Islawa 595 Bogasi. The first is the chief and the deepest outlet, and is now within the dominions of Russia, since Bes- sarabia (q.v.) was ceded to this power by the Turks. The fourth and fifth mouths are likewise navigable. The Danube discharges so much water into the Black sea, that the addition is perceptible in the latter, even at the distance of 46 miles. Its current embraces the waters of theSchwarzwald (the Black forest),the Boeh. merwald (the Bohemian forest), the Alps of Tyrol, Stiria, Carinthia, and Carniola, and the Morlachian, Carpathian, and Bulgarian mountains. The whirl- pools have been rendered less dangerous by the la- bour of man in Germany and Hungary, but the shal- lows of Orsowa, and the j restrictions of the Turkish government, obstruct the subsequent navi- gation. Many species of fish are taken in the river. The most known is the sturgeon. From the times of the Romans, through the period of the middle ages, down to the time of Napoleon, the shores of the Da- Inube have been the scene of momentous conflicts. At Ulm, the navigation of this river begins, and is con- tinued to its mouth in five divisions, occasioned by political separations—from Ulm to Ratisbon, thence to Vienna, thence to Pest, thence to Belgrade, thence to Galacz and Kilianova, where the river empties itself. The navigation is almost entirely downwards, without the aid of sails or oars. Such vessels as move against the stream are drawn by horses, five tons being allowed for each horse, if the river is not swollen. As the greater part of the vessels are only calculated to float down, and then to be sold as wood, they are, of course, little better than rafts. The con- gress of Vienna, in 1815, declared the navigation of all the German rivers free ; but this freedom does not as yet exist, and the custom lines of Wuertemberg, Bavaria, and Austria, prevent the navigation of the Danube from attaining the extent which it would easily reach ifleft free. From France, many goods are sent to Ulm, and from thence to Turkey. At Pest, about 8000 vessels and rafts arrive annually. Aus- tria subjects the navigation of the river to very op- pressive restrictions. Thus the boatmen from Ratis- bon are only allowed to go to Vienna ; and they are only allowed to take from thence wine. In Vienna, these boatmen are incorporated. Charlemagne en- tertained the grand idea of uniting the Rhine and Danube, by a canal between the Altmuehl and the Maine, near Nuremberg. If the navigation were free, the navigation of steam-boats would make it in- crease with a rapidity equal to that of the Mississippi. See Devil's //all. - DAPHNE, in mythology; a daughter of the river god Peneus, beloved by Apollo, by whose contrivance her lover, Leucippus, was slain. . The nymph, deaf to the suit of the god, and flying from him, besought the earth to swallow her up. According to Some she besought her father or Jupiter to protect her. Her prayer was heard; for, at the moment when Apollo was about to encircle her in his arms, her flight was suddenly arrested, her feet took root in the earth, her arms became branches, and, instead of the nymph, Apollo embraced a laurel, which was thenceforth consecrated to him.—Daphne was also the name of a daughter of Tiresias. She was priestess in the tem- ple of Delphi...—A grove near Antioch was likewise so called. DAPHNIN; the bitter principle of Daphne Al- pina. From the alcoholic infusion of the bark of this plant, the resin was separated by partial evaporation, and the remaining tincture, on being diluted with water and filtered, afforded, on the addition of ace- tate of lead, a yellow precipitate, from which sul- phureted hydrogen disunited the lead, and left the daphnin in small transparent crystals. They are hard, of a grayish colour, a bitter taste; when heated, h 2 P 2 - 596 evaporate in acrid acid vapours; and are sparingly soluble in cold, and but moderately so in boiling Watci'. 3)APHNIS, in fabulous history; the son of Mer- cury by a nymph, educated among the nymphs, and celebrated in the Sicilian traditions as the author of Bucolic poetry, and also as a performer on the shep- herd's pipe. He pastured his kine upon mount Aºtna. The nymph Echenais, who loved the youth, threat- ened him with blindness if he should love another; but, being intoxicated with wine by the daughter of a Sicilian prince, he forgot her warnings, and thus brought upon himself the threatened punishment. Some say that he died of grief; others, that the nymph transformed him into a stone. All the nymphs bewailed his death, and Mercury raised him to the heavens. On the spot where he died flowed a foun- tain, at which the Sicilians afterwards performed yearly sacrifices. DARCET, JoHN ; an eminent French physician and chemist, born in 1725, at Douazit, in Guienne. He preferred the study of medicine to that of the law ; in consequence of which, having been discarded by his father, he was obliged to teach Latin for his Sup- port, while pursuing his studies at Bourdeaux. He accompanied the celebrated Montesquieu to Paris in 1742, and remained with him till his death as a lite- rary assistant. He afterwards devoted himself to chemistry, and went to Germany, in 1757, with the count de Lauraguais, and visited the mines of the Hartz, in Hanover. On the restoration of peace, they applied themselves to technical chemistry, espe- cially to the improvement of the manufacture of por- celain. Darcet made many experiments with this view, of which he drew up an account in several me- moirs presented to the academy of sciences in 1766 and 1768. He tried the effect of fire on the various kinds of earths, and demonstrated the combustibility of the diamond; on which subjects he presented me– moirs to the academy in 1770. In 1774, he travelled over the Pyrenees, to study the geology of those mountains, on which he delivered a discourse at the college of France, which was published in 1776. On the death of Macquer, he succeeded him as a member of the academy of sciences, and director of the ma- nufactory of Sèvres. He was afterwards appointed inspector-general of the assay of coin, and inspector of the Gobelin manufactory. He made several im- portant chemical discoveries, and contributed much to the present improved state of the science. Turing the reign of terror, his life was preserved by Fourcroy, who procured the obliteration of his name from a list of persons destined by Robespierre to destruction. He died in 1801, at which period he was a member of the institute, and of the conservative senate. DARCET, JoHN PETER Joseph, an excellent prac- tical chemist, born at Paris in 1787, has very success- fully applied the discoveries in his science to the pro- motion of French industry. His father, who died in 1801, in the office of director-general of the porcelain manufactory at Sèvres, also distinguished himself as a practical chemist; and his grandfather was the ce- lebrated Rouelle, the restorer of chemistry in France. Darcet entered early upon his career, after having laid the foundation of his eminence by the study of mathematics and natural philosophy. In his twenty- fourth year he was made assayer of the mint ; and, after introducing, among other discoveries, a new process for the preparation of powder on a large Scale, he made experiments on the addition of Sea-Salt in the manufacture, and essentially improved the pre- paration of the hydrate of the protoxide of barytes. These experiments led to new discoveries respecting elective affinity; but the decomposition of sea-salt was of the greatest importance, and eventually led DAPHNIS—DARDANELLES. to the establishment of the manufacture of artificial matron (Soda). Among his other discoveries, we may notice the extraction of alkali from chestnuts, the preparation of Sugar from the same material, and the extraction of jelly from bones by means of an acid. The hospital of Louis at Paris is indebted to him for the excellent footing on which he put its baths and chimneys, and for the process which he introduced for bleaching the linen of the hospitals. He also made another discovery of great importance, whereby he obtained the prize of 3000 francs, which Ravrio had provided for the discovery of the means of protection against the fine dust of quicksilver, which had been So unhealthy to the gilders. Darcet's discovery com- pletely attained the object, and this branch of French industry has since increased greatly in importance. He has also offered a plan for preserving the health ; those concerned in the manufacture of Prussian Ule. DARDANELLES are the four strong castles built On the European and Asiatic coasts of the Hellespont, opposite to each other, and commanding that strait, which is about twelve leagues long, and called, from them, the strait of the Dardanelles, so that they are looked upon as the key of Constantinople. Their name is probably derived from the old city of Dar- danum. The entrance to the Hellespont is defended by two castles, which are called the new castles, be- cause they were built (subsequently to the two others, called the old castles), in the middle of the seventeenth century, under Mohammed IV., to afford protection to the Turkish fleet against the Venetians. The dis- tance of one from the other is about two miles and a quarter. Four hours’ sail farther to the north lie the old castles, built by Mohammed II., immediately after the conquest of Constantinople, which are not more than 1500 yards apart. Farther on still the channel becomes narrower, and, at an hour and a half's sail from the old castles, two promontories appear Sud- denly, about 750 yards distant one from the other, and form that strait rendered famous by Leander's mightly visit to Hero, by Xerxes' bridge, and by Soly- man's passage upon a bare raft. This is not provided with fortifications. It leads into the sea of Marmora, at the north-eastern end of which lies Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman empire, upon another channel, which connects the Black sea with the sea of Marmora. The late lord Byron, in the month of March, 1810, swam from the castle of Sestos, in Eu- rope, to the fort of Abydos, in Asia, in company with lieutenant Ekenhead, an English naval officer, and mentions the feat in his works with evident satisfac- tion. The same feat has been repeatedly performed in modern times. The negligent Turks, confiding ir the celebrity of the castles ; the Dardanelles, have taken so little care to keep them in a state of defence, that in 1770 they were completely in ruins, and upon the Asiatic side there was but a single battery stand. ing, and that half filled with rubbish. On the 20th of July of that year, when the squadron of the Sus- sian admiral Elphinstone, consisting of three ships of the line and four frigates, in pursuit of two Turkish ships of the line, appeared before the first castles, the Turkish batteries, from want of ammunition, were obliged to cease firing, after one general discharge of their ordnance, and Elphinstone sailed by without re- ceiving more than a single shot. But, the other ships not following him, he contented himself with continu- ing his course, not minding the Turkish batteries, and cast anchor in the channel. From hence he returned to his fleet, notwithstanding a contrary wind, with drums and trumpets sounding, as much to conceal his own fear as to deride the weakness of the Ottomans. Warned by this unexpected circumstance, the Porte accepted the offer of baron de Tott (q.v.) to restore DARDANELLES.–DARIEN. the castles to their former condition; and he rendered them, in a short time, impregnable. But the Turks were too indolent to preserve them long in this con- dition; for, in 1798, Eton, an Englishman, who was for a considerable time resident in Turkey, in a de- scription of this empire, declared that, at that time, a fleet might easily pass the Dardanelles. “These castles,” he says, “may be beaten down by batteries erected on shore, or by sea, from situations where the great artillery cannot bear on ships. There are, on each side of the water, fourteen great gums, which fire granite balls. These gums are of brass, with chambers like mortars, 22 English feet long, and 28 inches diameter of the bore. A gentleman who has measured them since I did, says they are only twenty- three inches in diameter: one of us must have made a mistake. They are very near the level of the Sur- face of the water, in arched port-holes or embrasures, with iron doors, which are opened only when they are to be fired. The balls cross the water from side to side, as they are a little elevated. These monstrous cannon are not mounted, but lie on the paved floor, with their breech against a wall. They cannot be pointed, and the gunner must wait till the vessel he intends to fire at is opposite the mouth ; and they are at least half an hour in loading one of these guns.” That this account is accurate there is no doubt, for it is confirmed by admiral Duckworth, an Englishman, who, on the 19th of February 1807, with eight ships of the line and four frigates, together with fire-ships and gun-boats, effected a passage through the Dar- danelles without loss, and appeared, on the next day, before Constantinople, which, till then, had never seen an enemy's fleet. Their presence was intended to influence the negotiations then in progress, but was of little avail, for the Turks, during the course of the discussions, under the direction of the French ambas- sador Sebastiani, were zealously employed in fortify- ing Constantinople, and repairing the castles of the Dardanelles; so that Duckworth, on the 2d of March, could not return without loss, &c., according to his own confession. If he had remained but eight days later, his return would have been quite impossible. The new castles are much less strong than the old ones, which are generally understood when the Dar- danelles simply are spoken of. The latter are called Chana Kalissi (said to mean pottery castles, from a pottery near them), or, more elegantly, Sultanei Ka- lissi. The new castle on the Asiatic side is called Koum Kalé, or castle in the sand, from the character of the shore in that place. In the immediate vicinity of Koum Kalé, the ruins of the Troad are, by the common Dpinion of travellers at the present day, supposed to be found. The old castle, on the Asiatic side, is the residence of the governor of the four castles, and at this place there is an ill-built but considerable Turk- ish city, called Chana Kalissi. The environs of this town are beautiful, particularly a fine promenade of plane-trees on the banks of the Rhodius, supposed to be one of the mine Homeric rivers which descend from mount Ida. The old castle on the Asiatic side is poorly defended on the land quarter, and might easily be surprised by a small force disembarked above or below. Large quantities of marble balls, made from the ruins of the city of the Troad, are piled up for use in the courts of the fortress. A pon- derous shot of this kind, which struck one of the masts of admiral Duckworth's ship, was brought home by that officer, and made the pedestal of a table. So firmly persuaded are the Turks that these castles are impregnable, that they believed the go- vernor was bribed by admiral Duckworth, and be- headed him accordingly. Commodore Bainbridge, in the American frigate George Washington, passed the Bardanelles, under cover of the smoke of a Salute, in 59'? February, 1801. This is the only American ship of war that ever passed this strait. DARDANUS, in mythology, the progenitor of the Trojan kings, and the son of Jupiter and Electra, the daughter of Atlas, emigrated from Samothrace (ac: cording to others, from Arcadia, Crete, &c.), and settled in Phrygia, in the country which was after. wards called Troas. Here he built a city, which, from him, was called Dardanum, or Dardanus. By Bateia, the daughter of Teucer, who had previously emigrated hither from Attica, he had a son called Erichthonius. His descendants are called, by the poets, Dardanians. It has been lately supposed, that this is the name of an Arcadian tribe whose history is related in the fable Dardanus. DARFUR, or DARFOOR (Country of Foor); a considerable kingdom of Central Africa, occupying a large portion of the wide interval between Abyssinia and Bornou, the most eastern part of Nigritia. . It is difficult to fix its limits, as it is known to us almost solely by the journey of Mr Browne, one of the most enterprising of modern travellers. On the east, it has Kordofan, and the country of the Shillux, which separate it from Sennaar and Abyssinia ; on the West, Bergoo, which divides it from Begherme and Bornou ; while the regions to the south are occupied by bar- barous nations, extending to and inhabiting the mountains of the Moon. With respect to its climate, productions, the animals it contains, and also the manners of its inhabitants, and its government, it nearly resembles other countries in Africa. The people are semi-barbarous; their government is a des- potism, and their occupation chiefly agriculture. The mechanical arts are at a low ebb, and their houses are rudely constructed of clay, with a coating of plas- ter, and with proportionably scanty accommodations. Its commerce is extensive. The grand intercourse is with Egypt, and is carried on entirely by the Afri- can system of caravans. There is no regular Caravan, as between Fezzan and Cairo. The motions of that from Fur are extremely uncertain, and two, or even three years sometimes elapse without one. The Cara- van going to Egypt consists often of 2000 camels and 1000 men. Among the exports, the most important are slaves, male and female, taken in the Negro countries to the south ; camels, ivory, the horns, teeth, and hide of the rhinoceros and hippopotamus, Ostrich feathers, gum, pimento, parroquets in abundance, and a small quantity of white copper. The imports are extremely various, comprising beads of all sorts, toys, glass, arms, light cloths of different kinds, chiefly made in Egypt, with some of French manu- facture, red Barbary caps, small carpets, silks, wrought and unwrought shoes, and a considerable quantity of writing paper. The Darfoor people sub- mit their daughters to excision. They are Moham- medans, but, in spite of the prophet, much given to intoxicate themselves with a certain beverage called merissah. Unlimited polygamy is allowed, and the nearest relationship is no obstacle to marriage. Fathers often marry their daughters, and brothers their sisters. The army is calculated at 70,000 men. The soldiers endure thirst andfatigue with uncommon patience. DARIA, or DERIA, signifies river, in the Tartar languages; as Kizil-daria, red-river. DARIEN, GULF of ; on the coast of the province of Darien; 26 leagues from N. to S., and nine from E. to W. Several rivers flow into it, the largest of which is the Atrato. The coast is full of sharp and inaccessible shoals, and only towards the West and south are there fit places for disembarking. The limits of the gulf are sometimes extended to the sea that washes the shores of the provinces of Panamá and Darien. 598 DARIEN, IsTHMUs of ; a neck of land, which unites North and South America, composed of the provinces of Panama and Veragua, which belong to the republic of Colombia. It lies in the form of a crescent, about the great bay of Panama. On the south, and having the gulf of Mexico on the north. It is 300 miles long, and generally about sixty wide; but, where narrowest, between the ports of Porto Bello and Panama, only thirty-seven. This part is sometimes called the Isthmus of Panama. The country here is made up of sickly valleys and stupen- dous mountains, which seem to be placed as eternal barriers between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, which can be distinctly seen at the same time from the summits. These mountains here forbid the idea of a canal ; but, by going to latitude 12° N., and joining the head of the lake Nicaragua to a small river which runs into the Pacific ocean, and forming a canal thirty miles long, through a low, level coun- try, a communication between the two seas becomes practicable. The advantageous situation of this province Com- municating with the two seas, its natural fertility, but above all, the reputation of its gold mines, have induced foreigners, at different periods, to attempt establishing themselves in it. Of these attempts, the most remarkable is that which was made by Patter- son, a Scotsman, towards the close of the seventeenth century. It is said that he was originally a bucca- neer; who afterwards became a clergyman, and, under pretence of converting the Indians, visited the New World. He was undoubtedly a man of an original mind, and of a bold and enterprising disposition. He was the first projector of the bank of England, and being defrauded of his just recompense by those who adopted his plans, he resolved to confine his future schemes to the benefit of his native country. On his original and ostensible design of establishing an East India trade in Scotland, he engrafted the secret and magnificent plan of forming an emporium on each side of the isthmus of Darien, for the trade of the op- posite continents. According to his idea, the manu- factures of Europe were to be sent to the gulf of Darien, and thence conveyed by land across the ridge of mountains that intersects the isthmus, where they were to be exchanged for the produce of South America and of Asia ; and thus, to use his own em- phatic language, he would wrest the keys of the world from Spain. In order to attract encourage- ment and support, he proposed to render his settle- ment a free port, and to banish all distinction of party, religion, or nation. But Scotland was at this time very poor; and the difficulties arising from her poverty were increased by the opposition which the plan met with in England. An alarm, first excited by the East India Company and the West India mer- chants, soon spread over the whole nation. Even the parliament addressed the king in a violent and absurd address, remarkable for marrow and illibe- ral views; and the king appearing to fall in with the clamour, the Indian Company, whom Patterson had succeeded in establishing, withdrew their sub- Scription, and relinquished their designs. But Pat- terson himself was not to be easily intimidated; and the Scottish nation, indignant at the opposition which the plan had met with in England, avowedly because it would be beneficial to Scotland, immediately sub- scribed 36400,000, although at that time there was not above £800,000 of cash in the kingdom. Such was the national enthusiasm, that young women threw their little fortunes into the stock, and widows sold their jointures to get the command of money for the same purpose. Besides this sum, 26300,000 was sub- Scribed at Hamburg, which, however, was with- drawn, in consequence of the threatening memorial J) ARIEN. presented by the English resident to the senate of that city. The Scots, nevertheless, persisted in their scheme: five large vessels, laden with merchan- dise, military stores, and provisions, with a colony of 1200 persons, sailed for the isthmus of Darien. King William, however, still opposed it : his policy and wish were to oppose the aggrandizement of the house of Bourbon; and to accomplish this, he wished to keep well with Spain. In the mean time, the fleet arrived in the gulf of Darien; and the settlement was very judiciously formed at Acta, a place at an equal distance between Porto Bello and Carthagena. Here is a secure and capacious harbour, formed by a peninsula, which the colonists fortified, and named Fort St Andrew. To the settlement they gave the name of New Caledonia. Of the 1200 persons who had embarked, 300 were gentlemen, unaccustomed to labour, fatigue, or home- ly fare, and totally unacquainted with any of those arts which are indispensably necessaryin a new colony. These consequently were of little use ; and even the peasants, habituated to a cold climate, were unequal to the fatigue of clearing the ground under a burning tropical Sun. In addition to these untoward circum- stances, their provisions were eitlier improper for the climate, or soon exhausted. The cargoes of mer- chandise which they sent to the West India islands, were not properly adapted for that market. The infant colony was attacked by the Spaniards, and proclamations were issued at Jamaica, Barbadoes, and in the American plantations, prohibiting all Succour or access to the Scots at Darien, on the pre- tence that their settlement there was an infringe- ment of the alliance between England and Spain. For eight months the colony bore up against these accumulated misfortunes and persecutions; but at the end of this period, those who survived were com- pelled, by disease and famine, to abandon their set- tlement, and return to Europe. Before this circumstance was known, two other expeditions sailed from Scotland; and the informa- tion of the abandonment of the first colony only served to rouse the Scottish nation to more determined perseverance in the plan. When the second expedi- tion arrived, they found the huts burnt, and the forts demolished; famine and disease assailed them ; they were attacked by the Spaniards from Panama, these they repulsed ; but a larger force coming from Carthagena, obliged them to capitulate, on condition that they should embark with their effects for Europe; few, however, of these, or of the other two colonies, survived to return to Scotland. The Scottish nation, at this utter and irremediable failure, were highly indignant. They endeavoured to extort from William an acknowledgment of the na- tional right to Darien; and failing in this, they pre- sented an address to him, to assemble the Scottish parliament: when it did assemble, a resolution to assert the national right to their colony, was only prevented by adjournment, and ultimately by proro- guing the parliament: it was, however, Soon necessary to reassemble and mollify it, in order to get the Sup- plies for the army ; and when it did meet again, some very popular and spirited resolutions were adopted on this subject. The Scottish nation were never afterwards thoroughly reconciled to king Wil- liam, and even for many years subsequent to his death, the remembrance of the loss of Darien was preserved with resentment and regret. In this scheme, many families were reduced to ruin, and few had escaped without the loss of a relative or friend. It is melancholy to reflect on the failure of this grand and noble design, especially when we consider that if the colony had been maintained only a few years longer, the succession war would have secured the DARIUS. Scots in the firm possession of the country. Patter- son, on his passage home, after the ruin of the first colony, was seized with lunacy, from which, however, he recovered. He lived many years after, pitied respected, and neglected. The famous Mr Law, who was a youth at the time of the expedition to Darien, acknowledged that he was induced to pro- ject his Mississippi scheme, from the rapidity with which he perceived the spirit of speculation com- municate itself on this occasion. A full account of the Darien expedition, is to be found in the 2d vol. of Sir John Dalrymple's Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland. See also Sir Walter Scott's Tales of a Grandfather, for a most interesting narrative on the subject. 1) ARIUS ; the name of several Persian kings, or, according to some writers, the royal title itself. Among the most distinguished individuals of this Ilame, are, 1. Darius, the fourth king of Persia, the Son of Hystaspes, satrap of Persis. He joined the con- spiracy against the Pseudo-Smerdis, who had possess- ed himself of the Persian throne. After the con- spirators had succeeded in getting rid of the usurper, they agreed to meet early the next morning, on horseback, and to appoint him king, whose horse should neigh first after sunrise. . The groom of Da- rius, apprized of this project, led his master's horse, in the night, with a mare, to the appointed place, and, in consequence of this stratagem, the horse of i)arius neighed first the next morning. Darius was, there- fore, saluted king, and the nation approved the choice. His reign was marked by many important events. The city of Babylon revolted, partly on account of burdensome impositions of tribute, and partly be- cause the royal residence, under Cyrus, had been transferred from thence to Susa. Darius besieged the city nearly two years without success, and was on the point of abandoning the siege, when Zopyrus, one of his generals, by a heroic sacrifice, placed the city in his possession. The mode was this : he muti- lated himself in the most shocking manner, and fled to the Babylonians, pretending to them that he had suf- fered this cruel treatment from Darius, and that he wished for vengeance. The Babylonians gave him a command; and, after many successful sallies, by which he gained their confidence, they intrusted to him the charge of the whole city, which he immedi- ately surrendered to Darius. After the subjection of Babylon, Darius undertook an expedition, with an army of 700,000 men, against the Scythians on the Danube (513 B.C.), who enticed him so far into their inhospitable country, by their pretended flight, that he succeeded with difficulty in extricating himself and his army, after suffering great losses. Leaving a part of his forces, under the command of Megabyzus, in Thrace, to conquer that country and Macedonia, he returned with the remainder to Asia, to recruit at Sardis. He next turned his arms against the Indians, part of whom he subjected (508 B.C.). In the year 501 B. C., a disturbance at Naxos, in which the Persians had taken part, occasioned a revolt of the Ionian cities, which the Athenians endeavoured to promote, but which was suppressed by the capture and punishment of Miletus, in 496. To revenge him- self upon the Athenians, Darius sent Mardonius with an army, by the way of Thrace and Macedonia, against Greece, and prepared a fleet to make a de- scent upon its coasts. But his ships were scattered and destroyed by a storm, in doubling mount Athos, and the army was almost entirely cut to pieces by the Thracians. Darius, however, collected another army of 500,000 men, and fitted out a second fleet of 600 ships. Naxos was conquered, and Eretria, in Euboea, Sacked. Thence the army, under Datis and 599 Artaphernes, proceeded to Attica, and was led, by Hippias, to the plains of Marathon. The Athenians had, in vain, besought assistance from their neigh- bours, and were obliged to depend upon their own resources alone. They marched forth, 10,000 strong, under the command of Miltiades, to meet the Persian army, and, animated by the reflection that they were fighting for freedom and their country, obtained a complete victory (B. C. 490). Darius now deter- mined to take the command of a new army in person, but was prevented by domestic troubles, and died B. C. 485. This prince did much to improve the inter. mal administration of his kingdom. In the year 508 B. C., he sent his admiral Scylax to explore the river Indus, and he encouraged commerce and arts by use- ful institutions and laws. His successor was Xerxes. 2. Darius III., surnamed Codomanus, son of Ar- sames and Sysigambis, and great-grandson of Darius II., or Ochus (who reigned from 424 to 404 B.C.), was the twelfth and last king of Persia. He as- cended the throne B.C. 336, when the kingdom had been weakened by luxury, and the tyranny of the Sa- traps under his predecessors, and could not resist the attacks of a powerful invader. Such was Alexander of Macedon ; and the army, which was sent against him by Darius, was totally routed, on the banks of the Granicus, in Asia Minor. Darius then advanced, with 400,000 soldiers, to the plains of Mesopotamia. The Grecian mercenaries advised him to await the enemy here, as the level country would enable him to draw out his forces to advantage ; but Darius has- tened forward to meet Alexander in the mountainous Cilicia. Curtius describes the splendour of his march. Darius was a second time totally routed, near the IS- sus, B. C. 333. He himself escaped, under cover of the night, to the mountains. His mother, his wife, and three of his children, fell into the hands of the conqueror, who treated them with great generosity. Alexander loaded 7,000 camels with the spoil taken here and at Damascus. Darius was so far from being discouraged by these defeats, that he wrote a haughty letter to Alexander, in which he offered him a ran- som for the prisoners, and invited him to a new en- gagement, or, if he did not choose that, granted him permission to retire into Macedonia. Alexander then laid siege to Tyre, on which Darius wrote him an- other letter, offering him not only the title of king, which he had before refused to do, but also 10,000 talents ransom, and all the countries of Asia as far as the Euphrates, together with his daughter Statira in marriage. These propositions, however, were un- availing. Alexander subjected Egypt, and Darius found himself once more obliged to collect an army, which most writers estimate at 1,000,000. He led his forces from Babylon to Nineveh, while Alexander was encamped on the banks of the Tigris. The two armies met between Arbela and Gaugamela, and, after a bloody engagement, Darius was compelled to seek safety in flight (331 B.C.). Alexander took possession of his capital, Susa, captured Persepolis, and reduced all Persia. Darius, meanwhile, arrived at Ecbatana, in Media, where he had another army of 30,000 men, among whom were 4000 Greeks, who remained true to the end, besides 4000 slingers and 3000 horse, commanded by Bessus, the governor of Bactria. With these he wished to march against the conqueror, but a conspiracy of Nabazanes and Bes- sus frustrated his plan. The magnanimous prince would not credit the report of the conspiracy, which reached his ears, and, at the same time, observed that his death could not be premature, if his subjects considered him unworthy of life. The traitors Soon after took possession of his person, and carried him in chains to Bactria. Here he refused to accompany them any farther, and they transfixed him with their 600 javelins, and left him to his fate. A Macedonian, named Polystratus, saw the chariot of Tarius, and, as he was drinking at a neighbouring fountain, heard the groans of a dying person. He approached the chariot, and found the king in the agonies of death. Darius begged for some water, on receiving which he requested Polystratus to thank Alexander, in his name, for the generosity with which he had treated the captive princesses. Scarcely had Darius expired, when Alexander came up. He melted into tears at the sight of the corpse, caused it to be embalmed, and sent it to Sysigambis, that it might be deposited by the side of the other Persian monarchs. Darius died (330 B. C.) in the fiftieth year of his age, with the reputation of a humane, peaceful, and just Sovereign. DARMSTADT, capital and residence of the grand duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, has 1279 houses (among which are fifty-three public buildings) and 20,000 inhabitants, mostly Lutherans, exclusive of the gar- rison. It is, of course, the seat of the highest autho- rities, and of a court of appeal; has a museum, library (with 90,000 volumes), drawing-School, gymnasium, an opera-house, theatre, &c. The house in which the soldiers are drilled is 319 feet long, 157 feet wide, and 83 feet high ; so that a traveller remarked, that the drilling-house was larger than the duchy. Lat. 490 56' 24° N. ; lon. 80 34' 49' E. DARMSTADT, or HESSE-DARMSTADT. See Hesse. DARTMOOR ; an extensive, rugged, mountain- ous tract in England, in the western part of Devon- shire, usually called the forest of Dartmoor, but at present having no appearance of a forest, except what is afforded by an assemblage of dwarf oaks, in- termixed with ash and willow ; reaching from Brent S., to Oakhampton N., twenty miles, and five to fif. teen wide, and occupying 53,644 acres; in all which space is no town, and only two villages. Here is a large prison, where many prisoners of war were fre- quently confined, DARTMOUTH; a seaport town of England, county of Devon, situated near the confluence of the river Dart with the British channel; thirty miles South from Exeter. It has a good harbour, with deep water, defended by a castle and two platforms of cannon. The chief occupation of the inhabitants consists in the Newfoundland and other fisheries, wherein about 350 vessels are engaged. Dartmouth is a borough, sending two members to parliament. The entrance to the harbour is defended by a castle. Population, in 1831, 4597. DARTMOUTH COLLEGE. See Hanover, N. H. DARU, PIERRE ANToINE NoFL BRUNo, count, a peer of France, and one of the ablest French states- men of the School of the revolution and Napoleon, was born in the year 1767, at Montpellier. He com- menced his military career in his sixteenth year, after having received an excellent education. At the breaking out of the revolution, he adopted its principles, like other young men of talent. He never relinquished his poetical and literary pursuits, even in the camp, amidst the most uncongenial labours. His reputation as a poet was established by his mas- terly translation of Horace. The first edition ap- peared in 1800. About the same time appeared his Cléopédie, or Theory of Literary Reputation, a poem full of elegance and animation. The penetrating eye of Napoleon soon distinguished him from the multi- tude, and showed him peculiar favour, while Daru attached himself, with unbounded zeal, to that extra- ordinary man. He was intrusted with the most im– portant affairs, and executed these trusts with fidelity to the interests of France and the emperor, by which he drew upon himself the hatred of the opposite party. DARMSTADT —HD.A.R.WIN. This is particularly evident in his administration as general intendant, in 1805, 1806, and 1809, in Aus- tria and Prussia. While in the council of state, Daru was considered the most diligent and laborious mem- ber of that body except the emperor. There were few important posts in the higher departments of the administration which he did not fill; and the first re- storation found him in possession of the portfolio of the department of war. Bluecher displayed his enmity to him by sequestering his estate at Meulan; but this measure was immediately reversed by the allied mo- narchs. In 1818, Daru was called to the chamber of peers by Louis XVIII. In 1805, he was chosen a member of the national institute. Not having been called to any other public post after theºrestoration, Daru devoted himself particularly to historical studies; and we are indebted to him for two important works, the Life of Sully and the History of Venice. The last of these is one of the most important productions of modern literature in the department of history. It appeared, in 1819, in seven volumes ; second edi- tion, in 1821, in eight volumes, and the third edition in 1825. As a member of the chamber of peers, Daru was one of the most zealous defenders of the principles introduced by the revolution. He died near the end of 1829. DARWIN, ERASMUs, M.D., a physician and poet, was a native of Elton near Newark, in Notting- hamshire, where he was born on the 12th Decem- ber, 1731. After going through the usual school education at Chesterfield, with credit, he was sent to St John's, Cambridge. There he took his degree as bachelor in medicine, and went to Edinburgh to finish his education. After having graduated there, he repaired to Litchfield and commenced practice. Having been so fortunate as to cure a gentleman of fortune in the neighbourhood of a severe, fever, after his life had been despaired of, he acquired a great re- putation and extensive practice, insomuch that his competitor, feeling himself neglected, quitted the place, and left him the field to himself. Dr Darwin Soon after married a Miss Howard, by whom he had three sons, of whom two died, after attaining the age of manhood, and the third was lately an eminent physi- cian at Shrewsbury. Having lost his first wife, 13r Darwin married, in 1781, a second, who was a widow lady of good fortune at Derby, to which place he re- moved soon after, and continued to reside there till his death, which happened in April, 1802, in the 70th year of his age. - The Doctor was of an athletic make, pitted with the Small-pox, and stammered much in his speech. Hav - ing been threatened with gout at an early age, he Soon after entirely renounced the use of wine, spirits, and fermented liquors, and was in the habit of re- Commending the same abstinence to all his patients, a system which he also advocated in all his writings. His death was sudden :-occasioned by a fit of what he was used to call angina pectoris, which he had repeatedly experienced, and had always succeeded in relieving by copious blood-letting. His Poem of The Botanic Garden first appeared in 1781. It is comprised in two parts; the first treats of the Economy of Vegetation, the second, the Loves of the Plants. The fame it acquired was splendid but very transient, and it has since almost sunk into oblivion. A very ingenious parody, entitled The Loves of the Triangles, published in a monthly jour- mal, (and since known to have been written by the hon- ourable George Canning or Mr Frere,) was believed, with a good deal of reason, to have contributed to its decline. In 1793 Dr Darwin published the first volume of Zoonomia, or the Laws of Organic Life, the second volume, completing the work, appeared three years afterwards. The talents and eccentrig T) AR.WIN genius of the author being well known, great ex- pectations were formed of this work, which professed to reform and remodel the whole system of medicine. But the doctrines of materialism contained in the first volume were so glaring, that the valuable facts treasured up in the second have been suffered to pass almost unnoticed, and the work, after passing through two editions, has been suffered to fall into a very un- merited neglect. A complete and triumphant re- futation of the sophistry of the first volume was pub- lished at Edinburgh by professor Brown, entitled Observations on the Zoonomia of Dr Darwin. In 1801, Dr Darwin published a quarto volume, entitled Phytologia, or the Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening, and also a small treatise on Female Education, which contains some excellent strictures on the permicious tendency of modern female board- ing schools. Neither of these works has been much read, although they both contain some valuable and amusing facts. His son, DARWIN, CHARLEs, deserves to be noticed for discovering, while studying at Edinburgh, a test for distinguishing pus from mucus, for which the gold medal was assigned him by the university. This promising young man died during his studies, at Edinburgh, in May, 1778. DASCHKOFF, CATHARINE RomanowNA, princess of. This celebrated lady, descended from the noble family of Woronzoff, and the early friend and confi- dant of the empress Catharine, was born in 1744, and became a widow at eighteen years of age. She endeavoured to effect the accession of Catharine to the throne, but, at the same time, was in favour of a constitutional limitation of the imperial power. In a military dress, and on horseback, she led a body of troops to the presence of Catharine, who placed herself at their head, and precipitated her husband from the throne. The request of the princess Dasch- koff to receive the command of the imperial regiment of guards, was refused. She did not long remain about the person of Catharine. Study became her favourite employment. From the Greek and Roman authors she had acquired the high spirit of antiquity. After her return from abroad, in 1782, she was made director of the academy of sciences, and president of the newly established Russian academy. She wrote much in the Russian language ; among other pro- ductions, some comedies. She also actively promot- ed the publication of the dictionary of the Russian aca- demy. Her death took place in 1810, at Moscow. DATARIA ; the papal chancery at Rome, from which all bulls are issued. It has its name from the common subscription, Datum apud Sanctum Petrum, that is in the Vatican. See Curia, Papal. DATE (Latin, datum, given); that addition to a writing, which specifies the time when it was exe- cuted. Under the Roman emperors, this word was used to signify the day on which the bearers of the imperial despatches to the provinces received them, or that on which they delivered them. It was also used in documents in the time of the French Mero- vingian kings. DATE ; the fruit of the date palm, a tree of the natural order palmae, inhabiting the north of Africa, from Morocco to Egypt, Syria, Persia, the Levant, and India, and which is also cultivated in Italy and Spain. Dates form the principal nutriment of the inhabitants of some of the above countries, and are an important article of commerce. This fruit is an oval, soft, fleshy drupe, having a very hard stone, with a longitudinal furrow on one side, and, when fresh, possesses a delicious perfume and taste. Dates are sugary, very nourishing, wholesome, and require Ilo preparation; but when dried, and a little old, as they usually are when imported into Europe and the DATHOLI'I'É. 601 United States, they are not much esteemed, and are little used in the countries where they grow. The best fruits have firm flesh of a yellow colour. They are varied, however, by culture, in size and shape: Some varieties are very large, succulent, and without Stones. The inhabitants of Tunis and several other Countries, every year, journey in crowds, into Bile- dulgerid, to procure dates. The bunches, weighing from twenty to twenty-five pounds, when of good quality, are sold at from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 10d. each. Cattle and grain are received in exchange. Almost every part of this valuable tree is converted to some use. The wood is very hard, almost incorruptible, and is used for building. The leaves, after being macerated in water, become supple, and are manu- factured into hats, mats, and baskets. The petioles afford fibres from which cordage is made. The nuts, after being burnt, are used by the Chinese, in the Composition of India ink. Palm wine is made from the trunk. For this purpose, the leaves are cut off, and a circular incision made a little below the sum- mit of the tree, then a deep vertical fissure, and a vase is placed below to receive the juice, which is protected from evaporation. The date palm is a majestic tree, rising sixty feet and upwards; the trunk is straight, simple, scaly, elegantly divided by rings, and crowned at the summit by a tuft of long pendent leaves. The leaves are ten or twelve feet long, composed of alternate narrow folioles, folded longitudinally. The male and female flowers are upon different trees. The fruit is disposed in ten or twelve very long pendent bunches. The date palm is reproduced from the roots, or from shoots, or by plant- ing the axil of the leaves in the earth, which is the most approved mode, as female plants may be select- ed, while a few males, scattered here and there, are sufficient. Care is taken to water them frequently and to protect them from the rays of the sum till they take root. Plants raised by this method will bear fruit in five or six years, while for those raised from the seed, fifteen or twenty years are required. When the male plant is in bloom, the pollen is collected and scat- tered over the female flowers. Each female pro- duces ten or twelve bunches every year, which, when gathered, are hung up in a dry place until so much of their moisture is evaporated as to allow of their being packed. Dates, in general, are of a yellowish colour; but some are black, some white, and others brown ; some, also, are sweet, and others bitter. The time of planting is early in the spring. Situa- tions abounding in springs are selected, the trees are placed fifteen or twenty feet apart, and a little trench is dug at the root of each, which is filled with water at pleasure, by means of channels ex- cavated in the sand. The Arabs pretend that they attain the age of 200 or 300 years. This valua- ble tree would undoubtedly succeed in the southern parts of the United States. The wood, though of Spongy texture, is employed for the beams and rafters of houses, and for implements of husbandry, which are said to be very durable. The pith of the young trees is eaten, as well as the young and tender leaves. A considerable traffic is carried on in these leaves, which, under the name of palms are sent to Italy, to be used in the grand religious ceremonies of Palm Sunday. In Persia, an ardent spirit is distilled from the fruit; and, in many places, the stones are ground to make oil, and the paste that is left is given as food to cattle and sheep. DATHOLITE ; a species in mineralogy found massive’ and crystallized in the form of oblique rhombic prisms, which are often much modified by secondary planes. It has a shining, resinous lus- tre; is of a white, greenish or yellowish-white 602 colour, and translucent. Before the blow-pipe, it melts with intumescence. It consists, according to Klaprolh, of 36-5 of silex, thirty-five of lime, twenty-four of boracic acid, and four of water ; and hence is sometimes denominated a silicious borate of lime. It is found in small quantity in the trap rocks of Patterson, New Jersey; also in Norway, where, besides the other varieties, one is found in botryoidal masses, and therefore called botryolite. DAUBENTON, or D’AUBENTON, Louis JEAN MARIE ; a naturalist and physician, born at Mont- bar, in 1716. He became celebrated for his par- ticipation in the Natural History of Quadrupeds by his early friend and companion, Buffon ; the anatomical part of which was prepared by Dau- benton with great accuracy, clearness, and sagacity. He refused his assistance in the latter part of the work, offended at the publication of an edition of the first part by Buffon, in which the anatomical portion was omitted. The cabinet of natural his- tory, in Paris, of which he was made keeper, in 1745, was, by the united exertions of Daubenton and Buffon, rendered one of the most valuable in- stitutions in the capital. In 1744, he was chosen member of the academy of sciences, and enriched its publications by a number of anatomical discove- ries, and also by researches concerning the species of animals and their varieties, the improvement of wool, and the treatment of the diseases of animals. He threw much light upon mineralogy, botany, and .#. and proposed a new method for the classification of minerals. He contributed to the de- partment of natural history in the Encyclopedie. IIe is, besides, the author of numerous works of general utility; for example, Instruction pour les Bergers, third edition, 1796 (translated into German by A. Wichmann), Mémoire sur les Indigestions (new edi- tion, 1798), and many others. Unseduced by Buf- fon's hypotheses, he was a most faithful observer of nature. During the reign of terror, when every one was required to give some evidence of patriotic spirit, he was represented to his section as employed in introducing the Spanish flocks into France. He afterwards continued to apply himself quietly to his studies; and, though his constitution was naturally weak, the temperance and tranquillity of his life en- abled him to reach the age of eighty-four years. De- cember 31, 1799, he was present, for the first time, at the sitting of senate, and fell senseless into the arms of his friends, from a stroke of apoplexy. DAUN, LEOPOLD Joseph MARIA, count, an Austrian general, was born in 1705, and died in 1766. His grandfather and father had served with distinction in the Austrian army. He gained his first laurels in the Turkish war, 1737 to 1739, in which he was major- general, and distinguished himself also in the war of the Austrian succession. His skilful passage of the Rhine, and his marriage with the countess of Fux, a favourite of Maria. Theresa, procured for him the post of master-general of the ordnance, and, in 1757, that of general field-marshal. In this capacity, he commanded the Austrian army during the seven years' war. He advanced to Kolin against the king of Prussia, who was at that time besieging Prague (q.v.), and gave him battle, June 18, 1757, compelling the king to raise the siege and evacuate Bohemia. Although he conducted with the greatest prudence and precaution, he was defeated at Leuthen, Torgau, and several other places. Except the battle of Kolin, his most memorable achievement was the surprise at Hochkirchen, on the night of October 14, 1758. Here he would have destroyed the whole Prussian army, had not the prince of Durlach come up too late with his column. At Torgau, Nov. 3, 1760, the victory, which seemed to be within his grasp was IDAUBENTON.—DAVENANT, snatched from him in consequence of his wounds and the resolution of Ziethen. He compelled the Prussian general Fink to surrender, with 11,000 men, Nov. 21, 1759. Daun's plan of delay, and of venturing on decisive steps rarely, and only on great occasions, has been unjustly censured. He could not better resist a general like Frederic the Great, who was not accountable to a Superior, and who, surrounded by enemies whom he could oppose successfully only by a rapid succession of victories over the separate armies, was obliged to adopt the boldest expedients. Frederic himself knew what a dangerous antagonist he had in Daun. Daun is more open to the charge of not having sufficiently followed up his advantages. Many improvements in the Austrian infantry are ascribed to him. DAUPHIN; the title of the eldest son of the king of France. In 1349, Humbert II., dauphin of Wien- nois, being childless, transferred his estate, called the Dauphiny, to Philip of Valois, on condition that the eldest son of the king of France should, in future, be styled the dauphin, and govern this territory. The dauphin, however, retains only the title, the estates having been united with the crown lands. On the death of the dauphin, his eldest son inherits this title; if he has no son, his eldest brother succeeds him. If the king has no son, then the title of dauphin is not bestowed on any one, as was the case in the reign of Louis XVIII. ; for it is never bestowed upon the next prince of the blood, and presumptive heir, even if he is the king's brother. The wife of the dauphin is called dauphiness (dauphine). The editions of the classics which were made for the use of dauphin are entitled in usum delphini. DAUPHINY; one of the principal provinces of France before the revolution, was divided into Upper and Lower Dauphiné. It forms, at present, the de- partments of the Drome, the High Alps, and the Isère. Grenoble was the capital. See Dauphin, and De- partment. DAVENANT, SIR WILLIAM, an English poet of the seventeenth century, was the son of an innkeeper at Oxford, where he was born, in 1605. After some previous education at a grammar School, he became a student at Lincoln ..i. ; but he soon left the university, and obtained the office of page to the duchess of Richmond, from whose household he re- moved into that of Greville, lord Brooke, a nobleman eminent for his literary attainments. He was em- ployed in preparing several masques for the entertain- ment of the court; and, on the death of Ben Jonson, in 1637, he succeeded to the vacant laurel. On hos- tilities breaking out between Charles I. and the par. liament, Davenant displayed his attachment to the royal cause. Being suspected of a conspiracy against the authority of the parliament, in 1741, he was ar- rested, but, making his escape, went to France. Thence he returned, with military stores sent by the queen, and was made lieutenant-general of ordnance, under the duke of Newcastle—a post for which he does not appear to have been qualified by any previ- ous service. . At the siege of Gloucester, in 1643, he was knighted by the king; and, on the subsequent decline of the royal cause, he again retired to France, Where he became a Roman Catholic. In 1646, he was sent to England, on a mission from the queen; and, on his return to Paris, he began the composition of his principal work, a heroic poem, entitled Gondi- bert. An attempt which he afterwards made to lead a French colony to Virginia, had nearly proved fatal to him. The ship, in which he had sailed from Nor- mandy, was captured by a cruiser in the service of the English parliament, and carried into the isle of Wight, where Davenant was imprisoned in Cowes Castle. In this forlorn captivity, from which he had DAVID—DAVIDSON. but little hope of escaping alive, he composed the third book of Gondibert. In October, 1650, he was removed to London for trial before the high commis- sion court. His life is said to have been preserved by the interposition of Milton. There is a corre- sponding tradition, that Davenant repaid the good of. fices of Milton, by protecting the republican poet after the restoration. After two years’ imprisonment, Sir William was set at liberty, when, with the con- mivance of those in power, he set on foot, in the me- tropolis, a species of dramatic entertainments. On the return of Charles II. to England, the stage was re-established with renewed splendour, and Davenant became patentee of a theatre in Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields. He continued to employ his pen and his talents as a theatrical writer and manager till his death, which took place April 17, 1668. Gondibert, the principal production of this writer, was never finished. It con- tains some truly poetical passages, but is, upon the whole, possessed of too little interest to require any particular notice. DAVID, king of Israel, the youngest son of Jesse, an inhabitant of Bethlehem, of the tribe of Judah, distinguished himself by his prudence, courage, and exploits, particularly by his combat with Goliath, the gigantic Philistine; so that Samuel, the high priest, anointed and consecrated him, as king, during the life of Saul. At home, he tended his father's flocks, and was instructed in the knowledge of that period, and in music. Saul, who regarded him as his enemy, persecuted him; and thus arose a civil war, which continued till the death of Saul. David then ascended the throne of Judah, but the remaining tribes had chosen Saul's son Ishbosheth for their king, after whose death David came into possession of the whole kingdom, which he governed from 1055 till 1015 years B. C. His first expedition was against the Jebusites, who dwelt in the centre of Palestine. He conquered the citadel Zion, and made Jerusalem his residence, and the citadel the abode of the Most High. He then reduced the Philistines, Amalekites, Edomites, Moabites, Ammonites, aud especially the Syrians. His kingdom now extended from the Eu- phrates to the Mediterranean, and from Phoenicia to the Arabian gulf, and contained more than 5,000,000 inhabitants. He promoted navigation and commerce, and endeavoured to refine his people by the cultiva- tion of the arts, especially that of architecture. He built at Jerusalem a palace for himself, and made the worship of God more splendid, by the appointment of sacred poets and singers. The magnificent temple which he had projected was completed by his son and successor. He himself carried lyric poetry to the highest perfection, which it had ever reached among the Israelites, by his Psalms (q.v.). He also improved the military, judicial, and financial systems. The ar- dour of his temperament led him, however, to the Commission of several cruelties, for which his repent- ance was not able to atone; and jealousy among his sons by different mothers, at length gave rise to rebellion in his own family. His son Absalom sought to dethrone him, and made war upon him with this design, but unsuccessfully. He left the flourishing kingdom of Israel to his son Solomon. The crimes of David the Scriptures do not extenuate, but they represent him as having endeavoured to atone for them by repentance. His advice to his son, on his death-bed, seems to leave a dark stain upon his memory, though commentators have endeavoured to put a favourable construction upon it. DAVID, JACQUEs Louis, the founder and greatest painter of the modern French school, which he brought back to the study of nature. David was horn at Paris in 1750, and went, in 1774, to Rome, where he devoted himself particularly to historical 603 painting. His talents for this species of painting soon displayed themselves. He visited Rome a second time in 1784, and finished his masterpiece, the Oath of the Horatii, which Louis XVI. had commissioned him to design from a scene in the Horaces of Cor- meille. Connoisseurs declared that this piece was un- equalled, and breathed the spirit of a Raphael. In the same year, he painted his Belisarius; in 1787, the Death of Socrates; and, in 1788, Paris and Helen. His reputation was now very great in Paris, and hav- ing begun to be distinguished as a portrait painter also, he might have enjoyed a tranquil and brilliant career, if he had not taken an active part in the revo- lution. Seized with an ardent zeal for liberty, he finished, in 1789, a large painting, representing Bru- tus condemning his sons to death. He also furnished the designs of the numerous monuments and repub- lican festivals of that time. In 1792, he was chosen an elector in Paris; afterwards a deputy in the na- tional convention; and, during the reign of terror, he was one of the most zealous Jacobins, and wholly devoted to Robespierre. He proposed to erect a Colossal monument of the nation, on the Pont-Neuf, from the materials of the king's statue. At the trial of Louis XVI., he voted for his death. In January, 1794, he presided in the convention. After the fall of Robespierre, he was in great danger, and his re- putation as a painter alone preserved him from the guillotine. Among the scenes of the revolution which David strove to immortalize by his pencil are the murders of Marat and Lepelletier, and par- ticularly the oath in the tennis court, and the entrance of Louis into the national assembly, February 4, which, in 1790, he presented to the legislative assem- bly. In 1799, he executed the Rape of the Sabine Women (the masterpiece of his genius), from the exhibition of which he received, as it is said, 100,000 francs. In 1804, the emperor appointed him his first painter, and directed him to execute four pieces, among which the Coronation of Napoleon was parti- cularly distinguished. Among his finest works of this period were many representations of the em- peror; particularly that in which the first consul was represented on horseback, on mount Bernard, point- ing out to his troops the path to glory. This piece is now in Berlin. In 1814, David painted Leoni- das, his last painting in Paris. . When Napoleon returned from Elba, he appointed David a comman- der of the legion of honour. After the second restoration of Louis XVIII., he was included in the decree which banished all regicides from France. He then established himself at Brussels; and, upon the new organization of the institute, he was excluded from this body, in April, 1816. In Brussels, he painted Cupid leaving the arms of Psyche. The latest of his productions—Venus, Cupid, and the Graces, disarming Mars—which he finished at Brus- sels in 1824, was much admired at Paris. David died in exile, at Brussels, Dec. 29, 1825. The opinions of the merits of this artist are various; but the praise of correct delineation and happy colour- ing is universally conceded to him. He found, in the history of his time, in the commotions of which he took an active part, the materials of his represen- tations. The engraver Moreau has immortalized the best of his works, by his excellent engravings. The most celebrated of his paintings, as the Oath of the Horatii and the Rape of the Sabine Women, have been purchased by the French government, and placed in the gallery of the Luxembourg. 3)AVIDSON, LUCRETIA MARIA ; a remarkable instance of early genius, was born at Plattsburg, on lake Champlain, Sept. 27, 1808. When she was only four years old, a number of her little books were found filled with rude drawings, and accompa- § {}4, pied by a number of verses in explanation of them, written in the characters of the printed alphabet. As her parents were in Straitened circumstances, she was, from an early age, much employed in domestic services; but every moment of leisure was devoted to reading. A tender heart, a warm sensibility, an ardent and vivid imagination, an eager desire for knowledge, characterize her earlier effusions; the later are marked with the melancholy traces of a wasting frame, and a dejected spirit feeling the fatal approaches of death. We know of no instance of so early, so ardent, and so fatal a pursuit of intellectual advancement, except in the cases of Chatterton and Kirke White. In October, 1824, a gentleman, who was informed of her ardent desire for education, placed her at a female seminary, where her incessant application soon destroyed her constitution, already debilitated by previous disease. Her letters at this period exhibit, in a striking manner, the extremes of despondency and hope. Gradually sinking under her malady, she died, August 27, 1825, before com- pleting her seventeenth year. Her person was sin- gularly beautiful; her prevailing expression, melan- choly Her poetical writings, which have been col- lected, amount to 278 pieces, suille written at the age of nine years; besides which, she destroyed a great number of her pieces. See Amir Khan and other Poems, with a Biographical Sketch, New York, 1829. - DAVIE, WILLIAM Rich ARDSON; who held a high rank among the revolutionary worthies of South Carolina, was born in England, June 20, 1756. He was brought to America at the age of six years, re- ... ceived the rudiments of his education in North Caro- lina, and was graduated at the college of Nassau Hall, New Jersey, in the year 1776. He returned to North Carolina, and commenced the study of the law ; but he soon yielded to the military spirit which was excited by the war of independence. He ob- tained the command of a company attached to count Pulaski's legion, quickly rose in rank, and greatly distinguished himself by his zeal, courage, and talents as an officer. During the arduous and sanguinary war in the South, he was constantly useful and ener- getic, and a principal favourite of generals Sumpter and Greene. At the end of the revolutionary strug- gle, he devoted himself, with signal success, to the profession of the law. In 1787, he was chosen, by the legislature of South Carolina, to represent that state in the convention that met in Philadelphia to frame a federal constitution. Sickness in his family required his presence at home before the work was completed, and, therefore, his name is not in the list of the signers. . In the state convention in North Carolina, assembled to accept or reject the instru- ment, he was the ablest and most ardent of its advo- cates. The establishment of the university of North Carolina, is ascribed to his enlightened zeal for learning. In the year 1799, he was elected gover- nor of that state, and, soon after, appointed by pre- sident Adams envoy to France, along with chief jus- tice Ellsworth and Mr Murray. On his return, he fixed his residence at Tivoli—a beautiful estate on the Catawba river, South Carolina. He died at Cam- den, in the year 1820. General Davie possessed a commanding figure, a noble, patriotic spirit, mascu- line, ready eloquence, and rendered a variety of valuable Services to his country. DAVIES, SAMUEL ; president of Nassau hall, was born in Delaware, Nov. 3, 1724, and educated in Pennsylvania for the Presbyterian ministry. He laboured for some years as a pastor in Virginia, where Episcopacy was the religion established and Sup- ported by law, and the “act of uniformity " was en- forced with great rigour. The “act of toleration” IDAVIE–DAV OUST. had been passed in England especially for the relief of the Protestant dissenters; but it was disputed in Virginia, whether it was intended to extend to the Colónies. Mr Davies maintained that it did, in op- position to the king's attorney-general, Peyton Ran- dolph, afterwards the president of the first continen- tal congress, and in opposition to the general court of the colony. When he went to England, to solicit benefactions for Nassau hall, he obtained a declara- tion, under authority, that the provisions of the act of toleration did extend to the colony of Virginia. Mr Davies is to be regarded as the founder of the first presbytery in Virginia. In 1759, he was appointed president of Nassau hall, but he died, Febuary 4, 1762, in the thirty-sixth year of his age, after hold- ing the office only eighteen months. Doctor Green has written an account of his life. His three vo- lumes of posthumous sermons have passed through many editions, both in Great Britain and the United States. DAVILA, ARRIGo CATERINo, an Italian states- man and historian, was born in 1576. He was the son of a Cypriot of distinguished family. His father, who fled to Venice after the conquest of Cyprus by the '1'urks, in 1561, introduced film to Ilie Freucli court, where he was made page; after this he entered the French service, in which he highly distinguished himself. At the desire of his father he returned to Italy, 1599, entered the Venetian service, gradually rose to the post of governor of Dalmatia, Friuli, and the island of Candia, and was esteemed at Venice the first man in the republic after the doge. While travelling, in 1631, on public business, he was shot by a man from whom he demanded carriages to con- tinue his journey. He is principally celebrated for his History of the Civil Wars of France, from 1559 to 1598 (Storia della Guerre Civili di Francia, Venice, 1630). This has been translated into several languages, and deserves a place near the works of Guicciardini and Machiavelli. DAVIS, John ; an English navigator, born at Sandridge, in Devonshire. He went to sea when young, and, in 1585, was sent with two vessels to discover a north-west passage. He was unable to land on the southerly cape of Greenland, on account of the ice, and, steering a north-west course, discov- ered a country surrounded with green islands, lat. 640 15', the inhabitants of which informed him that there was a great sea to the north and west. Under lat. 66° 40', he reached a coast entirely free from ice, the most southerly point of which he called cape of God's Mercy. Sailing west, he entered a strait. from twenty to thirty leagues wide, where he ex- pected to find the passage; but, the weather being unfavourable, and the wind contrary, after six days of unsuccessful effort, he set sail for England. The strait has since received and retained his name. Davis made two more voyages for the same purpose, but was prevented by the ice from attaining his ob- ject, in the prosecution of which Baffin afterwards distinguished himself. In 1605, Davis was killed by Japanese pirates in the Indian seas. DAVIS'S STRAITS; a narrow sea which di- vides Greenland from New Britain, and unites Baf- fin's bay with the Atlantic ocean; lat. 63°—70° N. In the narrowest part between cape Tºyer and the island called White-Back, it is eighty leagues wide. See Davis. 3DAVIT, in a ship ; a long beam of timber, used as a crane, whereby to hoist the flukes of the anchor to the top of the bow, without injuring the sides of the vessel as it ascends—an operation which is call- ed, by mariners, fishing the anchor. DAVOUST, Louis NicoLAs ; duke of Auerstadt and prince of Ekmuhl, marshal, and peer of France ; DAWOUST-F) AY. born in 1770, at Annoux, in the former province of Burgundy. He was of a noble family, and studied at the same time with Bonaparte, in the military school at Brienne. He distinguished himself under Dumouriez, in the battles of Jemappe and Neerwin- den. When Dumouriez, after the battle of Neerwin- den, treated with Coburg, Davoust conceived the bold design of seizing the former in the midst of his army, and nearly succeeded in the attempt. In June, 1793, he was made general; but the decree, which removed the ex-nobles from the service, deprived him of his command. The ninth Thermidor restored him to the army. He was present at the siege of Luxembourg, and afterwards on the Rhine, under Pichegru. He was taken prisoner in Manheim, but was soon exchanged, and distinguished himself in 1797, at the passage of the Rhine, by his prudence and courage. In the Italian campaigns under Bona- parte, he became zealously attached to that general. He accompanied him to Egypt, where he distin- guished himself by his intrepidity. It was he who, after the battle of Aboukir, attacked and conquered the village. He embarked for France from Alex- andria, with Desaix, after the convention of El-Arish. They were captured by a British frigate, near the Hières. Bonaparte afterwards gave him the chief Command of the cavalry in the army of Italy. After the battle of Marengo, he was made chief of the grenadiers of the consular guard, which, from this battle, was called the granite columns. When Na- poleon ascended the throme (1804), he created HDa- voust marshal of the empire, grand cross of the le- gion of honour, and colonel-general of the imperial guard of grenadiers. In the campaign of 1805, he showed himself worthy of his appointment, particu- larly at the battle of Austerlitz, where he command- ed the right wing of the army. In 1806, he marched at the head of his corps into Saxony, and, at Auer- staedt, where he commanded the right wing, con- tributed so much to the success of the day, by his skilful manoeuvres, that Napoleon created him duke of Auerstaedt. After the peace of Tilsit, he was made commander-in-chief of the army of the Rhine. In the war of 1809 against Austria, his marches through the Upper Palatinate, and the engagement at Ratisbon, were hazardous enter- prises. He had an important share in the vic. tory at Eckmuehl. In the battle of Aspern, only one of his four divisions was engaged, the great- est part of which, with its general, St Hilaire, per- ished on the left bank of the Danube. In the battle of Wagram, Davoust commanded the right Wing, to the manoeuvres of which the retreat of the Austrians was mainly owing. After the peace, Na- poleon created him prince of Eckmuehl, and, in 1811, appointed him governor-general of the Hanseatic departments. In Russia (1812), his division was defeated on the retreat from Moscow. In 1813, he commanded 50,000 men, French and Danes, in Mecklenburg; but was soon besieged in Hamburg, which suffered, at that time, very severely. Da- voust was in a critical situation, and could support his army only at the expense of the citizens. He lost, during the siege, as many as 11,000 men. In 1814, he published, at Paris, a defence of himself from the charge of cruelty towards Hamburg. On the return of Napoleon to Paris, in March, 1815, he was made minister of war. When the allies advanced to Paris, after the battle of Waterloo, Davoust, as com- • mander-in-chief, concluded a military convention with Bluecher and Wellington, in compliance with which he led the French army beyond the Loire. He Submitted to Louis XVIII., exhorting the army to follow his example, and, in obedience to an order of the king, Surrendered the command to marshal Mac- 605 donald. For this service, he was afterwards em. ployed by the court. Davoust died June 1, 1823. Firmness of character, personal bravery, and a mili- tary rigour often approaching to cruelty, were his characteristics. Davoust left two daughters, and a Son of thirty years of age, who inherited the rank of a peer. DAVY, SIR HUMPHREY, bart., one of the most distinguished chemists of the age, was born at Pen- Zance (Cornwall), Dec. 17, 1779. After having re- ceived the rudiments of a classical education, he Was placed with a surgeon and apothecary, who pro- nounced him an “idle and incorrigible boy.” He had, however, already distinguished himself at school, and a taste for chemistry, which he displayed in some experiments on the air contained in sea-weed, at- tracted the attention of Mr Gilbert (now president of the royal Society), and doctor Beddoes. The latter, who had just established a pneumatical insti- tution at Bristol, offered him the place of assistant in his laboratory. Here Davy discovered the re- spirability and exhilarating effect of the nitrous oxide. He published the results of his experi- ments, under the title of Chemical and Philosophical Researches, &c. (London, 1800). This work im- mediately obtained him the place of professor of chemistry in the royal institution, at the age of twenty-two. In 1803, he was chosen a member of the royal Society. His lectures at the royal insti- tution were attended by crowded and brilliant audi- ences, attracted by the novelty and variety of his ex- periments, the eloquence of his manner, and the Clearness of his exposition. His discoveries with the galvanic battery, his decomposition of the earths and alkalies, and ascertaining their metallic bases, his demonstration of the simple mature of the oxy muriatic acid (to which he gave the name of chlo- ºrine), &c., obtained him an extensive reputation ; and, in 1810, he received the prize of the French in- stitute. In 1814, he was elected a corresponding member of that body. Having been elected profes- Sor of chemistry to the board of agriculture, he de- livered lectures on agricultural chemistry during ten Successive years, and, in 1813, published his valu- able Elements of Agricultural Chemistry. His next discovery was of no less importance to humanity than his former researches had been valuable to science. The numerous accidents arising from fire-damp in mines led him to enter upon a series of experiments on the nature of the explosive gas, the result of which was the invention of his safety-lamp. (See Damps.) In 1818 and 1819, he visited Italy, and made some unsuccessful attempts to unroll the Her- culanean manuscripts. In 1820, he succeeded Sir J. Banks as president of the royal Society. In 1824, he visited Norway for the purpose of making some Scientific investigations. On this voyage, he proved the efficacy of his plan for preserving the copper of ships, by covering it in part with a certain quantity of iron. At the same time the trigonometrical measurements of Denmark and Hanover were con- nected, under his direction, by chronometrical ob- servations, with the measurements in England. This distinguished philosopher died May 29, 1829, at Geneva, whither he had gone for the benefit of his health. Besides the works already mentioned, the most important are Electro-Chemical Researches; Elements of Chemical Philosophy (vol. 1., 1802); Bakerian Lectures (1807–1811); Researches on the Oxymuriatic Acid (1810); On the Fire-Damp (1816). He also contributed some valuable papers to the Philosophical Transactions, and the journals of Nicholson and Tilloch. DAY, properly speaking, is the time of a revolu- tion of the earth round its axis (sidereal day, see 606 Sidereal Time), or the time between two passages of the centre of the Sun through the same meridian (solar day, see Solar Time)—a time a little differing from the one first mentioned. In common parlance, day is op- posed to night, and signifies the time between sunrise and sunset, or the time during which the sun remains above the horizon. This is called the natural day. Thus we have three different days—the natural, the astronomical (reckoned from one culmination to an- other, or from One noon to another), and the civil day (which is reckoned from midnight to midnight). The twenty-four hours of the astronomical day are num- bered in succession from one to twenty-four, whilst the civil day in most countries, is divided into two por- tions, of twelve hours each.* The first hour, therefore, after midnight, which is one o'clock A.M. of the civil day, makes the thirteenth hour of the astronomical day, and the first hour of the astronomical day is one o'clock, P.M. of the civil day. The abbreviations P.M. and A.M. (the first signifying post meridiem, Latin for afternoon; the latter, ante meridiem, fore- 2700m) are requisite, in consequence of our division of the day into two periods of twelve hours each. In this respect, the mode of numbering the hours from One to twenty-four consecutively has an advantage. If we take a day according to the first definition given of it, its length, of course, is the same through- out the year. According to the second definition, however, the day, in consequence of the rapidity of the earth in its orbit, is different at different times, and this difference is uniform throughout the earth; but the time of the natural day is different at the different points of the earth, according to their dis- tance from the equator. The daily apparent revolu- tion of the Sun takes place in circles parallel to the equator. If the equator and ecliptic coincided, the circle bounding light and darkness would always di- vide, not merely the equator, but all its parallels, into two equal parts, and the days and mights would be equal in all the parallels through the year; but at the poles, there would be no night. Owing to the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit (the ecliptic), the parallel of latitude in which the Sun appears to move is continually changing ; and, therefore, the equator alone (being a great circle) always remains bisected by the circle dividing light from darkness ; so that the days and nights here are always equal ; while the parallels of latitude, not being great circles, are not equally divided by the circle separating light from darkness, except at the time of the equinox, when the sum is moving in the equator; and, of course, at this time only are the days and nights equal in those parallels. As you ap- proach the poles, the º between the days and nights becomes continually greater, till, at the poles themselves, a day of six months alternates with a night of equal duration. The most distant parallel circles which the sun describes north and south from the equator are, as is well known, only 23#9 from it. The distance between the polar circles and the poles is the same. Therefore, as a little reflection will show, when the sun is in one of the tropics, all the polar circle in the same hemisphere will be within the illuminated region (because it will be within 90° of the sun) during the whole of a diurnal revolution, while the other polar circle will be in the region of darkness. These circles, therefore, have one day of twenty-four hours, and one night of the same length * In Italy, the latter division is called the French mode, because the French introduced it into that country during the wars of the revolution ; but the people in the south of Italy still adhere to the old division of the day into twenty- four hours, beginning always at sunset; so that one o'clock is one hour after sunset, or, as the bells are tolled at sun- set, to summon the people to prayer, one hour after Ave Maria. (q.v.) DAY-DEACON. in each year. From the polar circles to the poles, the time of the longest day increases fast, and in the same measure, the length of the longest might. Not- withstanding the inequality of the periods of light and darkness in the different parts of the earth, each por. tion of the earth's surface has the sun above its ho- rizon, every year, precisely six months, and below it the same length of time. For information on the common way of computing time, see Solar Time ; see also Sidereal Time. - DAY, THOMAS, an ingenious Writer, of a benevo- lent, independent, but eccentric spirit, was born at London, in 1748. His father, who was a collector of the customs, died whilst he was an infant, leaving him a considerable fortune. He was educated at the charter-house and at Oxford. In 1765, he was called to the bar. With a view to study mankind, he resided in various parts of the continent, and, having been disappointed in an early affection, took under his pro- tection two foundling girls, with a view of educating them on a principle of his own, in order to make one of them his wife. His plan, which was kindred in spirit to some of the reveries of Rousseau, utterly failed, although both of the females turned out de- Serving women. He gave them small portions, and eligibly united them to respectable tradesmen. In 1778, he married Miss Esther Milnes, a lady of a highly cultivated understanding. His principles led him to renounce most of the indulgences of a man of fortune, that he might bestow his superfluities upon those who wanted necessaries; and he also expressed a great contempt for forms and artificial restraint of all kinds. He wrote several pieces, in prose and verse, on the struggle with America, also other poli- tical pamphlets of temporary interest, but finally de- dicated himself to the composition of books for youth, of which the well known work, entitled Sandford and Merton, is an able specimen, although it partakes too much of the theoretical spirit of Rousseau for general application. Mr Day at length became a victim to his enthusiastic benevolence, being killed by a fall from a young horse, which he would not allow to be trained in the usual manner, Sept. 28, 1789. DAYS OF GRACE are days allowed for the pay- ment of a promissory note or bill of exchange after it becomes due. The time varies in different countries. See Bill of Exchange. DEACON (diacomus, from the Greek 31%zovos); a person who belongs to the inferior order of ministers in the Christian church. Seven were first instituted by the apostles (Acts, chap. vi.), which number was retained a long time in several churches. Their duty was to serve in the agapat (q.v.), to distribute the bread and wine to the communicants, and to dispense alms. The office of the deacons, at first, merely concerned things temporal. Soon after the apostolic age, or perhaps sooner, the deacons were admitted to assist in the inferior parts of the church service. Deacon, in the Roman Catholic church, is an infe- rior ecclesiastic, the second of the sacred orders. He serves at the altar, in the celebration of the holy mysteries. He is also allowed to baptize and to preach with the permission of the bishop. Formerly, deacons were allowed to marry, but this was prohibited to them very early ; and at present the pope dispenses with this prohibition only for very important reasons. In such cases, they re-enter the condition of laymen. There are eighteen cardinal-deacons, so called, in Rome, who have the charge of the temporal interests and the revenues of the church. A person, to be consecrated deacon, must be twenty-three years old. In the English church, deacons are also ecclesias- tics, who can perform all the offices of a priest, ex- cept the consecration of the elements of the Lord's supper, and the pronouncing of absolution. In this DEACONESS— DEAF AND DUMB. church, also, no person can be ordained deacon before he is twenty-three years old, except by dispensation from the archbishop of Canterbury.—The office of deacons, in Presbyterian and Independent churches, is to distribute the bread and wine to communicants. In the latter, they are elected by the members of the church. In Scotland, this name is given to masters of incorporated companies. In German Protestant churches, the assistant ministers are generally called deacons. If there are two assistant ministers, the first of them is called archdeacon. DEACONESS. This name was given to women in the early church, who consecrated themselves to the service of the church, and rendered those offices to females which could not be decently performed by men. They also had the care of the poor, the sick, &c. DEAD-EYE, or DEAD MAN'S EYE ; a sort of round, flattish, wooden block, encircled with a rope, or with an iron band, and pierced with three holes through the flat part, in order to receive a rope called the lamiard, which, corresponding with three holes in another dead-eye, creates a purchase, employed for various uses, but chiefly to extend the shrouds and stays, otherwise called the standing rigging. DEAD RECKONING ; the judgment or estima- tion which is made of the place where a ship is situ- ated, without any observation of the heavenly bodies. It is obtained by keeping an account of the distance which the ship has run by the log, and of her course steered by the compass, and by rectifying these data by the usual allowance for drift, lee-way, &c., accord- ing to the ship's known trim. This reckoning is, however, always to be corrected as often as any good observation of the sun can be obtained. bl DEAD ROPES are those which do not run in any block. DEAD SEA, or ASPHALTITES, i. e. the lake of Bitumen ; anciently called, also, the sea of Sodom, Salt sea, and lake Sirbon, and now, by the Arabs, Bahheret-Lut, i. e. the sea of Lot; a lake in Pales- time, about sixty or seventy miles long from N. to S., and ten or fifteen wide; according to Mariti, 180 miles in circuit ; but its dimensions are stated with considerable diversity. It is bordered on the east by lofty hills, having rugged and frightful precipices; on the N. by the plain of Jericho, through which it re- ceives the river Jordan. Other streams flow into it; but it has no visible outlet. Copious evaporation, caused by the subterraneous heat, supplies the place of one. The water is clear and limpid, uncommonly salt, and even bitter, and of greater specific gravity than any other hitherto discovered. The proportion of the weight of the salts held in solution to the whole weight of the water varies, according to dif. ferent experiments by chemical analysis, from twenty- five to nearly fifty per cent. In 100 parts of water, there are 42-80 salt, which explains the difficulty of diving in this lake, and the sluggish motion of the waves, comparatively undisturbed by the wind. From the depths of the lake rises asphaltum or mine- ral pitch, or, as the Germans call it, Jew pitch, which is melted by the heat of the bottom of the lake, and again condensed by the water, and of which Seetzen tells us that there are pieces large enough for camel loads. According to the same traveller, it is porous, and is thrown out only in stormy weather. There is also another kind of pitch, dug on the shore, where it is found mixed with Small pieces of Salt, pebbles, and earth. It is used, purified, for the antidote called theriaca. The whole northern shore of the lake appears to be covered with this substance, called anotanon. Asphaltum is used for theriaca, for em- balming, calking, sculpture, and the colouring of wool, and therefore is an important article of com- merce. The limestone impregnated with bitumen, 607 and in which the inflammable substance is so con- cealed, that it can be brought out only by rubbing, can be heated so as to glow like a coal without being consumed, and has been used for amulets since an- cient times. A great part of those found in the cata- combs at Sakkarah are made of this substance ; and large quantities of rosaries are yearly prepared from it in Jerusalem. According to the Scriptures, the beautiful valley of Siddim, with Sodom, Gomorrah, and other places, were buried here by a volcanic eruption. The immediate vicinity is destitute of vegetation, dull, cheerless, and inanimate; hence; probably, its name of Dead sea. Among the absurd fables formerly circulated respecting this sea, it was affirmed, that the pestiferous vapours hovering over it were fatal to birds attempting to fly across. But this is contradicted by various recent travellers. “The waters of this lake,” says doctor E. D. Clarke, “notwithstanding the numberless assertions to the contrary, swarm with fishes ; shells abound on its shores, certain birds make it a place of peculiar re- sort, and there is nothing insalubrious in its exhala- tions.” DEAF AND DUMB. The sensation which we call hearing is produced by the vibrations of the air, strik- ing on the tympanum or drum of the ear, and communi- cated to the auditory nerve, by means of a series of small bones connected in a very remarkable manner. When the tympanum becomes insensible to these im- pulses, a person is termed deaf; although the vibra- tions may still be communicated, in Some cases, through the bones of the head, by means of a stick placed between the teeth, or, as the Code of Justinian states to have been practised in the case of dying persons, by speaking with the mouth close to the top of the head. The Eustachian tube extends from the tympanum into the mouth ; and sometimes sounds are better distinguished by opening the mouth, When the external opening, only, is obstructed. Hence the habit of “listening with the mouth open.” Deaf- ness occurs in every degree, from that which merely impairs the accuracy of the ear in distinguishing faint or similar sounds, to that state in which there is no more sensation in this organ than in any other ; and sound is felt in almost every part of the body, as a mere vibration. Articulation and Dumbness. Articulation is ac- quired by imitating the sounds which we hear ut- tered by others, and correcting the voice, by means of the ear, until the imitation is precise. Deafness, therefore, in every degree, affects the distinctness of articulation, and, if it is so great that the subject can no longer distinguish between articulate Sounds, he is incapable of acquiring speech, in the ordinary man- ner, and becomes dumb in consequence of his deaf- mess. A case has occurred within the knowledge of the writer, in which entire deafness, taking place at the age of eighteen, so affected the articulation, that the individual was no longer intelligible, even to his friends. This result will not be prevented by any degree of hearing less than we have mentioned; for most deaf and dumb persons can hear some sounds ; and some can distinguish the high from the low, who perceive no difference in articulations. Only a few mutes are found, who owe this defect to feebleness of mind, or to any imperfections in the organs of speech. These remarks show the fallacy of the idea, that the want of speech is owing to the want of mental capa- city—a prejudice which has been cherished by the usual name of deaf and dumb, which we hope, for this reason, as well as for euphony, will be changed for that of deaf mute, which may be employed both as a noun and an adjective. Number. The number of deaf mutes varies ma- terially in different countries, and situations, and 608 classes of men. In some countries of Europe, there is one for every 1500 or 1700; in others, one for every 1000; and, in some locations, the proportion is three or four times as great as this. The proportion has been found greatest in some districts or portions of cities remarkable for the dampness and impurity of the air. The greater number of these unfortu- mate persons is found among the poorer classes; and hence it has been supposed, that the defect is fre- quently caused by the want of the necessary supplies and attentions during infancy or disease. Causes and Cure. The immediate causes of ordi- mary dumbness are known to be various. In some few cases, it is owing to an imperfection or injury of some part of the organs of speech, and, of course, is irre- mediable. In other cases, it seems to arise from obstructions in the external or internal passage of the ear. Cures have sometimes been effected by remov- ing these obstructions by means of instruments or injections, especially, of late, by doctors Itard and Deleau, of Paris, who throw injections into the Eu- stachian passage, by means of a flexible tube passed through the nostrils. Doctor Deleau is reported, by a committee of the French institute, to have relieved or cured several deaf persons, by injections of air, long continued; but he does not estimate the proba- ble number of cures in deaf mutes at more than one in ten. Perforation of the tympanum is sometimes use- ful in rendering it more easy to remove obstructions which may be discovered; and for this purpose, it is deemed important to perform it by means of circular discs, closing with a spring, which remove a portion of the membrane, and leave a permanent opening. In other cases, and in the usual mode, this operation often produces great suffering, and has not been generally useful. In eighty-one cases of perforation at Groningen, in Holland, only three were perma- mently relieved, and these in a very partial degree. In the greater proportion of deaf mutes, no defect is visi- ble, and no applications appear to be useful. In a number of anatomical examinations of deceased deaf" mutes, at Paris, the ear was found perfect in all its parts. The inference has therefore been made, that the disease consists in a paralysis of the auditory nerve—a conclusion which seems to be sustained by the fact, that, in some cases, a cure has been effected by actual cautery on the back of the head, and that galvanism has sometimes given temporary relief. The number of deaf mutes in Europe is not less than 140,000; all of whom, by their deafness (which we see is usually beyond the reach of remedies), are shut out from the intercourse of society, and the ordinary means of acquiring knowledge. The situation and character of such a large class of unfortunate persons are subjects of deep interest. Communication.—Natural Language. The neces- sity of communication, and the want of words, oblige the deaf mute to observe and imitate the actions and expressions which accompany various states of mind and of feeling, to indicate objects by their appearance and use, and persons by Some peculiar mark, and to describe their actions by direct imitation. In this way, he and his friends are led to form a dialect of that universal language of attitude, gesture, and ex- pression, by which the painter and the sculptor con- vey to us every event of history, and every feeling of the soul; which becomes a substitute for words in the hands of the pantomimic actor, and which adds force and clearness to the finest effusions of the ora- tor; in other words, the natural sign language. Description of the Language. The terms of this language are of two kinds, the descriptive and the characteristic or indicative signs. Descriptive signs involve an account, more or less complete, of the appearance, qualities, and uses of an object, or the DEAF AND DUMB. circumstances of an event, for the purpose of descrip- tion or explanation ; and must, from their nature, be varied, like a painting, only by the point of view from which the objects are described, or the capacity and accuracy of the person that describes. The in- dicative signs, on the contrary, which are employed in common conversation, are usually mere abbrevia- tions of these, involving a single striking feature of the person, or object, or event ; as an elephant is indicated by its trunk, a flower by its fragrance, or a town by a collection of roofs. The signs of per- sons are usually conventional, and derived from some feature, or mark, or habit, but often from an acci- dental circumstance in dress, &c., which struck the deaf mute on first seeing the person, and is still re- ferred to when it no longer exists. It is obvious that, in this class of signs, there is great room for dialects, according to the situation, capacity, and habits of observation of the individual, and that much may be done for its improvement, by a proper selection. Eatent of the Sign Language. The sign language, like every other, varies in its extent with the intelli- gence, the wants, and the circle of ideas of those who use it. When employed by an insulated deaf mute, it will usually exhibit only the objects of the first me- cessity, and the most common impulses, like the lan- guage of a savage tribe. When his ideas expand, from age or observation, he will find new modes of expressing them ; and, when his education is begun, an intelligent deaf mute will often express ideas in this language, for which it is difficult to find expres– sions in words. When a number of deaf mutes are brought together in a single institution, selections and combinations of their various dialects are formed; the best are gradually adopted by all; and a new and more complete form of the language is the re- sult—as in nations collected by civilization. This process, carried on for half a century in the institu- tion of Paris, and some others in Europe, under the observation and direction of intelligent men possessed of hearing, has produced a language capable of ex- pressing all the ideas we convey by articulate sounds, with clearness, though not always with equal brevity, and which those who value it least admit to surpass speech in the force with which it communicates the feelings and states of mind. Like painting (as Con- dillac observes), it has the immense advantage of presenting a group of ideas at once, which lose much of their force and beauty by being detailed in the successive words and artificial arrangements of Writ- ten language. The eye, the hand, the whole body, speak simultaneously on one subject ; the represen- tation changes every moment, and these peculiarities, with the elliptical form of expression which is adopted in conversation, give a rapidity to communication by the sign language, which, on common subjects, among those familiar with it, surpasses that of speech. If we remark the new shades of meaning given to the same words, by the varying attitude and general expression of the speaker, and the accu- racy with which a nice observer will discover, in these signs, the thoughts, and feelings, and inten- tions, even of one who wishes to conceal them, we shall find reason to believe that they are capable of conveying the most delicate shades of thought. Ge- meric and abstract terms, as their objects do not exist in nature, have no corresponding terms of equal clearness in the sign language; and the abbreviated manner in which we express relations by conjunc- tions, prepositions, relatives, and inflections, can only be imitated by adopting similar conventional signs, which do not easily fall in with the idiom of the language. In these respects, therefore, the sign language wants the algebraic brevity and accuracy which are found in artificial languages, and which T)EAF AND IDUMB. render these so invaluable as mediums of thought, and instruments of philosophical investigation ; at the same time, it is capable of describing what is conveyed by these forms, with an accuracy at least as great as that of words, by circumlocution and ex- ample. It is worthy of remark, that the order of expression, in the sign language, is that which we term inverted—the subject before the quality, the object before the action, and, generally, the thing modified before the modifier. This language, in its elements, is to be found among all nations, and has ever been the medium of communication between voyagers and the natives of newly discovered coun- tries. It is employed by many savage tribes to Sup- ply the paucity of expression in their language, or to communicate with other tribes, as in the Sandwich islands, and in North America. Among the Indians of the western territory of the United States, major Long found it an organized language, employed be- tween tribes who spoke different articulate languages. The accounts received from himself, as well as his work, show that it corresponds, almost precisely, with that in use in the school of Paris; and a Sand- wich islander, who visited the American asylum for deaf mutes, gave a narrative of his life in the sign language, which was perfectly understood, by the pupils. If testimony be wanting that it still retains its universal character, in its cultivated form, the writer of this article, who acquired it in this form, can state, that he has employed it, or seen it em- ployed, with success, in communicating with an American Indian, a Sandwich islander, a Chinese, and the deaf and dumb in various parts of the United States, in England, Scotland, France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. The more lively nations of Europe, belonging to the Celtic race, the French, and Italians, &c., make great use of this language, in connexion with words, and sometimes even with- out them. The more phlegmatic people of the Teu- tonic race, in England and Germany, are so little disposed to it, and so much less able to acquire or understand it, that they regard it as a species of af- fectation or buffoomery in their southern neighbours; and to this circumstance it is probably owing, that it has been so extensively rejected among these na- tions, as an auxiliary in the education of the deaf mute. Natural State of the deaf Mute. . The natural Con- dition of the deaf mute may be inferred from the ac- count we have given of his language, . It is obvious that the mere loss of hearing cannot, in itself, dimi- mish the matural vigour of any other faculty, either of | body or mind. He must, however, be destitute of all ideas of sounds; but these form so small a part of the circle of our ideas, in comparison with those derived from sight, that they cannot seriously affect him. His conceptions, derived through the medium of sight, are usually more accurate than ours, his recollections more vivid, and his powers of descrip- tion more striking, because his attention is more un- divided. His discrimination of feelings and charac- ter is often intuitive, and he frequently divines the subject of conversation from the appearance of the speaker. The tremendous part of his misfortune is the interruption of communication with his fellow men, on alſ subjects except the primary wants and impulses, which arises from the imperfect character of his sign language, in an uneducated State. His ideas are very much limited to the objects and events he witnesses, and the exterior relations of things; and he is shut out from all the knowledge derived from history and tradition. Past ages: dis- tant countries, a future world, a Deity, are all be: yond his reach. In regard to the combination and .gion. the observation of the conduct of others, and the in- application of the ideas which he acquires, he is still II. 609 in the state of nations in the infancy of society, and cannot be aided or directed by others, in his efforts to reason. After extensive observation and inquiry, we cannot hear of or find a single instance in which a person, born deaf, has conceived of a first Cause, from a view of the works of nature, without education. They describe themselves as looking at these objects like the brutes. Even those, to whom their friends have made great efforts to communicate religious truths, seldom have an idea of the Deity, as a Creator or Benefactor ; and a deaf mute at Chartres, in France, who had been taught to perform all the rites of the Catholic church, and was deemed very devout, On receiving his hearing, stated that he had no con- ceptions of anything but the external forms of reli- Conscience, in them, derives all its light from stinctive impulses; but recognizes no invariable law, and often leaves these unfortunate persons to com- mit gross crimes, without any sense of guilt. In short, they are enveloped in intellectual and moral darkness, in the midst of the clearest light. History of the Art of Instruction. Mention is made of deaf mutes in the writings of Pliny ; and they were declared, by the Code of Justinian, incapable of civil acts. No attempts appear to have been made to give them instruction, until the latter part of the fifteenth century, when we are merely told by Agricola, professor of philosophy at Heidelberg, in Germany, of a deaf mute who had been instructed. In the middle of the sixteenth century, Pascha, a clergyman of Brandenburg, instructed his daughter, a deaf mute, by means of pictures. But the first effort for this interesting object, of which we have a distinct account, was made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk, of the Spanish kingdom of Leon, who instructed four deaf mutes, of noble families, to write and speak, in 1570. In 1620, John Bonet, another Spaniard, published the first book known on this subject, containing an account of the method which he adopted in a similar course of instruction, and accompanied by a manuai alphabet, from which that now in use at Paris was derived. In 1659, the instruction of deaf mutes was attempted, with appa- rent success, by doctors Holder and Wallis, both of whom published accounts of their methods. At about the same time, Van Helmont, in Holland, published an ingenious treatise on the manner of forming articulate sounds, the principles of which, he says, he had applied with success to the instruction of a deaf mute. In 1691, John Conrade Amman, a Swiss physician in Leyden, published a similar work; but he and his predecessors appear to have devised and executed their plans without any knowledge of those who had previously attempted the same thing. In 1704, the methods published in Spain, England, and Holland, were first applied, in Germany, by Kerger, apparently with much ingenuity and success, and some improvements. He was soon followed by a number of labourers in the same field, of whom Arnoldi appears to have been the most distinguished. In 1743, the practicability of instructing deaf mutes was first publicly demonstrated in France, by Pereira, a Spaniard, before the academy of sciences, who gave their testimony to its success. About the same time, this branch of instruction was attempted in France, by several others, among whom Deschamps, Ernaud, and Vanin were best known. In 1755, Heinicke in Germany, De l'Epée in France, both of whom were led to feel an interest in deaf mutes thrown accidentally in their way, formed each an independent system of instruction, established the first institutions for the education of deaf mutes, at Paris and Leipsic, and may be justly regarded as the founders of the two great Schools, into which the 2 Q 610 instructors of the deaf mutes have since been divided. In 1764, Thomas Braidwood, of Edinburgh, devised a system of instruction, in which, as in that of Heinicke, articulation was the chief object. Both these persons, for a long time, refused to communi- cate their inventions, except for a compensation, and under seal of secrecy ; and their principles have scarcely extended beyond the countries in which they originated. De l'Epée devoted his fortune and his life to the instruction of his pupils, and the gratui- tous communication of the art to all who would learn it ; and, in consequence of his efforts and instruc- tions, schools were founded by Silvestri at Rome, Stork at Vienna, Guyot at Groningen, and Ulrich in Switzerland, which still exist in the hands of their disciples. . The system of De l'Epée was materially improved by Sicard, his pupil and successor in the Paris institution, who is admitted to have surpassed his master, and to rank with him as one of the greatest benefactors of the deaf mute. Towards the close of the last century, Assarotti, of Genoa, esta- blished, by his own benevolent efforts, an institution which ranks among the first in Europe, and formed a system of instruction, based, indeed, upon that in Sicard's works, but involving important improve- ments, which entitle him to be considered the foun- der of the Italian school. European Institutions. From a recent report of the Paris institution, with some additional accounts, it appears, that there are now eighty-one establishments for deaf mutes in Europe; of which Spain has one, Portugal one, Italy six, Switzerland four, Baden four, Wuertemburg three, Bavaria one, Prussia eight, the rest of Germany ten, Denmark two, Sweden one, Russia one, Holland four, Great Britain ten, and France twenty-six. Sixty-two of these have been established within the last thirty years. A few in Great Britain, and in Germany and Switzerland, are conducted on the system of Heinicke and Braidwood. The rest, including several in Great Britain, adopt the fundamental principles of De l'Epée and Sicard. Systems of Instruction. The objects to be accom- plished in the education of a deaf mute, are to teach him an entire language, and to give him all that mass of moral, religious, and ordinary knowledge that is necessary for him, as a social and immortal being, for which, in other children, twelve or fif. teen years of constant intercourse with society, and much study, are deemed necessary; all this is to be dome in six, and often even in three years. It is ob- vious that to accomplish this, some method, more rapid in its results than the ordinary one, must be adopted. The earlier instructors of the deaf mute usually had only one, or a very few pupils, and have given us hints for instruction, rather than a system. The first account which we have of the reduction of this art to a regular and permanent form, is in the works of Heinicke and De l'Epée. Heinicke, like many of his predecessors, considered the want of speech as the great misfortune of the deaf mute, and made it the great object of instruction to teach him to articulate in order to aid the progress of his own mind, as well as to enable him to communicate with others in this manner. We are told by the succes- sor of Heinicke in the Leipsic school, that the follow- ing “are and were the views and principles of Heinicke and his disciples:”—that “we think in ar- ticulate words, and cannot think in written words:” “that written words can never lead to the develop- ment of ideas, in children born deaf;” and that “ no freedom in thought, or in the use of language, can be produced without articulation, either by signs or by written language.” If it were credible that sounds were more allied to abstract ideas than objects of Fight are ; if we could forget that we often have DEAF AND DUMB. ideas for which we cannot easily find words, the facts we have stated concerning the language of signs, and the capacity of several hundred pupils, educated merely by signs, in the French and American institu- tions, to read and write, and converse and reason, prove the entire fallacy of these views; and the ar- gument ab ignorantia cannot be adduced, at this day, on that subject, without disgrace. Those who fol- low this system admit the use of the sign language in the early stages of instruction, but seek to banish it as early as possible, considering it as a rude lan- guage, incapable of improvement, and which retards the expansion of the pupil’s mind, and renders it less necessary for him to attend to written language. They adopt the methods of the early instructors, in waiting for occasions to teach words and explain phrases. They rely upon repeating the word or phrase in the appropriate circumstances, and in ques- tions and answers, as the means of making it under- stood, rather than on direct explanation, or examples presented by the sign language. Too many of this school forget one of the fundamental maxims of Heinicke—“first ideas, then words”—and occupy the pupil for a long time with mere mechanical arti- culation. In one school, months are passed in the mere study of names attached to pictures, without the least attempt to excite or enlighten the mind by means of signs; and usually a year is passed, at a period of life when most of the mental faculties are ripe for development, in the mere exercise of me- mory (in learning names of objects, and qualities, and actions), which only requires the powers of an infant, and would be aided, instead of retarded, by the expansion of the mind, as the experience of the other schools fully proves. Religious instruction is rarely attempted in this school, before the second year, or until it can be given in words, from the belief that it cannot be given correctly by signs; and in the school of Leipsic, it is even deferred to the third year. The attention of De l'Epée, and other instructors of the same views, was called especially to the intellectual and moral wants of the deaf mute; and they deemed it most important first to develope his powers, and cultivate his feelings; and, next, to give him such a knowledge of written language as is indispensable to the acquisition of knowledge, and the communica- tion of his wants. They found the only medium of con- veying truth, or explaining terms in the sign language which we have described. They employed it in its natural state, to explain the first simple terms. They discovered that it was capable of extension, and they preserved and cultivated it, as we have mentioned, as a language intelligible to the pupil, by which they could always refer to any objects of thought or feel- ing, physical, intellectual, or moral, and thus form original explanations of new words, and avoid the error which might arise from the imperfection of pre- vious explanations. Words they considered as arbi- trary signs, and De l'Epée, maintained, that the instruction of the deaf mute, like that of a foreigner, ought to consist in a course of translation and retrans- lation from the known to the unknown language. To aid in this process, he added a series of methodical and conventional signs, founded on analogy, for the parti- cles and inflections of language. These were used chiefly in instruction, in order to render the translation complete, as well as to indicate the character and meaning of the connectives. He does not appear to have practised fully upon his own principles, but occu- pied himself too exclusively with the intellectualim- provements of his pupils, and with single words, and seems to have despaired of enabling them to use lan- guage, inits connexion, except in a mechanicalmanner Sicard endeavoured to complete the plan of his mas- ter, by the improvement of the signs employed; and DEAF AND DUMB. to him and his pupils we owe, more than to any others, the perfection which this language has attained. He also endeavoured to avoid the error of De l'Epée, by explaining the theory of grammar, and the formulas of the various species of propositions, and, in this way, was led into a course of metaphysi- cal and philosophical lessons, which later instructors have found too extensive and too little practical. According to the system adopted under his direction, the first year was occupied with a vocabulary of names, of adjectives, and of verbs, in three simple tenses, with simple religious and other narratives in the sign language. It was only in the second year, that words were shown, in their connexion, in short phrases; the pronouns, prepositions, and the full inflection of the verbs, were taught, and religious instruction given, in written language. In the third and fourth years, the organs, senses, and operations of the mind, and theory of sentences, were explained, original descrip- tion and definitions required, and in the fourth year, books were put into the hands of the pupils. Through- out the course, public lectures were given, in which written accounts of Bible history and religious truth were explained in the sign language; but no devo- tional exercises in this language were ever connected with them, or practised by the pupils. British System.—The method of teaching which has been most successfully employed in this country, is nearly the same with that employed by Sicard in France. It consists in teaching the pupil the relation between the names of objects and the objects them- selves, the analysis of words into the letters of the alphabet, and the particular gesture, which he is to attach to each word as its distinctive sign—show- ing to him also the meaning of collective words, as distinguished from those denoting individual objects, or parts of objects. General terms, as applicable in common to a number of individuals, and to generic names comprehending a number of species, are next to be explained; and lastly, the most general and abstract terms, such as being, object, &c. The qualities expressive of the accidents, variations, and modifications of objects, and which are expressed by adjectives, are next taught. The master must endeavour to make his pupil conceive these qualities in the first place, as inherent in the objects themselves, and next as capable of being detached by a mental operation from such objects, though in fact they have Ino existence but as united with them. The first and most important operation in instructing the child is, that written words have a meaning, and suggest to all persons of education the same definite idea ; and in teaching him the meaning of words, we should fol- low, as nearly as possible, the natural order in which they are generally acquired by those who have the sense of hearing. The first and simplest course of knowledge being that which relates to the objects com- posing the material world, we must commence of course by instructing him in the names of external objects, beginning with those which are best known to him, and most frequently presented to his view. The name of any object of this kind, such as a knife, may be Written in large letters on a board ; and the attention of the child being directed alternately to the name and to the object itself, which is to be presented to him at the same time, he will gradually be brought to un- derstand that a certain relation exists between them, though what that relation is we are not to expect that he will as yet be able to comprehend. The idea of this relation, however, will become gradually more distinct, when a similar process has been followed with regard to several other names. Occasionally We may find it difficult to convey by this means the least notion that the one is the sign of the other : the citild being unable to conceive how what appears to 6H 1 him to be an irregular collection of crooked lines, bearing no resemblance in form to the object pointed Out in connexion with them, can serve as its type. Experience, however, derived from the observations We may teach him to make, will gradually instruct him. Sufficient having been done to excite his atten- tion, let us now, in his presence, call upon other chil- dren more advanced in their education, to direct their eyes upon these mysterious characters, of which the immediate consequences will be their pointing to the object itself. The effect produced will be observed by the attentive pupil, and will not fail to make its due impression. Let three or four words be now Written at the same time upon the slate, and the cor- responding objects placed upon an adjoining board ; on each of these words being pointed out to the ad- vanced child, he will bring the proper article from the table. We shall now have an opportunity of as- certaining how far the proceeding has been under- stood by the younger pupil, by making him repeat the experiment. If he lay hold of the proper object, it is clear that our meaning has been understood, and that the first step, the most difficult of all, has been made. In this way, he should be made to learn the names of various articles, preferring always those of a few letters, such as box, pen, shoe, cap, ring, hoop, key, &c. The child also, while learning written Words, should be made to copy them himself, so that by dwelling on their forms sufficiently, they may make an indelible impression upon his mind. We should from time to time show him the objects, and require him to write their names himself. Here, too, it is obvious, that much assistance may occasionally be derived from drawings of the objects we may wish to point out, but which may not be immediately at hand. Thus the outline of any familiar object, such as a key, may be traced on a black board with a chalk pencil, and the object itself placed at the same time before the eye of the pupil, and thus he will readily under- stand the resemblance of the design with what it is meant to represent; and the same operation is to be repeated in succession with other familiar objects. Then the name of each object is to be written within the outline of the figure drawn on the board; and the outline itself is to be effaced, and the pupil made to un- derstand that he is still to consider what remains as de- noting the object drawn; and that the writing and drawing stand for the same thing. When by this method the pupil has been once rendered thoroughly sensible of the value and use of words, all drawings on the Slate are to be laid aside, and the more useful me- dium of written language exclusively resorted to. The method contrived by the abbé Sicard, for assist- ing his pupils to understand abstract conceptions, is as follows:—Taking seven pieces of paper, each white on one side and coloured on the other with one of the primitive colours, he places them on a table, before a black board, with their white sides upper- most. He then writes the word PAPER on the board, leaving sufficient intervals between the letters for the insertion of other letters. Then turning the sheet of paper painted blue, so that the coloured side is now uppermost, he writes the word BLUE between the letters of the former word, but in Smaller characters, thus— P b A. l P u E e R. This is done successively with regard to the other sheets of paper, inserting the name of its respec- tive colour between the letters of the word PAPER, which is repeated for that purpose. On being finished, the blue sheet is again turned down, so that its white side is presented, upon which the smaller letters composing the word blue are effaced, while the other letters, P A P E R, are allowed to remain. By this process the pupil is taught to con- 2 Q 612 sider the quality as part of the object, or as inherent in it. In the same way he proceeds with other adjectives, such as circular, spherical, &c., expressing the form of objects; writing them in the intervals of the letters composing the name of the respective objects, effacing them and substituting others according as the form of the object is varied. In order to lead his pupil to form the abstraction of the quality thus expressed, that is, to the use of the adjective as a separate word ready to be applied to different substantives, he employs the following diagram, the different lines of which he traces before his eyes :— P b A 1 P u E e R. P : A : P : E : R. b l Ul € P : A : P : E : R. b Ul t º º º The words thus obtained, he afterwards unites by a connecting line, thus:– PAPER—BLUE. In order to form this into a complete Sentence, the word is, instead of the line, is inserted, of which line accordingly it may be regarded as the substitute and representation: PAPER Is BLUE. By thus indicating the nature of a verb, and after- wards teaching the pupils that the verb can express either an existence or an action, past, present, or future, the teacher leads them to the system of con- jugation, and to all the shades of tenses adopted in various languages. The significations and in- flections of pronouns, with the corresponding affec- tions of verbs in regard to number and person, are conveyed to the minds of the deaf and dumb by con- trivances very analogous to the preceding, and which need not be dwelt upon, after the example already given. As soon as the pupil is made familiar with the use of letters, it will be advantageous to instruct him in another mode of visible communication, very easy to be acquired, namely, the manual alphabet, as it is called; that is, the expression of letters by different positions of the fingers. This is a very simple art com- monly learnt at School, and is easily retained or reco- vered when lost. There is another mode of intercourse still quicker in its operation, and which it may be very convenient to employ. It is that of indicating the forms of letters by the point of the finger moved in the air, constituting as it were an aerial writing which by a little use is quickly followed by the eye. Another important branch of the education of the deaf and dumb is that of teaching them to speak, and to understand what is spoken by others, by ob- serving the motions of their lips. Experience has shown that this task, though laborious and tedious, is not attended with extreme difficulty, great patience and perseverance being all that is requisite to ensure Success in ordinary cases. But for all the details on this head we beg to refer our readers to the book of Dr Joseph Watson on the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, published, in London, 1809, in two volumes, 8vo. Dr Watson had the management of the asylum for educating the deaf and dumb chil- dren of the poor, established, in the vicinity of London, in 1792, one rule of which is, that no child be admitted there under the age of nine years. This age was not fixed upon, from an idea that it was the earliest at which their regular education could be advantageously begun. But five years being deemed, generally speaking, sufficient to accomplish religion. IDEAF AND DUMB. that course of instruction, thought most essential to such children destined to earn their bread by the las bour of their hands, and fourteen being the earliest age at which they could be apprenticed, it was judged best for the economical purpose of the institution, not to receive them before the age of mine years. An institution of a similar kind was established at Bir- mingham, to which Mr T. Braidwood, who conducted a private school for the same object at Hackney, was appointed teacher, a liberal subscription having been raised, a building for the reception of children was completed and opened in January, 1815, which is competent to contain forty children. In June, 1810, a similar society was instituted at Edinburgh. The first teacher was Mr J. Braid- wood, who was afterwards succeeded by Mr Kinni- burgh, who has been very successful, and the number of pupils generally amounts to above fifty. They are all instructed in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and carefully taught the principles of the Christian They are also taught to express their wants and ideas in articulate speech ; the female pupils are taught needle-work, and those of an in- ferior station are qualified for domestic service. A certain number of the boys are brought up in the in- stitution to the trade of shoemaking. This institu- tion is supported by private subscription and by the aids furnished by auxiliary societies in other parts of Scotland. The charge for each pupil for edu: cation and board is about £20. From the results of inquiries it appears that in Scotland alone the num- ber of deaf and dumb persons is not less than eight hundred. American System. This system has been materi- ally modified in the school of Paris itself, and in several others on the continent of Europe, which adopt the same principles. As the American system of instruction, devised by Mr Gallaudet, without any knowledge of others, except that of Paris, on which it is founded, comprises most of these improvements, with some others of great importance, peculiar to it- self, we cannot do better, within the limits allowed us, than to describe this as we have found it, in his own statement, and in the American asylum. Mr Gallaudet has combined the fundamental principle of Heinicke—“first ideas, then words”—with that of De l'Epée—that “the natural language of signs must be elevated to as high a degree of excellence as possible, in order to serve as the medium for giv- ing the ideas clearly, and explaining them accurate- ly.” He has added another of no small importance —that, as words describe rather the impression, or states of mind produced by external objects, than those essential qualities which are beyond our reach, the process of learning them would be facilitated by leading the pupils to reflect on their own sensations and ideas ; and he states, as the result of his experi- ence, that, among deaf mutes of equal capacities, “ those who can be led to mark or describe, with the greatest precision, the operations of their own mind, uniformly make the most rapid progress in the ac- quisition of written language, and of religious truth.” A leading object, therefore, in connexion with the first lessons, in which sensible ideas are presented and named, is to establish a free communication with the pupil, in the sign language, in reference to his feelings and thoughts, as excited by the objects which he sees, or the events of his own life. easily comprehends those of others, and is thus led to learn the names of the simple emotions and acts of the mind. Hence he is brought to think of an in- visible agent, which we term the soul, as the feeling and percipient being; and, by a natural transition, is led, by the use of signs alone, to the Great Spirit, as the first Cause ; to his character, as our Creator He T)EAF AND DUMB. and Benefactor; and to a knowledge of his law and our future destiny. In this manner, the deaf mutes in the American asylum (and, we presume, in others derived from it) are made acquainted with the simple truths of religion and morality in one year ; a period in which, in most European institutions, they are scarcely advanced beyond the knowledge of Sounds, and the names of sensible objects, qualities, and ac- tions, or the most common phrases. By communi- cating this instruction in the natural sign language, pupils, whose inferior capacity or advanced age would not allow them to acquire enough of written language to receive religious truth through this medium, have been early prepared to enjoy its bles- sings, and hopes, and feel its sanctions as a restraint upon their conduct, which renders their government more easy, while it aids them in the formation of correct habits. Another plan, which is not known to have been ever employed before its introduction by Mr Gallaudet, in 1817, was to conduct the daily and weekly devotional exercises by signs; and the deaf mutes have been thus taught to address the Father of their spirits in their own natural language, and have been admitted to the new privilege of Social worship. In applying the first principles to the course of instruction in language, an important im- provement has been made, by combining words into phrases as early as possible, and thus teaching the pupil how to use them. The idea of each phrase is first explained by the sign language, and then trans- lated into words, and then retranslated by the pupil into his own language. The process is carried on for more difficult words, and the phrases are length- ened until they become narratives. The acquisition and use of the connectives are aided by the methodi- cal signs of De l'Epée and Sicard. The pupil is called upon, at intervals, to express his own ideas in Writing, and to explain by signs what is written by others. An important additional improvement is “to em- ploy the pupil, as early as possible, in the study of books written in an easy style, explained by signs when necessary,” so as to lead him, by his own, and often by his unaided efforts, to become acquainted with the arrangement of words, and the idioms of written language. He is led gradually to infer the rules of grammar from a series of examples, instead of committing them to memory; and the theory of language is reserved for the later years of instruc- tion, when the pupil is familiar with its practical use. The methods of instruction in the elements of arith- metic, geography, and history, do not differ materially from those usually employed, except that much aid is derived from explanatory signs; and experiments, made in some of the schools of Europe prove, that these may be usefully employed to illustrate various subjects to persons possessed of hearing. Articulation. While the instructors of the school of De l'Epée and Sicard unite in denying that articu- lation is necessary to the deaf mute, as a means of mental development, they admit its great value as a supplement to intellectual education, if it be attain- able. But they differ as to the practicability and ex- pediency of attempting to teach it generally. . Of its reat practical value in darkness, or in cases of sudden .." there can be but one opinion; and it is cer- tainly important that every deaf mute should be taught some cry of distress, or perhaps a few words for such occasions: for some do not know how to use their voice even to this extent. The power of ar- ticulating, even imperfectly, may also be of greatim- portance to the deaf mute, where ignorance in writ- ing is combined with a phlegmaticinattention to signs, in those among whom he is situated. But that it is not indispensable, as an ordinary means of communi- cation, is proved by the fact, that the pupils of the 613 French and American schools find no difficulty in making themselves intelligible to those around them, either by sº or signs, on all necessary subjects. Articulation is learned and recollected by the deaf mute, as a set of movements and sensations in the organs of speech. It is taught by pointing out to the pupil the powers of the vowels and consonants, and the position of the lips, teeth, and tongue, and by making him feel with his hand, or a silver instrument, all the perceptible movements and vibrations of the throat and interior organs, which are requisite for their pronunciation. He is then required to imitate this position, and to force a quantity of air from the lungs sufficient to produce the sound, and is taught to read the articulations of others, by observing the position of the organs and the countenance. The facility of doing this will depend much upon the pliability of the organ of speech, and the nature of the language to be learned. We observed, as would naturally be supposed, that the soft and regular language of Italy, in a climate where we have other evidence of a su- perior pliancy in the vocal powers, was acquired, with tolerable success, by a short period of daily practice. . But the harsh and guttural sounds of the northern languages, and the irregularity which is found in the pronunciation of some of them, present Several additional difficulties, which are perhaps in- creased by the frequent diseases of the vocal organs produced by a cold climate. Those instructors who attempt to teach all their pupils these languages, are usually compelled to make it a constant and indivi. dual exercise, and to make and to demand efforts pain. ful to the teacher, and pupil, and spectator, with only a partial success. Of a number of speakers, whom we have seen and heard of, in various countries, thus taught, few would have been intelligible to a stranger so readily as by signs; and their tones were ex- tremely disagreeable. On the other hand we have seen a few deaf mutes who are capable of speaking in a manner perfectly intelligible, and of reading, from the lips and countenance, what was said by others. They were such, however, as either retained some remnant of hearing, or had been the subjects of individual instructions for a series of years. We pre- sume the truth lies in that middle course, now adopt- ed by the school of Paris, and by some advocates or articulation, who have had an opportunity of observ- ing it in all its forms. They believe that, by that portion of the pupils of every institution, whose or- gans are pliable, and who have some remnant of sen- sibility, either in the external or internal ear (those termed demi sourds in the Paris school), the acquisi- tion may be made with a degree of ease and perfec. tion, which renders it a desirable and important branch of instruction for such portion of the pupils in every institution. They are equally convinced, that to attempt to teach articulation to those entirely destitute of sensibility in the ear, or who cannot ex- ercise the organ of speech without difficulty or pain, is a useless labour, and may produce disease in the pupil; as more than one instance proves. On the last point, some have maintained that the exercise of the lungs is important to the pupil, while others have declared the contrary. We believe here, also, much will depend on individual organization, and that the general question will be modified much by the cli- mate, and nature of the language to be taught. Most of the schools for deaf mutes employ a manual alphabet, for the more rapid communication in words; —in England, usually made with both hands, and elsewhere with one. This alphabet, with writing, on paper and in the air, and the use of natural and conventional signs, are found adequate means of communication for those who cannot acquire articu- late language. See the Geschichte des Taubstum. 614 • men-Unterrichtes in Spanien und Frankreich von New- iman ; the Blicke auf der Taubstummenbildung von Reich (of Leipsic); Sullo Stato dei Sord; muti, &c., del Abbate Bagutti, Milan; Journal des Sourds- muets du Bebian ; Del Education des Sourds-muets, par M. de Gerando, Paris; and Dr Watson's work al- ready referred to. DEAN ; a corruption from deeanus, Latin, from decem, ten, because a decanus commanded ten men, as the centurio did a hundred. This word, however, has acquired a much more extended meaning. Dean is, in England a dignitary in most cathedral and col- legiate churches, being usually the president of the Chapter. He is called so because supposed to pre- side over ten canons or prebendaries at least. Dean is also a title given in England to several heads of peculiar churches or chapters, as, the dean of the king's chapel. Deans of colleges are, in English universities, officers appointed to superintend the be- haviour of the members, and to enforce discipline.— Rural deans, or urban deans, were, in the early ages of the church, ecclesiastics who presided over ten churches or parishes, either in the country or city within which they exercised jurisdiction.—The French corruption of decanus is doyen, and has no ecclesiastical meaning. Doyen d'âge is the eldest of a society. In the chamber of deputies the doyen d'âge presides until the chamber is regularly organ- ized. In the academy of sciences, there are doyens in the different divisions.—In Germany, the head of each of the faculties of law, theology, medicine, and philosophy, in the universities, is called decanus, and is lºsed like the rector of the university, an- Inually. - DEATH, in common language, is opposed to life, and considered as the cessation of it. It is only, how- ever, the organic life of the individual which becomes extinct ; for neither the mind nor the matter which constituted that individual can perish. That view of nature which considers the whole as pervaded throughout by the breath of life, admits only of changes from one mode of existence to another. This change, which is called death, does not take place so quickly as is generally believed. It is usually preceded and caused by disease or the natural decay of old age. The state called death takes place suddenly only when the heart or the brain is injured in certain parts. Probably the brain and the heart are the parts from which, properly Speaking, death proceeds; but, as the cessation of their functions is not so obvious as the cessation of the breath, which depends on them, the lat- ter event is generally considered as indicating the moment when death takes place. In the or- gans of sense and motion, the consequences of eath first become apparent; the muscles become stiff; coldness and paleness spread over the whole body; the eye loses its brightness, the flesh its elasticity; yet it is not perfectly safe to conclude, from these circumstances, that death has taken place, in any given case, because experience shows that there may be a state of the body in which all these Circumstances may concur, without the extinction of life. This state is called asphyxia (q. v.). The Commencement of putrefaction, in ordinary cases, affords the first certain evidence of death. This begins in the bowels and genitals, which swell, become soft and loose, and change colour; the skin, also, begins to change, and becomes red in various places; blisters show themselves; the blood becomes more fluid, and discharges itself from the mouth, nose, eyes, ears, and amus. By degrees, also, the other parts are decomposed, and, last of all, the teeth and bones. In the beginning of de- composition, azote and ammonia are produced: in l IDEAN–DEATH. the progress of it, hydrogen, compounded with Carbon, sulphur and phosphorus, is the prevailing product, which causes an offensive smell, and the light which is sometimes observed about putrefying bodies. At last, only carbonic acid gas is produced, and the putrefying body then smells like earth newly dug. A fat, greasy earth remains, and a slimy, soap-like substance, which mixes with the ground, and contributes with the preceding decompositions, to the fertility of it. Even in these remains of organized existence, organic life is not entirely ex- tinct; and they contribute to produce new vegetable and animal structures. Putrefaction is much in- fluenced by external circumstances, particularly air, heat, and water. When the body is protected from the action of such agents, it changes into adipocire (q. v.); but this process requires a much longer time than common putrefaction. In very dry situa- tions the body is converted into a mummy, in which state bodies are found in the arid deserts of Africa, and on the mountains in Peru. Some vaults are re- markable for preserving corpses from putrefaction. It is well known to every reader, that particular Substances counteract putrefaction; for instance, those used in tanning, and in embalming mummies. Death, Agony of, is the state which immediately precedes death, and in which life and death are con- sidered as struggling with each other. This state differs according to the cause producing it. Some- times it is a complete exhaustion ; sometimes a violent struggle, and very irregular activity, which, at last, after a short pause, terminates in death. In some cases, consciousness is extinguished long before death arrives; in other cases, it continues during the whole period, and terminates only with life. The person in this condition has already somewhat the appearance of a corpse; the face is pale and sallow, the eyes are sunken, the skin of the forehead is tense, the nose pointed and white, the ears are relaxed, and the temples fallen in ; a clammy sweat Covers the forehead and the extremities, the alvine discharges and that of the urine take place involun. tarily, the respiration becomes rattling, interrupted, and, at length, ceases entirely. At this moment, death is considered to take place. This state is of very different length; sometimes continuing for minutes only, sometimes for days. When the patient is in this condition, nothing should be at- tempted but to comfort and soothe him by prayer, by consoling assurances, by directing his attention to his speedy union with departed friends, by presenting him the crucifix, if he be a Catholic, or allowing him to put on the gown of a religious order, if he thinks it will contribute to his salvation; but a dying fellow creature should not be disturbed in relation to his particular mode of belief, at a moment when he has hardly sufficient strength to collect all the ideas which have been long familiar to him. The writer once saw a dying Mohammedan (an Albanian) suf. fering from the mistimed zeal of a Greek priest, who was near him, holding a crucifix to his mouth, and conjuring him to kiss it. The Mohammedan was evidently tormented, particularly as he was unable to resist. The writer begged the priest to leave him, and then tried to comfort the dying man, by presenting ideas and conceptions with which he was familiar, and a smile from his pale lips showed that the words were not entirely in vain. Remarkable statements are sometimes made by dying persons, in the intervals of the final struggle, that they have heard heavenly music, or seen #. friends, and can now die quietly. As long as the dying person is able to swallow, wine or other cordials may be given from time to time. It is a grateful duty to minister to the Suiferings of those we love; and, DEATH. where there is no hope, these offices have the addi- tional interest that they are the latest We can pay. We have described how the violent struggle preced- ing death manifests itself, particularly on the human face, that tablet of all expression. After death, however, it not unfrequently happens that the coun- tenance regains its most natural expression, and the saying is common—“How matural, how like him- self!” The mind seems for a moment to have regained its influence over what it has so long in- formed, and to shed over the countenance its most beautiful light, to cheer the hearts of the friends who have witnessed the distortion of death, and afford an earnest of its own immortality. DEATH, civil, is the entire loss of civil rights. If a person is civilly dead, his marriage is considered dissolved; he cannot inherit nor bequeath ; his testament is opened, and his property distributed among his heirs; he cannot bear witness, &c. If he is required to do certain legal acts, he must do them through a guardian. Formerly, when the German empire was still in existence, a person put under the ban of the empire (Achtserklaerung) be- came civilly dead, and was declared out of the pro- tection of the law (corresponding, in a civil point of view, to Catholic excommunication, in regard to a man's religious rights). The ban went so far as to declare the outlaw vogelfrei (free as a bird), which meant that any body might even kill him, without notice being taken of it by law. But civil death was not received into the German law in other re- spects, and therefore has not existed since the aboli- tion of the empire. Most countries allow a person sentenced to death to make a will, except in particu- lar cases, in which confiscation is part of the punish- ment. In France, however, the institution of civil death still exists (Code Napoléon, a. 22; Code Pénal, a. 18), and takes effect in the case of every one who is sentenced to death, to the galleys for life (travaua, forcés), or to deportation, even if the person is con- victed in contumacia, that is, in default of appear- ance on a legal summons. In England, a person outlawed (see Outlawry) on an indictment for treason or felony, is considered to be civilly dead (civiliter mortuus), being, in such case, considered to be guilty of the offence with which he is charged, as much as if a verdict had been found against him. Anciently, an outlawed felon was said to have a wolf's head (caput lupinum), and might be knocked on the head by any one that should meet him. The outlawry was decreed, in case the accused did not appear, on being summoned with certain forms, a certain num- ber of times, and in different counties, to appear and answer to the indictment; so that the case is the same as the French laws denominate contumacy. In such case, under an indictment for crimes of either of these descriptions, he was considered as having renounced all law, and was to be dealt with as in a state of nature, when every one who found him might slay him. But, in modern times, it has been held that no man is entitled to kill him wanton- ly and wilfully, but in so doing is guilty of murder, unless it be in endeavouring to apprehend him ; for any one may arrest him, on a criminal prosecution, “either of his own head,” or on writ or warrant, in order to bring him to execution. So a person banished the realm or transported for life, as a punishment for crime, forfeits all his civil rights as much as if he were dead. His wife may marry again, and his estate will be administered upon as if he were deceased. A will made by such a person, after incurring this civil disability, is void; and so º acts done by him in the exercise of any civil right. DEATH, in mythology. The representation of 615 death, among nations in their earlier stages, depends upon the ideas which they form of the state of man after this life, and of the disposition of their gods towards mankind. In this respect, the study of these representations is very interesting. Of later ages the Same Cannot be said, because imitations of representations previously adopted are very often the subjects of the plastic arts in such periods. However, these representations do not altogether depend on the causes above mentioned, as the general disposition of a nation (for instance, that of the Greeks, who beautified every object) has also a great influence upon them ; and it is remarkable that the Greeks, whose conceptions of an after-life were so gloomy, represented death as a pleasing, gentle being, a beautiful youth, whilst the Christians, whose religion teaches them to consider death as a release from bondage, a change from misery to hap- piness, give him the most frightful, and even dis- gusting shape. One reason of this may be, that the call to repentance is a prominent feature in the Christian religion; and to arm death with terrors may have been supposed to give weight to the . SUIII]]]]OIłS. The Greeks had many gods of death, the zºges and Sévazos; the former were the goddesses of fate, like the Valkyriae in the Northern mythology. Un- timely deaths, in particular, were ascribed to them; the latter, Sávoros, represented natural death. Ac- cording to Homer, Sleep and Death are twins, and Hesiod calls them the sons of Night. They are often portrayed together on cameos, &c. During the most flourishing period of the arts, Death was repre- sented on tombs as a friendly genius, with an in- verted torch, and holding a wreath in his hand; or as a sleeping child, winged, with an inverted torch resting on his wreath. Sleep was represented in the same manner, except that the torch and the wreath were omitted. According to an idea origi- nating in the East, death in the bloom of youth was attributed to the attachment of some particular deity, who snatched his favourite to a better world. It was ascribed, for instance, to Jupiter, or to his eagle, if the death was occasioned by lightning, as in the case of Ganymede ; to the nymphs, if the in- dividual was drowned, as in the case of Hylas; to Aurora, if the death happened in the morning; to Selene, if at night (Cephalus and Endymion), &c. These representations were more adapted to relieve the minds of surviving friends, than the pictures of horror drawn by later poets and artists. (See the classical treatises of Lessing, Sammtl. Scriften, vol. 10, and Herder's JVie die Alten den Todgebildet.) Euripides, in his Alcestis, even introduced Death on the stage, in a black robe, with a steel instrument in his hand, to cut off the hair of his victims, and thus devote them to the infernal gods. The later Roman poets represent Death under more horrible forms gnashing his teeth, and marking his victims with bloody nails, a monster overshadowing whole fields of battle. The Hebrews, likewise, had a fearful angel of death, called Samaël, and prince of the world, and coinciding with the devil; but he removes with a kiss those who die in early youth. Enoch was taken up to heaven alive. The disgusting represen- tations of Death common among Christians, origi- nated in the fourteenth century; for the representa- tion of Death as a skeleton merely covered with skin, on the monument at Cumae, was only an ex- ception to the figure commonly ascribed to him among the ancients. In recent times, Death has again been represented as a beautiful youth—certain- ly a more Christian image than the skeleton with the scythe. The monument made by Canova, which George IV. erected in honour of the Stuarts, in St 616 Peter's church at Rome, represents Death as a beau- tiful youth. He is sometimes portrayed under the figure of a dying lion. DEATH, APPARENT. See Drowning. DEATH, DANCE of ; an allegorical picture, in which are represented the various figures and appear- ances of death in the different relations of life, as a dance where Death takes the lead. The idea of such a dance appears to be originally German, and to belong to poetry. In later times, it was used, also, in England and France, by poets and artists. The French have such a dance—La danse Macabre— derived, it is said, from a poet called Macaber, but little known. A dance of Death was painted on the walls of the church-yard of the Innocents, at Paris, about the middle of the fifteenth century, which the chapter of St Paul’s in London, caused to be copied, to adorn the walls of its monastery. Gabriel Peignot, in the Recherches sur les Damses des Morts et sur t’Origine des Cartes a jouer (Dijon and Paris, 1826), investigated the º of the dance of Death in France, and thus explained the dancing positions of the skeletons; that, according to the relations of old chronicles, those who were attacked by the plague ran from their houses, making violent efforts to restore their rapidly declining strength by all kinds of morbid movements. Others derive the origin of this representation from the masquerade. These dances are often found painted on the walls of Catholic burial-places. The most remarkable dance of Death was painted, in fresco, on the walls of the church-yard, in the suburb of St John, at Basle, which was injured, in early times, by being washed over, and is now entirely destroyed. This piece has been ascribed to the celebrated Hans Holbein; but it has long since been proved that it existed sixty years before his birth. It was painted at Basle, in the year 1431, by an unknown artist, in Com- memoration of the plague, which prevailed there at that time; the council was then sitting, and several of its members were carried off by it. It repre- sented Death as summoning to the dance persons of all ranks, from the pope and the emperor down to the beggar, which was explained by edifying rhymes. That piece contained about sixty figures as large as life. Besides being ascribed to Holbein, as was before stated, it has also been ascribed to a painter named Glauber, but without foundation. Holbein perhaps conceived, from this picture, the idea of his dance of Death, the original drawings of which are in the cabinet of the empress of Russia, Catharine II. Some say that Holbein himself made the wood-cuts of it. The latest engravings of this picture of Hol- bein are in thirty-three plates, in the CEuvres de Jean Holbein, par Chr. de Meckel (1st vol., Basil, 1780). Similar representations were painted, in the fifteenth century, in other cities of Switzerland. (See Mueller's Geschächte der Schweizer—History of Switzerland— 4 vols.) The dance of Death in St Mary’s church at Luebeck, was completed in 1463. On the walls of' the church-yard of the Neustaedt of Dresden, there is, even at the present time, to be seen a similar dance of Death. It consists of twenty-seven basso-relievo figures, worked on sand-stone, and includes persons of both sexes, and of all ranks. The labour of the sculptor has more merit than the unpoetical rhymes which were afterwards added. (See Fiorillo's Ges- chichte derzeichmenden Kvenstein Deutschland wºnd der? Niederlanden, 4 volumes.) See Capital Punishment. DEATH-WATCH ; a species of termes, so called on account of an old superstition that its beating or ticking in a sick room is a sure sign of death. DEBENTURE. See Drawback. DEBT, NATIONAL. See Public Debt. DEBTOR AND CREDITOR, Laws of. One IDEATH-DEBTOR AND CRIEDITOR. of the first steps, in a community, towards industry and wealth, is the institution of the individual right to property. The guarantee of the individual’s earn- ings to himself is the strongest stimulus to his exer- tions; and this measure is so obvious, and the One in which every member of a community has so evi- dent an interest, that it is of universal adoption among rude as well as civilized nations, and even precedes the establishment of a regular government; for men will sell, and, as far as they are able, enforce their exclusive right to the fruits of their own labour, before they are in a condition to establish general laws. But, though this principle is so obviously just, and of So early adoption, its extension and ap- plication to complicated affairs, and various species of property, and divisions, and modifications of rights to, and interest in, possessions of all sorts, are among the most difficult subjects of legislation. The right of property being once established, the conditions on which the owner will part with and transfer it are, as a natural and necessary consequence, left to his own determination, with some few exceptions; espe- cially one usually made in favour of the government, or, rather, of the whole collective community, who reserve the right of taking individual property for the public use, without the consent of the proprietor, and upon such terms as the government itself shall prescribe. But, even in this case, a debt or obliga- tion on the part of the government or community arises in favour of the proprietor whose property has been taken. So that we may lay it down as a gene- ral doctrine, that, where one parts with and transfers to another any property, or right, of which, by the laws of the community, he was exclusively possessed, this transfer is the basis of meritorious consideration of a promise or obligation on the part of the person to whom the transfer is made, to return Some equi- valent, or what may be agreed on as an equivalent by the parties. Whether this return be stipulated for in money, lands, goods, or personal services, or anything of which the value can be estimated, is immaterial in respect to the force of the obligation, which will be the same in either case. The validity of the obligation thus arising is recognized by the laws of all civilized states. But, then, the question arises—and it is one which has much perplexed le- gislators—What degree of force or sacredness shall be assigned to this obligation, and by what Sanctions and penalties shall it be guarded ? The personal rights of citizens are, in general, more scrupulously guarded and vindicated by the laws, than those of property, or those the value of which, in money or exchange, admits of an exact estimate. The lives of men, for instance, are generally protected by in- flicting the extreme penalty of death for the crime of murder. Such a punishment is only commensurate with the crime, and its justice is universally acknow- ledged; but a law which should inflict the same punishment for a mere assault on the person, attend- ed by no serious injury, would excite the abhorrence of all men; for, though men are under an undoubted obligation not to commit an unprovoked assault, though not attended by a serious wound, yet such a penalty would be at once pronounced to be out of all proportion to the force and sacredness of the obliga- tion which it would be designed to protect. The question then occurs—How forcible, how binding, how sacred, is this promise and obligation to pay a sum of money or deliver an article of property P Is it so sacred that the debtor ought to be put to death, sent to the galleys, put into the pillory, or the stocks, or whipped, or imprisoned, in Case of his failing to fulfill it? In one point all communities agree, namely, as far as the property of the debtor goes, it ought to an- DEBTOR AND CREDITOR. swer to this obligation; for the value he has received has been absorbed in that which he possesses, and constitutes a part of its amount, or, at least, may be presumed to have contributed to it. In short, the property of the debtor may be considered to belong to his creditors, to the extent of their demands. The laws of different countries, accordingly, agree in the principle that the creditor shall have the means of getting possession and disposing of the debtor's pro- perty to satisfy his demands. The sums prescribed for the exercise of this well established and universally acknowledged right, vary considerably in different countries and periods. As long ago as the time of Solom, the necessary implements of husbandry were exempted from this right. The civil law makes an exemption of necessary implements of trade and ar- ticles of furniture, and this distinction is adopted very generally, if not universally, throughout the civilized world. The right of the creditor, then, according to the laws and practice of the whole civilized world, does not extend to the whole of the property and pos- sessions of the debtor ; and the exception affords a rule for measuring the extent and force of this obli- gation of debt, in the general estimation of nations; since, in enforcing this obligation, all the laws in this respect stop at the point where individual suffer- ing commences. Though the law adopts the prin- ciple, that the goods of the debtor, in effect, belong to the creditor, yet it makes a compromise, even of this right, between the creditor, and debtor, and the community; for the community may be said to be affected by, and to feel, the distresses or good fortune of every one of its members; and, accordingly, the creditor is here made to compromise his rights as a creditor, out of regard to his obligations as a member of the community. The law says to him, “Though you strictly have a right to the tools your debtor uses, the clothes he and his family wear, and the beds they sleep upon—for they may have been pro- cured by the very money or goods from which the debt arose; yet, on the other hand, you owe Some obligations to the community, and the community has some obligations to your debtor; you shall not, therefore, turn him and his family naked into the streets, even by reclaiming the very articles you may have sold him.” Such is the limit which the laws have, by general consent, put to the extent of the creditor's right over the debtor's property; and, to this extent, every code ought to give as easy, cheap, and expeditious a remedy as can be allowed consistently with a just settlement of the validity and amount of the credi- tor's claim ; and such a remedy it is the object of legislators generally to give. Upon the principle already stated, namely, that the debtor's property belongs to his creditors, to the amount of their claims, it should follow, that when his property is inadequate to the full satisfaction of the debts, all the creditors ought to share it proportionally; and this has been the practical rule under the civil law, and in all the countries where it has been adopted as the common law. Such is the practical rule in Eng- land; and it is a rule so obviously just, and results so directly from the universally received principles, in relation to the rights of creditors, that it is surprising that any country, in the least advanced in civil po- lity, and having made any progress in civilization, should form an exception to such a rule, and permit some one creditor, or some few, no more deserving, and perhaps much less so, than the rest, to seize upon the whole property of the debtor, and entirely defeat the claims of the others. When the laws provide for a proportionate distri- bution of an insolvent's estate in general, still they 617 boxorum, and the various laws of insolvency of differ. ent states, of which that has been the model, a pre- ference is usually given to the government as a cre- ditor, which is fully satisfied for its demands before any part of the claims of individual creditors is paid. This preference is just, where the claim of the go- vernment can be viewed in the light of a lien on the property; and, where this is the case, the giving it a priority to those of creditors who have no lien, is, in fact, only putting the government upon the same footing with other creditors; for any one, having a mortgage or pledge, is always preferred to the extent of his pledge ; but, where the claim cannot be con- sidered in that light, the preference seems not to be just. Some other claims are preferred, from motives of humanity and general policy, on the same prin- ciple on which necessary articles of furniture, imple- ments of the debtor's trade, and the like, are exempt— ed from seizure. Thus some laws, notwithstanding the insolvency of the estate of a deceased debtor, still allow the full payment of the expenses of his last sickness and funeral, and also assign some arti- cles, of greater or less amount, to the use of his widow and family. Some codes of laws limit the claims of the creditor to the debtor's property for satisfaction. Others go beyond this point. The ancient laws of Rome permitted the selling of debtors into servitude for the benefit of their credi- tors; and such are the laws of modern times among some of the African tribes. Solom remarked upon the inconsistency of laws which exempted the imple- ments of trade, and articles of necessity of the debtor, from the creditor's demand, and yet subjected his body to sale or imprisonment; and, considering the rights of the debtor, as a citizen of Athens, to be paramount to those of his creditor over his person, he provided against the violation of a citizen's liberty on account of his debts. But the imprisonment of the debtor ought to be allowed as a means of compelling him to surrender his property for the benefit of his creditors; and, for this purpose, the civil law, and the laws of England permit it, but only until he has made a surrender of all his property, unless he is proved to have acted fraudulently, in which case the imprisonment is continued as a pun- ishment. In the article Bankrupt, the interposition of the law to discharge debtors absolutely from all liability to their creditors, on their surrendering all their pro- perty, has been treated of . This interposition, has, however, been extended only to cases of insolvent merchants. The insolvent laws, as distinguished from bankrupt laws, apply to debtors who are not merchants, and provide for a ratable distribution of their effects among their creditors, and exempt the person of the debtor from imprisonment, on the sur- render of the whole of his property, but do not dis- charge the debt any further than satisfaction is made by payment. A question very naturally arises why this distinction is made between traders and others. A cultivator or mechanic, in enterprising communities, is scarcely less liable to the misfortunes and disappointments which result in insolvency than traders, and their future industry and unembarrassed enterprise is of no less importance to the community. Why should the future earnings of a farmer, or con- ductor of any branch of industry, whose insolvency has been occasioned by a drought, a change in the markets, or the bankruptcy of a merchant whom he had trusted, be held for the payment of his debts, to the last farthing, any more than those of the mer. chant? Is it true that, in other pursuits than those of trade, insolvency is more frequently, the conse- quence of fraud, extravagance, or imprudence? See reserve some few preferences. Thus, in the cessio | Bankrupt, Copias, Insolvency. 618 rºt DEBURE, GUILLAUME and GUILLAUME FRAN- gois; two cousins, distinguished bibliographers. The former prepared the first division of the cata- logue of the excellent library of the duke de la Val- lière (1783, 2 vols.). The latter, a bookseller, born 1731, and died 1782, opened a new path for biblio- graphers, by reducing to a system what had before been left merely to tact, in his Bibliographie instruc- tive, ou Traité de la Connaissance des Livres rares et singuliers (Paris, 1763–68, 7 vols.), Lemercier and others attacked the work severely ; yet it must be considered of much value. (See Ebert's Bibliogra- phisches Lewicon, vol. i. p. 452.) Among his other works is to be mentioned Supplément a la Bibliogra- phie instructive, ou Catalogue des Livres du Cabinet de M. Gaignat (Paris, 1769, 2 vols.). To these two works, that of Née de la Rochelle, Table destinée à faciliter la Recherche des Livres anonymes, etc. (1782), forms a tenth volume. The sons of Debure, advantageously known in the world of letters as Debure Frères, have distinguished themselves as bibliographers by the catalogue of the rich and valuable library of count Mac-Carthy Reagh, (1817.) DECADE, (Lat. decas, from the Greek 3:22) is sometimes used for the number ten, or for an aggre- gate of ten, and decades for an enumeration by tens. The books of Livy are divided into decades. In the French revolution, decades took the place of weeks, in the division of the year. (See Calendar.) In the French system of weights and measures, the Greek word 34x2 is used to increase the value of the desig- nations tenfold; thus decagramme (a weight of ten grammes), decalitre (ten litres), decamétre (ten me- tres), decare (ten ares). DECAGON, (decagonum), in geometry; a figure of ten sides and angles. e DECALOGUE, (from 3:22, ten, and 2.6),0s, the word); the ten commandments, which, according to Exod., chap. XX., and Deut., chap. v., were given on two tables, by God to Moses. The Jews call them, by way of eminence, the ten words ; hence their alaue, Devulogue. Jews and Citristialis ilave divided the ten commandments differently; and, in Some Catholic catechisms, the second commandment has been united, in an abridged form, with the first, and the tenth has been divided into two. Cate- Chisms generally contain the ten commandments, not verbally as they stand in the Bible, but abridged. DECAMERON (Greek; from ºxo, ten, and #2sea, day); a book in which the author relates the events, &c., of ten days. The Decameron of Boccaccio (q.v.) is the history of a gay company of ten per- Sons, who, on ten different days, relate ten tales each day. The Decameron of Dibdin treats of bib- liographical curiosities. DECAPITATION. . See Capital Punishment. DECANDRIA, in botany; the tenth class of plants, with hermaphrodite flowers, and ten stamina, or male parts, in each. DECAPOLIS, in ancient geography; a country of Palestine, which contained ten principal cities, some on this, some on the other side of Jordan, whence its name. Pliny enumerates the following: —Scythopolis, Philadelphia, Raphanae, Gadara, Hip- pos, Dion, Pella, Gerasa, Canatha, and Damascus. Others reckon them differently. They were chiefly inhabited by Gentiles, though some of them might be within the region of Judea. DECCAN, or the COUNTRY OF THE SOUTH; an extensive country of Hindostan, bounded N. by the Nerbuddah, and S. by the Kist- nah, extending across the peninsula, from sea to sea. During the reign of the great mogul Aurungzebe, i. e. in the latter half of the seventeenth century DEBURE–DECIPHERING. this country was annexed to the kingdom of Delhi, and divided into six governments—Candeish, Amed- nagur, Beeder, Golconda, Bejapore, and Berar. The capitals were Burhampour, Aurungabad, Hulberga, Bejapore, and Hyderabad. DECEM (Latin, ten); a word which is found in several compound and derivative words in English ; as December, to decimate, decimal fractions, &c. DECEMBER, the twelfth month of our year, from the Latin decem, ten, because in the Roman year instituted by Romulus, it constituted the tenth month, the year beginning with March. In De- cember the sun enters the trophic of Capricorn, and passes our winter solstice. This month was under the protection of Vesta. DECEMVIRS. See Appius Claudius. DECIMAL ARITHMETIC ; a kind of calcula- tion in which no other fractions are used than tenths, hundredths, thousands, &c., which are conse- quently called decimal fractions. Joh. Regiomon- tanus first made use of it in his Tables of the Sines. It affords great facilities in calculation. . As, in our System of notation, the values of figures are deter- mined by their places, so that the figure on the left is always of ten times more value than the next at the right hand; so in decimal fractions, which must be considered as an extension of the decimal system (described in the article Notation), the place of the numerator determines the value of the denominator of the fraction, which need not, therefore, be ex- pressed. The integers are separated from the frac- tional numbers by a period, so that this period, placed between several numbers,is the characteristic sign of a decimal fraction. For instance 5-36 is 5 whole numbers 3 tenths, and 6 hundredths, or 36 hundredths ; 5:009 is 5 whole numbers, and 99 thousandths. If the di- visions of money and measures be in a decimal ratio, as is the case with those adopted during the French revolution, the ease of calculation is greatly increas- ed, almost all operations being reduced to addition, and subtraction. DECIMAL MEASURE; the division of the unit of measure (whatever it be, as a foot, a rod, &c.) into ten equal parts. The quadrant of a circle has also been divided into ten equal parts. In this case the tenth part of such a quadrant is called a decimal degree. The French mathematicians, however, call the hundredth part of such a quadrant a decimal de- gree, and the hundredth part of such a degree a de- cimal minute. * DECIMATE ; to exact the tithe. The collection or the payment of the tithe is called decimation. In war, decimation signifies the selection of the tenth man of a corps, by lot, for punishment, as in case of revolt. It was early practised by the Ro- mans. Sometimes every tenth man is executed; Sometimes Only one man of each company, the tenth in order, as was the case when the Saxons revolted against Bluecher, before the battle of Waterloo. DECIPHERING, ART of ; the art of discovering the contents of a writing in which secret characters are used (often ciphers; hence the term decipher- ing). First, the vowels must be determined. This is done in the following way:-1. All the words of two letters are selected and written down together; then those words are selected which are divided at the end of a line, so that only two letters of the word re- main, one of which must necessarily be a vowel. Then the five (or whatever may be the number of the vowels in a language) letters are taken which occur the most frequently. 2. It is necessary to see if some one of these five letters is contained in every word. of the secret writing. If there is any word in which none of them is contained, the signs of the vowels are not yet all discovered. and it remains to make DECIUS MUS—DECRESCENIDO. the attempt again. When the vowels are found, they must, 3. be distinguished from each other. For this purpose, it should be determined which vowel occurs most frequently in the language in which the manuscript is Supposed to be written. In every language, particular rules for determining the vowels may be laid down. All the ordinary modes of deciphering fail in the case of those secret writings in which dictionaries are used as the basis, and whole words, and even short sen- tences, are denoted by single ciphers, and where, also, the order of the ciphers, 1, 2, 3, &c., does not correspond to the alphabetical arrangement of the words in the dictionary, but is made as irregular as possible, and non-valeurs, as they are called, are made use of; that is, ciphers without sig- nification, which are intermixed with the valewºrs, or those ciphers which supply the place of words. The old modes of secret writing have been almost entirely superseded, and the old modes of deciphering have been made almost entirely useless by the modern species of cryptography, in which, according to a simple rule, which may be communicated verbally and retained in memory, the signs for the letters may be continually changed. This is the chiffre quarré, or chiffre indéchiffrable, used, if not universally, yet by most courts. See Cryptography. DECIUS MUS, PUBLIUs; a Roman consul, who, in a war against the Latins, B. C. 340, devoted him- self to death for his country. His example was fol- lowed by his son and his grandson. Such acts of self-devotion (devotiones) were not unusual at that time, when patriotism and piety exerted a powerful influence, and were performed with great solemnity. He who devoted himself, after performing certain religious rites, rushed into the midst of the enemy, clothed in splendid armour, to show his countrymen how a brave man ought to die for his country. Decius was also the name of a Roman emperor, who reigned from A. D. 249, till December 25l. He persecuted the Christians, and perished with his army, in a bloody battle in Moesia against the Goths. DECK. See Ship. DECKER relates to the rate of a ship of force; as a two-decker, a three-decker; i. e. carrying two entire tiers or ranges of cannon, or three such tiers. DECKER, or DEKKER, Thomas, an English dra- matic and miscellaneous writer, who lived in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. Nothing is known of his personal history, except that he was one of the literary antagonists of Ben Jonson, who had satir- ized Decker in his Poetaster, and the latter had taken his revenge in his Satyromastix. Some of his plays have great merit, particularly his Honest Whore, and his comedy of Old Fortunatus. All his tracts are highly valued by bibliomaniacs. DECLINATION OF THE SUN, OF A STAR, OR A PLANET, is its distance from the equinoctial, northward or southward. When the sum is in the equinoctial, he has no declination, and enlightens half the globe from pole to pole. As he increases in north declimation, he gradually shines farther over the north pole, and leaves the south pole in dark- ness. In a similar manner, when he has south de- clination, he shines over the south pole, and leaves the north pole in darkness. 23° 28′ is the sun’s greatest declination north or south. DECOMPOSITION, CHEMICAL, is the resolution of a compound substance into its constituent parts, which are exhibited either separate, or in some new combination. The compounds which are spontane- ously formed by organic bodies, both vegetable and animal, are of a different nature from those which exist in unorganized matter. They are the peculiar results of vital processes, and neither their structure 619 nor composition can be imitated by art. During life the elements of organic bodies are held together by vital affinities, under the influence of which they were originally combined. But no sooner does life cease, than these elements become subject to the laws of inert matter. The original affinities, which had been modified or suspended during life, are brought into operation; the elementary atoms react upon each other, new combinations are formed, and the organized structure passes, sooner or later, into decay. The rapidity with which decomposition takes place in organic bodies depends upon the mature or the particular substance, and upon the circumstances under which it is placed. Temperature, moisture, and the presence of decomposing agents, greatly affect both the period and extent of this process. By regulating or preventing the operation of these causes, the duration of most substances may be pro- longed, and many, materials are rendered useful, which, if left to themselves, would be perishable and worthless. The preservation of timber, of fibrous Substances, of leather, of food, and of various objects of art, is a subject of the highest importance, and has received, at various times, much attention from Scien- tific experimentalists. DECOY, among fowlers; a place made for catch- ing wild-fowl. A decoy is generally made where there is a large pond surrounded with wood, and be- yond that a marshy and uncultivated country. If the piece of water is not thus surrounded, it will be sub- jected to noises and other accidents, which may be expected to frighten the wild-fowl from the haunt, where they would otherwise sleep in the day-time. If these noises or disturbances are wilful, it has been held that an action will lie against the disturber. As soon as the evening sets in, the decoy-birds rise, as the wild-fowl feed during the night. If the evening is still, the noise of their wings, during their flight, is heard at a very great distance, and is a pleasing, though rather melancholy Sound. Decoy, in military affairs; a stratagem to lure the enemy into an ambush, &c. DECREE, in general; an order, edict, or law made by a superior, as a rule to govern inferiors. It is used for a judicial decision in the court of chancery; also for the edicts of ecclesiastical councils. In the civil law, it signified a determination or judgment of the emperor on a suit between parties. The com- pilation of the older papal decretals and the decrees of the councils, made by the monk Gratianus in the eleventh century, is called the Decretum Gratiani. (See Canon Law.) In the former German empire, the resolutions of the emperor, declared to the estates of the empire, were called decrees.—The old name of royal orders, in France, was ordonnances or lettres. The national convention, while it possessed sovereign power, used the expression La convention ºvationale décrète. During the period of the directory, and under the consular government, the expressions arré; and arréter were customary ; but the impe- rial government used the words imperial decree, for instance, in the famous decrees of Berlin and of Milan. DECREPITATION is the crackling noise, accom- panied by a violent exfoliation of their particles, which is made by several salts and earthy com pounds, on being suddenly exposed to heat. . It ap- pears to be referable to the same cause which occa- sions the cracking of glass and cast-iron vessels, when they are incautiously heated; viz., the unequal expansion of the lamina, which compose them, in consequence of their imperfect power of conducting heat. DECRESCENDO ; an Italian term in music which denotes the gradual weakening of the Sound. 620 DECRETAL-DEER, DECRETAL ; a general name for the papal de- |ditors; any of which considerations will vacate the crees, comprehending the rescripts (answers to in- deed, and subject the parties to forfeiture, and in quiries and petitions), decrees (judicial decisions by the rota Romana), mandates (official instructions for ecclesiastical officers, courts, &c.), edicts (papal or- dinances in general), and general resolutions of the councils. The oldest collection was made by Isi- dore, archbishop of Seville (who died 636), which is extant in manuscript. An enlarged collection was made in the ninth century, probably on the Rhine (perhaps by Benedictus Levita). This contained many pieces which have since been shown to be spurious. In modern times, it has therefore been called the pseudo-Isidorian collection. . In the Corpus Juris Canonici, the collection of decretals which Gregory IX. (who died 1241) caused to be made by Raimond of Pennafort (officially published in 1234 at Paris, 1235 at Bologna), constitutes the second di- vision, succeeding the decretum. It is divided into five books, and is quoted under the name Eatra, be- cause it contains the decretals not in the decretum. A sixth book of later decretals (Liber sewtus Decre. talium) was added, in 1298, by Boniface VIII. See Canon Law. DEE ; a large river of Scotland, in the county of Aberdeen, which has its sources in the heights of Braemar and the Cairngorm mountains, and dis- charges itself into the German ocean, after an irre- gular course, from west to east, of ninety-seven miles. A part of it forms the southern boundary of Aberdeenshire. It is a beautiful and rapidly running river, having in many places high and rocky banks, overhung with large natural forests and plantations. It abounds in salmon, and its produce in fish is esti- mated at above 268,000 a-year. DEE ; a river of Scotland, in the county of Kirk- cudbright, which flows into the Solway firth, after a course of about forty miles. Its run is rapid, and, like its Aberdeen namesake, much of it is adorned by steep romantic banks, overhung with woods. It ‘is navigable for about two miles from its mouth, and at the head of the navigation, at Tongland, it is crossed by a fine bridge, consisting of a single arch having a span of 110 feet. DEE ; a river of Ireland, which traverses the county of Louth, and runs into the bay of Dundalk. DEE, a beautiful river in Merionethshire, Wales, which flows from the lake Pimble-Meer, and falls into the Irish sea, about fifteen miles below Ches- ter. A large aqueduct, conveying the water of the Ellesmere canal, passes over it, at Pont-y Eyssyltan. DEED is a written contract, sealed and delivered. It must be written before the sealing and delivery, otherwise it is no deed ; and, after it is once formally executed by the parties, nothing can be added or in- terlined ; and, therefore, if a deed be sealed and de- livered with a blank left for the sum, which the obli- gee fills up after sealing and delivery, this will make the deed void. A deed must be made by parties capable of contracting; and upon a good considera: tion, and the subject matter must be legally and formally set out. The formal parts of a deed are, the premises, containing the number, names, addi- tions, and titles of the parties; the covenants, which are clauses of agreement contained in the deed, whereby the contracting parties stipulate for the truth of certain facts, to bind themselves to the per- formance of some specific acts; the conclusion which mentions the execution and date of the deed, or the time of its being given or executed, either expressly or with reference to some day and year be- fore mentioned. Every deed must be founded upon good and sufficient consideration; not upon an usu- rious Contract, nor upon fraud or collusion, either to deceive bona fide purchasers, or just and lawful cre. r Some cases imprisonment. A deed, also, without any consideration is void. A deed must be executed by the party himself, or by another for him in his presence, or with his direction; or, in his absence, by an agent authorized so to do by another deed, also under seal; and in every such case, the deed must be made and executed in the name of the prin- cipal. A deed takes effect only from the day of de- livery; and therefore, if it have no date, or a date impossible, the delivery will in all cases, ascertain the date of it ; and if another party seal the deed, yet, if the party deliver it himself, he thereby adopts the sealing and signing, and, by such delivery, makes them both his own. The delivery of a deed may be alleged at any time after the date; but unless it be . and regularly delivered, it is no deed. Ano- ther requisite of a deed is, that it be properly wit- messed or attested: the attestation is, however, me. cessary rather for preserving the evidence, than as intrinsically essential to the validity of the instru- ment. There are four principles adopted by the Courts of law, for the exposition of deeds, viz., 1. that they be beneficial to the grantee, or person in whose favour they are intended to operate; 2. that where the words may be employed to some intent, they shall not be void; 3. that the words be construed according to the meaning of the parties, and the in- tent of the parties be carried into effect, provided Such intent can possibly stand at law; 4. that they are to be expounded consonantly to the rules of law, and reasonably, without injury to the gran tor, and to the greatest advantage of the grantee. DEER (cervus). These beautiful and well known quadrupeds belong to the order pecora, or ruminating animals. They are distinguished from the ante- lopes (q.v.) by their horns, which are composed of a bony substance, caducous, or falling off annually, and again renewed of a larger size than in the pre- ceding year. These horns or antlers always exist on the head of the male, and sometimes on that of the female. In their first or young state, they are cover- ed by a velvet-like membrane, through which the blood circulates with great freedom. At this time the horn is extremely sensitive, the animal suffering much pain when it is roughly handled or struck. After the horn has attained its full growth, the base becomes surrounded with an irregular, tuberculous ring, called the burr, and the blood-vessels gradually contract and diminish, until they cease to convey blood to the velvet membrane, which then dries, loses its sensitiveness, and finally flakes off. The form of the horns are various. Sometimes they spread into broad palms, which send out sharp snags around their outer edges; sometimes they divide fantastically into branches, some of which project over the forehead, whilst others are reared upwards in the air, or they may be so reclined backwards, that the animal seems almost forced to carry its head in a stiff, erect posture. Yet they communicate an air of grandeur, seeming like trees planted on the head of a living animal. The various species of deer, as well as the antelopes, invariably remain in their original situations, when left to themselves. Two species are common to the north of the old and new continents; five belong to North America; four to America south of the equator; four to Europe and the continent of Asia; and fourteen to India, China, and the Asiatic archipelagos. The writings of naturalists exhibit much confusion in relation to the North American Species. This has arisen, in a great measure, from the loose manner in which species have been pro- posed on the authority of travellers, wholly incom- petent to distinguish between mere varieties and DEER. those permanent characteristics indicative of specific constitution. The following are the only well authenticated species inhabiting this country; all the others, named as distinct, being mere varieties: moose (C. alces); reindeer (C. tarandus); American elk (C. Canadensis); common deer (C., Pärginia- mus); black-tailed deer (C. macrotis); long-tailed deer (C. leucurus); Mexican deer (C. Mearicanus). It should be remarked, that few American quadru- peds have been found precisely similar to their Euro- pean representatives, and that recent writers have doubted whether the moose and reindeer of that country are identical with those of Scandinavia. No satisfactory comparisons of the animals from the two continents have yet been made, and hence the dis- tinguishing characters, if any exist, are still un- known. The Moose, or Original of the Canadians, is, per- haps, the only deer whose general appearance can be called ungraceful, or whose proportions, at first sight, impress the beholder unfavourably. Its large head terminates in a square muzzle, having the mos- trils protruded over the sides of the mouth ; the neck, which is furnished with a short, thick mane, is not longer than the head, which, in the males, is ren- dered still more cumbrous and unwieldy by large palmated horns; under the throat is an excrescence, from which issues a tuft of long hair; the body, which is short and thick, is mounted on tall legs, giving a very ungainly aspect to the animal, which is not diminished when it is in motion, as its gait is a sort of shambling trot, very efficient, however, from the great length of its limbs. The moose in- habits the northern parts of both continents. In America, it has been found as far north as the coun- try has been explored; its Southern range, at for- mer periods, extended to the shores of the great lakes, and throughout the New England States. Du Pratz mentions that, in his time, they occurred on the Ohio. At present, however, they are seldom heard of to the south of the state of Maine, where, also, they are becoming scarce. But in Nova Scotia, around the bay of Fundy, and in the Hudson's Bay company's possessions, they are found in considerable numbers. Their flesh is more relished by the In- dians, and persons resident in the fur countries, than that of any other animal. It bears a greater resem- blance, in its flavour, to beef than to venison. The large and gristly extremity of the nose is accounted an epicurean treat. Hearne states that the external fat is soft, like that of a breast of mutton, and, when put into a bladder, is as fine as marrow. In this it dif- fers from all the other species of deer, of which the external fat is hard. The moose attains a large size, particularly the male, which sometimes weighs eleven or twelve hundred pounds. Their skins, when properly dressed, make a soft, thick, pliable leather, which the Indians prepare by Scraping them to an equal thickness, and removing the hair: they are then smeared with the brains of the animal, until they feel soft and spongy; and, lastly, they are suspended over a fire made of rotten wood, until they are well impregnated with the smoke. Reindeer. These animals inhabit the arctic is- lands of Spitzbergen, and the northern extremity of the old continent, never having extended, according to Cuvier, to the southward of the Baltic. They have long been domesticated, and their appearance and habits are well described by maturalists. The American reindeer or caribou, are much less per- fectly known: they have, however, so strong a resem- blance, in form and manners, to the Lapland deer, that they have always been considered to be the same species, without the fact having ever been com- pletely established. The American Indians have 62] never profited by the docility of this animal, to aid them in transporting their families and property, though they i. destroy great numbers for their flesh and hides. There appear to be several varieties of this useful quadruped peculiar to the high northern regions of the American continent, which are ably described by doctor Richardson, one of the companions of captain Franklin in his hazard- ous attempt to reach the north pole by land. The closeness of the hair of the caribou, and the light- mess of its skin when properly dressed, render it the most appropriate article for winter clothing in the high latitudes. The hoofs of the reindeer are very large, and spread greatly, and thus enable it to cross the yielding snows without sinking. During the Summer months, this deer feeds upon every species of green herbage; but in winter, his whole food is the lichen or moss, which he instinctively seeks under the Snow. It is a singular, but now a well esta- blished fact, that the reindeer will eat, with avidity, the lemming or mountain-rat, presenting one of the few instances of a ruminating animal being, in any degree, carnivorous. Reindeer have several times been transported to England and Scotland in large numbers, but they have invariably died, although they were attended by Laplanders, and could pro- cure plenty of their natural food. Whether the failure arose, however, from a want of proper attention to the peculiar habits of the animal, or was the natural result of the tenacity with which the deer tribe adhere to their original geographical position as a law of nature, is a question not easy to be decided. American Elk. This stately and beautiful animal was, until very recently, confounded with the moose, from its common English name being the same as that applied to the European moose. The size and appearance of the elk are very imposing ; his air denotes confidence of great strength, whilst his towering horns exhibit weapons capable of doing much injury. The elk, at one period, ranged over the greater part of this continent, and is still occa- sionally found in the remote and thinly settled parts of Pennsylvania; but the number is small. Doc- tor Richardson states that its northern range is about the twenty-sixth or twenty-seventh parallel of latitude. The elk has been sometimes domes- ticated to a certain degree ; but, at the same time, from its warlike disposition, it is not likely that it could be advantageously substituted for the reindeer. Common Deer. This well known quadruped is found throughout the country between Canada and the banks of the Orinoco. In various parts of this ex- tensive range, it presents considerable varieties in size and colour. Judging by the quantity of skins brought to our markets, we may form some idea of the ag- gregate number and productiveness of these ii. which, notwithstanding the extensive destruction of them, do not appear to be very rapidly diminishing, except in the immediate vicinities of very º; peopled districts. The common deer is possessed of keen senses, especially of hearing and smelling: the sight, though good, does not appear to equal in power the senses just named. It is necessary for a hunter to approach a deer against the wind, other- wise he is discovered by the scent. The slightest noise, also, appears to excite its fears more than any other cause ; while, on the contrary, the sight of unaccustomed objects seems rather to arouse curi- osity than produce terror. The female commonly has one or two, and sometimes three, fawns at a birth, which are of a light cinnamon colour, spotted with white. In the latter ſº of the summer, they lose the white spots, and in winter the hair grows 622 longer and greyish ; this is succeeded, in the fol- lowing June, by a coat of a reddish colour, which changes, in August, to a darkish blue, which again gradually assumes a gray tint. The skin is toughest in the red, thickest in the blue, and thinnest in the grey state. They shed their horns in February. Black-tailed Deer. This species is peculiar to the country west of the Missouri, and in the neighbour- hood of the Rocky mountains. The first information of this fine animal was given by Lewis and Clarke, and it was afterwards fully described by Mr Say. Its ears are of great length, equalling that of the head; its tail is terminated by a black tuft, whence its Com- mon name. From the form of its hoofs, which re- semble those of the goat, it is enabled to live among the rocky cliffs of the mountains. It does not run like the common deer, but bounds along, raising all its feet from the ground at the same time. Long-tailed Deer. We owe the description of this animal to Mr Douglas, who states that it is not found on the east side of the Rocky mountains, except in their immediate vicinity, but is the most common deer in the districts about the Columbia river. Its gait is two ambling steps and a bound exceeding twice the length of the steps. In running, the tail is erect, wagging from side to side, and, from its unusual length (thirteen to seventeen inches), is the most remarkable characteristic about the animal. It goes in herds, from November to April and May, when the female secretes herself to bring forth. The young are spotted with white until the middle of the first winter, when they change to the same colour as the most aged. This deer, however, ap- proaches very near to the common species in all its characters, and may, eventually, prove to be only a variety. Mewican Deer. Of this species very little is known, except that it inhabits Mexico and the ad- joining countries. It may possibly be only a variety of the common deer, as the differences exist princi- pally in the disposition of the antlers, which is an extremely fallacious guide in the discrimination of the different species of deer. The arrangement of the teeth of the deer is, incisors ::, canine ; ; or ; #, molars ; ; = total, 32 or 34. DEER, NEw and OLD, two parishes in Buchan, Aber- deenshire, which, up to the beginning of the seven- teenth century, formed only one parish. Old Deer is ten miles in length, five miles and a half in breadth, and, though of an uneven surface, is everywhere well adapted for cultivation or plantations, abounding in Quarries of limestone and granite, with some rock crystal. Game is iii. and the streams yield great quantities of Salmon and trout. The female portion of the population is chiefly employed in spin- ning linen yarn and knitting, and there are extensive spinning machines and bleaching grounds in the pa- rish." The church is a commodious structure rebuilt in 1789. Many Druidical remains and cairns are to be seen within the parish. Its villages are Stewart- field, Fetterangus, and Deer, the latter a thriving place, situated twenty-six miles north of Aberdeen. The parish of New Deer is fourteen miles in length, seven broad, and its surface so even that it exhibits one continued corn field for several miles in extent, but the western portion consists of a comparatively barren tract, where peat and limestone are got in abundance. About two miles north from the parish church, are the ruins of Fedderatt Castle, once a strong fortress, from which the partisans of James II., who took refuge here after the battle of Killy- crankie, were expelled by the victorious troops of king William. Several cairns and Druidical tem- ples are also to be met with here. Population of the DEER—-DEFILE, parish of Old Deer in 1831, 41.10; of New Deer, 3525. DE FACTO (Latin ; in fact); a term used in con- tradistinction to de jure (by right). In some cases, the distinction is clear enough, but very often not. Napoleon's government was called, by the English, de facto, and that of the Bourbons de jure. Charles XIV. was called, by many, the ruler of Sweden de facto, yet he was chosen king by the nation; and who can be more properly a ruler de jure than a king chosen by the nation? This consideration has led some politicians to assert that there is no govern- ment de jure, but only governments de facto, which may be better or worse. On the other hand, it is asserted that there is but one kind of government de jure ; that is, such as receives its sanction and authority from the people who constitute the state. DEFAMATION. See Slamder. DEFENDER OF THE FAITH (Fidei Defensor); a title belonging to the king of England, as Catho- !icus to the king of Spain, Christianissimus to the king of France, Apostolicus to the king of Hungary, &c. Leo X. bestowed the title of Defender of the Faith on Henry VIII., on account of his memorable book against Luther; and the bull conferring it bears date quinto idus Octob., 1521. Clement VII. confirmed the title. Chamberlayne says that the title was only renewed by Leo X. ; as Apostolicus, for instance, was renewed in the case of Maria Theresa, being, in fact, a very old title. See Apos- tolicus. DEFFAND, MARIE DU; a French lady, distin- guished alike for her talents and her intercourse with the literati of the last century. She was born in 1696, of a noble family, and received an education suitable to her rank. Her acquirements were very considerable, but no care seems to have been taken to regulate her temper and disposition, which were marked by a degree of selfishness which was con- spicuous throughout her life. In 1718, she was married to J. B. J. du Deffand, marquis de la Lande, and colonel of a regiment of dragoons. Dur- ing the latter part of her long life, she became the centre of a literary coterie, which included some of the greatest geniuses of the age. Among the females remarkable for their wit and talents in the eighteenth century, madame du Deffand claims a distinguished place, though she left no monu- ment of her abilities except her epistolary corre- spondence, which has been highly praised by her friend D’Alembert, as affording a model of style in that species of composition. She died in 1780, having reached the age of eighty-four, during the last thirty years of which she had been afficted with blindness. In 1810 was published Correspond- ance inédite de Madame du Deffand avec d'Alembert, Montesquieu, le Président Hénault, la Duchesse du Maine; Mesdames de Choiseul, de Staël ; le Marquis d’Argens, le Chevalier d’Aydie, &c., 3 vols. 8vo. Her letters to the celebrated Horace Walpole have likewise been printed. - DEFILE ; a narrow way, admitting only a few persons abreast. The term is often erroneously con- fined to mountain passes. As they delay the march of troops, and expose them to the fire of the enemy, they must be avoided if possible, particularly by ar- tillery and wagons. A defile is defended in different ways. When it is formed by heights.(particularly it they are covered with wood), it is advisable to oc- cupy the entrance, and station the troops en masse behind: when this is not the case, the best way will be to render the passage as impracticable as possible, and to make a stand behind the outlet of the defile, so that the enemies advancing from it may be checked by an effectual fire, and prevented from developing DEFINITION.—DEGREE. themselves. A position before the defile, for the pur- pose of defending it, is only to be thought of when the passage of another division is to be covered. This method may be more or less varied in the de- fence of bridges. In passing a defile in sight of the enemy, after the usual precautions of patrols, &c., the van-guard must first march rapidly through, and take a position before the outlet, so as to cover the de- velopment of the succeeding masses, the preventing of which will be the object of the enemy. To defile is, therefore, to pass through a narrow passage. To march before any one with a narrow front, that is, en colonne, or by files, is also called defiling. DEFINITION (from the Latin definitiojof a thing signifies, in lexicography, a concise account of its es: sential and characteristic points. A definition should embrace all the essential properties of the object in- tended to be defined, and not admit any which do not belong to it, which is often extremely difficult, on account of the shades and gradations by which dif. ferent things are blended. A strictly accurate defi- nition can be given of only a few objects. The most simple things are the least capable of definition, from the difficulty of finding terms more simple and intelli- gible than the one to be defined. Of course, every large dictionary abounds with definitions which ex- plain nothing, since the thing defined cannot be made clearer by any definition. A good definition must give the mark of the genus (nota generalis sew genus) and of the species (nota specialis seu differentia spe- cifica); for instance, a barn is a building (nota genera- (is) for the purpose of preserving corn, &c. (nota spe- cialis). A definition may be analytic or synthetic. DEFLAGRATION, and DEFLAGRATOR. See Galvanism. DEFLECTION OF THE RAYS OF LIGHT is a property which doctor Hooke observed in 1674–5. He says he found it different from both reflection and refraction, and that it took place towards the surface of the opacous body perpendicularly. This is the same property which Newton calls inflection. It is called, by others, diffraction. DEFOE, DANIEL, a writer of greatingenuity and fer- tility, was born at London in 1663. His father's name was simply Foe. He received his education at an aca- demy at Newington Green, and he is not supposed to have attained to much classical acquirement. He com- menced author at the age of twenty-one, by a Treatise against the Turks, joined the insurrection of the duke of Monmouth, and had the good fortune to escape to London, where he engaged first as a horse-factor, and then as a maker of bricks at Tilbury fort. His com- mercial speculations, however, failing, he becameinsol- vent; and it is to his credit, that, having cleared his debts by a composition, he subsequently paid most of them in full, when his circumstances were amended. In 1697, he wrote an Essay on Projects. In 1701, appeared his Satire, The True-born Englishman, the object of which was to show the folly of the popular objection to king William, as a foreigner, by a peo- ple who were themselves a mixture of so many races. In 1702, when the high church party seemed dis- posed to carry matters strongly against the dissen- ters, he published The Shortest Way with the Dissen- ters, being an ironical recommendation of persecution, so gravely covered that many persons were deceived by it. It was, however, voted a seditious libel by the house of commons; and the author avowing him- Self, to secure his printer and publisher, he was pro- secuted to conviction, and sentenced to fine, imprison- ment, and the pillory. He underwent the latter pun- ishment with great equanimity, and was so far from being ashamed of it, that he wrote a Hymn to the Pillory, alluding to this circumstance. In February, 1703, while in Newgate he commenced the Review, 623 which is supposed to have given Steele the hint for his Tatler. He was at length liberated from Newgate by the interposition of Harley; and the queen herself sent money to his wife and family. In 1706, he pub- lished his largest poem, entitled Jure Divino, a satire on the doctrine of divine right. When the accession of the house of Hanover became an interesting to- pic, he wrote in its favour; but so obtuse was the public to his irony, that he was imprisoned for his productions as libels in favour of the pretender. The accession of George I. produced him no further pa- tronage, and he began another line of composition. In 17I5, he published The Family Instructor, a work inculcating moral and religious duties in a lively man- ner, by narration and dialogue. To this work his well known Religious Courtship, published in 1722, formed a third volume. In 1719, appeared the most popular of all his performances—The Life and Surpris- ing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, the favourable reception of which was immediate and universal. The success of Defoe in this performance induced him to write a number-of other lives and adventures in cha- racter; as Moll Flanders, Captain Singleton, Roxa- lana, Duncan Campbell, and The Adventures of a Cavalier. In 1722, he published a Journal of the Plague in 1665, in the person of a citizen supposed to have been a witness of it. The natural manner in which it is written deceived the celebrated doctor Mead, who thought it genuine. In 1724, he publish- ed the Great Law of Subordination, and, in 1726, his Political History of the Devil, to which he afterwards added, in the same style of reasoning, wit, and ridi- cule, a System of Magic. . He is also author of a Tour through the Island of Great Britain, the Com. plete English Tradesman, a Plan of English Com- merce, and various other productions. He died in April, 1731. A work has been lately published, called Memoirs of the Life and Times of Daniel Defoe, by Walter Wilson, three volumes, London. 1830. DEFTERDAR, in the Turkish empire; the min, ister of the finances, and high treasurer of the em. pire. It is to be observed that he is different from the kasnadar-baschi, the treasurer of the Sultan's private purse. DEGRADATION. The ecclesiastical censure, by which a clergyman is divested of his holy orders is termed degradation. The ceremony consists chief. ly in stripping off his clerical vestments. Geliot, in his Indice Armoriel, describes the degradation of Franget, a Gascon captain, for surrendering Fonta- rabia under Francis I. The accusation of treason was pronounced before twenty or thirty cavaliers. The culprit was armed at all points, and his shield, reversed, was suspended on a stake before him. By his side, twelve priests chanted the vigils of the dead. At the pause after each psalm, the officers stripped the knight of a piece of his armour, till he was quite bare. His shield was then broken in three pieces, and the king.at arms poured a basin of hot water on his head. The criminal was afterwards let down from the scaffold, by ropes under his arms, and, being placed on a bier, covered with grave clothes, and preceded by a priest chanting a mass for the dead, was delivered to the civil judge and the executioner. His life, however, eventually was spared, since life, under Such circumstances, was con- sidered more bitter than death. DEGREE, in algebra, a term applied to equations, to distinguish the highest power of the unknown quantity. Thus, if the index of that power be three or four, the equation is respectively of the third or fourth degree. º DEGREE, in geometry or trigonometry, is the 360th part of the circumference of any circle; every 624 circle being considered as divided into 360 parts, called degrees, which are marked by a small 9 near the top of the figure; thus, 45° is 45 degrees. The degree is subdivided into sixty smaller parts, called minutes ; the minute into sixty others, called seconds ; the second into sixty thirds, &c. Thus 45° 12/20/ is forty-five degrees, twelve minutes, twenty seconds. The magnitude or quantity of angles is estimated in degrees; for, because of the uniform curvature of a circle in all its parts, equal angles at the centre are subtended by equal arcs, and by similar arcs in peri- pheries of different diameters; and an angle is said to be of so many degrees as are contained in the arc of any circle comprehended between the legs of the angle, and having the angular point for its centre. Thus we say “an angle of 90°,” or “ of 45° 24′.” It is also usual to say, “Such a star is elevated so many degrees above the horizon,” or “declines so many degrees from the equator;” or “such a town is situated in so many degrees of latitude or longi- tude.” A sign of the ecliptic or zodiac contains thirty degrees. The French divide the circle into 400 degrees; each degree containing 100 minutes, each minute 100 seconds, &c. Degree of Latitude is the space or distance, on the meridian, through which an observer must move to vary his latitude by Gne degree, or to increase or diminish the distance of a star from the zenith by one degree; and which, on the supposition of the perfect sphericity of the earth, is the 360th part of the meridian. The length of a degree of a meridian, or other great circle, on the surface of the earth, is variously determined by different observers, and the methods made use of are also various ; and, there- fore, without entering into the history of all attempts of this kind, we .# present our readers with the following Table of the dº Lengths of a Degree, as measured in various Parts of the Earth, the Time of its Measurement, the Latitude of its middle Point, &c. Extent in Eng- Date Latitude. lish miles and Measurers. Countries, ecimals. 1525 |490 204' N, 68.763 |M. Fernel . France. 1620 |52 4 N 66'091 Snellius Holland. 1635 |53 i5 N 69°545 | Norwood . England. 1644 75-066 Riccioli Italy. 1669 - 68'945 |Picard . 4 ** i; ; 49 22 N. 3 jºij |öjj . . . . ; France. 1737 |66 20 § §§ Maupertuis, &c. . Lapland. 49 22 - - e. - 1740 |45 00 N §§.053 Cassini and La Caille. |France. 68°75l Juan and Ulloa . e 1744 || 0 0 68-732 [Bouguer . S- | Peru. 68°713 Condamine te 1752 (33 18; S. 69.076 |La Caille . .# º Good 1755 |43 0 N. 68°998 Boscovich . :: Ital 1764 |44. 44 N. 69°061 |Beccaria e y. 1766 |47 40 N. 69°142 |Liesganig . . . . Germany. 1768 |39 12 N. 68-893 |Mason and Dixon United States. 1802 |51 29.54% N. 69' 146 Lieut. Col. Mudge . England. 1803 |66 20% N. 69292 Swanberg, &c. |Lapland. 12 32 N. 68-743 |Lambton . . . . Mysore. 1808 |44. 52; N. 68769 Biot, Arago, &c. . France. Ellipticities of the Earth, expressed in Parts of its equatorial Diameter. Authors Ellipticities. Principles. Huygens, . a 579th, ; • Newton, 3. a 230th, Theory of gravity. a 314th, Maupertuis, &c. a 129th, Mensuration of arcs. a 213th, |Swanberg, . a 323'065th, Clairaut, a ll '55th, Rotatory motion. a 337th, Vibrations of the pendulum. Treisnsoker, . a 329th, Occultations of the fixed stars. a 334th, Precession, mutation, pendulum, the- a 306th, ory of the moon, &c. Laplace, ; Degree of Longitude is the space between the two meridians that make an angle of 19 with each other at the poles, the quantity or length of which is variable, according to the latitude. The following table expresses the length of a degree of longitude in different latitudes, supposing the earth to possess a perfect sphericity :— —-mº | ( DEGREE, ish ' Deg. English : Deg. English Deg. English ; Deg. English Pºg º # . i # . | #. . # . 0 69-07 || 20 64.84 || 40 || 52.85 || 60 34°50 || 80 1] '98 1 69-06 || 21 64'42 || 41 || 52-07 || 61 || 33°45 || 81 1079 2 || 69-03 || 22 || 63.97 || 42 || 51.27 || 62 32-40 || 82 9:59 3 | 68.97 || 23 || 63:51 || 43 50:46 || 63 31°33 || 83 || 8:41 4 | 68.90 || 24 || 63.03 || 44 49-63 || 64 30'24 || 84 7:21 5 | 68.81 || 25 | 62.53 || 45 48-74 || 65 29' 15 || 85 | 6'09 6 | 68-62 || 26 || 62-02 || 46 || 47-93 || 66 28-06 || 86 4.81 7 | 68.48 || 27 61-48 || 47 || 47-06 || 67 || 26'96 || 87 || 3-61 8 | 68-31 || 28 60-93 || 48 || 46-16 || 68 25.85 || 88 || 2:41 9 | 68.15 || 29 60-35 || 49 || 45:26 || 69 24.73 || 89 1 2} 10 67.95 || 30 59.75 || 50 44-35 || 70 23.60 || 90 || 0:00 11 || 67.73 ||31 || 59:13 || 51 43:42 || 71 || 22:47 || – || — 12 67-48 || 32 58.5l || 52 43-48 || 72 21:32 || – | — 13 67.21 || 33 || 57.87 || 53 || 41'53 || 73 20-17 || – || — 14 | 66.95 || 34 57:20 || 54 || 40-56 || 74 || 19:02 || – || — 15 | 66-65 || 35 56'51 || 55 39'58 || 75 1786 || – || — 16 || 66-31 || 36 || 55.81 || 56 || 38'58 || 76 | 16.70 || – || — 17 65.98 || 37 55'10 || 57 37-58 || 77 | 15'52 || – || – 18 || 65-62 || 38 || 54-37 || 58 36'57 || 78 14'85 || – t- 19 || 65.24 || 39 || 53.62 || 59 || 35-54 || 79 || 13-17 || – || — Degrees, Measurement of. After the immortal Newton had taught that the earth, on account of its motion round its axis, must be highest near the equator, and that the diameter of the equator must bé longer, by one 230th part, than the diameter from pole to pole, the French wished to investi- gate the subject further by actual measurement. Newton gave them warning that the difference between a degree at Bayonne and one at Dun; kirk was so trifling that it could not be detected at all with the imperfect instruments then in use; and was, in fact, afraid that they might come to a result directly opposite to what he conceived to be correct, and bring confusion into science. But his warnings were of no avail. The measurement was begun, and the fear of the great philosopher was realized; for the result was, that the axis of the poles was longer than a diameter of the equator, and that the earth was, in form, more like a lemon than an orange. For forty years, disputes were maintained on this point, without settling the question ; and, at last, the academy of sciences resolved, on the propo- sition of Condamine, to have a degree measured at the equator (the expedition went to South America in 1735), and one in Lapland (Kittis and Tornea being the extreme stations to which the expedition was sent in 1736). It was found that the northern degree was greater than that under the equator, and that Newton's conjecture was right. But the question still remained, How great is the flat- tening of our planet P. The theory said, one 230th part, if the earth had been in a perfectly liquid state, when it began its rotation. The calculations, how- ever, always gave different results, varying according to the different measurements adopted as the basis of them; for measurements had been made, not only in America and Lapland, but also in France, England, Hungary, and Italy. It was concluded, that the eårth was not a regular body, but had great local inequalities. Though this was possible, yet the Con- clusion was too hasty, because these supposed ine- qualities might be caused by the insufficiency of the instruments, and by the smallness of the arcs mea- sured. When the French established their new and admirable system of measures and weights upon the | basis of the metre, which was to be the ten millionth part of the distance from the equator to the pole ºft, English feet; see Measures), it was neces: sary to know, with accuracy, the circumference and the flattening of the earth. A measurement, there. fore, took place in France, not of one degree, but of ten degrees, from Dunkirk to Formentera. (See Delambre.) In Sweden, in 1802, the degree, which, eighty years before had been measured by Mauper- tuis, was now measured again, with better instru; ments, and thus the circumference and flattening of the earth were pretty well ascertained. After the peace, the measurements of degrees, which were made in England, under general Roy, by lieutenant- | colonel Mudge, were connected with those in France; T}EGREE–DEJANIRA. and thus an arc of twenty degrees, from the Balearic islands, near the coast of Spain, over France and England, to the Orcades, has been measured, and the flattening of the earth has been determined as accurately as it can be done in Europe. The flatten- ing has been , found to be one 304th. . In India, Lambton has begun the measurement of a degree. These measurements of degrees are among those enterprises which do mankind much honour, because they are not undertaken for the sake of immediate profit, nor of bare utility, but from an ardent desire of knowing the truth, from the same deep thirst for knowledge, which has so often impelled men to ex- plore the icy seas of the poles and the burning deserts of Africa. The history of such expeditions is better fitted to awaken a generous spirit in youth than the oft-repeated tale of conquest and bloodshed. Measurement of a Degree of Longitude. The de- grees of longitude are largest under the equator, and diminish continually towards the pole. Under the equator, a degree of longitude contains sixty geogra- phical, sixty-nine and a half statute miles. If the form of the earth is not entirely regular, the degrees of longitude on the same parallel of latitude cannot all be of the same length ; and it has been proposed to investigate this by actual measurement. This task is, in the trigonometric part, as easy as the measure- ment of a degree of latitude ; but in the astronomi- cal part, it is fifteen times more difficult. The dif- ference of the longitude of two places is determined by the difference of the hour of the day, at the same point of time in the two ; as a place, situated fifteen degrees to the east of another, has moon a whole hour earlier. One hour, therefore, corre- sponds to fifteen degrees, or 1042% statute miles under the equator, or 5,504,400 feet; a minute of time, to 91,740 feet, and a second of time, to 1529 feet. A mistake of a second of time, therefore, in calculat- ing the longitude of two places, makes a correspond- ing error in space. To determine time, within two or three seconds, by means of rockets, at a distance of 1042% miles is impossible ; and, whilst the mea- Surement of an arc, corresponding to this distance, trignometrically, may be attended with an error to the amount of 200 feet, an astronomical measure- ment would leave an uncertainty of 2000 feet. The earlier measurements of the French were directed, in the North, by Maupertuis; in the South, by Bou- guer. Detailed notices on the measurements of degrees are given by Delambre, in his Astronomie, iii. chap. 35. A popular description is given in the excellent work, Anleitung zur Allgemeinen Kenntniss d. Erdkugel (Introduction to a general Knowledge of the Globe, second edition, Berlin, 1803), by Bode. The latest information respecting this subject is given by captain Edward Sabine. He made obser- vations with the pendulum, from lat. 13° S. to lat. 800 N. He calculates the flattening of the earth to be rººr; and if the measurements of Sabine, Kater, and the modern French ones by Biot, are connected, and the mean of the whole taken, the flattening will be found to be gºr. See Sabine's Account of Ex- oeriments to determine the Figure of the Earth, by Means of the Pendulum vibrating Seconds in different Latitudes, London, 1825, 4to. DEGREE, in universities, denotes a distinction conferred on the students or members thereof, as a testimony of their proficiency in the arts or sciences, and entitling them to certain privileges. The de- grees are much the same in all universities; but the laws thereof, and the previous discipline or exercise differ. The degrees are, bachelor, master, and doc- tor; instead of which last, in some foreign universi- ties, is licentiate. DEIDAMEA (Deidameia), daughter of Îlycome- II. 625 des: she bore Pyrrhus and Onites to Achilles, during his abode at Scyrus. { DEI GRATIA (by the grace of God); a formula which sovereigns add to their title. The expression is taken from an epistle of the apostle Paul, and was used first by the clergy in the time of Constantime the Great. In the times of the Carlovingian race, the secular princes also assumed it. The high clergy of the Catholic church used it with an addition : “By the grace of God and the apostolic see.” DEIOTARUS, tetrarch of Galatia, received from the Roman Senate the title of king of that province and Armenia Minor, on account of services rendered to the Romans in the Asiatic wars. In the civil war, he joined the party of Pompey. Caesar took from him Armenia, obliged him to march with him against Pharmaces, and left him nothing but the title of royalty. He was accused of having plotted against the life of Caesar, from which charge Cicero defended him in an oration yet extant. After the murder of Caesar, he returned to his dominions, joined Brutus, and afterwards Augustus. He died, at an advanced age, 30 B.C. DEIR ; an Arabian word signifying house; as, Deir-el-Kamar, the house of the moon. It often oc- curs in geographical compounds. DEISM (from the Latin deus), as a philosophical system ; that which finds in God the cause of all things. It is, as such, opposed to atheism. In a religious point of view, it is used for the belief in latural religion, contradistinguished from the belief in revelation, and is considered, by many persons, almost equivalent to atheism, though this opinion can only be caused by ignorance. Theism has the same signification, and is derived from the Greek Sses (god). In India, there is a sect of pure deists, called Seiks. DEJANIRA, in fabulous history; daughter of OEneus, king of Calydon, a city of Ætolia; accord- ing to others, of Bacchus and Althaea, who, with her sister Gorgo, alone retained her form, when her other sisters were transformed, while mourning for their brother. She was betrothed to Achelous, the god of the river of the same name, who, on her account, engaged in a combat with Hercules. Achelous was overcome, and the maiden became the prize of the victor, who, on his return to his country, Was Stop- ped in his way by the river Evenus, which had over- flowed its banks. In this emergency, the Centaur Nessus offered to take Dejanira across the river on his back. Hercules readily consented, and passed over the river first ; but, when he had reached the opposite bank, he saw that the Centaur was attempt— ing to offer her violence. Enraged at the sight, he pierced him with an arrow, which had been dipped in the blood of the hydra. Nessus, perceiving his death approaching, wished to be revenged, and gave to Dejanira his bloody tunic, telling her that if her husband was unfaithful, she should persuade him to put this on, and it would reclaim him from his un- lawful passion. The credulous Dejanira accepted the present. Hearing, subsequently, that Hercules was captivated by the charms of Iole, the daughter of Eurytus of Euboea, she sent him the tunic of Nessus by a young slave, named Lichas, with the tenderest messages. Hercules joyfully accepted the fatal pre- sent, and hastened to make use of it; but was thrown into the most violent agony. In his fury, he hurled Lichas into the sea, where, by the compassion of the gods, he was changed into a rock. Then, having hewed down some trees on mount CEta, and erected a funeral pile, he ascended the pile, and begged his friend Philoctetes to set fire to it. When 1}ejanira heard of the death of Hercules, she was So overcome by anguish, that she destroyed herself. 2 R 626 DEKEN, AGATHE ; a Dutch authoress, born in 1741, in the village of Amstelveen, near Amsterdam. She wrote Dutch novels and poems of merit; among others, Liederen voor den Baervenstand. She died in 1804. IDEKKER, THOMAs. See Decker. DELAMBRE; one of the most distinguished as- tronomers of our time, was born at Amiens, in 1749; and studied under the abbé Delille, who always re- mained his friend. He first applied himself to the languages, particularly most of the living ones, and made himself one of the best Hellenists in France. His studies were not directed to astronomy until his thirty-sixth year. He enriched the writings of La- lande with a commentary, and became the friend and pupil of the author, who proudly called him his best work, In 1790, eight years after the discovery of Herschel, Delambre published the tables of that planet, although in that period, it had performed but a small part of its eighty years’ course. He also constructed tables of Jupiter and Saturn, and of the satellites of Jupiter, which, with several treatises, procured him a reception into the national institute. He was engaged with Méchain, from 1792 till 1799, in measuring an arc of the meridian from Barcelona to Dunkirk, for the verification of which he measured two bases of 6000 toises, one near Melun, the other mear Perpignan. (See his Base du Système Métrique décimal, ou, Mesure de l'Arc du Méridien compris entre les Parallèles de Dunkerque et Barcelonne, Paris, 3 vols. 4to ; and Recueil d’Observat. Géodésiques faisant Suite and 3me vol. de la Base du Syst. Métr. rédigé par Biot et Arago). He was made member of the bureau des longitudes. In 1802, Napoleon appointed him inspecteur-général des études, which post he re- signed when chosen perpetual secretary of the class of mathematical sciences (1803). IIis first tables of the sun were published in 1792; in 1806, appeared his new ones. In 1807, he succeeded Lalande in the collége de France, and wrote his Traité d’Astro- nomie théorique et pratique (3 vols. 4to, 1814), His- toire de l’Astronomie du moyen àgé (1819), Hist. de l'Astron. moderne (1821, 2 vols.) and Hist. de l'Astron. du 18me Siècle (2 vols.); a collection of works such as no other nation can show. Delambre also distinguished himself, as perpetual secretary of the institute, by the justice and elegance of his éloges. He died in 1822. DELAVIGNE, JEAN FRANgois CASIMR; a French dramatic poet, born in 1794, at Havre. He com- menced his poetical career while a youth, by the dithyramb on the birth of the king of Rome (1811). His poem on the discovery of vaccination received, in 1814, the first of the secondary prizes from the French academy. He then applied himself to dra- matic poetry, and published his first tragedy, Les Pépres Siciliennes (1821), which was received with general applause; and has since written a second, De Paria. The first piece, notwithstanding many faults in the plan and the delineation of most of the characters, displayed remarkable poetic genius: the vigorous sketch of the chief character, by which the whole action is animated, and his fine thoughts ex- pressed in brilliant language, atone for many feeble passages, and some false splendour. At the first representation of this piece at the Odéon (1819), some verses against arbitrary governments and the insolence of ministers produced so much disturbance, that the police forbade the repetition of them; but they were still applauded, and this struggle between the police and the audience contributed not a little to give popularity to the production. In the second piece, the improvement of the poet is visible; he dis- plays a great brilliancy of colouring, harmony of versification, and richness of ideas and images, though IDEKEN–IDELAWARE, it is justly objected that he had not studied his sub- ject profoundly, nor given it all the interest of which it is susceptible. In his elegies, Les trois Messénien- mes, Delavigne bewailed the misfortunes of France. In 1819, followed two elegies, Sur la Pie et la Mort de Jeanne d'Arc. His comedy Les Comédiens, 5 acts in verse, in the style of the Métromanie, is directed against the principles of the old French stage. His Nouvelles Messéniennes (1822) were produced by the Greek revolution. In 1823, his comedy L'Ecole des Pieillards was received with general applause. In a new Messénienne, Delavigne expresses the grief of Europe at the death of lord Byron. It is in the tenth edition of his Messéniennes et Poésies diverses (Paris, 1824, 2 vols.). In 1824, Delavigne was made member of the French academy, and, in 1825, was offered a pension of 1200 francs from the civil list, which, however, as well as the cross of the legion of honour, he declined, that he might preserve his in- dependence. For his political correspondence with Lamartine, see Lamartine. DELAWARE; one of the United States of America, bounded N. by Pennsylvania, E. by Dela- ware river and bay, S. and W. by Maryland; lon. 74o 56 to 750 40 W. ; lat. 38°29' to 39° 47' N. ; ninety-two miles long, and twenty-three broad; square miles, 2120: population, in 1790, 59,094; in 1800, 64,272; in 1810, 72,674; in 1820, 72,749; white males, 27,904; white females, 27,377; free blacks, 12,958; slaves, 4509. It is subdivided into three counties, which are subdivided into twenty-five hun- dreds. Dover is the seat of government. Wilming- ton is the largest town. The other most considerable towns are Newcastle, Georgetown, Smyrna, Milford, and Lewistown. Presbyterians are the most numer- ous denomination of Christians: there are, besides, a considerable number of Methodists. The legislature consists of a senate, chosen for three years, and a house of representatives, chosen annually on the first Tuesday in October. The governor is chosen by the people for three years, but can hold the office only three years in six. The principal rivers besides the Delaware, which forms a part of the boundary, are Brandywine creek, Christiana creek, Duck Creek, Mispillion creek, Indian river, Choptank, and Nanti- coke. Delaware is, next to Rhode island, the smallest state in extent in the Union, and the least diversified in surface. The general aspect of the greater part is that of an extended plain, though the north-western part of the county of Newcastle is hilly or uneven. The heights of Christiana are lofty and commanding, and the hills of Brandywine are rough and stony; but in the lower country, there is very little diversity of level. The highest ridge between Delaware and Chesapeake bays passes through this state. On the summit of the ridge, there is a chain of Swamps, from which a number of waters descend on the west to Chesapeake bay, and on the east to the river Delaware. Along the Delaware river, and for about nine miles into the interior, the soil is generally a rich clay, which produces large timber, and is well adapted to the purposes of agriculture; but, between this tract and the swamps, the soil is light, sandy, and of an inferior quality. In the county of Newcastle, the soil is a strong clay; in Kent, it is mixed with sand; and in Sussex, the sand greatly predominates. The principal articles of pro- duce are wheat, Indian corn, rye, barley, oats, flax, buck-wheat, and potatoes. The county of Sussex contains some excellent grazing lands; and it exports great quantities of timber, obtained from Cypress swamp, on Indian river, which extends about six miles from E. to W., and nearly twelve from N. to S. The staple commodity is wheat, which is of a superior quality, and is highly esteemed for its un- I) ELAWARE–DELEGATION. common softness and whiteness, and is preferred in foreign markets. Large establishments have been erected for manufacturing wheat into flour. Of these, the Brandywine mills, in the vicinity of Wilmington, are the most important. These are the finest collec- tion of mills in the United States, and are celebrated both for the excellence and the quantity of flour which they manufacture. Delaware contains very few munerals. In the county of Sussex, and among the branches of the Nanticoke, are large quantities of bog iron ore, well adapted for casting. Before the revolution, it was wrought to a great extent; but since that event, the business has declined. Delaware was settled by the Swedes and Finns as early as 1627. The colony was formed under the auspices of Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, who named the country Nova Suecia. Hoarkill (now Lewisłown) was founded in 1630, but, the Dutch claiming the country, it passed under their power in 1655. In 1664, the colony on the Delaware fell, with other parts of New Amsterdam, into the hands of the English, and was granted by Charles II. to his brother James, duke of York, who, in 1682, con- veyed it, as far as cape Henlopen, to William Penn. In 1704, Delaware, though under the same pro- prietor, became a separate colonial establishment, and remained such until the revolution. . Its consti- tution was formed in 1776. The Chesapeake and Delaware canal crosses this state. As a manufactur- ing state, Delaware holds a rank far above its rela- tive extent and population. The works near Wil- mington are extensive and highly valuable. As early as 1810, the value of the various manufactures exceeded 1,733,000 dollars. DELAWARE ; a river of the United States of America, which rises in Catskill mountains, in New York. In its course, it separates Pennsylvania from New York and New Jersey, and loses itself in . Delaware bay, about five miles below Newcastle. It is navigable for a seventy-four gun ship to Phila- delphia, fifty-five miles above the head of the bay, and about 120 from the ocean; for sloops to the head of the tide, at Trenton, thirty-five miles above Philadelphia; and for boats about 100 miles farther, though the boat navigation above Easton is very difficult. Its two most important tributaries are the Schuylkill and the Lehigh. The whole length, from its source to the bay, is about 300 miles. The principal towns on the Delaware, besides Philadel- phia, are Easton and Bristol, Pa., Trenton, Borden- town, and Burlington, N. J. DELAWARE BAY; a large bay or arm of the sea, between the states of Delaware and New Jer- sey, formed by the mouth of the Delaware river and several other smaller ones. It is sixty-five miles long, and, in the centre, about thirty miles across, and about eighteen at its mouth, from Cape Henlo- pen, in lat. 38° 47' N., lon. 75° 6' W., to cape May, in lat. 380 57' N., lon. 74° 52' W. T)ELAWARE BREAKWATER. The Delaware breakwater is situated at the entrance into the bay of Delaware, near cape Henlopen. The anchorage ground, or roadstead, is formed by a cove in the southern shore, directly west of the pitch of the cape and the seaward end of an extensive shoal called the shears ; the tail of which makes out from the shore about five miles up the bay, near the mouth of Broadkill creek, from whence it extends eastward, and terminates at a point about two miles to the northward of the shore at the cape. The break- water consists of an insulated dike or wall of stone, the transversal section of which is a trapezium, the base resting on the bottom, whilst the summit line forms the top of the work. The other sides repre- sent the inner and outer slopes of the work, that to 627 the seaward being much greater than the other. The inward slope is forty-five degrees; the top is horizontal, twenty-two feet in breadth, and raised five and a third feet above the highest spring tide; the outward or sea slope is thirty-nine feet in alti- tude, upon a base of 105; feet; both these dimen- sions being measured in relation to a horizontal plane passing by a point twenty-seven feet below the lowest spring tide. The base bears to the altitude nearly the same ratio as similar lines in the profiles of the Cherbourg and Plymouth breakwaters. The opening or entrance from the ocean is 650 yards in width between the north point of the cape and the east end of the breakwater. At this entrance, the harbour will be accessible during all winds coming from the sea. The dike is formed in a straight line from E. S. E. to W. N. W. : 1200 yards is the length of this portion of the work, which is destined to serve the purposes of a breakwater. At the distance of 350 yards from the upper or western end of the breakwater (which space forms the upper entrance), a similar dike, of 500 yards in length, is projected in a direct line, W. by S. # S., forming an angle of 146° 15' with the breakwater. This work is de- signed more particularly as an ice-breaker. The whole length of the two dikes above described, which are now partly commenced, will be 1700 yards: they will contain, when finished, 900,000 cubic yards of stone, composed of pieces of basaltic rock and granite, weighing from a quarter of a ton to three tons and upwards. The depth of water, at low tide, is from four to six fathoms throughout the harbour, which will be formed by these works and the cove of the southern shore, and which is calcu- lated to afford a perfect shelter over a space or water surface of seven-tenths of a square mile. The great objects to be gained by the construction of an artificial harbour in this roadstead are, to shelter vessels from the action of waves caused by the winds blowing from the E. to the N. W., round by the N., and also to protect them against injuries arising from floating ice descending the bay from the N. W. DELEGATE. See Delegation. DELEGATES, Court of, is so called because the judges thereof are delegated, by the king’s commission under the great seal, to hear and deter- mine appeals in the three following cases:–1. Where a sentence is given in any ecclesiastical cause, by the archbishop, or his official; 2. When any sentence is given in any ecclesiastical cause, in the places exempt; 3. When a sentence is given in the admiral's court, in suits civil and marine, by order of the civil law. This commission is usually filled with lords spiritual and temporal, judges of the courts at Westminster, and doctors of the civil law. DELEGATION; the investing with authority to act for another. Hence the name has been given to a body of persons thus deputed. Before the present constitution of the United States of America was adopted, the persons constituting the congress at Philadelphia were called delegates, and the body of representatives of a state in congress are still called the delegation of a state. In Maryland and Virginia, the most numerous branch of the state legislatures, which, in most of the other states, is called house of representatives, has the name of house of delegates. (See Constitution.) The name of delegate is also iven to the representatives sent to the congress of . the United States from territories not yet formed into states. In Italy, branches of government are often called delegazione, and their members delegati. Thus there exist in the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom nine delegazioni for Lombardy, and eight for the Venetian part of the government, consisting of one delegato, a vice-delegato, and an adjunct. 2 R 2 628 In the civil law, delegation is that act by which a debtor transfers to another person the duty to pay, or a creditor transfers to another person the right to receive payment. DELFT ; the name of some celebrated Dutch painters, particularly of James (born 1619, died 1661) and William Delft (towards the end of the sixteenth century). Both were born at Delft, were portrait painters, and relations to the celebrated Mirevelt, also a native of this town. DELFT; a considerable town of South Holland, between Rotterdam and Leyden, traversed by a canal which communicates with the Maese. Delft is tolerably well built, but dark; most of the streets are divided by narrow, stagnant canals, except in the centre of the town, where there are two spacious streets, with broad canals bordered with trees. The front of the stadthouse is extensive and curious, and the interior contains some valuable paintings. In the old church are the monuments of the admirals Van Tromp and Pieter Heyn. Not far from it is the building where William I. of Orange was murdered, in 1584. In the mew church, which has a celebrated Set of chiming bells, is the splendid monument erected in his honour, and, also, the monument of Hugo Grotius, who was born in Delft. The town contains an artillery and engineer school. The manufacture of a kind of earthen ware called Delft- ware, in this place, is important. Here likewise are made several kinds of fine cloth and carpets. Butter, and, next to it, beer, are the principal objects of the wholesale trade; tobacco pipes, also, are made in great quantities. Nine miles N. W. Rotterdam. Population about 14,000. DELFTSHAVEN ; a small, fortified town of Holland, on the Maese ; population 2700 ; two miles S. W. Rotterdam. DELFT-WARE is a kind of pottery covered with an enamel or white glazing, which gives it the ap- pearance and neatness of porcelain. Some kinds of this enamelled pottery differ much from others, either in sustaining sudden heat without breaking, or in the beauty and regularity of their forms, of their enamel, and of the painting with which they are ornamented. In general, the fine and beautiful enamelled ware, which approaches the nearest to porcelain in external appearance, is that which least resists a brisk fire. Again, those which sustain a sudden heat are coarse, and resemble common pot- tery. This kind of ware has its name from Delft, in Holland, where it is made in large quantities. See China //are. T}ELHI; a province of Hindostan; bounded N. W. by Lahore, N. by the Himaleh mountains, which Separate it from Thibet, E. by Kemaoon and Oude, S. by Agra, and W. by Agimere and Moultan; ly- ; chiefly between lat. 289 and 31° N. ; about 250 miles long, and 180 broad; population estimated at about 5,000,000—Hindoos, Mohammedans, and Seiks. The chief towns are Delhi, Sehaurunpour, Sirhind, Tamaser, and Anopsheer. The principal rivers are the Ganges and Jumnah. A great part of it is sterile for want of water. It was formerly much more wealthy and populous than at present. Having been the seat of various wars, it has been miserably laid waste, and in some parts almost depo- pulated. The most fertile parts yield good pasture, wheat, barley, and sugar-cane. The part east of the Jumnah, with a considerable district round the city of Delhi, belongs, in fact, to the British; but its revenues are allotted to support the family and esta- blishments of the emperor, or great mogul, now re- duced to the humiliating state of dependence on a foreign power. The southern part is possessed by ilative chiefs in alliance with the British. The I} ELFT-DELILLE. country north-west of the Jumnah, and south of the Setledge, is occupied by a number of petty Seik chiefs. DELHI ; a city of Hindostan; capital of the pro- vince of Pelhi, and for many years of Hindostan; on the Jumnah; 92 N. N. W. Agra, 300 N. W. Allahabad; lon. 77° 9’ E.; lat. 28° 43' N. popula- tion variously estimated, from 100 to 200,000. The ancient name was Indraput, Inderput, or Inderprest; the Mohammedan name is Shahjehanabad. It was for a long time the capital of Hindostan, the seat of the great mogul, the boast of India; and, during the era of its splendour, is said to have occupied a site twenty miles in length, and the ruins now cover nearly as great a space. It was taken, in 1193, by the Mohammedans, under Cuttubaddeen Khan, who fixed his residence here; and, on his succeeding to the throne, it became the capital of Hindostan. In 1398, it was taken, pillaged, and reduced to a heap of ruins, by Tamerlane. It afterwards partially re- covered, till towards the end of the sixteenth century, when Akbar transferred the seat of royalty to Agra. In 1631, the emperor Shah Jehan founded the new city of Delhi, on the west bank of the Jumnah, near the ruins of the old city, and gave it the name of Shahjehanabad. During the reign of Aureng- Zebe, the third son of Shah Jehan, the revenue of the city amounted to £3,813,594, and its popula- tion was computed at 2,000,000—probably an ex- aggeration. It continued to increase in splendour and importance till the invasion of Nadir Shah, in 1739, when 100,000 inhabitants were massacred, and £62,000,000 sterling of plunder are said to have been collected. It was again pillaged and depopu- lated in 1756, 1759, and iT60, by Ahmed Abdallah. Since 1803, it has been in reality subject to the British government, though still the residence of the emperor or great mogul, who has a nominal autho- rity, but is virtually dependent on the British. Modern Delhi contains the remains of many splendid palaces, and is adorned with many beautiful mosques, still in good repair, the most remarkable of which is called Jumnah Musjeed. This mosque is 261 feet long, the whole front faced with white marble, surrounded at top with three magnificent domes of white marble, flanked by two minarets. The city has two spacious streets, leading from the palace to the principal gates, and many good houses built of brick. “The inhabited part of Pelhi,” says bishop Heber, in his Narrative, “is about seven miles in circuit, seated on a rocky range of hills, and surrounded by an embattled wall, which the English government have put into repair. The houses are many of them large and high. There are a great number of mosques, with high minarets and gilded domes, and above all are seen the palace, a very high and extensive cluster of Gothic towers and battle- ments, and the Jumnah Musjeed, the largest and handsomest place of Mussulman worship in India. The chief material of all these fine buildings is red granite, inlaid, in some of the ornamental parts, with white marble; and the general style of building is of a simple and impressive character.” . Most of the streets, are narrow and irregular, and the houses built without order, of brick, mud, bamboos, and mats, generally covered with thatch, resembling a motley group of villages, rather than an extensive town. The bazars are but indifferently furnished. Cotton cloths and indigo are manufactured in the town and neighbourhood. In the vicinity, on the banks of the jumnah, corn, rice, millet, and indigo are principally cultivated. The Baptists have a missionary here. DELILLE, JAMES, (also Delisle, de Lille); the most distinguished of the French didactic poets of DELILLE-DELOI, ME. modern times; was born in 1738, at Aigueperse, in Auvergne. His name after the revolution was Montamier-Delille. He resembled Pope (who was his model) in personal deformity, as well as in ex- quisite versification. In the college of Lisieux, at Paris, he distinguished himself by his precocious talents; and in the college of Amiens, he began his metrical translation of Virgil's Georgics. He had translated this work by the end of his 23d year, but spent many years in retouching it. It was published in 1770, with a Discours préliminaire, and numerous annotations, which gave him also an honourable place among the French prose writers. Notwithstanding the jealousy of his rivals, Delille was invited to Paris, and was made professor at the collége de la Marche, and afterwards at the collége de France ; and his translations were ranked by the French among their classics. Delille translated, also, the AEneid of Virgil (1803), and was received, in his 37th year, into the academy. Before this time, he had produced his didactic poem, Les Jardins, ow l'Art d’embellir les Paysages (Paris, 1782), in four cantos. This was considered the best didactic poem in the French language, though inferior to his trans- lation of Virgil. Delille received the lower or- dinations, to #. enabled to hold a benefice, from which, together with his salaries as professor and member of the academy, and his own fortune, he de- rived, before the revolution, an annual income of 30,000 livres, of which he preserved, at a later pe- riod, only 600. He was also made a member of the national institute. Though an adherent of the old system, Robespierre spared him on every occasion. At his request, Delille wrote, in twenty-four hours, the Dithyrambe sur l’Immortalité de l’Ame, to be sung on the occasion of the public acknowledgment of the Deity. This performance made an impression even on the members of the committee of Safety, but was not sung. . In 1794, he withdrew from Paris, and gave himself up to the sublime scenery of the Vosges, to meditations on the destiny of man, and on the laws of poetry. In Switzerland, he finished his Homme des Champs, a didactic poem on the charms of rural life, called also Géorgiques Françaises, which may be considered as a moral sequel to Vir- gil's Georgics. Delille iaboured on it for twenty years, principally during the reign of terror, in the vales of the Vosges, in 1794 and 1795; hence the deep melancholy of many passages. The sufferings of his country produced Le Malheur et la Pitié, four cantos (Lond. 1803), full of lovely and touching pic- tures, in harmonious verse. At London, he married (1802) mademoiselle Vaudchamps, for a long time the companion of his travels. Here he translated, in fifteen months, Milton's Paradise Lost, perhaps the most poetical of all his works; but the exertion trought on a stroke of the apoplexy. After his re- turn to France, he wrote his Trois Régnes de la Na- tºre, and the admired poem La Conversation, a sub- ject of which he was master. Its poetical character is the same as that of his other works. Lively feel- ing, richness of conception, animated descriptions, purity and great elegance of expression, harmonious and easy versification, are its chief excellences. Bouterwek justly remarks, “A didactic work, like Delille's elegant Homme des Champs, may have many charms of diction, without being a poem.” Delille composed in his head, without writing, even the 30,000 verses of his translation of the AEmeid, and, like Tasso, trusted them with more confidence to his memory than to his tablets. But his bodily vigour diminished, as his mental powers increased. He grew blind, and died on the first of May, 1813. In a poem not committed to paper, he had sung of old age, and his approaching death; of the vanities of 629 the present, and the happiness of the future life. He was universally lamented, on account of his ami- able character, as well as of his talents. After his death appeared Le Départ d’Eden (Paris). DELISLE, or DE L'ISLE, WILLIAM ; a geogra- pher, born at Paris, in 1675. He was instructed by Cassini, and soon conceived the idea of reforming the whole system of geography. He published, in his twenty-fifth year, a map of the world, maps of Europe, Asia, and Africa, a celestial and terrestrial globe of afoot in diameter. By rejecting Ptolemy's statements of longitude, or rather by comparing them with the astronomical observations and the statements of mo- dern travellers, he founded the modern system of geography. The number of his geographical maps of the old and new world amounts to iOO. His last edition of his map of the world, was published in 1724. These maps are valuable even at the present day. His brother Joseph Nicolas, born in 1688, at Paris, devoted himself in his earliest youth to astro- nomy, under the direction of Lieutaud and Cassini, and was admitted into the academy of sciences. His observations on the transit of Mercury over the sun, in 1723, and of the eclipse of the sun, in 1724, in- creased his reputation. The empress Catharine I. invited him to Petersburg, to establish a school for astronomy, to which the fame of Delisle soon gave celebrity. His leisure time was employed in travel- ling, for the purpose of making interesting collec- tions in natural science and geography. On his return, his collections were purchased by the king, and Delisle himself was appointed inspector of them. He continued his observations till his death, in 1768. Among his pupils were Lalande and Mes- Sier. His most important geographical work, Mé- moires sur les nouvelles Découvertes and Nord de la Mer du Sud (1752), contains the results of the Russian voyages to discover a passage from the Pacific Ocean into the waters north of America. His Mémoires pour servir à l’Histoire et awa, Progrès de l'Astronomie, de la Géographie, et de la Physique (1738), remain un- finished. His Avertissement awa, Astronomes sur l'Eclipse annulaire du Soleil gue l'om attend le 25 Juin, 1748, gives a complete history of all annular eclipses of the sun. DELLA MARIA, DominiquE, a French com. poser, was descended from an Italian family, and born at Marseilles, in 1778. He composed, in his eigh- teenth year, an opera which was performed, with applause, in his native city, and went afterwards to Italy, where he enjoyed the instruction of several great masters, particularly of Paesiello, and com- posed six comic operas, of which Il Maestro di Cap- pella is the most distinguished. After his return to Paris, his opera Le Prisonnier increased his reputa- tion, and the airs of his Opéra Comique became na- tional favourites. In his works, the song is easy and agreeable, the style pure and elegant, the ex- pression natural, the accompaniment easy, original, and pleasing. He played with extraordinary skill on the piano-forte, and the violoncello. He died in his twenty-ninth year (1806). DELOLME, JoHN Louis, a writer on the English constitution, was born at Geneva, in 1740, (accord- ing to some, in 1745). He at first practised as a law- yer in his native city, but the part which he took in its internal commotions, by a work entitled Ea'amen des trois Points de Droit, obliged him to repair to England, where he passed some years in great indi- gence. He wrote for journals, frequented low ta- verns, was devoted to gaming and pleasure, and lived in such obscurity, that, when he became known by his work on the English Constitution, and some people of distinction were desirous of relieving him, it was impossible to discover his place of residence. 630 His pride was gratified by this kind of low indepen- dence, and he rejected all assistance, excepting some aid from the literary fund, to enable him to return to his country. This was probably in 1775, since, from that time, he calls himself member of the coun- cil of the two hundred in Geneva. Among his pe- culiarities was this, that, although principally occu- pied with political law, he was never present at a session of parliament. At the time of his arrival in England, aristocratical arrogance and turbulence had reached its highest pitch in Sweden and Poland, and it was feared, not without reason, in England, that the Same evils threatened that country. Delolme entered into an investigation of this subject. Hence originated his famous work, Constitution de l’Angle- terre, ow. Efat dº Gouvernement Anglais comparé avec la Forme républicaine et avec les autres Monarchies de l'Europe (Amsterdam, 1771); and a work in English, called A Parallel between the English Go- vernment and the former Government of Sweden (London 1772). In both, his principal object was to illustrate the excellence and stability of the English constitution. Its character of a spirited eu- logium is undoubtedly the reason that the first poli- ticians of England, lord Chatham, the marquis of Camden, and the author of the celebrated Letters of Junius, spoke so highly of this work of a foreigner. It is not a complete system of the political law of England, and has been reproached as being super- ficial; but it contains much ingenious reflection on the English constitution, on the energy arising from a happy union of royal power with popular liberty, and particularly on the value of an independent ju- diciary, and the freedom of the press, subjected to penal laws, but not to a censorship. This work, translated by the author himself into English, in 1772 (fourth English edition, 1784, with observa- tions by doctor Charles Coote), is still considered in England, one of the most ingenious works on the English constitution. Delolme also published, in English, his History of the Flagellants, or Memo- rials of human Superstition (1783, in quarto); An Essay on the Union with Scotland (London, 1796, 4to). On the occasion of the will of Mr Thellus- Son, he wrote his Observations on the Power of Indi- viduals to prescribe, by testamentary Dispositions, the particular future Uses to be made of their Property (London, 1798, 4to). He died in July, 1806, at a village in Switzerland. DELOS; the central island of the Cyclades, in the AEgean Sea, the reputed birthplace of Apollo, and of Diana. Delos, according to the poets, was once a naked rock, floating about in the ocean, and was accidentally driven by the waves into the centre of the Cyclades. The earth had promised Juno, with an oath, not to grant a resting-place to the fugitive Latona (q.v.), where she might be delivered. The unhappy Woman wandered restlessly over the earth, until she perceived the floating island. As this was not stationary, it was not comprehended in the oath of the earth, and offered her an asylum. She vowed to build a temple on its rocks, to which all nations should bring offerings. On the rude cliffs, under a shadowing tree, Latona bore the infant gods Apollo (who was hence called Delios) and Diana (who was called Delia). Both were, in after times, particularly worshipped on the island. Delos was thenceforward no longer the sport of the winds; from the foundation of the earth arose columns which sup- ported it, and the fame of the isle spread over the world. Thus far mythological tradition. At first, the island had kings of its own, who also held the Sacerdotal office. In the course of time, it came under the dominion of Athens. Nothing was tolerated tipon it, which bore the traces of death or DELOS-DELPHI. war. The dead were buried in the adjacent island Rhenea. After the destruction of Corinth, the rich Corinthians fled thither, and made IDelos the seat of a flourishing commerce. The greatest curiosity of the island, was the temple and oracle of Apollo. The temple, founded by Erisichthon, son of Cecrops, and embellished successively by different states of Greece, was built of Parian marble, and contained, besides the beautiful statue of the god, a remarkable altar, from which the Delian problem, as it is called, had its name. The inhabitants, having consulted the oracle concerning the remedy of a plague which raged in Delos, were ordered to double the altar of Apollo, which was a cube. This famous geometri- cal problem of the duplication of the cube was solved in different ways, by several of the ancient mathema- ticians and philosophers. The oracles which Apollo uttered here were thought the most intelligible and sure. They were delivered only in summer; in winter, Apollo gave his responses in Patara, in Lycia. The Grecians celebrated the Delian festival here every five years; and the Athenians performed annually the beautiful pilgrimage, called , theoria, with processions and dances. Delos was held to be a place of so great a sanctity, that the Persians, when they made war against Greece, and had sent to Delos a navy of a thousand sail, out of reverence to the patron deities, forbore attacking the island. Delos was celebrated, in ancient times, for the num- ber and the excellence of its artists, and the school which it founded. Pliny says that its bronze was ex- cellent, and much esteemed. It was also celebrated for the fineness of its silver, which the Delians used with great skill and taste, in the formation of various utensils, vessels, statues of their gods, of heroes, animals. The statue of Jupiter Tomans, in the ca- pitol, was of Delian bronze. Cicero, in his oration for Roscius, has many eulogiums upon the fine vases of Delos and Corinth. The temple of Apollo, at Delos, was one of the most celebrated of its time in all Greece. Delos, now called Ilegi, is uninhabited, or is only the haunt of pirates; but splendid ruins of its former magnificence yet exist. DELPHI, the seat of the most famous oracle of ancient Greece, was situated in Phocis, on the South- ern side of Parnassus. Apollo, according to fable, having killed the serpent Python (some call it Del- phine), and determining to build his sanctuary here, perceived a merchant vessel from Crete sailing by. He immediately leaped into the sea in the form of an immense dolphin (hence he is called Delphin), took possession of the vessel, and forced it to pass by Py- los, and to enter the harbour of Crissa. After the Cretans had landed, he assumed the figure of a beau- tiful youth, and told them that they must not return to their country, but should serve as priests in his temple. Inspired, and singing hymns, the Cretans followed the god to his sanctuary, on the rocky de- clivity of Parnassus; but, discouraged by the sterility of the country, they implored Apollo to save them from famine and poverty. The god, Smiling, declared to them the advantage which they would derive from serving as his priests. They then built Delphi, call- ing the city at first Pytho, from the serpent which Apollo had killed at this place. The oracles were delivered from a cave, called Py- thium. Tradition ascribes its discovery to a shep- herd, who pastured his flocks at the foot of Parnassus. and was filled with prophetic inspiration by the intoxi- cating vapour which arose from it. Over the cave, which was contained in a temple, was placed the holy tripod, upon which the priestess, called Pythia, by whose mouth Apollo was to speak, received the vapours ascending from beneath, and with them the inspiration of the Delphian god, and proclaimed HDELPHIN1–DEMARCA'I ION. the oracles (hence the proverb, to speak ea tripode, used of obscure sentences, dogmatically pronounced). After having first bathed herself, and particularly her hair, in the neighbouring fountain of Castalia, and crowned her head with laurel, she seated herself on the tripod, which was also crowned with a wreath of the same: then, shaking the laurel tree, and eating perhaps some leaves of it, she was seized with a fit of enthusiasm. Her face changed colour, a shudder ran through her limbs, and cries and long protracted groans issued from her mouth. This excitement soon increased to fury. Her eyes sparkled, her mouth foamed, her hair stood on end, and, almost suffocated by the ascending vapour, the priests were obliged to retain the struggling priestess on her seat by force; when she began, with dreadful howlings, to pour forth detached words, which the priests col- lected with care, arranged them, and delivered them in writing to the inquirer. At first, the answers were given in verse, but in later times, the authority of the oracle being diminished, they contented them. selves with delivering them in prose. This oracle was always obscure and ambiguous; yet it served, in earlier times, in the hands of the priests, to regulate and uphold the political, civil, and religious relations of Greece. It enjoyed the reputation of infallibility for a long time; for the l)orians, the first inhabitants of the place, who soon settled in all parts of Greece, spread an unbounded reverence for it. At first, only one month in the year was assigned for the delivery of oracles; after- wards, one day in each month; but none who asked the god for counsel dared approach him without gifts. Hence the splendid temple possessed immense trea- Sures, and the city was adorned with numerous sta- tues and other works of art, the offerings of gratitude. Delphi was at the same time the bank, in which the rich deposited their treasures, under the protection of Apollo, though this did not prevent it from being repeatedly j by the Greeks and barbarians. The ancients believed Delphi to be the centre of the earth: this, they said, was determined by Jupi- ter, who let loose two eagles, the one from the east and the other from the west, which met here. The tomb of Neoptolemus (or Pyrrhus), the son of Achil- les, who was killed here by Orestes, was also at TXelphi. e. Not far from the tomb was the famous Lesche, ‘adorned by Polygnotus with the history of the Trojan war. (See Polygnotus.) In the plain between Delphi and Cirrha, the Pythian games were celebrated, in the month Targelion. These national games, and the protection of the Amphictyons, gave Delphi a lasting splendour. It is now a village called Castri. DELPHINI, IN USUM. See Dauphin. DELTA ; A, a Greek letter, answering to D. The resemblance of the island formed by the allu- vion, between the two mouths of the Nile, to a A, is the reason why it was called by the Greeks Delta. It contained Sais, Pelusium, and Alexandria. It was divided into the great and small Delta. Islands at the mouths of other rivers, shaped like a A, have the Söllne Iname. DELUC, JEAN ANDRE, a geologist and meteoro- logist, was born in 1726, at Geneva, where his father was a watch-maker, and passed his whole life in geo- logical investigations, for the sake of which he made numerous journeys. He enriched science with very important discoveries. His theories and hypotheses, which he endeavoured to accommodate to the histo- rical accounts contained in the Holy Scriptures, have met with violent opponents. (See Geology.) He P9ssed some time in England, as reader to the queen, alid died in 1817, at Windsor. Among his numer- ous Writings are his Recherches sur les Modifications 63 de l’Atmosphère (Geneva, 1772, 2 vols. 4to); Nove. velles Idées sur la Météorologie (London, 1786, 2 vols.); and his Traité Élémentaire de Géologie (Paris, 1810, 8vo). DELUGE (from the Latin diſuvies, diluvium, from diſwere, to Wash away); the universal inundation, which, according to the Mosaic history, took place to punish the great iniquity of mankind. It was produced, according to Genesis, by a rain of forty days, and a breaking up of “the fountains of the great deep,” and covered the earth fifteen cubits above the tops of the highest mountains, and killed every living creature, except Noah, with his family, and the animals which entered the ark, by the com- mand of God. After the flood had prevailed upon the earth a hundred and fifty days, and had de- creased for an equal time, making its whole dura- tion somewhat less than a year, Noah became convinced that the land had again emerged, by the return of a dove with an olive branch, and landed on mount Ararat, in Armenia. The time when this. chastisement took place was, according to the com- mon Computation, in the 1656th year of the world ; according to Petavius, 2327 B.C.; according to Mueller, 3547 B.C. Many other nations mention, in the mythological part of their history, inundations, which, in their essential particulars, agree with the Scriptural account of Noah's preservation. Hence many persons have inferred the universality of this inundation. Fohi in the Chinese mythology, Sottiv- rata or Satyavrata in the Indian, Xisuthrus in the Chaldaean, Ogyges and Deucalion in the Greek, have each been recognized by many as the Noah of the Sacred Scriptures, under a different name. Even the American Indians have a tradition of a similar deluge, and a renewal of the human race from the family of one individual. All these individuals are Said by their respective nations to have been saved, and to have become a second father of mankind. The many skeletons, also, found petrified on the tops Or in the interior of mountains, the remains of ani- mals of hot climates in countries now cold, have been alleged as confirmations of an universal revolution on our planet, occasioned by the violent action of water, as the Mosaic relation states it to have been. An interesting work on this subject has been lately pub- lished, entitled Ueber den Mythos der Suendfluth (2d edition, Berlin, 1819, by Buttmann). This subject is of great interest, whether considered in connexion with Sacred history and theology, with civil history, or with natural history. The works treating of it are far too numerous to be mentioned here. DEMARARA, or DEMERARY ; a province of English Guiana, which derives its name from the river Demarara or Demerary (q.v.). It originally belonged to the Dutch, and was ceded to Great Bri- tain in 1814. It extends about 100 miles along the Coast, lying on the east of Essequibo, and on the west of Berbice. The soil is very fertile, producing abundant crops of sugar, coffee, cotton, rice, &c. The climate resembles that of South Carolina. For twenty miles up the river, the country consists of extensive meadows, and is perfectly level; then appear Some sand-hills; afterwards the country be- comes mountainous and broken. Chief town, Sta- broek. For further information, see Guiana. DEMARCATION, LINE of ; every line drawn for determining a border, which is not to be passed by foreign powers, or by such as are at war with each other. Thus the pope drew a line of demarca- tion through the ocean, to settle the disputes between the Spanish and Portuguese, after the first discove- ries in the fifteenth century. According to a treaty between the French republic and the king of Prussia, concluded at Basle, May 17, 1795, a line of ngº- 632 trality was established, which removed the theatre of war from northern Germany. Also in the armistice of Pleswitz (1813), such an artificial limit was fixed between the French and the allied troops of Russia and Prussia. DEMBEA ; a large lake of Abyssinia, in a pro- vince of the same name, in the west part of that country. It is supposed to be 450 miles in circum- ference, and contains many islands, one of which is a place of confinement for state prisoners. The Bahr- el-Azrek, the Abyssinian Nile, flows through it. DEMERARY, or DEMARARA ; a river of South America, in English Guiana, which, after a course of about 200 miles, flows into the Atlantic, lon. 58° 25' W., lat. 69 40' N. It is two miles wide at its mouth, and is navigable for ships of considerable burden nearly 100 miles. It affords an excellent harbour, but the bar will not admit vessels drawing more than eighteen feet. See Demarara. HDEMESNE. See Domain. DEMETER ; the Greek name of the goddess called by the Romans Ceres. (q.v.) DEMETRIUS; the name of several kings of Ma- cedonia and Syria. Demetrius I., surnamed Polior- cetes (the conqueror of cities), king of Macedonia, son of Antigonus, waged several wars, in particular with Ptolemy Lagus. He appeared before Athens with a fleet, expelled Demetrius Phalereus, who had been appointed governor of the place by Cassander, and restored to the people their ancient form of go- vernment. Having lost the battle of Ipsus, against Seleucus, Cassander, and Lysimachus (301 B. C.), he fled to Ephesus, and thence to Athens, where he was not permitted to enter. Passing over to Corinth, He embarked on an expedition against the Thracian dominions of Lysimachus. He then went to Asia, to bestow his daughter, Stratonice, in marriage on Seleucus, and on his way took possession of Cilicia, by which his friendship with Seleucus was broken off. He conquered Macedonia (294 B.C.), and reigned seven years, but lost this country by his arbitrary con- duct. T)eserted by his soldiers, he surrendered him- self, at length, to his son-in-law, who exiled him to Pella, in Syria, where he died (284 B.C.) at the age of 54 years. The above mentioned Pemetrius Pha- lereus, a celebrated Greek orator, disciple of Theo- Fº devoted his first years to rhetoric and phi- osophy, but, towards the end of the reign of Alex- ander the Great, entered into the career of politics. He was made Macedonian governor of Athens, and archon (309 B.C.), and embellished the city by mag. nificent edifices. . The gratitude of the Athenians, over whom he ruled, erected him as many statues as there are days in the year. But the envy of his ene- mies produced an excitement against him, and he was condemned to death, and his statues destroyed. He fied to Egypt, to the court of the Ptolemies, where he is said to have promoted the establishment of the library, and of the museum, the superintendence of which Ptolemy Lagus intrusted to him. Under the following king, Ptolemy Philadelphus, he fell into dis- grace, and was banished to a remote fortress, where he died from the bite of an asp. Demetrius was among the most learned of the Peripatetics, and wrote on Several subjects of philosophical and political science. But the work on rhetoric, which has come to us un- der his name, belongs to a later age. DEMIGODS. See Heroes. DEMME, HERMANN CHRISTOPH GOTTFRIED, was born at Muehlhausen, in 1760, and died at Altenburg, in Saxony, in 1822. He was one of the most practi- cal German theologians, and his sermons are much esteemed. He also wrote many other works, of a practical moral tendency. DEMOCRACY. See Government, Forms of DEMBEA—13 EMOCRIT U.S. DEMOCRITUS, a philosopher of the new Eleatic School, a native of Abdera, flourished in the 72d Olympiad, and was born about 494 B. C. Some Magi and Chaldeans, whom Xerxes left on his return from his Grecian expedition, are said to have excited in Democritus the first inclination for philosophy. After the death of his father, he travelled to Egypt, where he studied geometry, and probably visited other countries, to extend his knowledge of nature. Among the Greek philosophers, he enjoyed the in- struction of Leucippus. He afterwards returned to his native city, where he was placed at the head of public affairs. Indignant at the follies of the Abderites, he resigned his office, and retired to solitude, to de- vote himself exclusively to philosophical studies. We pass over the fables which have been related of Democritus, such as that he laughed continually at the follies of mankind (in contrast to the weeping Heraclitus), and give a short summary of his philoso- phical opinions. In his system, he developed still further the mechanical or atomical theory of his mas- ter, Leucippus. Thus he explained the origin of the World by the eternal motion of an infinite number of invisible and indivisible bodies, atoms, which differ from one another in form, position, and arrangement, and are alternately separated and combined by their motions in infinite space. In this way the universe was formed, fortuitously, without the interposition of a First Cause. The eternal existence of atoms (of matter in general) he inferred from the consideration, that time could be conceived only as eternal, and without beginning. Their indivisibility he attempted to prove in the following manner: If bodies are infi- hitely divisible, it must be allowed that their division must be perceptible. After the division has been made, there remains either something extended, or points without any extent, or nothing. In the first Case, division would not be finished; in the second case, the combination of points without extension could never produce something extended, and if there remained nothing, the material world would also be nothing ; consequently, there must exist simple, indi- visible bodies (atoms). From his position of the eter- mal change of the separating and combining atoms. follows also the other, that there are numberless worlds continually arising and perishing. In the atoms he distinguished figure, size, gravity, and im- penetrability. All things have the same elementary parts, and their difference depends only on the diffe- rent figure, order, and situation of the atoms, of which everything is composed. This difference of the atoms is infinite, like their number ; hence the variety of things is infinitely great. Fire consists, according to him, of active globules, and spreads, like a light en- velope, round the earth. The air is moved by the continual rising of the atoms from the lower regions, and becomes a rapid stream, which carries along with it the stars formed in its bosom. The following doctrines of his, concerning the soul, deserve to be mentioned : The soul consists, in as far as it is a moving power, of igneous atoms; but, since it is acquainted with the other elements, and any- thing can be known only by its equal, it must be com- posed in part, also, from the other elements. The sense of feeling is the fundamental sense, and the least deceitful of all ; for that alone can be true and real in the objects, which belongs to the atoms them- selves, and this we learn with the greatest certainty by our feeling. The other senses show more the ac- cidental qualities of things, and are consequently less to be relied upon. The impressions produced on the five senses are effected, partly by the different com- position of the atoms in the organs of sense, partly by the different influence exerted by external bodies, which varies with the arrangement of the atoms cf HD EMO [VR.E–T) FMON. which they consist. In the act of vision, images Se- parate from the external body, and enter the eye. The motion of a body (for instance, of the lips in speaking) divides the air, and gives it a motion, vary- ing according to the direction of the moving body. The parts of air thus put in motion arrive at the ear, and produce hearing. In a similar way arise the sensations of tasting and Smelling. The images of the objects received by the eye arrive through it to the soul, and produce within us notions. If, therefore, no notions come to the soul by means of the eye, its activity ceases, as is the case in sleep. The know- ledge conveyed by the senses is obscure and deceitful, and represents mere motions of the exterior bodies. What we know by the way of reason has a higher degree of certainty, yet it is not beyond doubt. The continuation of the soul after death was denied by Democritus, who believed it to be composed of atoms. He divided it into two parts; into the rational part, which has its seat in the breast, and the sensual part, which is diffused through the whole body. Both con- stitute only one substance. The greatest good, ac- cording to Democritus, is a tranquil mind. He ap- plied his atomical theory, also, to natural philosophy and astronomy. The popular motions of the gods he connected with his system, perhaps merely to accom- modate himself to the prevailing creed. Even the gods he considered to have arisen from atoms, and to be perishable like the rest of things existing. T}emocritus is said to have written a great deal ; of which, however, nothing has come to us. He died 370 B.C., at an advanced age. His school was Sup- planted by that of Epicurus. DEMOHVRE, ABRAHAM ; a mathematician of the last century. He was a native of Vitri, in Cham- pagne, and was driven from his native country by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. He settled in London, and gained a livelihood by becoming a teacher of mathematics. He was particularly cele- brated for his skill and accuracy as a calculator, whence he is thus referred to by Pope :— “Sure as Demoivre, without rule or line.” He died in 1754, at the age of eighty-six. His works are, Miscellamea Analytica, 4to ; The Doctrine of Chances, or a Method of calculating the Probabilities of Events at Play, 4to ; and a work on annuities; besides papers in the Transactions of the royal society, of which he was a fellow. DEMON, DEMONIAC, DEMONOLOGY, (Greek and Oriental). Good and evil, wisdom and folly, piety and superstition, have been connected with the belief in spirits. The name demons (32.2%viz, 32;goves, genii), by which those spirits which are said to have some influence upon the destiny of men are generally called, directs us to Greece. We find demons spoken of by Homer. He called his gods demons: they ad- dress each other by this title, and 36.1%vios is so often synonymous with godlike, that the derivation of the word demon from 32ſgow, intelligent, wise, is highly probable. Hesiod uses it in a different sense. Plu- tarch says, that Hesiod admitted four classes of rational beings-—gods, demons, heroes, and men. (HES, Op. et Dies. 121—126.) A strict classifica- tion was not made until the popular belief had been introduced into the schools of the philosophers. Aris- totle divides the immortals into gods and demons: the mortals into heroes and men. In the Greek phi- losophy, these demons early played an important part. Thales and Pythagoras, Socrates and Xeno- phon, Empedocles and the Stoics, invented many fictions concerning them, each in his own way. The poetic Plato, however, goes further than any of the others. In The Banquet, the character of the demons is tirus explained: “Demons are intermediate be- *A 63: tween God and mortals; their function is to interpret and convey to the gods what comes from men, and to men what comes from the gods; the prayers and offerings of the one, and the commands of the others, These demons are the source of all prophecy, and of the art of the priests, in relation to sacrifices, coilse- crations, conjurations, &c.; for God has no immediate intercourse with men, but all the intercourse and conversation between the gods and mortals is carried on by means of the demons, both in waking and in sleeping. There are many kinds of such demons, or spirits.” In other places, he says of them, they are clothed with air, wander over heaven, hover over the stars, and abide on the earth; they behold un- veiled the secrets of the time to come, and regulate events according to their pleasure ; every mortal receives at birth a particular demon, who accom- panies him until his end, and conducts his soul to the place of purification and punishment. The people generally understood by them the godhead, as far as it. #. the destinies of men, and divided them, in reference to the effects ascribed to them, into good and bad spirits—Agathodemons and Cacodemons. The Romans still further developed the Greek demonology; with less, however, of a poetical cha- racter, and mixed with Etruscan notions. We perceive in all this the original idea: wher- ever an inexplicable power operates in nature, there exists some demon. This idea was developed by the philosophers, who endeavoured to regulate the popu- lar belief, and to reconcile reason with this belief. In order to represent the idea of deity in its purity, they were compelled to displace, by degrees, the mytho- logical motions of the people; and this could not be done in a less perceptible and obnoxious way, than by the introduction of demons. But, although Greek philosophers did this for Greece, we must not believe that these ideas, like the word demon, are of Greek origin. It is much more credible, that the whole doctrine of demons was only transplanted into Greece, We ought to look for their real origin in the East. The Hindoos reckon, besides the highest being, Par- ama, 33,000 gods, to which they add an infinite num- ber of servants of the gods. The highest rank among these gods was ascribed to the trinity, Brama, Vish- nu, and Seeva, who, in eternal change, create, pre- serve, and destroy. When the adorers of the de- stroyer die, he sends his servants to convey them to his presence, that he may make them participators in his happiness. The demons there are the Devetas. We find this doctrine systematically set forth in the religion of Zoroaster, or the Chaldaic-Persian magic, or doctrine of the magi, which is to be looked upon as a chief source of demonology. In order to explain the origin of evil, Zoroaster adopted, besides a good principle, a bad one also, and made the two the sources of all good and evil, explaining his ideas thus: There is a kingdom of light, and a kingdom of darkness. Ormuzd, the author of all good, resides in the first; in the other, Ahriman, the Source of all evil, moral as well as physical. Around the throne of Ormuzd stand the seven Amshaspands (archangels), the princes of light. . The Izeds, the genii of all that is good, of whatever kind, are subordinate to them ; and to these the Feruers. In the same way the kingdom of darkness under Ahriman is arranged. His throne is sur- rounded by the seven superior Dives, the princes of evil, and an innumerable multitude of inferior Dives stand under them, like the IZeds under the Amshas- pands. The two kingdoms carry on an everlasting war; but Ahriman will eventually be conquered, and the kingdom of darkness will be entirely de- stroyed. Heeren endeavoured to show, that these systems are formed according to the constitutions 634 of the Asiatic monarchies, but all evidently modified according to the place where, and the circumstances of the time at which, the lawgiver and founder of religion appeared. Zoroaster carried his general idea of the division between the kingdoms of good and evil into detail. All rational and irrational, liv- ing and dead beings, he classed under one or the other of these kingdoms; the pure men, animals, and plants, belonged to Ormuzd's, the impure (poison- ous, pernicious), to Ahriman's kingdom. In this manner demonology, in the Parsee system, had at- tained an extent, and a systematical connexion, such as it had not elsewhere. The opinion of Horn (Biblische Gnosis), that the Egyptians borrowed their motion of demons from the Parsees, deserves a closer investigation. We find, in- deed, with the Egyptians, the moon, water, earth, and air, filled with demons, superintending the elements and bodies. Stones, metals, and plants, are under their influence, and human Souls in their power— surely a very extensive kingdom of demons, but not presenting the striking dualism and parallelism of the system of Zoroaster. But supposing that the Egyp- tian and Persico-Chaldee demonologies are not de- rived from the same source; they afterwards combined to form together a new one. Though the doctrine of demons came in different ways through Western Asia into Greece, yet Egypt was the chief source of the higher demonology of the Greeks, among whom it was spreadby the Orphic hymns and the mysteries, and was cultivated by the philosophers until the birth of Christ. The rationalists, as they are called, who explain everything in the Sacred Scriptures in a historical or matural way, say that, while it came in this way to the Greeks, the Hebrews received it in two other ways. At the time of the Babylonish captivity, they derived it from the source of the Chaldaic-Persian magic ; and, even supposing that they were pre- viously acquainted with the Elohim, or angels (it is remarkable that the latter are first mentioned in the history of the Chaldee Abraham, and that the earlier prophets do not speak at all of them, while Daniel, on the contrary, mentions them frequently, yet the doctrine of these was first systematically developed during and after the Babylonish captivity. The same dualism, which we find in the system of Zoroaster, is here, also, perceived: there are good and bad de- mons: they are classified, and receive proper names. There are also seven good demons, composing the council of Jehovah, and standing continually before his throne. Job xii. 15. As for the second source of the demonology of the Hebrews, this nation had, during the reigns of the Seleucides and Ptolemies, a more active intercourse with Egypt and the Greeks, chiefly in Alexandria; and to the motions adopted from the system of the magi, or the Parsees, they united Egyptico-Greek ones ; which connexion is chiefly perceivable in the New Testament. It was impossible to prevent the intermingling of Greek speculations. The voice of the prophets was already silent under Ezra and Nehemiah. Study and inquiries commenced; the popular belief and philosophy separated, and even the philosophers divided themselves into several sects. Opposed to the ancient Pharisees we perceive the Sadducees and Essens, and no high priest nor Sanhedrim could prevent the nation (which was al- ready opposed by the Samaritans) from dividing it- self into parties. This was the state of things when Citrist appeared. Pythagorean and Platonic motions, intermingled with Oriental doctrines, had already unfolded the germ which produced the Hellenistic philosophy of the Jews, and a cabalism existed (cher- ished by the finest minds of the nation), in addition to the philosophy of the rabbins. DEMON.—DEMOSTHENES. It may be observed, in reference to the doctrine of Spirits, that the expressions of demon and demoniacal are more especially used to indicate bad, tormenting Spirits. This is the origin of those ideas of demons as Spirits which enter into the bodies of wicked men, and torment them, and of the means to be used against them, for instance, miraculous herbs, by means of which we are able to expel the demons. Thus the demons appear as inferior spirits of a (Persian) Satan, a passionate, malicious, tormenting spirit. The Christian authors made this bad meaning of demons the ruling one, so that the demons were opposite to the angels. By this opposition, the doctrine of spirits Was transformed into angelology, that is, the doctrine of good angels, and demonology, the doctrine of bad angels; and the Jewish and Greek notions on the subject have been often blended together in Chris- tianity. As Plato's mythology was an inexhaustible Source of doctrines for the new Platonist, so demo- nology became an endless source of ingenious specula- tion among many of the early sects.” See Sweden- borg, Angel, Genii, and Gabalis. i)EMONA, VAL DI; a province of Sicily, oc- cupying the N. E. part of the country, extending from the straits of Messina to Catania ; about 112 miles long, and from sixty to seventy broad in its widest part ; population, as lately stated, 521,000. The Liparian islands are considered to belong to this part of the country. Silk is one of the chief productions of this valley, which yields, likewise, hemp, flax, olives, lemons, oranges, figs, currants, and pistachio nuts. Sulphur is found in considerable quantity to- wards mount AEtna. Messina, the capital of Sicily, is situated in this province. The other principal towns On the Coast are Melazzo, Cefalu and Taormina. DEMONSTRATION, in military language; a movement towards any place for the purpose of de- ceiving the enemy, and concealing the true design. DEMOSTHENES, the most famous orator of antiquity, was the son of a sword-cutler at Athens, where he was born in 381 (according to some, in 375) B. C. His father left him a considerable for- tune, of which his guardians attempted to defraud him. Demosthenes, at the age of seventeen years, conducted a suit against them himself, and gained his cause. He studied rhetoric and philosophy in the Schools of Callistratus, Isaeus, Isocrates, and Plato. But nature had placed great obstacles in his way, and his first attempts to speak in public were attend- ed with derision. He not only had very weak lungs and a shrill voice, but was unable to pronounce the letter r. These natural defects he endeavoured to remedy by the greatest exertions. He succeeded by the advice of the actor Satyrus, who advised him to recite with pebbles in his mouth, on the roughest and steepest places. To strengthen his voice, he exer- cised himself in speaking aloud on the sea-shore, amidst the noise of the waves. At other times, he shut himself up for months in a subterranean room, with his head half shaved, that he might not be tempted to go out, and endeavoured to acquire dignity of manner by practising before a mirror, and tran- scribed the history of Thucydides eight times, for the purpose of forming his style. After such a laborious preparation, he composed and delivered his masterly speeches, of which his enemies said that they smelt of the lamp, but to which posterity has assigned the first rank among the models of eloquence—speeches in which he openly opposed the foolish wishes of the multitude, cen- sured their faults, and inflamed their courage, their * A book of much interest, as showing the firm belief in demons at a comparatively recent period, is doctor Cotton Mather's Magnalia Christi Americana (London, 1702), Doctor Mather was a minister of Boston, Massachusetts. }- DEMOSTHENES-DEMPSTER. Fense of honour, and their patriotism. He thundered against Philip of Macedon, and instilled into his fel- low citizens the hatred which animated his own bosom. The first of those orations, so famous under the name of Philippics, was delivered when Philip took possession of the pass of Thermopylae. The orator insisted on the necessity of immediately pre- paring a fleet and an army; urging the Athenians to begin the war themselves ; to make Macedonia the theatre, and to terminate it only by an advantageous treaty or a decisive battle. They admired and ap- proved his plans, but did not execute them. The celebrated Phocion, who knew the weakness of Athens, unceasingly advised peace. Demosthemes went twice to the court of Philip to negotiate, but without success. On his return, he recommended war, and endeavoured to arm not only Athens, but all Greece. When Philip had finally penetrated into Phocis, through the pass of Thermopylae, and had taken possession of the city of Elatea, to the terror of Athens, Demosthenes obtained a decree of the people for fitting out a fleet of 200 vessels, marching an army to Eleusis, and sending ambassadors to all the cities of Greece, for the purpose of forming an universal confederacy against Philip. He was him- self among the ambassadors, and prevailed on the Thebans to receive an Athenian army within their walls. He also exerted himself actively throughout Boeotia, and, by his efforts, a numerous army was collected to act against Philip. A battle was fought near Cheromea, and the Greeks were vanquished. Demosthenes was among the first who fled. . Never- theless, he was desirous of delivering a funeral oration over those who had fallen in battle. Æschines, his rival, did not fail to attack him on this account. The hostility between the two orators was the occa- sion of the speech pro corona (for the crown), which resulted in the triumph of Demosthenes and the exile of his adversary. Philip having been, soon after, assassinated, Demosthenes thought that Athens would be better able to maintain its liberty ; but Alexan- der's dreadful chastisement of Thebes filled the Athenians with such terror that they sued for mercy. It was with difficulty that Alexander could be per- Suaded to desist from his demand of the surrender of Demosthenes and some other orators ; for the Mace- donians feared Demosthemes more than they did the armies of Athens. He was afterward fined fifty ta- lents for bribery, and, neglecting the payment of it, was thrown into prison, from which he escaped, and fled to Ægina, where he remained till the death of Alexander. Then followed the war with Antipater. Demosthenes again appeared in public, and endea- voured to persuade the small Grecian states to unite against Macedonia. The Athenians received him with honour ; but the war was unsuccessful, and Antipater insisted upon his being surrendered to him. Demosthenes fled to the temple of Neptune, in the island of Calauria, on the coast of Argolis, but find- ing himself not secure, he took poison, which he al- ways carried about with him. He died 319 B.C. (according to some, 322 B.C.), at the age of sixty or sixty-two years. The character of Demosthenes was not entirely free from vanity, ambition, and avarice. Cicero pronounces him to be the most perfect of all Orators. He always spoke as circumstances required, and was, by turns, calm, vehement, or elevated. He carried the Greek language to a degree of perfection which it never before had reached. In energy and power ºf persuasion, in penetration and power of reasoning, in the adaptation of the parts to the whole, in beauty and vigour of expression, in strong and melodious language, he surpassed all his predecessors. Every- Liliug in his speeches is natural, vigorous, concise, 635 symmetrical. This alone can explain his great influ- ence over his contemporaries. We have under his name sixty-one orations, sixty-five exordiums, amd six letters, some of which are not genuine. Among the oldest editions of the orations, the best is that of Paris, 1570, in folio, with the commentaries of Ul- pian. The first edition of his complete works, Greek and Latin, was edited by Hieronymus Wolf, (Basil, 1549; reprinted 1572; and Frankfort, 1604, in folio). His orations are also contained in Reiske's edition of the Greek orators. DEMOTIC or ENCHORIAL ALPHABET, from 3%0s (the people), is the name given by antiquarians to that alphabet which is used by the people, in con- tradistinction to an alphabet used by a certain class or Caste ; as, for instance, among the Egyptians. Thus we find on the famous Rosetta stone, which seems to have become, by the exertions of Young, Ackerblad, Zoega, De Sacy, and Champollion, the key to all the hieroglyphical documents handed down to us by the Egyptian inscriptions, one of which is Written in the hieroglyphical, the other in the demo- tic alphabet. DEMOUSTIER, CHARLEs ALBERT, a French poet, was born at Villers-Cotterets, in 1760. He at first practised as a lawyer, and afterwards wrote comedies, operas, and poems. They are full of affected wit and false brilliancy. His Letters to Emilie on mythology have made him known in Europe. It may be justly objected to them, that they are superficial, affected, and written in what the French call style de madrigal; yet they are, at the same time, distinguished for Spirit, delicacy, and ease. Of his plays, La Concº- liateur, Les Femmes, and Le Tolérant, have maintained a place on the stage. He died March 2, 1801. DEMPSTER, THOMAs, a learned Scotsman, author of numerous works on history, law, and archaeology was born at Brechin, in the shire of Angus, 1579, and studied at Aberdeen and Cambridge. In France, whither he went at an early period of his life, he re- presented himself as a man of family (assuming the title of baron of Muresk), and possessed of a good estate, which he had abandoned for his religion, the Roman catholic. He was promoted to a professor's chair at Paris, in the college of Beauvais. Bayle Says, that, though his business was only to teach a School, he was as ready to draw his sword as his pen, and as quarrelsome as if he had been a duellist by profession ; scarcely a day passed, he adds, in which he did not fight either with his sword or at fisty-cuffs, So that he was the terror of all the schoolmasters. He at last involved himself in a dispute, which obliged him to fly to England. How long he re- mained, or in what manner he was employed there, is uncertain ; but he married a woman of uncommon beauty, with whom he returned to the continent. Crossing the Alps, he obtained a professor's chair in the university of Pisa, with a handsome salary at- tached to it. Here his comfort, and perhaps his usefulness, was marred by the conduct of his beautis ful wife, who at length eloped with one of his scho- lars. Previously to this, we suppose, for the time is by no means clearly stated, he had been professor in the university of Nimes, which he obtained by an honourable competition in a public dispute upon a passage of Virgil. Driven from Pisa by the infide- lity of his wife, he obtained a professorship at Bo- logna, which he held till his death, in the year 1625. Dempster's works are very numerous, and they exhibit proofs of great erudition. Among them, his Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Scotorum, is the most remarkable ; though, instead of being, as its title would indicate, an ecclesiastical history of Scotland, it is merely a list of Scottish authors and Scottish saints. The work was composed in Italy, where, it º 636 is presumable, the works of Scottish authors were not easily accessible; in consequence of which he could not be expected to proceed with any very great degree of accuracy; but many of his errors, even candour must admit, are not the result of inadver- tency, but of a studied intention to mislead. Of the names which he so splendidly emblazons, a large proportion is wholly fictitious. His really most valu- able work is, De Etruria Regali, an edition of which was published at Florence in 1725, 2 vols. folio. }} EMURRAGE, in law, is the detention of a ship; and is also, and more frequently, used to signify the amount to be paid by the charterer to the owner of a ship, for voluntary delay beyond a specified time. If the captain chooses to wait a longer time than that agreed upon for a cargo, the owner can claim demur- rage only until the cargo is taken on board, and the ship ready to sail, and not from the subsequent de- tention from other causes, although this would not have happened but for the detention for a cargo. Thus, when a vessel was to be loaded at St Peters- burg for Leith, by the 1st of September, but the master waited until October 29, for a cargo, when he sailed from Cronstadt, but was soon driven back by unfavourable winds, and the frost, setting in, de- tained him there until the 11th of May following ; after much litigation in Scotland, it was decided by the house of lords of Great Britain, that demurrage could be claimed only to October 29. It is to be observed, however, in this case, that the captain was at liberty to sail on the 1st of September, the time limited in the charter-party. The time of de- ay in port for a cargo, for convoy, &c., is usually stipulated in the charter-party, and also the allow- ance to be made in case of longer delay for those objects; and this time is sometimes specified in working days or lay days, as distinguished from Holydays, when no cargo can be put on board. When a charter-party, made in England, relates to a delay in the river Thames, for a certain number of days, it will, in pursuance of a particular custom, be con- Strued to mean working days. But if the charter- party be made elsewhere, or, if made in England, relating to a demurrage at any other place, if the intention is that it should allow a certain number of working days, it ought to be so expressed. DEMURRER ; a pause or stop put to the pro- ceedings of an action upon a point of difficulty, which must be determined by the court before any further proceedings can be had therein. He that demurs in law confesses the facts to be true, as stated by the opposite party, but denies that, by the law arising upon those facts, any injury is done to the party, or that he has made out a lawful excuse. DEN (Savon, valley, or woody ground), when added to the names of places, denotes that they are in a valley, or near woods. DENARIUS ; 1. a Roman silver coin, equal, at first, to ten asses, whence its name ; 2. a weight. The libra, or Roman pound, contained ninety-six, the ounce eight, demarii ; and the denarius three scruples. In modern governments, the denarius has also been introduced as a weight. A French demare contained sixty-three grains.” DENBIGH, a county of North Wales, extending DEMURRAGE–B)ENDERAH. about thirty-nine miles in length, and twenty three in breadth. It is enclosed on the east by a range of hills, above thirty miles in length, commencing near St Asaph's, and forming one side of the famous vale of Clwyd, and terminating a little to the south of Llan- gollen. The loftiest Summit in this range, Moel Fam- mau, attains an elevation of 1845 feet above sea level, and is rendered conspicuous by the erection of an obe- lisk on its summit to commemorate the fiftieth, or ju- bilee year, of the reign of king George III. A second range, nearly parallel to the former, encloses the county on the south-west. The loftiest point of this range, Modwl Eithin, is 1660 feet above the sea. Den- bighshire possesses great variety in the elevation and quality of surface and soil. It includes a very consi- derable track of high-land, averaging 800 feet above the sea, where pasturage only is afforded, or light oats grown; and it also includes some of the best wheat-land in Great Britain, in its many beautiful vales. The chief rivers are the Conway, the Almer, the Aled, the Elwy, the Alen, the Clwyd, the Dee, and the Ceiriog. The chief towns are Denbigh, Wrexham, Ruthin, and Llanrwst. Population of the county in 1831, 83,167. DENBIGH, a borough-town and capital of Den. bighshire. It stands on the side of a steep hill, over- hung by a rock, crowned with the ruins of a noble . and commanding an extensive view of the vale of Clwyd. Though having an appearance of antiquity imparted to it by the venerable ruins of its lordly castle, yet Denbigh may be called a hand- some modern town. It consists of one long avenue, enclosed by many elegant private residences, opening into a spacious market-place, from which severa smaller avenues diverge. Population in 1831, 3786. DENDERAH, ZoDIAC of. Near Denderah, a village of the Thebais, surrounded with palms, and lying about a league west of the Nile, the travel- ler from Cairo to Upper Egypt first acquires a dis- tinct notion of an architecture such as no other can show. Denderah lies under the 26th degree of north latitude, on the borders of the desert, upon the last table-land of the Lybian mountains, to which the inundation of the Nile extends. Its name is derived from the ancient Tentyra or Tentyris, the magnificent remains of which, called by the Arabians Berbé (the ruins), are a mile or two distant from it. We are indebted, for our knowledge of them, to the memor- able campaign of the French in Egypt, whose enthu siastic descriptions and accurate investigations have drawn general attention to them. Through a portal half buried by rubbish, covered with hieroglyphics, and constructed of huge blocks of sandstone, you come in sight of a temple which forms the background of this splendid picture. All that you see here, say the French writers, from the colossal figures of Isis, which support the entabla- § * The value of the denarius is given incorrectly by several zºodern German writers, as by Schleusner, in his Lexicon of the New Testament; by Rosenmueller, in his Scholia on the New Testament; and by Kuinoel, in his Commentary on the Historical Books of the New Testament. It is reck- cued by them as equal to the eighth part of a reichsthaler (rix dollar) or three groschen, that is, about fourpence half- penny. The mistake may be thus accounted for : The writers mentioned refer to Eisenschmidius, De Porz de, ibits et Mensuris veteruns necnon de Valore Pecuniae f'éteris, published in 1708, reprinted 1737. The author of this work (p. 136) estimates 7# denarii as equal to an im- perial or rix dollar, meaning the old rix dollar of the em- pire, a coin which by proclamation of queen Anne, in 1704, was declared equal to 4s 6d sterling. He thus makes the value of the denarius about 6%d—as near an approximation as, per- haps, was to be expected from his imperfect modes of compu- tation. But the writers above referred to, in following him, have substituted the present rix dollar of account, equal to about three shillings, for the coin intended, and them reckoning the denarius loosely as the eighth part of a rix dollar, have thus estimated its value at about 43d. Winer, in his Biblisches Realwoerterbuch, and Wahl, in his Lexicon of the New Testament, estimate its value at about four groschen, or 6d ; Jahn, in his Archaeologia Biblica, at 24} creutzers, of which ninety make a rix dollar, consequent- ly at about 10d. For these mistakes it is not easy to account. There being no considerable difference in the estimate of the average weight of silver in the consular denarius, all these different estimates of its value are unfounded. That given in Arbuthnot's Tables, namely, 7#d sterling, is suffi ciently correct, and commonly adopted by E::glish writers. DENR) ERAH. ture of the vestibule, to the smallest hieroglyphic, ap- pears to have come from fairyland. Neither Greece nor Rome, nor the rest of Europe, has produced any- thing similar. So universal was this impression, that the meanest soldiers of the army paused to examine these sacred relics, and declared with one voice, that this sight alone was enough to indemnify them for the fatigues of the campaign. The monuments of Thebes, with which they afterwards became ac- quainted, could not efface this first impression; and the magnificent temple of Isis still appeared to them the most perfect monument of Egyptian art. Of the ancient Tentyrah, which may have existed in the times of Strabo and Theodosius, a Typhoeum, similar to that of Edfuh, but larger, is yet standing. It is west of the northern gate, so buried under rubbish that the different sides are scarcely to be distinguished. But the admiration of the French was chiefly excited by the great temple, the whole of which is nearly in the shape of a T. The view is obstructed by ruins only on the eastern side. On account of the figures of Isis, of every size, which it contains, it is thought to have been an Isaeum. Without the aid of draw- ings, any description of its vestibules, halls, and cells, which are all covered with hieroglyphics, would be unintelligible. On the ceiling of the portico of this Isaºum, astronomical figures and emblems were found nailed on the soffits: on the two extreme Soffits Were the twelve signs of the zodiac. * This representation was repeated on the ceiling of an apartment in the upper story, on the left side of the vestibule. Like the others, this room was covered with hieroglyphics, and the planisphere, on the left side as you enter, occupied only half of the ceiling. It was first observed by general Desaix, who directed the attention of his compa- mions to it. This is the planisphere of which so much has been written. Behind this large building, to- wards the south, is another temple, which was, per- haps, dedicated to Isis and Horus. Its exterior reminds us less forcibly than the Isaeum, how many genera- tions must have existed, before a nation could flourish possessed of sufficient courage, knowledge, and ele- vation of mind, for the invention of such works; and how many centuries must have elapsed, before all this could have been forgotten, and men have sunk back to the rudeness of the present Arab inhabitants of these ruins. But the figures on the planispheres particularly attracted the attention of the learned Europeans, on account of their supposed connexion with the precession of the equinoxes. (See Preces- sion.) In both, it was observed that the lion was re- presented as the first sign. This order it was Sup- posed must have been adopted by design; for in the larger planisphere, on the ceiling of the portico, the signs are represented on two stripes, one of which runs in a direction toward the interior of the temple, the other toward the exterior; on the smaller (that of the upper apartment, now in Paris), the signs are represented in a spiral line, in the order in which we now place them: Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagitta- rius, Capricorn, Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer. Leo appeared, consequently, to be placed, intentionally, after the point of intersection of the ecliptic and equator. On the situation of those points of intersection, however, depends the place of the solstice, which must be half way between them. In the planisphere of Denderah, it is drawn in Can- Cer. If this is the winter solstice, as Some suppose, the vernal equinox was then in Libra. At present, however, it is in Pisces, and consequently 7 signs, or 210°, farther back. As it is known that 2152 years of uniform motion are necessary for the recession of one sign, it follows that, to recede from Libra to Pisces, 7 times 2152, or about 15,000 years are lie- 637 cessary. This would be, accordingly, the minimum of the age of this zodiac, if we suppose that it is founded on real astronomical observations, and is Ilot to be considered, a mere astronomical problem. See Rhode, Persuch weber das Alter des Thierkreises wºnd den Ursprung der Sternbilder, Berlin, 1809, 4to. Other astronomers, in particular Littrow (PWiener Zeitschrift, 1822, No. 53, 54), and, yet earlier, the authors of the great description of Egypt, thought the Solstice on the zodiac of Tentyra to be the sum- mer Solstice. The vernal equinox would then fall between Taurus and Aries, consequently 45° farther forward than at present. From this it would fol- low, that the Zodiac would be as old as 45 times 71% years, or 3228 years. This last supposition would be justified if the constellation which is the first in the Zodiac were that which the sun must enter first after the heliacal rise of Sirius. There are many reasons which induce us to believe this. The ap- pearance of Sirius followed a few days after the sūm- mer solstice: it was a sign of the rising of the Nile, and of the beginning of the agricultural year in Egypt. This reference to the beginning of the agricultural year adds great force to this supposition. The accom- panying hieroglyphics, as the child on the lotus flower near Aries, the rising sun, the point of the vernal equinox, are additional arguments. Considerations drawn from astronomy and the pro- gress of the arts, induced E. G. Visconti to believe this planisphere and the whole temple, which un- doubtedly were executed at the same time, to be of a far more recent origin. He assigned this building to the time when the uncertain Thoth, the commence. ment of the uncertain Egyptian year, coincided with the sign of Leo, which was the case from the year 12 to the year 132 of our era. (See Notice sommaire des deua, Zodiaques de Teniyra, in the 2d volume of Larcher's Herodote, page 567 et seq.) To this date, belonging to the first years of the Roman dominion, the authors of the great description of Egypt have opposed strong reasons. In case this hypothesis should not be approved, Wisconti had another ready. Proceeding on the theory of De la Nauze, who took an Egyptian Normal year as the basis of his calcula- tion, he assigned these monuments to the period of the Ptolemies. A single Greek inscription, in an obscure place in the Isaeum, was not a very conclusive argument in favour of this hypothesis, which, besides, is exposed to strong objections, if we compare the architecture of these buildings with other monuments of that period. They are executed in so pure aii Egyptian style, that they exclude every idea of for reign influence hostile to the religion of the country. No one, therefore, can think of ascribing them to the old enemies of the Egyptian worship, the Per- sians, those destroyers of temples. There is, them, no alternative but to refer their origin to a period when the country was under its native kings. Putting out of view the astronomical representations, the authors of the description of Egypt are inclined to assign the building of the temple, whose execution harmonizes so accurately with the original plan as to be evidently the creation of the same time, to that period when the Egyptian art appears to have reached its highest perfection, the period between Necho and Amasis, when magnificent edifices were erected in the Delta, and Memphis was in its splen- dour. The dispute concerning the antiquity of this monument is not yet finished, and was by no means brought nearer to a decision by mutilating the whole, and carrying a piece of it to Europe. Preconceived opinions have affected the discussion of this subject, Thus an essay of Dupuy on this Zodiac was suppress- ed by the police of Paris, as tending to promote infidelity (August, 1822). 638 A young Frenchman, S. Saulnier, whose ambition was excited by the rich spoils carried off by the English, conceived the idea of procuring this zodiac for his native country. As he was prevented from going to Egypt personally, he left the transportation of it to his friend H. Lelorrain, who embarked, in 1820, for Alexandria, provided with the necessary instruments. Mohammed Ali showed a deplorable readiness to permit the Sacred monuments of Tentyra to be mutilated. Upon the roof of the temple Arabi- ans had, in earlier times, fixed their abodes; it was necessary to remove their deserted huts; and their rubbish, together with that already accumulated, formed a plane upon which the blocks of sandstone could slide down to the banks of the Nile. A vehicle of the invention of M. Lelorrain was used for this purpose. Lelorrain selected the small circular Zodiac in the upper appartment. As the whole stone on which the zodiac was represented was too large to be carried off, extending, as it did, the whole width of the ceiling, and resting on the walls on each side, M. Lelorrain contented himself with the portion covered by the Zodiac, a small part of which, pro- jecting over the main stone, and contained on a con- tiguous one, he left, not thinking it worth the trouble of removing. The removal was effected by means of chisels, saws, and gunpowder. The stone was exceedingly well preserved, only blackened by soot, perhaps of the time when the mysteries and the worship of animals were solemnized in these sanctu- aries. This smoke may have also destroyed the colours by which, it is probable, the hieroglyphics were formerly distinguished. The stone is of the same kind of sandstone of which all the monuments between Phylae and Denderah are composed. Scarcely was this work of destruction finished, when another explorer, Mr Salt, the English consul, laid claims to the booty, asserting prior rights to everything dug up at Tentyra. The bashaw of Egypt decided for the Frenchman, because the zodiac was taken from the roof. Lelorrain at length arrived safe with his booty at Marseilles. Here a comparison with the plates in the great work on Egypt showed that everything was in its right place, but that the drawing had been embellished in a way which was not confirmed by the monument. In January, 1822, he arrived at Paris, where the proprietors caused a drawing to be taken by Gau, containing all the dis- cernible figures. The French government purchased the planisphere for 150,000 francs. The disputes relative to the epoch of its origin, were renewed with fresh ardour. St Martin, in his Notice sur le Zodiaque de Denderah, etc., maintains that the monu- ment was erected as early as 569, and not earlier than 900 B.C.; but his opinion is not satisfactorily proved ; nor is that of M. Biot, which Jomard has controverted in the Rév. Encycl. (1822). On the other hand, Letronne, in his Critical and Archæolo- gical Observations on the Signs of the Zodiac (Paris, I823), maintains that there is no monument among the signs of the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman zodiacs older than the common era. With this opinion agrees also that of the abbé Halma, in his Evamen et Explication du Zodiaque de Denderah, etc. (3 vols., Paris, 1822, with copper-plates). Letronne considers the zodiacs of Esmé and Denderah as astrological curiosities of the times of the Roman emperors. The weight of opinion at present is, that these figures are inscriptions of about the same antiquity as the Chris- tian era. DENDRITES, or ARBORIZATIONS: an ap- pellation given to figures of vegetables, observed in fossil substances, and which are of two kinds, the one superficial, the other internal. The first are chiefly found on the surface of stones, and between DENIORITES.–IDENIN A. the strata and the fissures of those of a calcareous nature. They are mostly brown, changing gradually to reddish yellow. The internal dendrites are of a deep black. The most esteemed sorts are those founc in agates, and particularly in the sardonyx, cornelian, and other precious stones brought from the East, and which are commonly denominated Moka stones. DENGUE FEVER. See Fever. T}ENHAM, Dixon, lieutenant-colonel, well known by his expedition into Central Africa, was born at London, in 1786, and, after finishing his studies at school, was placed with a solicitor, but, in 1811, entered the army as a volunteer, and served in the peninsular campaigns. After the general peace, he was reduced to half pay on the peace establishment, and, in 1819, was admitted into the senior department of the royal military college at Farnham. In 1823-4, he was engaged, in company with captain Clapper- ton and doctor Oudney, in exploring the central regions of Africa. (For an account of their expedi- tions, see Clapperton.) . His courage, address, firm- mess, perseverance, and moderation, his bold, frank, energetic disposition, and his conciliating manners, peculiarly fitted him for such an undertaking. The narrative of the discoveries of the travellers was pre- pared by Denham. In 1826, he went to Sierra Leone, as superintendent of the liberated Africans, and, in 1828, was appointed lieutenant-governor of the colony; but, on the ninth of June of the same year, he died of a fever, after an illness of a few days. DENHAM, SIR John, a poet, born at Dublin, in 1615, was the son of Sir John Denham, chief baron of the exchequer in Ireland. He was educated in London and at Oxford. Although dissipated and irre- gular at the university, he passed his examination for a bachelor's degree, and then removed to Lincoln's Inn to study law. In 1641, he first became known by his tragedy of The Sophy. This piece was so much admired, that Waller observed, “ Denham had broken out like the Irish rebellion, 60,000 strong, when no person suspected it.” . At the commence- ment of the civil war, he received a military com- mand; but, not liking a soldier's life, he gave it up, and attended the court at Oxford, where, in 1643, he published the first edition of his most celebrated poem, called Cooper's Hill. He was subsequently intrusted with several confidential commissions by the king's party, one of which was to collect pecuniary aid from the Scottish residents in Poland. He re- turned to England in 1552; but how he employed himself until the restoration, does not appear. Upon that event, he obtained the office of surveyor of the king's buildings, and was created a knight of the Bath, and a fellow of the newly formed royal Society. A second marriage, at an advanced age, caused him much disquiet, and a temporary derangement; but he recovered, and retained the esteem of the lettered and the courtly until his death, in 1688, when his remains were interred in Westminster abbey. DENINA, G.I.Acomo CARLo, an Italian historian, born in 1731, at Revel, in Piedmont, studied belles- lettres at Turin, and received the professorship of humanity at the royal school at Pignerol. When the chair of rhetoric at the superior college of Turin was vacant, Denina was made professor in the col- lege and university. He now published the three first volumes of his History of the Italian Revolutions (Turin, 1769, 3 vols., quarto), containing a general history of Italy, which subjected him to some incon- veniences, by exciting the ill will of the defenders of the privileges of the clergy. In 1777, he travelled, on account of his health, to Rome, made a stay at Florence, received an invitation to Prussia, went to Berlin in September, 1782, was presented to the king by the marquis Lucchesini, and appointed a member T) ENIS - DENMARK, of the academy, with a salary of 1200 Prussian dol- lars. He had several conversations with Frederic the Great, an account of whose life and reign he af. terwards wrote. He also published La Prusse lit- téraire sous Frederic II. (3 volumes). In 1791, he made a journey to Piedmont, and published, on his return to Berlin, the Guide littéraire. As early as 1760, his Discorso sopra le Picende della Litteratura appeared in Berlin. It is a valuable contribution to the history of literature, and has been translated into German and French. Most of his works were writ- ten at Berlin; as, for instance, his History of Pied- mont and of the other Sardinian States; Political and Literary History of Greece; and Letters from Bran- denburg. After the battle of Marengo, the council of administration appointed him librarian at the university of Turin. Before he entered upon this office, he wrote his Clef des Langues, ou Observations, etc., which he dedicated to the first consul. He re- ceived, in return, an honourable letter and a gold snuff-box, through Duroc. This favour was follow- ed by the offer of the place of librarian to the empe- ror, upon which he repaired to Paris. In 1805, ap- peared his Historico-statistical Picture of Upper Italy. He died in 1813. g DENIS or DENYS, ST., ABBEY of ; a French church celebrated in history. The Saint (Dionysius) to whom it is consecrated, having been sent from Rome into Gaul to preach the gospel, died by the hand of the public executioner, i. the end of the third century. Catulla, a heathen lady, affected by the martyr's constancy, obtained his body, which had been thrown into the Seine, buried it in her garden, became a Christian, and erected a small chapel over his tomb, which was afterwards rebuilt on a more extensive plan, by St Genevieve, and became, in the sixth century, one of the most flourishing abbeys. This large edifice is still standing, a noble structure, the oldest Christian church in France. On the left was the principal entrance, a large door with two small doors at the sides, ornamented with statues of the ancient saints and French kings, carved in stone. The interior of the church was enriched with pious offerings and works of art. In the large vaults under the choir reposed the remains of several kings of the first and second races, and all the rulers of the third race, from Hugh Capet to Louis XVI. At present, the heads of all the saints and kings at the entrance are wanting, and the vaults are vacant, all the bodies having been removed during the revolu- tion. Oct. 16, 1793, at the time when the queen was beheaded in Paris, the coffin of Louis XV. was taken out of the vaults of St Denis, and, after a stormy debate, it was decided to throw the remains of all the kings, even those of Henry IV. and Louis XIV., which were yet, in a good degree, preserved entire, and recognised with perfect certainty, into a pit, to melt down their leaden coffins on the spot, and to take away and melt into bullets whatever lead there was besides in the church (the whole roof, for ex- ample). Napoleon's decree of the 20th February, 1806, made St Denis again the burial-place of the reigning family of France; the church was repaired and ornamented, and marked with the emblems of the new dynasty, particularly the large N. Napoleon had selected a vaulted room for the tomb of himself and his consort. Louis XVIII. obliterated from St Denis all traces of Napoleon's rule, buried whatever bones of his ancestors could be found, especially the relics of Louis XVI. and his family, in the ancient sepulchre of the kings, and instituted canons, whose duty it is to protect the tombs within. These canons of St Denis are the most distinguished in France, and form a convent, the abbot of which is a bishop. DENIZEN. In England, a denizen is an alien 639 born, who has obtained letters patent whereby he is constituted a British subject. A denizen is in a middle state between an alien and a natural born on naturalized subject, partaking of the nature of both. He may take lands by purchase, or derive a title by descent through his parents or any ancestor, though they be aliens. DENMARK; the smallest of the Northern Euro- pean kingdoms. History.—The oldest inhabitants of Denmark were Germans, brave and spirited men, who gained their support from the sea. The Cimbri, who derived their origin from them, dwelt in the peninsula of Jutland, the Chersonesus Cimbrica of the Romans, They first struck terror into the Romans by their in- cursion, with the Teutones, into the rich provinces of Gaul. After this, led by the mysterious Odin, the Goths broke into Scandinavia, and appointed chiefs from their own nation over Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Skiold is said to have been the first ruler of Denmark. His history, however, and that of his posterity is involved in fable. All we know with certainty is, that Denmark was divided, at this time, into many small states, that the inhabitants gained their subsistence by piracy, and spread terror through every sea, and along every coast to which they came. When the power of the Romans began to decline, the Danes and Normans became conspicuous in the South by their incursions upon the shores, which were formerly protected by the guard-ships of the Romans. The Normans (comprehending the people of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway) landed in Éng- land A. D.,832, and established there two kingdoms. Under Rollo, in 911, they made a descent on the Freiich coasts in Norulandy, occupied the Faroe isles, the Orcades, the Shetland isles, Iceland, and a part of Ireland, and thence proceeded to Spain, Italy, and Sicily. Wherever they came, they spread terror by their valour, ferocity, and rapacity. These ex- peditions made little change in their national govern- ment: it still continued a federative system of many clans or tribes, each of which had its own head, and all were united under one sovereign. When the German kings of the Carlowingian race attempted to interfere with their domestic affairs, the tribes en- tered into a closer union, and the Norwegians and Dames formed two separate states. Gorm the Old first subdued Jutland, in 863, and united all the small Danish states under his sceptre till 920. His grandson Sweyn, a warlike prince, subdued a part of Norway in 1000, and England in 1014. His son Canute, in 1010, not only completed the conquest of England, but also subdued a part of Scotland, and, in 1030, all Norway. Under him the power of Denmark reached its highest pitch. Political mo– tives led him to embrace the Christian religion, and to introduce it into Denmark; upon which a great change took place in the character of the people. Canute died in 1036, and left a powerful kingdom to his successors, who, in 1042, lost England, and, in 1047, Norway. The Danish kingdom was, after this, very much weakened by intestine broils. Sweyn Magnus Es- tritson ascended the throne in 1047, and established a new dynasty ; but the feudal system, introduced by the wars of Sweyn and Canute, robbed the kingdom of all its strength, under this dynasty, which furnished not a single worthy prince except the great Waldemar, left the princes dependent on the choice of the bishops and mobility, plunged the peasants into bondage, caused the decay of agri- culture, and abandoned commerce to the Hanse towns of Germany. With Waldemar III., in 1376, the male line of the family of Estritson became ex- tinct. His politic daughter Margaret, after the 64() death of her Son Olave IV., A. D. 1387, took the helm of the Danish government, ascended the throne of Sweden and Norway, and established the union of Calmar (q.v.), in 1397. After the extinction of the princes of the family of Skiold, the Danes elected Christian I., count of Oldenburg, to succeed him, in 1448. This Chris– tian was the founder of the royal Danish family, which has, ever since, kept possession of the throne, and from which, in modern times, Russia, Sweden, and Oldenburg, have received their rulers. He con- nected Norway, Sleswic, and Holstein, with the crown of Denmark, but was so fettered by his capi- tulations, that he seemed to be rather the head of the royal council than a sovereign king. His son, king John, was bound by a still more strict capitu- lation, in Denmark, 1481. In Norway, too, his power was more circumscribed. Holstein and Sles- wic he shared with Frederic, his brother. King Christian II. (q.v.), son of John, a wicked and cruel, but by no means weak, prince, attempted to throw off his dependence on the states; but, in doing it, he lost Sweden, which broke the union of Calmar in 1523; and, soon after, he was deprived of both his other crowns. Denmark and Norway elevated his father's brother, Frederic I., to the throne. Under this prince, the aristocracy gained the entire Supe- riority; bondage was established by law; the refor- mation was introduced; and, in 1522, Norway was united with Denmark. Christian III., his eldest Son, divided Sleswic and Holstein with his brothers, John and Adolphus, the latter of whom founded the house of Holstein-Gottorp ; but this division was the ground of long and bitter disputes. He was suc- ceeded, in 1559, by king Frederic II., who conquered the Ditmars, and became involved in a war with Swe- den respecting the possession of Livonia. This War was concluded by the peace of Stettin, 1570. Christian IV., who succeeded in 1588, took part in the thirty years’ war, and twice engaged in a war with Swe- den; the last time with such unhappy consequences, that, by the peace of the Broemsebro, in 1645, Den- mark had to cede to Sweden Jaemptland, Herjedalen beyond the mountains, Gothland, and Oesel, pro- vinces which it had retained ever since the union ; besides putting Halland in her hands for thirty years. The faults of the Danish form of government, and the restraints on the crown, had principally contri- buted to make the Danish arms unsuccessful. The same misfortune attended them also in the new war, begun with Sweden by king Frederic III., in 1657. In the peace of Roschild, in 1658, and that of Copen- hagen, in 1660, he lost Schomen, Bleckingen, Bohus, and Halland. This caused the abolition, in 1660, of the constitution of the states: the nation itself granted the king absolute power, and rendered the crown hereditary. Norway did the same in 1661. The Danish nobility, however, retained the most important offices of state, and the result did not answer the expectations which had been entertained of the new arrangement. Christian V. and Frederic IV. were conquered in the war with Charles XII. Denmark, however, after the fall of Charles XII., gained by the peace of 1720, at Fredericsburg, the toll on the Sound, and maintained possession of Sleswic. After this, the state enjoyed a long repose; but the wounds inflicted by its ill success, and its defec- tive form of government, could not be healed by the peaceful system now adopted. Denmark, having but few resources, can prosper only by wise modera- tion and careful management. The political ma- chine, once disordered, requires a long time for restoration. In 1726, Denmark united with the crown the county of Ranzau ; in 1761, Holstein- IDENMARK. Ploen; and, in 1773, Holstein-Gottorp. In return for the latter, by a treaty with Russia, it ceded the counties of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, which were acquired in 1667. In 1730, Christian VI. succeeded Frederic IV., and left his crown, in 1746, to his son Frederic V. Christian VII. received the sceptre in 1766. He governed entirely by his ministers. (See the article Struensee.) The present king, Frederic VI., was declared of age at sixteen years, and, in April 14, 1784, was appointed regent on account of the insanity of his father, whom he succeeded, after his death, A.D. 1808. In consequence of the defensive alliance with Rus- sia, in 1788, a Danish auxiliary Corps marched into Sweden without opposition; but, on the representa- tions of England and Prussia, an armistice was con- cluded a fortnight after the commencement of hosti- lities. Thus ended this fruitless campaign, which imposed on the impoverished finances a burden of 7,000,000 rix dollars. Denmark maintained her neutrality with more success, in 1792, when the allied powers wished her to take part in the war against France. But, by her accession to the Nor- thern confederacy, in 1800, she was involved in a war with Great Britain, in which the Danish fleet was defeated at Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. The courage of the Dames, however, obtained for them a truce, upon which Denmark acceded to the treaty of Russia with England, completed July 20, evacuated Hamburg and Lubeck, of which she had possession, and received back her own colonies. At length, in 1807, this state was included in Napoleon's continental policy. A French army stood On the borders of Đenmark, Russia had adopted the continental system at the peace of Tilsit, and Eng- land thought it her duty to prevent the accession of Denmark to this alliance. A fleet of twenty-three ships of the line was sent up the Sound, August 3, which demanded of Denmark a defensive alliance, or the surrender of her fieet, as a pledge of her neu- trality. Both were denied. Upon this, a British army landed, consisting of 25,000 men, under lord Cathcart; and, after an unsuccessful resistance on the part of the Danes, who were unprepared for such an attack, Copenhagen was surrounded August 17. As the government repeatedly refused to yield to the British demands, the capital was bombarded for three days, and 400 houses laid in ashes, in the ruins of which 1300 of the inhabitants perished. September 7, Copenhagen capitulated, and the whole fleet, com- letely equipped, and including eighteen ships of the ine, fifteen frigates, &c., was j up to the British, and carried off in triumph. The crews, who had fought on those days with distinguished bravery, were made prisoners of war. Great Britain now offered the crown-prince neu- trality or an alliance. If he accepted the first, the Danish fleet was to be restored in three years after the general peace, and the island of Heligoland was to be ceded to the British crown. The crown-prince, however, rejected all proposals, declared war against Great Britain in October, 1807, and entered into a treaty with Napoleon, at Fontainebleau, October 31. Upon this, Bernadotte occupied the Danish islands with 30,000 men, in order to land in Sweden, against which Denmark had declared war in April, 1808. This plan was defeated by the war with Austria, in 1809, and the hostilities against Sweden in Norway ceased the same year. The demand made by the court of Stockholm, in 1813, of a transfer of Norway to Sweden, was followed by a new war with this crown, and a new alliance with Napoleon, July 10, 1813. On this account, after the battle of Leipsic, the northern powers, who were united against France, occupied Holstein and Sleswic. Glueckstadt DENMARK. and other fortifications were captured, and the Danish troops driven beyond Flensburg. Denmark now concluded a peace with England and Sweden, Jan. 14, 1814, at Kiel. She also entered into an alli- ance against France, and contributed a body of troops to the allied forces. She was obliged to cede Heligoland to Great Britain (receiving in exchange the West India islands), and Norway to Sweden (for which she was compensated by Swedish Pomerania and Ruegen). in February, 1814. Jan. 14, 1815, Denmark ceded Swedish Pomerania and Ruegen to Prussia, and re- ceived for them Lauenburg and a pecuniary compen- sation. June 8, 1815, the king entered into the German confederacy with Holstein and Lauenburg, and received in it the tenth place, and three votes in the general assembly (the plenum); after which, by the appointment of a decemviral commission, prelimi- nary measures were taken to introduce a represen- tative government into Holstein. Statistics, &c. Denmark consists of the islands of Zealand, Fuehnen, Langeland, Laaland, Falster, Bornholm, and Moen, the peninsula of Jutland and the duchy of Sleswic. To the Danish king- dom belong also two states of the German confede- racy, the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg; like- wise the Faroe islands, Iceland, the western coast of Greenland, some places in Guinea, and the city and territory of Tranquebar, in the East Indies. Den- mark Proper and Sleswic contain only 17,375 square miles; Iceland and the Faroe islands, 30,270; the German states, 3665; and the colonies, 7173. The whole kingdom, with its dependencies, contains 58,500 square miles, of which Iceland and the coast of Greenland compose 36,128. Denmark Proper is estimated to contain 1,230,000 inhabitants; Holstein and Lauenburg, 370,000; Iceland, in the year 1823, 49,269 ; the Faroe islands, 5300; and the rest of the colonies, 101,000; so that the whole kingdom in 1823 was calculated to contain 1,750,000, or, according to Some accounts, 1,864,534 inhabitants. By a cen- sus taken in 1832, the entire population was made to amount to 2,200,000. The people, partly Danes and partly Germans, speak Danish in Denmark Pro- per, Norse in Iceland and the Faroe islands, and German in the high and low German and Frisian dialects. Bondage no longer prevails among the peasants, but they continue to be attached to the soil in Denmark Proper. The principal island, Zealand (Dan. Saelland), is separated by the Sound (q. v.) from Sweden, the island Fuehnen (Dan. Fyen) by the Great Belt, from Zealand, and by the Little Belt from the peninsula of Jutland (Dan. Jylland): these three straits form the passage from the German ocean to the Baltic sea. The country is prefectly level, with the exception of a single ridge of moderate elevation, which runs through the duchies. The coasts are low, and, for the most part, protected against the encroachments of the waves by flats, and require artificial dikes only on the side of the German ocean. The soil con- sists partly of marshes and partly of heaths, and the country is moderately fruitful. By the improvident extirpation of the woods, which protected the northern and north-western coasts of Jutland against the sea, vast extents of fruitful territory have become barren and Sandy deserts. The church at Skagen, in the most northern parish of Jutland, at present lies almost buried in heaps of sand, driven up by the Sea. An attempt has lately been made to check this devastation, by planting firs, birches, &c., also cer- tain herbs that flourish best in sand ; by which means a great part of those sandy regions have once more put on a verdant dress. Besides the Elbe, the boundary stream of the kingdom, it has only a few II. A peace was concluded with Russia. 641 rivers on the coast. There are many lakes in the interior, as the Schall and the Ratzeburger lakes in Lauenburg, Ploemer and Selenter lakes in Holstein ; and several bays, the most considerable of which is situated in North Jutland, called the Limfiord. The Cattegat or Skaggerack, between the coasts of Jut- land and Sweden, is considered by some as a bay: it is connected with the Baltic by the Sound and the two Belts. The climate, for the most part, is tem. perate, but very wet. The staple productions of Denmark are grain, rape-seed, tobacco, &c.; 4,000,000 pounds of the last are raised annually, and sold mostly in foreign countries. Hemp and flax are not raised in sufficient quantities to satisfy the demand of the people: the same is the case with madder (which, however, thrives very well), and with hops. Horticulture is neglected in Denmark Proper. Sea-weed is used for stuffing cushions, &c., instead of horse-hair. Forests are rare, and the price of wood high; turf, however, is very abundant. The breeding of cattle furnishes the only important article of exportation: for example, every year Denmark Proper exports 16,000 horses and 7000 oxen. Olofsen fixes the number of horned cattle, not including those raised in the duchies, at 1,484,000 head: the sheep amount to 1,338,000 head, including 20,000 merinos. Swine and poultry, too, are raised in large numbers. The larger kinds of game are very rare. The fish- eries supply a part of North Germany with herring, oysters, lobsters, &c. Among the minerals are clay, iron, copper, alum, lime, (in Segeberg), and salt (less than is wanted) from Salt springs. The manu- factures are few, and carried on principally in Co- penhagen and Altona : the Danish gloves, which come from Jutland, are esteemed in Germany. Trade, especially to the West Indies, and navigation, have begun to revive. The Holstein canal joins the Baltic sea and the North Sea. The charter of the Asiatic company was extended, in 1812, to thirty years after the peace; but the shares have fallen. Denmark now contains, without including Iceland and the Faroe islands, a hundred cities, thirty-Seven boroughs, 2305 parishes, and 5500 villages. Government, &c. The government of Denmark is an absolute monarchy. The crown is hereditary both in the male and female line. The king's oldest son is styled the crown-prince; the other princes of the blood are called princes of Denmark. Copenha. gen is the royal residence. The title of the sove- reign, since Jan. 1, 1820, has been, king of Denmark, of the Pandals and the Goths, duke of Sleswic, Hol- stein, Stormarn, the Ditmarsh, and of Lauenburg and Oldenburg. The orders of knighthood are the order of the elephant and the order of the Danebrog (order of the royal banner). In Denmark Proper there are no estates. The highest council of state is the privy council, to which the administration of domestic af. fairs has belonged since 1814. The Lutheran is the prevailing religion, but unlimited toleration is ex- tended to every religious sect, not excepting the Jews. There are two universities (at Copenhagen and Kiel). There is also an academy of arts, a royal society of sciences, and many private institutions and societies of learned men, forty gymnasia, and thirteen seminaries of teachers. Lancasterian or monitorial schools were first established in Denmark in 1823; but their progress has been rapid beyond example. In 1823, the system was introduced into 244 schools: in 1824, the number was 605; in 1825, 1143; in 1826, 1543; in 1827, 2003; in 1828, 2302; and in 1829, the additions made would carry it to 2616. The Sound dues now afford a revenue of more than 450,000 dollars. The public debt, it is conjectured, amounts in silver to ten million rix dollars banco of - * 2S 642 foreign, and 100 millions of domestic debt, including two recent loans in Hamburg and London. The value of bank-bills in circulation, in 1823, a little ex- ceeded 21:325,000 rix dollars banco. Paper money is worth about forty per cent. in comparison with specie; and a bank dollar in silver is worth 1; Ham- burg marks banco. The land force consisted, in 1823, of 30,838 men, exclusive of the militia. The marine is subject to a board of admiralty, or com- missariate. In 1826, the navy consisted of four ships of the line, seven frigates, four corvettes, five brigs, one schooner, and eighty gun-boats. Danish Language, Literature, and Arts. The Danish language is derived from the Low German and the original Norman, which was, in the tenth century, driven to Iceland. It is believed by many, that the Anglo-Saxon language is, in fact, the Dan- ish, and that it has been retained in its purity by the Irish. The first cultivators of this language in Den- mark, as in Sweden and Norway, were the Scalds, who wrote poems in the pure German dialect, and, following their princes and generals, sung in rhyme- less verse the deities and exploits of their nation. After the introduction of Christianity (about 1000), historical poems only continued to be composed (till 1265). For the introduction of this religion into Denmark, at the same time with the art of writing, the foundation was laid by the German missionary, Anschar. (See Ansgar.) Canute the Great (1015 –1036), inspired by his wife, Emma, with zeal for Christianity, and a liberal spirit towards the clergy, sent Anglo-Saxon teachers to Denmark, established the bishoprics of Schomen, Zealand, and Fuhnen, and spread Christianity through all the rest of the North. He sought to promote trade and commerce, º new money, and established more fixed aWS. - Immediately after Christianity, chivalry, also, was introduced into Scandinavia, particularly by the French crusades, and found an easy reception amon the inhabitants, who were extremely fond of bold adventures. Tournaments were so common at the Danish court, that every stranger who visited it was obliged to break a spear with some of the cour- tiers. The Danes engaged in the first crusade. This new spirit of chivalry had necessarily a favour- able influence on poetry. The oldest Danish poetry extant is the epic of the Skyldingians, first published complete by Thorkelin (De Danorum rel. Gest. Secul. III. et IV, Poema Dan. Dialect. Anglo-Saxon, etc. Copenhagen, 1815, 4to). Of a much later date (sixteenth century) is the collection of the heroic ballads and romances of love (Kjempeviser and Els- Kovsviser), published by Wedel and Syv, and latest by Abrahamson, Nyerup, and Rahbeck, 1812–14, in five vols., which has been translated into German by W. L. Grimm, who has done much for the northern poetry (Altdaenische Heldenlieder, Balladen, und Maerchen, Heidelburg, 1811). Nyerup and Rahbeck likewise published, some years ago, a selection from the manuscript Danish poems of the middle ages, with valuable commentaries. Their poetical value, indeed, is very unequal; but most of them contain ſº poetry, and much national spirit. The atest Danish dramatists have drawn much from these storehouses. Among the heroic poems, many illustrate the cycle of the old Heldenbuch . v.). q The first Danish historians are Sueno (Svend), Aagesen (about 1188), and the celebrated Saxo- Grammaticus, properly Lang, of Schonen (who died in 1204), both of whom, by the suggestion of Absa- lon, archbishop of Lund, wrote, the former a concise history of the Danish kings from 300 to 1186 (Sueno- ºws Aggonis Opuscula, ed. Stephan. Sora, 1642), the DENMARK. lattera complete history of Denmark (Historiae, Libb.). avi. ed. Stephanius Sora, 1644; Klotzius, 1771, 4to), to the year 1186, in sixteen vols. in a correct Latin style. - The reformation, introduced in 1527, and still more the extension of trade, had a great influence on the intellectual progress of Denmark. In consequence of the reformation, the Germans obtained an impor- tant influence over the church and the literature of Denmark. The Danes studied in Germany. Ger- man was the language of the court, and Latin the language of the #. The attempts of authors in their vernacular tongue were as yet insignificant. A Danish translation of the ‘New Testament was made in 1524, on the model of Luther's. Danish became the language of literature, partly in the sixteenth, and still more in the seventeenth century, and was distinguished for its softness and euphony, and for the expressiveness of its abstract terms. The language of poetry seems, at present, to have left prose far in the rear. The first Danish grammar was edited by Erich Pontoppidan (Copenhagen, 1668). Many useful grammars were afterwards prepared by James Baden and others, and, in the sixteenth century, some Dan- ish-Latin dictionaries. (See the Literatura antiquis- sima, of Olaf Worm, a Dane (Copenhagen, 1651), and others.) The Danish is the only Teutonic lan- guage which has a real passive voice. In regard to prose, the Danish language has been highly enriched by Holberg (q., v.), who, in one view, may justly be called the father of modern Da- mish literature, having applied it to many branches of literature, and particularly to the drama. Much has been dome for the improvement of the public taste by J. Wielandt (died 1730), J. Sch. Sneedorf (died 1764), in their Journals, and by J. Baden (died 1804), who paid particular attention to the purity of the language, and discharged with success the office of a critic. Literary institutions were, moreover, esta- blished and supported by Frederic W. and Christian VII., which greatly promoted the native literature of the country. T. Rothe, P. F. Suhm (a Danish his- torian, who died in 1799), Cnud Lyne Rahbeck (knight of the order of the Danebrog, who published various literary works, 1785–93, in three parts, con- sisting of dramatic works and narratives, and who exerted no small influence upon the Danish national taste, as editor of the Northern Minerva and Danish Spectator), J. Ch. Bastholm, Birkner, Rasmus, Nyerup, Anders Gamborg, Frederic Munter, and Baggesen, have well founded claims to the reputa- tion of clear, strong, and agreeable writers. In practical science and natural philosophy, the Danes have distinguished themselves most. . We must not omit the renowned astronomer, Tycho de Brahe, and the mineralogist, Olaf Worm, who died in 1654. - Much has been done for the cause of education in Denmark, in modern times, by the establishment of schools, universities, and literary societies. There are also institutions for instruction in gymnastic exer- cises, such as swimming, for instance, well worthy of general imitation. Geography and practical astro- nomy are under great obligations to Thomas Bugge (q.v.), who was invited to Paris in 1798, by the French directory, to take part in the establishment of the new system of weights and measures. Many learned men, whom he drew from obscurity, have con- tributed to give value to the Transactions of the Sci- entific Society at Copenhagen (now amounting to twenty-four vols. : the latest series is called Det Kongelige Danske Pädensz. Selskaber Skrifter). The late convulsed state of Europe excited in Den- mark much attention to the military art, and all the DENMARK–DENNER. foreign improvements were adopted. Denmark has always been more distinguished for its naval than its land forces. The Danish admiralty deserves the general gratitude for the publication of the charts prepared under the direction of Paul de Lowenorn, and greatly increased in value by learned illustra- tions. Further improvements were made in this department by U. S. Rosenwinge, who died in 1820. The numerous editions of Lous's nautical works, among a people who despise all theory, if it cannot be reduced to practice, bear witness to their practical excellence. The investigation of the an- tiquities of the country has received much attention from the following scholars, some of whom are still living:-Viborg, TN. E. P. Grundtvig, Sandtvig, ºśń. Thorlaclus, Nyerup and Rhabeck. The two last published Contributions to the History of Danish Poetry (Copenhagen, 1800–8 in 4 vols.), and, with Abrahamson, the Collection of Poems of the Middle Ages. The poetry of the Danes, in modern times, has been splendid. It began with religious pieces and national songs, of which the Danes have a great number, and may be considered as having commenc- ed with Andr. Chr. Arreboe, who died in 1637. The Hewaemeron of Arreboe is extremely heavy. Andr. Bording (died 1677) took Opite for his pat- tern. Poetic vigour, however, is wanting in him and in his successors, Jens Steno Schestedt (died 1698), Paul Pettersen, the poet of the people, William Helt, who flourished about 1703, Nicholas Kingo (died 1703, while bishop), who celebrated the achievements of the Danish kings in a heroic poem, and George Lorterap, (died 1722). Much improvement was in- troduced about the middle of the eighteenth century, by the ardent enthusiasm of Louis Holberg, a Nor- wegian. He deserves to be particularly mentioned here, as an original comic and satirical poet. (For a further account of his works, see Holberg.) The society established in 1758, for the advancement of the fine arts, and the improvement of taste, brought into notice the works of men of talents, among whom the original Ch. B. Tullin (who died in 1765) was most distinguished. In the second half of the eigh- teenth century, a warm literary controversy com- menced, and many estimable poets, including several Norwegians, made successful attempts in various de- partments of literature. Even at present, however, they are much given to the imitation of foreign models. Among late poets most distinguished, are the tra- gedian and lyric poet, John Ewald (q.v.); N. Weyer (1788, a poet of much talent; he is the author of Poet. Forsoeg, Copenhagen, 1789); the lyric poet and dramatist, Rahbeck; the satirical and comic poets, Guldberg, and John. Herm. Wessel the latter the next comic writer after Holberg, and famous for his comedy, Love without Stockings, and many comic poems. Rallbeck published the fourth edition of his poems in 1817. Other distinguished poets are P. A. Heiberg, En. de Falsen (died 1808), the lyric and dramatic Brun, Th. Thaarup (q.v.), who wrote much for the stage, J. C. Tode, Ch. Lovinus, Sander, Pram, the successful poet of the people, Frimann, Rein-Storm (the last are Norwegians), a female writer named Brun, who has written spirited poetry in the German language, Jens Baggesen, a lyric poet, full of animation and strength, though at times heavy, and Oehlenschlager, whose best pieces are Ha- Æon Jarl, Planatoke, Aa'el und //alburg, Correg- gio, Aladdin, The Shepherd's Boy. The last men- tioned poets are to be numbered, also, among Ger- man authors, as they all write in that language like- wise. B. S. Ingemann now shares the public favour with Oehlenschlager. Of late years, much has been 643 translated from the German. An epic poem, called the Deliverance of Israel, in eighteen cantos, by J. M. Herz, which obtained the prize of the society of fine arts, notwithstanding this honour, seems to have met but a cold reception from the public. Copen- hagen could probably boast of the youngest author- ess in Europe. Virgilia Christ. Lund, at the age of only ten years, published in 1820, a piece called Two for One, and subsequently a small dramatic piece, The Faithless Maid Discovered. The irritability of poets is nowhere more striking than in Denmark where they are constantly quarrelling. This pole- mical spirit is very strong in N. F. Sev. Gruntwig, by whom two quarto º of the Chronicles of Denmark, by Saxo Grammaticus, have been trans- lated into Danish (Copenhagen, 1818–19), and given to the public. The musical productions of Denmark have been inferior in richness and abundance to the literary. Thorwaldsen (q.v.) has roused the ambition of his country to aspire to excel in the fine arts. Under his direction, many promising Danish youth, as, for instance, Freund, have been and are still receiv- ing instruction. Lahde has published sketches of the works of Thorwaldsen, with poetical explan- ations by Oehlenschlager. Intellectual activity is kept up, in Denmark, by many excellent periodi- cals. There are many well-ordered literary societies; and lately the study of the Scandinavian language and antiquities has grown so fashionable, that a Scan- dinavian literary society was instituted at the com- mencement of the present century. The Transac- tions of this Society amount already to 16 vols. (Co- penhagen, 1819), and contain a variety of excellent treatises. The Arnae-Magnacan commission, and the royal society for the preservation of antiquities, protect the monuments of antiquity that belong to the country; and the promotion of mental cultiva- tion is intrusted to the northern society of science, the society for the encouragement of the fine arts and of taste, the society of medicine and rural economy. All these attempts of the Danish literati have been encouraged by the government. The measurement of a degree from Lauenburgh to Scagen has been continued without intermission, under the direction of professor Schumacher. It is conducted on strictly scientific principles, and the instruments are excel- lent, made by Reichenbach, and furnished by the go- vernment. This measurement will perhaps deter- mine, at last, whether confidence ought to be placed in the French surveyors, or the English under Mudge, or in neither of them. The government assist in the publication of many excellent works, because the Danish public is so small that they would not pay the expense of printing them. In this way the Flora Danica, for example, is published; also Thor- lacius and Werlauf's editions of the Norwegian His- tory of Snorro Sturleson, and the Law of Lagaboter Gulething, by king Magnus. The inquiries into the origin of the northern languages, which Rask it is well known, has sought for on Caucasus itself, were encouraged by the government, which has also promoted the publication of Nyerup's Catal. Librorum Samscritanorum, quos Bibl. Univ. Hafniensis vel dedit vel paravit Nath. JWillich (Copenhagen, 1821). The collection of medals at Copenhagen received its pre- sent importance from the care of the reigning king. The fund ad usus publicos is applied to the support of distinguished young men on Scientific journeys. In the year 1829, Mr Bowring was in Copenhagen, collecting materials for an English translation of ancient Danish ballads, and the most celebrated lyrical pieces of modern Danish poets. DENNER, BALTHASER, a celebrated portrait pain- 2 S 2 644 ter, was born at Hamburg in 1685, and died at Ros- tock in 1749. He was especially distinguished for the remarkable exactness of his execution, or rather the almost microscopic accuracy of his paintings. He learned to draw at Altona, and to paint in oil at Dantzic, and afterwards travelled. All the northern princes invited him to their courts to paint their portraits. The emperor Charles VI. paid him 4700 florins for the head of an aged woman. It is now in the imperial gallery at Vienna. Denner likewise painted the head of an old man for the same prince, a pendant of the former, which is also a masterpiece. There are some beautiful portraits painted by him in Muenich. DENNER, JoHN CHRISTIAN, invented the clarinet. He was born at Leipsic in 1655, and went to Nu- rembeg with his parents in his eighth year, where he was employed in making wind instruments, especially flutes. He died in 1707. DENNEWITZ; a small town in the march of Brandenburg, famous for the battle between the French and Prussians, September 6, 1813, the former commanded by Ney (under whom were Oudinot, Bertrand, Regnier, and Arrighi), the latter by Tau- enzien and Buelow. 40,000 Prussians maintained their ground for several hours against 80,000 French ; and, on the arrival of the Russian and Swedish bat- talions, victory declared in favour of the allies, who, after the Russians and Swedes came up, were far superior in numbers. The French were defeated, and fled in disorder, with their auxiliaries, consisting of Bavarians, Wurtembergians, Saxons, and Poles. This battle was a consequence of the battle at Gros- beeren (q.v.). DENNIE, Joseph, an American writer, was born in Boston, August, 30, 1768. He early evinced a decided fondness for polite literature, and entered Harvard college in 1787. He left this institution in I790, and entered the office of a lawyer at Charles- ton, N. H. At the expiration of three years, he made a successful début at the bar. From Charles- ton he soon removed to Walpole, where he opened an office, but gained very little business, owing to his literary taste and irregular habits. For four months, he officiated as reader of prayers for an Episcopalian congregation at Claremont. In the Spring of 1795, he endeavoured to establish, at Boston, a weekly paper under the title of The Tablet. This, however, survived but a short time. Not long after, he re- turned to Walpole, to act as editor of the Farmer's Museum, a journal in which he published a series of essays, with the signature of The Lay Preacher. In 1799, he went to Philadelphia, in consequence of be- ing appointed a clerk in the office of the secretary of state. On the dismissal of his patron, Mr Pickering, he left the department, and engaged in the conduct of a literary journal, the Port Folio, for which his name and talents acquired considerable patronage and celebrity. His reputation, his colloquial powers, and amiable disposition, attracted to him a large number of literary disciples and coadjutors. With industry and discretion, he might have gained inde- pendence and permanent happiness ; but he was de- ficient in both qualities, and gradually destroyed, by his imprudence, his bodily constitution, as well as all hopes of fortune. January, 7, 1812, he died a victim to anxiety and complicated disease. Mr Dennie possessed a delicate taste, a beautiful style, a ready, pen, a rich fund of elegant literature, an excellent heart, and a captivating countenance and manner, and, with a proper exercise of industry and judgment, might have acquired a lasting repu- tation. - DENNIS, John ; an English dramatist and critic. He was the son of a citizen of London, where he was DENNER–DENON. born in 1657. Having completed his studies at Cambridge, he made the tour of France and Italy, and, on his return, devoted himself to literary oc- cupations, living upon his fortune, which had been left him by an uncle. In 1697, he produced a Comedy, entitled Plot and no Plot, which was follow- ed by several dramatic pieces and poems of little value. He also became a political writer for the Whig party. The irritability of his disposition, heightened probably, by the umprosperous state of his finances, involved him in perpetual broils, and made him a sort of standing jest with the wits of his time. Having written a tragedy entitled Liberty Asserted, which became popular during the war with Louis XIV., in consequence of the abuse of the French with which it abounded, Dennis thought that mon- arch would never forgive the insult: when, there- fore, the treaty of Utrecht was about to be conclud- ed, he entreated the duke of Marlborough to save him from being delivered up to the French govern- ment, as a state criminal. The duke told him that he thought he might make himself easy; for though he had, he conceived, done as much harm to the French as Mr Dennis, he had not thought it neces- Sary to seek for personal indemnity. When his Appius and Virginia was performed, he introduced a new method of imitating thunder, said to be still used at the theatre. The tragedy was soon set aside; but some time after, Dennis, being present at the representation of Macbeth, perceived that his new invention had been adopted; on which he ex- claimed, “S'death! how these rascals use me ; they will not let my play rum, yet they steal my thunder.” He wrote some severe strictures on Addison's Cato and Pope's Rape of the Lock. Pope, in return, gave him a place in the Dunciad, and, in conjunction with Swift, produced a sarcastic tract, entitled A Narra- tive of the deplorable Frenzy of Mr John Dennis. After he had dissipated his fortune, the duke of Marlborough procured him the place of land waiter at the custom-house. This he disposed of, reserv- ing only a temporary annuity; and in his old age, his necessities were relieved by a benefit at the Hay- market theatre, to which his former antagonist, Pope, contributed a prologue. He died soon after, Janu ary 6, 1734. DENNY, the name of a town and parish in Stir- lingshire. The town is situated on the south bank of the Carron, about eighteen miles from Glasgow, and is a thriving place, from its proximity to several paper mills, printfields, and other public works. It also derives considerable trade from its vicinity to the Forth and Clyde Canal, which intersects the par- ish, and affords a ready conveyance for the freestone and coal abounding in the neighbourhood. The parish is four miles long, and about two and a half broad: well cultivated and fertile. Population in 1831, 3843. DENON, DominiquE VIVANT, BARON DE, a dis- tinguished French artist, was born Feb. 4, 1747, at Chalons-sur-Saone, of a noble family. He was des- timed to study law at Paris, where he was favoura- bly received in Society; and his talent and inclina- tion led him to devote himself to the arts. A comedy which he wrote, called the Good Father, gained him the favour of the ladies. His amiable manners made him a favourite of Louis XV., who appointed him gentilhomme ordinaire about his person. He was afterwards attached to an embassy at St Petersburg, where Catharine, however, observed him with a jealous eye. Subsequently he was intrusted with a diplomatic mission to Switzerland. On this occasion, he drew Voltaire's likeness (engraved by St Aubin), and the well known picture Le Dejedner de Ferney. He then occupied, during seven years, a place in the DENSITY —JDEOID AND. Prench embassy at Naples. His residence in the city, and repeated visits to Sicily and Malta, gave him an opportunity of exercising his talent for drawing and engraving, Denon had the principal direction of the artists engaged in preparing the abbé St Non's Poy- age pittoresque de Naples et de Sicile, and the text was chiefly taken from his journal. This elegant work appeared at Paris, in 1788. The remainder of Denon's journal, relating to Sicily and Malta, ap- peared separately, in 1788. His career at Naples was interrupted by the death of the minister Vergen- mes, his patron, or, according to some, by the dis- pleasure of the queen, Maria Caroline. But still his love for the study of the great masters detained him in Italy. He resided at Venice during several years, where he shone in the circles of the countess Albrizzi, who was distinguished for her amiable and intelligent character, and loved to be surrounded by men of talent. TXenon was not forgotten in her Rittrati, where she bestows the greatest praise on his charac- ter, his passion for the arts, his cheerfulness and amiable disposition, and excuses the raillery with which he attacked the foibles of others. The ob- Servation and restraint, to which the revolution sub- jected Frenchmen in foreign countries, compelled him to leave Venice. After a short stay in Florence and Switzerland, he was obliged to return to France dur- ing the reign of terror; but he made himself agree- able to Robespierre, and was, in consequence, subse- quently accused of devotion, at that time, to Jacobin principles. During this period, he exercised himself in engraving. At last, he became acquainted with Bonaparte, and immediately united himself with him. He accompanied the general in his campaigns to Italy and Egypt, and Desaix to Upper Egypt. The work which was the result of this journey, was an addition to Denon's fame, particularly the engravings which ornament it (Paris, 1802, 2 vols. fol., and 3 vols. 12mo., without engravings). Demon, in this, has shown himself a very able artist. Nature, animate and inanimate, the monuments of centuries, and the Arabian flying through the Desert, are represented with great fidelity. When he returned to Paris with Bonaparte, he was appointed general director of the museums, and all the works of art executed in honour of the French successes—monuments, coins, the erec- tion of the triumphal pillar in the Place de Vendome, &c. He accompanied Napoleon in all his campaigns, and employed himself in drawing, and in selecting those masterpieces in the conquered countries, which were taken to Paris as trophies. In 1815, he was compelled to witness the restoration of the spoils. After the abdication of the emperor, he retained his office, but was deprived of it in 1815, in consequence of having joined Napoleon on his return from Elba. He retained, however, his place in the institute. From that time he lived retired, and the preparation of engravings and lithographs of his splendid collec- tion of works of art, formed the occupation of his last years. He died at Paris, April 28, 1825. His mind was active to the last. Denon much resembled Wol- taire in his old age. In 1826 appeared at Paris the Description des Objets d’Art composant le Cabinet de few M. le Bar. P. Denon, in 3 vols. (Monumens anti- ques, tableaua et estampes). The cabinet was sold by auction. DENSITY, strictly speaking, denotes vicinity or closeness of particles; but in mechanical science, it is used as a term of comparison, expressing the propor- tion of the number of equal moleculae, or the quantity of matter in one body to the number of equal moleculæ in the same bulk of another body. Density, there. fore, is directly as the quantity of matter, and in- yersely as the magnitude of the body. Since it may be shown experimentally, that the quantities of mat: 645 ter, or the masses in different bodies, are proportional to their weight; of consequence, the density of any body is directly as its weight, and inversely as its magnitude; or the inverse ratio of the magnitudes of two bodies, having experimentally equal weight (in the same place), constitutes the ratio of their densi- ties. No body is absolutely or perfectly full of mat- ter, so as to have no vacuity or interstices: On the contrary, it is the opinion of Newton, that even the densest bodies, as gold, &c., contain but a small por- tion of matter, and a great portion of vacuity; or that they contain a great deal more pores or empty space than real substance. Density of the Earth. The determination of the density of the earth, as compared with that of water, or any other known body, is a subject which has excited considerable interest amongst modern ma- thematicians ; and nothing can, at first sight, seem more beyond the reach of human Science, than the due solution of this problem ; yet this has been de- termined, and on such principles, that, if it be not cor- rectly true, it is probably an extremely near approxi- mation. The first idea of determining the density of the earth was suggested by M. Bouguer, in conse- quence of the attraction of Chimborazo, which affected his plumb-line while engaged with Condamine in measuring a degree of the meridian, near Quito, in Peru. This led to the experiments on the mountain Schehallien, in Scotland, which were carried on under the direction of doctor Maskelyne, and afterwards submitted to calculation by doctor Hutton, who de- termined the density of the earth to be to that of water as 4; to 1. But, in consequence of the specific gravity of the mountain being assumed rather less than it ought to have been, the above result is less than the true density, as has since been shown by doctor Hutton and professor Playfair, the former of whom makes it, in his corrected paper, as ninety- nine to twenty, or nearly as five to one. The same problem has been attempted on similar principles, but in a totally different manner, by the late Mr Cavendish, who found the density of the earth to be to that of water, as 5'48 to 1. Taking a mean of all these, we have the density of the earth to that of water, as 5'24 to 1, and which, as we before ob- served, is probably an extremely near approxima- tion. DENTIFRICE; a preparation for cleaning the teeth, of which there are various kinds: generally, however, they are made of earthy substances mixed with alum. Those formed of acids are very permici- OUIS. DEOD AND (Deo dandum); a thing to be given or dedicated to God. Persons who have attended trials for homicide will have observed that the indict- ment, in setting forth the manner of the death, al- leges it to have been occasioned by a blow with a certain weapon, &c., “ of the value of,” &c. This allegation of the value of the thing which caused the death, arose from the English law of deodands. It is provided in the Mosaical law (Exod. xxi. 28), that “If an ox gore a man, that he die, the ox shall be Stoned, and his flesh shall not be eaten.” So, by the law of Athens, whatever was the cause of a man's death, by falling upon him, was destroyed, or cast out of the territory of the republic. This, says Mr Christian, in his notes upon Blackstone's Commen- taries, was one of Draco's laws; and perhaps we may think the judgment that a statue should be thrown into the sea for having fallen upon a man, less absurd, when we reflect that there is sound policy in teaching the mind to contemplate with horror the privation of human life, and that familiarity even with an insensible object, which has been the occasion of death, may lessen that sentiment. This reflection, 646 suggested by Mr Christian in reference to the Athe- nian law, does not seem to be the motive for the rule of the common law of England, that whatever chattel causes the death of a person, shall be forfeited. It is an ancient doctrine mentioned by Bracton (Omnia qual movent ad mortem sunt Deo danda. l. 3. c. 5.), and its origin is attributed to the notion, that where a man was suddenly cut off in his sins, expiation Ought to be made for the benefit of his soul; and, accordingly, the chattel which occasioned his death, should be forfeited to the king, to be devoted by him to pious uses. The statute of 4 Edward I. St. 2., relating to coroners, provides that “horses, boats, carts, mills, &c., whereby any are slain, that pro- erly are called deodands, shall be valued and de- ivered unto the towns,” which thereupon became answerable to the king for their value; in whose behalf the sheriff might levy the amount upon the inhabitants of the town. Accordingly, in all indict- ments for homicide, in England, the grand jury specify the instrument that immediately caused the death, and its value, that the king may claim the deodand; for it is no deodand unless it is so found by the jury. Though these forfeitures were originally incurred to the king, yet he might grant them away to the lord of the manor or territory upon which the death happened, as he was accustomed to grant the right of waifs and wrecks. The deodands have been ſº so granted ; and these grants may proba- ly be the reason that this ancient singularity has so long remained a part of the English law; for the right to the forfeiture has thus become a subject of private property, and so not liable to be impaired by the ºute without compensation to the parties inter- €Sted. The old books contain a good deal of quaint and Curious law on this subject. It will be observed, that no distinction is made, whether the death is felonious, excusable, justifiable, or purely accidental, or whe- ther the instrument, by which it is occasioned, be- longs to the person committing the homicide or to another; for, says the Doctor and Student, if a man kills another with my sword, still the Sword is for- feited ; but if a person be killed by falling from a thing standing still, as a cart, it is not forfeited ; if, on the contrary, a horse, ox, or other animal, kill a person by its own motion, by running over him or Otherwise, it is a deodand. It is said, however, that if the instrument of the death is standing still, only the part which immediately occasioned the death is forfeited; as, if one attempts to climb up the wheel of a cart that is standing still, and falls, and is thereby killed, only the wheel is forfeited ; but if it be in motion, the entire cart is a deodand. Only chattels are forfeited; anything attached to the free- hold, as the wheel of a mill, or a bell hanging in a steeple, is not so; and no deodand occurs, unless the death happens within a year and a day after the accident. A sale of the article does not exempt it from forfeiture; as if a horse strikes a man, and is afterwards sold, and the man dies within the year and day, the horse is forfeited. It is not surprising that so whimsical a law should be very negligently executed; the juries are very apt to mitigate the forfeitures by finding that only some trivial thing, or only a part of an entire thing, was the occasion of the death; and the court has generally refused to inter- fere in behalf of the lord of the franchise, to assist him in enforcing his claim to the whole article. There are no deodands on the high seas, though it has been said, that, if a man fall overboard from a Vessel in a freshwater river, and is drowned, the vessel and cargo are strictly a deodand; and the above sta- tute of Edward I., we observe, mentions boats as one DEODANID—D’EON. species of deodand. But in this case the jury would probably find the death to have been occasioned by the winds or the water, and would have a precedent sufficiently analogous: for the books maintain that if a man, riding over a river, is thrown off his horse by the violence of the water, and drowned, the horse is not a deodand, for the death was occasioned by the Cul’rent. D’EON (the chevalier). Eom de Beaumont, Charles Genevieve Louise Auguste André Timothée d’, equerry to Louis XV., chevalier, doctor of law, parliamentary advocate, military officer, royal censor, diplomatist, &c., known until 1777 by the name of the chevalier d'Eon, was born at Tonnerre, in 1728. His brilliant qualities enabled him to act a conspi- cuous part in the world, but he gained a greater motoriety by the mystery long kept up in regard to his sex. While an advocate, he studied, in his leisure hours, politics and belles-lettres, and wrote an Essa; historique sur les différentes Situations de la France, par Rapport auw Finances, followed by two volumes, entitled Considérations politiques sur l’Administra- tion des Peuples anciens et modermes. To these works he owed the honour of being proposed, by the prince of Conti, minister of Louis XV., as envoy on a difficult mission to the Russian court. Here his insinuating manners gained him the favour of the empress Elizabeth, and for five years he was the medium of a secret correspondence between her and the king of France. In consequence of his services at this court, he was made successively lieutenant and captain of dragoons, and received a pension of 2400 livres. He returned to France in 1758, and subsequently distinguished himself in the military service. After the conclusion of peace, he went to London as secretary of legation, under the duke of Nivernois, and obtained possession of Some important papers. On the return of the duke, he remained as resident, and afterwards as minister plenipotentiary in London. Everything seemed to favour him, when secret intrigues suddenly disappointed his fair pros- pects. France had concluded a disadvantageous peace with England, and the negotiators of it were fearful of having their conduct exposed. The che- valier was the confident of Louis XV., and might make the dreaded disclosures. This was reason enough for ruining him. He was dismissed from his employment, and lived fourteen years at London, in a kind of banishment. Though the king had con- sented to his disgrace, he assigned him a pension of 1200 livres. D'Eon still remained true to his native land, and rejected several offers of the English court. The king heard of his conduct, and wished to restore him, but the chevalier insisted on having his inno- cence publicly acknowledged, before accepting any favours. In the mean time, Louis XV. died. During the residence of D'Eon in England, suspi- cions arose as to his sex, which led to several extra- ordinary wagers. In July, 1777, a curious trial took place before lord chief justice Mansfield, on an ac- tion brought against Mr Jaques, a broker, who had received several premiums of fifteen guineas, to re- turn a hundred, whenever it should be proved that the chevalier was a woman. M. Louis Legoux, and M. de Morande, on the trial, deposed to this as a fact, which was supposed to be so well established, that the defendant’s counsel pleaded that the plain- tiff at the time of laying the wager, knew that the court of France, relative to the grant of a pension, had treated with D'Eon as a woman; and thence in- ferred that the wager was unfair. . This objection was not held good, and Hayes, the plaintiff, obtained a verdict. It was, however, afterwards set aside, on the ground of the illegality of the wager. After the decision of this cause, D'Eon put on female attire DEPARTMENT—DEPORTA'TION. and continued to wear it till his death. In 1777, he returned to France, and made his appearance at Ver- sailles, where the minister honourably received him. His change of dress drew him into a quarrel at the opera, and, for fear of the consequences, he was sent to Dijon, where he was treated with respect. In 1783, he went to London. Meanwhile the French revolution broke out, and deprived him of his pensions; upon which he returned to France, offered his services to the national assembly in 1792, was rejected, went back to England, and was put, as an absentee on the emigrant list. From this time misfortunes crowded upon him. He lived in great poverty, and attempted to support himself by giving lessons in fencing, but was not very successful, and depended in a great measure for subsistence on the aid of his friends. Among these was Elisée, first sur- geon of Louis XVIII., who aided him till his death in London, in 1810, and attended the dissection of his body. The account of this witness, with other undeniable evidence, leaves it beyond doubt, that D'Eon was of the male sex. What reasons could have induced a soldier and a knight of St Louis to assume female attire is not known; but it is probable they had some relation to the political manoeuvres of the French court. In 1775 appeared the Loisirs du Chevalier D'Eon, in 14 vols. 8vo. L’Espion Chinois, 6 vols. I2mo., has also been ascribed to him. DEPARTMENT; the distribution of a thing into several parts; thus, in France, Le département des tailles, des quartiers, &c.; that is, a distribution of the public taxes, or an allotment of quarters to the soldiery, &c. Hence it is used, secondly, to denote a distribution of employments, and especially the di- visions of the ministry. Finally, it is applied to ter- ritorial divisions. In this sense, it has become import- ant in modern statistics. At the time of the French revolution, when the former division of the kingdom into provinces was abolished, and succeeded by a di- vision of it into departments, this division was deter- mined partly by the number of inhabitants, partly by extent of territory, and partly by the amount of di- rect taxes. A decree for this purpose was adopted November 4th, 1789, by the constituent assembly; and the abbé Siéyes drew up the plan, intended to extinguish the old spirit of hatred among the pro- vinces. The whole kingdom was at first divided into eighty-three departments, which were subsequently increased, by the gradual extension of the empire, to a hundred and thirty, and were reduced by the peace of 1814 to eighty-six. Each department is subdivided into cantons, and these again into communes. This division of territory has been adopted in the states of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and others. The re- presentatives in the French chambers are elected by the departments. The following list contains the names of all the departments, and the provinces to which they formerly belonged:— * Région du Nord. Ancient Provinces. Departments. Total Pop. Pop. sq. 1. Chief Places. Flanders, . Nord, . . . . . . 962,648 3,208; Lille. Artois, . . . Pas-de-Calais, . 642,969 1,978 . Arras. Picardy . . . . Somme, ... . . . ; 526,282 1,697 Amiens. Seine-Inférieure, 688,295 2,137 Rouen. Eure, . . . . . 421,665 1,405 | Evreux. Normandy, , . ~ Calvados, . 500,956 1,776 | Caen. Manche, . . 611,206 || 1,808 || Saint-Lô. Orne, . . . . . 434,379 1,361 || Alençon. Seine, . . . . [1,013,373 |46,062 | Paris. Seine-et-Oise, . 440,871 1,536 | Versailles. §le-de-France , « Seine-et-Marne, 318,209 | 1,039 || Melun. . Oise, . . . .385, 124 1,266 || Beauvais. Aisne, . . . 489,560 1,305 || Laon. Ardennes, ; lº . M Marne . . . .325,045 Châlons-sur-Marne. £hampagne {: . . . . 241,762 805 Troyes. Haute-Marne, . . 244,823 753 | Chaumont, Meuse, . . . . 306,339 l #; Bar-le-Duc. - Moselle, . 409, 155 | 1, et2. {..orraine, | Meurthe, . . . . 403,038 | 1,567 Nancy. Vosges, * º 379,839 1,287 Epinal. 647 Région du Centre. Ancient Provinces. Departments. Total Pop. Pop. sq. l. Chief P, aces Loiret, . . . . 304,228 869 || Orléans. Orléannais, . . .3 Eure-et-Loir, . . . 277,782 904 || Chartres. Loir-et-Cher, . 230,666 688 Blois. Touraine, . . . . Indre-et-Loire, 290,160 | 892|Tours. Berry Indre, . . . . . . 237,628 644 Châteauroux, … . . . Cher, º 248,589 | 666 | Bourges. Nivernais, . . . . Nièvre, 271,777 730 | Nevers. Bourbonnais, . Allier, 285,302 || 764 Moulins. Marche, . . . Hºw e e a ; 848 || Guéret. e - aute-Vienne, . 6,351 | 976 | Limoges. Limousin, . . . ºp; - - * ; 961 #. uy-de-Dôme, . . . 566,573 1,333 Clermont-Ferrand. Auvergne, . . .38. “” . . ;|...}}|...}. Région de l'Ouest. Maine Sarthe, . . . . . 446,519 | 1,373 Le Mans. “. . . * A Mayenne, . . 354,138 1,287 || Laval. Anjou, . . . Maine-et-Loire, . 458,674 1,197 || Angers. Ille-et-Vilaine, . 553,453 1,541 | Rennes. Côtes-du-Nord, . 581,684 1,615 St Brieuc. Bretagne, . . . * Finistère, . . . . 502,851 1,389 | Quimper. Morbihan, . . . . 427,453 | 1,204 || Vannes. Loire-Inférieure, . . 457,090 | 1,193 | Nantes. - Vienne, . . . . 267,670 731 Poitiers. Poitou, , . - Deux Sévres, . . 288,260 900 Niort. - Vendée, . . . . 322,826 891 | Bourbon-Vendée, Aunis.-Saintonge 5 Charente Inférieure," 424,147 | 1,158 || La Rochellc. et Angoumois. Charente, . . . | 353,653 | 1,178 Angoulême. Région de l’Est. Alsace Haut-Rhin, . . . . 408,741 12,043 | Colmar. 3 • ' A Bas-Rhin, . . 535,467 |2,231 | Strasburg. Haute-Saône, . . . 327,641 1, 178 Vesoul. Franche-Comté, . 3 Doubs, . . . . . 254,314 || 956 | Besançon. Jura, . . . . . . 310,282 | 1,146 || Lons-le-Saulnier, Yonne, . . . . 342,116 || 870 Auxerre. §: Côte-d'Or, . . 370,943 || 799 || Dijon. (Burgundy) S ' ' ) Saône-et-Loire, 515,776 1,153 Mâcon. in, . . . . . 341,628 || 1,260 | Bourg. Lyonnais Rhône, . . . . 416,575 |2,833 Lyons. 3 * " . Loire, . . 369,298 || 1,442 Montbrison. Région du Sud. Haute-Loire, 285,673 1,175 Le Puy. Ardèche, . 328,419 1,368 ; Privas. Hºe, * * §§ 510 §. ard, 47,550 1, 198 || Nimes. Languedoc, , , « jºut, . . 339,560 | 1,041 Montpellier. Tarn, 327,655 1,170 Alby. Aude, . . . . 265,991 || 828 || Carcassonme. Haute-Garonne, 407,016 || 1,312 || Toulouse. Roussillon, . Pyrénées Orientales, 151,372 688 || Perpignan. Comté-de-Foix, . Ariège, . . . . 247,932 | 1,011 || Foix, ordogne, . . . . 464,074 973 || Périgueux. Gironde, . . . . 538,151 || 978 || Bourdeaux. Lot-et-Garonne, . ; # ë. - O tº º 4 g e 0,515 | 1,038 Cahors. ºne-et-Gas. Tarne-et-Garonme, 241,586 1,220 | Montauban. Y' ' ' ' ' ). Aveyron, . . . . 350,014 || 755 | Rhodez, Tandes, e 265,309 553 || Mont-de-Margam. Gers, . . . . . 307,601 | 896 || Auch. Hautes-Pyrénées, . 222,059 || 902 |Tarbes. Béarn, . . . . Basses-Pyrénées, . . 412,469 |1,018 || Pau. Isére, . . . [ 525,984 || 1, 160 Grenoble. Dauphiny, , , , 3 Drôme, . . . . . . 285,791 850 || Valence, Hautes-Alpes, . 125,329 545 Gap. Comtat-Venaissin w et Comtat d’A-3- Vaucluse, e . . . 233,048 1,259 | Avignon. vignon. Basses-Alpes, . . . 153,063 || 560 Digne. Provence, . . .- Bouches-du-Rhône, 326,302 1,226 Marseilles. War, . . . . . ; 311,095 818 Draguignan. Corsica, . c e . . Corse, . . . . . . 185,079 || 420 ! Ajaccio. DEPHLOGISTICATED AIR. See Owygen. DEPLOY; to display, to spread out. A column is said to deploy, when the divisions open or extend to form line on any given division, DEPORTATION; a kind of banishment in use even among the Romans (first introduced by Augus- tus); by virtue of which the condemned person was sent to a foreign uninhabited country, usually an island, his estate confiscated, and himself deprived of the rights of a Roman citizen. This punishment differs from other kinds of banishment in this, that the person thus punished is not permitted to choose his place of exile. During the French revolution, this punishment was revived in lieu of the guillotine. The merit of its restoration has been at different times ascribed to Boulay, to the bishop of Autun, and to Talot. For the most part, the condemned were trans- ported to Cayenne or to Port-Marat (Port-Dauphin) on the island of Madagascar. Towards the end of Robespierre's administration, this punishment was most frequent. According to the French penal code of 12th February, 1810, deportation is even now one of the punishments established by law in France ; but, nevertheless, it is not easily put in execution. It is ranked as the third degree of infamous punish- 648 ments (only capital punishment and consignment to labour for life, together with trailing the ball, as it is called, are ranked before it), and gives rise to civil death. The person deported loses the control of his property, is deprived of the power of making con- tracts, and his heirs enter into possession of his estate in the same manner as though he were actually deceased; yet the government can grant him in the place of his banishment, which is always assigned without the main land of European France, the ordinary civil privileges, or a portion of the same. If a person deported return to France without the leave of the government, he is immediately condemned to the before-mentioned punishment of hard labour for life. If he have fled to a foreign country and soil, and ever comes again into the power of the French overnment, he is again remitted to the place of his anishment. Deportation, or transportation, is also one of the legal punishments in England. See New South Wales, and Crime. DEPOSITION, in law; testimony given in court by a witness upon oath. It is also used to signify the attested written testimony of a witness by way of answer to interrogatories. These interrogatories are usually put in writing, and must be short and perti- nent, and not such as will lead the witness to give a turn to his answer favourable to one of the parties. The witnesses are examined before magistrates, hav- ing a general authority given them by statute to take depositions, by commissioners appointed by the court which has cognizance of the case. If the witnesses are foreigners, residing beyond sea, they are examined upon oath, through skilful sworn interpreters. The deposition of a heathen, who believes in the Supreme Being, taken by commission according to the forms used in his country in giving evidence, is admissible. By the practice of some countries, the commissioners are sworn to secrecy, and the deposition cannot be made public till the papers containing it are opened in court. After a witness is fully examined, the ex- aminations are read over to him, and he is at liberty to alter or annul anything; and then the examina- tions are complete. Depositions are frequently taken conditionally, or de bene esse, as it is called; for instance, when the parties are sick, aged, or going abroad, depositions are taken, to be read in court, in case of their death or departure before the trial comes on. DEPTFORD ; a town of England, county of Kent, at the confluence of the Ravensbourne with the Thames; four miles east from London. It is very irregularly built, and contains two churches, besides several places of worship for dissenters. There is a royal dock-yard here, with fine wet docks, and nu- merous buildings for the manufacture and preserva- tion of naval stores. There are also several private docks in the neighbourhood, for building and repair- ing merchantmen. There are two hospitals belong- ing to the society of the Trinity-house. This society was founded in the reign of Henry VIII., by Sir Thomas Spert, for the increase and encouragement of navigation, and for the good government of the seamen, and the better security of merchant ships on the coasts. Population of the town, 19,795. DERBY, a town of England, and capital of the county of the same name, is situated on the western banks of the river Derwent, 126 miles from London. It is conjectured that the name of the town, and that of the river Derwent, have the same origin; that originally it was Derwently, or the town by the Der- went, and that in process of time, this name was cor- rupted or abbreviated into Deorby or Derby. In the ninth century, the Danes are said to have established themselves here, until expelled by Ethelfleda, the daughter of king Alfred. Subsequently, the town has DEPOSITION--DER BY. been the scene of some historical events. One of ihe latest of these was the hostile incursion into England of Charles Edward Stuart, in Dec. 1745, when Derby became the utmost limit of the expedition, as the in- vaders, alarmed by the advance of the royal forces, retreated northwards, and were finally defeated at Culloden. Derby comprises many handsome houses of mo- dern erection, as well as some good public build- ings. The streets are spacious and well paved, and through a considerable part of the town flows a stream, called Markerton Brook, over which there are five stone bridges. Among the principal public edifices are the assembly room, the guildhall, the county hall, the county jail, the theatre, the infir- mary, and the ordnance dépot, the two latter of which are situated a short distance from the town. The assembly room was erected by subscription about 1774. The guildhall, built by the corporation, about 1730, is a freestone structure, standing in the area of the market-place. The county hall was erected in the latter part of the seventeenth century; and ad- joining it is a house for the reception of the judges during the county assizes, which are held here. The County jail was built in 1756, and the theatre in 1773. The Derbyshire General Infirmary was com- pleted for the reception of patients in 1810, at the expense of £17,870, including the price paid for the ground on which it stands. It affords accommoda- tion for eighty patients, besides a fever ward for those labouring under contagious diseases; and the whole of the interior arrangements display neatness, con- venience, and utility, much beyond what is usual in such establishments. A philosophical Society was established at Derby in 1788, by Dr Darwin, who spent the latter years of his life there. Another Society, of a similar description, was instituted ir 1808, under the title of the Derby Literary and Philosophical Society. The town can boast also of Several good libraries. Derby was formerly a great wool-mart; and the art of dyeing woollen cloth was supposed to be practised here with peculiar advantage, in consequence of the water of the Derwent being especially adapted for that purpose. Derby ale is mentioned by Camden, in the reign of Elizabeth, and a century later the town main- tained its reputation for making malt and malt liquor. It has long been famous for its silk-works, the original establishment of which was owing to the skill and en- terprise of John Lombe, an ingenious artist, who in the beginning of the last century went to Italy, and at considerable personal risk obtained models and plans, with which, returning to England, he was enabled to erect a mill for making organzine, or thrown silk, on an island in the river Derwent, which he purchased from the corporation of Derby. In 1718, he pro- cured a patent for fourteen years, to secure to him- self the benefit of his ingenuity; but dying a few years afterwards, the property ultimately became vested in his cousin, Sir Thomas Lombe, who, apply- ing to parliament for a renewal of the patent, i. tained in lieu of it a grant of £14,000, on condition of allowing a model to be taken of the works for the public advantage. Since that time many other mills have been erected. Here also are manufactories for weaving silk and cotton goods; silk stockings are likewise made at Derby. The porcelain manufacture was introduced about 1750, but great improvements have since been effected, and the articles produced are Said to surpass the finest of foreign workman- ship. Fluor spar, marble, and alabaster, chiefly the produce of the mountains of Derbyshire, are here manufactured into a variety of articles, useful and ornamental ; here are also a patent shot manufactory, iron founderies, colour manufactories, and bleaching DER BYSHIRE—DERWISE. yards. Facilities for water-carriage, are afforded by the Derby canal, which communicates with the river Trent, and the Trent and Mersey canal. Population in 1831, 23,607. DER BYSHIRE, a county of England, situated about the centre of the kingdom, and extending about fifty-six miles in length and thirty-three in breadth. It in general exhibits much varied and romantic scenery; the southern and eastern parts enjoy a tem- perate, healthy, and pleasant atmosphere: and the soil is rich and fertile, producing abundantly various kinds of grain, and particularly excellent crops of barley. The north-western portion, including the district of the Peak, is of a widely different character —the climate being bleak and changeable, and the face of the country rocky and irregular. The moun- tains of the Peak constitute the loftiest and most considerable range of hills in the midland regions of the kingdom. About seven hundred eminences, and fifty rocky caverns, dells, and valleys, with mineral and other springs, are enumerated by Mr Farey, in his survey of this county: these have been repeatedly celebrated, both in verse and prose, under the title of the “Wonders of the Peak.” The principal river in Derbyshire is the Derwent, which, rising in the high Peak, runs southward, and passing Derby, falls into the Trent, on the borders of Leicestershire; the Trent itself crosses the south- ern extremity of the county, and, for a short distance, divides it from Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire; other rivers are the Dove, the Wye, the Erwash, and the Rother. Among the principal canals are—the Grand Trunk Navigation, completed in 1777; the Peak Forest canal, in 1800; with those of Cromford, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, and Derby. The mountainous ridges of the Peak, exteriorly bare and unproductive, make amends for this steri- lity by the mineral riches contained beneath their surface. Coal is abundant in various parts of the county; among the metals, lead was formerly the most plentiful, but many of the mines are exhausted; iron and antimony are also found here; the Fluor or Derbyshire spar, which is wrought into vases, urns, and many ornamental articles; gypsum or alabaster, marble, limestone, and stone for various purposes, are procured from the mines and quarries in this County. The borough and market-towns are Derby, Alfre- ton, Ashbourn, Bakewell, Bolsover, Belper, Chapel- in-the-Frith, Chesterfield, Dronfield, Tideswell, Win- ster, and Wirksworth. By the Reform Bill, the county returns four members to the house of com- mons, and for that purpose it has been formed into two divisions, each of which returns two members. The northern division comprised, in 1831, a popula- tion of 101,067, the southern division 136,103; total of the county 237,170. DERBYSHIRE SPAR. See Fluate of Lime, in article Lime. DERFLINGER, GEORGE, baron of (originally Dorfling), a field marshal of Prussian Brandenburg, and one of the first heroes of the Prussian military state, founded by Frederic William, the great elector, was born in 1606, according to some authors, in an Austrian village near the Ens, but according to Pauli, was the son of a Protestant peasant in Bohe- mia. He was at first a tailor, and wished to remove to Berlin, on account of the disturbances in Bohemia, to avoid the religious oppression exercised after the battle at the Weisseberge. But, not being able to get ferried across the Elbe, on account of his want of money, he threw his bundle into the stream, and betook himself to the sword. He served a long time as a soldier under general Thurn, and, while yet only a dragoon, indulged the hope of be- 649 coming a general. He then entered the Swedish Service, under Gustavus Adolphus, and afterwards Served under Bauer and Torstensohn. Having car- Tied queen Christina intelligence of the victory at Leipšic (1642), to which his regiment of horse had greatly contributed, he was appointed by her a ma- jor general. . After the peace, he was dismissed, as a foreigner, from the Swedish army, went to Bran denburg, and entered the service of the elector, Fre- deric William, in 1654, as major-general of the cayalry. . He distinguished himself in all the cam- paigns of the great elector against the Poles, Swedes, and French, by his sagacity, activity, and valour. He was also employed in embassies; and the empe- ºr Leopold, at the request of his sovereign, raised him, in 1674, to the rank of baron of the empire. He died in 1695. PERRY. See Londonderry. DERSCHAWIN, GABRIEL RoMANOWICH, an emi- ment poet of Russia, was born in 1743, at Kasam. In 1769, he entered a corps of engineers, as a common soldier, and distinguished himself in the field, parti- cularly in 1774, against the rebel Pugatscheff. Even at this time his poetic genius began to dawn. Un. der Catharine, he rose, in 1800, to be treasurer of the empire, and in 1802 became minister of justice. But he soon retired from business, and devoted his life to the muses. His Ode to God is much celeſ bºated, and was translated into Latin by Czersky, at Wilna, in 1819. The emperor of China caused it to be translated into Chinese, and hung up in an apart- ment of his palace, printed on silk, in ſetters of gold. An English translation of it may be found in the Qasquet, a collection of pieces published at Glasgow. His Waterfall has also great merit. In other poems his loftiness Sometimes degenerates into bombast Some of his poems have been translated into English by Bowring. (See his Specimens of Russian Poetry.) Perschawin's poems appeared in 1808, in four vo. lumes. He also wrote political and topographical Works: Derschawin died July 8, 1819. PERWISE (Persian ; poor); the name of a cer- tain class of religious persons in Asia. It denotes the same amongst Mohammedans as monk with the Christians. The observance of strict forms, fasting, and acts of piety, give them a character of Sanctity amongst the people. They live partly together, in monasteries, partly alone, and from their number the ſmans (q.v.) are generally chosen. Throughout Tur- key, they are freely received, even at the tables of per- sons of the highest rank. Among the Hindoos, these monks are called fakirs. There are, throughout Asia, multitudes of these devotees, monastic and as Cetic, nºt only among the Mohammedans, but also among the followers of Brama. There are thirty-two religious orders now existing in the Turkish empire, many of which are scarcely known beyond its limits: but others, Such as the Nacshbendies and Mevlevies. are Common in Persia and India. All these commu- nities are properly stationary, though some of them send out a portion of their members to collect alms. The regularly itinerant dervises in Turkey are all foreigners, or Outcasts, who, though expelled from their orders for misconduct, find their profession too agreeable and profitable to be abandoned, and there- fore set up for themselves, and, under colour of sanc- tity, fleece honest people. , All these orders, except the Nacshbendies, are considered as living in seclu- Sion from the world; but that order is entirely com- posed of persons who, without quitting the world, bind themselves to a strict observance of certain forms of devotion, and meet once a-week to perform them together. Each order has its peculiar statutes, exer- cises, and habits. Most of them impose a novitiate, the length of which depends upon the spiritual state 650 of the candidate, who is sometimes kept for a whole year under this kind of discipline. the Mevlevies, the movice perfects his spiritual know- ledge in the kitchen of the convent. Dancing, or something like it, forms an essential part of the duties of some of the orders. The dances of the greater number are called devr (circle), because they consist in a movement forwards of the right foot, accompanied with violent contortions of the body, all the performers joining hand in hand and standing in a circle. The longer the dance, and the louder the shout of Ya Hu, or Ya Allah, the greater is the me- rit: these exercises are therefore often persevered in till a fainting fit or spitting of blood concludes the exhibition. The exhibitions of the Rufaries are the longest and most comprehensive of all. Towards the close of them, the performers are worked up into a sort of frenzy. Previous to this time, two of the der- vises put spits, Swords, daggers, &c., into the fire, that they may be presented red hot to the sheikh or chief, when the excitement reaches its highest pitch. The sheikh blows upon them, just touches them with his mouth, and delivers them to the most eager of the fraternity : they are seized, licked, gnawed, and held in the mouth till the glow disappears. Others of the fraternity seize the swords, cutlasses, &c., which are hanging on the walls of the room, and slash their sides, arms, and legs, unmercifully. The Sheikh con- cludes the whole by going round, examining the wounds, blowing upon them, and anointing them with his saliva, which, together with a few prayers, effects a cure in twenty-four hours The sheikhs of all orders have the credit of possessing miraculous powers. The interpretation of dreams, the cure of diseases, and the removal of barrenness, are the gifts for which the dervises are most in repute. DERWENT WATER, or the Lake of Keswick; a beautiful lake in the county of Cumberland, Eng- land, in the vale of Keswick, lying between the moun- tain of Skiddaw on the north, and the craggy hills of Borrowdale on the south, whence it derives its chief supplies of water. This lake, considered to be the finest in the north of England, is about three miles in length, and one and a half in breadth. DESAIX DE VOYGOUX, Louis CHARLEs AN- ToINE, a French general, who distinguished himself in the revolutionary war, was born in 1768, at St Hilaire d’Ayat, of a noble family, and entered the regiment of Bretagne, in 1784, as under-lieutenant. He contributed, December 1793, to the capture of the Haguenau lines, which the left wing, where he was stationed, first broke through. He served, in 1794, in the northern army, under Pichegru, and repeatedly distinguished himself. Attached to the army of the Rhine, under Moreau, 1796, he defended the bridge of Kehl in November of that year. In 1797, he accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt, contri- buted to his first victory, and was thence sent to the conquest of Upper Egypt, where Murad Bey, not- withstanding his defeat, incessantly harassed his con- queror. Bonaparte soon returned to Europe, as did T)esaix himself, after the treaty of El-Arish, con- cluded by him with the Turks and English. On his arrival in France, he learned that Bonaparte had departed for Italy, hastened to join him, and took command of the corps of reserve. A third part of the French army was already disabled, when De- Saix's corps arrived (June 14, 1800) on the field of Marengo (q.v.). He immediately advanced to the charge, but fell, mortally wounded by a cannon ball, just as victory declared for the French. His body was carried to Milan, embalmed, and conveyed to the hospitium on the St Bernard, where a monument is erected to him. (See Bernard, St.) Another monument, erected to him on the plains of Marengo, In the order of DER WENT WATER—IDESAULT. where he fell, was destroyed by the Austriang in 1814. Desaix was as just and disinterested as he was brave. The inhabitants of Cairo gave him the title of the just sultan. DESATIR is a lately discovered collection of six- teen sacred books, consisting of the fifteen old Per- sian prophets, together with a book of Zoroaster. This, at least, is what the book itself pretends to be. The collection is written in a language not spoken at present anywhere, and equally different from the Zend, the Pelvi, and modern Persian. The last of the fifteen prophets, Sasan, who lived at the time of the downfall of the Sassanides, when the Arabians conquered the country, literally translated the Desa- tir, and accompanied it with commentaries. This work was afterwards, until the seventeenth century, one of the chief sources of the ancient Persian reli- gious doctrines, interwoven with astrology and de- monology; and, after having been forgotten for about a century and a half, a learned Parsee dis- covered it at Ispahan. His son, Molla Firuz, was induced by the marquis of Hastings to publish an edition of the Desatir at Bombay, in 1820, to which Erskine added an English translation. Erskine, however, considers the collection as spurious ; and Sylvester de Sacy (Journal des Savants, February, 1821,) believes that the Desatir is the work of a Par- see in the fourth century of the Hegira, who, as he thinks, invented the language, in order to give to the collection, which is itself an assemblage of old tra- ditions and significant mysteries, an air of genuine- ness. Joseph von Hammer, on the contrary, is said to consider it as genuine. At all events, it is inte- resting to learn from this work, with greater accu- racy, an old religious system of the East, in which are to be found, with pandaemonism and the metem- psychosis, the elements of the worship of the stars, of astrology, the theurgy, the doctrine of amulets, as well as the elements of the Hindoo religion, particu- larly the system of castes, and many elements of the Christian religion. Yet no trace of any connexion with the Zendavesta and the magic of the Parsees has been found in the Desatir. DESAULT, PETER Joseph ; one of the most cele- brated surgeons of France, was born February 6, 1744, at Magny-Vernais, in the former Franche- Comté. He was designed for the church, early studied mathematics and philosophy, and was led by his inclination to the surgical profession ; in conse- quence of which he entered the military hospital at Béfort, where his diligence and talent for observa- tion supplied the defects of a suitable instruction ; and his situation was favourable for obtaining a know- ledge of the treatment of wounds from fire-arms, in which department he afterwards rose to great emi- mence. He went to Paris in 1764, and was one of the numerous scholars of the celebrated Petit. Two years afterwards, he became a lecturer, and, though his delivery was bad, he soon became celebrated by introducing a new method of teaching anatomy. While lecturing on the parts of the human body, he treated of the diseases incident to each. After hav- ing been several years principal surgeon of the hos- pital de la charite, where he increased his reputa- tion by introducing new methods of treatment, or by improving and simplifying those already in use, he was put at the head of the great Hôtel-Dieu in Paris, in 1788. Here he founded a surgical School, in which have been educated many of the most eminent surgeons of Europe. His principal merits were, that he brought accuracy and method into the study of sur- gery; improved the treatment of fractured bones, by adopting improved bandages ; first introduced into France the clinical method of instruction in Surgery ; and infused into his scholars a generous attachment DESCARTES.–IDESCENT. to their profession. He was distinguished for the skill and boldness with which he performed opera- tions. This happy natural talent, this surgical in- stinct, that guided him in the most difficult cases, compensated for his want of professional learning, to which he was so indifferent, that, in his later years, he read very little ; and, as he was entirely ignorant of internal diseases, he was indignant, when, at the foundation of the école de Santé, in which he became professor of clinical surgery, the study of medicine and Surgery were connected. He died, while at- tending upon the son of Louis XVI., in the Temple, of a violent fever, June 1, 1795. Desault wrote only two Small treatises; but the Journal de Chirurgie, in which his scholars published his lectures delivered in the Hôtel-Dieu, and the CEuvres Chirurgicales, edited by Bichet under Desault's name, contain his whole system. DESCARTES, RENE (Renatus Cartesius), an ori- ginal thinker, and reformer of philosophy, with whom the modern or new philosophy is often considered as Commencing, was born in 1596, at La Haye, in Tou- raine, and died at Stockholm, in 1650. While pur- Suing his education in the Jesuits’ school at La Fleche, where he studied philology, mathematics, and astronomy, his superior intellect manifested it- self. After having read much, without coming to any certain conclusions, he travelled. Both his birth and inclination led him to embrace the military pro- fession, and he fought as a volunteer at the siege of Rochelle, and in Holland under prince Maurice. While he served in Holland, a mathematical problem, in Dutch, pasted up in the streets of Breda, met his eye. . Not being acquainted with the language, he asked a man who stood near him to translate the problem to him. This man happened to be profes- Sor Beecman, principal of the university of Dort, and himself a mathematician. He smiled at the question of the young officer, and was greatly surprised, the next morning, to find that he had solved it. From hence Descartes went to Germany, and entered the Bavarian service. His situation, however, affording him little opportunity for pursuing his favourite studies, he left the army in 1621, and visited Mora- via, Silesia, Poland, Pomerania, and the shores of the Baltic. In order to see West Friesland with ad- vantage, he purchased a boat, and embarked with a single valet. The sailors, thinking him a foreign merchant, with much money in his baggage, resolved to kill him. Imagining him ignorant of their lan- guage, they conversed of their plan openly. Des- Cartes, seeing his danger, drew his sword, addressed them in their own tongue, and threatened to stab the first man that should offer him violence. The sai- lors were overawed, and gave up their design. After a variety of travels, he remained in Holland, where he composed most of his writings, from 1629 to 1649, drew about him many scholars, and was engaged in many learned controversies, especially with theolo- gians. His celebrated system abounds in singularities and originalities; but a spirit of independent thought prevails throughout it, and has contributed to excite the same spirit in others. It has done much to give to philosophical inquiries a new direction, and found many adherents, especially in England, France, and Germany. Descartes founds his belief of the exist- ence of a thinking being on the consciousness of thought : “I think, therefore I exist” (cogito, ergo stºm). He developed his system with much ingenu- ity, in opposition to the empiric philosophy of the English, and the Aristotelian scholastics, and adopt- ed the rigorous, systematic, or mathematical method of reasoning. From his system originated the notion among the moderns, that the very existence and cer- { 651 tainty of philosophy consists in definitions, arguments, and a methodical arrangement of them. The think- ing being, says Descartes, or the soul, evidently differs from the body, whose existence consists in space or extension, by its simplicity and immaterial- ity (whence, also, its immortality), and by the free- dom that pertains to it. But every perception of the Soul is not clear and distinct ; it is in a great de- gree involved in doubt, and is so far an imperfect, finite being. This imperfection of its own leads it to the idea of an absolutely perfect being. (He, there- fore, here makes use of the so called ontological proof of the existence of God, in a different manner from that in which Anselm of Canterbury had, somewhat earlier, employed the same ; and hence the name of the “Cartesian proof.”) He placed at the head of his system the idea of an absolutely perfect being, which he considers as an innate idea, and deduces from it all further knowledge of truth. The princi- pal problems of metaphysics he conceived to be sub- stantiality and causality. He contributed greatly to the advancement of mathematics and physics. He made use of the discoveries and observations of others, defining them accurately, and assigning them their place in his system. The higher departments of geo- metry (to which he successfully applied analysis), as well as optics, dioptrics, and mechanics, were greatly extended by him, their method simplified, and thereby the way prepared for the great discoveries made in the sciences by Newton and Leibnitz; for instance, he contributed much to define and illustrate the true law of refraction. His system of the uni- verse attracted great attention in his time, but has been long since exploded. It rests on the strange hypothesis of the heavenly vortices, immense currents of etherial matter, with which space is filled, and by which he accounted for the motion of the planets. He laboured much to extend the Copernican system of astronomy. Descartes loved independence; he nevertheless suf- fered himself to be persuaded to go to Stockholm, upon the invitation of queen Christina, who was very desir- ous of his society. He died at that place, four months after his arrival. His body was carried to Paris in 1666, and interred anew in the church of St Gene- vieve du Mont. Descartes was never married, but had one natural daughter, Francina, who died in his arms, in her fifth year, and whose loss he felt acutely. His works have at various times been published, singly and together; as, for instance, at Amsterdam, 1692, 9 vols. 4to. Baille and Tarpelius have written his life. See his letters; also the eulogies on him by Gaillard, Thomas, and Mercier, and Leibnitz's ac- count of him in his letters. DESCENT, in law, is the transmission of the right and title to lands to the heir, on the decease of the pro- prietor, by the mere operation of law. A title by descent is distinguished from a title by purchase, which latter includes title by devise, as well as by grant. The law of descent is, accordingly, the law relating to and regulating the inheritance of estates. Wherever there is an exclusive property in lands pos- sessed by individuals, or, in other words, wherever the soil is held, by distinct, permanent proprietaries, the law provides for the disposition of the possession in case of the death of the proprietor, without any designation of heirs by himself. It is a theory of all states that the title to lands is originally in the go- vernment. The government considers itself to be the heir to all its subjects or citizens, who leave no other heir. In some countries, as in Egypt, particularly, the government is the perpetual and practical owner of the soil, and stands in the relation of landlord to all the cultivators, who are its tenants, and pay regu- lar rents. It is a theory of the tenures of lands in 652 England, that they are generally held, directly or in- directly, of the king, as Superior lord. This is only the theoretical remnant of the principle, that the pro- perty in the soil belongs originally to the sovereign; and the title is held by the subject in England upon certain conditions; for the lands of a traitor are for- feited, which makes allegiance one of the conditions of the tenure. Though there are countries in which the sovereign is the sole landed proprietor, while in others he is the heir of the landed proprietors, whose estates are accordingly for life, yet most countries provide for the transmission or descent of property in lands to the heirs of the proprietor; one distinction in the different laws being, that some codes, or the provi- sions relating to some particular kinds of estate, do not permit the occupant or proprietor, for the time being, to alter the disposition made by the law. Thus, before the conquest, lands were devisable in England, and the proprietor could appoint by will who should inherit them after his death; but it was one part of the policy of the feudal law, which was introduced into England after the conquest, to take away this power, and make lands descend only ac- cording to a prescribed rule. But expedients have been resorted to in England to break entails, and give the present proprietor the power of disposing of the lands during his lifetime. These expedients are denominated a fine and a common recovery. In the case of entailed estates, the successive possessors do not in fact, come in as inheritors to the preceding occupiers, but in virtue of the grant or original consti- tution of the estate; and these grants make the law for these particular species of estates. In Great Bri- tain and the continent of Europe, a very large part of the soil is held by this species of title. The rule determining to whom an estate belongs, on the decease of the proprietor, is that of consangui- nity, or relationship by blood, though with some ex- ceptions, as in the case of the portion or the use of a portion of a man's property, given, by the laws of England, to his widow. The rules of descent, desig- nating what relations shall inherit, and their respec- tive shares, will be determined by the genius and policy of the government and institutions. Hence the practice of entailments in the feudal system. And wherever the government is founded in family privi- leges, or very intimately connected with them, as is the case in all governments where the hereditarily aristocratical part of the community have a great preponderance, the sustaining of families will very probably be a characteristic feature in the code of laws. Thus, in England, all the lands of the father, unless otherwise directed by will, go to the eldest son; and accordingly all the eldest sons, who re- ceive any benefit from this law of descent, are natu- rally the supporters of aristocratical privileges. It has accordingly been predicted, that the provision introduced into the French laws, since the first revo- lution, for equalizing inheritances, and thus dividing estates, and forming a numerous body of small pro- prietors, will have a rapid and powerful influence in giving a popular character to the government and institutions of the country. Some remnant of this family policy, which prevails so generally in Europe, appears in the early laws of the American colonies and provinces, in the preference given to eldest sons, by assigning them a double portion of the in- Wheritance. This distinction probably resulted very much from the mere force of habit and custom. It is, however, not improbable that a reverence for the Levitical code might have led some of the colonies to this distinction in favour of the first-born. This is an argument made use of in the pragmatic sanction, published by the Spanish king, March 29, 1830, an- DESCENT. nulling the rule of the Salic law, which excludes fe: males from the succession. In this decree, an argu- ment is cited from the petition of the cortes of 1789, in favour of the right of the eldest, which is vindicat- ed, 1. from the order of nature; 2. from the Old Testament; 3. from usage; from all which the pe. tition infers, that “the advantage of being the first- born is a particular mark of the love of God.” But the distinction in favour of the eldest son, which ex- isted in the colonies now constituting the United States of America, has been abolished since the es: tablishment of independence. A compendious notice of the various laws of the several United States on the subject of the descent of real estate, will be found in the first volume of the American Jurist and Law Magazine. These laws are founded upon the princi- ple of equal distribution, both of real and personal estates, among heirs of the nearest surviving degree, and the representatives of deceased heirs of the same degree; the representatives of a deceased heir who, when alive, was of the same degree with the nearest that survive, being entitled collectively to the share which would have come to such deceased heir, had he been living. This general principle is adopted from the English statutes of the twenty-second and twenty-third of Charles II., relating to the distribu- tion of personal property; for the English law makes a great distinction as to the descent of real and per- sonal estate, whereas, in the United States, they de- scend and are distributed upon the same general principle, though there are some differences in the particular provisions. But this right of taking by re- presentation is very variously modified in the differ ent States. To make the subject better understood, a word ought to be said on the subject of affinity, or degrees of consanguinity, which is very lucidly treated in Blackstone's Commentaries. Kindred in blood are divided into three general classes, viz. I. descendants; 2. ancestors; 3. collateral relatives, that is, those who have descended from the same common ances- tor. The civil law computes the degrees by count ing the generations up to the common ancestor, as father, grandfather, great-grandfather; or mother, grandmother, great-grandmother; and from him or her down to the collateral relative, as brother, Cou sin, &c., making the degree of relationship the sum of these two series of generations. Every person has two sets of ancestors, the paternal and maternal, and therefore two sets of collateral relatives. There is also a distinction of collateral kindred, into those of the whole blood, and those of the half blood. Our limits will not allow us to state the various regula- tions in England as to the rules of inheritance among kindred of these different kinds; they are thus gene- rally noticed, merely for the purpose of intimating some general diversities in the rules of descent. Thus in England and France, it is a rule, that real estate cannot ascend, that is, cannot go to father, grandfa- ther, &c., on the decease of the son, grandson, &c., for which the quaint reason is given by Bracton, that the weight of the inheritance makes it descend. Not- withstanding this supposed downward tendency of an inheritance in land, it is, in defect of descendants, made by the American laws to ascend, as well as to pass off collaterally; and this is the rule respect- ing personal estate, both in England and the United States. Another distinction is made by the English laws, between collateral relatives of the whole and half blood, as the latter cannot inherit real estate ; but in respect to personal estate in England, and both personal and real estate in the United States, no distinction of this sort is made. Another diversity in the laws of inheritance relates to the distinction of male and female heirs. The Jewish law preferred DESEAE) A-DESMOU I, INS. the male heirs. But the laws of England respecting personal estate, make no distinction on account of the sex of the heirs. DESEADA, DESIRADA, or DESIDERADA ; the first of the Caribbee islands discovered by Columbus in the year 1494; is about ten miles long, and hardly five broad. It belongs to France. The soil is, in some places, black and good; in others, Sandy and unproductive ; 16 miles E. Guadaloupe ; lon. 61° 15' W.; lat. 16° 30' N. ; population, about 1000. DESERTER ; a soldier who quits his regiment without leave. If an armed soldier deserts a post where he is placed on duty, the offence, we believe, in all armies is punished with death; but simple desertion, not. In the British army, however, death is the punishment for desertion in any shape, although it is seldom inflicted, except in extreme cases; the #. punishment being personal flagellation or anishment. DESFONTAINES, PIERRE FRANgois Guyot, abbé, born at Rouen, in 1685, died at Paris, in 1745, was one of those French literati who are known to us more from their controversies with Voltaire, and his biting attacks, than from their own productions. Voltaire, by the superiority of his wit, succeeded in gaining many to his opinions; but impartial judges have long agreed, that he was not altogether correct, and that the criticisms of the abbé Desfontaines, though severe, are by no means unjust. One of the works of the abbé, which had the misfortune to ex- cite the particular displeasure of the poet, was the well known Dictionnaire Néologique, of which the sixth edition appeared in 1750 (Amsterdam and Leipsic), and which was intended to guard the purity of the French language, as the great writers of the seventeenth century had formed it; and, in this re- spect, it has certainily proved of much service. BESHOULIERES, ANToINETTE; a French lady of much literary reputation. Her maiden name was Du Ligier de Lagarde. She lived at Paris from 1638 till 1694. With a prepossessing appearance she com- bined a distinguished talent for light and agreeable poetry, which she cultivated under the direction of the poet Hainault. She was acquainted with the Latin, Spanish, and Italian languages, and studied philoso- phy in her later years, during which she had to en- dure continual sickness. Voltaire was of opinion, that of all the French poets of her sex, she had the greatest merit. Several learned societies elected her a member, and her agreeable manner, her animation and wit, which sometimes, but rarely, gave way to a gentle melancholy, made her the centre of attrac- tion in the best societies at that period. For reasons unknown to us, she was imprisoned, in February, 1658, at Brussels, by the Spaniards; but her hus- band, an officer, procured her deliverance. Her works appeared, together with those of her daughter Antoinette Therese (died 1718), who also devoted herself to poetry, but with less success, at Paris, in 1753, 2 vols., 12mo, and at Brussels, in 1740, 2 vols., under the title CEuvres de Madame et de Made- moiselle Deshoulières. They contain, 1. pastoral poems, which may still be numbered amongst the best French works of the kind (the finest of these, however, Les Moutons, is taken, nearly word for word, from a poem of Antoine Cotel or Coutel, and madame Deshoulières has only the merit of having modernized the old style and expression); 2. Odes, which are, in general, very poor; 3. a tragedy, Genserich, in which so little talent was displayed, that she was advised, according to the French pro- verb, revenir à ses Moutons; 4. poetical letters; 5. madrigals, epigrams, and small poems, of which some are full of excellent and witty remarks, which have 653 become proverbial from their truth. Frederic II. had a selection of her poems published together with Chalieu's, under the title Choix des meilleures Pièces de Madame Deshoulières et de l’Abbé de Chaulieu (Berlin, 1777). This selection is little known. DESIGN, in painting; the first plan of a large work, drawn roughly, and on a small scale, with the intention of being executed and finished in large. See Drawing. . In music, design means the invention and execu- tion of the subject in all its parts, agreeably to the general order of the whole. In manufactures, design expresses the figures with which the workman enriches his stuff or silk, and which he copies after his own drawing, or the sketches of some artist. In building, the term ichnography may be used, when by design is only meant the plan of a building, or a flat figure drawn on paper; when some side or face of the building is raised from the ground, we may use the term orthography; and when both front and sides are seen in perspective, it may be termed scenography. DESMOLOGY (from the Greek 3:gºs, a liga- ment, and Aoyos); that branch of anatomy which treats of the ligaments and sinews. See Anatomy. DESMOULINS, BENoiT CAMILLE, born in 1762, was conspicuous during the first period of the French revolution. His exterior was mean ; he was of a dark complexion, and repulsive expression. From the commencement of the revolution he was connect- ed with Robespierre, with whom he had studied at col- lege. From the secret meetings which he had at Mousseaux with the duke of Orleans, it may be in- ferred that he was, at first, only the agent of this prince. He chose the palais royal for the usual Scene of his citizen-apostleship, and was constantly seen there surrounded by many orators, who, with him, prepared the plan for the taking of the Bastile. After this first triumph, he endeavoured to excite the minds of the people by his orations or his publications, and called himself procureur-général de la lanterne. He then became one of the founders of the club of the Cordeliers, connected himself intimately with Dan- ton, and remained faithful to him. On the flight of Louis XVI. to Varennes, he was one of the insti- gators of the assembly of the champ de Mars. He was particularly active in the tumult of June 20 1792, and on the 10th of August. About this time he was secretary to the minister of justice, Danton, and prepared with him the scenes of September. As deputy of Paris, in the national convention, he de- fênded the duke of Orleans, December 16. Janu- ary 16, 1793, he gave his vote for the death of Louis XVI. His friendship for Danton was the cause of his fall. Robespierre, at the head of the committee of public safety, was making rapid pro- gress towards tyranny. Danton, assisted by the leaders of the Cordeliers, intended to resist this com- mittee, and Camille commenced the attack in his journal Le Pieuw Cordelier, in which he declared himself against the terrorists, and even made use of the word clemency (clemence). Upon this, he was, at the instigation of St Just, whom Camille had also attacked in his journals, imprisoned on the night of the 31st of May, 1794, together with those who were called his accomplices, brought before the revolu- tionary tribunal, June 4, and condemned to death, “ because he had dishonoured the revolutionary sys- tem, and had attempted to re-establish monarchy.” June 5, he was taken, after a violent struggle, to the place of execution. His wife, whom he adored, and who returned his affection,-a beautiful, coura- geous and spirited woman,—desired to share her hus- band's fate. Robespierre ordered her to the scaffold 654 ten days after Desmoulins' death. During her trial, she evinced a wonderful tranquillity, and died with much greater firmness than her husband. DESPARD, EDWARD MARCUs, an officer in the English army, was an Irishman by birth, and, in the American war, served in the troops of the line. In 1779, he went to Jamaica, where he acted as an engineer. He afterwards assisted in the capture of the Spanish establishments on the Mosquito shore, of which he was subsequently appointed superintendent. In 1780, some disputes arose in the colony, and he was suspended from his functions. He arrived in Furope in 1790, bringing with him the most honour- able testimonies to his conduct. His applications to government for redress, and for the payment of sums which he claimed as due to him, were unavailing; and the disappointment probably soured his mind. In November, 1802, he was arrested, as the head of a conspiracy to kill the king and overthrow the go- vernment. All the conspirators, except Despard, were persons of the lowest classes, and many of them, Common soldiers. Their leader and seven of his ac- complices were executed. The scheme of Despard was so absurdly arranged, and his means so utterly inadequate to the success of the plot, that some sup- posed him to be deranged; while others absurdly as- cribed the affair to the machinations of Bonaparte, who shortly after declared war against England. DESPOT (from the Greek 3:grárºs); originally, a master, a lord; at a later period, it became an hono- rary title, which the Greek emperors gave to their sons and sons-in-law, when governors of provinces. Alexis III., surnamed Angelus, towards the end of the twelfth century, is said to have first introduced this title, and to have made it the first in rank after that of emperor. Thus there was a despot of the Morea, of Servia, &c. The Turkish designation of the princes of Moldavia and Walachia (hospodar) is a remnant of this title. At present, despot means an absolute ruler, as the emperor of Russia; but, in a narrower sense, it conveys the idea of tyranny, as, in fact, the possession of absolute power and the abuse * are two things bordering very closely on each Other. DESSALINES, JEAN JACQUEs, emperor of Hayti, was a slave in 1791, when the insurrection of the blacks occurred in that island. His master was a shingler of houses, and Jean Jacques was bred to the same trade. His talents for war, his enterprise, courage, and unscrupulous conduct, raised him to command among the insurgent negroes; and, when Le Clerc invaded the island, in 1802, Dessalines and Christophe stood next in reputation and rank to Toussaint-Louverture. (See Toussaint.) After the deportation of the latter, Dessalines, Christophe, and Clervaux took the command, and maintained a des- perate and sanguinary warfare against the French, until the latter evacuated the island. This happened in November, 1803. The black chiefs immediately proceeded to proclaim the island independent, restor- ing its Indian name of Hayti, and nominated Dessa- lines governor-general for life, with absolute power. Dessalines now gave full scope to his savage charac- ter. He began by ordering a general massacre of the white French, without distinction of age or sex, stimulating the negroes to glut their vengeance for the wrongs they had undergone. In October, 1804, he assumed the title and state of emperor of Hayti ; and, in May, ensuing, he promulgated a new constitution, containing provision for perma- mently organizing the imperial government. His reign, however, was brief; for the people, aided by the troops, sick of his atrocities, and wearied out by his suspicious and vindictive conduct, conspired against his life, and he was killed by one of his sol- DESPAR D–D ESULTORES. diers, October 17, 1806, who thus ended a despotism stained by every barbarous enormity. (Malo’s Hist. d'Hayti, published in 1825, pp. 270–304; Frank- lin's Hayti, ch. 6 and 7.) DESSAU, ANHALT ; one of the three principali- ties of the German house of Anhalt. It contains 360 square miles, and 56,000 inhabitants. The re- venue is estimated at 510,000 gilders. Since 1807, the princes have borne the title of duke. The capi- tal is Dessau, on the Mulda, with 9400 inhabitants, fine parks, &c. Four miles and a half from this city is Worlitz, distinguished by its beautiful park, be- longing to the duke. See Anhalt. DESTOUCHES, PHILIPPE NERICAULT, one of the best French comic poets, was born at Tours, in 1680. According to the general opinion, he left his father's house when young, and joined a company of strolling players, among whom he distinguished himself by the propriety of his conduct. Having delivered a ha- rangue at the head of his troop, before M. de Puysi- eux, then ambassador in Switzerland, this statesman was struck with the talent which he displayed, took him into his service, and formed him for diplomacy. According to the account given by the j. of Destouches, who considered the profession of a player dishonourable, he studied with success at Paris, where he devoted himself to poetry; and, at the age of twenty, entered the army as a volunteer, and was present in several engagements. Having written the comedy called Curieuw Impertinent, while in win- ter quarters, and read it in several societies, M. Puysieux was struck with it, and persuaded the author to turn his talents to diplomacy. In Switzer- land, he wrote several plays, which met with great applause. By his knowledge of diplomacy, he like- wise gained the favour of the regent, who sent him to England, in 1717, as an assistant to the abbé Dubois. When Dubois returned to France, Des- touches remained in England, where he married. He acquitted himself so well in the business intrust- ed him, that the regent promised to give him a proof of his satisfaction which would surprise all France; but upon the death of this prince, he lost his protec- tor and his expectations. He retired to his country seat at Fort-Oiseau, near Melun, and endeavoured to forget the caprice of fortune in the study of phi- losophy and devotion to the muses. Cardinal Fleury wished to send him to St Petersburg as ambassador, but he declined the offer. He died in 1754, leaving a son, who, by order of Louis XV., superintended the publication of his works. After Molière and Reg- nard, Destouches is considered the best French writer in the department of comedy. His comedies Le Glorieuw and Le Philosophe marié, are considered among the best French works of their class. But, as he made the comic effect subordinate to the moral, his productions have something of the character of sentimental comedy (la comedia larmoyante). He excels most in the drawing of character, and exhibits a fertile imagination, pleasing wit, elegance, vivacity, and decorum. His numerous epigrams are poor. An elegant edition of his works appeared, in 1750, in 4 vols. 4to. DESULTORES (from desilio, I vault); the Latin name for vaulters or leapers, who jumped from one horse to another. The Scythian, Indian, and Numi- dian cavalry were very expert desultores, and each man carried at least two horses to the field. When one was weary, he jumped with great agility upon another, which he led by his hand. The Greeks and Romans introduced the same practice in their games, races, and funeral Solemnities, but never, as far as we know, in war. Homer describes a vaulter of this sort, who performed his feats on four horses at once (Iliad, xv. 673.); and Livy (xxiii. 29) describes a {DETONATION--DEVEREUX. kind of Numidian cavalry, in Asdrubal's army in Spain, in which the soldiers had two horses each, and, in the heat of an engagement, frequently leaped, fully armed, from one to another. Ælian gives a similar account of a tribe dwelling not far from the Danube, who, on this account, were called Amphippi. pºosarios ; a sudden combustion and ex- OSIOIl. DETROIT; an American town, the capital of Michigan, in Wayne county, on the west side of the river Detroit, lon, 82° 58' W.; lat. 420 24 N. The town is defended by fort Shelby, which is a regular work of an oblong form, covering an acre of ground; and the barracks adjoining are capable of quartering several regiments. It is advantageously situated, and has a considerable and growing commerce, and is a place of importance in the fur trade. It was wholly destroyed by fire in 1805; but the streets have been since laid out regular and wide, and the town built in an improved style. Detroit was set- tled by the French from Canada as early as 1683. In August, 1812, it was taken by the British, under general Brock, but it did not long remain in their possession. DETROIT RIVER, or STRAIT OF ST CLAIR; a river or strait of North America, which runs from lake St Clair to lake Erie. Detroit is the French word for straits ; and the name was given by the French, the first white men who settled here. Its course is nearly S., with a gentle current, and suffi- cient depth of water for the navigation of large ves- Sels; the banks are covered with settlements, and the Country is exceedingly fertile. Near the banks of the river are many fine orchards of apple-trees, pear- trees and cherry-trees, producing as fine fruit as any in the United States, and presenting a very agree- able view as one sails up the river. It is twenty- Seven miles long, and three quarters of a mile wide opposite to Detroit, enlarging as it descends. DEUCALION, in fabulous history; father of Hellen, ancestor of the Hellenes, was the son of Pro- metheus and Pandora. He led a colony from Asia into Greece, and established himself in Lycorea on mount Parnassus, from whence he afterwards made an incursion into Thessaly, and expelled the Pelasgi. In his time was the celebrated flood (the deluge of Deucalion, in the sixteenth century B. C.). It was caused by the river Peneus, and is thus described in fable:—Jupiter, determining to destroy mankind by water, on account of their impiety, brought a flood upon the earth, by means of a violent rain ; Deuca- lion saved himself, and his wife Pyrrha, on the top of mount Parnassus. After the flood had subsided, they consulted the oracle of Themis, to know what they must do to repair the loss of mankind; and were directed to throw behind them the bones of their mother. Understanding their mother to signify the earth, and her bones the stones, they did as the oracle directed. The stones thrown by Deucalion became men, and those thrown by Pyrrha became women. Many other circumstances are related by the ancient writers concerning this deluge, which bear a resem- blance to those related in the Scriptures of the de- luge of Noah. See Deluge. DEUCE, or DUSE ; an evil spirit. This word is only used as an exclamation; as, “What the deuce is the matter P” It is generally derived from dusius, a Latinized term of the Gauls. St Augustine (De Civitate Dei, 15, 23) has the words Quosdam daimones quos dusios Galli nuncupant. Isidorus, in his glos- Sary annexed to Martinius, suggests that dusius may be a corruption of the name of Drusus, son of Tiberius, notorious for his German wictories, whose name may have been perpetuated as a term of terror #mong the conquered people. Isidorus also suspects & 655 that the word droes, used among the Dutch as we use deuse, has the same origin. Another derivation, also, might be suggested. Teut or Deut was the name of a deity among the ancient Germans. May not the Saxons have continued to swear by this name, even after their baptism, and have carried it with them to England 2 Their continuing to use the word would not be more surprising than the practice of the Italians, who still retain the exclamations per Bacco (by Bacchus!) per Venere (by Venus!), &c. DEUTERONOMY ; the last of the books of Moses. The word is derived from the Greek ºv'rigos, second, and vogos, the rule, or law, because the book of Deuteronomy is a repetition which the legislator made to the Israelites, just before his death, of the law which he had before delivered to them at large. DEUX-PONTS; the French name for the German city Zweibruecken, in Latin Bipons, all which mames signify Two-Bridges. In English, the French name is used. Deux-Ponts belongs at present to the circle of the Rhine, of the kingdom of Bavaria, and was formerly the capital of the duchy of Deux-Ponts. (See Bavaria.) By the peace of Luneville, the duchy was ceded, with all the left bank of the Rhine, to France, and afterwards composed a part of the de- partment of the Donnersberg. It contains 70,000 inhabitants, on 763 square miles. By the peace of May 30, 1814, it was restored to Germany. Madder and hops are important articles of agriculture in this district. The city of Deuw-Ponts is Small, and agreeably situated, in lon. 7° 25' E., lat. 49° 16' N. ; and contained, in 1822, 800 houses, and 6332 inha- bitants, exclusive of the suburbs, which contained 826 inhabitants. Here is a high School, and a court of appeal for the Bavarian circle of the Rhine. The manufactures are of cloth, leather, and tobacco. The well known editions of Greek, Roman, and French classics, ealled Bipont editions, were published here by a society of learned men. The publication com- menced in 1779. DEWA ; a Sanscrit word, meaning God. curs in various geographical compounds. DEVEREUX, RoBERT, earl of Essex, was born in 1567, and educated at Cambridge. In his 17th year, he was introduced at court; in 1586, distinguished himself at the battle of Zutphen, so as to be created a knight banneret, and on his return became master of the horse. The queen assembling her army at Til- bury, to resist the Spanish invasion, Essex was ap- pointed general of the horse, and received the order of the garter. In 1591, he was sent, with 4000 men, to the assistance of Henry IV., then fighting against the league, but effected nothing of consequence. He, however, retained the queen's favour, was soon after created a privy counsellor, in 1596 was appointed joint commander with lord Howard, in a successful expedition to the coast of Spain, and on his return was made master-general of the ordnance. In 1597, he was created earl marshal of England. On the breaking out of the rebellion of Tyrone, Essex was appointed governor of Ireland. He attempted to quell a rebellion at Munster, before he proceeded against Tyrone, which so much reduced his army, that, not being able to meet the Irish leader, he en- tered into a negotiation. These transactions dis- pleased the queen, and several sharp letters passed, which determined him to confront his enemies at home. He accordingly left Ireland, contrary to or- ders, and hastened to the court, without changing his dress, where, finding the queen in her bed-chamber, he fell upon his knees, and was received better than he expected. He was, however, soon after strictly examined by the council, and deprived of all his em- ployments but that of master of the horse. He might, however, have regained the queen's favour, had not It oc- 656 her refusal to renew to him a monopoly of sweet wines so irritated him, that he indulged himself in freedoms of speech concerning her, which she could never forget. He also carried on a secret corre- spondence with the king of Scotland, the object of which was, to procure a public declaration of his right of succession to the English throne; and he would have engaged his friend, lord Mountjoy, de- puty of Ireland, to bring over troops to compel this measure. He then entered into a conspiracy to seize on the queen's person, remove his enemies, and settle a new plan of government. Believing that this was discovered, he endeavoured to raise the city of Lon- don in his favour : here, however, he was disap- pointed; for, instead of meeting with friends, he was proclaimed a traitor, and the streets were barricadoed against his return. He was soon invested by the queen's forces, and obliged to surrender at discretion. He was committed to the Tower, with the earl of Southampton, his chief adherent, and a jury of peers was appointed for their trial. Being found guilty, he received his sentence like a man prepared for his fate. The queen long hesitated as to signing the warrant for his execution, but, being persuaded by his ene- mies that he wished to die, and interpreting his si- lence into obstinacy, at length signed it ; and the earl was executed within the Tower, on the 25th of Feb- ruary, 1601. In the height of his favour, he had received a ring from the queen, as a pledge, on the return of which she would pardon any offence he might Commit. This ring he is said to have intrusted to the countess of Nottingham, his relation, but the wife of his enemy, the admiral, who would not suffer her to deliver it to the queen, and thereby the prof. fered clemency was frustrated. The countess, on her death-bed, having confessed the secret to the queen, the latter was greatly agitated, and told her “ that God might forgive her, but she never could.” Essex was rash, violent, and presumptuous, but at the same time brave, generous, and affectionate. He was the friend and patron of literature, and wrote well himself in prose, and attempted verse, though without much success. He erected a monument to Spenser, gave an estate to Bacon, and encouraged Wotton and other men of learning. His fate has form- ed the subject of four tragedies. DEVEREUX, RobFRT, earl of Essex, son of the preceding, was born in 1592. He was entered at Merton college, in his tenth year, and, in 1603, king James restored him to his hereditary honours. He was betrothed, at the age of 14, to lady Frances rioward, but the marriage was not consummated un- til his return from his travels. The affections of the young countess had, in the mean time, been gained by James's unworthy favourite, Carr, earl of Somer- Set ; the consequence of which was, a scandalous suit against the earl of Essex for impotency. A divorce followed, and the lady married Somerset. In 1620, Essex joined the earl of Oxford, in an expedition to the Palatinate, and, in 1624, commanded one of the English regiments raised for the United Provinces. On the accession of Charles I., he was employed as vice-admiral in an expedition against Spain; and af. ter a second marriage, in which the conduct of the lady rendered a divorce necessary, he dedicated him- self solely to public life. In 1635, he was second in command of a fleet equipped against France and Hol- land, and, in 1639, was made lieutenant-general of the army sent against the Scottish rebels. His ser- vices were coldly received, until, in 1641, popular measures being thought necessary, he was made lord chamberlain. At this time, such was his popularity, both parties strenuously sought to gain him : the king made him lieutenant-general of all his armies South of the Trent, the house of lords made him chair- DEVEREUX—DEVIL. man of their standing committee, and, when the peo- ple became tumultuous, the house of commons re. quested a guard under his command. . When the king retired from the capital, he required his household nobles to attend him, which Essex declining to do, was deprived of his employments. This step fixed him in opposition, and, in 1642, he accepted the com- mand of the parliamentary army. He probably imagined the contest might be terminated without any radical change of government, as he always seemed attached to the principles of the constitution. He commanded at the battle of Edgehill, captured Read- ing, raised the siege of Gloucester, aud fought the first battle of Newbury. His want of success, in 1644, in the west, and the inclination he showed for peace, began at length to lower his interest with the parliamentary party; and, the self-denying ordinance throwing him out of command, he resigned his com- mission with visible discontent. He died suddenly, in September, 1646, and was buried in Westminster abbey, with a public funeral. DEVERON; a river of Aberdeenshire, rising in the parish of Cabrach, which, after running a course of fifty miles, and forming the boundaries between this county and the shire of Banff, falls into the sea at Banff. The salmon fishery in this stream is said to produce an annual income of more than 382000. DEVIATION. In the law of marine insurance, deviation is an unnecessary departure from the usual course of the voyage insured. Necessary causes of departure from the customary line, are stress of wea- ther, want of repair, joining convoy, danger from an enemy, mutiny, &c.; and, even in these cases, the shortest and easiest courses must be taken, or a de- viation will be incurred. Deviation, from the moment at which it commences, discharges the insurer from all subsequent responsibility, and entitles him to re- tain the premium. DEVICE, or BADGE, in heraldry; a name com- mon to all figures, ciphers, characters, rebuses, mot- toes, &c., which, by their allusions to the names of persons, of families, &c., denote their qualities, nobi- lity, or the like. Device, in this sense, is of a much older standing than heraldry itself; being that which first gave rise to armorial ensigns. Thus the eagle was the device of the Roman empire. S.P.Q.R. was the device of the Roman people, and still continues to be what is called the escutcheon of the city of Rome. The first devices were mere letters placed on the borders of liveries, housings, and banners, and at length on shields. Thus the K was the device of the French kings of the name of Charles, from Charles V. to Charles IX. Badges, impresses, and devices were greatly in vogue in England, from the reign of king Edward I. until that of queen Elizabeth, when they sank into distise. JDevice is now taken, in a more limited sense, for an emblem, or a representation of some natural body, with a motto, or sentence, applied in a figurative sense. Thus a young nobleman, of great courage and ambition, bore for his device, in a carousal at the court of France, a rocket mounted in the air, with this Italian motto, Poco duri, purchê m'inna/zi (May I continue but a short time, provided I mount high). A device is, therefore, a painted metaphor. Devices are used on coins, counters, seals, shields, triumphal arches, artificial fire-works, &c. The French have distinguished themselves in the invention of devices, especially since the time of Cardinal Mazarin, who had a great fondness for them. The Italians have reduced the making of devices to an art, and laid down laws and rules for this purpose. DEVIL. Most of the old religions of the East ac- knowledged a host of demons, who, like their gods, were not originally considered, in a moral point of IDEWIL–DEVIL FISH. view, as good or bad, but merely as exercising a sa- lutary or injurious influence. In the latter case, they were looked upon as punishing spirits, without inimi- cal or wicked purpose. Seeva, the judging and de- stroying god of the Indian mythology, is a symbol of the great power of nature, which is alternately bene- ficial and injurious, but in itself neither good nor evil. The doctrine of Zoroaster, who adopted an evil prin- ciple, called Ahriman, opposed to the good principle, and served by several orders of inferior spirits (in or- der to explain the existence of evil in this world), spread the belief in such spirits among the people. The Greek mythology did not distinguish with the same precision between the good and bad spirits. The Titans, it is true, struggled against the gods, but not for any merely moral reason, and the gods are not represented as patterns of pure morality. The cacodemons of the Greek mythology, as, for instance, the Furies, always appear more in the character of punishing than of malignant spirits. On the contrary, Hecate, the goddess of the lower world and of en- chantment, and the Lamiae, corresponding to the witches of the modern popular belief, have more of what we understand under the diabolical character. Typhon, who partakes in the fate of the Titans, pro- perly belongs to the Egyptian mythology, in which he appears as the origin of evil, under the figure of a horrid monster. Similar to him is Beelzebub, or Beel- Zebul, who, from the mythology of Western Asia, was introduced into the belief of the Hebrews. But as the captivity of the Hebrews in Babylon had in many respects a decisive influence upon their way of thinking and prevailing notions, by the acquaintance which they there acquired with the ideas of the Chal- deans, the idea of the devil, as the principle of evil, resembling Ahriman, first appeared among the Jews after that captivity. He is called Satanas, in Greek, Biogowog, the fiend, destroyer, antagonist. The word devil is derived from 3iago Äog. This Satan, however, is to be distinguished from the one in the book of Job. The latter is no fiend, but the accuser before the throne of the Almighty, and belongs to the heavenly servants of God. All the conceptions of evil spirits, which had been entertained before the Christian era—the impure Beelzebub, whose breath scattered pestilence ; Belial, the prince of hell; Samael, the seducer and destroyer; Lucifer (the Phosphoros of the Greeks), who lives in the fire ; Asmodeus, the devil of marriage—were now amalgamated with that idea of the evil principle, which the Jews had acquired in Babylon. Thus the Jewish doctrine of evil spirits and their chief was de- veloped. Insane persons, and patients suffering from nervous diseases, which manifest themselves by epi- leptic fits, were considered as subject to his influ- ence; and people suffering under such diseases were said to “ have a devil.” The founder of the Chris- tian religion not only did not contradict this doctrine, but made use of it in the instruction of the people, according to several passages of the New Testament. Yet the whole doctrine received from the New Testa- ment a new character; for the devil and his auxiliary spirits are represented there as originally created good, but as having fallen from virtue, and the favour of God, owing to ambition, or other evil dispositions. The Satan of the New Testament is a rebel against God. Endowed with the intellect and power of an- gels, he uses them since his fall to entangle men in sin, and obtain power over them. He is “ the prince of the world” (St John, xii. 31), the Antichrist, be- cause he constantly opposes the great work of Salva- tion. But, though he succeeds in effecting the per- dition of individuals, yet his own damnation, and the eternal victory of good over evil, are certain. The Same is taught in Zoroaster's doctrine; yet his devil ll. 657 was evil from etermity. Some early sects, as the Ma- nichaeans, likewise gave to Satan existence from eter- nity; yet this idea was never adopted by the Chris- tians at large. - The doctrine of the New Testament, however, soon became blended with numerous fictions of human imagination, with the various superstitions of different countries, and the mythology of the pagans. In Italy, Greece, and Germany, this last element was, and to a certain degree still is, blended with the idea of the devil. The gods of the ancients became evil spirits, seeking every opportunity to injure mankind. . The excited imagination of hermits, in their lonely re- treats, sunk as they were in ignorance and unable to account for natural appearances, frequently led them to suppose Satan visibly present ; and innumerable stories were told of his appearance, and his attributes distinctly described. Among these were horns, a tail, a cloven foot, &c. The writings of the fathers of the church, also, contain several passages respect- ing the appearance of the devil. The sign of the cross was considered as a safeguard against him, and cru- cifixes were erected on many spots, as, for instance, cross-ways, where he was supposed to be most likely to present himself. In most works of appearances of an extraordinary character, the devil was supposed to be concerned. How many a dam, bridge, &c., has been built in one night, with his assistance 1 and every one knows that the monks made the people believe that Faustus invented the art of printing by the help of Satan. In consequence of the cures which Christ and his apostles performed on the possessed, the early church believed in a power, connected with the consecra. tion of priests, to drive out evil spirits; and as early as the third century, particular officers of the church were appointed for this purpose; they were called exorcists, and are to this day the second of the lower orders in the Latin church. The Catholics say, the church employed such inferior ministers for this busi- ness, in order to show the contempt which it enter- tained towards demons (see Dictionnaire de Théologie, Toulouse, 1817, article Eaorciste;) but this does not agree with the numberless legends of the power of the devil. (See Evorcism.) The belief in evil spirits, witches, &c., was, in the 17th century, so com- mon, that they became the objects of judicial process. (See Witches.) It cannot be said that the reforma- tion directly overturned this belief. Luther once threw an ink-stand at the devil, who interrupted him when he was engaged in translating the Bible; and, even to this day, the black spot is shown on the wall in his room in theWartburg. The trials of witches, in the seventeenth century, took place in Protestant countries, as well as in Catholic ones. With the progress of the natural sciences, however, in the eighteenth century, many wonderful phenomena became explained, and less was heard of the devil. Our limits will not allow us to give a statement of the opinions of different Christian sects respecting evil spirits. DEVIL-FISH ; the popular name of a large spe- cies of ray (q.v.), which is occasionally captured on the coasts of America. During gales of wind, or from strong currents, these immense fish are driven into shoal water, and, being unable to extricate them- selves, fall an easy prey to the vigilance of the fishermen, who obtain considerable quantities of oil from their livers. The peculiar arrangement of the two lateral appendages to the head, has induced na- turalists to erect a subgenus, expressly for the recep- tion of these marine monsters, which has been called cephaloptera, in allusion to the wings, or processes. In size, the species of this subgenus exceed all others of the family, individuals frequently measuring six- teen feet from the angles of the body. 2 T 658 Cephaloptera giorna, the devil-fish, sea-devil, &c., is recognised by the following characters: “Jaws terminal, inferior one advanced ; mouth with a movable flabelliform appendage on each side; eyes prominent, lateral; tail longer than the body, and armed with one or two spines, very distinct from the dorsal fin, which is situated between the ventrals;” teeth very minute and numerous, arranged in rows. The skin of this fish is not covered with spinous pro- tuberances, like that of most others of the ray species, but is merely rough to the touch, like that of many sharks. In preparing the specimen deposited in the Philadelphia museum, this roughness of the skin produced most disagreeable effects on the hands of the operators. Colour above, blackish ; beneath, white, varied with dusky. The measurements of the individual just mentioned, made him in breadth be- tween fifteen and sixteen feet, and seven feet ten inches in length, exclusive of the tail, which was somewhat longer than the body. A similar specimen was exhibited in New York, under the title of “the Vampyre of the ocean,” and described as such by doctor Samuel L. Mitchell. Others have been observed on various parts of the American coast, generally in small families, and are believed to visit Sandy bottoms, for the purpose of breeding, arrivin in July, and seldom remaining later than the j of September. The great size of the specimen pur- chased by Mr Peale rendered it necessary to divide the body, transversely into two equal portions, in which state the process of stuffing was more easy. The pieces were afterwards joined together, and the animal exhibited in the museum, where it now re- mains. In drying, the skin, of course, contracted con- siderably, and the measurements now would be much less than those taken from the recent animal. Pyro- ligneous acid, being used to counteract putrefaction, during several hot days in which it was exhibited, no experiment was made, to determine the flavour of the flesh, and its utility as an article of food. It is not improbable, that most of the stories relative to sea serpents, which have so long been a theme of wonder, are in truth to be referred to numbers of these or other marine fishes of extraordinary size and uncommon form. It is to be regretted, that more perfect examinations have not been made, par- ticularly in relation to the anatomical structure of the cephaloptera; but it is to be hoped that our na- turalists, in subsequent researches, may supply the desired information. - DEVIL'S ADVOCATE (advocatus diaboli) is the person appointed to raise doubts against the genuine- ness of the miracles of a candidate for canonization (q.v.), to expose any want of formality in the inves- tigation of the miracles, and to assail the general merits of the candidate. After everything is said pro and contra, and three papal advocates of the con- sistory have found the whole course of proceedings legal and formal, the canonization follows. It is said that, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, the canonization of the cardinal Charles Borromeo was almost prevented by the accusations of the devil's advocate. DEVIL’S BRIDGE ; a famous bridge in Switzer- land, over the Reuss, built of stone, from mountain to mountain, seventy-five feet in length, on the road over St Gothard, from Germany to Italy. It owes its name principally to its antiquity, for there are higher, longer, and wider bridges in Switzerland. It is a very common subject of prints and paintings, and is situated in a most romantic country. DEVIL’S PUNCH BOWL, a lake of Ireland, near the summit of Mangerton mountain, in the vi- cinity of the lakes of Killarney. It is elevated 2500 feet above the level of the sea and is supposed to be DEVIL’S ADVOCATE–DEVON. the crater of an ancient volcano. It is about half a mile in length and a quarter in breadth. DEVIL’S WALL, in the south of Germany. It was very common for gigantic works of art, or pe- culiar formations of nature, to receive, in the middle ages, the name of the devil. This wall was origi- mally a Roman ditch, with palisades behind it, to which, under the reign of the emperor Probus, a wall with towers was added. It was intended to protect the Roman settlements on the left bank of the Dan- 'ube, and on the right bank of the Rhine, against the inroads of the Teutonic and other tribes. The wall extended for about 368 miles, over mountains, through valleys, and over rivers, running towards the Danube. Remains of it are found at present only from Abensberg, in Bavaria, to Cologne, on the Rhine. Sometimes these remains form elevated roads and paths through woods, sometimes tall oaks grow upon them, sometimes buildings stand upon the im- perishable structure. A. Buchner has shown, in his Journey along the Devil's Wall (Ratisbon, 1821), that it was the work of nearly two centuries, com- mencing in the time of Adrian, and was at first a mere wall of earth, but was afterwards made a sub- stantial stone wall, of from six to eight feet in width. Buchner followed the traces of this wall for two Summers. He points out, also, the course of the Roman road behind it. The same book contains a plan of the canal by which Charlemagne intended to unite the Danube and the Rhine, and of which a dry ditch, called the Fossa Carolina, is the only remains. (See Carolina.) Buchner says, that six million gilders would be sufficient to complete this great plan, which others doubt. See Danube. . DEVISE, in law, is the disposition of real estate by will. It is distinguished from a bequest of per- Sonal estate by will, the personal estate so dis- posed of being called a legacy. The word devise is also sometimes applied to any gift by will, whether of real or personal estate. The person to whom a de- vise is made is called devisee. DEVIZES; a town of England, situated on the northern border of Salisbury plain, in the centre of Wilts-shire. The town consists of several streets diverging from a spacious market-place, well paved and lighted with gas, and being a great thoroughfare On one of the roads from Bath to London, it contains Some capital inns, which, as well as many of the shops and private houses, are spacious and handsome buildings. The public edifices are a convenient town hall, a handsome market cross, erected a few years since at the expense of Wiscount Sidmouth ; a bridewell, and a house of correction. The chief manufactures here are silk-throwing, making fine woollen, and tobacco and snuff: here are also noted breweries, which furnish the liquor called in London Devizes ale. The Kennet and Avon canal passes near the town, and supplies the means of conveying goods by water to the eastern and western parts of the kingdom. Population, 4562. - - DEVOLUTION. By the rule of devolution, the right of presentation to a vacant place, especially a clerical one, reverts, in case of neglect in exercising it, to a superior (bishop, prince, or consistory). DEVON, a beautiful little river of Scotland, on the confines of Stirling and Clackmannan shires. . It has its source at the foot of the Ochil hills, and after a circuitous course of about forty miles, through ro- mantic scenery, it falls into the Forth about two miles above Alloa. A little above Dollar, it forms a Series of cascades, the most noted of which is called the Caldron Linn. Burns has celebrated this river in his fine song, beginning— “How pleasant the banks of the clear, winding Devon, With green-spreading bushes, and flowers blooming fair!” DEVONPORT-DEW. DEVONPORT, a market-town of England, at the confluence of the Tamar with the sea in Plymouth sound. It is the seat of the naval and military go- vernment of the port, and contains the dock-yard and naval arsenal. Hence it was, until lately, called Plymouth dock, and viewed only as an appendage to the town of Plymouth. In the year 1824, it received the name of Devonport, which it has since borne. The dock-yard is well worthy of notice. It extends on the eastern bank of the Tamar, in a circular sweep along the shore, 3500 feet in length, with a width at the middle, where it is greatest, of 1600 feet, and at each extremity 1000, thus including an area of ninety-six acres. The harbour of Hamoaze, which bounds the dock-yard on the western side, is a Commodious basin, formed by the estuary of the Tamar, half a mile wide, and extending four miles in length. Population 44,456. See Plymouth. DEVONSHIRE, the largest county in England, with the exception of Yorkshire, being about seventy miles in length, and from fifty to sixty-four in breadth. It is bounded on the north and north-west by the Bristol Channel, on the south and south-east by the British Channel, on the east by the counties of Somerset and Dorset, and on the west by that of Cornwall and the river Tamar. Before the Roman invasion, this part of Britain was inhabited by a powerful tribe called Damnonii, who Carried on a commercial intercourse on the southern Coast with the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Gauls; and under the Romans it was included in the pro- vince of Britannia Prima. Subsequently it became the theatre of severe contests between the ancient inhabitants and the invading Saxons; and in 614 the former were defeated near Bampton, by Cynegisl, king of Wessex, who added the Dammonian ter- ritory to his dominions. Two hundred years later, the Anglo-Saxons maintained a defensive war against their enemies the Danes, who made repeated descents on the coasts of this county; where they gained a temporary ascendancy in the reign of Al- fred the Great, until their career was stopped by Oddune, Earl of Devonshire, whose victory over them in 878, shortly preceded the famous battle of Ethandune, which secured the independence of the kingdom. At the Norman conquest this county con- tinued to be the scene of warfare after the general submission to the founder of a new dynasty; and Exeter, the capital, stood a regular siege before it submitted to the Conqueror. During the war be- tween Charles I. and the Parliament, several military transactions occurred in T)evonshire, which was one of the counties most devoted to the cause of mon- archy, and one of the last retreats of its partisans. The latest event of national importance which can be here noticed, was the landing of William, Prince of Orange, at Torbay, on the Southern coast, Novem- ber 5, 1688, preparatory to the revolution which placed him on the throne, on the abdication of his misguided relative James II. The soil and aspect of this county are extremely diversified. It is watered by a number of rivers, some of which fall into the Bristol Channel, and some into the English Channel. Among the former are the Torridge, and the Taw. The principal river which enters the English Channel is the Exe, which rises in Exmoor, and passing Exeter and Topsham becomes navigable to the sea. Westward of this is the Teign, which empties itself into the sea at Teignmouth ; the Dart, which forms at its estuary the harbour of Dartmouth ; and the Tamar, which forms a boundary between Devonshire and Cornwall. Other rivers are the Axe, the Otter, the Aven, the Erme, the Yealme, the Plym, and the Tavy. From the eastern border of the county, the south 659 ern district, as far as Exeter, is fertile and pleasant, and the climate is so mild that the myrtle and other tender plants grow unsheltered near the sea side. From Exeter to the confines of Cornwall extends the Wide and barren tract called Dartmoor. Besides moorstone, or gramite, the mountainous parts of Devonshire afford the ores of tin, lead, iron, and manganese ; and silver, gold, copper, bismuth, anti- mony, and cobalt, have been found here, but in small quantities. Tin was anciently procured in abundance from the mines in this county; but the trade is now almost wholly confined to Cornwall. The north-east- ern part of the county, bordering on Exmoor in Somersetshire, is a mountainous, dry, heathy district, including copper and lead mines. The rocks on the Southern Coasts, furnish a close-grained limestone, Capable of being polished as marble ; and in the vale of King's Teignton, clay used by pipemakers and pot- ters is procured in large quantities. The vale of Exeter is distinguished for the beauty of its scenery. Wheat, barley, pulse, and a little flax, constitute the chief products of the arable land; while the pasture is appropriated to the use of the dairy, or for breed- ing cattle and sheep. That part called the South Hams, is so productive, as to have obtained the ap- pellation of the Garden of Devonshire ; and here the higher grounds are under tillage, and the lower Consist principally of meadows. The only city in the county is Exeter; the borough towns are Ashburton, Barnstable, Beer-Alston, Dart- mouth, Honiton, Oakhampton, Plymouth, Plympton, Tavistock, Tiverton, and Totness; and the market towns, Appledore, Ashburton, Axminster, Bampton, Barnstaple, Bideford, South Brent, Brixham, Chag- ford, Chudleigh, Chumleigh, Collumpton, Colyton, Crediton, Culmstock, Dartmouth, Devonport, Ha- therleigh, Holsworthy, Honiton, Ilfracombe, Kings- bridge, Modbury, South Molton, Moreton Hamp- stead, Newton Abbot, Oakhampton, Ottery St Mary, Plymouth, Plympton, Sidmouth, Stonehouse, Tawi- stock, East Teignmouth, Tiverton, Topsham, Tor- rington, Totness, and Uffenlone. The more import- ant of these places are noticed under their proper heads. Population in 1831, 494,168. DEVONSHIRE; 1. GEORGIANA CAvendish, duchess of ; famous for her beauty and poetical tal- ents, and the patriotic friend of Fox. She was born in London, 1757, and died in 1806. Her poem on the passage of St Gothard is celebrated by Coleridge. It was also translated into French by Delille, and published with the original, at Paris, in 1802. 2. ELIZABETH HERVEY, duchess of Devonshire, lived, from 1815, in Rome, where she died, March 30, 1824. In Rome, she was surrounded by distinguished men, especially artists. She was the friend of car- dinal Gonsalvi, Canova, Camuccini, Thorwaldsen and others. She published Virgil's poems, in the trans- lation of Hannibal Caro, with engravings, from the designs of the first painters of Rome. This edition consisted of only 150 copies, which the duchess dis- tributed to the European sovereigns, the principal libraries, and her particular friends. She caused an edition of the fifth satire of Horace to be published on the same plan, and was about to undertake an edi- tion of Dante, when she died. Her house in Rome was the resort of the most cultivated Society. DEVONSHIRE, duke of.-See Cavendish. DEW is a deposition of water from the atmos- phere upon the surface of the earth. The condi- tions under which the phenomena of dew take place are the following:—The most plentiful deposit oc- curs when the weather is clear and Serene; very little is ever deposited under opposite circumstances. It is never seen on nights both cloudy and windy. It is well known, likewise, that a reduction in the - 2 T 2 660 temperature of the air, and of the surface of the earth, always accompanies the falling of dew, the Sur- face on which it is deposited being, however, colder than the air above. These phenomena admit of an easy and elegant explanation from the well known effect of the radia- tion of caloric from bodies. This radiation Constant- ly taking place in all bodies, it is obvious that the temperature of any body can remain the same only by its receiving from another source as many rays as it emits. In the case of the earth's surface, so long as the sun remains above the horizon, it continues to receive as well as to emit heat; but when the Sun sinks below the horizon, no object is present in the atmosphere to exchange rays with the earth, which, still emitting heat into free space, must consequently, experience a diminution in its temperature. It thus becomes not only many degrees cooler than in the daytime, but also cooler than the Superincumbent air; and, as the atmosphere always contains watery vapour, this vapour becomes condensed on the cold surface; hence the origin of dew, and, if the tempe- rature of the earth is below 32°, of hoar frost. And since the projection of heat into free space takes place most readily in a clear atmosphere, and is impeded by a cloudy atmosphere, it is under the former condition that dew and hoar frost are formed ; for if the radiant caloric, proceeding from the earth, is intercepted by the clouds, an inter- change is established, and the ground retains nearly, if not quite, the same temperature as the adjacent portions of air. Whatever circumstances favour radiation, favour also the production of dew; and, accordingly, under the same exposure, dew is much more copiously de- posited on some surfaces than on others. Gravel walks and pavements project heat and acquire dew less readily than a grassy surface. Rough and porous surfaces, as shavings of wood, take more dew than smooth and solid wood. Glass projects heat rapidly, and is as rapidly coated with dew. But bright metals attract dew much less powerfully than other bodies. Water, which stands at the head of radiating substances, is seen to condense the vapour of the superincumbent air in such a manner as to create thick mists and fogs over its surface. The unusual abundance of precipitated moisture over ponds and streams is attributable, however, not merely to the inferior temperature of their waters to the air, arising from radiation, but to the circum- stance that more moisture is ordinarily contained in Such air, since the sheltered situation it enjoys pre- vents its being borne away by those aerial currents prevailing elsewhere. An acquaintance with the cause which produces dew and hoar-frost enables us to understand the ra– tionale of the process resorted to by gardeners to protect tender plants from cold, which consists simply in spreading over them a thin mat or some flimsy substance. In this way, the radiation of their heat to the heavens is prevented, or, rather, the heat which they emit is returned to them from the awning above, and they are preserved at a tempera- ture considerably higher than that of the surround- ing atmosphere. To ensure the full advantage of this kind of protection from the chill of the air, the Coverings should not touch the bodies they are in- tended to defend. Garden walls, operate, in part, upon the same principle. In warm climates the de- position of dewy moisture on animal substances hastens their putrefaction. As this usually happens only in clear nights, it was anciently supposed that bright moonshine favoured animal corruption. This rapid emission of heat from the surface of the ground enables us to explain the artificial for- DEW-IDE WITT. mation of ice, during the night, in Bengal, while the temperature of the air is above 32°. The nights most favourable for this effect are those which are the calmest and most Serene, and in which the air is so dry as to deposit little dew after midnight. Clouds. and frequent changes of wind never fail to interrupt the congelation. Three hundred persons are employ- ed in this operation at one place. The enclosures formed on the ground are four or five feet wide, and have walls only four inches high. In these enclo- sures, previously bedded with dry straw, broad, shallow, unglazed pans are set, containing water. Wind, which so greatly promotes evaporation, pre- vents the freezing altogether; and dew forms, in a greater or less degree, during the whole of the nights most productive of ice. The straw is care- #. preserved dry, since if, by accident, it becomes moistened by the spilling of water, it conducts heat, and raises vapour from the ground, so as greatly to impede the congelation. The radiation from the earth's surface is one of those happy provisions for the necessities of living beings, with which mature everywhere abounds. The heavy dews which fall in tropical regions are, in the highest degree, beneficial to vegetation, which, but for this supply of moisture, would, in countries where scarcely any rain falls for months, be soon scorched and withered. But, after the high tempera- ture of the day, the ground radiates under these clear skies with great rapidity; the surface is quick- ly cooled, even to a great extent, and, as soon as this refreshing cold is produced, the watery vapour, which, from the great daily evaporation, exists in large quantities in the atmosphere, is deposited abundantly. This deposition is more plentiful, also, on plants, from their greater radiating power; while, on hard, bare ground and stones, where it is less wanted, it is comparatively trifling. In cold climates, the earth, being cold and sufficiently moist, requires little dew ; accordingly the clouds, which are so common in damp and chilly regions, prevent the radiation of heat: the surface is thus preserved warm, and the deposition of dew is, in a great mea- Sure, prevented. T)E WETTE. See JVette. DE WITT, JoHN, grand-pensioner of Holland, celebrated as a statesman and for his tragical end, was the son of Jacob De Witt, burgomaster of Dort, and was born in 1625. His father was imprisoned for Some time on account of his opposition to prince William II, of Orange. John De Witt inherited from his father republican principles and a hatred to the house of Orange. After having carefully culti- wated his talents, he entered into the service of his country, and was one of the deputies sent by the states of Holland to Zealand, in 1652, to dissuade this province from conferring the office of captain- general on the young prince of Orange, William III., who was but two years old. His eloquence procured him universal confidence; but to preserve this was almost impossible during the dissensions which raged in the states-general. One party was anxious, during the war between England and Holland, to have all power and honours conferred on prince William III. ; the other, with De Witt at its head, endeavoured to withdraw all authority from this prince, and entirely to abolish the stadtholdership. The war with England, sometimes fortunate, some- times adverse, was injurious to commerce, and ex- cited the displeasure of the nation against the latter party, of which excitement the Orange party took advantage to effect their purposes, until, in 1654, the former concluded a peace with Cromwell, with the secret condition that the house of Orange should be excluded from all situations of authority. Thus the DEXTER—DIABETES, republican party was victorious, and De Witt, as rand-pensioner, employed the time of peace in É. the wounds under which the state was suffer- IIl Q". when Charles II. again took possession of the crown of England, De Witt inclined to the side of France, which inclination became more powerful when, in 1665, the war recommenced between England and the states-general. The bishop of Munster, likewise, taking arms against the latter, the discontent of the people against De Witt became so great, that he was compelled, in order to pacify them, to give up some privileges to the prince of Orange, and to conclude peace with England, in 1667. To increase the danger of De Wiſt's situa- tion, Louis XIV, now began to manifest his inten- tions with regard to the Spanish Netherlands. The Orange party insisted on elevating prince William to the dignity of his ancestors. , De Witt succeeded in º; the offices of stadsholder and captain- general, and provided that, in Holland at least, he should be entirely excluded from the latter. The number of De Witt's enemies increased. He was obliged to conclude an alliance with England and Sweden against France, which produced the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, and was as quickly dissolved as it had been formed. Louis XIV., now united with England, invaded the Spanish Netherlands (1672.) William's friends succeeded in procuring for him the post of commander-in-chief. The first campaign was unfortunate in its results, which were imputed to De Witt and his friends. The life of the former was endangered. William was nominated stadt- holder by universal consent, and De Witt resigned his employments. But the disposition of the people was little changed by this voluntary act, nor was the hatred of the Orange party satisfied. His brother Cornelius was accused of having attempted to assassinate the prince. He was imprisoned and put to the rack; but, as he would not confess any such design, he was banished from the country, and his property confiscated. Hearing that his brother wished to speak to him while in prison, John De Witt hastened thither, when a tumult suddenly arose among the people at the Hague. The militia could not disperse the mob, the greater number of the officers being devoted to the prince. The people broke into the prison, and both brothers fell victims to their rage (Aug. 20, 1672). The states demanded an investigation of this affair, and the punishment of the murderers, from the stadtholder, which, however, never took place. That the opinions of De Witt's contempora- ries respecting him did not agree, may well be Sup- posed; but .# acquitted him of treason against his country. He was simple and modest in all his rela- tions. He fell a victim to party spirit, nor could the friends of the house of Orange accuse him of any other crime than that of not belonging to their party, and of aiming to elevate his own party at their ex- pense. De Witt was an active political Writer, and has left many excellent observations on the events of his time. DEXTER, SAMUEL, an eminent American lawyer and statesman, was born at Boston, in 1761. His father was a distinguished merchant, and a benefac- tor of Harvard college. The son was graduated at that institution, in 1781, with its first honours. He then engaged in the study of the law. He had not been long at the bar before he was elected to the state legislature, from which he was transferred to Congress, first to the house of representatives, and then to the senate. He was in congress during a period of strong party excitement, and succeeded in gaining much influence and honour by the force of perspiration, thirst, emaciation, and 661 his talents and character, proving himself an en- lightened politician and superior orator. President Adams made him, successively, secretary of war and of the treasury. He discharged these offices in a masterly manner. Towards the end of Mr Adams's administration, he was offered a foreign embassy, but declined it. When Mr Jefferson became president, he resigned his public employments, and returned to the practice of the law. In 1815, president Madison requested him to accept an extraordinary mission to the court of Spain, but he declined the offer. For many years, he continued to display extraordinary powers in his profession, having no superior, and Scarcely a rival, before the supreme court at Wash- ington, in which he appeared every winter, in cases of the highest importance. On his return from that capital, in the spring of 1816, he fell sick at Athens, in the state of New York, and died there May 4, aged fifty-five. Mr Dexter was talland well formed, with strong features and a muscular frame. His eloquence was that of clear exposition, and cogent, philosophical reasoning; his delivery in general simple, and his enunciation monotonous ; but he often expressed himself with signal energy and beauty, and always gave evidence of uncommon power. He devoted much of his leisure to theolo- gical studies, and died a zealous Christian. A sketch of his life and character has been drawn by judge Story. DEY ; the title formerly bestowed on the chief of Algiers. In Tunis and Tripoli, the same officer in these military republics, is named bey. The bey of Tripoli is, however, assisted by a pacha. Since 1520, up to the recent occupation of the French, Algiers recognised the authority of the Turkish sultan. Turkish soldiers, under the command of a pacha, sent to Algiers by the Sultan, once governed there, and, not receiving their pay from the pacha, they prayed permission of the Porte, at the com- mencement of the seventeenth century, to choose a chief from their number, with the title of dey. The pacha was to remain, but to have no share in the government. This was agreed to by the Porte. In the year 1710, the dey banished the pacha from Algiers, and obtained permission of the Porte to enjoy both titles. From that period, every dey chosen by the soldiers was obliged to apply to the sultan for confirmation and for appointment as pacha. The sultan, therefore, reckoned Algiers amongst his possessions, and sent orders to the pacha and the divan. In time of war, the people of Algiers assisted the Porte, if required, with soldiers and Ships. BinoLIBA. See Niger, and Timbuctoo. DIABETES is an affection of a very peculiar na- ture, and which, both with respect to its origin, its proximate cause, and its treatment, has given rise to much controversy. Its most remarkable symp- toms are, a great increase in the quantity of urine, a voracious appetite, a stoppage of the cutaneous great mus- cular debility. The urine is not only prodigiously increased in its quantity, but likewise has its com- position completely changed; the substance named wrea, which it contains in the healthy state, is entire- ly removed, or exists in very small proportion, while in its stead we find a large quantity of a body possess- ing the physical and chemical properties of Sugar. Wä. diabetic differs essentially from vegetable sugar, is to be regarded more as a chemical question, than as what, in any respect, influences either our pathology or our practice; and it has been a subject of controversy whether there be a proper diabetes insipidus, that is, a disease attended with the in- creased discharge of urine, the voracious appetite, 662 and the morbid state of the skin, but where the urine does not contain Sugar. There is much obscurity respecting the origin of diabetes: it has been attributed to improper diet, to the use of spirituous liquors; to large quantities of watery fluids; to exposure to cold during perspira- tion; to violent exercise ; and, in short, to anything which might be supposed likely to weaken the Sys- tem generally, or the digestive organs in particular. It does not, however, appear that any of these cir- cumstances so commonly precede the disease, as to entitle it to be regarded as the cause, although many of them may contribute to aggravate it, or to bring it into action, when the foundation is laid in the con- stitution. The proximate has been no less the sub- ject of controversy than the exciting cause; and on this point two hypotheses have divided the opinions of pathologists; some have ascribed it to a primary affection ; the stomach and the function of assimila- tion, and others to a primary disease of the kidney. With respect to the treatment which may afford the best chance of success, or which may possibly remove the complaint in its incipient state, we should recommend that a moderate bleeding be premised, and that a diet be employed, of which vegetable matter should form only a small proportion ; at the same time we may administer vegetable tonics, and may endeavour to restore the natural action of the skin by diaphoretics and the warm bath. DIADEM ; a band of silk or woolien, invented, according to some, by Bacchus, to relieve the head- ache produced by excessive drinking. It more pro- bably belonged to him as coming from the East (the Indies.) It afterwards became the distinguishing ornament of royalty. The diadem of the Egyptian deities and kings bore the symbol of the sacred ser– pent. Among the Persians, it was twined about the tiara of the kings, and was purple and white. The diadem of Bacchus, particularly of the Indian Bac- chus, as seen in very old representations, consisted of a broad, plaited band, encircling the forehead and temples, and tied behind, with the ends hanging down. When unfolded, it formed, in fact, a veil; and, for this reason, it was often called, by the Greeks, calyptra, i. e., a veil. It was afterwards at- tributed to other deities, and finally became the badge of kings. In the earliest times, it was very narrow. Alexander the Great adopted the broad diadem of the Persian kings, the ends of which hung over his shoulders; and this mark of regal dignity was re- tained by his successors. On coins we see queens also, with the diadem, with the addition of a veil. The early Roman emperors abstained from this orna- ment, to avoid giving offence to the people. Com- stantine the Great was the first who used it, and he added new ornaments to it. After his time, it was set with a single or double row of pearls and other precious stones, so that it was somewhat similar to a Turkish turban. DIAECIOUS, in botany; plants which have their Stamens on One individual and their pistils on another. The willow, the ash, the poplar, &c., are diaecious. DIAGLYPHON (Lat. ; 320x500v, Gr.); in an- cient sculpture ; the name by which the Greeks de- signated works in Sculpture when sunk in with the chisel. Among the most celebrated of these were the buckler and pedestal of a colossal statue of Minerva at Athens. When it was in relief, the work was called anaglyphic. See Anaglyphic. DIAGNOSIS, in medicine; the distinction of one disease from others resembling it, by means of a collected view of the symptoms. DIAGNOSTIC symptoms are the leading symp- toms, or those which are most characteristic of any particular form or seat of disease. IDIADEM-DIAL. DIAGONAL, DIAGONAL LINE ; a straight line, joining two angles not adjacent, in a rectilinear figure, having more than three sides. Every rectili- near figure may be divided by diagonals into as many triangles as it has sides, minus two. * DIAGRAM ; a figure or geometrical delineation; applied to the illustration or solution of geometrical problems, or a description or sketch in general. Anciently, it signified a musical scale. Among the Gnostics, the name diagram was given to a figure formed by the superposition of one triangle on another, and inscribed with some mystical name of the Deity, and worn as an amulet. DIAL, sun. This instrument has been known from the earliest times : the Egyptians, Chaldeans and Hebrews (Isaiah xxxvii. 8) were acquainted with the uses of it. The Greeks derived it from their eastern neighbours, and it was introduced into Rome during the first Punic war. A dial constructed for the latitude of Catana was carried off from that city and placed in the forum by Valerius Messana ; but, as there was a difference of 4° of latitude between the two cities, it could not, of course, indicate the true time at Rome. Before this period, the Romans ascertained the hour by the rude method of observing the lengths of shadows, or, in the absence of the sun, by the clepsydra (q.v.), which a slave was employed in tending. The complete investigation of the theory of the formation of dials would require the application of the higher mathematics; but the leading principles of dialling may be made intelligible to general readers by the following simple illustration :- Let P B p D represent the earth as a hollow trans- parent sphere, having an axis PE p, of which P and p are the poles. Let the equator be divided into twenty-four equal parts, and through these divisions draw the meridians a, b, c, d, &c. Let one of these meridians pass through any given place, for which a dial is required to be made, and where that meridian cuts the equator, let it be numbered XII. The opposite meridian must likewise be numbered XII., the other meridians being numbered as shown in the cut. This being done, these meridians will be the hour circles of the place on the first meridian ; so that if the axis PE p were opaque, the Sun in his (ap- parent) motion round the earth in twenty-four hours, will pass from one meridian to another in One hour, and cause the shadow of the axis to fall on the hour on the plane D C B A. This diagram has been drawn for the latitude of Glasgow 55° 52', and the plane in its present position would form a horizontal dial for that place; but we may suppose it capable DIAL–DYALECT. of moving round its axis A C, so as to assume diffe- rent positions in the sphere. If it move round so as to become vertical, that is, at right angles to its po- sition in the figure, we then obtain an erect South dial. The plane may also be made to incline from the meridian either towards the east or west. Thus we have dials of different kinds dependent on the po- sition of the plane with regard to the first meridian, the position of the hour lines of which are all determined by the meridians of the sphere cutting the plane. These inclinations of the plane cannot go beyond cer- tain limits, which the reader will easily discover by a }ittle reflection. We have been considering the earth as the sphere, in our illustration of the nature of dials, but the earth's magnitude is so small compared with the distance of the sun, that no sensible error will follow in con- sidering a small glass sphere similar to that above described, but placed on the surface of the earth, with its axis parallel to that of the earth; then will the sphere show the hour of the day in the manner before specified. The only things absolutely essential for a dial are the axis and the plane, the places of the hour lines having been once determined. Dials may have various forms, many of which are exceedingly cu- rious; and the reader who is desirous of becoming ac- quainted with them, may consult with advantage the last edition of Brewster's Ferguson's Lectures. Many of these forms are very intricate, and re- quire for their construction the application of compli- cated trigonometrical formulae. We shall confine our attention here to the most common, and, at the same time, most useful form, i. e. the plane horizontal dial. Ps \\?\g Nº. 9 10 l ; 12 P. On the proposed plane,which may be either of marble, slate, or brass, draw the straight line P H S for the meridian or twelve o'clock line, and parallel to this draw 12, h S, leaving a space between them equal to the thickness of the gnomon. The gnomon is a thin trian- gular disk of metal, some- what similar in shape to the figure A E B, the side A B being fixed into the plate of the diai, so that the gnomon shall stºnd perpendicularly, the line A E being directly north and south. The line A E is called the style, and the angle E A B is equal to the latitude of the place for which the dial is constructed. We return again to the consideration of figure 2. Draw 6 H 6 perpendicular to 12 HS, and it will be the 6 o'clock hour line; make the angle 12 H F equal to the latitude of place, and draw 12 F perpendicular to H F ; continue S 12 to P, making 12 P equal to 12 F. The line 12–5 is drawn parallel to the line 6 H 6. From the point P draw the lines P 1, P2, P3, &c., terminating in the line 12–5, making angles with the !'ne 12, P at the point P of 159, 30%, 45°, &c., in- 663 creasing by 15 degrees each line. Next from the Centre H draw the lines H 1, H2, H 3, &c., and thus the hour lines of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 p.m. will be found. The hour lines on the other side of the style should now be formed by taking a tracing of the side already formed ; the hours are of course numbered differently, and both sides will stand thus, the hour lines of both sides corresponding:- 12, , , , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ’ 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4. Here we have carried the hours beyond 6, which was the extent of the construction; but to find the hour lines for 4 and 5 in the morning, we have only to pro- duce the hour lines of 4 and 5 in the evening, and in like manner for the hour lines of 7 and 8 in the after- moon, produce the hour lines of 7 and 8 in the morn- ing. The dial gives solar time, and, therefore, the time, according to it, will only agree four days in the year with a well-regulated clock. SeeBquation of time. The Sundial is daily getting more rare in this Country ; but notwithstanding the superiority of the clock, why has the dial almost everywhere vanished 2 “If its business use,” as has been well observed, “be superseded by more elaborate inventions, its moral use, its beauty, might have pleaded for its con- tinuance. It spoke of moderate labours—of plea- Sures not protracted after sunset—of temperance and good hours. It was the primitive clock—the horol- oge of the first world. Adam could scarce have missed it in paradise. It was the measure appropriated for Sweet plants and flowers to spring by-for the birds to apportion their silver warblings by—for flocks to pas- ture and be led to fold by. The shepherd carved it out quaintly in the sun, and, turning philosopher by the very occupation, provided it with mottoes more touching than tombstones.” DIALECT; a variety of a language. This de- finition is certainly vague, but is necessarily so from the nature of the subject, as it is impossible to de- termine nicely the line where dialects begin to be- come distinct languages. For instance, in some respects, German, Danish, Swedish, Icelandish, may be called dialects of the common Teutonic stock; yet a German is no more able to understand Swedish than Hebrew, if he has not studied it. It would not be correct, however, to lay it down as a rule, that dialects are such forms of the common language, as may be understood, if not entirely, yet in general, by all who speak one of the varieties of the common language, because a person who never heard or spoke anything but High-German cannot under- stand the people of Lower Germany, speaking to each other in their dialect: a Portuguese, indeed, is generally able to understand Spanish, without hav- ing learned the language systematically. The common meaning of the term dialect, in mo- dern times, is the language of a part of a country, or a distant colony, deviating, either in its grammar, words, or pronunciation, from the language of that part of the common country, whose idiom has been adopted as the literary language, and the medium of intercourse between well-educated people. In an- cient times, when the great difficulties in the way of intercourse and communication between different parts of a country prevented, or at least impeded, * “ Horas mon numero mise serenas,” (“I only count the hours of sunshine,”) was an ancient dial-motto of great beauty and significance. Save when the sun’s resplendent ray May gild the passing hour, To mark the minutes on their way I lose the ready power. So only can that time be blest, And called by man his own, In which the sunbeam of the breast The conscience may have shche : 664 the formation of a general language, each dialect was developed independently of the others, until some event gave to one the ascendency. In Greece, we find four distinct dialects; the Ionic, Attic, Doric, and Æolic; each of which gave birth to li- terary productions still extant, until at last the greater refinement, and the cultivation of arts and Sciences in Athens, gave the Attic dialect the superiority. It is a great mistake to consider dialects as some- thing to be rooted out like noxious weeds; for, if they are independent varieties of a common lan- guage, not mere corruptions of a language already settled, they always retain many beauties, which would not exist without them; many peculiarities, which often afford a great insight into the language, to a judicious philologist. No one, who has studied the peculiarities of the Provengal, the Low-German, or the Allemannic dialects, or the Neapolitan, with its many remnants of the Greek, would wish to put an end to their existence. Dialects resemble rebels against lawful authority, until the stamp of legiti- macy is impressed upon them by a great man or great event. Italian was once, the vulgar dialect; and, even now, to translate into Italian is called volgarizzare. It was corrupt Latin mixed with barbarous words de- rived from the idioms of the conquerors of the coun- try, and was used at first only by the lower classes; it then became the general dialect of common life; and, at last, the giant mind of Dante dared to sing in the “vulgar dialect,” and to stamp it as a legiti- mate language.* Portuguese was a corrupted dialect of Spanish, until Portugal separated from Spain, and dared to uphold its dialect as an independent language. In Germany, no dialect has ever obtained entire ascendency. Much was once written in Low-Ger- man, and the activity of the Hanseatic league, and the wide extent to which it was spoken, gave it much influence. Charles W., born at Ghent, spoke Low-German ; but Luther's translation of the Bible, like Dante's Divina Commedia, made High-German the literary language. . . Since that time, it has changed very much, and has acquired, in many re- spects, a development of its own. It is a great mistake, common among foreigners, to consider Saxon as the Castilian or Tuscan dialect of Germany because Luther was born in Saxony. On the con- trary, the Saxon dialect is one of the most disagree- able to a German ear, and deviates much from the modern High-German. Only the fundamental characteristic of the language of Upper-Germany have remained in High-German. In other respects, it has developed itself independently of any provin- cial dialect. In England, there are but two great dialects, Eng- lish and Scottish ; yet it has often been observed that no country has more variations from the common li- terary language. Every county has its peculiarities, which are sometimes striking and difficult to be un- derstood. On the other hand, there never has existed a country so vast, and a population so large as that of America, with so little variety of dialect, which is owing to the quick and constant communi- cation between the different parts of the country, and the roving spirit of the people, the great mass of whom, besides, derive their descent from the same stock. DIALECTICS; the old name of logic, or the art of reasoning (from 312x4) saga, to speak), because thought and reasoning are expressed by speech, and thus were first manifested, and the mind maturally * It must be observed, that Neapolitan was written even before Tuscan ; but Dante's greatness made the Tuscan at tonce the standard dialect. T)IALECTICS.–DIAMOND. proceeds from the obvious to the remote, from the particular to the general. Logic (q.v.) was early denominated, in conformity with this name, the art of speaking or disputing. By dialectician, we understand a teacher of dialectics, or one who under- stands the art of logical disputation. DIALOGUE ; a conversation or conference be- tween two or more persons. The word is particu- larly used in reference to theatrical performances, and to written conversations, or a composition in which two or more persons are represented as inter- changing ideas on a given topic. The ancient philo- Sophérs, especially the Greeks, from their peculiar vi- vacity, were fond of this form; they used it for the communication of their investigations on scientific subjects. The dialogues of Plato are a sort of philo- Sophical dramas. The Socratic dialogue (so called) consists of questions and answers, and the person questioned is obliged, by successively assenting to the interrogatories put to him, to come to the con- clusions which the questioner wishes to produce. This dialogue supposes in the interrogator a thorough knowledge of human nature in general, and of the person questioned in particular. The dialogue is now much used for verbal instruction. The philosophical dialogue seems but little adapted to our manners, and the present improved state of the sciences; and, being written, of course, with the view of establishing certain positions, the objections raised are only such as can be readily answered, and thereby assist in establishing the desired conclusions; but are not al- ways such as present themselves to the reader, who is often dissatisfied with the result, because his own doubts are not settled. Erasmus of Rotterdam, and subsequently, among the Germans, Lessing, Moses Mendelssohn, Engel, Herder, Jacobi, Solger, have written in this form. In comic and satiric dialogue, Wieland has imitated the satirist Lucian. Among the most distinguished Italian writers of dialogue are Petrarca (De vera Sapientia), Machiavelli, Gelli, Algarotti and Gozzi; and among the French, Sar- rassin, Malebranche, Fénélon : Fontenelle and St Mard imitated Lucian, and, among the English, bishop Berkeley and Hurd have imitated Plato, and Harris, Cicero. Lord Lyttelton's dialogues of the dead, and Addison's dialogues on medals, are well known. Landor's imaginary conversations of lite- rary men and statesmen (London, 1826) attracted some attention. . If the conversation gives rise to action, then the drama is produced. In the drama, the dialogue, in a narrower sense, is opposed to mo- mologue or soliloquy; in the opera, it is that which is spoken, in opposition to that which is sung. See Drama. DIAMETER ; the straight line drawn through the centre of a circle, and touching the two opposite points of the circumference. It thus divides the cir- cle into two equal parts, and is the greatest chord. The radius is half this diameter, and consequently the space comprehended between the centre and cir. cumference of a circle. (For the magnitude of the diameter, in comparison with the circumference, see Circle.) DIAMOND ; the hardest and most valuable of all the gems. To the account of the diamond already given in the article Carbon, we will only add at pre- sent, that diamonds are of various colours; but the colourless, which is the sort mostly used in the arts, is, when pure, perfectly clear, and pellucidas the purest water. Hence the phrases, the water of a diamond, a diamond of the finest water, &c. The colourless diamonds are not, however, the most common. The rarest colours are blue, pink, and dark brown; but yellow diamonds, when the colour is clear and equal throughout, are very beautiful, and much valued, DIAMOND—DIAMOND DISTRICT. Pale blue diamonds are also very fine and rare, but deep blue still more rare. The largest diamond hi- therto found is in the possession of the rajah of Mat- tan, in the island of Borneo, where it was found about eighty years since. It weighs 367 carats. It is de- scribed as having the shape of an egg, with an inden- tation near the smaller end. Many years ago, the governor of Batavia tried to purchase it, and offered in exchange 150,000 dollars, two large brigs of war, with their guns and ammunition, and other cannon, with powder and shot. But the rajah refused to part with a jewel, to which the Malays attach mira- culous powers, and which they imagine to be con- nected with the fate of his family. This diamond is mentioned in the memoirs of the Batavian Society. The diamond is the hardest of all known substances. Nothing will scratch it, nor can it be cut but by it- self. By cutting, it acquires a brilliancy and play of lustre that much augment its price. The hardness of the diamond was well known to the ancients; its manue, both in Greek and Latin (33422s, adamas), implying invincible hardness. The ancients did not confine the word adamas to indicate the diamond alone, but applied it to other hard and adamantine substances. They were unacquainted with the art of cutting the diamond, satisfying themselves with those which were polished naturally ; but knew of the property of its powder or dust for cutting, en- graving, and polishing other stones. The art of cutting and polishing the diamond was unknown in Europe till the fifteenth century. Before that period, rough and unpolished ones were set as ornaments, and valued according to the beauty and perfection of their crystallization and transparency. This art is said to have been invented and first prac- tised in 1456, by Louis de Berquen, a native of Bruges. Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, was one of the first princes of modern times who affected a great splendour in diamonds. Among engraved or sculptured diamonds is one with a head, which Gori falsely imagined to be antique, and called it a por- trait of Posidonius. It belonged to the duke of Bed- ford. Lessing thinks that many of the engraved antique gems, which are called diamonds, are nothing but amethysts, sapphires, and emeralds, deprived of their colour by the operation of fire. T)iamonds are valuable for many purposes. Their powder is the best for the lapidary and gem engraver, and more economical than any other material for cutting, engraving, and polishing hard Stones. Gla- ziers cut glass with them ; glass-cutters' looking- glasses, and other articles of window and plate glass. The glazier's diamond is set in a steel socket, and attached to a wooden handle about the size of a thick pencil. It is very remarkable, that only the point of a natural crystal can be used; cut or split diamonds scratch, but the glass will not break along the scratch, as it does when a matural crystal is used. An appli- cation of the diamond, of great importance in the art of engraving, has been also made within a few years by the late Wilson Lowry, to the purpose of drawing or ruling lines, which are afterwards to be deepened by aqua fortis. Formerly steel points, called etching meedles, were used for that purpose; but they soon became blunt by the friction against the copper, so that it has always been impracticable to make what are called flat or even tints with them ; such as the azure parts of skies, large architectural subjects, and the sea in maps; but the diamond, being turned to a conical point, or otherwise cut to a proper form, is not worn away by the friction of the copper, and, consequently, the lines drawn by it are all of equal thickness. The diamond etching points of Mr Lowry are turned in a lathe, by º a thin splinter of diamond against them, as a chisel. 665 DIAMOND DISTRICT, in Brazil. That part of Brazil where the government collects diamonds is not far from Villa di Principe, and extends about sixteen leagues from north to south, and about eight from east to west, in the district of Cerro do Frio, which consists of rugged mountains, generally considered the highest in Brazil. The first diamonds found here were used by the governor of Villa di Principe as card counters, and considered by him as curious bright crystals. They were sent to Lisbon, where the Dutch consul recognised their value, and sent them to Hol- land, then the market of precious stones. Holland immediately concluded a commercial treaty with Por- tugal, and it is said that the weight of the diamonds introduced during the next twenty years into Europe exceeded a thousand ounces. This diminished their value, and diamonds were exported profitably even to India, the only country whence, till then, these stones had come. An interesting account of the proceedings in the Diamond district, into which few visitors are ever admitted, is contained in the excellent work called Travels in Brazil, in the years 1817–1820, under- taken by Command of H. M., the King of Bavaria, by the late Dr John Bapt. von Spix, and Dr C. F. Phil. von Martius, two vols., written and edited by the survivor, Dr Martius, Munich, 1828, 4to, translated into English 1829. From this work the following account is extracted :-The travellers reached Villa di Principe, a town of Some size, lying near the edge of the diamond district, into which they were admit- ted by virtue of an order from the king. This tract of country is entirely occupied by the government, for the sake of its mineral treasures. In 1730, dia- monds were declared the property of the crown ; and this district, abounding particularly in them, has been subjected to a most curious system of exclusion. Lines of demarcation are drawn around it, guarded as strictly as those of an infected city. No person is permitted to pass these, in either direction, without an order from the intendant of the mines. Every one, on going out, is subjected, with his horses and baggage, to a most minute examination, and, in case of suspicion that a diamond has been swallowed, may be detained for twenty-four hours. The intendant is head judge in all cases, and chief of the police; he may send any inhabitant out of the district on bare suspicion; nor is there any appeal from him and his council, the junta diamantina, except to the mercy of the king. Every member of this board, if he knows of any person having diamonds in his possession, is bound to give notice to the intendant, who imme- diately issues his search-warrant, though, in cases of emergency, the soldiers are permitted to search with- out such authority. There are also strict rules with regard to the registering of the inhabitants, the ad- mission of settlers, the erection of new inns or shops, and the hiring of slaves. The members of the expe- dition being acquainted with the intendant, who, though a native Brazilian, had studied mineralogy under Werner, in Germany, were invited to a sitting of the junta. The order of proceedings was as fol- lows. First, the whole stock of diamonds was laid be- fore the meeting. It amounted to 9396 carats 2 grains, and was divided into twelve classes (lotes), enclosed in bags of red silk. The division was made by means of a brass box, in which there were eleven sieves of different sizes, so arranged that the smallest diamonds were collect- ed in the lowest, the largest in the upper sieve. There were eleven stones of more than eight carats in weight. Some spurious diamonds were rejected by the junta, and given, for the sake of accurate ex- amination, to the travellers. These are now pre- served at Munich, and were found to be several 666 beautiful varieties of chrysoberyls (chiefly those called in Brazil green aqua-marines) and Sapphires, white and blue topazes, rubies, quartzes, and other stones. After the whole collection of the year had been examined, and a list made, they were, in the presence of all the members, packed up in bags, and deposited in a small red morocco box. This was fastened by two locks, of which the intendant and the officer of the crown revenue had each a key, and then given in charge, together with the minutes of the proceedings, to a detachment of dragoons, and addressed to the king, to be forwarded to the gover- nor of Villa Rica, to Rio Janeiro. The diamond- washing is performed by slaves, who are hired by the government from private proprietors, at the rate of 300 to 600 rees a-week. They are under the con- trol of certain inspectors, named feitores, of whom there were, in 1818, one hundred. These persons have the more immediate care of the slaves, and re- ceive from them the diamonds. The feitores, again, are under the control of ten surveyors (administra- dores), who weigh the diamonds, deliver them to the junta, and have the management of the works, ma- chinery, &c. The government formerly prohibited the washing for gold in the Diamond district; it is, however, now permitted, as a favour to individuals ; but if any precious stones are found, they are given up to the junta. The most formidable enemy to the government are the diamond smugglers, or grimpei- zos. These persons, who are frequently runaway slaves, being well acquainted with the country, are able by night to elude the vigilance of the royal guards. The diamonds smuggled are generally pro- cured from the slaves, who are able, in the presence of the inspectors, to secrete them in various ways between their fingers and toes, in their ears, mouth, or hair; or they swallow the stones, or throw them over their heads, so that they can find them again by night. When the guards are once past, the smug- glers sell the stones to traders, who easily conceal them in bales of cotton and other similar commodi- ties, and send them down to the coast. Such is the necessary and natural consequence of the system adopted by the Brazilian government. “It is,” as doctor Martius remarks, “the only instance in which a tract of country has been isolated, and all civil re- lations made subordinate to a monopoly of the crown.” The happiness and convenience of both the inhabi- tants and neighbours are obviously sacrificed to maintain a mercantile speculation, of which the pro- fits cannot be very great.* DIAMOND, in technical language, is the rhom- boid, that is, a quadrangle with equal sides, and i. obtuse angles; for instance, in patterns of ca- ICO. - DIANA ; the Roman name of the Artemis of the Greeks ; the daughter of Jupiter and Latona, twin sister of Apollo. ... (See Apollo, and Delos.) While yet a child, as Callimachus relates in his hymn, she entreated her father to suffer her to continue a vir- gin, because her mother's sufferings had rendered her averse from love. She desired him, at the same time, to give her a bow and arrows, a city, and rule over the hills, sixty Oceanides, and twenty river- nymphs, and to permit her to bear a torch and hunt in the forests. Jupiter gave her more than she asked. He caused thirty cities to be devoted exclu- sively to her worship, and appointed many others * Diamonds have been lately brought by Alex. von Hum- boldt from the Ural mountains, where, from some passages in ancient writers, they appear to have been found in an- §ent times. “ Not far from the Rhiphaean mountains,” says Dionysius Periegetes, “among the cold Agathyrsi, sparkling diamonds are collected;” and Åmmianus Marcellinus agrees Yith him when he mentions “Agathyrsi apud quos adaman- & is est copia lapidis.” DIAMOND–DIANA. where she was venerated in common with other deities. Diana then retired to the woods of Leucus, in Crete; thence she went to the ocean, where she Selected a numerous retinue of nymphs, nine years old. Her next journey was to the Cyclops, on the island Lipara, of whom she asked a Cydonian bow, and a quiver and arrows. They executed the com- mands of the goddess, and she now appeared with her arms in the Arcadian territory of Pan, who pre- sented her with some beautiful hunting-dogs. Thus equipped, at the foot of mount Parrhasius, she took four beautiful stags, with gold antlers, yoked them to her chariot, and proceeded with them first to the Thracian Haemus. On Olympus, in Mysia, she cut a torch from a tree, and kindled it with the lightning of Jove. When she returned to the palace of the gods, loaded with game, Mercury and Apollo met her in the vestibule; the former took her weapons, and the latter the fruits of the chase. The river- nymphs unyoked the stags from her chariot, fed them in Juno's meadows, and gave them water from golden vessels. , Diana then went into the palace of the gods, and sat by the side of Apollo. As he directs the chariot of the Sun, she guides that of the moon. Cupid and Venus sought to conquer her in vain. Hunting, music and dancing alone had charms for her. She punished without mercy those of her vir- gins who violated their vows of chastity. Actaeon, the grandson of Cadmus, who secretly watched her as she was bathing, she changed into a stag, and his own dogs fore him in pieces. The beautiful Endy- mion, however, at length made her feel the power of love. While enlightening the earth as Luna (the moon), she beheld the hunter, fatigued with the chase, slumbering in the woods. She descended from her ethereal course, and kissed the lips of the youth, who enjoyed a favour never before granted to mortal or immortal. Notwithstanding her aversion to love, she afforded aid to women who called upon her in travail. She was also the goddess of death. She aims her darts especially at the female sex, and brings the old, who are satisfied with life, to a gentle death, to make way for the vigorous and blooming. When she is angry, she destroys with pestilence and disease, like her brother Apollo. When offended, she revenges without compassion. Thus she slew Orion, the hunter, from jealousy, because Aurora had fallen in love with him ; so also the daughters of Niobe, because their mother preferred herself above Latona, &c. In the Trojan war, both Diana and Apollo aided the Trojans; and in the war with the giants and Titans, she proved her valour. The worship of Diana was spread through all Greece. She received many surnames, particularly from the places where her worship was established, and from the functions over which she presided. She was called Lucina, Ilythia, or Juno Pronuba, when invoked by women in child-bed, and Trivia when Worshipped in the cross-ways where her statues were generally erected. She was supposed to be the same as the moon and Proserpine or Hecate, and from that circumstance she was called Triformis; and some of her statues represented her with three heads, that of a horse, a dog, and a boar. She was also called Agroteta, Orthia, Tavrica, Delia, Cynthia, Aricia, &c. She was supposed to be the same as the Isis of the Egyptians, whose worship was introduced into Greece with that of Osiris, under the name of Apollo. The Artemisia was a festival celebrated in honour of her at Delphi.-At first she was represented with a diadem, afterwards with the crescent upon her head, with bow and arrows, a quiver over her shoulders, and a light hunting dress, together with her hounds. Her most famous temple was at Ephesus (q.v.), and was considered one of the wonders of the world. She DIANA—I) IARR HOEA. was worshipped there as the symbol of fruitful ma- ture, and represented with many breasts, encircled with numerous bands. DIANA of Poitiers, duchess of Valentinois, born in 1499. She was the mistress of king Henry II. of France, and descended from the noble family of Poi- tiers, in Dauphiny. At an early age, she married the grand-semeschal of Normandy, Louis de Brezé, became a widow at thirty-one, and, some time after, the mistress of the young duke of Orleans. When the duke became dauphin, a violent hostility arose between Diana and the duchess of Etampes, mistress of Francis I., who taunted her rival with her age. Diana Satisfied her revenge by banishing the duchess on the accession of Henry II. to the throne, in 1547, in whose name she ruled with unlimited power. Till his death, in 1559, she exercised such an absolute empire over the king, by the charms of her wit and grace, that her superstitious contemporaries ascribed her power to magic. Upon his death, she retired to her castle Anet, where she established a charitable insti- tution for the support of twelve widows, and died in 1566. Medals are still to be seen bearing her image, trampling under foot the god of love, with the in- Scription, Omnium victorem vici (I have conquered the universal conqueror). DIANA’S TREE (arbor Diana, or silver tree) is formed from a solution of silver in nitrous acid, pre- cipitated by quicksilver, and crystallized in prismatic needles, which are grouped together in the form of a tree. To make this beautiful process of crystalliza- tion visible to the eye, let a quantity of pure silver be dissolved in nitrous acid ; then dilute the Saturat- ed solution with twenty or thirty parts of water, and put in an amalgam of eight parts mercury and One part silver leaf, upon which, after some days, crystals are formed. A little mercury, in fine linen, is sus- pended in this solution by a silk thread, and the tree may then be withdrawn from the solution, and pre- served under a glass bell. Copper filings dropped into a solution of silver in aqua fortis produce the Same effect ; and such trees are often found in work- ing silver ore, on the removal of the quicksilver. Since the invention of the voltaic pile, scientific men have succeeded in producing the tree of Diana by its influence on the union of metals with acids. If the electric current, for example, is transmitted through nitrate of silver, the needles of silver arrange themselves in the same way on the wire of the pile. DIAPASON. . By the term diapason, the ancient Greeks expressed the interval of the octave. And Certain musical instrument-makers have a kind of rule or scale, called the diapason, by which they de- termine the measures of the pipes, or other parts of their instruments. There is a diapason for trumpets and serpents. Bell-founders have also a diapason, for the regulation of the size, thickness, weight, &c., of their bells. Diapason is likewise the appellation given to certain stops in an organ. See Stop. DIAPER (French, diapre); so called from Ypres (d’Ypres); linen cloth woven in flowers and other figures; the finest species of figured limen after damask. Hence, as a verb, it signifies to diversify or variegate with flowers, or to imitate diaper. DIAPHRAGM, in anatomy; a large robust, mus- cular membrane or skin, placed transversely in the trunk, and dividing the chest from the belly. In its natural situation, the diaphragm is convex on the upper side towards the breast, and concave on its lower side towards the belly; therefore, when its fibres swell and contract, it must become plain on each side; and consequently the cavity of the breast is enlarged, to give liberty to the lungs to receive air in inspiration; and the stomach and intestines are pressed for the distribution of their contents; hence (.67 the use of this muscle is very considerable. It is the principal agent in respiration, particularly in inspira- tion ; for, when it is in action, the cavity of the chest is enlarged, particularly at the sides, where the lung" are chiefly situated; and, as the lungs must always be contiguous to the inside of the chest and upper side of the diaphragm, the air rushes into them in or- der to fill up the increased space. In expiration, it is relaxed, and pushed up by the pressure of the abdomi- mal muscles upon the viscera of the abdomen; and at the same time that they press it upwards, they pull down the ribs, by which the cavity of the chest is dimi- nished, and the air suddenly pushed out of the lungs. DIARRHCEA ; a very common disease, which consists in an increased discharge from the alimen- tary canal, the evacuations being but little affected, except in their assuming a more liquid consistence. They are generally preceded or accompanied by fla- tulence, and a griping pain in the bowels, and frequently by sickness; but this should, perhaps, ra- ther be attributed to the same cause which produces the diarrhoea, than be considered as a part of the disease itself. The symptoms of this complaint are so obvious as seldom to leave any doubt respecting its existence; but there are two diseases that resemble it, and from which it is important to distinguish it—dysen- tery and cholera. For the most part, an attention to the nature of the evacuations is sufficient to point out the distinction; or if, as occasionally happens, the diseases appear to run into each other, our remedies must be administered accordingly, always adapting them rather to the symptoms than to a technical momenclature. The exciting causes of diarrhoea are various ; per- haps the most frequent is repletion of the stomach or the reception into it of some kind of indigestible food : cold applied to the surface of the body, and especially to the legs and feet, is also an exciting cause of diar- rhoea; and it is occasionally produced by impressions upon the nervous system, or even by mere mental emo- tions. In children, the peculiar irritation produced by teething seems to be a frequent exciting cause of diar- rhoea, as well as that which arises from the presence of worms in the alimentary canal. Diarrhoea is often symptomatic of some other disease: of these, one of the most violent is the colliquative discharge from the bowels which occurs in the latter stages of hec- tic fever. It is also a frequent attendant or sequel of the affections of the liver that come on after a resi- dence in hot climates, and is then found to be one of the most unmanageable symptoms of these diseases. In its simple form, diarrhoea is not difficult of cure, and, perhaps, in a great majority of cases, would be relieved by the mere efforts of nature. The proxi- mate cause of diarrhoea appears to be an increase of the peristaltic motion of the intestines, which may depend either upon a stimulating substance applied to them, or upon an increased sensibility in the part, rendering it more easily affected by the ordi. mary stimuli. In cases of the first description, which constitute a great majority of those that fall under our observation, the most effectual remedies are mild purgatives, given in small doses, and frequently re- peated. . Along with the purgatives large quantities of mild diluents will be found serviceable ; and the food should be of the least stimulating kind, and be composed as much as possible of liquids. The choice of the purgatives will depend upon the state of the stomach, and various other circumstances: neutral salts, castor oil, rhubarb and magnesia, are, perhaps, among those that are the most generally applicable: the last will be especially proper when we have reason to suspect an acid state of the ali- mentary canal. After the due exhibition of purga- tives, we shall generally find the complaint to subside 668 without the use of any other remedies; and, by a proper regulation of the diet, the parts resume their healthy action. Considerable advantage has been gained by the use of warm clothing, and particularly of flannel worn next to the skin, in those who are subject to frequent attacks of diarrhoea; and sometimes it has appeared that the warm bath, or even the removal to a milder climate, has been of permanent utility. DIATONIC (from the Greek); a term in music, applied by the Greeks to that one of their three genera, which consisted, like the modern system of intervals, of major tones and semitones. The dia- tonic genus has long since been considered as more natural than either the chromatic or enharmonic. Aristoxenus asserts it to have been the first, and in- forms us that the other two were formed from the division of its intervals. DIATONUM INTENSUM, or SHARP DIA- TONIC ; the name given by musical theorists to those famous proportions of the intervals proposed by Ptolemy, in his system of that name ; a system which, long after the time of this ancient speculative musi- cian, was received in our counterpoint, and is pro- nounced by doctor Wallis, doctor Smith, and the most learned writers on harmonics, to be the best di- vision of the scale. DIAZ; 1. Michael, an Arragonese, companion of Christopher Columbus. In 1495, he discovered the gold mines of St Christopher, in the new world, and contributed much to the founding of New Isabella, afterwards St Domingo. He died in 1512.—2. Bartholomew; a Portuguese. In 1486, he was com- missioned by his government, during the reign of John II., to seek a new way to the East Indies. He advanced boldly to the south, and reached the south- ern extremity of Africa; but the mutinous spirit of his crew, and the dangerous tempests that raged there, compelled him to return to Lisbon. Diaz called the southern cape of Africa Cabo de todos los tormentos; but his king, John II., gave it the name of the cape of Good Hope, convinced that the expected way to India was now found. DIB, or DIV, signifying island; the final syllable of several Hindoo names, as Maldivec, Laccadives, Serendib (Ceylon). DIBDIN, CHARLEs, an English dramatic mana- ger and poet, composer and actor, was born at Southampton in 1745. At the age of fifteen, he made his appearance on the stage, and was early dis- tinguished as a composer. He excited uncommon admiration, and soon gained friends and a sufficient support. He invented a new kind of entertainment, consisting of music, songs, and public declamations, which he wrote, sung, composed, and performed him- self, and, by this means, succeeded in amusing the public for twenty years. His patriotic songs were very popular, and his sea songs are still the favour- ites of the British navy. Their favourable influence on the lower classes obtained him a pension of £200 from government. Improvidence, however, kept him constantly poor. He died in 1814. His son, Charles Dibdin, has composed and written many Small pieces and occasional songs. His second son, Thomas Dibdin, is likewise a fruitful writer of thea- trical and occasional pieces. DICE ; cubical pieces of bone or ivory, marked with dots on each of their six faces, from one to six, according to the number of faces. Sharpers have several ways of falsifying dice: 1. By sticking a hog's bristle in them so as to make them run high or low, as they please; 2. by drilling and loading them with quicksilver, which cheat is found out by holding them gently by two diagonal corners; for, if false, the heavy sides will turn always down; 3. by filing DIATONIC- —DICKINSON, and rounding them. But all these ways fall far short of the art of the dice-makers, some of whom are so dexterous this way, that sharping gamesters will give any money for their assistance. Dice are very old. The Roman word tessera is derived from the Greek riorigis, Ionic for résozess. four ; because it is, on every side, square. Numer- ous passages in the ancient writers, and very many representations in marble or paintings, show how frequent dice-playing was among them. Different from the tesserae, which were precisely like our dice, were the tali,(which means, originally, the pastern bone of a beast—Greek, &crgéyaxos). These were almost of a cubic form, and had numbers only on four sides, lengthwise. Three tesserae and four tali were often used together; and the game with dice was properly called alea, though alea afterwards came to signify any game at hazard, and aleator, a gambler. Dice-playing, and all games of chance, were prohi- bited by several laws of the Romans, except in De- cember, yet the laws were not strictly observed. DICHMONT, the name of a hill in the parish of Cambuslang, Lanarkshire, which is celebrated by Mr John Struthers, in his finely descriptive and didactic poem, entitled “Dichmont.” It is elevated about 700 feet above the level of the Sea, and commands a magnificent view of the vale of Clyde. DICKINSON, JoHN, an American writer, was born in Maryland, in December, 1732, and educated in Delaware, to which province his parents removed soon after his birth. He read law in Philadelphia, and resided three years in the Temple, London. Af. ter his return to America, he practised law with suc- cess in Philadelphia. He was soon elected to the legislature of Pennsylvania, in which his superior qualifications as a speaker and a man of business gave him considerable influence. The attempts of the mother country upon the liberties of the colonies early awakened his attention. His first elaborate publication against the new policy of the British cabinet was printed at Philadelphia, in 1765, and en- titled, The late Regulations respecting the British Colonies on the Continent of America considered. In that year he was deputed by Pennsylvania, to attend the first congress, held at New York, and prepared the draft of the bold resolutions of that congress. In 1766, he published a spirited address on the same questions, to a committee of correspondence in Bar- badoes. He next issued in Philadelphia, in 1767, his celebrated Farmer's Letters to the Inhabitants of the British Colonies—a production which had a great influence in enlightening the American people on the subject of their rights, and preparing them for resist- ance. They were reprinted in London, with a pre- face by Dr Franklin, and published in French, at Paris. In 1774, Mr Dickinson wrote the resolves of the committee of Pennsylvania, and their instruc- tions to their representatives. These instructions formed a profound and extensive essay on the consti- tutional power of Great Britain over the colonies in America, and in that shape they were published by the committee. While in congress, he wrote the Address to the Inhabitants of Quebec; the first peti- tion to the King; the Address to the Armies; the second petition to the King, and the Address to the several States; all among the ablest state papers of the time. As an orator, he had few Superiors in that body. He penned the famous Declaration of the United Colonies of North America (July 6, 1775); but he opposed the declaration of independence, be: lieving that compromise was still practicable, and that his countrymen were not yet ripe for a complete separation from Great Britain. This rendered him for a time so unpopular, that he withdrew from the public councils, and did not recover his seat in con- DICTATOR-DICTIONAR Y. gress until about two years afterwards. He then returned, earnest in the cause of independence. His zeal was shown in the ardent address of congress to the several states, of May, 1779, which he wrote and reported. He was afterwards president of the states of Pennsylvania and Delaware, successively; and, in the beginning of 1788, being alarmed by the hesita- tion of some states to ratify the constitution proposed by the federal convention the year before, he pub- lished, for the purpose of promoting its adoption, mine very able letters under the signature of Fabius. This signature he again used in fourteen letters, pub- lished in 1797, the object of which was to produce a fa- vourable feeling in the United States towards France, whose revolution he believed to be then at an end. Before the period last mentioned, he had withdrawn to private life, at Wilmington, in the state of Delaware, where he died, Feb. 14, 1808. His retirement was spent in literary studies, in charitable offices, and the exercise of an elegant hospitality. His conversation and manners were very attractive; his countenance and person, uncommonly fine. His public services were eminent: his writings have been justly describ- ed as copious, forcible, and correct; sometimes elo- quently rhetorical and vehement, and generally rich in historical references and classical quotations. DICTATOR. We shall state first the opinions commonly entertained respecting the Roman dictator, and afterwards some of the views of Niebuhr respect- ing this officer, as given in his Roman History. This magistrate, the highest in the Roman republic, was appointed only in extraordinary emergencies, which demanded the fullest power in the executive. The authority of the dictator was, therefore, almost with- out restrictions in the administration of the state and of the army, and from it there was no appeal. It continued only six months. In fact, the dictators commonly resigned their office as soon as the object was accomplished for which they had been appointed. There are only a few instances of their continuing a longer time; for example, in the cases of Sylla and of Caesar. The authority of all civil magistrates, except that of tribunes of the people, immediately ceased on the appointment of a dictator. The con- suls, indeed, continued in the discharge of their office; but they were subject to the orders of the dictator, and in his presence had no badges of power. The dictator, on the contrary, both within and without the city, was attended by 24 lictors, with their fasces and axes. He had the power of life and death, and was only restrained in not being permitted to spend the public money arbitrarily, or to leave Italy, or to enter the city on horseback. He might also be com- pelled to account for his conduct, when he laid down his office. The choice of dictator was not, as in the case of other magistrates, decided by the popular voice, but one of the consuls appointed him, at the command of the senate. The dictator then selected a master of the horse (magister equitum). In the sequel, dictators were also appointed to officiate in certain public solemnities; for example, to summon the comitia for the choice of new consuls, to arrange the festivals, and the like. The remainder of this article contains Niebuhr's views. The name of dictator, says Niebuhr, was of Latin origin. The Latins elected dictators in their several cities, and also over the whole nation. If Rome and Latium were confederate states, on a footing of equality, in the room of that Supremacy which lasted but for a brief space after the revolu- tion, they must have possessed the chief command alternately; and this would explain why the Roman dictators were appointed for only six months, and why they came to have twenty-four lictors. These were a symbol that the governments of the two states 669 were united under the same head; the consuls had only twelve lictors between them, which served them in turn. The dictator, at first, therefore, could have had to take cognizance only of foreign affairs; and the continuance of the consuls along with the dictator is accounted for. The object aimed at in the institu- tion of the dictatorship, was incontestably to evade the Valerian laws, and to re-establish unlimited au- thority over the plebeians; for the appeal to the commonalty granted by the law, was from the sen- tence of the consuls, and not from that of this new magistrate. Even the members of the legislative bodies, at first, had not the right of appealing against the dictator to their comitia. This is expressly as- Serted by Festus; but he adds that they afterwards obtained it. This is confirmed by the example of M. Fabin, who, when his son was persecuted by the dicta- tors, appealed in his behalf to the populus; to his peers, the patricians in the curiae. The later Romans had only an indistinct knowledge of the dictatorship, de- rived from their earlier history. As applied to the tyranny of Sylla, and the monarchy of Caesar, the term dictatorship was merely a name without any ground for such a use in the ancient constitution. This last application of the term enables us to ac- Count for the error of Dion Cassius, when, over- looking the freedom of the patricians, he express- ly asserts, that in no instance was there a right of appealing from the dictator, and that he might condemn knights and senators to death with- out a trial; also for the error of Dionysius, in fancying that he decided on every measure at will, even the determination of peace and war. Such mo- tions, out of which the moderns have drawn their phrase, dictatorial power, are suitable, indeed, to Sylla and Caesar, but do not apply to the genuine dic- tatorship. The statement generally contained in the books on Roman antiquities, that the appointment of the dictator, in all cases, rested with one of the con- suls, designated by the senate, is incorrect. Such might possibly be the case, if the dictator was re- stricted to the charge of presiding over the elections; but the disposal of kingly power could never have been intrusted to the discretion of a single elector. The pontifical law-books have preserved the true ac- Count, that a citizen whom the senate should nomin- ate, and the people approve of, should govern for six months. The dictator, after his appointment, had to obtain the imperium from the curiae. As late as in 444, the bestowal of the imperium was something more than an empty form ; but it became such by the Maenian law : thenceforward it was only necessary that the consul should consent to proclaim the person named by the Senate. Thus, after that time, in the ad- vanced state of popular freedom, the dictatorship could occur but seldom, except for trivial purposes : if, on such occasions, the appointment was left to the con- Suls, they would likewise advance pretensions to ex- ercise it in the solitary instances where the office still had any real importance. However, when P. Claudius misused his privilege in mockery, the remembrance of the ancient procedure was still fresh enough for the Senate to annul the scandalous appointment. DICTIONARY (from the Latin dictio, a saying, expression, word); a book containing the words, or subjects, which it treats, arranged in alphabetical order. At least, this should be the general princi- ple of the arrangement ; thus an etymological dic- tionary contains the roots of the words in a language in this order. By dictionary is generally understood a vocabulary, a collection of the words in a language, with their definitions; and Johnson's and Webster's definitions of the word apply only to this use of it. But in modern times, when the various branches of science have become so much extended, and the de- 670 sire of general knowledge is daily increasing, works of very various kinds have been prepared on the principle of alphabetical arrangement, and are termed dictionaries. Among the Greek dictionaries, the Onomastikon, written B. C. 120, by Julius Pollux, is one of the oldest, but more of a dictionary of things, or an en- cyclopedia, than a verbal dictionary. Hesychius of Alexandria, of whom we know little more than that he lived at the beginning of the third century, was the first Christian who wrote a Greek dictionary, which he called Glossarium. After the revival of learning, Johannes Crestonus (Crastonus, Johannes Placentinus, because he was a native of Placenza) wrote, in 1480, the first Greek and Latin dictionary. M. Terentius Varro, born in the year of Rome 638, wrote the first Latin dictionary. A similar one is that called Papius, prepared by Solomon, abbot of St Gall, bishop of Constance, who lived about 1409. John Balbus (de Balbis ; de Janua; Januensis ; died 1298) compiled a Latin dictionary, printed at Mentz in 1460, under the title Catholicon. John Reuchlin was the first German who wrote a Latin dictionary. The first Hebrew dictionary is by Rabbi Menachem Ben Saruck (Ben Jakob), in the ninth century. Rabbi Ben Jechiel (died in 1106) published the first Talmudic dictionary. The first Arabic diction- ary, written by a Christian, was published by Peter de Alcala, in 1505, at Grenada, with defini- tions in the Spanish language ; another, by Fran- ciscus Raphelengius (born 1539, died 1597), was printed at Leyden, in 1613. The first Syriac dic- tionary was written by Andrew Masius, in 1571, at Antwerp ; the first AEthiopian and Amharic, by Job Ludolf, in the sixteenth century, London ; the first Japanese, by John Ferdinand; the first German, by the archbishop Rabanus Maurus, of Mentz (died 859); the first German printed dictionary, under the title Theutonista, was prepared by Gerhard von der Schuren, Cologne, 1477; the first Hebrew, Greek, and Latin dictionary, by Sebastian Munster, 1530, at Basle. The dictionary of the Italian language, which has the highest authority, is that of the Crusca. The best French dictionary is that of the academy; but, since the revolution, the language has been in- creased by the addition of many new words, and has received from several of its first writers a new turn. The Spaniards have also a dictionary of the academy. The Portuguese academy has published one volume only of its dictionary. In German, no work of such authority exists. Adelung is excellent for etymolo- gy, but not of much authority as a standard of lan- guage. In this respect, Campe's JVorterbuch (Bruns- wick, 1813, 6 vols. 4to) is more complete. For Latin, Forcellini is still the best, and James Bailey's edition (London, 1828, 2 vols. 4to) is very excellent and complete. In English, Johnson's Dictionary was published in 1755, in 2 vols. fol. An Abridgment by the author appeared in 1756, in which many of the words were omitted. Mr Todd has added, in his second edition of Johnson's Dictionary (1827), more than 15,000 words. The other English dictionaries are of little comparative value, in respect to lan- guage. Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, (which is incorporated with the Boston edition of the Abridgment of Todd's Johnson) is important, as af- fording the most general standard of polite pronun- ciation. The American Dictionary of the English Language, intended to exhibit the origin, affinities, and primary signification of words, the genuine ortho- raphy and pronunciation of words, and accurate and iscriminating definitions, by Noah Webster, 2 vols. 4to, New York, 1828, republished in London, 1829, (Abridgment, 8vo, Boston, 1829), is a work of merit, and of great labour. It contains between ¥) ICTIONARY--DIDEROT. 60,000 and 70,000 words. For Geographical Dic tionaries, see Gazetteer. DIDACTIC POETRY. The word didactic is de- rived from 33202sly, to teach ; and a didactic poem is one of some length, the object of which is to impart instruction in the form of poetry. It is a matter of question, whether didactic poetry really deserves to be classed with lyric, epic, and dramatic, because either the chief object of the poem is to give instruc- tion on a certain subject, in which case the elevation invention, and freedom of poetry are excluded; or, i. this is not the prominent object, then every poem is more or less didactic. If there are any poems really deserving the name, that ought to be called didactic, it is those which veil the purpose of instruction under the universally admitted forms of poetic composition, as in the case of Lessing's drama of Nathan the Wise ; or clothe the lessons of wisdom in a symbolical or allegorical garb, as in the case of many visions, &c. Many of the early sacred poems of the different na- tions are, in this sense, didactic, and most, perhaps all, of these didactic poems partake of the symboli- cal character. Even Dante's grand poem (see Dante) would, in this point of view, be justly called didactic. Also fables, parables, poetic epistles, and descriptive poems are numbered, in this sense, among those of the didactic kind. There is hardly a subject, however prosaic, which has not at some time, been treated in a didactic poem, so called. The writer recollects having seen a long poem on book-binding. Didactic poetry, tak- ing the phrase in its narrower sense, will always be a meagre and poor kind of composition; but, when it passes into poetic description, it may attain an ani- mated and elevated character. Lively and beauti- ful descriptions, for instance, exist, of hunting, fish- ing, husbandry; but it is not to be denied, that they lose in didactic, as they gain in poetical character. Even the poem of Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, on the system of Epicurus, and the Georgics of Virgil, on husbandry, though containing poetical episodes and masterly passages, can hardly be regarded, on the whole, as great poems. Didactic poetry is most cultivated in periods when the nobler kinds of poe- try are declining, and the want of poetical genius and noble conceptions is attempted to be supplied by an incongruous mixture of poetry and reflection. Ovid's Art of Love partakes of the comic character. The Ars poetica of Horace is of the didactic kind. Among the English didactic poets are Davies, Akenside, Dryden, Pope, Young, Cowper, Darwin; among the French, Racine, Boileau, Dorat, Lacombe, Delille; among the Germans, Opitz, Haller, Hagedorn, Cronegk, Lichtwer, Tiedge, &c. Our objections to didactic poetry apply to it only if it is intended to make a class separate from epic, lyric, or dramatic, and has for its great object, to impart instruction on a particular subject, and not where the established forms of poetic composition are employed as vehicles of instruction. DIDASCALIA, among the Greeks; sometimes the exhibition of a play itself, and sometimes a writ- ten addition, in which information is given of the authors and contents of the plays, of the time, place, and success of the representation; whether the pieces were exhibited or not; whether they were the work of the poet to whom they were attributed, &c. Many old authors have written didascalia ; and these contain, not merely theatrical information, but also dramatic criticisms, the analysis of the plan, deve- lopment of the beauties and faults, &c. See Drama. DIDEROT, DENIs; a French writer and philoso- pher, was born in 1713, at Langres, in Champagne, and educated in the school of the Jesuits, who de- signed to make him one of their order. His father DIIDEROT— DIDOT. intended that he should pursue the profession of law, and committed him to the instruction of a Paris attor- ney; but the youth found greater attractions in li- terature. Neither the indignation of his father, nor his consequent want of means, could deter him from his favourite pursuit ; and he found resources in his own talents. He applied himself zealously to mathe- matics, physics, metaphysics, and the belles-lettres, and soon became distinguished among the wits of the capital. He laid the foundation of his fame by his Pensées Philosophiques (1746)—a pamphlet against the Christian religion, which found many readers, and in consequence of which he was imprisoned at Vincennes: the parliament caused it to be burned by the public executioner. The applause which this pamphlet received encouraged him to continue in the same course; he was not bold enough, however, to continue this particular work. His Lettres sur les Aveugles, ā l'Usage de ceuw qui voyent (London, 1749), contain attacks upon the Christian religion. In his Lettres sur Sourds et Muets, a l'Usage deceuw qui entendent et qui parlent, he treats of the origin of our perceptions. In conjunction with Eidous and Toussaint, he published the Dictionnaire universel de Médecine (6 vols. folio). The success of this work, notwithstanding its deficiencies, determined him to undertake an encyclopædia. He prepared the plan, and was assisted in the execution by D’Aubenton, Rousseau, Marmontel, Le Blond, Le Monnier, and particularly D'Alembert, who, next to him, had the largest share in this great undertaking. Diderot took upon himself the preparation of the articles relating to the arts and trades, and, by his care as editor, Sup- plied many of the deficiencies of his coadjutors. (See Encyclopaedia.) The profit of his twenty years' la- bour, owing to his bad management, was so trifling, that he found himself compelled to sacrifice his lib- rary. The empress of Russia purchased it for 50,000 livres, and allowed him the use of it for life. After this, Diderot visited Petersburg; but, having offended the empress by an equivocal quatrain, he soon re- turned to France. . While engaged in the encyclo- paedia, and obliged to encounter many obstacles, which delayed the printing for several years, he pub- lished a lively but licentious romance, Les Bijowa, indiscrets; and two sentimental comedies, Le Fils naturel and Le Père de Famille. They are often printed under the title Théatre de Diderot, and ac- companied with a treatise on the dramatic art, which contains many ingenious observations. Diderot died in 1784. His character has been very differently represented. His friends describe him as open, disinterested, and honest; his enemies, on the contrary, accuse him of cunning and selfish- , mess. Towards the end of his life, he had a quarrel with Rousseau, by whom he thought himself calum- miated, in which much weakness was displayed on both sides. Several excellent productions of his have been published since his death. Among them are his Essai sur la Peinture; likewise a dithy- rambic poem, written in 1772, Abdication d'un Roi de la Fêve, which contains democratical opinions; and two lively tales, La Religieuse (Paris, 1796), and Jacques le Fataliste et son Maître (Paris). Of Diderot was first said, what has been often repeated, that he had written some fine pages, but had never made a good book. Diderot was a man of brilliant talent and warm imagination, but has not established a lasting reputation, either as a writer or as a philosopher. His works are deficient in plan and connexion, and disfigured with pretension, obscurity, and arrogance, but, nevertheless, are cha- racterized by energy, and sometimes even by elo- quence. They contain many happy passages, and truths which would be more effectual if more simply 671 stated. As a philosopher, he followed the dictates of an intemperate imagination, rather than those of a sound reason. He is always enthusiastic, and oversteps the bounds of discretion. The general opinion entertained respecting him at present is, that he had much talent, and was capable of warmth and elevation of feeling, but that he was deficient injudg- ment and in taste. He adopted a desolating system of philosophy, and dishonoured his cause by the ex- cess to which he carried some of his principles, and by the licentiousness of his productions. He was distinguished for fluency and richness of conversation. An edition of his works appeared at London, 1773; also, with an Essay on his Life and Writings by J. A. Naigeon, Paris, 1821, 22 tom. 8vo. . His Memoirs and Correspondence were published at Paris, in 1831, 4 tom. 8vo. We refer the reader to a mas- terly article upon Diderot, by Mr Carlyle, in the “Foreign Quarterly Review,” No. xxii. DIDO ; the founder of Carthage. According to some, she was the daughter of Agenor (Belus); ac- cording to others, of Cârchedon of Tyre, from whom Carthage received its name. Others call her father Mutgo or Muttinus. Her brother was Pygmalion, king of Tyre. Her father married her to Sichaeus or Sicharbas, one of the richest Phoenicians, who was also the priest of Hercules, and to whom she was strongly attached. He was murdered before the altar, by her brother, who was instigated by the desire of making himself master of his wealth. The spirit of her husband appeared to her in a dream, disclosed the crime, besought her to ſlee, and in- formed her where she could find his treasures, which Pygmalion had sought in vain. She therefore set sail for Africa, with all her wealth and her faithful companions, taking on board a number of young women at Cyprus, who were necessary for the estab- lishment of a new colony. They landed on the coast of Africa, not far from Utica, a Tyrian colony, the inhabitants of which received her with the greatest kindness, and advised her to settle in the place where she first landed. She purchased of the natives a piece of land, and first built the citadel of Byrsa, and afterwards Carthage, about 888 B.C., which soon became an important place. Iarbas, a neighbouring prince, paid his addresses to her. Un- willing to accept, and unable to refuse the proposal, she sacrificed her life on the funeral pile. Virgil attributes her death to the faithlessness of Æneas; but the story of the meeting of Æneas and Dido is a poetical fiction, as she lived more than 200 years later than the hero of the AEmeid. DIDOT. This family of printers and booksellers at Paris have distinguished themselves by their liberal- ity and skill in their art, and by their many fine works, so that they may be justly ranked with the Elzevirs. 1. FRANgois-AMBROSE, son of the printer and book- seller Frangois Didot, born in 1730, invented many of the machines and instruments now commonly used in the typographic art. From his foundery came the most beautiful types that, up to that period, had been used in France, and he was the first person in France who printed on vellum paper. He took the greatest care to have his editions correct. By the direction of Louis XVI., he printed a collection of the French classics, for the use of the dauphin. The Count D'Artois employed him to print a similar collection. He died in 1804. 2. PIERRE-FRANgois DIDOT, brother of the former, succeeded his father in the bookselling business, and distinguished himself by his bibliographical know- ledge. He also became printer to Monsieur, since Louis XVIII. He had a great share in the changes made in the character of types, and contributed to the advancement of his art. He published some very 672 fine editions; among them the Voyages d’Anachar- sis. He died in 1795. 3. PIERRE DIDOT the elder, who has carried his art to perfection, Son of Frangois-Ambrose, born in 1761, succeeded his father in the printing business in 1789. His first work was to finish the collection for the dauphin, begun by the latter. But he was not satisfied with accomplishing this. In the universal impulse which the arts received from the revolution, he aimed at becoming the Bodoni of France, and conceived the plan of a splendid edition of the clas- sic authors in folio, which should excel, if possible, the best editions extant. He spared no expense to adorn them with all the splendour and elegance of the arts of design, and availed himself of the aid of the first masters. He even sacrificed a part of his property to this favourite object. His Virgil (1798) was worthy of these endeavours, and still more so his Racine of 1801, which the French regard as the first typographical production of any age or country. Only 250 copies of these works were struck off. Among the productions of his press, Wisconti's Icono- graphy is particularly distinguished. Didot de- voted the efforts of ten years to the improvement of the types, and caused eighteen different sorts, with new proportions, to be cut, with which he printed Boileau and Henriade in 1819. Didot paid no less attention to correctness and purity of text, and per- fect consistency of orthography, than to typogra- phical beauty. He is also known as an author. He has written prefaces, in Latin, to Virgil and Horace, and is the author of several works in French, poetry as well as prose. He has received marks of honour from the republic, from Napoleon, and from Louis XVIII. ; the latter conferred on him the order of St Michael. 4. FIRMAN DIDOT, brother of the preceding, printer and type-founder. He is the inventor of a new sort of Writing, and the improver of stereotype printing. (See Printing). In 1826, he published Notes d'un Poyage dans le Levant, en 1816 et 1817, of which he is the author. 5. HENRY DIDoT, son of Pierre-Frangois, and ne- phew of the two preceding, early distinguished him- self as a type-engraver. He then applied himself particularly to improve the method of founding types, in which he succeeded by the invention of a new founding apparatus. He calls his process fonderie polyamatype. It is more expeditious than the former mode, and the types are much cheaper. DIDYMOEUS; a surname of Apollo, either be- cause he was the twin-brother of Diana, or from the double light of the sun and moon, which he lends to men. Under this name, Apollo had one of the most famous of his temples and an oracle at Didyma, anong the Milesians. Pindar calls Diana Didyma. DIEMEN, ANTHoNY WAN; governor-general of the Dutch East Indies; was born in 1593, at Cuylenburg. Having been unsuccessful as a merchant, and pressed by his creditors, he went to India, where his excellent penmanship procured him the place of a clerk, and he speedily rose to the highest dignity. He administered the government with much ability, and contributed much to the establishment of the Dutch commerce in India. Abel Tasman, whom he sent with a vessel to the South Seas, in 1642, gave the name of Van Die- men's Land to a country long regarded as a part of New Holland, but since found to be an island; he likewise discovered New Zealand. Another naviga- tor, whom he sent out, made discoveries in the ocean north of Japan, which have been confirmed by voy- ages in our days. A part of the north-western por- tion of New Holland, which is also called Van Die- men's Land, was probably discovered later; per- haps, also, by Tasman. Van Diemen died in 1645. DIDYMOEUS—WAN DIEMEN'S LAND. DIEMEN'S (VAN) LAND ; or, as it is sometimes called in honour of its discoverer, Tasmania; an island in the Southern ocean, situated between lat. 419 and 44° South, and between lon. 164° 40' and 148° 20' east ; in length about 210 miles, and breadth 150. It is separated from New Holland by a strait of about 100 miles in breadth, the island lying this distance south of the most southern point of the former. The strait is called Bass's Strait, in ho- mour of its discoverer, Dr Bass, who, in the year 1797, first ascertained that Van Diemen's Land was an island, and that it was separated from New Hol- land by the channel which now bears his, name. The island was discovered in the year 1642, by Abel Jan- Sen Tasman, a Dutchman, and was by him called Van Diemen's Land, in honour of Anthony Van Diemen (q.v.). In 1773, it was visited by captain Furneau, the first English navigator who had ever touched at it ; after this it was visited by several navigators, and, amongst others, by captain Cook, in the year 1777. It was not, however, until 1803, that any set- tlement was made upon it; in that year, it was for- mally taken possession of by lieutenant Bowers, as a receptacle for convicts, with a party from Port Jack- son, in New South Wales, where a penal establish- ment had been already fixed; and to this purpose Van Diemen's Land was exclusively devoted until the year 1819, when it was thrown open to free settlers. The natives of Van Diemen's Land are in com- plexion black; their hair is woolly, with flat features, and remarkably thin limbs. They wear no covering of any sort, nor do they erect any huts or dwellings, but live wholly in the woods, with as little depen- dence on, and seeking as little aid from, mechanical Contrivances as the beasts of the forest. They have no rites or ceremonies, either religious or otherwise, of any description. Their numbers in the whole island are not thought to exceed 2000. All attempts to induce them to leave their native woods, and to mingle in a friendly manner with the colonists, have proved ineffectual. The island has not so discouraging and repulsive an appearance from the coast as New Holland. Many fine tracts of land are found on the very borders of the sea, and the interior is almost invariably possessed of soil adapted to all the purposes of civilized man. It is, upon the whole, mountainous, with some peaks of consider- able elevation, and is much better watered than New Holland. The most considerable of its streams are, the Derwent, Huon, and Tamar. There is, perhaps, no island in the world, of the same size, which can boast of more fine harbours; the best are the Derwent, Port Davy, Macquarie harbour, Port Dalrymple, and Oyster bay. There is almost a perfect resemblance between the animals and vegetables found here and in New Holland. In the animals, in particular, there is scarcely any variation. The native dog, indeed, is unknown here; but there is an animal of the panther tribe in its stead, which, though not found in such numbers as the native dog is in New Holland, com- mits dreadful havoc among the flocks. Kangaroos are most abundant. In the feathered tribes of the two islands there is scarcely any diversity ; of this the wattle bird, which is about the size of a Snipe, and considered a very great delicacy, is the only instance that can be cited. The seas around abound with whales, dolphins, and seals, and the shores with shell-fish, particularly the muscle, these last liter- ally covering the rocks on its coast, and in its bays, creeks, and harbours. The climate is equally healthy, and much more congenial to the European con- stitution than that of Port Jackson. Here, as in New Holland, there is every diversity of soil; but, in proportion to the surface of the two countries, this contains, comparatively, much less of an indifferent WAN DIEMEN'S LAND. quality. Barley and oats arrive at great perfection. 'ihe wheat, too, is of a superior description, not sub- ject to the weevil, and generally yields from sixty to sixty-five pounds a bushel. It is frequently exported to Sydney, Isle of France, Cape of Good Hope, and Rio Janeiro. The fruits raised here are the apple, currant, gooseberry, and, indeed, all the fruits not requiring a warm climate. The island is divided into two counties, Bucking- ham and Cornwall, both of nearly similar extent, the former occupying the northern, and the latter the southern part of the island. These counties are again subdivided into districts. Those of Buckingham are, Hobart Town district, New Norfolk, Richmond, Clyde, Oatland, and part of Oyster Bay district. The subdivisions of Cornwall, including part of the last named district, are, Campbelltown, Norfolk Plains, and Launceston. Hobart Town District, though the Smallestin extent of any in the island, is yet the most important in the colony, as well from the circumstance of its including Hobart Town, the capital of the island, as from its possessing many superior local advantages ; , and, amongst these, that of its being accessible by water on three different sides—by the Huon river, which forms its southern boundary, by the Derwent on the north and east, and by the sea on the east. The whole dis- trict, including the island of Bruny, which lies off the mouth of the Huon river, and forms part of it, Com- prises 400 square miles, or about 25,000 acres. The country in this district, however, is in general so hilly, that very little of it is under tillage. Hobart Town is built on the left bank of the river Derwent, at the head of a beautiful cove or bay, distant about twenty miles from its junction with the sea. It is pleasantly situated on a gently rising ground, which, gradually retiring, terminates ultimately in hills of considerable height, covered with wood. These, again, are over- looked by one of still greater altitude, called mount Wellington, which rises to the height of 4000 feet above the level of the sea. Hobart Town is thus placed between picturesque hills on the one hand, and a beautiful bay or arm of the sea on the other; for, though the Derwent be here called a river, it can be so called only in a very extended sense, the water being still salt, and of considerable width. The town covers somewhat more than a square mile of ground ; the houses are constructed mostly of Wood, though many of them are of brick and freestone. The streets are regularly laid out, and those of them that have been completed are macadamised, and present on either side long rows of large and handsome shops— sufficiently singular this, when we consider the very short time that has elapsed since this remote spot was tenanted only by the roaming savage and the kangaroo. The town derives a peculiar and highly pleasing character, too, from the circumstance of the houses in general standing apart from each other, each having a small plot of ground, from a quarter to half an acre in extent, attached to it. Many of its public buildings are of such a description as would, even in this country, be considered hand- some. Here are breweries, tanneries, distilleries, flour mills, two or three banks, hospitals, churches, schools charitable and stipendiary, inns, taverns, hotels, and everything which bespeaks a thriving, bustling, in- dustrious, and civilized community. A magazine monthly, and two or three newspapers weekly, are here published, besides a yearly almanac, and an official gazette. The total number of inhabitants is estimated, including the immediate suburbs, the pri- Soners, and the military, at from 7000 to 8000. New Norfolk Distriët lies immediately behind the former, and is entirely inland, no part of it approach- ing the Sea; its extent, from east to west, is about II. 673 fifty miles, and from north to south about thirty—thus comprising 1500 square miles, or 960,000 acres. This district is in general much more fertile than that of Hobart Town. But its total population only amounts to 1200; and of these, 450 are Con- victs. It has a little town called New Norfolk, twenty-two miles distant from Hobart Town. Richmond District extends on the sea coast, from Prosser's river to Tasman's peninsula, and is ex tremely rocky, mountainous, and barren. On the side next the Derwent, however, which bounds it on the south, though still hilly, there are a number of beautiful and fertile valleys. In this district there are two towns or villages, Richmond and Serrel; the first fourteen, and the second twenty-two miles distant from Hobart Town. The whole population of Richmond district amounts to 2800; of these 1100 are convicts. Oatlands District is separated from the sea by part of the Oyster Bay district, and bounded interi- orly, or on the west, by the district of Clyde, and on the north by that of Campbelltown. It is compara- tively of small extent, being only about thirty miles square, but is extremely fertile. It is besides advan- tageously situated, occupying a central position be- tween Hobart Town and Launceston. The town of Oatlands, situated fifty-one miles distant from Hobart Town, contains a military barracks, a jail, an inn, and several extensive stores. The population of this district amounts to 930 souls; of these 480 are convicts. Clyde District is bounded on the south by New Norfolk, by Campbelltown on the west, Norfolk plains on the north, and terminates in unsettled tracts in the west. It comprises about 1700 square miles, or 1,088,000 acres. This district is in general hilly, but affords excellent and extensive pasturage. Its remoteness from Hobart Town, and the difficulty of transporting agricultural produce to that market, from want of good roads, has tended to keep it al- most exclusively a pastoral district. It, how- ever, has the advantage of several districts, in the col- ony, in the essential article of water, no less than five different rivers running through its bounds; these are the Dee, Ouse, Shannon, Clyde, and Jordan. The principal township in the district is Bothwell, distant forty-five miles from Hobart Town: there is an ex- cellent inn here, a court-house, church, and a consi- derable number of respectable private houses. The total population of the district amounted, in 1831, to 760; of these 400 were convicts. Oyster Bay District is bounded by Richmond on the south, Oatlands and Campbelltown on the west, and the Sea on the east. It takes its name from a beautiful bay situated within its limits, and which af. fords excellent anchorage for ships. It is about the same extent with that of Oatlands, comprising 900 square miles, or about 576,000 acres. It possesses large tracts of fine pasture lands, but there is little yet under the plough. Its population is small, amounting only to 320 souls; of these 170 are con- victs. A great portion of the wealth of this district is derived from whale fishing, a considerable number of these being every year taken in Oyster Bay. There are no towns nor villages yet within its bounds. Campbelltown District lies between Oyster Bay district on the east, and Norfolk Plains on the west, and comprises about 1260 square miles, or 805,000 acres. This is one of the finest districts in the whole island, and is every day increasing in prosperity and importance. The peculiar richness of its herbage adapts it in an especial manner for the rearing of cattle. Its number of horses has been estimated at 450; cattle 13,500; and sheep, 180,000—all of them of the best description. Notwithstanding its extent, 2 ſy 674 WAN DIEMEN'S however, its amount of population is comparatively small, comprising in all only about 650 souls, and of these no fewer than 550 are convicts, leaving only 150 free settlers for the whole district. Norfolk Plains District embraces the shores of Bass's Strait, and comprises 2250 square miles, or about 1,500,000 acres. This division of the island is generally mountainous and barren. About 123,000 acres have been here located, and of these 5500 are under cultivation. The population of this dis- trict amounts altogether to about 1000–580 free persons, and 420 convicts. Launceston District occupies the north-eastern corner of the island, ending at Cape Portland, having Bass's Strait on the north-east, and the Pacific Ocean on the east, with a coast line on the former of about seventy miles, and on the latter of about fifty-five. It is estimated to contain 3800 square miles, or about 2,500,000 acres. The greater part of this ex- tensive district is barren and mountainous, and in many places altogether inaccessible. Notwithstand- ing of this, however, it is considered the next in im- portance to the Hobart Town district, from the cir- cumstance of its possessing the second largest town in the island, viz., Launceston, situated at the head of the navigable portion of the river Tamar, which discharges itself into Bass's Strait, about forty-five miles below the town. Launceston contains about 2100 inhabitants. The chief exports from Launces- ton are wheat, bark, wool, and whale oil. The convict population of Van Diemen's Land amounts altogether to from 10,000 to 12,000. Though under a very strict surveillance, and severely punish- able for comparatively slight offences, every induce- ment,consistent with the ends of justice, to amend their lives, is held out to them by government, and, with this view, the whole convict population on the island has been classified. The first are those who, from especial good conduct, are permitted to sleep out of barracks, and are allowed the whole of each Satur- day to work for themselves. The second are allowed the latter, but not the former. The third are those employed on the public roads, and are relieved from work every Saturday at noon. The fourth are the refractory, who work in irons, under the sentence of a magistrate. The fifth the incorrigibles: these are also worked in irons, but, as a further punishment, are kept entirely separate from the other prisoners. The sixth and seventh are those sent to the different penal settlements, where they are again classified by the respective commandants of these establish- ments. When assigned to a settler, each convict is furnished with a complete suit of slop clothing, which the former is obliged to pay for, at the rate of one guinea for each suit: his master must afterwards fur- nish him with two suits of slop clothing, three pairs of boots of a particular description, four shirts, and one cap or hat, per annum, with comfortable lodging and medicine, and medical assistance when neces- sary. The island used to be much annoyed, and still is to a considerable degree, by bush-rangers. These are convicts who have run away from their employment, and, taking to the woods, live by plum- dering the settlers, whom they often murder as well as rob. The great improvements which have taken place in the police regulations of the island, and the superior footing on which it is now placed to what it was formerly, have now nearly put an entire stop to this desperate trade. - The following particulars respecting the colony are extracted from the Hobart's Town Almanac for the year 1829 : —The island is under a lieu- tenant governor, assisted by an executive and le- gislative council; a supreme court, having civil, *iminal, and ecclesiastical jurisdiction; a court of LAND — DIEPPE. requests, &c. There is a grammar-school at Hobart's Town, the seat of government, and several king's schools, for the education of all classes of children. The government have herds here. Cattle thrive excellently, and the wool of the island promises to be very fine and very abundant : great quantities have been already exported to England. In 1829, the island contained 500,000 sheep and 70,000 horned cattle. We were struck with finding, in the statis- tical statements respecting this new and thinly set- tled colony, a characteristic trait of British usages, in the shape of a list of annual pensions. The amount is by no means small, being 361972 10s., divided among fourteen people, among whom are a retired lieutenant-governor, with £500 ; a deputy judge- advocate, with 26.400; some retired pilots, with 425 each ; retired constables with 2610, &c., annually The following numbers are drawn from the most au- thentic Sources, as statistics of Van Diemen's Land, January 1, 1829. The statistics given in the body of the article show the rapid advances the colony has made even since that recent period: Inhabitants of Hobart's Town, . 5,700 — Launceston, . º 1,000 settled districts and townships, 13,000 Circular Head, . º e 30ſ) -*.*- Total number of inhabitants, 20,000 Of whom there are male adults, 12,000 Female adults, º e º 4,800 Children at school, - º - 1,200 Children classically educated, e e 120 Total territory, in acres, - 15,000,000 Pasture, . e º e o o 6,000,000 Arable land, o º & & I,500,000 Rocky and thickly-wooded hills, . 7,500,000 Total amount of acres granted, . 1,121,548 Acres not yet granted, . e 13,378,452 Total amount of acres cultivated, 30,150 Total of imports in 1828, . #3300,000 Total of exports in 1828, # 100,000 Expenditure of government, . 0. # 170,000 Total circulating medium, - £100,000 Colonial interest, 10 per cent. ; insurance to or from England, three guineas per cent. The mail bag is mostly carried on foot. The coins of Britain, the East Indies, and Spain, are current. DIEPPE ; a seaport town of France, in Upper Normandy, in the department of Seine-Inférieure, situated 100 miles N. W. of Paris, at the mouth of the river Arques or Bethune, on the shore of the English channel. Its streets are tolerably regular : the principal public buildings are the parish church of St James, and the old castle on the west side of the town. There are here several small squares, and the ramparts form a pleasant promenade. The har- bour, though tolerably commodious, is narrow. It is formed by the mouth of the river, and is of a semi- circular form, with three fathoms at high water, and capable of containing about 200 small vessels. Two moles, built of brick, facilitate the loading and un- loading of vessels. The commerce of Dieppe is con- siderable. Being the best inlet for Paris, it is the great depot for colonial goods, and the resort of fo– reign ships, especially of those from America. It has several manufactures, but principally of the kind connected with the equipment of ships. It was found- ed by fishermen, in the fourteenth century. Canada was discovered by the inhabitants of Dieppe, and the first French settlers on the coast of Africa were also from this place. It was from Tieppe that Wil- liam the Conqueror sailed with his forces for Eng- land. The town has frequently suffered the vicissi- tudes of war. In 1694 it was bombarded by the English, and again in 1794, on both of which occa- sions it was almost entirely destroyed. Dieppe is only sixty-six miles from Brighton, and steam-packets sail daily between the two places during the summer DIES IRAE-—DIETETICS. Beason. It is one of the most direct routes to Paris from London. The country around Dieppe is very fer. tile and beautiful, forming part of the Pays de Caux. The number of inhabitants is about 20,000, who are chiefly dependent on the commerce of the port. PLES 1B.A. ; the first words of a Latin hymn, de- Scribing the final judgment of the world. It is as- cribed to Thomas de Coelano, a Minorite, who lived in the thirteenth century. It is a beautiful poem, belonging to those early Christian songs, which com: bine the smoothness of rhyme with the gravity of ºatin verse. This powerful poem makes a part of the requiem (the mass for the souls of the dead); and it is one of the highest and most difficult tasks for the Composer to compose music adapted to the awful Solemnity of the subject. Whoever has heard Mo- *art's Tºba, mirum spargens sonwm, without being reminded of the trump which shall echo through the tombs on the judgment-day P Goethe has happily in- troduced a few stanzas of this poem in his Faust. As this hymn constitutes the chief part of the requiem, and is, at the same time, a fine example of a whole class of poetry little known in this Protestant coun- try, We here quote it at length. Dies irae, dies illa Solvet saºclum in favilla, Teste David cum Sibylla. Quantus tremor est futurus, Quando Judex est venturus, Guncta stricte discussurus I Tuba mirum spargens sonum Per sepulchra regionum, Coget omnes ante thronum. Mors stupebit, et natura, Gum resurget creatura, Judicanti responsura. Liber scriptus proferctur, In quo totum continetur, Unde mundus judicetur. Judex ergo cum sedebit Qūidguid latet apparebit, Nil in ultum remanebit. Quid sum miser tunc dicturus Quem patronum rogaturus, Cum vix justus sit securus? Rex tremendae majestatis, Qui salvandos salvas gratis, Salva me, fons pietatis. Recordare, Jesu pie, Quod sum causa tuæ viae, Ne me perdas illa die. Quaerens me sedisti lassus, Redemisti crucem passus, Tantus labor non sit cassus. Juste judex ultionis, Donum fac remissionis, Ante diem rationis. Ingemisco tanquam reus, Culpa rubet vultus meus: Supplicanti parce, Deus. Qui Mariam absolvisti, Et latronem exaudisti, Mihi quoque spem dedisti. Preces mea non sunt dignac, Sed tu, bone, fac benigme, Ne perenni cremer igne. Inter oves locum praesta, Et ab haedis me sequestra, Statuens in parte dextra. Confutatis maledictis, Flammis acribus addictis Voca me cum benedictis. Oro supplex, et acclinis, Cor contritum quasi cinis, Gere curam mei finis. Lacrymosa dies illa Qua resurget ex favilla. Judicandus homo reus, Huic ergo parce Deus. Pie Jesu, Domine, dona eis requiem. Amen. T)} ET, GERMAN. See Germany and German Com- federacy. | of life. 675 DIET OF HUNGARY. See Hungary. DIET OF POLAND. See Poland. DIET DRINK ; an alterative decoction employed daily in considerable quantities, at least from a pºint to a quart. The decoction of sarsaparilla and meze- reon, the Lisbon diet drink, is the most common and most useful. - DIETALIA ACTA ; the records of the Hunga- rian diet, written in Latin, in which language the discussions of the diet take place. The discussions are not public, and the records are only given to members of the diet, and a few other persons through them. DIETETICS, in medical writings; is the due classification of food, as respects the treatment and prevention of diseases. On a general survey of the several nations of the globe, it has been observed that mankind enjoy health and strength when mour- ished upon the most opposite kinds of food : provided no great excess be committed in its quantity; and, also, that its quality be properly suited to the heat of the climate. Hence the natives of Hindostan, who feed entirely upon rice, and milk, and vegetables, are equally healthy with the Esquimaux, and Laplanders, and other savages of the frozen regions of the globe, whose food consists entirely in the flesh of animals and fishes : and since Providence has ordained that fruit and vegetables should abound under the torrid Zone, and denied them to the sterile rocks around the poles, we are taught by this natural distribution, as well as by our own experience, that cooling fruits and vegetables are best adapted to the heats of sum- mer, and animal and stimulating food to the severe rigours of winter. The natives, therefore, of the more temperate regions, are enabled to indulge in a greater variety of food, both animal and vegetable, and are, in consequence, endowed with greater bodily and mental powers, and the enjoyment of a longer period For few Hindoos or Laplanders ever attain the age of forty years, while many of the inhabitants of Europe and America live upwards of a century. In a state of health, then, it is clear that we need not draw many hair-breadth distinctions as to the superior salubrity of the several sorts of diet. Our greatest care should be to attend more to the quan- tity than the quality of our food; for upon that hinges the enjoyment of our health and spirits. It was the opinion of the late Dr Fothergill, that more persons die in England from hard eating than from hard | drinking, and that excesses in the former were more dangerous than in the latter particular. And the poet has well expressed this by saying, that The first physicians by debauch were made, Excess began, and sloth sustains the trade. There is no doubt that great moderation, both in eat- ing and drinking, is one of the surest means of pre- Serving health, as well as of assisting us to regain it when lost. Early habits of self-command, therefore, in the regulation of the appetite, are of the greatest importance to all who would enjoy good health and long life. And those persons who have been most | remarkable for either, have generally been contented with two moderate meals a-day ; which are certainly quite sufficient during a state of health. In this Country, the breakfast generally consists of tea, Coffee, or cocoa, with a certain proportion of bread and butter. Those who indulge in field sports, or use violent exercise, may with safety eat animal food, and eggs in addition, but persons with delicate di- gestive powers, or who lead a sedentary life, cannot with safety or comfort eat animal food constantly to breakfast. Buttered toast, too, is very often perni- cious to females with weak stomachs, and is frequent- ly the cause of giddiness, indigestion, and sick head- aches. Where tea disagrees, an infusion of the 2 U 2 676 flowers of rosemary, Sage, balm, and mint, may be used instead. At dinner all made dishes highly spiced, such as curries, turtle-Soup, &c., as pro- voking appetite, are hurtful; and the custom of late dining does harm, as it causes flushing of the face, indisposition to all exertion, great oppression, at- tended with quick pulse, dry clammy tongue, and burning of the palms of the hands, &c. New bread, too, cannot be eaten in any quantity with Safety ; and there have been instances of its having even Oc- casioned death, while it is frequently the cause of heartburn and flatulence, without being at all sus- pected. The flesh of young animals seems to be more easily digested than that of old; excepting in stomachs subject to acidity ; and that of wild and hunted animals is more easily dissolved than that of tame. All sorts of fat meat being more nutritious than lean, must be taken in Smaller quantities. Hence also, ham, bacon, and salted meats cannot be eaten in same quantities as the tender flesh of poultry. Fish may be considered as holding an intermediate station between animal and vegetable food; it has the advantage of being easily soluble, and when eaten without heating sauces or much butter, is a healthy and agreeable food. It has been asserted, and apparently with good reason, that the use of much animal food blunts the sensibility and mental perceptions of those who indulge in it : and it is well known that Sir Isaac Newton, while engaged in composing his work on optics, found himself obliged to live entirely on vegetable food. Still it must be admitted that even after a temperate meal of animal food, the mind is fit for any degree of exertion. All boiled vegetables are in general easy of digestion; raw vegetables and salads are rather more difficult, but of course each individual must consult his own experience in such cases. Fruit, if perfectly ripe, is wholesome, but should be taken in the forenoon rather than after a hearty meal. As to drinks, Dr Fothergill's rules are admirable ; and as follows: 1. The less quantity of fermented liquors we accus- tom ourselves to, the better. 2. To abstain from spirits of all kinds as much as may be. 3. Where mild well brewed beer agrees, to keep to it as a be- verage. 4. Where water does not disagree, to value the privilege and continue it. But as it has been already said of solids, it is oftener the quantity than the quality, which proves hurtful; and people, in the early part of their lives, cannot be too careful to guard against the first temptations to the love of wine or spirituous liquors. It should never be forgotten that excess in wine produces gout, apoplexy, palsy, and sudden death; and that the indulgence in spirits will cause cancer of the stomach, schirrous liver, dropsy, and madness. In all diseases attended with much fever or quick- ness of pulse, the stomach loathes animal food, and there is generally a great increase of thirst. To quench which water either quite cold, or iced, or tepid, or rendered acid, by the addition of orange or lemon juice, tamarinds, apples, current jelly, cream of tartar, vinegar, &c., may be freely indulg- edin. Infusions too of barley, sage, balm, &c., may be taken. In chronic diseases attended with hectic fever, milk is the most proper diet, being at once nourishing and easily digested. The best food for in- fants is, of course, their mother's milk; but, in gene- ral, they may be weaned with advantage at five or six months, and whenever they begin to cut teeth, it is proper to indulge them with a little animal food, such as soft boiled eggs, and minced weal. Many infants perish from having too much sugar given them in their food, which creates acidity in their bowels, and looseness, and even convulsions. When infants are affected with eruptions and cutaneous DIETETICS.–DIEZ. complaints, they may often be cured by giving them no sugar, and indulging them freely with gravy and salt. Gout, Corpulency, and many other most dis- tressing diseases may be entirely conquered by diet alone, independently of the use of medicine. DIETRICH, JoHN WILLIAM ERNST (who, from eccentricity, often wrote his name Dietericy); a fam- ous German painter of the eighteenth century. He was born in 1712. His father, John George, was also a skilful painter, and instructed his son till he was twelve years old, when he sent him to Dresden, and placed him under the care of Alexander Thiele. The picture of a peasant drinking, in the Dutch style, executed by Dietrich while a boy, is in the royal Cabinet of engravings at Dresden. He successfully imitated Raphael and Mieris, Correggio and Ostade. His paintings are scattered through almost all Eu- rope. In the Dresden gallery there are thirty-four of them. Some of his designs are in the cabinet of engravings in that place, and some in private collec- tions. He died in 1774. DIETSCH, BARBARA REGINA; a distinguished female painter of the celebrated family of artists of that name. She was born at Nuremburg in 1716, and died in 1783. Notwithstanding many invitations to different courts, which her talents procured her, she preferred to remain in the modest obscurity of private life.—Her sister, Margaret Barbara, was born in 1726, and died in 1795. She painted flowers, birds, &c. DIEU ET MON DROIT (French ; signifying God and my right); the motto of the arms of England, first assumed by Richard I., to intimate that he did not hold his empire in vassalage of any mortal. It was afterwards taken by Edward III., and was con- tinued without interruption to the time of William III., who used the Imotto Je maintiendray, though the former was still retained upon the great seal. After him, queen Anne used the motto Semper eadem, which had been before used by queen Elizabeth ; but ever since the time of queen Anne, Dieu et mom droit has been the royal motto. DIEZ, JUAN, or JOHN MARTIN; a Spanish par. tisan officer, distinguished for his conduct during the French invasions of his native country. He was the Son of a peasant, and born in the district of Walla- dolid, in Old Castile, in 1775. On the proclamation of war against France, after the revolution, he again entered the army, as a private, in the Spanish dra- goons. He served till the restoration of peace, when he returned home, married, and resumed his agricul- tural employment. Patriotism and a love of enter- prise drew him from his peaceful labours on the invasion of the territory of Spain by Napoleon. In 1808, he placed himself at the head of a party of four or five of his neighbours, and commenced hostilities against the enemy, killing their couriers, and thus obtaining a supply of horses, arms, and ammunition. After the atrocities committed by the French at Madrid, May 2, a spirit of resentment was excited in the country, and Martin, procuring associates, prose- cuted his system of annoyance and extermination against the French. At this period, he acquired the appellation of el Empecinado, from the darkness of his complexion. With the increase of his band, he extended his operations, and, besetting the roads, in- tercepted the couriers of the enemy, seized their con- voys, and harassed their small parties. At first, he neither gave nor expected quarter; but at length, finding himself at the head of forty-eight well-armed men, he no longer pursued that barbarous practice. In September, 1809, with 170 men, all mounted, he passed into the province of Guadalaxara to check the inroads of the enemy. He was afterwards employed under the orders of the commander-in-chief of the DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS—DIGESTION. Second army; and, the value of his services being ap- preciated, he was at length made a brigadier-general of cavalry. The French troops sent against him were almost uniformly defeated; but, on one occasion, he was overpowered, and only escaped falling into their hands, by leaping down a dangerous precipice. He attended the duke of Wellington in triumph to Madrid, after the expulsion of the French, and, some time after, received his commands to join the second army in the neighbourhood of Tortosa, at the head of 4850 men, horse and foot. All the services of this brave officer, during the war which preceded the restoration of Ferdinand, could not atone for the crime of opposing the invasion of the liberties of Spain, after the return of that prince. The Empe- cinado had laid down his arms on the faith of a treaty ; notwithstanding which, he was seized and executed at Rueda, August 19, 1825, with circum- stances of insulting cruelty highly disgraceful to his persecutors. As the originator of that system of de- Sultory warfare which contributed much to the expul- Sion of the invading army from Spain, Diez has strong claims to notice. His natural talents were not assisted by education, as he could write no more than his name ; his manners were rude, and his tem- per violent ; yet he was partial to the society of well- informed persons, and disposed to attend to their ad- vice; while, with the greatness of mind which char- acterizes conscious worth, he never scrupled to acknowledge his humble origin, or the limited sphere of his information. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS. See Calculus. BIGAMMA, in the Greek language. In addition to the Smooth and rough breathings, the ancient Greek language had another, which remained longest among the Æolians. This is most commonly called, from the appearance of the character used to denote it, a digamma, that is, double T. It was a true con- sonant, and appears to have had the force off or v. It was attached to several words, which, in the more familiar dialect, had the smooth or rough breathing. The whole doctrine, however, of the digamma, for want of literary monuments, remaining from the period when it was most in use, is exceedingly obscure. See Buttmann’s Greek Grammar, from the German, by Ed. Everett, 2d edit. Boston, 1826. DIGIBY, SIR KENELM, the eldest son of the un- fortunate Sir Everard Digby, was born at Gothurst, in Buckinghamshire, in 1603. He was educated in the Protestant religion, and entered at Gloucester hall, Oxford. On his return from his travels, he brought back with him a recipe for making a sympathetic powder for the cure of wounds, being much addicted to the philosophy which employed itself in alchymy and occult qualities. On the accession of Charles I., he was created a gentleman of the bed-chamber, a commissioner of the navy, and a governor of the Trinity house. He soon after fitted out a small Squadron at his own expense, to cruise against the Algerines and Venetians, and obtained some advan- tages over the shipping of both these powers. He returned with a great increase of reputation, and, having a good address and a graceful elocution, with a fine person and an imposing manner, he made a considerable figure. On a visit to France, he was converted to the Catholic religion. On the breaking out of the civil war, he was committed prisoner to Winchester house, where he amused himself by writing observations on the Religio Medici of Sir Thomas Browne, and on the ninth canto of the Fairy Queen, in which Spenser has introduced some mysterious matter in regard to numbers. Being liberated, he passed into France, and visited Descar. tes. In 1646, he printed at Paris his own philosophi- cal system, in two works, entitled a Treatise on the 677 Nature of Bodies, and a Treatise on the Nature and Operation of the Soul. In 1651, he also published Institutionum Peripateticarum, cum Appendice theolo- gica de Origine Mundi. All these treatises are written in the spirit of the corpuscular philosophy, which they support with more learning and ingenuity than solidity or force. After the ruin of the royal cause, he returned to England to compound for his estate, but was not allowed to remain. He resided in the South of France in 1656 and 1657, and produced at Montpellier, a Discourse on the Cure of Wounds by Sympathy. On the restoration, he returned to Eng- land, became a member of the royal Society, and was much visited by men of Science. He married a lady who was highly distinguished for beauty, and, in other respects, almost as singular as himself. Of this lady, Venetia Digby, a greatmany pictures and busts. are extant; but she died while still young. Sir Ken- elm died in 1665, at the age of sixty-two. DIGBY, LoRD GEORGE, son of John, earl of Bris- tol, was born during his father's embassy to Ma- drid in 1612. He distinguished himself much while at Magdalen college, Oxford, and, in the beginning of the long parliament, opposed the court, but se- ceded from the opposition, on the measures against the earl of Strafford. He then distinguished himself as warmly on the side of the king, and was made Secretary of state in 1643. After the death of Charles, he was excepted from pardon by the parlia- ment, and was obliged to live in exile until the re- storation, when he was made knight of the garter. He wrote a comedy called Elvira, and also letters to his cousin, Sir Kenelm Digby, against popery, al- though he ended by becoming a Catholic himself. DIGEST. See Civil Law. DIGESTER ; an instrument invented by Mr Pa- pin. It consists of a strong vessel of copper or iron, with a cover adapted to screw on, with pieces of felt or pasteboard interposed. A valve with a small aperture is made in the cover, the stopper of which valve may be more or less loaded, either by actual weights, or by pressure from an apparatus on the principle of the steelyard. The purpose of this instrument is to prevent the loss of heat by evaporation. Water may be thus heated to 4000 Fahr. ; at which tempera. ture its solvent power is greatly increased. DIGESTION is that process in the animal body, by which the aliments are dissolved, and the nutri- tive parts are separated from those which cannot af. ford mourishment to the body. The organs effecting this process are divided into the digestive organs, pro- perly so called, and the auxiliary organs. The for- mer are composed of the divisions of the intestinal canal, which includes the stomach, the great and small intestines, &c. To the latter belong the liver, the pancreas, and the spleen. The first process of digestion is the solution of the aliments. When the aliments, after being properly prepared, and mixed with saliva by mastication, have reached the stomach, they are intimately united with a liquid substance called the gastric juice, by the motion of the stomach. By this motion, the aliments are mechanically separ- ated into their smallest parts, penetrated by the gas- tric juice, and transformed into a uniform pulpy or fluid mass. At the same time, a solution of the ali- ments into their simple elements, and a mixture of them so as to form other products, takes place, effec- ted partly by the peculiar power of the stomach and the liquid generated in it, partly by the warmth of this organ. This pulpy mass, called chyme (q. v.), proceeds from the stomach, through the pylorus, into the part of the intestinal canal called the large intes. times (q.v.), where it is mixed with the pancreatic juice and the bile. (See Bile, and Pancreas.) . Both these liquids operate most powerfully on the chyme. 678 yet in very different ways. the pancreas attracts the milk-like liquid of the chyme, and forms with it the chyle, which is absorbed by the capillary vessels called lacteals. On the other hand, the bitter matter called bile, formed by the liver from the blood, attracts the coar- ser parts, which are not fitted to be absorbed into the fine animal organization, and excites the intestinal canal to the motion which carries it off. For further information on the subject of digestion, particularly of diseased digestion, see the article Dyspepsia. Digestion, with chemists and apothecaries; the maceration of any substance which is to be softened or dissolved, commonly pulverized, in a solvent liquid. It is enclosed in a tight vessel, and exposed to a gentle heat for a longer or shorter time. By "this process essences, elixirs, and tinctures are made. DIGGING, among miners; the operation of free- ing ore from the stratum in which it lies, where every stroke of their tools turns to account; in contradis- tinction to the openings made in search of such ore, which are called hatches, or essay-hatches, and the operation itself, tracing of mines, or hatching. DIGIT, in arithmetic, signifies any one of the ten Inumerals, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0. The word comes from digitus, a finger; thus indicating the humble means originally employed in computations. Digit is also a measure equal to three-fourths of an inch. Digit, in astronomy, is the measure by which we estimate the quantity of an eclipse. The diameter of the sun or moon's disc is conceived to be divided into twelve equal parts, called digits; and according to the number of those parts or digits which are obscur- ed, so many digits are said to be eclipsed. When the luminary is wholly covered, the digits eclipsed are precisely twelve; and when it is more than cov- ered, as is frequently the case in lunar eclipses, then more than twelve digits are said to be eclipsed. DIGITALINE is the active principle of the digi- talis purpurea, or foxglove, and is a very powerful poison, possessing all the properties of digitalis (q.v.) in a very concentrated state. To prepare it, the leaves are digested in ether, the solution filtered and eva- porated, and the residue dissolved in water: this solu- tion is heated with oxide of lead, filtered, and evapor- ated, and the residuum digested in ether, which af. fords digitaline, on evaporation. It is a brown-co- loured substance, deliquescent, and extremely bitter. It restores the colour of reddened litmus, and com- bines with acids. See Digitalis. DIGITALIS ; a genus of plants, including, among other species, the purple foxglove (D. purpurea), a vegetable possessing important medicinal properties, inhabiting the temperate and southern parts of Eu- rope, and frequently cultivated for ornament in America. The stem is simple, herbaceous, glabrous, or slightly pubescent, and attains the height of two or three feet; the leaves oval lanceolate, soft to the touch, and dentate on the borders; the flowers are large, purple, spotted within, pendent, and disposed in a long, simple, and terminal raceme. The plant, when fresh, possesses a bitter, nauseous taste, and is violently emetic and cathartic. When prepared and administered medicinally, it has the remarkable pro- perty of diminishing the strength and frequency of the pulse, and is, at the same time, diuretic. DIGRAPH (from the Greek 3; and yeapo, to write; double-written); a union of two vowels of which one only is pronounced; as in head, breath. This is the meaning which Mr Sheridan gives to the word. Mr Webster, in his American Dictionary of the English Language, follows this meaning. Thus Stege, (ſeceive, mean, hear, esteem, deem, need, contain digraphs. It is well known how much the English idiom abounds in digraphs. They are essentially dif- ſtanical garden, &c. esting buildings here. | church º DIGGING—DILL-SEED. The mild juice of ferent from diphthongs, which consist of two vowels, also, but produce a sound which neither of the vow- els have separately. DIJON (Divio), the ancient capital of the duchy of Burgundy, at present the chief place of the depart- ment Cote-d'Or (see Department), 648 French feet above the level of the sea, at the confluence of the Ouche and Suzon, 100 miles N. Lyons, 175 S. E. Paris, lat. 470 19' 25" N., lon. 5° 2'5" E., contains 22,000 inhabitants, and is the seat of a suffragan bi- shop, several courts and branches of government. In 1725, the academy of sciences and belles lettres was erected here, and confirmed by the king in 1740. (See Academy.) There is also a school for the fine arts, two libraries, (one of which contains 36,000 volumes,) collections in natural history, an observatory, a bo- There are many old and inter- There is now a canal building from this city to the Saone, near Saint-Jean-de-Lorne, which will be of great advantage to the place. Many of the most celebrated Frenchmen have been born at Dijon, among whom are Bossuet, Crébillon, Piron, Saumaise. A fortified camp, constructed by Caesar, gave origin to Dijon. Marcus Aurelius caused the place to be surrounded by walls. DIKE, or DYKE, (in German, deich); a ditch or drain, and also a work of stone, timber, or fascines, raised to oppose the passage of the waters of the sea, a lake, river, or the like. In no country has the art of building dikes and taking care of them been car- ried to so much perfection as in Holland and the north-west of Germany, where the construction and superintendence of them, the draining of land and guarding against inundations, and the distribution of taxes for the maintenance of the dikes, form an im- portant branch of government. DILAPIDATION is where an incumbent of a suffers the parsonage-house or out- houses to fall down, or be in decay for want of me- cessary repairs; or it is the pulling down or destroy- ing any of the houses or buildings belonging to a spiritual living, or destroying of the woods, trees, &c., appertaining to the same; it is said to extend to committing or suffering any wilful waste in or upon the inheritance of the church. DILEMMA (from 3is, twice, and Asºpo, an as- sumption), in logic; an argument consisting of two or more propositions, so disposed that, grant which you will, you will be pressed by the conclusion. DILETTANTE; an Italian expression, signifying a lover of the arts and sciences, who devotes his leisure to them, as a means of amusement and grati- fication. DILLENIUS, John JAMEs ; a botanist, born in 1687, at Darmstadt, and distinguished for his inves- tigations into the propagation of plants, particularly cryptogamous plants. In compliance with the invi- tation of a rich botanist, William Sherard, in 1721, he went to England, where he spent part of his time in London, and part at his friend's country seat, in Eltham. Here he published several works, and particularly that splendid production which ap- peared in 1732, Hortus Elthamensis, in which the drawings, prepared by himself, are distinguished by the greatest faithfulness. His last work, on the mosses (Historia Museorum), added much to his reputation. Sherard founded a professorship of botany in the university of Oxford, for his friend, who died there, in 1747. DILL-SEED (anethum graveolens, Lim.) is of an oval form, convex on one side, flat on the other, having three striae on the outside, and surrounded with a small membranous border. Its taste is slight- ly acrid, and its odour stronger, but less pleasant, than fennel-seed. z 1) I ME-DIMINUTIVE. DIME; the legal term for the tenth part of a dollar in the United States of America. See Coin. DIMINUTIVE, in grammar (from the Latin diminutivum); an affix, which conveys the idea of littleness, and all other ideas connected with this, as tenderness, affection, contempt, &c. The opposite of diminutive is augmentative. Prefixes and affixes belong to those delicate beauties of language, which enable us to express fine shades of meaning with con- ciseness and liveliness, and which are almost always beyond the power of translation, if the language, into which we intend to translate, does not possess the corresponding prefixes and affixes. In Latin, diminutives almost always ended in lus, da, or lum; as, Tulliola, meum corculum, little Tullia, my dear or little heart. This syllable was Sometimes preceded by another one, not belonging to the original word; as, homunculus. A few words formed their diminutives in other ways. No European language has so many and so ex- pressive diminutives, augmentatives, and affixes, as the Tuscan : ino, etto, ello, convey the idea of small- mess, dearness, &c.; one, of largeness; uccio some- times of Smallness, with reproach, but often without it: accio signifies that the thing is disgusting, un- pleasing, &c.; for example, casa is a house; casetta, casina, casella, a small house, nice little house; easone, a large house; casuccia, a small, insignificant house ; casaccia, an ugly house. That expressive tongue can compound two or three of these endear- ing affixes; and the writer has frequently heard little Italian children form almost endless words, as if overflowing with tenderness; for instance, fratel- linucciettinetto. Adjectives, also, can receive the diminutive termination ; as carino, carinuccio, from caro. It must be remarked, that very many Italian words are the diminutives of the original Latin ones; as, fratello, from frater, sorella, &c. The reason is, that the Italian was originally the corrupted Latin of the lower classes. These always have many points of resemblance to children, and among them this, that they make much more use of diminutives than the educated classes, who are more reserved in the expression of their feelings. Thus, in the south of Germany, they will say, wo das Baumche vor der Thºre steht (where the little tree stands beſore Llle door), however large the tree (Baum) may be. In Spanish, there are similar diminutives, augmen- tatives, and other affixes. The augmentatives in Spanish are as follows:—From hombre, a man, are formed hombron, hombrazo, hombronazo, hombrachon ; and from muger, a woman, mugerona, mugeraza, nugeronaza. Adjectives, also, take similar forms; as from grande, great, or large, are formed grandon, grandote, grandazo, grandonazo. Sometimes these augmentatives are used by way of commendation, as, tombron, a man of great wisdom; at other times to denote contempt or worthlessness, as, from caballo, a horse, we have caballazo, a miserable horse; and sometimes they denote merely greatness of bulk, as moceton, mocetonazo, a large youth or boy. Aug- mentatives in azo, in some instances, also denote two different things; as, zapatazo, a large shoe, or a blow given with a shoe. The Spanish diminutives are these : from hombre, a man, hombrecito, hombre- cico, hombrecillo, hombrezuelo ; from muger, a Woman, mugercita, mugercica, mugercilla, mugerzuela ; from chico, small, chiquito, chiquillo, chicuelo, chiquituelo. Diminutives in ito and ico usually denote endear- ment or tenderness, as those in illo do sometimes; those in elo always denote contempt; from libro, a book, are formed librillo, librito, librico, librete, libruelo, librejo. In Portuguese, the diminutives and augmentatives correspond to those of the Spanish language. 6.79 Dºmínzúti ves. from cabra, a goat, is formed cabrito, a kid In toº. little goat; mosca, a fly, mosquito, a little fly. irmao, a brother, irmaozinho, a little brother; ſilho, a son, ſilhinho, a little son. £nha, W mao, a hand, maozinha, a little hand; ra. fem. lyariga, a girl, rapariguinha, a little girl. Adjectives also take the diminutive form; as, coitado, poor fellow, poor thing; coitadinho, poor little fellow, &c.; redondo, redondinho, round; bonito, bonitinho, pretty; pequeno, pequenino, Small, whence is corrupted the negro word pickaninny, used on the coast of Africa, for a child, a little boy or girl.—Augmentatives. Tolo, a fool, toleirao, a great fool; homem, a man, homemzarao, a big or huge man; mulher, a woman, mulherona, a mascu- line or large woman. - In Freiich, there are many diminutives formed from other words; as, tablette, of table, charette of char; but there is no general affix, which can be added to every substantive. The syllable àtre (from the Latin aster), as in noirátre, from noire, Cannot be called properly a diminutive; neither can vieillot, he who begins to look old, be called precisely a dimi- nutive of vieille. The German has the syllables chen (in Low-Ger- man, ken, which has remained in English in manikin, and some other words), lein and el, for substantives; (ich, &c., for adjectives; (lich corresponds to the English ish or like; for instance, rundlich, roundish or roundlike (from rund, round); and elm for verbs, as from bitten (to pray), they form betteln (to beg, the action of a beggar), klingeln from klingen, to sound. The bonhomie of the Germans even adds the diminu- tive to pronouns, and nurses sometimes will say du- chen from du, thou; nay, the writer once heard (in Erfurth) a nurse use the dative of du, dir, with the diminutive, gefallt es dirchen 2 The English language affords examples of diminu- tives, but has no affix which can be used at pleasure to convey this idea. Among English diminutives à.I'6— homem, a man, homemzinho, a little man; intº ſcernel, a little corn ; pickerel, a little pike. manikin, a little man ; Čamb/cire, a little lamb : napkin, from nape, French for cloth; pip/cine, a little pipe. ſchickling, a little chicken ; | gosling, a little goose ; bing, i darling, i.e. dearling, or little dear; author ling, an inferior author; Lwitting, a person of small understanding. ſarmlet, for arm ; bracelet, from bras, French for arm; et, !. a little cock; | pocket, from poke, a bag or pouch. Utablet, a little table, cockerel, a little cock ; In el, } Kift, Diminutives of proper names are also formed, in colloquial and familiar language, by adding y to the names; as, Charley, Johnny, &c.; and coachy is used colloquially for coachman. The aboriginal languages of America, also, have their diminutives. In the Delaware language (ac- cording to Mr Zeisberger's Grammar, published by Mr Duponceau), diminutives of nouns denoting ani- mate objects are formed by adding the syllable tit; as, lemni, a man, lenmotit, a little man; ochquett, a woman, ochguetit, a little girl; tsholens, a bird, tsho- lentit, a little bird. In speaking of a pretty little animal, the form is shis or tshis ; as, in playing with a little kitten, or other young animal, they would say kuligatshis, thy pretty little paw. In nouns de- noting inanimate objects, diminutives are formed by the termination es; as, wikwam, a house, wikwames, a small house; amokhol (kh guttural), a canoe, 680 amokholes, a small canoe. In the ancient language of the Massachusetts Indians, which is a dialect of the Delaware stock, diminutives were formed (ac- cording to Eliot's Grammar) by adding es or emes, with an euphonic vowel or syllable; as, nunkomp, a youth, nunkompaes, or nuncompaemes, a little youth; hassun, a stone, hassunemes, a little stone; and, of these two affixes, emes denotes the Smallest size, C. DIOCESE, or DIOCESS (?loíznais); 1. a prefecture. According to Strabo, the division of the Roman empire into dioceses, at least in Asia, was customary as early as the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. The whole empire was afterwards divided into dio- Ceses by Constantine and his successors; at first into four, and afterwards into thirteen: these compre- hended 120 provinces, and were governed by twelve vicars or sub-prefects. Rome and its neighbourhood had one of these officers to itself, exclusive of the one appropriated to Italy at large. 2. An ecclesiastical division in the Christian church; in the Catholic church, a territory over which the jurisdiction of an archbishop or bishop extends. With the Protestants in Germany, a dio- cese signifies all the parishes which are under the in- spection of one superintendent. This arrangement is derived from the times of the emperor Constantine (4th cent., A. D.), who made Christianity the reli- gion of the state. In the Episcopal Protestant coun- tries, diocese signifies the jurisdiction of a bishop. Thus, in England, the province of Canterbury con- tains twenty-one dioceses, and the province of York, three: each diocese is divided into archdeaconries, each archdeaconry into rural deaneries, and each deanery into parishes. DIOCLETIAN, C. WALERIUs, surnamed Jovius, was a man of mean birth a native of Dalmatia. He was proclaimed emperor by the army, 284 A.D. He was successful against his enemies, defeated Carinus in Moesia (286), conquered the Allemanni, and was generally beloved for the goodness of his disposition. But new troubles and attacks disturbed the Roman empire, and compelled him to share the burdem of government with colleagues; at first, with M. Aurel. Valerius Maximian (286), an ambitious, rude, and cruel soldier, who defeated the Gauls. Diocletian, at the same time, was successful against the Persians in the East, and afterwards penetrated to the Sources of the Danube, in Germany. He subsequently, in 292, Ilamed C. Galerius, Caesar, and Maximian raised Constantius Chlorus to the same dignity. Thus the empire was divided into four parts. Dio- cletian recovered Egypt, and, as long as he preserved his influence, the unanimity continued ; but he re- signed the imperial dignity at Nicomedia (305), as did Maximian at Milan, at the same time. Diocle- tian retired to Salona in Dalmatia, where he found happiness in the cultivation of his garden, and lived in tranquillity until the year 313. He founded the absolute power, which was more firmly established by the family of Constantime. DIODATI, John, an eminent divine, was born at Lucca, about the year 1589, of a noble Catholic family; but, embracing the Protestant faith early in life, he removed to Geneva, where he made such progress in his studies, that, at the age of 19, he was appointed professor of Hebrew in that city. Some time afterwards, he was made professor of theology, and, in 1619, was deputed with his colleague, Theo- dore Tronchin, to represent the Genevan clergy at the synod of Dort; and his abilities were so much re- spected by that synod, that he was one of the six ministers appointed to draw up the Belgic confession of faith, which was intended to secure the professors of the reformed religion in Holland within the pale DIOCESE—DIOGENES. of pure and unadulterated Calvinism. Diodati is most celebrated for a translation of the Bible into Italian, faithful and elegant, but perhaps too para- phrastical; and father Simon maintains that his notes are rather the serious meditations of a divine, than the judicious reflections of a critic. He also translated the Bible into French, but is not thought to have succeeded so well in this as in the Italian. He was the first translator into French of father Paul’s History of the Council of Trent, which is faithful, but not very elegant. Diodati died in 1649, at Geneva. DIODORUS of Argyrium, in Sicily, and therefore called Siculus ; a celebrated historian in the time of Julius Caesar and Augustus. In order to render his history as complete and exact as possible, he travel- led through a great part of Europe and Asia. It is very much to be regretted, that the greater part of this history, which the author called the Historical Library, in the composition of which he combined the ornaments of rhetoric with the detail of facts, after the example of Theopompus and Ephorus, and on which he had bestowed the labour of thirty years, has not reached our times. It consisted of forty books, was written with the greatest fidelity, and comprised the history of almost all nations. Only the books 1–5 and 16—20 are now extant. Among the best editions are those of Wesseling and Eich- stadt, with Heyne's commentary (Bipont and Stras- burg, 1793–1807, 11 vols.) DIOGENES of Sinope (a city of Pontus) flourished in the fourth century B.C., and was the most famous of the Cynic philosophers. (See Cynics.). Having been banished from his native place with his father, who had been accused of coining false money, he went to Athens, and requested Antisthemes to admit him among his disciples. That philosopher in vain at- tempted to repel the importunate supplicant, even by blows, and finally granted his request. Diogenes de- voted himself, with the greatest diligence, to the les- sons of his master, whose doctrines he extended still further. He not only, like Antisthenes, despised all philosophical speculations, and opposed the corrupt morals of his time, but also carried the application of his doctrines, in his own person, to the extreme. The stern austerity of Antisthenes was repulsive ; but Dio- genes exposed the follies of his contemporaries with wit and good humour, and was, therefore, better adapted to be the censor and instructor of the people, though he really accomplished little in the way of reforming them. At the same time, he applied, in its fullest extent, his principle of divesting himself of all superfluities. He taught that a wise man, in or— der to be happy, must endeavour to preserve himself independent of fortune, of men, and of himself: in order to do this, he must despise riches, power, hon- our, arts, and sciences, and all the enjoyments of life. He endeavoured to exhibit, in his own person, a mo- del of Cynic virtue. For this purpose, he subjected himself to the severest trials, and disregarded all the forms of polite society. He often struggled to over- come his appetite, or satisfied it with the coarsest food; practised the most rigid temperance, even at feasts, in the midst of the greatest abundance, and did not even consider it beneath his dignity to ask alms. By day, he walked through the streets of Athens barefoot, without any coat, with a long beard, a stick in his hand, and a wallet on his shoulders; by night, he slept in a tub, though this has been doubted. He defied the inclemency of the weather, and bore the scoffs and insults of the people with the greatest equanimity. Seeing a boy draw water with his hand, he threw away his wooden goblet as an un- necessary utensil. He never spared the follies of men, but openly and loudly inveighed against vice DIOMEDES-DIONAEA MUSCIPULA, and corruption, attacking them with satire and irony. The people, and even the higher classes, heard him with pleasure, and tried their wit upon him. When he made them feel his superiority, they often had re- course to abuse, by which, however, he was little moved. He rebuked them for expressions and ac- tions which violated decency and modesty, and there- fore it is not credible that he was guilty of the exces- ses with which his enemies have reproached him. His rudeness offended the laws of good-breeding ra- ther than the principles of morality. Many anec– dotes, however, related of this singular person, are mere fictions. On a voyage to the island of Ægina, he fell into the hands of pirates, who sold him as a slave to the Corinthian Xeniades in Crete. The lat- ter emancipated him, and intrusted him with the edu- cation of his children. He attended to the duties of his new employment with the greatest care, com- monly living in summer at Corinth, and in winter at Athens. It was at the former place that Alexander found him on the road-side, basking in the sun, and, astonished at the indifference with which the ragged beggar regarded him, entered into conversation with him, and finally gave him permission to ask for a boom. “I ask nothing,” answered the philosopher, “but that thou wouldst get out of my sunshine.” Surprised at this proof of content, the king is said to have exclaimed, “Were I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes.” At another time he was carrying a lan- tern through the streets of Athens, in the daytime : on being asked what he was looking for, he answered, “I am seeking a man.” Thinking he had found, in the Spartaris, the greatest capacity for becoming such men as he wished, he said, “Men I have found no- where ; but children, at least, I have seen at Lace- daemon.” Being asked, “What is the most dangerous animal P” his answer was, “Among wild animals, the slanderer; among tame, the flatterer.” He died 324 B. C., at a great age. When he felt death approach- ing, he seated himself on the road leading to Olympia, where he died with philosophical calmness, in the resence of a great number of people, who were col- ected around him. * Another philosopher of the same name, who lived earlier, and belonged to the Ionian School, was Dio- genes of Apollonia. He considered air as the ele- ment of all things. He lived at Athens, in the fifth century B. C. DIOMEDES ; 1. a king of the Bistones, who fed his horses on human flesh, and used to throw all Strangers, who entered his territory, to those animals to be devoured. He was killed by Hercules, who carried off the horses. 2. One of the heroes at the siege of Troy, the son of Tydeus and Deiphyle, and king of Argos. He early lost his father, who was slain before Thebes, took part in the second expedition to Thebes, and became one of the suitors of Helen. After she was carried off, the Grecian chiefs resolved on an expe- dition to Troy, to avenge this outrage against Greece, and Diomedes engaged in the expedition, at the head of the Argives, Tyrinthians, and several other nations. His daring courage rendered him one of the most dis- tinguished heroes, and, according to the testimony of Nestor, superior to all his contemporaries. Protected by Pallas, he not only encountered the most valiant of the enemies, many of whom he killed, but even ventured to attack the immortals. When Venus has- tened to the rescue of her son Æneas, whom he was on the point of putting to death, he wounded the god- dess in her hand with his spear, and would have torn Æneas from her arms but for the interference of Apollo. He thrice assailed even Apollo himself, nor did he desist till terrified by the threats of the god. Animated by Pallas, he then turned his arms 68 H against Mars, wounded him in his belly, and com- pelled him to return to Olympus. He was equally distinguished in the council. He boldly opposed the proposal of Agamemnon to leave the plains of Troy without having gained the object of the expedition, and prevailed; he even adhered to his opinion, after Achilles had rejected the proffered reconciliation. By carrying off the horses of Rhoesus from the enemies’ tents, he fulfilled one of the conditions on which alone Troy could be conquered. With Ulysses, he removed Philoctetes, who had the arrows of Hercules, from Lemnos, which was another condition of the fall of Troy. Finally, he was one of the heroes who were concealed in the wooden horse, by whom the cap- ture of Troy was at length accomplished. Though he reached home in safety, the vengeance of Venus awaited him. During his absence, that goddess had inspired his wife, Ægiale, with a criminal passion for Cometes; and Diomedes, on his arrival, was compel- led to leave Argos, and promise never to return, under pain of death. Accompanied by his most faithful friends, he set sail for Italy. Of his residence there, the accounts are contradictory and fabulous: some say that he died there at a great age ; others, that he was slain by king Daunus; others, that he suddenly disappeared on the islands that have been called after his name. After his death, he was worshipped as a demi-god. DION of Syracuse, who acquired immortal glory in the history of that state, lived in the times of the two kings who bore the name of Dionysius. He was related to them, and long exercised great in- fluence over them. He attempted to reform the tyrannical disposition of the younger Dionysius by the precepts of philosophy, but his enemies succeeded in rendering him suspected by the king, and in ef- fecting his banishment. Dion went over to Greece, where the beauty of his person, and, still more, the excellent qualities of his mind and heart, gained him so many friends, that he resolved to employ force to deliver his country from a prince who had closed his ears to remonstrances. With this design, he em- barked with 800 valiant warriors, landed in Sicily, and, hearing that Dionysius had set out a few days before for Italy, hastened to Syracuse, and entered the city amidst the acclamations of the people. After some ineffectual attempts to recover his autho- rity, Dionysius was at length obliged to abandon the crown, and fled, with his treasures, to Italy. Dion was also, soon after, obliged to leave the city, on ac- count of the unjust suspicions of his fellow citizens. New troubles having broken out in Syracuse, he was recalled, and was about to restore the repub- lican government, when he was assassinated by his treacherous friend, Calippus of Athens, 354 B. C. Thus perished a man of noble sentiments, great courage, and inflexible patriotism, He was the inti- mate friend of Plato. His life has been written by Plutarch, and Corn. Nepos. DIONAEA MUSCIPULA (Penus's fly-trap) is a remarkable plant, inhabiting the basin of Cape Fear river, in North Carolina. The leaves are radical, spreading upon the ground, and terminated by an orbicular appendage, composed of two hemispherical lobes, which are fringed with hairs: when the inside of this appendage is touched, the lobes close Sud- denly, and thus imprison flies and other small insects. These, having no outlet, must necessarily perish, un- less delivered by tearing the leaf. . It is not until the insect is dead, and, of course, no longer affects the parts of the leaf by its motions, that the leaf opens, and lets the body of the animal fall. The insects seem to be allured by a sweet moisture on the sur- face of the leaf. In Europe the seed of this plant has not been brought to ripen. The stem is eight or 682 ten inches high, and bears a corymb of white flowers, finalogous in their structure to those of the sun-dew. DION CASSIUS, born about A. D. 155, at Nice, in Bithynia, is sometimes called a Roman, because he was made a Roman citizen, and filled many hon- ourable offices in Rome under Pertimax and his three successors. He wrote the Roman history in eighty books, of which only those from the thirty-sixth to the fifty-fourth are extant complete ; the remainder we have only in the epitome of Xiphilinus. It be- gan with the arrival of AEneas in Italy, and extended to A. D. 228. He devoted twenty-two years to this work, in which the events are arranged chronologi- cally, and gives an impartial account of those occur- rences of which he was himself a witness. He often exhibits, however, a spirit of jealousy towards great men, and appears superstitious, flattering, and ser- vile. His style is too rhetorical for history. DIONE; the mother of Venus, who therefore bears the surname of Dionata, or is called by this name alone. DIONYSIA ; the same as Bacchanalia, from Dionysos or Bacchus. See Bacchus. DIONYSIUS the Elder raised himself from a low condition to the rank of general,and afterwards to that of tyrant (i. e., ruler) of Syracuse (about 406 B. C. The Agrigentines, who had escaped when Agrigen- tum was taken by the Carthaginians, accused the Syr- acusan generals of treachery. Dionysius Supported their complaints, and contrived that the enraged people should choose other leaders, of whom he was one. He soon found means to render his colleagues suspected also, and to have himself appointed com- mander-in-chief. In this post, it was no difficult task for him, by the assistance of the troops, whom he had drawn over to his interest, to make himself master of the citadel of Syracuse, together with all the arms and provisions contained in it, and finally to declare himself king, at the age of twenty-five years. The more firmly to establish his power, he married the daughter of Hermocrates, whose family was the most distinguished in Syracuse. After hav- ing finished a short war against the Carthaginians, and successfully quelled several seditions, in which he reduced some other cities on the island under his authority, he made preparations for a great war against Carthage. The fortune of arms, which, in the beginning, had favoured him, soon turned against him. The Carthaginians had already laid siege to Syracuse, when the plague made great ravages among them. Dionysius, having just received a re- inforcement of thirty ships, took advantage of the discouraged state of the enemies, attacked them at once by land and water, and gained a complete victory, which was soon followed by an advan- tageous peace. In his expeditions into Lower Italy, he reduced the city of Rhegium by famine. After another short war with Carthage, he lived some time in peace, occupied with making verses, and imagin- ing himself, in spite of the poorness of his produc- tions, as great a luminary in the poetical, as in the political world. Nay, he even ventured to contend for the prize in the Olympic games, and sent for that purpose a solemn embassy, accompanied by a number of the best declaimers, to read his poems; but, with all their art, they were not able to prevent the tents of Dionysius from being torn down and plundered by the multitude. A second embassy, which he sent four years afterwards, was received still more unfavourably. He became almost distracted at these disgraces, yet would not relinquish the high opinion which he had conceived of his own genius, and used to torture the poets and philo- sophers of his time with reading his verses before them. In his bad humour, he commenced a new war against the Carthaginians, intending to drive DION CASSIUS—T)IONYSIUS. them entirely out of Sicily. He did not, however, succeed in this attempt, and was obliged to conclude a disadvantageous peace. For this misfortune, he was indemnified by the success of one of his trage- dies at Athens. The news of this event filled him with such immoderate joy, that he fell sick. At the instigation of his son, the physicians administered to him a fatal potion. Thus perished Dionysius, after a reign of twenty-five years. DIONYSIUS the Younger succeeded his father, Dionysius the Elder. For the purpose of recalling him from the excesses to which he was addicted, Dion (q.v.) directed his attention to the doctrines of Plato, representing to him that this great philosopher alone was able to teach him the art of government, and the means of rendering his subjects happy. In consequence of this advice, Dionysius invited Plato to his court. The latter, complying with his urgent invitations, succeeded in tempting him into the path of virtue and knowledge, and in giving a new charac- ter to his whole court. An opposite party, however, headed by the historian Philistiis, awakened the king's suspicions against Dion, and caused his ban- ishment. Plato in vain endeavoured to effect his re- call, and, after having been long retained by force, finally left Syracuse himself, when Dionysius was en- gaged in a war in another part of the island. After the restoration of peace, Plato, at the repeated re- quest of the king, returned to his court, and again endeavoured, though in vain, to effect Dion's recall. He therefore insisted upon his own dismissal. Dionysius at last appeased him by promising to re- store Dion his fortune, on condition that he would undertake nothing against the throne. But he violat- ed his promise, and Plato, after experiencing many mortifications, finally left him. Dion then appeared, and made himself master of the city of Syracuse, to which Dionysius did not return until after the murder of Dion. His misfortunes, however, had no other effect than to render him more cruel. The first fami- lies of the city fled from his tyranny. Meantime, the Carthaginians commenced a new war with Syracuse, and entered into a secret union with Icetas, whose intention it was to make himself master of the city. He, however, disguised his purpose, and even ap- proved of the measure of calling upon Corinth for assistance. Timoleon appeared with a fleet before Syracuse, and expelled, not only the enemies, but also the tyrant. Dionysius, who had surrendered himself, was carried to Corinth, where he gained a scanty living by giving lessons in grammar, and died in the con- tempt which he had brought upon himself by his €XCéSSéS. DIONYSIUS of Halicarnassus, in Caria, a learm- ed critic and teacher of eloquence, went to Rome about thirty B. C., where, for the instruction of his countrymen, he wrote his Roman Antiquities, in twenty books, in which he relates the early history of Rome, and its government up to the times of the first Punic war. We have the eleven first books of this work, and some fragments of the others. His residence in Rome during twenty-two years, his in- tercourse with the most learned Romans, and his knowledge of the ancient annalists, render him very important to the critical historian, though he has given his own colouring to the Roman traditions: Dionysius is also valuable as a critical and rhetorical writer. It is difficult to pronounce, however, on the genuineness of the writings attributed to him in this department, without a critical examination. The Rhetoric (Schott, Leips., 1804), for instance, be- longs only in part to Dionysius, , and probably re- ceived its present form in the third century, A.D. DIONYSIUS the Areopagite (i. e., one of the judges of the Areopagus, at Athens), converted to IDIONYSIUS—T) IORAMA. Christianity by the apostle Paul, about the middle of the first century, and first bishop at Athens, where he suffered martyrdom, is remarkable for the Greek works which have been ascribed to him, and for be- ing considered the patron saint of France. These writings, composed in an obscure style, and hardly intelligible on account of their mysticism, are, Of the heavenly Hierarchy, Of the Names of God, Of the ecclesiastical Hierarchy, and Of the mystic Theo- logy, with a number of letters, which, by their style, contents, and historical allusions, betray an author who could not have lived before the middle of the fourth century. They appeared, in a very equivocal manner, as the works of Dionysius, as late as the sixth century. Fantastic descriptions of the Deity, and of the orders of angels and blessed spirits, bor- rowed from the New Platonic philosophy; brilliant representations of the Catholic ceremonies; exalta- tions of the hierarchy; praises of the monastic life, and mystic interpretations of the doctrines of the church, gave them such charms, that the absurdities in which they abound did not prevent the ignorant clergy of the seventh century from reading them with delight, and finding in them the clearest proofs of the apostolic origin of many ecclesiastical observances and institutions, which are of a much later date; for they had no doubt of their genuineness. In France, where a certain Dionysius established the first Chris- tian community at Paris, in the third century, they were readily received in the ninth century; and this TXionysius, without further inquiry, was taken for the Areopagite, because the origin of the Gallican church could thus be carried back to the first century; and France gained a patron who was a martyr and the immediate disciple of an apostle. The monastic life, in the Western church, gained new support from these writings, which were frequently translated into Latin ; and mystic theology received its first impulse from them. The convent of St Denis, which was originally dedicated to the first apostle of Christianity at Paris, but is now consecrated to Dionysius the Areopagite, had a remarkable dispute with the con- vent of St Emmeran, at Ratisbon, in the eleventh century, concerning the possession of the genuine bones of the saint. Each maintained that it possessed his earthly remains, and each had its claims confirm- ed by the infallible authority of the pope. In the fourteenth century, another church in Paris claimed the third head of the saint. The writings attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite, are as spurious as the relics. The pretended author of them neither left such writings, nor ever taught in France, as was put beyond all doubt by the French critics Daille, Sir- mond, and Launoi, in the seventeenth century. DIONYSIUS the Little (so called on account of his short stature); a Scythian monk, who was abbot of a monastery at Rome in the beginning of the sixth century, and died about the year 545, celebrated as the author of the computation of time from the Chris- tian era. He calculated an Easter cycle in 526, and fixed the birth of Christ, agreeably to the most cer- tain data, in the year 753 after the foundation of Rome. The computation of time from the birth of Christ thus established, and now universal among Christians, was not publicly used until the eighth cen– tury. His collection of ecclesiastical laws, viz. the . (so called) Apostolical canons, decrees of councils favourable to the pretensions of the Roman bishops, and official letters written by the Roman bishops since the fourth century, which were called Decretals, had a more rapid success. The placing of the latter by the side of the decrees of councils, and thus at- tributing to them equal authority, was so flattering to the pride of the Roman bishops, and the letters of their predecessors afforded so favourable an oppor- 683 tunity for renewing their ancient pretensions, that the collection soon obtained the authority of an acknow- ledged source of canon law. Dionysius was, as his friend Cassiodorus says of him, a good Latin Writer, and well acquainted with the Greek language, from which he translated much. Nothing more is known of him, except that he favoured the superstition of the Theopaschites. DIOPTRICS ; the science which treats of the re- fraction of the rays of light, or the laws of vision when the rays, before reaching the eye, pass through dif- ferent refracting mediums; for instance, from the air º the glasses of a telescope. Dioptrics, conse- quently, is a branch of optics, i. e. the science of vision in general. It demonstrates the different direc- tions in which the rays move, according as they are broken on plane or curved surfaces. The principles deduced from these observations determine the nature of the various lenses, explain the manner in which the light is refracted in the human eye, teach the manner of seeing through lenses, and the composition of them, consequently the theory of telescopes, mag- nifying glasses, &c. The ancients were not acquainted with this science. Natural science, in modern times, has been greatly indebted to it. By its aid, or rather by the aid of the glasses which it has taught how to construct, the human eye has been enabled to reach objects previously unknown. Kepler, Snellius of Leyden, Descartes, Newton, &c., not only extended this science, but founded a great part of their dis- coveries on it. In modern times, the Science of diop- trics has been very much enriched by the important invention of the achromatic telescope commonly at- tributed to Mr Dollond, but which, in fact, was the invention of Mr Hall, of Essex, as was proven to the satisfaction of a jury. The imperfection of the Eng- lish law of patent was clearly exhibited in this case, as Mr Dolland's claim was sustained from his being the first who sold an achromatic telescope. See Achromatic, Refraction of Light, Telescope, Lenses. DIORAMA. Under this title a novel and a very beautiful mode of depicting landscape scenery has been, within these few years, exhibited in Paris and London. It appears to be an improvement on an invention of the late M. De Loutherbourg, who made a similar exhibition about forty years ago, which was then much admired and styled Eido- physikon. M. De Loutherbourg's pictures, however, were only shown by lamp light, whereas in this new method, the exhibition takes place by daylight only. The advantage which this mode of represent- ing the face of nature, possesses over any other yet invented, is, that it causes the light to play at will all over the picture, so that the spectator can hardly help imagining himself placed on the very spot, when he perceives the rays of the sun now lighting up one range of mountains, now another, and beholds them peeping out from behind masses of clouds, which gradually become overcast as if with rain, and then the lowering effect giving way in its turn to bright gleams of sunshine—which enlighten the bos- Soms of the distant lakes, glitter upon the purling brooks, and then die away behind the darker skirts of the surrounding woods and thickets. All this is produced by a mode of uniting trans- parent painting to the usual opaque method, and caus- ing the daylight to fall upon the picture, both from before and behind. At the same time, while by means of coloured transparent blinds, suspended both above and behind the picture, and which are put in motion by means of machinery the rays of º can be intercepted and made to fall at pleasure in graduated tints upon every part of the picture in suc- cession. To understand this more clearly we have annexed the following engraving. DIORAM.A. º Nº. º | TTETI | | ITT Figure 1. represents a sectional elevation of the building which includes two pictures, A shows a saloon to receive the spectators, with benches for seats, &c., the walls of which are elegantly decorated with drapery and painted devices, resembling the inside of a marquee ; while the ceiling, which is slightly raised, is ornamented with a transparent painting, through which is admitted a very obscure degree of light from a skylight above. B is one of the pictures suspended from above, and kept in a due degree of extension by numerous Small weights attached to its bottom and sides, the latter of which are suspended by means of cords passing over several small pulleys, fixed to a stationary rail, not shown in the diagram. Between the back of the picture and the window, D (the panes of which are of ground glass) are hung several coloured transparent blinds, arranged on lines in such a manner as to be mov- able up and down, in order to pass by and overlay each other; and the number and colour of which must be determined by the judgment and skill of the artist, and the mature of the picture. E shows a large skylight in the roof of the picture room, for the rays of light to fall downwards on the surface of the pic- ture; the panes of this window likewise are of ground glass, and it is also furnished with a sort of transparent coloured blinds, some of which are shown at FF. These move upon hinged joints, fixed to their uppermost ends, so as to be capable of moving into the position indicated by the dotted lines, there. by permitting the rays of light to fall without ob- struction on the picture, but when they are raised up as shown in the diagram, they intercept a part of the light ; and, when drawn closely up, they can be made to close up the window entirely, and there- by cause all the rays of light to pass through the coloured shades before reaching the picture, and thus produce a great variety of shades, and tints, and combinations, over the face of the picture. The coloured blinds are moved by cords, or lines, attached to them, and carried over Small pulleys near the top of the building, from which they descend, and are affixed to a long lever, or balance, G H, which moves upon a centre or fulcrum at h. This IDIORAMA-DIPLOMACY. part of the apparatus is situated in that intervening angle between the two picture rooms, as seen at P, in Fig. 2. The lines Kiproceed over small pulleys, k, and over leading pulleys, situated at the end of the roof of the building, after which they are attach- ed to the extremities of the blinds FF in order to close or open them. There are five pairs of these blinds in the length of the skylight, although only one pair can be indicated in the figure. The cords marked L, and those marked M, proceed over small pulleys in the roof, and are then attached to the hang- ing blinds. The lower ends of these cords, L and M, are made fast to the lever G. H., on opposite sides of its fulcrum ; consequently when the lever is moved on its centre, some of the blinds will ascend and others descend, so as to pass over each other, and produce different tints of light; but no precise nor even general rules can be Þjá'down for these motions, as they must depend entirely upon the na- ture of the scene and the intention of the artist. When it is desired to produce the effect of change in the lights and tones of the picture, a man stationed at the winch P (see Fig. 2), turns it slowly round, and thereby depresses the end H of the lever, and thus a rope, proceeding over pulleys and attached to opposite ends of the lever GH, is wound round a barrel turned by a pinion and cog wheel from the winch ; and, as the ends of it pass off on opposite sides of the barrel, a variety of motions may be pro- duced, simply by turning the winch round in Con- trary directions. A balance weight is suspended to one end of the lever, G H, for the purpose of a coun- terpoise to the weight of the blinds. The extent of motion which the various coloured blinds may re- quire to have communicated to them, can be obtain- ed by attaching their cords to the lever G. H., either nearer to, or farther from, the centre of motion. . We have already stated that two pictures are Con- tained in the Diorama; of these one only is seen at a time, and the scene is changed by causing the saloon containing the spectators to revolve on its axis. This is shown by the plan of the building, Fig. 2. A is the revolving saloon with boxes, seats, &c., benches, and a carpeted floor on a gently inclined plane; B B the situation of one of the pictures; C C the situation of the other. D D are two large windows fitted up with ground or semi-transparent glass, ad- mitting a portion of light behind the picture. The Saloon is a building of a cylindrical form, with a spacious aperture, at a a, in one side, for viewing the picture through. The doors of admission are situa- ted at S S and Z Z, on the opposite side. The spaces between the opening of the Saloon and the pictures is enclosed above, and on each side, by slight Screens, forming a kind of vista (as seen at a a and b b), which, concealing the margins of the picture, increase the illusion, as in panoramic pictures. The floor of the revolving saloon is supported upon a very strong timber frame-work, consisting of a central shaft or axis, o, having twelve timbers, or arms, similar to those at p p, arranged around it, at equal distances, in the manner of radii; the extremities of these are connected together by upright pieces, and the whole framing further strengthened by diagonal braces and cross timbers, which, proceeding from one arm to the next, are firmly bolted to each, and form a pentagonal framing. The cross timbers serve to carry the bearings of twelve strong iron shafts, which form the axes, to twelve cast-iron wheels, or rollers, two of which are shown at v v. These wheels roll round upon the surface of a circular metal curb or ring, firmly bolted on the top of a course of masonry Iaid along the top edge of the wall V V, and which, having to support so great a weight, has a very solid foundation many feet below the surface. The cen. 685 tral shaft, o, is furnished with a pivot, or gudgeon, at its lower extremity, which works in a brass step piece, is fitted with adjusting screws, and securely fixed in a pier of masonry. The cylindrical part of the saloon above the floor is composed of a light wood framing, and its roof is also furnished with a gudgeon or pivot in the centre, adapted to turn round in a beam affixed to one of the principals of the main roof as seen at I. l l, shows a skylight for admitting a sombre light through the transparent ceiling of the saloon. The extent of the circle de- scribed by the revolving motion of the saloon, in ex- hibiting the two pictures alternately, forms an arc of about 73 degrees ; and, during the time that the sa- loon is in motion, mone of the spectators are allowed to go in or out, but when the opening S is brought into its proper situation, opposite to either of the pictures, one of the two doors S or Z of the saloon, will be found to correspond exactly with one of the door ways respectively marked S or Z, shown in the circular brickwall surrounding the saloon, and will thus open a direct entrance to it. On the outside of this circular wall, a suitable room, at R, is provided for such of the company to wait in as arrive at the moment the saloon is revolving. The motion of the saloon is thus effected. A por- tion or segment of a wheel with cogs (m) is firmly fixed to the central shaft (o), so that its cogs may be engaged with those of a pinion fixed upon a vertical shaft which has a bevelled wheel at its lower ex- tremity. This wheel, again, is engaged with the teeth of another bevelled wheel, placed in a vertical position; and, as the axis of this also bears a cog wheel, they revolve together. This train of wheels is set in motion by a small pinion, which is immediately operated upon by the turning of a winch, having a fly wheel upon the same axis, to equalize and regulate the power. We ought to mention, that each picture is painted upon several thousand square feet of canvass. Among those which have been exhibited are the in- teriors of ‘Canterbury Cathedral, Roslin Chapel, and the Chapel of Holyrood House, the lake of Saarmen, in Switzerland, Brest Harbour, and the Cathedral of Chartres. DIOSCORIDES, PEDANIUs ; born at Anazarbus (Caesarea Augusta), in Cicilia, in the first century of the Christian era, a Greek physician, author of a cele- brated work on materia medica, in five books. It is particularly valuable in regard to botany, as most of the medicines which the author mentions are taken from the vegetable kingdom. Two other works are also attributed to him; the Alexipharmaca, which was united with the Materia Medica, forming the three last books of it, and treating of the poisons in the three kingdoms of nature, and their antidotes; and the Euporista, which treats of remedies that are easily procured. The best edition of Dioscorides is that of Saracenus (Frankfort, 1598, fol.); the best com- mentary is by Matthiolus (Venice, 1565, fol.). DIOSCURI; CASToR and Pollux, twin-sons of Jupiter, and tutelary deities of wrestlers, horsemen, and navigators. See Castor and Pollua'. DIP of the horizon is an allowance made in all astronomical observations of altitude for the height of the eye above the level of the sea. DIPLOMA (from 312xéo, I fold up ;) literally, a letter folded but once, and therefore divided into two parts. It is used to signify a document signed and sealed, in which certain rights, privileges, dignities, &c., are conferred. Thus a letter or writing of a university conferring a degree is called a diploma. See Diplomatics. DIPLOMACY. The precise time at which the word diplomacy began to be applied to the manage- ment of the mutual relations of independent states 686 through accredited agents, cannot be easily ascer- tained. In remote antiquity, embassies are spoken of Rome received ambassadors from nations seeking peace or alliance and protection. After the establishment of the senate, such messengers of rival or dependent countries delivered their commissions to the senatorial body, and commonly in set orations. At Athens and at Sparta, ambassadors were obliged to harangue the sovereign people from the tribunal of the orators. We have no authentic accounts respecting the pri- vileges of these foreign emissaries, nor relics of their correspondence with their own government, or with those to which they were deputed. The term ambas- cia is found in the Salic law. But the cardinal de Richelieu is generally considered as the founder of that regular and uninterrupted intercourse between governments, which exists at present between almost all the Christian powers. The private dissensions. between Philip II. and Elizabeth de Valois furnished a convenient pretence for attaining the ends, which may well be supposed to have ..i. that Sagacious statesman, and which went undoubtedly further than to protect the unfortunate queen of Spain. Raymond de Becarria thus commences the line of regular am- bassadors in Europe. However the instructions given by Machiavelli to one of his friends, who was sent by the Florentine republic to Charles W. (Charles I. of Spain), show that Richelieu was not the first person who conceived all the advantages that might be de- rived to a government from the correspondence of an intelligent agent, accredited at the seat of a foreign government. Machiavelli's own negotiations with Caesar Borgia, with the cardinal de Rouen, at Rome, in Germany, and wherever he was employed, prove that diplomacy had its present meaning long before Richelieu's ascendency in France. We recom. mend to our readers Machiavelli's diplomatic cor- respondence (Legazioni) not only as the earliest, but as the finest specimens of diplomatic despatches; and we do it the more willingly, as this portion of his works is generally little referred to. It is probable, that, from the beginning, the duties of diplomatic agents were at least as great as at present, as far as the art of diplomacy alone was concerned. To study the character of the prince and the disposition of his ministers; to observe with a vigilant eye the passing events; to investigate the strong and weak points of a state ; to establish rela- tions which might become useful, either in peace or in war; to strengthen the existing amicable rela- tions, and to weaken the means of attack and of defence on the part of the foreign state; to extend commercial intercourse in a manner profitable to the country of the ambassador (for centuries were to pass before sounder views in political economy could prevail); to protect the subjects of the ambassador's sovereign, and to give a great idea of his power and resources, by all possible means;–such were, as we see, from the instructions given by Machiavelli to his friend, the cardinal points recommended to a diplomatic agent early in the sixteenth century; and they will, with few alterations, serve to guide am- bassadors, ministers, and chargés d'affaires, yet in the womb of time. Still there are differences, pro- duced by the progress of civilization and the im- provement of public morals, that must be noticed. Wherever diplomacy may have had its origin, be it in Italy, France, or Spain, the manners of these countries and of the times, left politics infinitely less restrained by the curb of honesty and good feeling, than if it had sprung up among German nations, or at later epochs. Thus intrigue, falsehood, plots, and murder, or connivance, at least, in such detest- able expedients, were sometimes resorted to, by the the dream of political balance. DIPLOMACY. earliest diplomatists, and contributed to render diplo- macy, in the eyes of the indiscriminating, almost a byword of reproach. The marquis de Bedmar, in Real's conspiracy of Venice, is a mere fancy figure. The cardinal d’Ossat and president Henin are, on the contrary, unquestionable models of excellent men and ambassadors. General ignorance, the laxity of morals which degraded the greater part of Europe till the middle of the eighteenth century, serve to account for the want of homest principle which for- merly disgraced public ministers. . Few treaties were as yet concluded. War, brute force, was the sole umpire of right. Except in the Germanic confede- racy, law was hardly ever brought to bear upon international relations. It was not till the indepen- dence of Holland, and the subsequent developement of maritime power, that political questions were examined by the learned, in consequence, probably, of having become connected with great public grievances and judicial investigations. . From that time, and chiefly from the conclusion of the treaty of Westphalia—the most remarkable epoch in the history of international intercourse—diplomacy as- Sumed a more legitimate, a higher and really useful character. Ambassadors ceased gradually to seek their greatest lustre in their numerous retinue, and the Russian ministers at Constantinople and Warsaw were the last to appear with such a display of armed followers as made a governor of Bourdeaux refuse admission into the city to the duke of Feria, who came, in the name of the king of Spain, to compli- ment Louis XIII. on his accession to the throne. There were no longer (to quote the noble language of Shakspeare) “ loving embassies to embrace sove- reigns, as it were, from the ends of opposed winds;” and, from that time, high breeding, an agreeable figure, the display of wealth, fascinating and prepos- sessing manners, an unblemished character, discre- tion, knowledge of mankind, natural parts, may, up- right intentions and noble views, ceased to be suffi- cient for the fulfilment of duties so much enlarged by the improving condition of general Society, through the advancement and diffusion of knowledge. To be a perfect diplomatist, in the present state of the Christian world, it would be necessary that a man should be a sound lawyer, well acquainted with the municipal laws of more than one country, versed in the sciences, from which industry and arts derive their splendour, and a state its strength, and equal to any of the tasks to which those with whom he is brought into contact .# put his learning and sagacity. The present political system of the world can no longer be split into partial and solitary in- terests: each party to it is a party in a common con- cern, and usually suffers or gains by every important change. There is really now a Christian common- wealth, a unity of rights and interests, more real, more worthy of consideration and confidence, than This whole system is in a constant state of development; and to step out of its path, is to remain behind it in its career. The tone of political correspondence at present must correspond with the elevated state of the diplomatic character. In times not very distant, it was sufficient to enter- tain a royal master by the gossip of a capital, the in- trigues of ladies and gentlemen of the bed-chamber, and the cabals of rival ministers. Now, the political correspondent of a cabinet is compelled to inquire into the working of the complex machinery of mo- dern society; to observe constantly the pulse of the whole body politic; to keep in view the moral and physical resources of nations; to defend the rights * Winter’s Taie. DIPLOMACY-DIPLOMATICS. of his country, on the grounds of law and reason; to give information to the minister, from whom he holds his instructions, and to enable his government to profit by the intelligence he imparts, not only in the management of its foreign concerns, but likewise of its internal resources. For the accomplishment of duties so great and so various, no school can be established, or particular study traced. Humani nihil a me alienum puto, must be the device of the modern diplomatist; and much application, much good fortune, many favourable opportunities, and a long experience, are necessary to enable him to per- form well the duties of his office. At the earliest period of the French monarchy, a number of persons were joined together in an em- bassy. Recently, a diplomatic mission has commonly been intrusted to a single personage of high rank or distinguished talents, assisted by one or several secre- taries. In the United States of America diplomatic Commissions, or embassies composed of several in- dividuals, will probably remain in use as long as their present political system subsists.-The diplo- macy of each state is under the direction of a minister, who generally administers at the same time some other branches of the public service. In Spain, the Secretario de Estado y del Despacho Universal, or minister of foreign relations, has also the direction of post offices, public roads, academies, and some other inferior branches of government. In some states, as, for example, in Portugal and Piedmont, the departments of war and of foreign relations are intrusted to the same hands. In Russia, Austria, and Prussia, the chancellor or vice-chancellor is, ipso facto, minister of the foreign department. Diplomatic agents are of several degrees: 1. am- bassadors; 2. envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary; 3. ministers resident; 4. chargés d'affaires; 5. Secretaries of legation and attachés.- Their rank has been regulated in Europe in the above order, by the congress assembled at Vienna in 1814; and many such quarrels as formerly arose from questions of precedence, are now obviated, by the agreement of the European powers, that, among ministers of the same rank, he who arrives first shall have the precedence over his colleagues. The most ancient relics of diplomatic correspond- ence, perhaps, which have been preserved, are those in the Eacerpta Legationum, volume 1st of the By- Zantine historians, or the 53d book of the great his- torical compilation made by order of the emperor Constantine VI., Porphyrogenitus. Among them will be found the Relation of an Embassy sent by the emperor Theodosius the Younger to Attila, in the year 449. The account here given of court cere- monies, international courtesies, personal pretensions of diplomatists, and the means by which, in barbar- ous ages, and at the court of a half-Savage prince, political ends were pursued, remarkably illustrates the truth of the old proverb, “There is nothing new under the sum.” The same petty quarrels and rivalry among associate diplomatists ; the same disregard to that moral principle which prohibits the placing of temptations in the way of human virtue; the same want of confidence, on the part of the sovereign, to- wards the agents intrusted with the care of his great- est interests ; the same keen attention to every word falling from the lips of a foreign agent, affecting, how- ever remotely, the honour of a sovereign (though this Sovereign be Attila); the same petty intrigues which have been the disgrace of modern diplomacy, seem to have equally characterized that which prevailed fourteen centuries since.* * The expenses of the diplomatic departments, in the various states, are, of course, very different; but, in gener. al, it is correct to say, that in all the European states, 687 We recommend the following works as useful ma- nuals for the study of diplomacy : Traité de Droit politique et de Diplomatie, by Battus, Paris, 1821; Manuel Diplomatique de Charles Martens, 1822; Cours diplomatique, 3 vols., par le Baron de Martens, 1801; Précis du Droit des Gems modernes de l’Eu- Tope, par le Baron de Martens, 1821; Heeren, Ma- nuel de l’Histoire du Système Politique de l'Europe, 1822, abrége de l’Histoire des Traités de Paiw entre les Puissances de l’Europe depuis la Paia de JPest- phalie, par Koch, 4 vols. See also Diplomacy of the United States, by Theodore Lyman, jun., second edition, Boston, 1828; and Diplomatic Correspond- ence of the American Revolution, &e., edited by Ja- red Sparks, Boston, 1829, 30. German literature has lately been enriched by some works on diplomacy. DIPLOMATICS. The ancient acceptation of diploma is the record of a transaction performed through the agency, or under the eyes of the public au- thority. The charters of gifts made by sovereigns to individuals and to incorporated bodies, in the earliest ages of civilization, are thus named diplomas ; and as the materials on which they were inscribed, the man- ner of writing, the characters, the ink, and all the other external forms, as well as their style, differed in different centuries, their interpretation, and the ascertaining of their authenticity, have become a Science the more complicated, as the clergy of former ages had abundant inducements and means to coun- terfeit charters, giving them an increase of power and wealth. The most ancient diplomas which have, as yet, been saved from oblivion and destruction, do not go back farther than the fifth century; and they are on parchment. Those of an earlier date were written on the thin leaves of papyrus, or biblum AEgyptiacum, So called from its Egyptian origin. The ink used consisted, at first, of Soot; but when parchment came into use, tincture of vermilion, red lead, or a purple colouring substance, and sometimes gold and silver, were used instead of the black liquid. Till the year 602, Latin seems to have been the general and official language throughout the Roman empire. After that epoch, the Greek became its substitute in the East, and was still in use in the kingdom of Naples and Sicily, during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. they are by far too great, and an unnecessary burden to the country ; whilst the ministers of the United States of America receive a salary in most cases entirely inadequate to their expenses. A mistaken idea of dignity, on the part of the courts represented, induces governments to spend immense sums abroad; and the ministers often go far be- yond their means. How many ambassadors have ruined themselves | Napoleon, according to Las Cases’ journal, once had in consideration the abolition of resident minis- ters. An official statement has been lately published of the expenses incurred for the British diplomatic service abroad, from 1821 to 1829 inclusive, from which it appears they were as follows: In 1821, £296,769 In 1826, £459,538 18:2, 305,772 I 27, 412,859 1823, 332,453 1828, 407,117 1824, 361,728. 1829, 366,004 1825, 418,637 . tº The expenses of the missions to the new American states, were, In 1823, #25,177 In 1827, fºś6,450 1824, 16,368 1828, 26,732 1825, 27,009 1829, 20,593 1826, 56,108 The British ambassador at Paris receives £12,000+ Petersburg, 13,000 Vienna, 13,000 Madrid, 13,100 the Hague, 13,000 The expenditures of the United States of America for the diplomatic department, in 1827, were 659,211 dollars, or f 148,322. + Besides this, the British government, bought a splendid mansion at Paris for their embassy. 688 The characters, the direction in which the lines are written, the abbreviations, the signs which supplied the places of whole words, the flourishes, varied con- siderably from one century to another. On some of the diplomas, the signature is a cipher or monogram ; and, as it is often in the form of a cross, it is called chrismon. Seals of white wax are found, either im- printed on, or pending from diplomas, in Small cases: at a later period, they were stamped on metal, and affixed in the same manner. In the conquered pro- vinces of the Roman empire, and chiefly those which compose, at present, Great Britain and Germany, the Latin language at length gave way to the idioms of the natives ; and various languages, therefore, must be learned by the students of diplomatics to en- able themselves to distinguish the genuine documenfs from the spurious, and to bring to light such facts as can increase historical knowledge, and clear up points of private or public right. Since the reforma- tion, the science can be of little service in the latter respect, but it still promises valuable assistance in the study of antiquity. (See Charters.) In this point of view, diplomas are considered as literary docu- ments; and much diligence and research have been bestowed, by men not less distinguished by learning than by industry, in the investigation of their con- tents and the examination of their authenticity. The Benedictine monks have done much in this depart- ment of learning : among them Mabillon, Toussaint, and Tassin, hold a distinguished place, and their works will long be the most valuable manuals for the study of diplomatics. A Jesuit named Papebroeck was the first, perhaps, who gave an example of the application which can be made of them to historical researches. The celebrated count Maffei, the most distinguished antiquary of modern Italy, is the author of a supplement to Mabillon's Code Diplomatique. Gatterer and Schoneman have, in times still more re- cent, treated the science in the most systematic man- ner. ... Walter's Lewicon Dipl., Gottingen, 1745, is an excellent guide for abbreviations, and Carpentier's Alphabetum Tironianum, Paris, 1747, for characters representing whole words, in ancient diplomacy. See, also, Henselii, Synopsis Universa. Philologiæ, and Kapp's Alphabet. DIPPING, among miners, signifies the interrup- tion of a vein of ore—an accident that often gives them a great deal of trouble before they can discover the ore again. DIPPING NEEDLE, or INCLINATORY NEE- DLE; a magnetical needle, so hung, that, instead of playing horizontally, and pointing north and south, one end dips or inclines to the horizon, and the other points to a certain height above it.—The inventor of this instrument was one Robert Norman, a compass- maker, of Wapping, about the year 1576.-Some per- sons have endeavoured to find the latitude and longi- tude of places by means of the dipping needle; but nothing of importance has followed from their at- tempts. The following general rule, however, may be adopted in order to find the longitude or latitude by the dipping needle. If the lines of equal dip, be- low the horizon, be drawn on maps, or sea-charts, from good observations, it will be easy, from the longitude known, to find the latitude, and from the latitude known, to find the longitude. Suppose, for example, you were travelling or sailing along the meridian of London, and found the angle of dip, with a needle of one foot, to be 75°, the chart will show, that this me- ridian and the line of dip meet in the latitude of 53° 11', which therefore is the latitude sought. Or sup- pose you were travelling or sailing along the parallel of London, i, e., in 51° 32' N. lat., and you find the angle of dip to be 74°. This parallel, and the line of this dip, will meet in the map in 1946 of E. longi- DIPPING—DIRECT TAX. tude from London, which is therefore the longitude sought. DIPTYCHA (Greek) originally signifies the same as diploma, something folded. The Greeks and Ro- mans, among other materials for writing, used tablets of metal, ivory, or wood, of equal size, fastened toge- ther by a hinge or little ring which went through them, that they might be more easily carried or pass- ed from one hand into the other. Such double tablets were originally called diplomata or diptycha. Both terms, however, afterwards received different signifi- cations. The diptycha became important in the Chris- tian church, and were of three sorts, containing the names of the bishops, of the living, and of the dead. The first contained the names and lives of deserving bishops. It was customary to read them at festivals, which gave rise afterwards to the custom of canoniza- tion. In the diptycha of the living, the names of popes, patriarchs, bishops, and other ecclesiastics, then the names of the emperors, kings, princes, and other distinguished persons, who had deserved well of the church, though still alive, were written down, to be mentioned in the church prayers. The diptycha of the dead, finally, comprised the names of those who had departed in the Lord, which were also mentioned in the church prayers. There was also another spe- cies of diptycha, containing the names of the baptized. Casaubon, in his observations on Athenaeus, lib. vi. Cap. 14, supposes the Christians to have borrowed the custom of writing names in a book, and rehearsing them at mass, from the heathens, who entered the names of persons to whom they would do any signal honour in the verses of the Salii, as was done to Ger- manicus and Verus, sons of the emperor Marcus Aure lius, and a long time before, during the period of the republic. (See Tacitus, lib. ii.) The profane dipty- cha were frequently sent as presents to princes, &c., on which occasions they were finely gilt and embel- lished. Those presented were usually made of ivory. DIRAE, or EUMENIDES. See Furies. DIRECTORY ; a guide, a rule to direct. This name was given to five officers, to whom the execu- tive authority in France was committed by the con- stitution of the year III. This regulation was imi- tated in other states over which France exercised an immediate influence, as in Switzerland, Holland, &c. The two legislative bodies, called the councils, elected the members of the directory: one of them was oblig- ed to retire yearly, and his place was supplied by election. This body was invested with the authority, which, by the constitution of 1791, had been granted to the king. The seven ministers of state were im- mediately under, and were appointed and removed by, the directory. By the revolution of the 18th Bru- maire, this body, and the constitution of the year III, were abolished. For the history of the directory and of the 18th Brumaire, see the Mémoires de Louis Jé- wome Gohier (Paris, 1824, 2 vols.), the last president of this body. DIRECT TAX. Taxes are distinguished into di- rect and indirect. A tax is direct when it is paid by the persons who permanently own, or use, or con- sume the subject of the tax. An indirect tax falls ultimately on a different person from the one who immediately pays it to the government. Thus the importer of goods pays a duty on them to the govern- ment, but reimburses himself by charging the amount of this duty in the price of the goods, so that the retailer who takes them of him refunds the duty, and the consumer who takes them of the retailer again reimburses the latter. On the contrary, a land- tax, a capitation-tax, an annual excise on watches, coaches, &c., or an excise collected on articles as they are distributed by the retail dealer among his customers for consumption is a direct tax; for the DIS-DISMAL SWAMP. party really taxed is the one who pays the tax to the government. See Tawes, and Revenue. DIS; among the Romans, a name of Pluto (q.v.) and Hades. DISCORD. A discord is a dissonant or inharmo- nious combination of Sounds, so called in opposition to the concord, the effects of which the discord is cal- culated to relieve and sweeten. Among various other discords, are those formed by the union of the fifth with the sixth, the fourth with the fifth, the seventh with the eighth, and the third with the ninth and seventh, all which require to be introduced by certain preparatives, and to be succeeded by concords to which they have some relation. DISCOUNT, or REBATE, is an allowance made on a bill, or any other debt not yet become due, in consideration of present payment. Bankers, mer- chants, &c., allow for discount a sum equal to the in- terest of the bill for the time before it becomes due, which, however, is not just; for, as the true value of the discount is equal to the difference between the debt and its present worth, it is equal only to the in- terest of that present worth, instead of the interest on the whole debt. And, therefore, the rule for finding the true discount is this: As the amount of £1 an interest for the given rate and time is to the given sum or debt, so is the interest of £1 for the given rate and time to the discount of the debt. Thus, if the interest or discount of money were five per cent., then the allowance on a bill of £100 would be found thus: As 21s. : :E100:: 1s. : £4 15s. 2}#d. DISCUS, DISC, or DISK; among the Greeks and Romans, a quoit of stone or metal, convex on both its sides, perforated in the middle, and fastened to the Throwing the discus hand by strings. was one of the gymnastic exercises ; and in the Olympic and other games, it was considered a great honour to conquer in the contest. Perseus is said to have invented this instrument, and Apollo killed his favourite, Hyacinth, with it. In some places, the plate which contains the host during the act of con- Secration, is called disk. Disk, in astronomy, means the face of the Sun and moon, as they appear to observers on the earth. DISEASES, HEREDITARy. The influence of the li 689 parents on the organization of the child is so great, that even the individual peculiarities which distin. guish one man from another are, in part at least, transmitted to his children ; hence the similarity, in person and looks, of the child to its parents. The internal organs, too, as well as the external form, have the same resemblance ; so that the peculiar constitution, the greater or less activity and devel- opment of these organs, are found to pass from parent to child. Now, as it is the particular state of the Several organs and functions, in which a very great part of diseases have their foundation, it follows that these diseases may be inherited and, in fact, it has been observed, that the son is not unfrequently at- tacked by a disease at the same period of life in which his father was. These diseases are called hereditary; but it is only the predisposition to them that is, properly speaking inherited. Hence the actual development of hereditary diseases requires certain co-operating circumstances. Constitutional diseases are very often not hereditary, but depend on circumstances which affect the foetus during preg. nancy. The father has no influence on the child, beyond the act of generation ; the mother operates upon it during pregnancy, and it is possible that hereby occasion may be given to hereditary diseases. Among the diseases which are most frequently here- ditary, are scrofula, bleeding (especially at the lungs) and hemorrhoids, consumption, gout, the gravel and Stone, Scirrhus and cancer, disorders of the mind and Spirits, hysterical and hypochondriac affections, apoplexy, epilepsy, and organic diseases of particular parts, especially of the heart. They have this pe- culiarity, that they are produced, and appear as con- stitutional diseases, more from the action of internal than of external, of predisposing than of occasional Causes. Such diseases are much more difficult to reach and to cure than those which originate in accidental external causes. Hence it is especially necessary to prevent in season their growth and development. The means of doing this are the fol- lowing: 1. Whoever has a hereditary predisposition to any disease, should not marry one who has the same constitution. For this reason, marriages be- tween near relations are not advisable, as tending to perpetuate such hereditary diseases. This, too, ap- pears to be the reason why attachments are generally formed between persons of opposite constitution and different temperament. 2. We ought to order all the circumstances, in which the child grows up, in such a way, that the inherited predisposition may not only not be favoured, but counteracted. 3. The accidental occasions which favour the growth of the disease should be avoided, especially at the time of life in which the father was attacked by it. The medical treatment of hereditary diseases is not es- sentially different from that which is requisite in the same diseases, arising under different circumstances. DISHING WHEELS. Wheels should be exactly cylindrical, if roads were, in all cases, level and smooth ; but since the unequal surface of most roads exposes carriages to frequent and sudden changes of position, it is found advantageous to make the wheels a little conical, or, as it is commonly called, dishing, so that the spokes may all diverge with their extrem- ities from the carriage. DISMAL SWAMP; a large tract of marshy land, in America, beginning a little south of Nor- folk, in Virginia, and extending into North Ca- rolina, containing 150,000 acres : thirty miles long, from north to south, and ten broad. This tract is entirely covered with trees, some of which grow to a very large size; and between them the brushwood springs up so thick, that many parts are utterly im- pervious. In the midst of the Swamp is a lake, called 2 X. 690 DISMOUNTING-. Drummond's pond, seven miles in length. The Pasquotank flows from this lake South, and the Nan- Semond flows from it north. Dismal Swamp Canal, or Chesapeake and Albemarle Canal, passes through this Swamp, beginning at Deep creek, a branch of Elizabeth river, seven miles above Norfolk, and terminating at Joyce's creek, a branch of the Pasquotank, thirty miles from its entrance into Albemarle sound. It is 224 miles long, thirty- eight feet broad at the surface, and 5% feet deep. See Canals. - DISMOUNTING, in the military art, is render- ing the enemy’s cannon unfit for further service, by breaking their carriages and axle-trees; also, shat- tering the parapet of a retrenchment, or of a wall, by balls, so that it cannot be defended, particularly so that cannons cannot be worked behind it. Dis- mounting batteries are such as are intended to throw down the parapets of fortifications, and disable the enemy's cannons. They are placed generally in the second, often in the third parallel. If they are on the glacis, in the salient angles of the bastions, and fire against the flanks of the adjacent bulwark, they are called counter-batteries. They are erected ex- actly opposite the front to be battered, and consist of from four to eight cannons, mostly twelve pounders. These cannons are generally aimed, at the same time, at the same embrasure, whilst the others occupy the other cannon of the enemy : when one of the enemy's cannon is silenced, the fire is directed to another, and So on. Some mortars and howitzers, which may be placed either within the dismounting battery or by themselves, support its fire, by bombarding the attacked embrasures: the fire of both must be slow, and well aimed. The distance of the dismounting battery from the work attacked, is usually from three to 400 paces, according to the distance of the second parallel. It has been proposed, in modern times, to shoot grenades, instead of balls, from the cannons, into the works which are to be dismounted, to pro- duce an effect, by their bursting, similar to that of ill 1116S. DISPENSARY ; a charitable institution, common in large towns. Dispensaries are supported by vo- luntary subscriptions, and each has one or more physicians, surgeons and apothecaries, who attend, or ought to attend, at stated times, in order to pre- Scribe for the poor, and, if necessary, to visit them at their own habitations. The poor are supplied with medicines gratis. Where these institutions are managed with care, they are of the utmost impor- tance to Society, it being unquestionably more for the comfort of the sick, to be attended at their own houses, than to be taken from their families to an hospital. - 1SPENSATORY: a book in which all the medi- cines are registered, that are to be kept in an apo- thecary’s shop, and the apothecaries directed how to compose them. Almost every country in Europe, and many large cities, have their own dispensatories, which the apothecaries are bound to follow. DISSEIZIN, or DISSEISIN, is the dispossessing one of a freehold estate, or interrupting his seizin. Under the feudal law, when a vassal was admitted to an estate, by the ceremony of investiture, he was said to be seized of it. The disseizing of him was the turning him out of his fee. The entry into a vacant estate is not a disseizin. In regard to incorporeal hereditaments, as of a certain office, or the right to receive a certain rent out of land, without that of possession, there could be only a constructive dis- seizin. The person disseizing another is called the disseizor, and the person whose estate is disseized, the disseizee. By a freehold is meant an estate for life, or some larger estate ; and an estate for years, —ſ) ISSIDENTS. or a lease, though it be for a hundred years, is not a freehold. Of freeholds, only, can a seizin be had, or a disseizin done. Whether an entry upon lands is or is not a disseizin, will depend partly upon the circum- stances of the entry, and partly upon the intention of the party, as made known by his words or acts. Thus, if one enters another's house without claiming any thing, it is not a disseizin. So, if one enters wrong- fully upon another's land, and the owner afterwards receives rent of him, it will not be a disseizin ; so, if a lessee at will makes a lease for years, it is a dis- Seizin; so, if one enters upon the lands of an infant, though with his consent, it is a disseizin, if the infant chooses afterwards so to consider it; so, if one com- mands another to make a disseizin, the person giving the command is a disseizor; and so it is a disseizim to prevent the owner from entering on his land, &c. Between joint-tenants, and tenants in common, and Coparceners, the entry of one, being construed to be made in behalf of all, is not a disseizin, which, in these cases, must be the actual ouster of the co-ten- ant ; that is, putting or keeping him out of posses- Sion : thus, if one co-tenant, after entering, makes a feoffment of the whole, this is a disseizin; for it shows the intention of the entry: so if one, being in posses- Sion, claims the whole, and refuses to pay rent, &c. DISSENTERS. See Non-Conformists and Eccle siastical Establishments. DISSIDENTS, in its more extensive meaning, des notes those who differ from the established religion of a country. . It has been used in a more particular Sense in Poland, since 1736, to denote all those who, though they do not belong to the established (Catho- lic) religion, are yet allowed the free exercise of their respective modes of worship, including Lutherans, Calvinists, Greeks, and Arminians, and excluding Anabaptists, Socinians, and Quakers. As early as the time of Luther, the reformation was introduced into Poland. During the reign of Sigismund Augus- tus (1548–72), great numbers of the people, and even half of the members of the diet, and more than half of the nobility, were Lutherans or Calvinists. The convention of Sandomir, concluded in 1570, united the Lutherans, Calvinists, and Bohemian brethren into one church—a union which had also a political tendency, and whose members obtained the same rights with the Catholics, by the religious peace (paa, dissidentium) sworn to by the king in 1573. But the great mistake committed in not settling the mutual relations of the two religious parties, gave rise to bloody contests. Although the rights of the dissidents were afterwards repeatedly confirmed, they were gra- dually repealed, particularly in 1717 and 1718, in the reign of Augustus II., when they were deprived of the right of voting in the diet. They lost still more, Some years afterwards (1733), under Augustus III.; and in the diet of pacification, as it was called (1736), an old statute, requiring every Polish king to be of the Catholic church, was revived. After the acces- sion of the last king, Stanislaus Poniatowski, the dis- sidents brought their grievances before the diet held in 1766, and were supported in their claims by Rus- sia, Denmark, Prussia, and Britain. Russia, in particular, profited by the occasion, to extend her in- fluence in the affairs of Poland, supported them strongly, and succeeded, by her mediation, in bring- ing about a new convention, in 1767, by which they were again placed on an equal footing with the Ca- tholics. The diet of 1768 repealed the decrees which had been formerly passed against them. The war against the confederates breaking out, however, and the kingdom being dismembered, nothing was accom- plished, until the year 1775, when the dissidents re- gained all their privileges, excepting the right of being elected Senators or ministers .# state. Latter DISSONANCE – 1) ISTRESS. events in Poland have again placed the dissidents on an equal footing with the Catholics. DISSONANCE ; that effect which results from the union of two sounds not in accord with each other. The ancients considered thirds and sixths as dissonances; and, in fact, every chord, except the perfect concord, is a dissonant chord. The old theories include an infinity of dissonances, but the present re- ceived system reduces them to a comparatively small number. One rule, admitted both by the ancients and the moderns, is, that of two notes, dissonant between themselves, the dissonance appertains to that one of the two which is most remote from the concord. TXISTICH ; a couplet of verses, especially one Consisting of an hexameter and pentameter; as, “Turpe quidem dictu : sed, si modo vera fatemur, Vulgus amicitias utilitate probat.” - The hexameter, which flows on in an uninterrupted course, being adapted to the expression of feeling, and the pentameter, which is broken by two nearly equal divisions, expressing subdued emotion, this dis- position is undoubtedly best suited to the elegy (q.v.), and for this reason was called the elegiac measure. At the same time, no form is more suitable for maxims or sentences than the distich. The Greeks, there- fore, composed their epigrams almost exclusively in this form, and the Germans have followed their ex- ample. Other nations, who do not possess this mea- Sure, frequently call every piece of poetry in two lines, a distich. DISTILLATION is an art founded upon the dif. ferent tendencies which bodies have to pass into va- pour, and to be condensed again by cold, and is per- formed in order to separate them from each other, when combined, or when they become products of chemical action. Its use is very important in obtain- ing spirits, essences, volatile oils, &c. The most Common method of conducting this process consists in placing the liquid to be distilled in a vessel called a still, made of copper, having a movable head, with a Swan-like neck, which is so formed as to fit a coiled tube, packed away in a tub of water constantly kept cold, and which is termed a refrigeratory. The fire is applied either immediately to the still, or medi- ately, by means of a water or sand-bath. The liquid to be obtained rises, in vapour, into the head of the still, and, passing down the curved tube, or worm, becomes condensed, and makes its exit in a liquid state. The still should be constructed with a diame- ter considerably greater than its height, in order to expose a larger surface to the fire ; and the tube should not be so narrow as to impede the passage of the vapour into the worm. An improvement made by Mr Tennant in this apparatus, consists in introducing the spiral tube into the body of a second still, so that the heat from the condensation of the steam, passing through the tube, is applied to the distillation of liquor in the second. The pressure of the atmosphere is removed from the latter, by connecting it with an air-tight receiver, kept cool. The air in this receiver is allowed to escape at the commencement of the operation; its place is occupied by the steam from the liquor, which being condensed, a vacuum is kept up, whence the distillation proceeds without any further heat being directly applied to the second still. The form of distilling apparatus is called the double still. The process introduced by Mr Barry, for preparing vegetable extracts and inspissated juices, by evapo- ration in vacuo, is of a Somewhat similar nature. The apparatus consists of a hemispherical still, made of cast iron, and polished within. It is closed by an Air-tight, flat cover, through which rises a wide tube, which is then bent downwards, and terminates in a large copper globe, of a capacity three or four times 69 | greater than that of the still. In this tube there is a stop-cock, between the still and the globe. When evaporation is to be performed, the vegetable juice or infusion is poured into the polished iron still, through an opening, which is then closed, made air-tight, and covered with water. In order to produce a vacuum, the connexion between the still and copper receiver is interrupted, by shutting the stop-cock, and steam from a boiler is introduced by a pipe into the latter, till the whole of the air is expelled from it. This takes usually about five minutes, and is known by the steam issuing from the globe uncondensed. The copper sphere is then closed, and the com- munication restored between it and the still, by opening the stop-cock, when the greater part of the air in the latter rushes into the former. The stop- cock is again closed, and the globe again filled with steam as before. By the condensation of this steam a vacuum is again produced, which, on open- ing the stop-cock, extracts the greater portion of the air remaining in the still: in short, by repeating these exhaustions five or six times, an almost per- fect vacuum is obtained, both in the still and receiv- er. Heat is then applied to the water bath, in which the still is placed, until the juice within begins to boil, which is ascertained by inspection through a piece of thick glass, fixed firmly in the upper part of the apparatus. As, in a vacuum, fluids boil nearly 124 degrees be- low their usual boiling temperature, water passes into ebullition, in such circumstances, at 9° Fahr., or a little above it ; and it is never found necessary to heat the juice above a temperature of 100°. The evaporation is continued till the fluid is inspissated to the proper extent, which is judged of by its ap- pearance through the glass. Extracts prepared in this way are found to be greatly preferable to those obtained by evaporation at a high temperature: they are considerably stronger, as the active principles in the juices are not decomposed by reaction between their elements, favoured by heat; and they are free from all burnt flavour, or empyreuma. There are many operations, however, in which liquids are em- ployed, that would corrode metallic vessels: in such cases, vessels are employed, constructed either of glass, platinum, or stone ware. They are of various forms, generally consisting of two parts, one called a retort, and the other a receiver. The receiver is Sometimes tubulated, with a stopper adapted to the tubulature. In some cases of distillation, the product is not entirely a vapour which may be condensed; but there is disengaged an elastic fluid, which is incondensable. This gas is allowed to pass off by a tube from the tubulature; the tube terminating in a vessel of water, and thus enabling us to collect the as in an inverted jar. In certain cases, the product 㺠to be obtained by distillation is an elastic fluid, not condensable by itself, but capable of being condensed by being transmitted through water. A contrivance called /Woulfe's apparatus is used for this purpose. A liquid obtained by distillation is sometimes not perfectly pure, or it is dilute, from the intermixture of water, that has been elevated in vapour along with it. By repeating the distillation of it a second or a third time, it is rendered more pure and strong. This latter process is named rectification, or Sometimes concentration. See the article /Whiskey, where practical details will be given of the most ap- proved methods of distilling that spirit as practised in Scotland. - DISTRESS, in law (from the Latin distringo, to distrain), is the taking of a personal chattel of a wrong-doer, or a tenant, in order to obtain satisfac. tion for the wrong done, or for rent or service due, The thing taken is also called a distress. A distress 2 X 2 692 may be taken for homage, fealty, or any other ser- vice, of which there were many descriptions under the old feudal tenures, due from the tenant to the lord, or person of whom the estate was holden, the rendering or payment of which was the considera- tion or condition on which the land was held. So a distress is, by the English and American law, allow- ed to be made of cattle or goods damage:feasant (see Damage-Feasant), both for the purpose of pre- venting further damage, and obtaining satisfaction for that already done. If the party whose goods or cattle are seized, disputes the injury, service, duty, or rent, on account of which the distress is taken, he may replevy the things taken, giving bonds, at the same time, to return them or pay damage, in case the party making the distress shows that the wrong has been dome, or the service or rent is due, on account of which the distress was taken. Another description of distress is that of attach- ment (see Attachment), to compel a party to appear before a court when summoned for this purpose. The distresses most frequently made in England, are on account of damage feasance and rent ; though the ordinary attachments on mesne process, that is, on a writ before judgment, that the judgment may be Satisfied out of the property so seized, coincides in principle with the right of distress. The reason for giving a right of distress in cases of damage-feasance is obvious, but it is by no means so evident why a land- lord should have a right to distrain for his rent, any more than a grocer for a debt accruing on account of articles supplied for the use of his debtor's family. As to the things that may be distrained, the English law allows any chattel of the lessee, on the premises, to be so taken. The law also prescribes particularly the time and mode of making the distress, and the man- ner of treating the things, especially beasts, distrained. DITHYRAMBUS; a surname of Bacchus, because he was said to have been born twice—once of his mo- ther Semele, and the second time out of the thigh of his father, Jupiter; or because several mothers have been ascribed to him. The word means, also, a poem, sung in honour of the god, at his festivals. Since these festivals were celebrated with all the ex- travagance which could please the intoxicated deity, the dithyrambus employed in his worship naturally breathed the same frenzy. The character of the dithyrambus, therefore, requires bold images and lofty periods. The more apparent disorder it contains, the more it partakes of the fire of in- toxication, the better it sustains the true dithy- rambic character. In the wild Phrygian music, it was sung in choirs. Arion of Methymne, on the island of Lesbos, is considered as the inventor of it. In public games, it was first made use of by Lasos of Hermione. The expression dithyrambic poem de- notes, also, every lyric poem, filled with a wild and impetuous enthusiasm, as is the case with many odes of Pindar. - - DITTERS VON DITTERSDORF, CHARLEs, born at Vienna, in 1739, is particularly distinguished in comic compositions, and perhaps unrivalled, in this branch of music, among the German composers. Several of his operas are represented with great applause, even in Italy. The emperor of Germany raised him to the rank of mobility. He died in 1799. DITTO (usually written do.) signifies the afore- mentioned, and is a corruption of the Italian detto, from the Latin dictum, the said. DIVAN ; l. with the Turks, the highest council of state : Turkish ministry. (See Ottoman Em- pire.) Every pacha has also a divam. 2. In Turkey, a kind of stage, raised about a foot from the floor, which is found in all the halls of the DITHYRAMBUS—DIVINATION, palaces, as well as in the apartments of private per- sons. It is covered with costly tapestry, and a num- ber of embroidered cushions, leaning against the wall, This divan is a seat of the master of the house, and reclining on it, he receives visitors. From this, a kind of sofa has obtained the name of divan. 3. Divan, with the Arabs, Persians, and Turks, is used to denote a complete collection of lyric poems, which they called gazelles, and through each of which one single rhyme extends: they never exceed the length of fourteen strophes. Such a collection is complete if there are as many divisions as there are letters in the alphabet of the respective languages; and each division contains at least one poem, the rhymes of which terminate with the letter under which the division falls; some letters are excluded, as few or no words end in them. DIWER. See Pearl-Fishery. DIVER, a bird. See Loon. DIVERGENT; tending to various parts from one point; thus we say, divergent lines, rays, &c. mean- ing those lines or rays which, issuing from one com- mon point, go off from that point in various direc- tions. Concave glasses render the rays divergent, and convex ones convergent. Concave mirrors make the rays converge, and convex ones make them diverge. DIVERGING SERIES, in analysis, are those Series, the terms of which increase more and more, the further they are continued. DIVERSION, in military affairs, is an attack on an enemy, in a place where he is weak and unpro- vided, in order to draw off his forces from another place, where they have made, or intend to make, an irruption. Thus the Romans had no other way in their power of driving Hannibal out of Italy, but by making a diversion in attacking Carthage. DIVIDEND OF STOCKS is a share or propor- tion of the interest of stocks, divided among, and paid to, the proprietors. Dividend, in arithmetic, is that number which is to be divided. DIVINATION (from the Latin divinatio); the foreseeing or predicting of future events (in Greek, gov.rsuo, playºrizº). Cicero has treated this subject in his book De Divinatione. Man is so dependent upon external things and influences; he is so conscious of this influence; he is so perfectly aware of the uncer. tain issue of his best calculations, and is so often obliged to act, when the reasons for and against a measure seem to be almost equally balanced, that it is natural for him to cherish an ardent desire to pry into futurity, and to inform himself about things which are happening in distant regions, by some pro- cess out of the ordinary course of nature. If we take into view, besides this natural desire, the belief which nations, in an early stage of their progress, entertain of the immediate dispensations of Providence, of a constant interference of the Deity in the course of things, rather than of the existence of eternal and all- wise laws, we shall have the reason why belief in divination of some kind or other, in signs given from above, to warm or to alarm, and in the power of par- ticular individuals to lift the veil of futurity, has been So general. - We need not suppose divination to have had its origin in fraud: the disposition of men to deceive them- selves, and form conclusions as to future events from unmeaning signs, will sufficiently account for its exis: tence. In the sequel, indeed, it became a fruitful source of imposition. Moses prohibited divination expressly. (Deut. xviii. 11.). Saul expelled “ those that had familiar spirits, and the wizards,” from his kingdom; yet he was weak enough to consult the famous wifeh of Endor, shortly before the decisive DIVINATION.—DIVING-BELL, battle in which he fell. The Egyptians and Greeks had their oracles. With the Romans, divination and witchcraft were brought into a kind of system, and constituted part of their religion, of which the generals and chiefs of parties often availed themselves, with much effect. (See Augur, and Aruspices.) All the ancient Asiatic tribes had modes of divination; and sorcerers are common among the Indians of America. In fact, we believe that there has hardly been a nation discovered, which had advanced be- yond the lowest barbarism, that did not practice some kind of divination; and even in the ages in which reason has most prevailed over feeling, the be- lief in the power of foreseeing future events has been entertained; even men of the greatest intelligence have not been able to rid themselves of it entirely. Without going into the question of the degree to which the human mind is capable of looking into futurity, or considering the numerous extraordinary stories afloat in the world, of presentiments and pre- dictions, we shall confine ourselves to a few remarks on the systems of divination which have existed. The ancient Germans had consecrated white horses, from whose smorting and neighing they drew favourable or unfavourable signs. They also followed the guidance of prophetesses, whom they called Alrunes. The Greeks had their sortes Homerica, the Romans their sortes Pirgilianae; and, in imitation of these, many Christians, from the period of the third century, adopted the sortes sanctorum—a mode of judging of the future by opening the Sacred Scriptures at random, and forming an opinion from the passage on which the eye happened to fall. (See Bibliomancy.) This usage was early disapproved by the councils. Some popes forbad it under penalty of excommunication. The capitularies of Charlemagne, of 789 A. D., also prohibit this mode of constilting the Psalms and the Gospels; yet the sortes sanctorum continued until the fourteenth century, and is not, even now, altogether obsolete. In most countries of Europe, many of the old forms of divination continue to be practised, some- times from superstition, sometimes for amusement. In fact, the love of having one's fortune told is not confined to the ignorant, and the supersti- tious. People who are above believing the pre- dictions are still fond of prying, in sport, into the mysteries of futurity. There are many names for the different modes of prognosticating the future by means of the various appearances which nature and art present, from the revolutions of the stars down to the grounds of a coffee-cup ; as, astrology, aero- mancy, meteoromancy, pyromancy, hydromancy, geo- mancy, hieromancy, rhabdomancy, physiognomancy, necromancy, bibliomancy, &c. Very lately, a lady at }*aris, mademoiselle Lenormand, attracted much attention by telling fortunes to persons of high rank ; and Muller, in Suabia, was a celebrated prophet in the time of Napoleon. It has been often observed, that great politicians, men who have risen above many of the prejudices of their age, and have even disregarded important truths, have yet given them- selves up to a superstitious trust in signs and divina- tion. One reason may be, that they have peculiar opportunities of seeing how many things are out of the reach of human power, and must be left to for- tune; and an ambitious spirit refuses to doubt what it strongly wishes. The works on this subject are very numerous, including, as they do, the mystical productions of the East, the Cabala (q. v.), the treatises on astrology, witchcraft, &c., in the middle ages, and all that modern times have produced, as Jung Stilling's Theorie der Geisterkunde (Theory of Demonology), Sir W. Scott's History of Demonology, &c. See the articles Astrology, Gipsies, //iteſ, &c. 693 DIVING-BELL. To illustrate the principle of this machine, take a glass tumbler, plunge it into water with the mouth perpendicularly downwards; you will find that very little water will rise into the tumbler, which will be evident if you lay a piece of Cork, upon the surface of the water, and put the tumbler over it ; for you will see, that, though the cork should be carried far below the surface of the water, yet its upper side is not wetted, the air which was in the tumbler having prevented the entrance of the Water; but, as air is compressible, it could not entirely exclude the water, which, by its pressure, condensed the air a little. . The first diving-bell we read of in Europe was tried at Cadiz, by two Greeks, in the presence of Charles V. and 10,000 spectators. It resembled a large kettle inverted. The first of any note was made by Dr Halley. It is most commonly made in the form of a truncated cone, the smaller end being closed, and the larger one open. It is so suspended that it may sink fill of air, with its open base downwards, and as near as may be parallel to the horizon, so as to close with the surface of the water. Mr Smeaton's diving-bell, made in 1788, was a square chest of cast iron, 4% feet in height, 4% feet in length, and 3 feet wide, and afforded room for two men to work in it. It was supplied with fresh air by a forcing pump. This was used with great success at Ramsgate. Other contrivances have been used for diving-bells. Within the last thirty years, the diving-bell has been much employed to assist in laying the foundations of buildings under water. A diving-bell, on an improved principle, was constructed, in 1812, by the late Mr Rennie, and employed in Ramsgate harbour, where it answered so well, that the masonry was laid with the utmost precision. From this period must be dated a new era in the construction of masonry under water, the use of coffer dams being, in a considerable degree, superseded. The diving-bell was, thence- forward, employed by Mr Rennie in the construction of all the great harbours which he projected. Round bells of cast iron and copper have been occasionally made for the pearl and coral fisheries of South Ame- rica, and have been supplied by the Messrs Rennie for most of the ruyal dock-yards in England, and several of those in the colonies, for the pearl fishery at Ceylon, for the repair of the works at Cronstadt, for many places in Great Britain, and Ireland, &c. In plate XXVII, we have given various views of the diving-bell used on the river Clyde. Fig 1. is a sectional side elevation of the machine. A is an iron chest open at the bottom but covered at the top, G. Over the top is fastened a casing, either of wood, or, what seems to be preferable, of sheet iron. This casing is employed as a sort of coffer dam, in order that the water above the bell may be displaced, so that more light may be admitted from above into the bell. A section of the bell on a larger scale is shown in figure 3., where the seats are seen projecting from the sides near the bottom. On these seats the divers stand, but when any of them wish to go to the bottom they step upon a projecting piece seen in the centre near to the mouth of the bell. The lower portion of this figure shows a ground view of the top of the bell, a (t, which is crossed by a strong iron bar and contains eight round holes, into which glass lenses are fitted for the transmission of light. To the upper side of this top is attached (in a manner which will be easily understood by inspection of the figure) the chain which passes over the pulley b, b, and is wrought by the crane, c. by which arrangement the bell may be either raised or depressed at pleasure. The bell, as will be seen in fig. 1. passes through an opening in the barge, but where the apparatus is to be used in very deep water a better arrangement would be to suspend the bell 694 from the end of the barge, which would increase the quantity of light admitted into the bell. From the top of the bell, there proceeds a hose or leather pipe, which is led up to the deck, where it communicates with two forcing pumps, by which means fresh air is constantly issued into the bell, which air by its pres- sure, displaces the water in the cavity A, and allows the divers to carry on their operations. . The bell has four sides, being somewhat larger at the bottom than the top, and the metal being thicker towards the mouth, in order to counteract any tendency that the bell might have to overset. The area of the bell at the mouth is 5 feet 7 inches, by 3 feet 9 inches, and at the top 5 feet 2 inches, by 3 feet 7% inches; the height of the top above the mouth is about 6 feet. To the top is attached a strong ring, G, to which the tackling used for lifting stones is attached when these are lifted in the bell; but Some- times these are taken up through an opening at the one side of the bell, as may be seen in fig. 1.; and in order that these should press easily up, there is a hook on the right hand side of the bell, and near the bot- tom, by which the bell may be drawn aside, in order that more space may be left for raising the stones. These stones are raised by a crane, which may be seen at w, in the end elevation, fig. 2, the tackling of which passes over the framework above. At , e, is seen the crane which raises or depresses the bell, and at K, the pumping apparatus. These pumps have a bore of 8 inches diameter, with a stroke of about 10 feet, making 20 strokes per minute. The whole length of the barge which carries the diving apparatus is 46 feet, and breadth about 18%. To the frame work is attached a signal ball, n, which is raised when the bell is under water, to warn the masters of steam vessels to stop the engine before they approach the barge, so that the divers may not be interrupted by the agitation of the water. Mr Deane has recently contrived and employed an ingenious diving apparatus,which has been success- fully employed, and of which, through his kindness, we are enabled to give the following particulars. The head of the diver is covered by a helmet of thin sheet copper, G, fig. 4, plate XXVII, large enough to admit of the easy motion of the head, and capable of con- taining between 6 and 8 gallons of air. The helmet comes pretty far down on the breast and back, and has in front three eye holes, covered with glass pro- tected by brass wires. The copper helmet is attached to a water-proof canvass jacket by means of rivets, F, so tightly fixed that no water can be introduced to the body of the diver. The junction of the helmet and jacket is stuffed, so that it may clasp the shoulders of the diver firmly. A leather belt, E, passes round the di- ver, to which are attached two weights, one before and the other behind, each weighing about 40 lbs. These weights, one of which is seen at C, are attached in order that the diver may descend with facility; but in case of any accident occurring when he is at the bottom, the belt is fastened with a buckle in front, which he can instantly unloose, and rise to the sur- face after the dropping of the weights. . The diver is supported with fresh air by means of the flexible water-proof pipe, A, which enters the back of the hel- met, and communicates with an air pump wrought above in the barge from which the diver descends. The tube passes under the left arm of the diver, and turning upwards enters the back of the helmet, being so contrived that the fresh air is made to impinge against the glasses, which in a great measure pre- yents their being dimmed by the moisture of the breath. From the back part of the helmet there is likewise led an eduction pipe, to allow the escape of the breathed air. In order that the diver may give notice to the attendants at the top when he requires DIVING-BELL–DIVISIBILITY. a hook, tackle, bucket, or any difference in the sup. ply of fresh air, he is furnished with a signal line, B, which passes under his right arm. The diver de- scends from the side of the vessel either by means of a rope or Wooden ladder loaded at the lower end, (more frequently by the former) the weight being kept at a height of about two feet from the ground. When the diver descends to the bottom, the rope is let down, so that it becomes slack, to prevent the motion of the boat from obstructing him, and he car- ries a line in his hand, that he may, when necessary, return to the rope. In order that the diver may be as comfortable as possible under water, he puts on two suits of flannel, above which he has a complete dress (in One piece, of Mackintosh's water-proof cloth). The water-proof dress covers the body entirely, the only apertures being at the neck and wrists. The opening at the neck comes well up, and is tied round tightly with a bandage, which contrivance, together with the pressure of the air in the helmet, prevents the water from entering the helmet, and the wrists are likewise tightly bound with bandages. The diver is thus enabled to remain for five or six hours at once under water, all the while perfectly dry, his motion being rendered quite steady by heavy weights attached to his shoes. With this apparatus, the ingenious and enterpris- ing inventor has dived for several wrecked vessels in the Western Highlands of Scotland, at Spithead in England, on the coast of France, and, at Copeland island, off Tonaghadee, north-east coast of Ire- land, at which latter place he has brought up an immense number of silver dollars, several gold coins, some bottles of wine covered with shell fish, and many other curious and valuable articles, from a vessel wrecked there more than thirty years since. At the other places alluded to, he met with similar success. Fig. 5 represents Mr Dean's diving at the Royal George, which was sunk about forty years SIIlC6. DIVINING ROD (virgula Mercurialis) is a rod made with certain superstitious ceremonies, either single and curved, or with two branches, like a fork, of wood, brass, or other metal. The rod is held in a particular way, and if it bends towards one side, those who use the rod believe it to be an indication that there is treasure under the spot. Some publi- cations respecting a man who, in quite recent times, pretended to be able to discover water and metals under the ground by his feelings, attracted much attention. See Campetti. DIVISIBILITY. The actual subdivision of bodies has, in many cases, been carried to a prodigious extent. A slip of ivory, of an inch in length, is frequently divided into a hundred equal parts, which are distinctly visible. But, by the application of a very fine screw, 5000 equidistant lines, in the space of a quarter of an inch, can be traced on a surface of steel or glass with the fine point of a diamond, pro- ducing delicate iridescent colours. Common writing paper has a thickness of about the 500th part of an inch ; but the pellicle separated from ox-gut, and then doubled to form gold-beaters’ skin, is six times thinner. A single pound of cotton has been spun into a thread seventy-six miles in length; and the same quantity of wool has been extended into a thread of ninety-five miles; the diameters of those threads being hence only the 350th and 400th parts of an inch. But the ductility of some metals far exceeds that of any other substance. The gold-beaters begin with a riband an inch broad and 150 inches long, which has been reduced, by passing through rollers, to about the 800th part of an inch in thickness. This riband is cut into Squares, which are disposed be- tween leaves of wellum, and beat by a heavy ham- DIVISIBILITY. mer, till they acquire a breadth of more than three inches, and are therefore extended ten times. These are again quartered, and placed between the folds of gold-beaters' skin, and stretched out, by the operation of a lighter hammer, to the breadth of five inches. The same process is repeated, sometimes more than once, by a succession of lighter hammers; so that 376 grains of gold are thus finally extended into 2000 leaves of 3-3 inches square, making in all eighty books, containing each twenty-five leaves. The metal is, consequently, reduced to the thinness of the 282,000th part of an inch, and every leaf weighs rather less than the 5th part of a grain. Sil- wer is likewise capable of being laminated, but will scarcely bear an extension above half that of gold, or the 150,000th part of an inch thick. Copper and tin have still inferior degrees of ductility, and cannot, perhaps, be beat thinner than the 20,000th part of an inch. These form what is called Dutch leaf. In the gilding of buttons, five grains of gold, which is applied as an amalgam with mercury, is allowed to each gross; so that the coating left must amount to the 110,000th part of an inch in thickness. If a piece of ivory or white satin be immersed in a nitro- muriate Solution of gold, and then plunged into a jar of hydrogen gas, it will become covered with a sur- face of gold hardly exceeding in thickness the 10,000,000th part of an inch. The gilt wire used in embroidery is formed by extending gold over a surface of silver. A silver rod, about two feet long and an inch and a half in diameter, and therefore weighing nearly twenty pounds, is richly coated with about 800 grains of pure gold. In England, the lowest proportion allowed is 100 grains of gold to a pound of silver. This gilt rod is then drawn through a series of diminishing holes, till it has stretched to the vast length of 240 miles, when the gold has, consequently, become attenuated 800 times, each grain covering a surface of 9600 square inches. This wire being now flattened, the golden film suffers a further extension, and has its thickness reduced to the four or five millionth part of an inch. It has been asserted, that wires of pure gold can be drawn of only the 4000th part of an inch in diameter. But Dr W. H. Wollaston, by an ingenious process, has lately advanced much further. Taking a short cylinder of silver, about the third part of an incli in diameter, he drilled a fine hole through its axis, and inserted a wire of platinum, only the 100th part of an inch thick. This silver mould was now drawn through the successive holes of a steel plate, till its diameter was brought to near the 1500th part of an inch, and, consequently, the internal wire, being diminished in the same proportion, was reduced to between the four and five thousandth part of an inch. The compound wire was then dipped in warm nitric acid, which dissolved the silver, and left its core, or the wire of platinum. By passing the incrusted platinum through a greater number of holes, wires still finer were obtained, some of them only the 30,000th part of an inch in diameter. The tenacity of the metal, before reaching that limit, was consid- erable ; a platinum wire of the 18,000th part of an inch in diameter, supporting the weight of one grain and a third. Such excessive fineness is hardly surpassed by the filamentous productions of nature. Human hair varies in thickness, from the 250th to the 600th part of an inch. The fibre of the coarsest wool is about the 500th part of an inch in diameter, and that of the finest only the 1500th part. The silk line, as spun by the worm, is about the 5000th part of an inch thick ; but a spider's line is, perhaps, six times finer, or only the 30,000th part of an inch in diameter; in- soinuch, that a single pound of this attenuated sub- 695 stance might be sufficient to encompass our globe. The red globules of the human blood have an irregu, lar, roundish shape, from the 2500th to the 3300th of an inch in diameter, with a dark central spot. The trituration and levigation of powders, and the perennial abrasion and waste of the surface of solid bodies, occasion a disintegration of particles, almost exceeding the powers of computation. Emery, after it has been ground, is thrown into a vat filled with water, and the finemess of the powder is distinguished by the time of its subsidence. In very dry situations, the dust lodged near the corners and crevices of an- cient buildings is, by the continual agitation of the air, made to give a glossy polish to the interior side of the pillars, and the less prominent parts of those venerable remains. So fine is the sand on the adust plains of Arabia, that it is carried sometimes 300 miles over the Mediterranean, by the Sweeping si- rocco. Along the shores of that sea, the rocks are peopled by the pholas, a testaceous and edible worm, which, though very soft, yet, by unwearied persever- ance, works a cylindrical hole into the heart of the hardest stone. The marble steps of the great churches in Italy are worn by the incessant crawling of abject devotees; nay, the hands and feet of bronze statues are, in the lapse of ages, wasted away by the ardent kisses of innumerable pilgrims that resort to those shrines. What an evanescent pellicle of the metal must be abraded at each successive contact! The solutions of certain saline bodies, and of other coloured substances, exhibit a prodigious subdivision and dissemination of matter. A single grain of the sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol, will communicate a fine azure tint to five gallons of water. In this case, the copper must be attenuated at least ten million times; yet each drop of the liquid may contain as many coloured particles, distinguishable by our un- assisted vision. A still minuter portion of cochineal, dissolved in deliquiate potash, will strike a bright purple colour through an equal mass of water. Odours are capable of a much wider diffusion. A single grain of musk has been known to perfume a large room for the space of twenty years. Consider how often, during that time, the air of the apartment must have been renewed, and have become charged with fresh odour ! At the lowest computation, the musk had been subdivided into 320 quadrillions of particles, each of them capable of affecting the olfac- tory organs. The vast diffusion of odorous effluvia may be conceived from the fact, that a lump of assa- foetida, exposed to the open air, lost only a grain in seven weeks. Yet, since dogs hunt by the scent alone, the effluvia emitted from the several species of animals, and from different individuals of the same race, must be essentially distinct. The vapour of pestilence conveys its poison in a still more subtile and attenuated form. The seeds of contagion are known to lurk, for years, in various absorbent sub- stances, which scatter death on exposure to the air. But the diffusion of the particles of light defies all powers of calculation. A small taper will, in a twinkling, illuminate the atmosphere to the distance of four miles; yet the luminous particles which fill that wide concavity cannot amount to the five thou- sandth part of a grain, which may be the whole con- sumption of the wax in light, Smoke, and ashes Animated matter likewise exhibits, in many in- stances, a wonderful subdivision. The mult of a codfish, when it begins to putrefy, has been computed to contain a billion of perfect insects ; so that thou- sands of these living creatures could be lifted on the point of a needle. But the infusory animalcules dis- play, in their structure and functions, the most tran- scendent attenuation of matter. The vibrio undulu, found in duck-weed, is computed to be ten thousand 696 million times smaller than a hemp seed. The vibrio lineola occurs in vegetable infusions, every drop con- taining myriads of those oblong points. Of the monas gelatinosa, discovered in ditch water, millions appear in the field of a microscope, playing, like the Sun- beams, in a single drop of liquid. Insects have been discovered so small as not to exceed the ten thou- sandth part of an inch, so that 1,000,000,000,000 of them might be contained within the space of one cubic inch ; yet each animalcule must consist of parts connected with each other, with vessels, with fluids, and with organs necessary for its motions, for its in- crease, for its propagation, &c. How inconceivably Small must those organs be and yet they are, un- questionably, composed of other parts still smaller, and still farther removed from the perception of our SellSéS. DIVORCE is a separation, by law, of husband and wife, and is either a divorce a vinculo matrimonii, that is, a complete dissolution of the marriage bonds, whereby the parties become as entirely disconnected as those who have not been joined in wedlock, or a divorce a mensa et thoro (from bed and board), where- by the parties are legally separated, but not unmar- ried. The causes admitted by different codes of laws as grounds for the modification or entire dissolution of the marriage contract, as well as the description of tribunal which has jurisdiction of the proceedings, and the form of the proceedings, are quite various. According to the law of Moses (Deut. xxiv. 1), “when a man hath taken a wife, and married her, and it come to pass that she find no favour in his eyes, because he hath found some uncleanness in her; then let him write her a bill of divorcement, and give it in her hand, and send her out of his house.” This was a very summary proceeding, and the provision seems scarcely to recognise the force of a marriage contract as binding upon the husband, who, accord- ing to the prevalent interpretation of this law among the Jews, might be his own judge of the sufficiency of the cause for repudiating his wife; and one school of doctors, whose interpretations were had in respect, considered it to be sufficient cause if he preferred another woman, or if his wife did not dress his vic- tuals to his satisfaction. This law is said (Matt. xix.) to have been a concession to the hardness of heart of the Jews, who were not prepared to receive a better doctrine. The wife, on receiving her bill of divorce, was at liberty to marry again, after waiting ninety days, in order to avoid doubts as to the paternity of her next born child. This law, like those of the Eastern countries generally, pays very little respect to the rights of the wife as a party to a matrimonial contract. The husband might marry another wife immediately. The wife could not divorce the hus- band. The Mohammedan law of divorce, founded upon Some passages in the Koran, allows of a separation by mutual consent, giving the wife the right of re- taining her marriage portion, unless she agrees to relinquish a part of it as the price of the separation. The parties are permitted to separate and reunite twice, if they can so agree, without any particular conditions; but, after the third divorce, the husband is not permitted to receive his wife again, until she shall have previously married another husband. The act of divorce is a judicial proceeding before the Cadi, who does not decree it until three months after the application, which delay is made in order to de- termine whether the wife is pregnant; and if she be so, the divorce is delayed until after her delivery. The magistrates throw obstacles in the way of di- Worce, so that the expenses of the proceedings, and the necessity of allowing the wife her marriage por- tion back again, in case of divorce, sometimes dis. IDIVORCE. courage the husband from prosecuting the affair, and induce him to make a composition. But here, ac- cording to D’Arvieux’s Memoirs, the magistrate in- terposes, and will not permit a reconciliation and discontinuance of the proceedings, until the wife is first married to another person; for which purpose Some youth is agreed with to act the part of second husband, so far as may be necessary in order to afford a ground for the discontinuance of the proceedings, and the relenting husband must be a spectator of this second marriage and its incidents. A cadi in- formed this traveller that this condition was rigidly enforced, in order to prevent the tribunals from being overburthened with applications for divorce. The Hindoo laws pay still less respect to the women, who are considered very much in the light of slaves to their husbands. According to a maxim of these laws, “prudent husbands instantly forsake a wife who speaks unkindly.” Barrenness, the bear- ing of daughters only, eating in her husband's pre- sence, any incurable disease, or quarrelsomeness, is each a sufficient cause of divorce. The same law inculcates upon the wife the obligation to revere her husband as a god, although he is devoid of all good qualities, or enamoured of another woman. If the wife is superseded by the husband's taking another, he must still maintain her. The wife is, however, so far protected, that the husband is not allowed to put her to death, or to mutilate her person, unless in case of an amour with one of a lower caste. The Chinese laws of divorce are very similar to the Hindoo, but add some other sufficient causes, such as disregard to the husband's parents, loqua- ciousness, and jealousy of temper. But the husband cannot divorce a wife who has mourned three years for his parents, or if his family has become rich sub sequently to his marriage, or if the wife have no parents living to receive her back again. A woman who has been deserted three years by her husband may marry another. The different Grecian states had each their re- spective laws of divorce. At Sparta, they do not seem to have greatly regarded the delicacy of the marriage bed, when the interest of the republic was in question ; but divorces appear to have been rare, since the ephori fined Lysander for repudiating his wife. At Athens, either the husband or wife might procure a divorce, by exhibiting a bill for this pur- pose to the archon, and obtaining the verdict or con- sent of a jury, to whom the question was referred. But the party applying must, it seems, have made application personally ; and Alcibiades, according to Plutarch, took advantage of his authority as a hus- band to prevent his wife from making the applica- tion personally; for, when she was going from her brother's house, where she had taken refuge, to the archon's, to sue for a divorce, he forcibly seized upon her, and confined her to his own house. The early laws of Rome permitted the husband to divorce his wife for poisoning his children, counter- feiting his keys, or adultery. But other causes were afterwards added ; for the first divorce recorded was for the sterility of the wife. This was by Sp. C. Ruga, in the year 523 after the building of the city. Divorces afterwards became very frequent, and a law was, on this account, made by Augustus, requiring additional ceremonies in a divorce ; among other things, the presence of seven witnesses to the act of dissolution of the marriage. By the Theodosian code, the husband could divorce the wife for adultery, or if she was a witch or a murderess, had sold a free- born person into slavery, violated a sepulchre, com- mitted sacrilege, been accessary to theft or robbery, was given to feeding with strangers without the knowledge, or against the wishes of the husband, DIW ORCE--DOBBER AN. lodged abroad without good reason, or frequented theatres and shows, her husband forbidding, or was aiding and abetting in plots against the state, or dealt falsely, or offered blows. . The wife had equivalent rights in this respect, for she could procure a divorce on similar charges against her husband. He could be married again immediately ; she, not within a €8.1". y The facility of divorce continued, without restric- tion, under the Roman emperors, notwithstanding the doctrine promulgated on the subject in the New Tes- tament ; but, as the modern nations of Europe emerged from the ruins of the Roman empire, they adopted the doctrine of the New Testament (Matt. xix.), “What God hath joined together, let not man put asunder.” Marriage, under the Roman church, instead of a civil contract, came to be considered a Sacrament of the church, and subject to the ecclesi- astical jurisdiction, and so it is, at this time, in Eng- land; and the canonists founded upon this text the doctrine of the unlawfulness of dissolving this con- tract; the dissolution of which they considered to be a violation of a sacred institution. If parties were once legally married, they could not be unmarried, though they might be separated. But, though mar- riage was thus held to be a sacrament, still the cere- mony of union might pass between those who could not lawfully be joined in “holy” wedlock, in which Case the marriage might be annulled, or rather de- clared, by the competent tribunals, to have been null from the first. Divorces a vinculo are, accordingly, decreed by the ecclesiastical courts in England, for prior contract, impotency, too near an affinity, or Consanguinity, and other causes, existing at the time of the marriage, but not for any subsequent cause. For any cause whatever, arising after the marriage, the ecclesiastical courts can only decree divorce a memsa et thero, which does not leave either of the parties at liberty to marry again. To obtain a divorce a vinculo matrimonii, for any cause whatever, arising after the marriage of the parties, to whose union no legal mpediment existed at the time of the marriage, the omnipotence, as it is called, of parliament, must be resorted to. A divorce in England, therefore, can only be got by act of parliament, a law made pro *e mata, and is attended by very heavy expenses. On the other hand, the law of Scotland sanctions a divorce, without the interference of parliament. Mar- riage, here, is held to be only a civil contract, and may be dissolved by the civil law, leaving the parties at freedom to intermarry with others. Adultery, or wilful desertion, by the Scottish law, are grounds on Which married persons may apply for a divorce. The action of divorce is carried on before the com- missaries of Edinburgh. - In the United States of America, marriage, though it may be celebrated before clergymen as well as Civil imagistrates, is considered to be a civil contract. The causes of divorce, and the facility or difficulty of obtaining it, are by no means the same in the se. Veral states; and the diversity in this respect is so great, that instances have heretofore not been unfre- guent, of one of the parties removing into a neigh- bouring state, for the express purpose of obtaining a divorce a vinculo. The more general causes of such a divorce are, former marriage, physical incapacity, or fraudulent contract, according to the expression in the Connecticut law, to include these and other Causes; consanguinity; and the New York code par- ticularly enumeratesidiocy and insanity, and the cir- cumstance of either party being under the age of Consent. Adultery is also a cause of divorce a win- culº; but the laws of some of the states prohibit the guilty party from marrying again. If the husband or wiſe is absent seven years, or, by the laws of some of 69'? the states, three years, and not heard from, the other is at liberty to marry again; and in some states, if the husband desert the wife, and make no provision for her support during three years, being able to make such provision, the wife can obtain a divorce. Extreme cruelty in either party is also, generally, a cause of divorce, either a vinculo or a mensa. In many of the states, applications to the legislature for divorce, in cases not provided for by the statutes, are very frequent. In New York and New Jersey, di- vorce is a subject of chancery jurisdiction from which, as in other cases, questions of law may be referred to a jury for trial. But, in most of the states, tlie courts of law have cognizance of divorce. The laws prescribe the provision to be made for the wife in case of divorce, confiding to the courts, however, Some degree of discretion in fixing the amount of alimony. DJEBEL is an Arabian word, signifying mown- tain, as Djebel-el-Mousa, the mountain of Moses; Djebel-el-Tarik (Gibraltar), the mountain of Tarik. DJEZZAR, AcHMET, pacha of Acre, who checked the victorious career of Bonaparte in Egypt and Syria, was born in Bosnia, and is said to have sold himself as a slave to Ali Bey, in Egypt. There he ingratiated himself with his master to such a degree, that he rose from the low state of a mameluke to that of governor of Cairo. For his fulure success, he was not less indebted to his faithlessness and ingratitude, than to his courage and talents. As pacha of Acre, he rendered himself so formidable to the rebels, that he was raised to the dignity of a pacha of three tails. Differences soon arose between him and the Porte, which is jealous of every pacha of spirit and enter- prise. Obeying the commands received from Con- stantinople no farther than they coincided with his own plans, he maintained himself by force and cun- ning. On Bonaparte's invasion of Syria, in 1799, he broke out into the most ungovernable fury, that Christians from Europe should dare, to attempt the conquest of his province. Assisted by the French engineer, Philippeaux, who conducted the defence with great ability, and by Sir Sidney Smith, who supported him with several British men-of-war, Djezzar could boast of repelling the man before whom Europe trembled. He afterwards had several bloody struggles with the grand-vizier and the pacha of Jaffa, and died in 1804. He received the name of Djezzar (butcher) from his bloodthirsty disposition. DJIDDA. See Jidda. DNIEPER, or DNEPER, or NIEPER (anciently, Borysthenes); a river of Russia, which rises in the west part of the government of Tver, passes by Smolensk, Mogilev, Kiev, Ekaterinoslav, &c., and runs into the Black sea, near Otchakov. It begins to be navigable a little above Smolensk. Notwith- standing the course of this river is so extensive, its navigation is only once interrupted by a series of cataracts, which commence about 200 miles from its mouth, and continue thirty or forty miles; these, however, are not very dangerous, and may be passed in the spring by loaded barks. Length, 1000 miles. The lower part of the river has been the theatre of many conflicts between the Russians and Turks. DNIESTER, or DNIESTR (the ancient Tyras or Danaster); a large river of Europe, which has its source in a lake in the Carpathian mountains, in Austrian Galicia, and empties itself into the Black sea, between Ovidiopol and Akerman, after a course of between 500 and 600 miles, mostly through Rus- sia, the government of which has done much towards improving its navigation. DOBBERAN; a castle and borough (210 houses and 1400 inhabitants), under the jurisdiction of a bailiff, between two and three miles from the Baltic, 698 in the duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. About a mile from the place is the Heilige Damm, or Holy Dam, a high natural mound of stones, curiously formed and coloured, stretching far into the Baltic. Tradition says, that the Sea threw up these stones in one night: it was, perhaps, the effect of an earth- quake. Three miles distant from Dobberan is a bathing-house, the oldest establishment for sea-bath- ing in Germany. It was founded by the duke in 1793; and to it Dobberan has been chiefly indebted for its celebrity. DOCK; a name applied to different species of the genus rumea. These are large herbaceous plants, with stout roots, alternate and often entire leaves, and bearing panicles of small greenish flowers. Their roots have an austere taste, are astringent and styptic, and the seeds are sometimes employed in hemorrhage. The root of the water-dock (R. aqua- ticus) strikes a black colour in a solution of sulphate of iron. About sixty species of this genus are known. The term dock is frequently applied to other large weeds. DOCKS. The word dock was formerly applied to the slip or excavation made for the purpose of build- ing or repairing a vessel; and was distinguished as a dry dock when furnished with flood-gates to pre- vent the influx of the tide, if required ; and as a wet dock when, having no flood-gates, the vessel could only be cleaned or repaired during the period in which the tide left her accessible. These slips or docks are still used. At present, the name of graving or building dock is more generally given to what we have termed dry dock, which latter term is applied to those docks or basins left dry by the tide ; while the appellation slip is confined to the narrow inlet for building or repairing, unprotected by gates. During the growth of the maritime power and the commerce of Europe, it was found highly inconve- mient to load and unload vessels in a tide-river or in a harbour not entirely land-locked ; for either the ships could not be brought close to the wharves, or, when conducted there at the flood of the tide, they were left dry at the ebb, and suffered continual dam- age by straining, by delay from neap tides, and other accidents and inconveniences. To obviate these in- conveniences, improvements in the existing docks or slips were made from time to time, until England, taking the lead, introduced a system of floating docks, which have greatly contributed to her advancement and prosperity. Many of the principal maritime ports of Europe are provided with dry docks for building and repair- ing vessels; and of these Toulon, Havre and Brest have the most remarkable. Most seaport towns are provided with graving docks for the repairing of ships; but it is only in the British islands that the system has been carried to any extent of form- ing large basins or floating docks, furnished with flood-gates for the reception of shipping to load and unload, wherein the vessel remains safe at the quay side. The docks of Liverpool were the first constructed in England; and many other maritime towns have been induced to follow her example. It is only about thirty years since nearly the whole of the vessels that entered the port of London were obliged to re- main moored in the open stream of the Thames. The example which Liverpool had set for nearly a century pointed out the remedy for the existing evils, and the construction of floating docks in the port of London was resolved on. The first constructed, and £hose nearest the trading part of the metropolis, are called the London docks. They are just below the site of the Tower, and on the left bank of the Thames; were begun in 1800, and completed in 1805. The DOCK-DOCKS. dock, properly so called, is 420 yards in length, 276 yards in breadth, and 29 feet in depth ; its Superficies is equal to twenty-five acres; that of the basin communicating with it is above 2% acres; and, including the ground occupied by warehouses, sheds and quays, the whole premises contain a superficies of 110 acres. Excepting those ships that trade to the East and West Indies, every vessel, whether British or foreign, may enter the London dock upon paying the duties, to unship her cargo or take in a new lading. For the convenience of business, ranges of Sheds, low, and of a very simple construction, have been erected along the sides of the dock and near the edges of the quays, into which cargoes are re- moved. Behind these sheds, and in a parallel direc- tion to them, stands a line of magnificent warehouses, four stories high, with spacious vaults, into which the casks are conveyed by inclined planes. These build- ings occupy a superficies of 120,000 square yards. The cellars are appropriated to wines and brandies, and railways, or rather tramways, running in all di- rections, facilitate labour. The London docks have their several parts perfectly adapted to each other, and are of the most admirable construction. The gates, like all those whose size much exceeds twenty feet, instead of being straight, are curved on the side on which the water presses. The JP'est India Docks are on the left bank of the Thames, at the distance of about one mile and a half below the London docks. They are situated on the base of a tongue of land of the Isle of Dogs—a sort of peninsula formed by a long circuit of the river. The West India docks are much superior to the Lon- don, both in extent and regularity. These vast works Were undertaken and executed by an association of private individuals, and by means of a mere subscrip- tion. Twenty-seven months sufficed to accomplish the whole. The excavations of the West India docks were begun on the 12th of July, 1800; and, as early as the month of September, 1802, vessels entered the import dock At the highest tides, the depth of water in the two docks is twenty-four feet; they are formed parallel to each other ; their common length is about 890 yards. The largest, which has a super- ficies of above thirty acres, is destined for those ves- sels returning to the West Indies, which deposit their cargoes in the warehouses of this artificial port. The second, the superficies of which is about twenty-five acres, receives the vessels laid up in ordinary, or taking the outward-bound cargoes. These docks, with their basins, and the locks which connect them with the river, present an area of sixty-eight acres of ground, excavated by human hands, for the reception and moorage of vessels. The total superficies, in- cluding that of the quays and warehouses, is 140 acres. During the busy season, this establishment employs about 2600 workmen. It can admit, at the same time, 204 vessels in the import, and 195 in the export dock, forming a total of 120,000 tons. During the first fifteen years, 7260 vessels entered them. Upon the quays, under the sheds, and in the warehouses there have been deposited, at the same time, 148,563 barrels or casks of sugar, 70,875 barrels and 433,648 bags of coffee, 35,158 pipes of rum and Madeira wine, 14,021 logs of mahogany, 21,350 tons of logwood, &c. At the upper and lower entrances of the two docks, a basin presents three locks of communication. The first communicates with the Thames ; the Water is kept in it by means of double gates. The Second and third locks lead respectively into the export and im- port docks; they have also double gates. By this means, the vessels are able to come in and go out in- dependently of the state of the tide; they may remain in the basin as long as is judged convenient. The water of the docks being but very little higher than DOCK YARDS—DODD. that of the basins, it does not press violently on the gates of the locks. . It should be also observed, that this water, having had time to settle in its previous passage through the basin, hardly deposits any sedi- ment when introduced into the docks. The East India docks, belonging to the East India company, are inferior to the West India docks in magnitude, but equal in point of construction and Se- curity of property. Having to receive vessels of 2500 tons, they are deeper than the West India docks, and have never less than twenty-three or twenty-four feet water. There are few works which require more skill and attention on the part of the civil engineer, than the erection of docks. In the construction of dry docks, the greatest care should be used that they be made water tight. The utmost attention must be paid in lay- ing the foundation, and Securing it by piles or other- wise as the ground may require ; and the lining should be of such a nature as effectually to prevent the sides from falling in. Timber lining is sometimes employed, but brick, coped with granite, is better ; yet the most substantial is an entire wall of hewn granite. To keep the water in a wet dock, and out of a dry one, various kinds of gates have been used. Where the abutments cannot be made very strong, in consequence of the insecurity of the foundation, wicker gates are employed, which are formed into three pieces that come out separately. These, though perhaps the cheapest and most simple, are by no means the best : and wherever the abutments can be made of sufficient strength, strong wooden gates, bound with iron, are employed. These gates are formed into two pieces, one of which is swung on each abutment, at the entrance to the dock; when closed, they meet in the middle, but when open, they lie flat to the abutment walls. The bottom, where the gates move, must be made Smooth and flat, so that as little water as possible may escape. General Bentham introduced to the docks of Portsmouth a floating gate, somewhat resembling a boat, but ta- pering to a point at both ends, and very deep and narrow in proportion to the length. . In the abut- ments, two grooves are cut for the ends of the gate to move up and down in, and at the bottom there is likewise a groove for the reception of the keel. This gate is therefore a sort of caisson, which may be made to sink by filling it with water, or to float by pump- ing the water out. See Ship Building. DOCKYARDS ; arsenals containing all sorts of naval stores, and timber for ship-building. In Eng- land, the royal dock-yards are at Chatham, Ports- mouth, Plymouth, Deptford, Woolwich, and Sheer- ness, where the king's ships and vessels of war are generally moored during peace, and such as want re- pairing are taken into the docks, examined, and re- fitted for service. DOCTOR. The title of doctor originated at the same time with the establishment of the universities. The dignity connected with it first received public sanction at the law university in Bologna, between 1128 and 1137, where the celebrated Irnerius (Wer- ner) began to give instructions in law, in 1128, and was confirmed by the emperor as professor of law. He is said to have prevailed on the emperor Lothaire II., whose chancellor he was, to introduce the dignity of doctor. From the faculty of law, the title passed to that of theology. The faculty in Paris first confer- red the degree of doctor of divinity on Peter Lombard, who, in 1159, became bishop of Paris. William Gor- denio, of the college at Asti, in 1329, was the first person who was promoted to the dignity of doctor ar- tium et medicinae. The doctorate of philosophy was established last, because the faculty of philosophy was formed the latest. The title of magister was more 699 common among the members of this faculty. The degree of doctor is either conferred publicly, with cer- tain ceremonies, or by diploma. On the continent of Europe, the order of rank is this—doctor of theology, of law, of medicine, and of philosophy; but in Eng- land and the United States of America, the doctor of laws ranks first, and the doctor of divinity next. Doctor of medicine is a professional title.—The degree of doctor of music is conferred at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The great Haydn and Romberg received this title from the university of Oxford. DOCTORS’ COMMONS. liams. DOCTRINAIRES. Since the second restoration of the Bourbons, a small number of deputies in the French chamber would neither rank themselves among the friends of absolute power, nor among the defenders of the revolution. They supported De- cazes, while he was minister; and several of them held offices in the ministry, as, for instance, the coun- sellors of state Camille Jordan and Royer-Collard. Their system embraced a constitutional monarchy, allowing the government more power than the ultra- liberals would admit, and, on the other hand, restrict- ing the royal power more, and admitting less ap- proach towards the old form of government, than the ultra-royalists demanded. They retired with De- cazes, and afterwards joined the liberal opposition. The first orator among them was Royer-Collard, and their most distinguished writer out of the chamber, Guizot. See Chambers. DODD, RALPH, a civil engineer, the original pro- See College of Civi- jector of a tunnel under the Thames, and various other public works of importance, was a native of Northumberland. In 1795, he published an account of the principal canals in the known world, with re- flections on the great utility of canals. In 1798, he laid before the public his plan for a tunnel under the Thames, which was approved by government ; but the scheme was abandoned soon after its commence- ment. He had also a share in the improvement of steam-vessels; and the first impetus to the scheme for navigating by steam in England was given by a patent which he obtained for a steam-boat on the Thames, from London to Gravesend, which, however, was not carried into effect. He afterwards navigated, in a steam-vessel, round the coasts of England and Ireland. In 1822, he was severely wounded by an explosion of the boiler of a steam-packet, and, after lingering a few months, died at Cheltenham, in April of that year. His son, George Dodd, was appointed resident engineer over Waterloo bridge, which situ- ation, through imprudence, he resigned. He died in prison, Sept. 25, 1827, aged 44. TXODD, WILLIAM, an English clergyman, and re- ligious writer, chiefly memorable for his disgraceful end, was born in 1729, at Bourne, in Lincolnshire, of which parish his father was vicar, and educated at Cambridge. In 1750, he married without the means of support: in 1753, he took orders, and soon became one of the most popular preachers in London. An expensive mode of living rendered his circumstances embarrassed, and he became the author or editor of several works which afforded him large profits. In 1764, he was chosen one of his majesty's chaplains, and was active in the formation of a Society for the relief of persons confined for small debts. Being now much involved in debt, he disgraced his station, and violated the rules of common honesty, by offering a bribe to the lord chancellor’s lady if she would pro- cure his nomination to a vacant rectory. The lady was indignant, and informed the chancellor of th: offer, who procured Dodd's name to be struck from the list of the king's chaplains. To escape from the " ()0 disgrace wilich attended the knowledge of his con- duct, he went to Geneva, where he met with the earl of Chesterfield, to whom he had been tutor. This nobleman afterwards presented him with a liv- ing. In 1777, he committed a forgery upon his pa- tron, by which he obtained a large sum of money, which he probably hoped to replace, and thereby avoid detection. But the offence was scarcely com- mitted before the criminal was discovered. He was imprisoned, tried, convicted, and executed at Tyburn (27th June, 1777), notwithstanding great efforts to procure his pardon. He died with all the marks of sincere contrition for the crimes he had committed, and the scandal he had brought upon his profession. His works were numerous ; among which may be mentioned his Reflections on Death, his Commen- tary on the Bible, and his Prison Thoughts, in which latter work Dr Johnson had a hand. DODDRIDGE, PHILIP ; an eminent dissenting divine. His father was a tradesman in London, and he was born there in 1702. After Some previous edu- cation, he became the pupil of Mr John Jennings, who kept a theological academy. On the death of his tutor, he succeeded to the situation, but removed the seminary, in 1729, to Northampton. There he resided nearly twenty-two years, filling his station as a minister and academical preceptor with great Cre- dit. He died, Oct. 26, 1751, at Lisbon, whither he had gone in the hope of deriving benefit from the change of air, in a pulmonic complaint. Doctor Doddridge distinguished himself by a commentary on the New Testament, published under the title of the Family Eapositor, which became deservedly popular, and has gone through many editions. After his death appeared a Course of Lectures on the principal Sub- jects of Pneumatology, Ethics, and Divinity, with References to the most considerable authors on each of those subjects (4to, 1763; republished with im- provements, by doctor Kippis, in 1794, 2 vols. 8vo). Doctor Doddridge was also the author of sermons, hymns, devotional treatises, &c. A series of his Let- ters was recently published at London, in which he figures in the unexpected light of a thorough-bred ladies’ man. DODECANDRIA (from 323szz, twelve, and &yng, man); the twelfth class of Linnaeus, in botany, be- cause it comprises plants with hermaphrodite flowers, that have twelve male organs. It is, however, not limited to this number : several genera of this class have sixteen, eighteen, and even nineteen stamens. The essential character is, that the stamens, how- ever numerous, are inserted into the receptacle. DODINGTON, GEORGE BUBB (lord Melcombe Regis), was the son of a gentleman of fortune; or, as others say, of an apothecary, named Bubb, who mar- ried into a wealthy family, in Dorsetshire. He was born in 1691, was elected member of parliament for Winchelsea, in 1715, and was soon after appointed envoy to the court of Spain. In 1720, by the death of his maternal uncle, he came into possession of a large estate, and took the surname of Dodington. In 1724, having closely connected himself with Sir Robert Walpole, he was appointed a lord of the trea- sury, and became clerk of the pells in Ireland. He afterwards joined the opposition, and, on the fall of Walpole, became treasurer of the navy. This party he also quitted, in order to lead the opposition under Frederic, prince of Wales, whose death for some time arrested his career. In 1755, he accepted his former post of treasurer of the navy, under the duke of New- castle, but lost it the following year. On the acces- Sion of George III., he was early received into the confidence of lord Bute ; and, in 1761, was advanced to the peerage by the title of lord Melcombe, and died the following year. This versatile politician was gen- DODDRIDGE–DODWELL. erous, magnificent, and convivial in private life, and the patron or friend of Young, Thomson, Glover, Fiel- ding, Bentley, Voltaire, Lyttelton, and Chesterfield, who, with many of meaner pretensions, mingled at his hospitable table. He is best known by his celebrated Diary, published in 1784, by Henry Penruddock Wyndham, Esq. A more curious exposition of ava- rice, vanity, servility, and selfishness, as a place-hun- ter and trading politician, has seldom been exhibited. It is a most extraordinary instance of a self-recorded and seemingly unconscious prostration of honourable and manly feelings to the acquirement of place, emo- lument, and court favour. DODONA; a celebrated place in Epirus, built, according to tradition, by Deucalion, containing one of the most ancient oracles in Greece. The oracle belonged to Jupiter, and near the splendid temple was a sacred grove, in which there was a prophetic oak. Jupiter, Says the fable, had presented to his daughter Thebe two doves, which possessed the fa- culty of speaking. One day they left Thebes in Egypt, taking their course, the one to Libya, where it founded the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, the other to Epirus, where, alighting on an oak tree, it announced in a loud voice, to the inhabitants, that it was the will of Jupiter to establish there an oracle. The prophetic priestesses announced the divine communi- cations in different ways. They approached the sacred tree, and listened to the rustling of its leaves, or, standing by the fountain at the foot of the tree, observed the murmuring of the water which gushed forth from the earth. They also prophesied from the sounds issuing from brazen vessels, which were sus- pended from the pillars of the temple, &c. DODSLEY, RoRERT, an ingenious poet and dra- matist, was born of parents in humble life, at Mans. field, in Nottinghamshire, in 1703. He was appren- ticed to a stocking-weaver, but left that employment, became footman to the honourable Mrs Lowther, and published by subscription a volume of poems, entitled the Muse in Livery, which attracted public favour, less from its intrinsic merit than from the situation of the author. His next effort was the Toyshop, a dra- matic satire on the fashionable follies of the time. Pope patronised this piece, and, through his influence, it was brought upon the stage in 1735. Dodsley was enabled, by his profits as an author, to set up a book- seller's shop in Pall-Mall, which ultimately proved a very prosperous concern. He next wrote the farce of the King and the Miller of Mansfield, founded on an old ballad; which succeeded so well, that he pro- duced a sequel to it, called Sir John Cockle at Court. In 1741, he brought out a musical piece, entitled the Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green; and, in 1745, he made an attempt to introduce on the stage a new species of pantomime, in Rew et Pontifew. A loyal masque in honour of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, appeared in 1749. His next work was the Economy of Human Life, a well known collection of moral maxims. He wrote a tragedy, entitled Cleone, which had some success on the stage, but possesses no ex- traordinary merit. A selection of Fables in prose, with an Essay on Fable prefixed, was one of his lat- est productions. , Having acquired a competent for- tune by his double occupation of author and book- seller, he retired from business. He died at Durham, in 1764. He planned the Preceptor; the Collection of Old Plays, 12 vols., 12mo; and the Collection of Poems by different Hands, 6 vols., 12mo. DODWELL, HENRy, a critic and theological writer of distinction, was born at Dublin, in 1641, and, owing to family misfortunes, during the Irish rebellion, and the death of his father, was early sub- jected to a life of want and dependence. Sir Henry Slingsby, his mother's brother, at length enabled hira DOE-TDOG. to obtain some education. In 1656, he became a stu- dent of Trinity college, Dublin, where he distin- guished himself by his application, and was chosen to a fellowship. This station he resigned in 1666, be- cause he had scruples relative to the lawfulness of taking orders in the church, as enjoined by the sta- tutes of the college. He then visited England, and for some time resided at Oxford. Returning to Ireland, he began his career of authorship with a preface to a theological tract of his tutor, doctor Stearn. His next production was entitled Two Letters of Advice ; 1. for the Susception of Holy Orders; 2. for Studies Theological, especially such as are rational. To the second edition of this work (1681) was annexed a Discourse on the Phoenician History of Sanchonia- thon, which he deemed spurious. In 1674, he came again to England, and settled in London, where he continued to employ his pen. In 1688, he was cho- Sen Camden professor of history at Oxford. After the revolution, his high-church principles inducing him to espouse the cause of the nonjurors, he was deprived of his office. He died in 1711. He pro- duced a multitude of works relating to theological and classical literature. Of these, the most valuable is entitled De veteribus Gracorum, Romanorumque Cyclis, obitergue de Cyclo Judaeorum AEtate Christi, Dissertationes X., cum Tabulis necessariis, &c. (folio); and another, entitled An Epistolary Discourse, prov- ing from the Scriptures and the first Fathers, that the soul is a Principle naturally mortal, but immor- talized actually by the Pleasure of God, to Punish- ment or to Reward, by its Union with the divine baptismal Spirit; where it is proved that none have the Power of giving this divine immortalizing Spirit since the Apostles, but only the Bishops. This work gave rise to a warm controversy, and subjected the author to much obloquy. DOE, John, and Rich ARD Roß. Aſºº’. DOG (canis familiaris). To no animal is mankind more indebted for faithful and unswerving affection than to the dog. His incorruptible fidelity, his for. bearing and enduring attachment, his inexhaustible diligence, ardour, and obedience, have been noticed and eulogized from the earliest times. This valuable quadruped may be emphatically termed the friend of man; as, unlike other animals, his attachment is purely personal, and uninfluenced by changes of time or place. The dog seems to remember only the benefits which he may have received, and, instead of discovering resentment when he is chastised, exposes himself to torture, and even licks the hand from which it proceeds. Without the aid of this almost reasoning animal, how could man have resisted the attacks of the savage and ferocious tenants of the forest, or have procured sustenance in those ages of the world when agriculture was unknown When we attempt to trace the source or origin of the species, it will be found that the changes and varieties, which the influence of domestication and the intermixture of races have produced, are so multifarious and interminable as to baffle all research. Pennant is of opinion that the original stock of dogs in the old world is with great reason supposed to be the jackal; that from their tamed offspring, casually crossed with the wolf, the fox, and even the hyaena, have arisen the numberless forms and sizes of the Canine race. Buffon, with much ingenuity, has traced out agenealogical table of all the known dogs, deducing all the other varieties from the shepherd's dog, variously affected by climate, and other casual circumstances. From the recent observations of travellers in the high northern parts of the world, where, although dogs have been employed for an in- calculable length of time, they still retain much of See Bail, and 70% the external appearance and general carriage of a wild animal, it would seem that Pennant's sugges. tion is worthy of attention. But, at the same time, it should be remarked, that the breed of dogs, pro- duced from the wolf and varieties of the domestic dog, during a long succession of generations, still re- tains marked characteristics of the predominance of the savage qualities derived from its untamed pro- genitors, in the keen and vivid expression of the eye, ferocity of disposition, and severity of bite. It is also a singular fact, that the race of European dogs evince as great an antipathy to the Esquimaux species as they do to a wolf. Linnaeus has asserted that the tail of this animal in all its species and varieties, invariably bends to the left; but, although such is very often the case, it is by no means universal, as the slightest observation will demonstrate. IJesmarest, however, has remarked a peculiarity as respects the tail of dogs, which ap- pears much better entitled to rank as a specific char- acter; that, whenever this member is of white united with any other colour, the white is always terminal. The same remark applies to other species of this genus, equally with the dogs. Naturalists have divided dogs into several classes: 1. mastiffs, including the dog of New Holland, the mastiff, (particularly so called), the Danish dog, and the varieties of greyhound; 2. the spaniels, includ- ing the spaniel and its varieties, the water dog, the hound, the terrier, the shepherd's dog, the wolf dog, the Siberian dog, the Esquimaux dog, and the alco or Peruvian dog; 3. bull dogs, consisting of the bull dog and its varieties, the house dog, the turnspit, the pug, &c. %. The Sagacity and attention of the dog are so great, that it is not difficult to teach him to hunt, dance, and exhibit a thousand tricks. The mode in which he is taught to point out different cards that are placed near him is this:—He is first taught, by repeated trials, to know something by a certain mark, and then to distinguish one ace from another; food is fre- Quently offered him on a card he is unacquainted with, after which he is sent to search it out from the pack; and, after a little experience, he never mis- takes. Profiting by the discovery of receiving food and caresses for his docility, he soon becomes able to know each particular card, which, when it is called for, he brings with an air of gayety, and without con- fusion. But of the attainments by which the dog has been distinguished, that of learning to speak is the most extraordinary. The celebrated Leibnitz com- municated a fact of this nature to the royal academy of France; and were it not that he asserts, that he himself was a witness of the phenomenon, we should scarcely have dared to report the circumstance. The dog, from his account, could articulate about thirty words, but it was necessary that they should be first pronounced to him. Dogs are found in all parts of the world, with the exception of a few groups of islands in the southern Pacific ocean. It is only in temperate climates that they preserve their ardour, courage, Sagacity, and other talents. When transported to very hot countries, they lose those qualities for which we admire them. These animals form an important article of food among many nations. In China, the Society islands, &c., . puppies are considered a great delicacy, and are allowed by Europeans, who have overcome their prejudices, to be very sweet and palatable.— This taste for dog's flesh is of very early origin. The ancients regarded a young and fat dog as excellent food ; and Hippocrates placed it on a footing with mutton and pork, and, in another place, observes, that the flesh of a grown dog is wholesome and nour- ishing. The Romans admired sucking puppies, and 7{}2 sacrificed them to the gods, as the most acceptable offering. Virgil has not thought the praise of dogs a subject unworthy of his pen. He recommends it to the husbandmen of Italy to pay particular attention to the rearing and training of dogs. * The dog is born with its eyes closed; they do not become opened until the tenth or twelfth day; its teeth begin to change about the fourth month, and its growth is perfected in two years. The female gene- rally has a litter of from six to twelve pups. The dog seldom lives beyond fifteen years. See Blood- Aound, Bull dog, Greyhound, Hound, Mastiff, Poin- ter, Spaniel, Shepherd's Dog. DOG-BANE (apocynum androsaemifolium, Lin.), a perennial American plant found from Canada to Carolina, has an erect smooth stem from three to five feet high, and leaves acute, entire, and two or three inches long.—The whole plant is lactescent: the root is intensely bitter and nauseous. It is considered as containing a bitter extractive principle, soluble in water and alcohol, a colouring principle soluble in water only, a very large quantity of caoutchouc, and a volatile oil.-It is a very active plant, highly valued by the southern Indians. The root is the most power- ful part, and is much employed by the American coun- try physicians instead of ipecacuanha. Thirty grains of the recently powdered root evacuate the stomach as effectually as two-thirds of this quantity of ipecacu- anha, by which name it is known in various parts of the Eastern States. Its power is diminished by keep- ing, and destroyed by age. Doctor Bigelow remarks, that we have very few indigenous vegetables which ex- ceed this apocynum in bitterness, and thinks the sen- sible and chemical properties of the root promise a good effect, when given in small doses as a tonic medicine. DOG-DAYS. This name is applied to the period between the 24th July and 24th August, because the dog-star (Sirius), during this period, rises with the sun. The heat, which is usually most oppressive at this season, was formerly ascribed to the conjunction of this star with the Sun. DOGE; formerly the title of the first magistrates in the Italian republics of Venice and Genoa. He was chosen from the mobility, who governed the state, and formed a tyrannical aristocracy. In Venice, he held his dignity for life; in Genoa, for two years. His power became, by degrees, very limited. In rank he was considered only equal to a duke, though the republic of Venice was in dignity equal to a kingdom. See Ceremonial. DOG-FISH ; the popular name of several species of the genus squalus, or shark, which are arranged by Cuvier under his sub-genus scyllium. S. canicula and S. catulus are the two most common species, and those in particular to which the trivial name is given. In their general anatomy, they differ but little from the other sub-genera of the great shark family, so well known for their ferocious and savage habits. The dogfishes, though among the smallest of the tribe, manifest propensities equally cruel with those which have rendered the white shark and others so justly dreaded. Although seldom or never injurious to man, they commit great ravages in the fisheries, and, where they abound, constitute one of the great- est nuisances of the fishermen. Exceedingly voraci- ous, and devouring almost everything they encounter, the mischief they occasion by taking the baits, and very often the hooks, of the deep sea lines, is very considerable, and not at all compensated for by the flesh of those which are captured. The sub-genus is characterized by having a short, obtuse snout; the * Nec tibi cura canum fuerit postrema; sed una Velocis Spartae catulos, acremgue molossum, Parce 3ero pingui, &c.—Georg. lib. iii. v. 404. DOG-BANE–DOGMAS. nostrils situated near the mouth, and in a sinus, or groove, which runs along the edge of the upper lip, partially covered by two lobes or productions of the skin; teeth with a large triangular point, and a Smaller one on each side. The larger species, S. canicula, is distinguished by the following characters: blackish brown, marked with numerous small blackish spots; length three to five feet; inhabits the seas of almost every portion of the globe; Swift, voracious, and very powerful; follows ships to feed upon the refuse which is thrown over- board; feeds on small fish and mollusca, and destroys great numbers of the young of its own species; breeds several times a-year, and brings forth numerous indi- viduals at a birth. The young are hatched from the egg, in the complicated oviducts of the female, and are born alive. The eggs are similar to others of the family, and covered by a tough membranaceous in- tegument. The skin of these fish is beset with numer- ous small asperities, which render it, when dried, well calculated for polishing wood, and for other mechani- cal purposes. When alive it has a strong musky Smell. S. catulus, the lesser dog-fish, or rock shark, re- sembles the former in its general appearance and habits, but the spots with which it is marked are larger and more scattered. It has very frequently been confounded with it, and by some authors de- scribed as the male; colour gray-brown, spots black- ish, unequal, rounded; dorsal fins equal, nostrils bi- lobate ; inhabits rocky bottoms, and preys principally on crustacea and shell-fish ; produces eighteen or twenty at a time. The young evince their ferocious propensities very soon after birth, and are destroyed by the larger individuals of their own species, The flesh of all the species is hard, dry, and unpa- latable, requiring to be well soaked before it is eaten. Oil, in considerable quantity, is obtained from the liver. Poisonous effects are, at certain times, ob- served in consequence of eating the livers of dog-fish : and some cases are recorded, in which the most dis- tressing illness has been occasioned, followed by a heavy, torpid stupor of two or three days. The pa- tients were afterwards affected by an erythrematous eruption, which extended all over the body, and which was terminated by a general peeling off of the skin. M. Cuvier has divided the genus squalus into nu- merous sub-genera, which include many new and ex- traordinary species. The sub-genus scyllium is now divided into two sections: Sect. 1. anal fin situated under the interval between the two dorsals; sect. 2. anal fin placed posterior to the second dorsal.—The first division includes S. canicula, S. catulus, &c.; the second, S. africanum, S. tuberculatum, &c. DOGGER ; a Dutch vessel navigated in the Ger- man ocean ; it is equipped with two masts, a main and a mizzen mast, and somewhat resembles a ketch. It is principally used for fishing on the Dogger bank. DOG-GRASS (radiº graminis; gramen caninum ; triticum repens, Lin.); a perennial plant, very com- mon in uncultivated grounds; root repent; stems straight, about two feet high; leaves soft and green; spike elongate, compressed; spikelets distichous, un- armed, and formed of from four to five flowers. Dog- grass root is long, cylindrical, thin, knotty, white in- ternally, yellowish and skinny externally, inodorous, of a farinaceous and sweet taste. This root is used in medicine. Among the demulcent substances, dog- grassis one of the most frequently employed in France. It is used in most of the inflammatory and febrile dis- eases, and especially in those of the urinary passages. It was formerly recommended as a powerful diuretic; and was employed as such in dropsies; but we know, at present, this opinion to be erroneous. DOGMAS, History of ; a branch of theology, more attended to in the universities of the north of DOGMATICS.–IDOGWOOD, Germany than anywhere else. Its object is to ex- hibit in an historical way, the origin and the changes of the various Christian systems of belief, showing what opinions were received by the various sects, in different ages of Christianity, the sources of the dif- ferent creeds, by what arguments they were attacked and supported, what degrees of importance were at- tached to them in different ages, the circumstances by which they were affected, and the mode in which the dogmas were combined into systems. The sources of this branch of history are the public creeds, the acts of councils, and other ecclesiastical assemblies, letters and decrees of the heads of churches, liturgies and books of rituals, the works of the fathers of the church, and of later ecclesiastical writers, as well as the narrations of contemporary historians. It is easily seen how important and interesting a study this is, teaching, as it does, modesty and forbearance in the support of particular opinions, by showing the vast variety of those which have afforded subjects of bitter controversy at particular periods, and have then passed away into oblivion; and how much learning, industry, and critical acuteness, are often required, to make a thorough investigation of contested points of doctrine. The distinction between this branch of history and ecclesiastical history is obvious. . It is the same as exists between political history and the history of politics. Lectures on this subject are delivered in all the German universities. It is evident that the views taken of the history of dogmas must vary ac- cording to the sect to which the writer belongs ; be- cause it does not consist of a series of facts, but of the representation of the development of certain ideas, which must appear different, according to the idea which is considered by the writer as the most important. This is more or less the case with all history, in proportion as the writer abandons mere relation for an analysis of the nature, the causes and consequences of what he describes. Thus a republi- can would give a very different history of politics from a royalist ; and a writer of the nineteenth cen- tury a different history of civilization from that which would be given by a writer of the seventeenth. One division of dogmatical history; by a Protestant professor, is the following:—first period; from the foundation of Christianity, to the beginning of gnos- ticism (about 125, A. D.). The second period (from 125 to 325, A. D.) is that of the dawn of speculation, and the rise of the desire for settled creeds, and sys- tems of Christianity, which appeared very strongly, in the council of Nice, in 325. The third period (from 325 to 604) is that of the increasing authority of councils, and the heads of the church. Able men, as Athanasius, the great Basil, the two Gregories, Jerome, Augustine, and the popes Leo I. and Gregory I., exercised great influence in settling the dogmas during this period. Fourth period; from the death of Gregory, in 604, to Gregory VII., in 1073; char- acterized by the rapid growth of the papal power. In this period, the first system of dogmatics was set- tled by the influence of John of Damascus (died in 754), founded on a systematical revision of the dog- mas of the church. Fifth period; from Gregory VII., in 1073, to Luther, in 1517; in which the power of the popes attained its highest point, and, at the same time, a new spirit of philosophy arose, which, influ- enced by mistaken motions of the Greek philosophy, gave rise to the scholastic theology, the opposition to which gave birth to mysticism. Sixth period; that of the reformation, the period since which, of course, admits of many divisions, according to the different views which may be taken of the subject. DOGMATICS; a systematic arrangement of the articles of Christian faith (dogmas). It is the duty of the compiler of such a system, to collect the religious 703 ideas, which are scattered through the Holy Scrip. tures, to explain, establish, and combine them. No one can successfully treat this important but difficult subject, who is not well acquainted both with ex- egesis and philosophy. The first attempt to furnish a complete and coherent system of Christian dogmas was made by Origen in the third century, who was succeeded by Aur. Augustime in the fourth, by Isidore of Seville in the sixth, and by John of Da- mascus (see Damascenus) in the eighth century. In the middle ages, ingenious examinations of the Chris- tian doctrines were made by the schoolmen ; but, agitating as they did subtle questions of little practi- cal importance, they loaded the science with useless refinements. Among the Protestants, Melanchthon was the first who wrote a compendium of the Chris- tian doctrine, which is still justly esteemed. This Science has been successfully cultivated by the Pro- testant theologians since the last century. DOGS, Isle of ; in England, in the county of Middlesex, opposite Greenwich. In this island are magnificent docks, with large and convenient ware- houses for the accommodation of the West India mer- chants. (See Docks.) One of the largest canals ever attempted in England has been cut nearly one mile and a quarter in length, 142 feet wide at top, and twenty-four feet deep, across the Isle of Dogs, for the purpose of shortening the passage of vessels to and from the pool, and avoiding the long circuit by Greenwich and Deptford. DOG-STAR ; Sirius; the star that gives their name to the dog-days (q.v.). DOGWOOD (cornus florida) is a small tree, in- habiting America from the forty-third parallel of latitude to Florida, and extending westward beyond the Mississippi. The leaves are oval, entire, pointed, and whitish beneath; the flowers small, yellowish, and surrounded with an involucre composed of four large white leaves; the berries are red, and remain on the tree during a great part of the winter. Throughout a great part of the United States, the large white involucres of the dogwood, together with the rose-coloured flowers of the Judas tree (cercis Canadensis) make a beautiful appearance in the spring. The dogwood attains the height of twenty or thirty feet, and has a trunk eight or ten inches in diameter; the wood is white, hard, of a fine texture, and much esteemed ; it is used by cabinet-makers for inlaying, &c., different ornamental works; for the handles of tools, plane-stocks, &c., it is considered little inferior to box. The bark of this tree, as well as that of several other species of cornus inhabiting Canada and the Northern States, possesses similar properties with the Peruvian bark, and is employed successfully in the cure of intermittent fevers. The bark of the root, stem, and branches, tastes very much like this famous bark; it is bitter, astringent, and slightly aromatic. Its astringency is, however, stronger than that of the Peruvian bark. This bark is, without doubt, one of the most valuable American articles. As a substitute for the Peruvian bark, much has been written in commendation of it. The resemblance extends to its chemical and physical, as well as therapeutical properties. In America, the bark of the dogwood is extensively employed by country practitioners in intermittent fevers, and the report they give of it is very favourable. It is remarked that, in its recent state, it is apt to disagree with the stomach, and to produce pains in the bowels; but, in order to prevent this effect, it is simply need. ful to add to it, when used, a few drops of laudanum, or to use the bark after it has been collected for some time. This bark may be used with still greater ad- vantage in intermittents, if combined with serpentaria. The C. sericea and C. circinata, Linn. (swamp and 704 round-leaved dogwood), seem to possess the same properties as the preceding. Some other plants have received the name of dogwood in America, particu- larly the poisonous sumach (rhus vernia). DOHM, CHRISTIAN WILLIAM voN; a Prussian statesman and scholar, distinguished for his principles, genius and merits; was born at Lemgo, December 11, 1751. He was the son of a Lutheran minister in that city, and cultivated his taste by the study of ancient literature and the English classics. He lived for some time in a private condition at Berlin, where he made himself known by his writings. He was then employed by the Prussian government, and, during the reign of the two last kings and the pres- ent, gradually rose from one post to another. He was Prussian ambassador at the congress of Rastadt, in 1797, and, in the name of the whole diplomatic Corps, made a report concerning the murder of the two French envoys. He remained in Westphalia while the country was occupied by Napoleon ; for, as his estates were in this part of the Prussian do- minions, he was compelled to continue his residence there, after they had been separated from Prussia by the peace of Tilsit in 1807. By the command of the French intendant general, he went to Paris in Sep- tember, 1807, at the head of a delegation of the states of the province and the administrative autho- rities. After his return, in December of the same year, he was made a member of the council of state ; and in February, 1808, he was appointed by the king ambassador to the court of Dresden. A dangerous inflammation of the lungs forced him to retire in April, 1810. He was permitted to reside on his estate of Pustleben, in the county of Hohen- stein, till he should be able to take his place again in the council of state. From that time he devoted himself exclusively to historical pursuits. His work Denkwurdigkeiten meiner Zeit, oder Beitrage 2ur Geschichte von 1778 bis 1806, Lemgo and Hanover, 1814–19, 5 vols. (which extend to the death of Fre- deric the Great) gives much information respecting the most memorable persons and events since 1778, drawn partly from his own observation and expe- rience, partly from other sources. It is esteemed, also, on account of its clearness, correct spirit, and impartiality. Dohm died at his estate of Pustleben, May 29, 1820. DOIT was the ancient Scottish penny piece, of which twelve were equal to a penny sterling. Two of them were equal to the bodie, six to the baubee, and eight to the acheson. There was also, in Lower Germany, a small coin called deut (pronounced like doit) and dutchen, the diminutive of deut. In the Netherlands, the coin is called dayt, and Frisch be- lieves that these words took their origin from the French tóte, head; the piece of twenty kreuzer is still called, in Germany, kopfstuck (head-piece). DOLCE, CAR.Lo (also Carlino Dolce), a celebrated painter, of the Florentine school, was born at Flo- rence, in 1616, and died there in 1686. He was a disciple of Jacopo Vigniali; and his works, in Fiorillo's opinion, bear the character which his name implies. His subjects are principally heads of ma- donnas and Saints, so mild and soft that they have been reproached with want of character. In minute- ness and accuracy of finish, he approaches the Dutch School. It must be confessed, however, that in his madonnas we discover frequent repetitions, and that his paintings betray that timidity and melancholy to which he was subject. His works are spread over all Europe; many of them are in Florence. Three of his best pieces are in the gallery at Dresden; namely, Cecilia, or the Organ-Player, Christ blessing the Bread and Wine (which has been very frequently engraved), and Herodias with the Head of John the IDOHM–DOLLOND. Baptist. Among his chief productions, also, is Christ on the Mount of Olives, now at Paris. DOLL, FREDERIC, WILLIAM ; a distinguished Ger- man artist, and professor of the art of sculpture in Gotha, was born at Hildburghausen in 1750. His first important work was the monument of Winkelmann, which was honoured with a place in the Pantheon at Rome. His best works are the Reliefs in the riding academy at Dessau; a large group representing Faith, Hope, and Charity, for the principal church at Lunenburg ; the monument of Leibnitz at Hano- ver, and Kepler's at Ratisbon. He died at Gotha, March 30, 1816. DOLLAR ; a coin of different value. (See Coins.) This word corresponds to the German thaler, the Low-German dahler, the Danish daler, the Italian tallero. All these words, together with dollar, are derived from the name of the Bohemian town Joa- chims-Thal (Joachim's Valley), where, in 1518, the count of Schlick coined silver pieces of an ounce weight. These, indeed, were not the first of the kind coined ; yet, as they were numerous and very good, they became generally known by the name of Joachims-thaler, which is the German adjective of Joachims-thal, and also Schlickenthaler, from the name of the count. As these coins were in good repute, thalers were also coined in other countries, but of different value: thus originated the laub-thaler (leaf-dollar) Philipps-thaler, the Swedish copper dol- lar, &c. In Russia, a dollar is called jephimock, from Joachim. DOLLAR, the name of a small village and parish in Clackmannanshire, Scotland, situated at the bot- tom of the Ochil hills. The parish is three miles in length, and one and a half in breadth. Within it stands the romantic ruin of Castle Campbell, occu- pying a high and almost insulated rock among the hills, and which, in old times, was the scene of seve- ral remarkable events. In 1819, an endowed aca- demy was erected near the village, for teaching ancient and modern languages, as well as some of the arts and sciences. The founder of this institu- tion was a Mr M'Nab, a native of the parish, who bequeathed a large sum for the purpose. . Unfortu- nately, “the minister and kirk-session of IDollar” are constituted sole governors and patrons of the institution, which virtually leaves the whole manage- ment in the hands of a single clergyman, and Conse- quently lays it open to the risk of a marrow and sel- fish policy. Notwithstanding this, the academy can boast of Mir Tennant, author of “Amster Fair,” as one of its professors. Population of the parish in 1831, 1447. DOLLOND, JoHN, an eminent optician, of French descent, was born in Spitalfields, in 1706. He was brought up a silk-weaver, and carried on that busi- ness for many years; but, finding it little congenial to his taste, he devoted himself to the study of ma- thematics, optics, and astronomy, and at last com- menced optician, in conjunction with his eldest son, Peter. His first attention was directed to the im- provement of refracting telescopes, an account of which was printed in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. xlviii.; and he soon after communicated his discovery of the micrometer, as applied to the re- flecting telescope. Mr Dollond then engaged in a defence of Newton's doctrine of refraction, against Euler, which correspondence was also published in the Philosophical Transactions. He next constructed object-glasses, in which the refrangibility of the rays of light was corrected, to which the name of achro- matic was given by doctor Bevis, on account of their being free from the prismatic colours. In 1761, Mr Dollond was elected F.R.S., and appointed optician to the king; but died of apoplexy in the same year. DOLLOND— DOLPHIN. DOLLOND, PETER, eldest son of the preceding, was born in 1730. In 1765, he communicated a paper to the royal Society, upon his improvement of telescopes, and another in 1772, on his additions to, and alterations of, Hadley’s quadrant. He also gave a description of his equatorial instrument for cor- recting the errors arising in altitude from refraction. In 1789, he published Some Account of the Disco- very made by his Father in refracting Telescopes. He died in 1820. DOLOMIEU, DEODAT GUY SILVAIN TANCREDE GRATET DE, a geologist and mineralogist, was born, June 24, 1750, at Dolomieu, in Dauphiny, and was received into the order of the knights of Malta while yet a child. On his first cruise in the Mediterranean, he killed one of the officers of his galley in a quarrel. He was tried at Malta, and condemned to lose the robe of the order; but the grand master, considering his great youth, reprieved him ; and the pope was at last prevailed on to give his consent to a full par- don. Dolomieu was in prison mine months, and, during his confinement, acquired a taste for poetry. He continued his studies at Metz, whither he was transferred as an officer of a regiment of carabineers, in garrison at that place. The duke de la Roche- foucault became acquainted with him there, and, through his influence, Dolomieu was made a corres- ponding member of the academy of sciences. In order to devote himself entirely to his studies, Dolo- mieu left the military service, and returned to Malta, whence he went to Portugal, in 1777, in the retinue of the bailli de Rohan. He examined that country, visited Sicily and the neighbouring islands, Naples, and mount Vesuvius, in 1781, travelled over the Pyrenees in 1782, and in 1783 passed through Cala- bria, which had just been desolated by an earth- quake. In consequence of some secret communica- tions, which he made to the grand master on his return, being betrayed to the court of Naples, which was interested in them, he was forbidden to enter that kingdom, and experienced many difficulties in Malta. Leaving this island again, he visited the mountains of Italy, the Tyrol, and the country of the Grisons. He returned once more to Malta, for the purpose of bringing off his collection, and thence went to France, in May, 1791, where he resided at Roche-Guyon, the estate of his friend the duke de la Rochefoucault, who had fallen a victim to the revolutionary fury. - After the ninth Thermidor, he renewed his geologi- cal excursions through France, always on foot, with a hammer in his hand, and a bag on his back. In 1796, he was appointed engineer and professor, and, at the establishment of the institute, was made a member of that Society. In these capacities, he pub- lished several works relative to the theory of the earth and the nature of minerals. He eagerly seized the opportunity of visiting Egypt, offered to him by . the French expedition to that country. But the oc- cupation of Malta on the way made him dissatisfied with the whole undertaking, and the situation of the army in Egypt soon condemned him to inactivity. In March, 1799, he embarked for Europe. On the passage, the vessel sprang a leak, and only succeeded, after great efforts, in reaching the harbour of Taren- tum. There the crew were treated as prisoners of war; and, when the rest were set at liberty, Dolo- mieu was recognised and detained as a prisoner. During twenty-one months, he suffered hardships and privations of every kind. Even books and writing materials were denied him. His firmness, however, sustained him. On the margins of two or three books, which he had contrived to conceal from the eyes of his sentinel, he wrote his treatise on mineralogical philosophy: his pen was a piece of wood, and the soot il - 705 of his lamp supplied him with ink. In consequence of the peace concluded between France and Naples, March 15, 1801, he obtained his liberty, and receiv- ed the professorship of mineralogy in the museum of natural history, which had become vacant by the death of Daubenton. His health, however, having been already undermined by his captivity, was en- tirely destroyed by a journey to Switzerland, Savoy, and Dauphiny, in 1801, and he died at Chateauneuf, Nov. 28 of the same year. With a passionate love for geology, Dolomieu united all the qualities, physi- cal and moral, necessary for the successful study of this science; and it is therefore much to be regretted, that he was prevented from combining and systema- tizing his views and observations. DOLOMITE ; a mineral species, specimens of which occur under considerably diversified aspects. A variety called bitter spar, and sometimes rhomb spar, is found in crystals, having the form of a rhomboid, with angles varying from 106° 15' to 107° 20' and from 73° 45' to 720 40'. It cleaves with ease parallel to this form. Colour grayish, yellowish or reddish brown; hardness a little above that of calcareous spar, but is easily scratched with the knife; semi- transparent and very brittle. It is found in steatite or Soapstone, disseminated in crystals, varying in size, from three-fourths to one-fourth of an inch in diameter. A second variety of this species is deno- minated pearl spar. It differs from bitter spar chiefly in the slightly curvilinear faces of its crystals, and in possessing a more shining, pearly lustre, and usually lighter shades of colour, being sometimes quite white. It is found principally in metallic veins accompany- ing the ores of lead and tin. The most abundant variety of the present species goes by the name of dolomite. It is massive, or consists of fine crystalline grains, but slightly coherent, and of various shades of white. It constitutes beds of very great extent, and therefore belongs to the class of rocks; and, as such, comes under the division of primitive rocks. It abounds in the Apennines, the Tyrol, Switzer- land, and Tuscany. It is frequently employed as a marble, both in Europe and America. It is com- posed of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magne- sia; but the relative quantity of the two seems not to be exactly the same in all varieties. Its decomposi- tion is conceived to form a good soil for agriculture. DOLPHIN (delphinus). A cetaceous animal, the name of which is improperly applied to a fish, the coryphaena hippuris, or dolphin of navigators, so celebrated for the beautiful changes of colour which it exhibits when dying. The real dolphin has been rendered famous by the tales related of it by the an- cient writers; one of the most familiar of which is the fable of the musician Arion. There are several species of dolphins enumerated by naturalists. Those which occur commonly are D. delphis, or common dolphin., D. rostratus, and D. tursio. Dolphins are cosmopolite animals, inhabiting every sea, from the equator to the poles, enduring equally well the ex- tremes of heat or cold; they are gregarious, and swim with extraordinary velocity, Outstripping in their course the fleetest vessels. During the electri- cal excitement of the atmosphere previous to changes of weather, they are observed to be very active and vivacious, leaping considerable distances out of the water, and displaying, in their rapid movements, their uncommon muscular powers. The characters distinctive of the common dolphin are—black, be- neath white; snout porrect, depressed; jaws with forty or forty-two curved, pointed teeth on each side; length eight or ten feet; flesh coarse, rank, and dis- agreeable (used by the Laplanders, and the inhabi- tants of Greenland, as food, but is apt to produce sick- ness in persons who eat it for the first time); skin 2 Y *706 smooth, soft, with a layer of very white fat or blub- ber under it; liver large, yielding a larger quantity of oil than the blubber. The orifice from whence the water, inspired by the mouth, is ejected, is of a semi- lunar form, with a kind of valvular apparatus, and opens on the vertex, nearly over the eyes. The volume and development of the brain have induced maturalists to consider the dolphin an animal of un- usual intelligence, and capable of feeling an attach- ment to man. Many stories are related of its doci- lity, but, unfortunately, want confirmation. The skeleton presents a modification of the prim- cipal bones of the higher mammifera, and the absence of many of minor importance. The structure of the ear renders the sense of hearing very acute, and the animal is observed to be attracted by regular or harmonious sounds. Owing to the flattened form of the cervical vertebrae, which amount to seven, the neck is very short, and, the two first being immova- bly connected, the motion is very limited. A single bone, composed of or replacing those of the arm, is the support of the pectoral fins: it articulates with a peculiar shaped Scapula, and the muscular arrange- ment is such as to give the fin great force. The whole number of vertebræ amounts to fifty-three, the Sacrum being produced to support the tail. Com- pactness and strength are the characteristics of the genus, and the muscular powers of the tail are pro- verbial. The food of the dolphin consists of fish, mollusca, &c.; and shoals of dolphins are observed to hover round the herring and other fisheries, in pursuit of their prey. When one of a shoal is struck, the rest are observed to pursue it immediately, pro- bably for the purpose of devouring the wounded ani- mal. One or two young are produced by the female, who suckles and watches them, with great care and anxiety, long after they have acquired considerable size. It is stated by some authors, that they cease growing at ten years of age, and live eighty or a hundred years.-The dolphin, respiring by lungs, and not in the manner of fishes, is compelled to rise to the surface, at sliort intervals, to breathe, throwing out the water from the blow-hole, or aperture on the head, like a cloud of steam. The colour varies in different individuals: some are black, olive, or gray, and others mottled, or even quite white. The inha- bitants of ancient Byzantium and Thrace pursued a regular fishery of the dolphin, destroying them with a kind of trident attached to a long line. Figures of this animal are found on antique coins, and very good representations of it occur on the Corinthian medals. Dolphin of navigators; a fish, the coryphaena hippuris of authors; celebrated by travellers and poets in their marvellous recitals of its changes of colour when expiring. Such changes do occur, and are Curious, but by no means so much so as romantic travellers would have us believe. The colour of the dolphin is silvery white, spotted with yellowish. Body compressed, elongate, gradually decreasing from the front (which is very obtuse) to the tail; dorsal fin extending from the nape nearly to the caudal; caudal fin large, furcate; anal nearly reach- ing the base of the caudal; pectorals somewhat faſciform; length usually four or five feet, though specimens of six feet in length are occasionally taken. Few fish are more agile, or swim with greater velocity. They abound within the tropics, and are found in all temperate latitudes. In the neighbourhood of the equator, they commit great havoc in the immense shoals of flying fish which inhabit those regions, and which constitute the principal food of the coryphaena. It is remark- able that, in swallowing their prey, the position of the captured fish is reversed, and it passes down the DOLPHIN–DOMAIN. throat head foremost : by this manoeuvre the fins are prevented from impeding its passage. The flesh of the dolphin is coarse and dry, but, to those who have subsisted for a long while on salted provisions, is very acceptable. At certain times, and in parti- cular localities, the flesh acquires a deleterious quality, which has often proved fatal to persons who have eaten of it. The best antidote to its poisonous effect is a copious emetic, administered as soon as any Symptom of poison is apparent. The dolphin bites freely at a hook baited with a piece of salted meat, or better with a flying fish, and, from its great strength, affords fine sport to the fisherman. DOMAIN, or DEMAIN, or DEMESNE (in French domaine), in its popular sense, denotes the lord's manor place, with the lands thereto belong ing, which he and his ancestors have from time to time kept in their own occupation. In England the domains of the crown (terra dominicales regis) denote either the share reserved to the crown, in the distri- bution of landed property at the time of the con- quest, or such as came to it afterwards, by forfeitures or other means. They are, at present, contracted within a very narrow compass, having been almost entirely granted to private subjects; and though this was often done in a most injudicious manner, it has been of great benefit to the British nation, by dimi- nishing the power of the crown, and making it de- pendent on the grants of parliament; whilst, in many other countries, the wealth of the crown has rendered it independent, and strong enough to op- press the subjects, and undertake wars injurious to the public welfare. The rents and profits of the de- mesne lands of the crown constitute, at present, one branch of the king of Britain's ordinary revenue. (For more information respecting the history of crown lands in Britain, see the article Civil List.) In France, there are several different kinds of domains:— 1. Domaine de l'etat, or public domains, comprising highways, harbours, rivers, canals, sea coasts, banks of rivers, fortifica. tious, &c. (Code Napoleon, a. 538–541), to which the estates of the emigrants were also added (Charte Comst., a. 9). 2. Domaine or dotation de la cowronne (Senatus Coms. of January 30, 1810, and law of Nov. 8, IS1.4). To this class belong the palaces, gardens, forests, farms, crown jewels, &c., of the so- Vereign, which are all inalienable, and not chargeable with debts, and pass thus from each king to his successor. 3. Do- *maine prive consists of such estates as the king acquires as a private person, and over which he exercises an entire control. But whatever portion of this the king does not dispose of by testament becomes, at his death, a part of the public domains ; So, also, whatever a prince possesses, before he ascends the throne, becomes a part of the public domain at the moment he becomes king, and his debts, at the same time, become charges on the public treasury. 4. Napoleon had also a domaine ea- traordinaire (law of Jan. 30, º: which consisted of his ac- quisitions by conquests, and were kept entirely at his disposal ; these supplied the means of donations to his generals, &c. The domaine eartraordinaire has been also retained by the Bourbons (law of May 22, 1816). The administration of these donations was conducted with great wisdom ; and Napole- on, as Las Cases relates, dwelt with pleasure on this branch of his government. , See Dotations of Napoleon. There also existed, formerly, domains, which were inalienable in the ruling family, but did not belong to the state; and in some countries there are still such. The question, what part of the domain a sovereign may alienate, what are public do- mains, and what the private property of the ruling, family, &c., is extremely difficult to be decided, in states in which the origin of the domains goes back to periods when few politi- cal subjects were distinctly settled, and particularly in coun- tries in which there is no constitution binding the sovereign, and settling the distinction between these different kinds of property. Power will generally decide, instead of justice, whenever it is for the advantage of the sovereign, as has often been the case in Germany. An important question arose in Germany, in regard to the sale of the domains in the kingdom of Westphalia, during the reign of Jerome. The elector of Hesse-Cassel and the duke of Brunswick, having resumed pos- session of their countries, which had been included in that kingdom, declared the sales void, because, as they said, they never had acknowledged the king of Westphalia. Prussia, which received back a part of the territory which constituted the kingdom of Westphalia, acknowledged the validity of the sale, because it had recognised Jerome, Bonaparte as king. Much discussion took place respecting these sales. Austria, as well as Prussia, showed a disposition to favour the pur- chasers. 'The diet of the Germanic confederacy showed its weakness on this occasion, as it could effect mothing against the DOMAT—DOMłNICAL LETTER. electol and the duke. The German scholar who wishes to read a full account of these transactions, is referred to the article Domaine?verkauf, in the German Conversations Lexikon. DOMAT, JoHN ; an eminent French lawyer, who was born in the province of Auvergne, in 1625. He was king's advocate in the presidial court of Clermont, for thirty years. He died at Paris, in 1696. His treatise, entitled Les Loia, civiles, dams lettr Ordre naturel, was published in 1694, 3 vols. 4to ; and after his death appeared three volumes more, on public law, &c. An improved edition of his works was published in 1777, and there is an English translation of them, 1720, 2 vols. folio. DOMENICHINO ; the name, among artists, of Domenico Zampieri, a painter of great eminence, of the Lombard school, born at Bologna, in 1581. He was sent to study first with Calvart, and after- wards with the Carracci. From the slowness of his performance, he was named, by his fellow students, the ow of painting ; but Annibal Carracci predicted that the ox would “plough a fruitful field.” Hav- ing contracted a great friendship for Albano, he joined him at Rome, and his former master, Annibal Carracci, jealous of Guido, procured for him the exe- cution of one of the pictures for a Roman church, which had been promised to that great painter. It was a custom with Domenichino to assume, for a time, the passion he was depicturing; so that, while working by himself, he was often heard to laugh, weep, and talk aloud, in a manner that would have induced a stranger to suppose him a lunatic. The effect was, however, such, that few painters have surpassed him in lively representation. His Com- munion of St Jerome has been considered, by some connoisseurs, inferior only to the Transfiguration of Raphael; and the History of Apollo, which he painted in ten frescoes, for cardinal Aldobrandini, is also much admired. Although a modest and inof- fensive man, his merit excited so much envy, that he retired to his native city, where he married, and em- ployed himself two years on his famous picture of the Rosary. He was afterwards recalled to Rome, by Gregory XV., who created him his first painter, and architect of the Vatican. Losing this post after the pope's death, he accepted an invitation to Naples, to paint the chapel of St Januarius. But here he encountered a jealousy so rancorous, that his life became altogether imbittered by it; and so great was his dread of poison, that he prepared all his eatables with his own hand. He died in 1641, at the age of sixty. Domenichino, who understood every branch of his art, produced nothing excellent Without study and labour; but, in consequence of his great premeditation, no painter has given his pieces more of the properties belonging to the subject. At the same time, his designs are correct; and he suc- ceeded equally in the grand and the tender. Nearly fifty of his pieces have been engraved. DOMESDAY or DOOMSDAY BOOK, a very ancient record, made in the time of William the Con- queror, which now remains in the exchequer, and consists of two volumes ; the greater contains a Survey of all the lands in most of the counties in England, and the less comprehends some counties that were not at first surveyed. The Book of Domesday was begun by five justices, assigned for that purpose, in each county, in the year 1081, and finished in 1086. It was of such authority, that the Conqueror himself submitted, in some cases wherein he was concerned, to be governed by it. ... Camden calls this book, the Taw-Book of king William ; and it was further called Magna Rolla. There is likewise a third Book of Domesday, made by command of the Conqueror ; and also a fourth, being an abridgment of the other books. | ‘707 DOMICIL. The dwelling had peculiar privi. leges among the Romans; it was regarded as invio- lable; for example, no debtor could be arrested in his domicil; no officer of the police or court could pass the threshold of a private house, to arrest even a person who did not dwell there. These rights and privileges still belong to the dwelling house in Eng- land, the Netherlands, and the United States of America. The name domicil implies in general, a place of residence; in a narrower sense, the place Where one lives, in opposition to that where he only remains for a time. DOMINGO, St. See Hayti. DOMINIC DE GUZMAN, ST., the founder of the Dominican order, was born in 1170, at Calahorra, in Old Castile, and applied himself, in his early years with zeal and ability, to the acquisition of knowledge. He was made canon and archdeacon at Osma, in Castile, and was employed with others by pope Innocent III., to discover, confute, and punish heretics, especially the Albigenses in France. This was the origin of the court of the inquisition, and St Dominic is considered as the first inquisitor-general. As he prescribed to the members of his order a cer- tain number of Pater-Nosters and Ave-Marias daily, he is supposed to have introduced the rosary. He died at Bologna, in 1221, and in 1233 was canonized by Gregory IX. In the examination, previous to the Canonization, it was proved that he had converted more than 100,000 souls to the true faith. An in- teresting comparison might be made between St Do- minicus, and St Franciscus, certainly two of the most powerful minds among the saints. St Franciscus laboured all his life to relieve the poor and persecut- ed, to propagate the gospel among the lower classes, Who, in those convulsed periods, were almost en- tirely excluded, in most countries, from education and instruction in Christianity; whilst St Dominicus strove to spread Christianity by persecution. The character of the two founders is deeply imprinted on the two orders—the humble Franciscans, and the zeal- ous Dominicans. Dante speaks of these two saints, in one of the most beautiful passages in his Paradise. DOMINICA; one of the Caribbee islands in the West Indies, belonging to Great Britain; situated be- tween Guadaloupe and Martinico; about twenty-nine miles in length, and sixteen in breadth, containing 186,436 acres of land. Colquhoun estimated the population, in 1812, at 26,500. An article on the state of the British colonies, in the Edinburgh Re- view, gives it, in 1823, as only 16,554. This same article gives the imports from this island into Great Britain, in 1823, at 39,013 quintals of sugar, 17,136 quintals of coffee, and 14,310 gallons of rum. It was discovered by Columbus, November 3, 1493, on Sunday—hence its name. It contains many high and rugged mountains, among which are volcanoes, that frequently discharge eruptions. From some of these mountains issue springs of hot water, whose medicinal virtues are much commended. Dominica is well watered, there being upwards of thirty rivers in the island, besides a great number of rivulets. The soil in most of the interior country, is a light brown-coloured mould, and appears to have been washed from the mountains. Towards the sea- coast, and in many of the valleys, it is a deep, black, and rich native earth, which seems well adapted to the cultivation of all the articles of West Indian pro- duce. The principal towns are Portsmouth and Ro- seau, or Charlotte's Town, Lon. 61° 23' W.; lat. 15° 32' N. T}OMINICAL LETTER, in chronology; pro- perly called Sunday letter; one of the seven letters of the alphabet, A B C D E F G, used in almanacs, ephemerides, &c., to designate the Sundays through. 2 Y 2 708 out the year. In our almanacs, the first seven let- ters of the alphabet are commonly placed to show on what days of the week, the days of the month fall throughout the year. And because one of those seven letters must necessarily stand against Sunday, it is printed in a capital form, and called the domini- cal letter; the other six being inserted in different characters, to denote the other six days of the week. Now, since a common Julian year contains 365 days, if this number be divided by seven (the number of days in a week), there will remain one day. If there had heen no remainder, it is obvious the year would constantly begin on the same day of the week; but, since one remains, it is plain that the year must begin and end on the same day of the week; and therefore the next year will begin on the day follow- ing. Hence, when January begins on Sunday, A is the dominical or Sunday letter for that year; then, because the next year begins on Monday, the Sunday will fall on the seventh day, to which is annexed the seventh letter, G, which, therefore, will be the dominical letter for all that year; and, as the third year will begin on Tuesday, the Sunday will fall on the sixth day; therefore F will be the Sunday letter for that year. Whence it is evident, that the Sunday letters will go annually in retrograde order, thus, G, F, E, D, C, B, A.; and, in the course of seven years, if they were all common ones, the same days of the week, and dominical letters would return to the same days of the months. But, because there are 366 days in a leap year, if the number be divided by seven, there will remain two days over and above the fifty-two weeks of which the year consists. And therefore, if the leap-year begins on Sunday, it will end on Monday; and, as the year will begin on Tuesday, the first Sunday thereof must fall on the sixth of Jan- uary, to which is annexed the letter F, and not G, as in common years. By this means, the leap year re- turning every fourth year, the order of the dominical letters is interrupted, and the series cannot return to its first state till after four times seven, or twenty-eight years; and then the same days of the month return in order, to the same days of the week as before. The dominical letter may be found universally, for any year of any century, thus: Divide the centuries by four, and take twice what remains from six ; then add the remainder to the odd years, above the even centuries, and their fourth. Divide their sum by seven, and the remainder taken from seven will leave the number answering to the letter required. Thus, for the year 1878, the letter is F. For the cen- turies, eighteen, divided by four, leave two; the double of which taken from six, leaves two again; to which add the odd years, seventy-eight, and their fourth part, nineteen; the sum, ninety-nine, divided by seven, leaves one, which, taken from seven, leaves six, answering to F, the sixth letter in the al- phabet. See Cycle and Calender. DOMINICANS, called also predicants or preaching friars (pradicatores), derived their name from their founder, Dominic. At their origin (1215, at Tou- louse), they were governed by the rule of St Augus- time ; and the principal object of their institution was to preach against heretics. They retained these rules and regulations after they had adopted a white habit, similar to that of the Carthusians, and the character of monks, in 1219. They were called Jacobins in France, because their first convent at Paris was in the rue St Jaques. The Dominican nuns were established, in 1206, by St Dominic, and increased in numbers after 1218, when he founded a nunnery in Rome. They follow the same rules; they are required, also, to labour, which is not expected of the friars, on account of their higher duties. DOMINICANS-DOMINIQUE. A third establishment of St Dominic was the mili- tary order of Christ, originally composed of knights and noblemen, whose duty it was to wage war against heretics. After the death of the founder, this became the order of the penitence of St Dominic, for both sexes, and constituted the third order of Dominicans. These Tertiarians, without making any Solemn vows, enjoy great spiritual privileges, for the observance of a few fasts and prayers; they continue, also, in the enjoyment of their civil and domestic re- lations. Some few companies of Tominican sisters of the third order, particularly in Italy, united inza monastic life, and became regular nuns; the most celebrated of whom is St Catharine of Sienna. That they might devote themselves with success to the pro- mulgation and establishment of the Catholic faith, which was, in fact, the object of their institution; and the first proof of their zeal for which they gave in the extirpation of the Albigenses, the Dominicans re- ceived, in 1272, the privileges of a mendicant order, which contributed greatly to their rapid increase. They filled not only Europe, but the coasts of Asia, Africa, and America, with their monasteries, and missionaries. Their strictly monarchical con- stitution, which connected all the provinces and Congregations of their order under one general, se- cured their permanent existence, and a unity in their Successful efforts to obtain influence in church and state. They made themselves useful by preaching, which was much neglected at the period of their es- tablishment, and by their missions; respectable and Serviceable to the church by the distinguished scholars they produced, such as Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas ; and formidable as managers of the inquisi- tion, which was committed exclusively to them, in Spain, Portugal, and Italy. After they had obtained permission to receive don- ations, in 1425, notwithstanding their original vow of absolute poverty, they ceased to belong to the mendi. cants, and, in the enjoyment of rich benefices, superi- Or to other orders, they paid more attention to politics and theological science. They gave to kings father Confessors, to universities instructors, and to the pious, rosaries ; and for all they were richly rewarded. From their establishment they found dangerous rivals in the Franciscans, and engaged in contests with them, the heat and bitterness of which have been perpe- tuated by the hostilities of the Thomists and Scotists (See Duns, and Schoolmen), and have continued even to modern times. These two orders divided the honour of ruling in church and state till the sixteenth century, when the Jesuits gradually superseded them in the schools and courts, and they fell back again to their original des- tination. They obtained new importance by the cen- sorship of books, which was committed, in 1620, to the master of the Sacred palace at Rome, who is al- ways a Dominican. What the reformation took from them in Europe, the activity of their missions in Ame- rica and the East Indies restored. In the eighteenth century, the order comprised more than 1000 monas- teries, divided into forty-five provinces and twelve congregations. To the latter belonged the nuns of the holy Sacrament, in Marseilles, established by Le Quien, in 1636, under the strictest rules. They dress in black, with white mantles and veils, while the Dominican nuns wear white, with black mantles and veils. The Dominican order is now flourishing Only in Spain, Portugal, Sicily, and America; they have hopes of a revival in Italy. Las Casas belonged to this order. DOMINIQUE LE PERE, harlequin of the Italian theatre (properly Gius. Dominico Biancolelli), was born at Bologna, in 1640, and was invited, in 1660, to Paris, by cardinal Mazarin, where he played the DOMINO-DONATISTS, harlequin with the greatest applause, till his death, in 1688. The French comedians wished to prevent the Italians from bringing French pieces, on their stage, and Louis XIV. gave both parties an audience. Baron and Dominique were ordered to appear as their deputies. The former having spoken, in the name of the French, it was Dominique's turn to plead his cause ; and he asked the king how he should speak. “Speak as you please,” answered the king. “That is all I want,” rejoined the harlequin; “I have won.” The king received this sally with a laugh, and from that time the Italian theatre represented French pieces without opposition. DOMINO ; formerly a dress worn by priests, in the winter, which, reaching no lower than the shoulders, served to protect the face and head from the weather. At present, it is a masquerade dress, worn by gentlemen and ladies, consisting of a long silk mantle, with a cap and wide sleeves. T}OMITIAN, TITUs FLAVIUS SABINUs, son of Ves- pasian, and brother of Titus, was born A.D. fifty-one, and made himself odious, even in youth, by his indol- ence and voluptuousness, and his cruel, malignant, and suspicious temper. Rome trembled when, on his brother's death, he obtained the diadem (A. D. 81). At first, indeed, he deceived the people by acts of kindness, good laws, and a show of justice, so that their fears vanished ; but he soon returned to his former excesses and cruelty. He first caused his kinsman, Flavius Sabinus, to be put to death, though entirely innocent. No less vain than cruel, while his general, Agricola, was victorious over the Caledo- nians, in Britain, he made a ridiculous expedition against the Catti, returned speedily to Rome, with- out having effected anything, and carried a multi- tude of slaves, dressed like Germans, in triumph to the city. Agricola's victories exciting his jealousy, he recalled that general to Rome, and kept him in total inactivity. At the same time, he spread terror through Rome by the execution of a great number of the first citizens. He gave himself up to every ex- cess, and to the meanest avarice. He at last con- ceived the mad idea of arrogating divine honours to himself, assumed the titles of Lord and God, and claimed to be a son of Minerva. His principal amuse- ment consisted in the shows of the circus. In the year eighty-six, the bloody war with the Dacians began, which was carried on with various success, and terminated (A. D. 90) by a peace bought by the promise of paying a certain tribute. Notwithstand- ing this, Domitian celebrated a grand triumph on the occasion. The misery of the people was, meanwhile, continually increasing ; and, after the revival of the law against high treason, no one was secure of his property or his life. The tyrant once made a feast, on purpose to terrify the senators and knights. They were assembled in a dark hall, in which were coffins, with the names of the individuals invited inscribed upon them ; suddenly the doors opened, and a troop of naked men, painted black, with drawn swords and blazing torches, rushed in, and danced about the guests, until the emperor had sufficiently enjoyed their terror, when he dismissed the supposed executioners. The fears of the tyrant increased his cruelty. A paper fell into the hands of his wife, the infamous Domitia, in which she found her own name, and those of the two commanders of the pretorian guards, noted down by the emperor, with many others, to be sacrificed. This discovery induced her to conspire against him, and to murder him in his chamber, A. D. 96. He had reigned fifteen years, and was forty-five years old. Domitian built the most magnificent temple in Rome. DOMREMY LA TUCELLE: the birth-place of Joan of Arc (q.v.); a small village in the depart- 709 ment of the Vosges, in France, not far from Vaucou- leurs, in the department of the Meuse, in a fruitful region. The house is still shown here in which the heroine was born. In the neighbourhood is the mo- nument erected to her memory by the prefect of the department of the Vosges, with her marble bust, which was solemnly consecrated, September 10, 1820. A free school is established there, for the instruction of girls. See the description, in the Hist. abrégée de la Pie et des Ewploits de Jeanne d'Arc, par Jollois (with engravings, 1821, folio). DON, the Tanais of the ancients, a river of Euro- pean Russia, rising in the small lake of Ivan Ozero, in the government of Toula, has a course of about 880 miles, $º from north to south, passes Azoph, and falls into the sea, two leagues below this place. Many large rivers empty themselves into the Don, and its valley is one of the most extensive in Europe. A canal, dug by Peter the Great, in 1707, connects the Volga and the Don, by the help of intermediate rivers. It is intended to dig another canal between the Don and Volga, which, in the forty-ninth parallel of lati- tude, are distant from each other thirty-three leagues only; and thus a communication would be easy be- tween the sea of Azoph and the Caspian. For infor- mation respecting the Cossacks of the Don, see the article Cossacks. DON, a small river of Yorkshire, which joins the Aire, near Snaith. - DON, a river of Aberdeenshire, the main branch of which rises from the hills that divide the county from Strath Deveron, in Banffshire, and, after being joined by the Ury at Inverury, falls into the sea at Old Aberdeen. Its course is mostly through fertile plains, and in cases of floods, such as that of August, 1829, it commits extensive havoc. Counting its wind- ings, its length is above sixty miles, though, taken in a straight line, it is little above forty miles. It is Smaller in size than the Dee, and its salmon fisheries are less productive. DON (Spanish, from the Latin dominus). In Na- ples, the Spanish fashion of giving every gentleman the title of don became common during the time when that country was under the government of Spain. In the north of Italy, it is given only to ec- clesiastics. DONAGHADEE ; a considerable town in the county of Down, Ireland, situated on the coast of the Irish channel, opposite Port Patrick, from which it is distant twenty miles. Being the nearest Irish port to Scotland, steam-packets are established here, for the conveyance of the mails between the two countries. Cottons are manufactured here chiefly for Glasgow houses, and a species of goods, called worked muslims. The chief importance of this place is derived from its quay or harbour, constructed from a design by John Rennie, and composed of a durable whinstone. It encloses an area of 100 fathoms square, and admits vessels of fifteen feet draft at low water. There was an extensive quay erected here some years ago at the expense of the Lord Montgomery. Donaghadee is 94 miles from Dublin, and 15 from Belfast. * DONATISTS; the followers of Donatus, a Nu- midian bishop, who, with his friends, refusing, in 311, in a contested election of a bishop, to recognise the Traditors (i. e. the ecclesiastics who had given up the sacred books to the heathen magistrates, during the periods of persecution) as eligible to office in the church, quitted the Roman church, with his friends, and founded a peculiar sect, which refused to receive Christians of other sects, without a second baptism. These schismatics prevailed in the Christian provinces of northern Africa, and, in 330, numbered 172 bishops of their persuasion. Their strictness was increased 710 by the adoption of the Novatian principle of excom- municating apostates, or #. offenders, and declar- ing the most perfect blamelessness of life and doctrine essential to the members of the true church—a prin- ciple afterwards adopted by the Catholics. The Domatists made themselves formidable, when swarms of fanatical peasants, inflamed by their doctrines, in 348, under the name of Circumcelliones, attacked the imperial army, sent to convert them by force, and, in Mauritania and Numidia, for thirteen years after, de- solated the land with pillage and murder. Martyr- dom was eagerly sought by them, and they voluntarily gave themselves up to the Catholics, to be executed. This sect, which flourished in the fourth and fifth cen- turies, was finally extinguished when the country was conquered by the Saracens. DONATUS, AELIUs; a Roman grammarian and commentator (e. g., on Terence), who lived in the fourth century. He wrote an elementary work on the Latin language (De octo Partibus Orationis), which served as a guide to the learning of Latin in the mid- dle ages. It was not till a recent period that it was superseded by more judicious grammars. It was one of the first books printed by Guttenberg. T)ONAU. See Danube. - DONCASTER, a handsome town of England, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, situated 158 miles from London, on the river Don, which divides into two branches, and is crossed by two bridges. It is noted for its magnificent church, a fine specimen of the style of building in the reign of Edward III., for the wealth of its corporation, which commands a re- venue of about £7000 annually, and for the races which are annually held here. The races were established about 1703, and have progressively acquired much distinction in the amnals of the turf. In 1776 were founded the famous St Leger stakes; and the following year the race course was greatly improved ; in 1803, his majesty's plate for 100 guineas was transferred hither from Burford; and in 1826, a sumptuous edifice was erected for the accommodation of the frequenters of the races, which are held annually in September. Attempts have been made, but with indifferent suc- cess, to introduce the clothing manufacture at Don- caster; and a small part of the labouring population finds employment in spinning wool and cotton, and in knitting gloves and stockings. The principal com- merce of the town arises from its situation as a great thoroughfare in the midst of a populous and opulent neighbourhood. The weekly market is one of the principal corn markets in the north of England; and in the months of June, July, and August, great sales of wool take place. The river Don, here navigable, supplies the means of communication with several towns in the south of Yorkshire, and the northern part of Lincolnshire. Population in 1831, 10,800. DONEGAL, the most north-western county in the province of Ulster, Ireland, is bounded on the west and north by the sea, on the east by the counties of Londonderry and Tyrone, and on the south by that of Fermanagh and the bay of Donegal. It is about seventy miles in length, and from twelve to thirty-five in breadth. The superficial area is 1820 miles. The chief rivers are the Fin, the Dale, the Erme, the Gui- barra, and the Swilly ; besides which it has a number of lakes. Great part of the surface is waste; moun- tains or bogs occupy about 6 or 700,000 acres. It con- tains lead, iron, coal, manganese, garnets, marble, chal- cedony, limestone, and a silicious sand used in the manufacture of glass in Belfast. Wool is manufac- tured, but the staple manufactures are yarn and linen. Fish are plentiful; at Ballyshamnon is an eel fishery, and the largest salmon fishery in Ireland. The pea- Santry on the coast are considered the genuine native DONATUS— DONNER, Irish, and are mostly ignorant of the English lan. guage. Donegal is divided into forty-two parishes, and has a number of small towns and villages. The county town is Lifford; but Ballyshannon is the prin- cipal one. The ruins of numerous monasteries and castles are still seen. The number of inhabitants, in 1831, is estimated at 298,194, the greater part of whom are Catholics. A variety of little islands stud the coast of Donegal. DONEGAL, a town of Ireland, in the preceding county, on a bay of the same name, at the mouth of the river Esk. It is in a decayed State. The ruins of a monastery are in the vicinity. Nine miles N. N. E. of Ballyshannon, and 111 N. W. of Dublin. DON GRATUIT; a free gift, bestowed by the subject on the sovereign, in extraordinary cases, es- pecially in countries where the prince can levy no uew tax without the consent of the estates. For ex- ample, the ancient French provinces, in which the representation of the estates existed, viz. Burgundy, Provence, Languedoc, Brittany, Artois, and the king- dom of Navarre, granted the king a tax as a don gra- tuit. This used to be the case, formerly, in the Aus- trian Netherlands, and in the German ecclesiastical principalities having similar representative govern- mentS. DONJON, in fortification, signifies a strong tower or redoubt, in old fortresses, whither the garrison could retreat in case of necessity. DONNE, JoHN, D. D., a celebrated poet and di- vine, was the son of a merchant of London, in which city he was born in 1573. He studied both at Ox- ford and Cambridge, and was then entered at Lin- coln's Inn. His parents were Catholics; but, in his nineteenth year, he abjured the Catholic religion, and became secretary to the lord Chancellor Ellesmere. He continued in that capacity five years; but finally lost his office by a clandestine marriage with his pa- tron's niece. The young couple were, in consequence, reduced to great distress. At length, his father-in- law relented so far as to give his daughter a moderate portion; and they were lodged in the house of Sir Robert Drury, in London, whom Donne accompanied in his embassy to Paris. On his return he complied with James's wish, by taking orders, and was soon after made one of his chaplains. He immediately received fourteen offers of benefices from persons of rank, but preferred settling in London, and was made preacher of Lincoln's Inn. In 1619, he accompanied the earl of Doncaster in his embassy to the German princes. He was chosen prolocutor to the convocation in 1623–4; and, in consequence of a dangerous illness, soon after wrote a religious work, entitled Devotions upon emergent Occasions. He died in March, 1631, and was interred in St Paul's. As a poet, and the precursor of Cowley, Donne may be deemed the founder of what doctor Johnson calls the metaphysical class of poets; abounding in thought, this school generally neglected versification, and that of doctor Donne was peculiarly harsh and unmusical. He wrote Latin verse with much elegance, of which a collection was published in 1633. Of his prose works, one of the most remarkable is that entitled Biathanatos, to prove that suicide is not necessarily sinful, which he never published himself, but which found its way to the press after his death. His style is quaint and pedantic; but he displays sound learn- ing, deep thinking, and originality of manner. Be- sides the works already mentioned, he wrote the Pseudo Martyr (4to, 1610), Letters, Sermons, Essays on Divinity, and other pieces. DONNER, GEORGE RAPHAEL ; a sculptor, born in Lower Austria, 1680. He was at first a goldsmith. He received his earliest instructions in art from John Giuliani, a sculptor of the neighbourhood, and, from DON QUIXOTE—DORIC. $726, devoted himself entirely to sculpture. Don- ner's works, in many Austrian churches and palaces, are masterpieces. The beautiful statues, which form one of the finest ornaments of the fountain in the new market-place at Vienna, and the statue of Charles VI., at Breitenfurt, are particularly admired. He died at Vienna, Feb. 16, 1741. T)ON QUIXOTE. See Cervantes. DOON, a river of Ayrshire, which divides the dis- tricts of Kyle and Carrick. Its source is in Loch Enoch and other small lochs in the stewartry of Kirk- cudbright, where it forms the loch of Doon, a lake about seven miles in length, and after a circuitous Course of fifteen miles, falls into the sea about two miles South of Ayr. The Doom is the native river of Burns, and the beauty of its “banks and braes” have received from him a not undeserved celebrity. DOPPELMAYR, JoHN GABRIEL; a mathemati- cian, born in 1671, at Nuremberg. He travelled through Holland and England, and received a ma- thematical professorship at Nuremberg, which he held forty-six years. He published mathematical, geographical, and astronomical works, among which his celestial atlas has spread his name the farthest (Atlas calestis, with thirty astronomical tables, Nuremberg, 1743, folio). He gained the esteem of Leibnitz, was received into several learned societies, and died in 1759; or, according to some accounts, in 1758. In Will's Nuremberg Literary Lexicon, there is a catalogue of his works on dialling, ex- perimental physics, astronomy, &c. Doppelmayr's Account of the Nuremberg Mathematicians and Ar- tists (Nuremberg, 1730, folio), is an important work in respect to literary history. It contains interest- ing notices of the geographical discoveries of Martin Behaim. See Behaim. DORAT, CLAUDE Joseph ; a French poet, born in 1734, at Paris. He renounced the study of law, and afterwards the military service, into which he had entered as a musketeer, and devoted himself entirely to poetry. Among his earlier works are his tragedies and heroides. Though the latter were received with much applause, he was little fitted for this sort of poetry. His dramatical works were unsuccessful. He has succeeded better in songs, tales, and poetical epistles, and in these departments he is still in high estimation. Owing to his vanity in causing his works to be published with the great- est splendour, he wasted a considerable part of his property. He died at Paris, April 24, 1780. His works appeared at Paris complete in 20 vols. His CEuvres choisies were published in 1786, 3 vols., 12mo. For several years, he was editor of the Journal des Dames. I}ORCHESTER, the chief town in the county of Dorset, is situated on an ascent above the river Frome, about six miles from the English channel, distant 115 miles west from London. The woollen manufactures formerly carried on have become ex- tinct; but Dorchester is still famous for its ale, and there are several breweries from which considerable quantities of this liquor are sent to the metropolis. On the adjacent downs vast numbers of sheep and lambs are fed for sale at the markets and fairs, the tolls of which belong to the corporation. Barracks for Cavalry were erected a little to the westward of the town in 1795, at the expense of about £24,000. The agreeable and healthy situation of this place is almost proverbial. Dr Arbuthnot, the friend of Swift and Pope, settled here as a physician in the early part of his life, but meeting with little practice he determined to leave the town, because, as he jocosely declared, “a man could neither live nor die in it.” Population in 1831, 3033. DORCHESTER is also the name of a small town 7 : 1 in Oxfordshire, situated on the banks of the Thames, near its junction with the Isis, nine miles E. of Ox- ford, and forty-nine W. N. W. of London. DOREE. See Dory. TXORF; a very common syllable at the end of German names, signifying village ; as Altdorf, Dussel. dorf. - ; one of the oldest and most powerful families of Genoa. . The annals of this republic do not reach farther back than the year 1100; but, even at this period, we find the Doria family in the highest offices of the state. Four of them were dis- tinguished admirals before the fourteenth century. The most celebrated of the whole family was Andrew Doria, born at Omeglia, in 1468. He gained renown when but a youth, by his heroic conduct against the pirates and Corsicans, and, in 1524, was made ad. miral of the French galleys by Francis I. Receiving Some offence from the French, he went over to the Spanish-Austrian party, and thereby prevented the progress of the French arms in Italy. This great naval hero was the deliverer of his country. Since 1339, Genoa had been governed by a chief magistrate called the doge, whose office lasted for life ; but the Constitution was so disordered, and party spirit so violent, that sometimes the state, sometimes one of the parties in it, was compelled to seek protection from a foreign power, which usually became the Oppressor of the whole. Thus Genoa was, at one time, under the yoke of Milan or Austria ; at another time, of France. In 1528, France had possession of Genoa, when Doria surprised the city, drove out the French without bloodshed, received the title of father and deliverer of his country, and established an im- proved constitution. Only twenty-eight noblefamilies were allowed to be eligible to the highest offices, which were annually filled anew. The doge and his Council presided over the affairs of state, and were chosen at the end of every two years. The great Doria, however, failed in remedying the oppressions and evils of aristocracy; and many of his institutions were changed by a statute, in 1576, on which the future constitution was based. Notwithstanding Doria held the office of doge for life, he again en- tered the naval service of Charles V., contended with brilliant success against the Turks and Corsairs, and died in 1560, at the age of ninety-three. Noble as Was the character of this great man, and honoured as he was by the Genoese, several conspiracies were yet formed against him, of which that of Fiesco was the most dangerous; but they were suppressed by his address and decision. TXORIC ; belonging to the Dorian race, or of a quality or style common in that race. The Dorians, one of the four great branches of the Greek nation, derive their name from Dorus, the son of Hellen. They dwelt first in Estiaeotis, were then driven by the Perrhaebi into Macedonia, forced their way into Crete, where the lawgiver Minos sprang from them, built the four Dorian towns (Dorica Tetrapolis) at the foot of mount CEta, between Thessaly, AEtolia, Locris, and Phocis, and subsequently, together with the Heraclidae, made a settlement in the Peloponnesus, where they ruled in Sparta. Colonies emigrated from them to Italy, Sicily, and Asia Minor. The four chief cities of the Greek race were distinguished from each other by marked peculiarities of dialect, manners, and government; and the Dorians were the reverse of the Ionians. The Doric manner always retained the antique style, and with it º solid and grave, but, at the same time, hard an rough. The Doric dialect was broad and rough ; the Ionic, delicate and smooth ; yet there was some- thing venerable and dignified in the antique style of the former ; for which reason it was often made use 7 12 of in solemn odes, e. g., in hymns and in choruses, which belonged to the liturgy of the Greeks. The Cretan and Spartan legislative codes of Minos and Lycurgus were much more rigid than the mild Athenian institutions of Solon. The Spartan women wore the light, tucked up hunting dress, While the Ionian females arrayed themselves in long, sweeping garments. Both have been idealized by artists ; the one in Diana and her nymphs, the other in Pallas Athene and the Canephorae. The same contrast ap- pears no less strikingly in their architecture, in the strong, unadorned Doric, and the slender, elegant Ionian columns. In the music of the ancients there was also a Dorian mode. See Music. DORIGNY; the name of several celebrated en- gravers and painters. 1. Michael DoRIGNY, born at St Quentin, in 1618, a scholar of Simon Vouet, whose works he etched, and whose faults in drawing he copied. His style of execution is bold, and his management of light and shade good. He died while professor of the academy at Paris, in 1665. 2. His son Louis, born in 1654, entered the school of Lebrun, and made a journey to Italy, where he copied the great masters. From Venice he went to Verona, where he settled, and died in 1742. 3. Nicholas, the brother of the latter, born in 1657, at Paris, is the most celebrated engraver of the three here noticed. He spent twenty-eight years in Italy, in studying the most illustrious masters, and eight in engraving the famous cartoons of Raphael, at Hampton court, for which he received the honour of knighthood from king George I. In 1725, he be- came a member of the academy at Paris, and died in 1746. One of his best engravings, besides his car- toons, is the Transfiguration, from Raphael, and the Apotheosis of St Petronilla, after Guercino. His engraving is easy and strong, and the work of the needle and the graver happily united. DORIS. See Nereus. DORKING, a town in the county of Surry, situated in a vale near the river Mole, which is nearly surrounded by hills, and on the road from London to Brighton, twenty-three miles S.S.W. of the former. The town consists of three wide and well-paved Streets—the East, West, and South ; and has many fine springs in the neighbourhood. Large quantities of fowls, of an excellent kind, and having six claws on the foot, are bred here, and sent to the London markets; they are supposed to have been originally brought over by the Romans. Dorking has a good town-hall, where the sessions used occasionally to be held, but these have been discontinued. Population in 1831, 4711. DORMANT state of animals. We are all accus- tomed to See a large part of creation, during summer, in great activity, and in winter returning to an apparently inanimate state : we mean the plants ; but this phenomenon is not common in the case of animals. There is, however, a small number of animals, which, besides the daily rest that they have in common with most other animals, remain, during Some months in the year, in an apparently lifeless state ; at least, in utter inactivity. Except the hedgehog and the bat, all the mammalia subject to this dormant state, belong to the class of digitated animals. They are found not only in cold climates, but in very warm ones; for instance, the jerboa in Arabia, and the taurick in Madagascar. The period of long sleep generally begins when the food of the animal begins to become scarce, and inactivity spreads over the vegetable kingdom. Instinct, at this time, impels the animals to seek a safe place for their period of rest. The bat hides itself in dark caves, or in walls of decayed buildings. The hedge- DORIGNY---DORMANT. hog envelopes himself in leaves, and generally con- ceals himself in fern-brakes. Hamsters and marmots bury themselves in the ground, and the jumping- mouse of America encloses itself in a ball of clay. At the same time, these singular animals roll them- Selves together in such a way that the extremities are protected against cold, and the abdominal intes- times, and even the windpipe, are compressed, so that the circulation of the blood is checked. Many of them, especially the gnawers, as the hamster and Norway rat, collect, previously to their period of sleep, considerable stores of food, on which thay pro- bably live until sleep overpowers them. In this pe. riod we observe in the animals, first a decrease of ani- mal heat, which, in the case of some, is diminished 200, with others, 400 to 500 Fahrenheit; yet it is always higher than the temperature of the atmosphere in the winter months. If these animals are waked during winter, they soon recover their natural warmth, and his artificial awaking does not injure them. Secondly, animals in the dormant state breathe much slower and more interruptedly than at other times. Some will remain even a quarter of an hour without any respiration; and animals in this state seldom breathe more than once in a minute. Hence they corrupt the surrounding air much less than if their respiration was free. Of course, the heart moves proportionally slow. With the hamster, it only beats fifteen times a minute, whilst, in a waking state, it beats 115 times a minute. The irritability of the animals is very low ; and hamsters in this state have been dissected, which only now and then gasped for air, or, at least, opened the mouth; and on which sulphuric acid, put on their intestines, had little or no effect. Marmots can be awakened only by pow- erful electric shocks. The digestion is also dimin- ished ; the stomach and intestines are usually empty; and, even if the animals are awakened, they do not manifest symptoms of appetite, except in heated rooms. The causes of the dormant state of animals have generally been sought in a peculiar construc- tion of the organs. It is true, that the veins in such animals are usually much wider and larger than in others;"hence the arteries can exert comparatively little activity. The great vena cava also not merely opens into the right auricle of the heart, but divides itself into two considerable branches; and the thy- mus gland, which, in the foetus, is so large, is also very extensive in this species of animals. The im- mediate cause, however, producing this torpidity, is mostly, if not entirely, the cold. The animals of this species fall into this sleep in the middle of summer, if they are exposed to a cold temperature; on the other hand, they remain awake during winter, if they are brought, towards autumn, into a warm room. Yet they fall asleep if the heating of the room is dis- continued for Some time. In the case of some of them, confined air produces the sleep ; thus a ham- ster may be made to sleep very easily, if it is put into a vessel which is buried deep under ground. Among the birds, Some of the swallows are subject to a similar sleep. The swift (hirundo apus) is not only found in the crevices of walls, but also in morasses, in a dormant state, during winter; and many have concluded from this that all swallows pass the winter in this state, which is incorrect, as they are known to be birds of passage. Most probably those swal- lows which have been found in a dormant state, were prevented from emigrating by accident, and became torpid in their retreat, through cold. In a similar way, young cuckoos have been found torpid in the water, though this state is by no means natural to them. With frogs and other amphibious reptiles, the dormant state is very common. As soon as the temperature of the atmosphere sinks under 500 Fah. DORMOUSE—DORSETSHIRE. renheit, the number of pulsations of the heart is dimi- nished from thirty to twelve in a minute. If, in this state, food is put into the stomach by force, it re- mains undigested for a long time. Frogs, Serpents, and lizards, kept in artificial cold, may remain for years in this state ; hence they have been Sometimes found enclosed in stones, in which they have been, perhaps, for centuries. The other lower animals, as Snails, insects, &c., are also subject to a similar tor- pidity. A state of partial torpor takes place in the case of the common bear and the raccoon. The bear begins to be drowsy in November, when he is parti- cularly fat, and retires into his den, which he has lined with moss, and where he but rarely awakes in winter. When he does awake, he is accustomed to lick his paws, which are without hair, and full of Small glands; hence the belief that he draws his nourishment only from them. The badger also sleeps the greater part of the winter. DORMOUSE (myoa'us, Gm. Cuv.); a genus of mammiferous quadrupeds, of the order glires (L.). These little animals, which appear to be intermediate between the squirrels and the mice, inhabit temperate and warm countries, and subsist entirely on vegeta- ble food. They have not the activity and sprightliness of the squirrel, but, like that animal, can ascend trees in search of their food, which they carefully store up for their winter consumption. This, however, is not great, as, during the rigour of winter, they retire to their retreats, and, rolling themselves up, fall into a torpid or lethargic state, which lasts, with little in- terruption, throughout that gloomy season. Tota mihi dormitur hyems, et pinguior illo Tempore sum, quo me nil nisi somnus alit. Mart. Lib. xiii. Ep. 39. Sometimes they experience a short revival, in a warm, Sunny day, when they take a little food, and then relapse into their former condition. During this torpidity, their natural heat is considerably dimin- ished. They make their nests, of grass, moss, and dried leaves, about six inches in diameter, and open only from above. The number of young is generally three or four. Their pace is a kind of leap, in which, it is said, they are assisted by their tails. Like the jerboa, whilst feeding, they sit upright, and carry the food to their mouth with their paws. When they are thirsty, they do not lap, like most other quadrupeds, but dip their fore-feet, with the toes bent, into the water, and thus carry it to their mouths. They are distinguished from all the rest of the gnawers, by the want of the coecum, and large intestines. They were esteemed a great delicacy by the Romans, who had their gliraria, or places in which they were kept and fattened for the table. DORNOCH, is the name of two parishes in Scot- land; the one in Dumfries-shire, two and a half miles Square, with a population of 752 inhabitants; the other in Sutherlandshire, fifteen miles in length, and about mine in breadth, with a population of 3380 inhabitants. The burgh of Dornoch, in Sutherland- shire, is a place of considerable antiquity, and was formerly the seat of the bishops of Caithness. It is 211 miles N. of Edinburgh. DORNOCH FIRTH, an arm of the sea, on the east coast of the Highlands of Scotland, which par- tially divides Ross-shire from Sutherlandshire. It is about twelve miles broad at its mouth, but gradually narrows till it reaches the town of Dornoch, where its breadth amounts to about two miles. Above this point, it becomes broader. On the South side, it juts a little into Ross-shire, and this indentation is called the Bay of Tain. There are several ferries Bcross the Firth. DORPAT, DORPT (in Esthonian, Tart-Lin); a city on the Embach, formerly an important commer- 713 cial place, at present the chief town of the government of Riga (764 houses and 8450 inhabi- tants), about 175 miles S. W. of St Petersburg; lat. 58° 23' N. ; lon. 26° 46' 15" E. The transit trade of Dorpat, in products of the interior, is still considerable, and will be increased when the Alex- ander canal is finished. The emperor Alexander established here, in 1802, a university for Finland, Esthonia, Livonia, and Courland. The students (about 400) wear a uniform, and after finishing their studies, have the rank of a commissioned officer. The library contains 40,000 volumes. There are, besides, many Scientific institutions. Dorpat is situated on the road from Petersburg to Germany. Its environs are agreeable and fertile. DORSETSHIRE, a southern county of England, bounded by the English channel, and the counties of Hants, Wilts, Somerset, and Devon. Its extent, from east to west, is about fifty-five miles, and from north to South about thirty-five. The general outline of this county is very irregular, its long northern side having a large angular projection near the centre, and the southern shores being indented with bays, or stretching out into points and headlands, including that remarkable peninsula called the Isle of Portland. From the mild temperature of its atmosphere, and the fertility of the soil, Dorsetshire has been termed the garden of England. The northern division, generally level, was at a former period covered with wood, but now consists chiefly of rich arable and pas- ture land. Through the central parts of the county extends a lofty ridge of chalk hills, declining on the Southern side into downs and valleys, which afford excellent pasture for sheep. The chalk forms a por- tion of the great bed of chalk, which may be traced across the island from its eastern border, and here terminates. . From the confines of Hampshire to the centre of the county, along the coast, extends a tract of heathy waste, but its comparative infertility is counterbalanced by the luxuriant beauty of the South-western vales. Not less than forty rivers and brooks water Dorset- shire; the principal of these are the Stour, the Frome, the Ivel or Yeo, the Piddle, the Char, and the Wey. No part of it is very elevated; the highest spots, such as Swyer hill and South Barrow Down, being only 669 and 625 feet above the level of the sea. The dairies afford a large quantity of excellent butter for the London market. Great attention is also paid to the breeding of sheep. Among the various articles of importance to the inhabitants may be reckoned the cultivation of hemp. In Beaminster and Bridport, particularly in the neighbourhood of the latter, a great number of persons are employed in the manu- facture of all sorts of twine, netting, cordage, sack- ing, and sail-cloth. Many women and young girls weave sail-cloth, and make nets for the Newfoundland fishery. A considerable quantity of coarse woollen cloth, called swan-skin, or swandown, is also made. The principal minerals of Dorsetshire are two kinds of freestone, greatly used in building and paving, which are quarried in the isles of Portland and Pur- beck. Large quantities of Potters’ clay are sent to Liverpool, London, and Bristol. Mineral waters occur in several places. Some coal of inferior quality is found, the use of which is confined to the poorer classes. Iron is found mixed with gravel and sand; petrified shells are numerous ; and there are fine am- monites, some of which seem transparent, and are nearly three feet in diameter. The coast abounds with variety of fish, particularly mackerel, the fishing of which is carried on between Portland and Lyme from April to June. Most of the foreign commerce is carried on at Poole. The chief exports are stone, sheep, provisions, and manufactured goods; the im- 714. ports are fish, oil, seal skins, coal, and culm. This county consists of 271 parishes, containing twenty- two market towns; viz., Dorchester, Lyme, Shaftes- bury, Pool, Bridport, Wareham, Corfe Castle, Wey- mouth, Melcomb Regis, Sherborne, Blandford, Cran- borne, Beaminster, Abbotsbury, Bere, Evershot, Milton Abbey, Frampton, Stalbridge, Sturminster, Cerne, and Winburn ; the first nine being borough towns. Population in 1831, 150,400. DORSEY, JoHN SYNG, an American physician, was born in Philadelphia,Dec. 23, 1783, and received an excellent classical education, at a school in Phila- delphia, of the society of Friends. At the age of fif- teen years, he applied himself to the study of medi- cine ; and, in the spring of 1802, being then in his nineteenth year, was graduated doctor in physic, having previously defended an inaugural dissertation On the Powers of the Gastric Liquor as a Solvent of urinary Calculi. Not long after he received his de- gree, the yellow fever appeared in Philadelphia, and prevailed so extensively that an hospital was opened for those sick with this malady, to which he was ap- pointed resident physician. He improved this op- portunity of investigating the disease, elucidated some of the more intricate parts of its pathology, and aided in the establishment of a better system of prac- tice. At the close of the same season, he visited Europe. He returned home in Dec., 1804, and en- tered on the practice of his profession. His reputa- tion, amiable temper, popular manners, and fidelity and attention, soon introduced him to a large share of busi- mess. In 1807, he was elected adjunct professor of sur- gery, and held the office till he succeeded to the chair of materia medica. He delivered two courses of lectures on this subject, when, the chair of anatomy becoming vacant, he was raised to that professorship, but did not survive his election above a week. He contri- buted many valuable papers to the journals, and his Elements of Surgery (2 vols., 8vo) embraces, in a narrow compass, a digest of Surgery, with all the re- cent improvements which it had received in Europe and America. DORT; a pleasant commercial town in South Hol- land on the Merwe and Biesbosch, situated on an island, which was formed by the inundation of 1421, when seventy-two villages and 100,000 persons were destroyed. Lat. 510 48' 54" N. ; lon. 40 39' 42" E. Its great church is a fine building. Its harbour is spacious, and its commerce in Rhenish wines and lumber (which is brought down in rafts, and exported to Spain, England, and Portugal) is important. Ship- building, the manufacture of salt, bleaching, and the salmon fisheries, are extensively carried on. Dort has an artillery and engineer School. It was form- erly the residence of the counts of Holland, and is the native place of De Witt, John Gerhard Vossius, the painter Varestag, and other distinguished per- sons. In 1618 and 1619, the Protestants held here the famous synod of Dort, the resolutions of which still constitute the laws of the Dutch reformed church. The synod declared the Arminians heretics, and confirmed the Belgic confession with the Heidelberg catechism. Since the navigation of the Rhine has not yet been regulated according to the promise of the congress of Vienna, Dort is still in possession of its ancient and unjust right of staple. Population about 18,000. For a more particular account of the Synod of Dort, see Arminians and Arminius. DORTMUND ; a city on the Ems, in Prussian Westphalia (900 houses and 4500 inhabitants); lat. 51° 31' 24" N. ; lon. 52° 26'41" E. It was form- erly a free, imperial, and Hanseatic city. In 1803, it was bestowed on the prince of Orange; in 1808, Napoleon gave it to the grand-duke of Berg; in 1815, it was ceded to Prussia. Its archives contain inter- DORSEY-DOUGLAS. esting manuscripts and documents of the time when the chief tribunal of the Wehme was here. DORTRECHT. See Dog';. DORY, or JOHN DORY ; a fish belonging to the genus zeus of Linnaeus, and celebrated for the deli- cacy of its flesh. The species is distinguished by having the spinous portions of the dorsal and anal fins separated by a deep emargination from the soft: rayed portion, and having the base of all the vertical fins, and the carina of the belly anterior to the anal fin, furnished with spines or serratures; colour, yel, lowish-green, with a blackish spot on each side; dorsal and anal with furcate spines, and a long fila- ment produced from behind each dorsal spinous ray. Tradition has rendered this fish famous on several accounts. First, it is said to derive the mark on each side of its body, from the impression of the fore finger and thumb of the apostle Peter. There is a schism among the superstitious in relation to this story, as the haddock also enjoys a similar distinction, it is affirmed, from the same cause. Another fable is, that the impression was produced by the foot of St Chris- topher, which, it is fair to say, is equally probable. The dory obtains its food very much by stratagem, and its exceedingly protractile jaws enable it to cap- ture small fish, &c., in its vicinity with ease, when lying concealed in the ooze or weeds. Torbay, in England, is distinguished as the locality from whence the greatest number of these fish is obtained. They are also found on the coasts of France, on the Atlan- tic shores of Europe, and in the Mediterranean. DOSSO DOSSI; a painter of Ferrara, much honoured by duke Alfonso, and immortalized by Ariosto (whose portrait he executed in a masterly manner) in his Orlando, canto 23. His manner approaches to that of Titian, with whom he painted Some apartments in the ducal castle. His paintings there represent bacchamalians, fawns, Satyrs, and nymphs. In other paintings he imitated Raphael. Among eight of Dossi's pictures in Dresden, the Dispute of the four Fathers of the Church, is dis- tinguished as a masterpiece by accurate delineation and peculiar power of colouring, and is entirely in the style of Titian. His brothers are less celebrated. He was born 1479, and died 1560. DOUBLE ENTENTE (French). Mots & double entente are words which have two different meanings ; entente being, properly, the interpretation given to a word. Double entendre is often used for a phrase which has a covert as well as an obvious meaning. DOUBLING a cape is to sail round or pass be- yond it, so that the point of land shall separate the ship from her former situation, or lie between her and any distant observer. DOUBLING upon, in a naval engagement ; the act of enclosing any part of a hostile fleet between two fires, or of cannonading it on both sides. It is usually performed by the van or rear of the fleet which is superior in number, taking the advantage of the wind, or of its situation and circumstances, and tacking or running round the van or rear of the enemy, who are thereby exposed to great danger. DOUBLOON; a Spanish coin of the value of two pistoles. See Coin. DOUGLAS; the largest and most populous town in the isle of Man, is situated on the South-east Shore, on the banks of two small streams. The approach by the sea is very striking; on turning either of the heads which form the semicircle of the bay, a variety of impressive objects present themselves at once to the view, in the centre of which is the magnificent palace of the Duke of Athol. In a recess, on the south, rises the town, with a handsome pier and lighthouse. The whole bay is two miles across, and is sheltered from all winds except the north-east, but DOUGLAS–DOVER, both its points are rocky and dangerous, and in the middle is a bed of rocks called Connister, which has proved very destructive to shipping in stormy Weather, Here is a pier 520 feet long, and from 40 to 50 broad, handsomely paved with freestone. The harbour is esteemed the finest dry one in the English channel. DOUGLAS ; a parish, river, and village of Scot- land, in the upper ward of Lanarkshire. The parish is about twelve miles long, and from four to seven broad. It is watered by the river, which rises at the foot of a mountain near its south-west border, and by three smaller streams. The village is situated on the south side of the Douglas water, about seven miles from its conflux with the Clyde ; highways from Glasgow to England, and from Edinburgh to Ayr, pass through it. The cotton manufacture is carried on here, but it is chiefly known for a great annual fair which is held in the churchyard. In the vicinity of the town stands Douglas castle, a comparatively modern edifice, the old one having been destroyed by fire. Population in 1831, 2542. DOUGLAS, GAwiN ; an early Scottish poet of eminence. He was the son of Archibald, earl of Angus, and was born at Brechin, in 1474–5. He received a liberal education, commenced at home, and completed at the university of Paris. On return- ing to Scotland, he took orders in the church, and was made provost of the church of St Giles, at Edin- burgh, afterwards abbot of Aberbrothick, and, at length, bishop of Dunkeld. Political commotions, after a time, obliged him to seek a retreat in Eng- land, where he was liberally treated by Henry VIII. He died of the plague, in London, in 1522, and was interred in the Savoy church. Gawin Douglas trans- lated the poem of Ovid, De Remedio Amoris ; also, the AEmeid of Virgil, and the supplementary book of Maphaeus, in heroic verse. This work, in the Scot- tish language, is executed with great spirit; and, considering the age of the author, with extraordinary elegance of diction, far surpassing, in that respect, the succeeding productions of Phaer, Swyne, and even of lord Surrey. It was written about 1512, and is said to have been completed in sixteen months. To each book is prefixed a highly poetical prologue. It was first published in 1553 (London, 4to); and re- printed at Edinburgh (1710, folio). DOUGLAS, John, a learned divine and critic, was born in Scotland in 1721. After some education at a grammar-school in his native country, he was sent to the university of Oxford in 1736, and, in 1743, he took the degree of M. A. Soon after, he was ap- pointed chaplain to the 3d regiment of foot-guards. He was afterwards a travelling tutor to lord Pul- teney, with whom he visited several parts of the con- tinent, but quitted him and returned to England in 1749, when his patron, the earl of Bath, presented him with several benefices. His first literary pro- duction was a letter to the earl of Bath, entitled Milton vindicated from the Charge of Plagiarism, brought against him by Mr Lauder (1751, 8vo. See Lauder Æ'.) In 1754, he published a tract, entitled the Criterion, or a Discourse on Miracles. In 1762, he was made canon of Windsor, which benefice he exchanged with doctor Barrington for a residentiary canonry of St Paul's. His next preferment was the deanery of Windsor. In 1777, he was employed in preparing for the press the journal of captain Cook's second voyage, to which he prefixed a well written introduction, and added notes. He assisted lord Hardwicke in arranging and publishing his Miscel- laneous Papers, which appeared the following year. In 1778, he was elected a fellow of the royal and antiquarian societies; and, in 1781, he edited the account of captain Cook's third voyage. In 1787, he was raised to the see of Carlisle, and, in 1792, was 7 15 made bishop of Salisbury. He died May 18, 1807. DOUSA, or WAN DER DOES, a Dutch statesman, philologist, historian, and poet, was born in 1545, at Noordwyk, in Holland. He studied at Delft and Lou- vain, resided some time at Paris, and then lived in domestic retirement, devoted to literary pursuits, till 1572, when he went ambassador to England to obtain the Support of queen Elizabeth for the cause of the Dutch. As chief commander, during the siege of Leyden by the Spaniards, he conducted with prudence and unshaken courage, in the midst of the horrors of famine, plague, and civil dissensions. He kept up an intercourse with the expected deliverers by means of trained pigeons; and to these faithful messengers he has expressed his gratitude in some of his poems. The stadtholder, William I., compensated the city for its sufferings, by the establishment of the university, of Which Dousa was the first curator. His extensive con- nexions with the literary men of other countriesenabled him to procure for the new institution that most distin- guished instructor, Joseph Scaliger. After the assas- Sination of William I., Dousa secretly visited London to seek the protection of queen Elizabeth, for the free- dom of his country, of which he was always the faith- ful defender; and during the period when the govern- ment of the earl of Leicester proved oppressive to the Dutch nation (see Dudley), he conducted with pru- dence and moderation. Domestic misfortunes, par- ticularly the death of his eldest son, Janus Dousa, a youth of great promise, afflicted the last years of his life, and he died 1604. The many works which he left show how true he was to his motto—Dulces ante omnia Musae. His best known work is Batavia Hollandiaeqe Annales, extending to 1606, which had been commenced by his son. It was published both in verse and in prose. DOUW, Gerard. See Dow. DOVE. See Turtle Dove, and Pigeon. DOVER ; a seaport of England, in the county of Rent, situated on a small stream which falls into the harbour, seventy-one miles E. S. E. from London. It consists chiefly of three long streets, converging to one point. Dover is defended by a strong and spa- cious castle, and all the neighbouring heights are fortified. The castle occupies a lofty eminence, steep and rugged towards the town and harbour, and pre- sents a precipitous cliff, 320 feet higher than the sea. Subterraneous works and casemates have been added, since the alarm of French invasion, capable of ac- commodating 2000 men. Dover is one of the Cinque ports, and a borough returning two members to parliament. The harbour can receive vessels of 400 or 500 tons, and is defended by strong batteries. It is the principal place of embarkation to France, and steam-packets ply daily to Calais and Boulogne. Population in 1831, 11,930. DOVER, STRAITs of ; the marrow channel be- tween Dover and Calais, which separates Great Bri- tain from the French coast. Britain is supposed by many to have been once a peninsula, the present straits occupying the site of theisthmus, which joined it to Gaul. “ The correspondency of strata,” says Mr Pennant, in his Arct. Zoology, “on part of the opposite shores of Britain and France, leaves no room to doubt that they were once united. The ckalky cliffs of Blanchez, between Calais and Boulogne, and those to the westward of Dover, exactly tally: the last are vast and continued, the former short, and the termination of the immense bed. Between Boulogne and Folkstone (about six miles from the latter) is another memorial of the junction of the two coun- tries—a narrow submarine hill, called the Rip-raps, about a quarter of a mile broad, and ten miles long, extending eastward, towards the Goodwin Sands. Its '716 materials are boulder-stones, adventitious to many strata. The depth of water on it, in very low spring tides, is only fourteen feet. The fishermen from Folkstone have often touched it with a fifteen feet oar; so that it is justly the dread of navigators. Many a tall ship has struck on it, and sunk instantly into twenty-one fathoms of water.” In July, 1782, the Belleisle, of sixty-four guns, struck and lay on it âuring three hours; but, by starting her beer and water, got clear off. These celebrated straits are only twenty-one miles wide, in the narrowest part ; from the pier at Dover to that of Calais, twenty-four miles. It is said that their breadth is diminishing, and that they are two miles narrower than they were in an- cient times. An accurate observer for fifty years re- marks that the increased height of water, from a de- crease of breadth, has been apparent, even in that space. The depth of the channel, at a medium, in the highest spring tides, is about twenty-five fa. thoms; the bottom is either coarse sand or rugged sears, which have, for ages unknown, resisted the at- trition of the currents. DOVER ; a post town of the United States of America, in New Hampshire, the capital of Straf. ford county. It is situated on the west side of the Piscataqua, and the Cochecho flows through it. This river has several falls, the largest of which, upwards of forty feet perpendicular, are at the centre of the town, and afford water-power equal to any in New England. Large iron and cotton manufactories have been erected on these falls, and others two miles higher up the river. The greatest part of the tim- ber exported from the state, is brought to this town. Dover is the oldest town in New Hampshire, having been settled in 1623, by Edward and William Hil- ton. Population in 1826,4160. DOVER ; a post-town of Delaware, the seat of the government of the state. It carries on a consi- derable trade with Philadelphia in flour. DOVE-TAILING, in carpentry, is the fastening boards together, by letting one piece into another, in the form of the tail of a dove. The dove-tail is the strongest of jointings, because the tenon, or piece of wood which is put into the other, goes widening to the end, so that it cannot be drawn out again. DOW (also written Douw), Gerard; an eminent painter of the Dutch school, was the son of a glazier, and born at Leyden, in 1613. He studied under Rembrandt, and was distinguished for the excellence of his colouring and chiaro Seuro. He surpassed his master in diligence, and nothing can be more finished than his small pieces. They are so delicate that a magnifying glass is necessary to see distinctly the work in them. His softest figures are full of life, and he never neglected, in his representations, the almost invisible minutiae of nature. Still his paintings do not appear artificial nor forced. He is regarded as the inventor of the ingenious mode of painting large pictures on a reduced scale, by covering the original with a frame, including a space divided into small quadrangular parts, by means of threads, and then transferring the parts into an equal number of simi- lar divisions, drawn on the canvass. He made use of the convex mirror, to represent objects on a re- duced scale. Dow died in 1680, leaving a large property. His works brought high prices, and are still among the dearest of the Dutch school. In 1809, a picture painted by him for the royal museum of Holland, was sold for 17,000 gilders; and at the auction of Peter de Smith in Amsterdam, in 1810, Dow's pictures brought from 5 to 10,000 gilders. His scholars, Metzu, Schalken, and Mieris, are worthy of their master. DOWER is the portion which a widow has in the lands of her husband, after his decease, by the opera- DOVER—DOWN. tion of law, and without any special provision, by will or marriage settlement. There are three spe- cies of dower enumerated in the books of the common law, which are now obsolete. A fourth kind of dower includes several sorts. It is dower by custom, as distinguished from dower at com- mon law. In some particular manors and districts in England, the widow is endowed, not according to com- mon right, but according to that of practice or cus- tom in that particular district or manor; as of hal. her husband’s lands, by the custom of gavel-kind, or of the whole of them, for her life, where she is en- titled to her free bench. But the general kind of dower, or that by the common law, is the third part, for life, of the lands or tenements whereof the husband was seized, in fee simple or fee tail, during the time of the mar- riage. If the parties have been divorced from the borids of marriage, the woman is not entitled to dower. But if the divorce be from bed and board only, her dower is not barred. The common law of England respects the laws of other countries, so that a marriage, valid where it is contracted, is considered as valid by the common law, and entitles the wife to dower, in the countries just named. The wife of an idiot is not entitled to dower, because the marriage was not valid, from the want of the power of consent in the husband. By the ancient English law, the wife of a traitor was not entitled to dower. Some say the reason was, that the wife was presum- ed to be privy to the treason; others say, that it was intended to secure the loyalty of the subject, by an appeal to his affection for his wife and children. The statute of 1 Edward VI., c. 12, abated the rigour of the law, and allowed the widow of a traitor dower; a subsequent statute, however, passed five or six years afterwards, restored the old law in respect to most kinds of treason. According to an opinion, Supported by very respectable authorities, the death of the husband is not necessary, in all cases, to entitle the wife to dower; as, if he is outlawed, banished, or transported for life, she is, according to this opinion, entitled to dower. In one of Mr Hargrave's notes to Coke's Littleton, it is said that an act of parliament of 8 Henry V., provides, that where an Englishman marries a foreigner, “by license of the king,” she shall be endowed. A seizin in law, no less than a seizin with actual possession, entitles the widow to dower. But if the husband is only seized for an instant, and the same transaction which gives him the fee passes it to another, the wife does not thereby gain the right of dower. This right of the wife is an inseparable incident to an estate in fee or in tail, so that, if such an estate be conveyed upon condition that it shall not be subject to this right, the condition will be void. A woman is not, by the common law, entitled to dower in lands held in trust for her husband ; and, as a large part of the lands of England are so held, jointures were introduced instead, and, as it is usually expressed, in bar of dower. The wife is barred of her dower by a jointure, although she may be married under the age of twenty-one, and So with- in the age requisite to make a valid contract to most other purposes. But, after her marriage, her acts are void, as she is then supposed to be under the authority, and subject to the coercion of her husband, and, accordingly, cannot release her right of dower, except by a fine or common recovery, which are acts done in court. See Fine. DOWN, a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster, bounded north by the county of Antrim and an arm of the sea, east and South by the Irish sea, and west by the county of Armagh. It is fifty-one miles in extreme length by forty in breadth, and con- DOWN-DRACHM. tains a superficial area of 955 square miles, or 611,404 acres, of which 502,677 are cultivable. Down is copiously watered by a spacious inlet from the Sea on the east, by numerous small lakes, and by the rivers Bann, Lagan, and Newry. A navigable canal connects the Bann and Newry, which opens a com- munication with Lough Neagh, for vessels of fifty or sixty tons burden. There are many chalybeate springs in this county, and several impregnated with other minerals. The surface is very irregular, and a considerable part mountainous. Slieve Donard, the second mountain in Ireland, rises here 2800 feet above the level of the sea. This county contains Copper, lead, black marble, susceptible of a high polish, coal, slate, freestone, and crystals. Marine exuviae are also found in the hills at a great distance from the sea. Plantations are scarce, but natural woods are seen in several places, and orchards are common, a small one being attached to almost every cottage in the bleaching districts of the low grounds. Little wheat is cultivated, but oats are abundant, and potatoes universal. The native breed of sheep is prized for the delicacy of the mutton, and some of the wool is of a very fine texture. Horses and goats are numerous. The principal manufactures are linen and muslin, various in quality, and in great quantity. Bleaching is conducted on a large scale on the banks of the rivers. Paper is made at Lam- beg, and hammered iron at Newry. The coast abounds with fish. The presbyterian form of worship predominates in this county, especially in the towns, of which the principal are Down-Patrick, Newry, and Hillsborough. Down is represented by four mem- bers, two for the county, one for Down-Patrick, and one for Newry. Population in 1831, 352,571. DOWN or DOWN-PATRICK, a borough town in the above county, is beautifully situated in a valley nearly surrounded by hills, at a distance of seventy- four miles N.E. of Dublin, and twenty-six S.E. of Belfast. It has a small hospital for the support of the indigent and the education of a few children, and also a diocesan school; besides which, the other public buildings are a market house, a court house, and a jail. This town has a considerable trade in linen, potatoes, and malt ; and is celebrated as the supposed place of St Patrick’s interment. A well in the vicinity, dedicated to that saint, is held in high veneration. Population 4779. - DOWNING STREET, Westminster, London; a street from which many important state papers are dated, because here are the offices of the ministers of the foreign and home departments. Business with foreign ministers is generally transacted in Downing street. The two offices are not far from Westminster abbey, and the old houses of parliament, which were recently destroyed by fire. WNS ; banks or elevations of sand, which the sea gathers and forms along its shores, and which Serve it as a barrier. The term is also applied to large, tracts of naked, poor land, on which sheep usually graze. DOWNS, THE ; a celebrated road for ships, extending six miles along the east coast of Kent, in England, between North and South Foreland, where both the outward and homeward bound ships frequent- ly make some stay, and Squadrons of men-of-war rendezvous in time of war. It affords excellent anchorage, and is defended by the castles of Deal, Dover, and Sandwich, as well as by Goodwin sands. DOXOLOGY (from 30%, praise, glory, and Xoyos, the word). This name is given to hymns in praise of the Almighty, distinguished by the title of greater and lesser. Both the doxologies have a place in the church of England, the former being repeated after every psalm, and the latter used in the communion 717 service. Doxology the greater, or the angelic hymn, was of great note in the ancient church. It began with the words which the angels sang at our Sav- iour's birth, “ Glory be to God on high,” &c. It was chiefly used in the communion service, and in private devotions. Doxology the lesser was anciently only a single sentence, without response, in these words —“ Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, world without end; amen.” Part of the latter clause, “as it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be,” was inserted some time after the first composition. Some read this ancient hymn, “Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, with the Holy Ghost;” others, “ Glory be to the Fa- ther, in or by the Son, and by the Holy Ghost.” This difference of expression occasioned no disputes in the church, till the followers of Arius began to make use of the latter as a distinguishing characteristic of their party, when it was entirely laid aside by the Catholics, and the use of it was sufficient to bring any one under suspicion of heterodoxy. The doxology was used at the close of every solemn of: fice. The Western church repeated it at the end of every psalm. Many of the prayers were also con- cluded with it, particularly the solemn thanksgiving or consecration prayer, at the celebration of the eucharist. It was also the ordinary conclusion of the Sël’IIl OIłS. DOYEN, GABRIEL FRANgois, a French painter, was born at Paris, in 1726, and became a pupil of the painter Vanloo. At the age of twenty, he gained the first prize for painting. He went to Rome, in 1748, where the works of those painters, who were distinguished for boldness of design and strength of expression, as Annibal Carracci, Pietro di Cortona, Giulio Romano, Polidore, and Michael Angelo, were the particular objects of his study and enthusiastic emulation. After his return to Paris, he remained a long time without employment, occupied solely with his art. He spent two years in the execution of his Virginia, which procured him admission into the academy of painting, in 1758. The picture La Peste des Ardents, for the church of St Roch, in- creased his reputation. To give his works more truth, he visited the hospitals, and studied the expres- sion and appearances of the sick and dying. He executed several works for the court. In the begin- ning of the revolution, Catharine II. invited him to Russia, gave him a pension of 1200 rubles, with a residence in one of the palaces, and appointed him professor in the academy of painting at Petersburg. After the death of the empress, Paul II. continued to treat him with equal favour. He painted much for the imperial palaces, and died at Petersburg, June 5, 1806. DRACHM (34.2%an), the unit of weight and of money among the ancient Greeks, both as a weight and a coin, contained six oboli (330Ao), and was itself the 100th part of a mina (gyo), and the 6000th part of a talent (rùxøyrov). 1. According to the calculations of Wurm (De Pond. Nummorumque rat., Stuttgard, 1821), the weight of the Attic drachm is 67.383 grains English Troy weight, and the Attic talent 70 lbs. 64 oz. The calculation of M. Letronne differs slightly from this. There were several other kinds of drachm and talent in use : those of Ægina were the heaviest, the AEginetic talent being equal to 10,000 Attic drachms; the Euboic talent was nearly the same as the Attic; the Rhodian and Egyptian talents were each about one-third of the Attic. Whenever no particular kind is designated, the Attic talent is meant. 2. The principal Grecian coin was the drachm: it was of silver: it was divided, like the weight into six oboli (silver). The tetradrachm (of four drachms) 718 was called the stater. These coins differed much in value in different countries in Greece, and in different ages in the same country. . The Attic drachm and stater occur most frequently. Those coined pre- vious to the time of Pericles were worth about 8:#d., the talents (silver), of course, æ230; the value of the later drachms (during the two centuries before and af. ter the Christian era), was 7%d.; of the talents, 36205. The stater, in the former period, was worth 2s. 10d.; in the latter, 2s. 6d. Besides these silver coins, there were also the stater of gold, equal in value to 20 drachms, and the talent of gold, which was used sometimes to designate a quantity of gold equal in value, sometimes a quantity of gold equal in weight, to the silver talent. It sometimes, also, designates a gold coin, weighing six drachms. In the time of Solon, a sheep could be bought for one drachm, an ox for five. In the time of Demosthenes, a fat ox cost 80 drachms, a lamb, 10. DRACO ; an archon and legislator of Athens, about 600 B. C., celebrated for the extraordinary severity of his laws. The slightest offence, such as stealing fruit, and even idleness, he punished with death, no less than sacrilege, murder, or treason. Hence his laws were said to be written in blood. Nothing was more natural than that this rigour should render them odious, and prevent their execution, especially as the people became more civilized and re- fined. Solon was therefore commissioned to compose a new code. (See Attica.) Tradition relates that Draco, on his appearance in the theatre at Ægina, where he is said to have carried his laws, was suffo- cated amidst the applauses of the people, who, according to their custom, threw their garments and caps upon him. He was buried under the theatre. DRACUNCULI, in medicine; small, long worms, which breed in the muscular parts of the ariſis and legs, called Guinea-worms, common among the na- tives of Guinea. The worm is white, round, and uniform, resembling white, round tape. It is lodged between the interstices and membranes of the mus- cles, where it insinuates itself, sometimes exceeding five ells in length. It occasions no great pain in the beginning; but at such times as it is ready to go out, the part adjoining to the extremity of the worm, where it attempts its exit, begins to swell, throb, and become inflamed: this generally happens about the ankle, leg, or thigh, and rarely higher. The coun- tries where this distemper is observed are hot and sultry, subject to great droughts, and the inhabitants make use of stagnating and corrupted water, in which it is very probable that the ova of these animalculae may be contained; for the white people who drink this water are liable to the disease as well as the negroes. DRAG ; a machine consisting of a sharp, square frame of iron, encircled with a net, and commonly used to rake the mud off from the platform or bot- tom of the docks, or to clean rivers. DRAGGING THE ANCHOR; the act of trailing it along the bottom, after it is loosened from the ground, by the effort of the wind or current. DRAGOMAN ; an interpreter, employed in the East, and especially at the Turkish court. The dra- goman of the Porte, who is in the service of the court, and through whom the sultan receives the communications of the Christian ambassadors, was formerly a Christian, by birth a Greek, and often attained the rank of a prince (hospodar) of Moldavia or Wallachia. DRAGON ; 1. One of the northern constellations. Fable says that Juno translated to the heavens the dragon which kept the golden apples in the chamber of the Hesperides, and was slain by Hercules. vision. DRACO-DRAGON. 2. The dragon of fable. The fabulous stories of this monster reach back almost as far as history. His form is described as most terrible, and his residence has been assigned to almost all countries, particularly that part of India and Africa that was formerly un- known. His length is represented from twenty to seventy ells. Of the latter sort was the dragon which lived in India, according to Ælian, in the time of Alexander the Great, and was venerated as a god. The dragon is described as having no feet, but as crawling like a serpent, his body covered with scales, and his neck, according to some accounts, adorned with a mane. These relations are almost all contradictory, and agree only in this—that the dragon had very acute senses, especially a piercing His strength was so great that he could easily strangle an elephant. His food consisted of the blood and flesh of all sorts of animals, and of various fruit. Notwithstanding his ferocity, how- ever, the dragon might be confined and tamed, which the old authors represent as having happened in various cases. The animal which gave occasion to these fables is probably no other than the great boa constrictor. (See Boa.) The fabled dragon of the middle ages had four lion's feet, a long, thick, ser- pent's tail, and an immense throat, from which streamed flames of fire. This dragon played a dis- tinguished part in the ages of chivalry: he is one of those monsters whom it was the business of the heroes of romance to destroy. The idea of the dra- gon of the middle ages probably grew out of indis- tinct and exaggerated accounts of the crocodile of the Nile, which were brought to Europe by means of the crusades, and from similar descriptions of the largest land serpents. Even at the present day, the existence of dragons is fully believed in by the inhabitants of certain countries. 3. The researches of modern naturalists have served to explode this and many other fictions con- nected with the history of animals; and, at the pre- sent day, the curious inquirer, who seeks for the celebrated dragon, will be disappointed in discover- ing that the animal to which the name properly be- longs, is not an untamable and ferocious monster, but an inoffensive lizard, a few inches long, formid- able to nothing but the small insects on which it feeds. The love of gain often makes the natives of warm climates guilty of the most ingenious frauds on the credulity of strangers, for whom they prepare with great art, fictitious animals, which are purchased by the ignorant, as genuine dragons, mermaids, &c. In this way, ill-informed travellers are led occasionally to revive the fable of the existence of the dragon. Two species of dragon-lizard are described by natur- alists, but it is most probable that the second is merely a variety of the first (D. volans), which is said to inhabit Asia, Africa, and South America. Length, seldom exceeding twelve inches; body lacertiform; sides furnished with peculiar produc- tions of the skin, supported by internal cartilaginous rays, which, when expanded, enable it to support itself in the air for a few seconds, in springing from branch to branch, among the lofty trees in which it resides; body and wings covered by small scales; back slightly carinate; throat with the skin produced into a pouch-shaped expansion, which is inflated with air, at the pleasure of the animal. The food consists almost exclusively of insects. Colour varied with blackish, brown, and whitish. The proportions of the animal are delicate, and it is very active.— Dried specimens, preserved in the cabinets of the curious, do not give a good idea of the animal, as the process of drying destroys the proportions; and it is also to be regretted that few engraved figures are commendable for their fidelity. DRAGON'S BLOOD–DRAINING. DRAGON'S BLOOD ; a resinous juice obtained by incision from several different plants, found be- tween the tropics;–from the trunk of the ptero- carpus draco, a tree of the natural order leguminosae, growing in the East Indies, which yields Oriental dragon's blood; from the pterocarpus Santalinus, inhabiting tropical America, which affords it in less quantity and more impure ; from the calamus draco, a palm of the East Indies, from which it is obtained, according to Kampfer, by boiling the fruit; from a dalbergia in Guiana, and a croton in South America; from the dracaena draco, the native country of which is not known with certainty, but is supposed to be Africa. A single tree of this last species, which was introduced into the Canaries at the time of the Conquest, acquired enormous dimensions, and has been visited and celebrated by every traveller, but was destroyed by a storm, in 1822. Dragon's blood is obtained, in commerce, in three principal forms—in that of oval masses, of the size of a pigeon's egg, enveloped with leaves of the pan- danus; in cylinders, covered with palm leaves; and in irregular masses, marked with impressions of leaves : that in oval masses is the most esteemed. It is often very much adulterated, and other sub- stances are substituted; particularly gum Arabic and gum Senegal, coloured with logwood, &c. Sev- eral of these substances may be detected by their dissolving in water, while dragon's blood is nearly insoluble; others require to be submitted to some chemical tests. Madagascar furnishes this resin of a good quality, but so much mixed with foreign sub- stances, that it is little used. Dragon's blood is opaque, of a deep, reddish-brown colour, brittle, and has a smooth and shining con- choidal fracture; when in thin laminae, it is sometimes transparent ; when burnt, it gives out an odour some- What analogous to benzoin ; its taste is a little astrin- gent; it is soluble in alcohol, and the solution will permanently stain heated marble, for which purpose it is often used, as well as for staining leather and wood. It is also soluble in oil, and enters into the Composition of a very brilliant varnish, which is much esteemed by artists. Its quality may be proved by making marks on paper : the best leaves a fine red trace, and commands a pretty high price. It was formerly in high repute as a medicine, but at the present time is very little used. An astringent resin, obtained from the eucalyptus resinifera of New Hol- land, bears the name of dragon's blood in the settle- ments in that country. DRAGON-SHELL, in natural history, a name given to a species of concamerated patella or limpet. It has a top very much bent, and is of an ash-colour on the outside, but of an elegant and bright flesh colour within. It has been found sticking to the back of a tortoise, as the common limpets do to the sides of rocks, and some have been affixed to large shells of the pinna marina. DRAGOON ; a kind of light-horseman, of French origin, trained to fight either in or out of the line, in a body or singly, chiefly on horseback, but, if ne- cessary, on foot also. The dragoons were mounted, armed, and exercised as these objects require. They probably took the name of dragoons from the Roman draconarii, whose lances were adorned with figures tof dragons. Experience proving that they did not answer the end designed, they were hardly ever used in infantry service, and now form a useful kind of cavalry, mounted on horses too heavy for the hussars, and toº light for the cuirassiers. DRAINING, in agriculture; a method of improv- ing the soil by withdrawing the water from it. Though practised by the Romans, it was not till after the middle of the last century that the impor- 719 tance of draining began to be fully understood in Britain. The public attention is said to have been first excited by the practice of Elkington, a farmer and self-taught professor of the art of draining in Warwickshire and the adjoining counties. On the practice of this artist most of the future improve- ments are founded ; and they have been ably em- bodied in the account of his practice by Johnston. (Edinburgh, 1797, 4to, subsequent editions in 8vo.) The successful practice of draining in a great mea- Sure depends on a proper knowledge of the various Strata of which the earth is composed, as well as of their relative degrees of porosity, or capability of admitting or rejecting the passage of water through them, and likewise of the modes in which water is formed, and conducted from the high or hilly situa- tions to the low or level grounds. In whatever way the hills or elevations that present themselves on the surface of the globe were originally formed, it has been clearly shown, by sinking large pits, and dig- ging into them, that they are mostly composed of ma— terials lying in a stratified order, and in oblique or Slanting directions downwards. Some of these strata, from their nature and properties, are capable of ad- mitting water to percolate or pass through them ; while others do not allow it any passage, but force it to run or filtrate along their surfaces without pene- trating them in any degree, and in that way conduct it to the more level grounds below. There it be- comes obstructed or dammed up by meeting with impervious materials of some kind or other, by which it is readily forced up into the superincum- bent layers, where they happen to be open and porous, Soon rendering them too wet for the purposes of agri- culture; but where they are of a more tenacious and impenetrable quality, they only become gradually Softened by the stagnant water below them; by which the surface of the ground is, however, ren- dered equally moist and swampy, though somewhat more slowly than in the former case. It may also be observed, that some of the strata which constitute Such hilly or mountainous tracts are found to be con- tinued with much greater regularity than others; those which are placed nearest to the surface, at the inferior parts of such hills or elevations, being mostly broken or interrupted before they reach the tops or higher parts of them ; while those which lie deeper, or below them at the bottom, show themselves in these elevated situations. Thus, that stratum which may lie the third or fourth, or still deeper, at the commencement of the valley, may form the upper- most layer on the summits of hills or mountainous elevations. Where grounds are in a great measure flat, and without such degrees of elevation as may be sufficient to permit those over-proportions of moisture that may have come upon them, from the higher and more ele- wated grounds, to pass readily away and be carried off, and where the soils of the land are composed or constituted of such materials as are liable to admit and retain the excesses of moisture ; they are exposed to much injury and inconvenience from the retention and stagnation of water. Such lands consequently require artificial means to drain and render them capable of affording good crops, whether of grain or grass. To perform properly the business of draining, at- tention should not only be paid to the discrimination of the differences in regard to the situation of the lands, or what is commonly denominated drainage level; but also to the nature, distribution, and depth of the materials that constitute the soils, or more superficial parts of them; as upon each of these some variety, in respect to the effects arising from water retained in them, may depend. The 720 general origin of that wetness of land which it is the object of under-draining to remove, will be found to be the existence of water in substrata of Sand, gravel, open rock, or other porous substances, which either lead to the surface, or, having no natural outlet, be- come filled or saturated, while the pressure of more water coming from a higher source, forces that which is in the lower part of the stratum upwards through the superior strata to the surface; thus occasioning either bursts and springs, or a general oozing through the soil. The object in under-draining, therefore, is not to catch the surface water, but that which flows through their inferior strata ; and, for this purpose, it is necessary to make a sufficient channel, either at the lower parts of the porous stratum, or in such part of it as may most conveniently carry off the water, so as the pressure referred to may be relieved, or the water intercepted before it reaches the surface. It must always be kept in mind, then, that under-drain- ing and surface-draining are operations essentially distinct ; and every care must be used in practice not to blend them in the execution. If surface-water be allowed to get into covered drains, the sand and mud which it will carry into these subterraneous channels will soon choke them up, and occasion bursts, creating, as may be conceived, new swamps; while the expense of taking up and relaying the under drains will be very great, and the execution imperfect, the sides being found never to stand a se- cond time so well as when first formed. Wetness of land, so far as it respects agriculture, and is an object of draining, may generally depend on the two following causes:—first, on the water which is formed and collected on or in the hills or higher grounds, filtrating and sliding down among some of the different beds of porous materials that lie immediately upon the impervious strata, forining springs below and flowing over the surface, or stag- nating underneath it ; and, secondly, on rain or other water becoming stagnant on the surface, from the retentive mature of the soil or surface materials, and the particular nature of the situation of the ground. The particular wetness which shows itself in different situations, in the forms of bogs, Swamps, and mo- rasses, for the most part proceeds from the first of these causes ; but that Superficial wetness which takes place in the stiff, tenacious, clayey soils, with little inclination of surface, generally originates from the latter. The most certain and expeditious method of draining, in such cases, is that of intercepting the descent of the water or spring, and thereby totally removing the cause of wetness. This may be done where the depth of the Superficial strata, and conse- quently of the spring, is not great; by making hori- Zontal drains of considerable length across the decli- vities of the hills, about where the low grounds of the valleys begin to form, and connecting these with others made for the purpose of conveying the water thus collected into the brooks or runlets that may be near. Where the spring has naturally formed it- self an outlet, it may frequently only be necessary to bore into it, or render it larger, and of more depth; which, by affording the water a more free and open passage, may evacuate and bring it off more quickly, or sink it to a level so greatly below that of the surface of the soil, as to prevent it from flowing into or over it. Where the uppermost stratum is so extremely thick as not to be easily penetrated, or where the springs, formed by the water passing from the higher grounds, may be confined beneath the third or fourth strata of he materials that form the declivities of hills or elevated grounds, and by this means lie too deep to be penetrated to by the cutting of a ditch, or even by boring; the common mode of cutting a great T)RAINING. number of drains to the depth of five, six, or more feet, across the wet morassy grounds, and afterwards covering them in such a manner as that the water may suffer no interruption in passing away through them, may be practised with advantage, as much of the prejudicial excess of moisture may by this means be collected or carried away, though not so completely as by fully cutting off the spring. Where morasses and other kinds of wetnesses are formed in such low places and hollows as are consi- derably below the beds of the neighbouring rivers, they may, probably, in many instances, be effectu- ally drained by arresting the water as it passes down into them from the higher grounds, by means of deep drains cut into the sides of such hills and rising grounds, and, after collecting it into them, convey- ing it away by pipes, or other contrivances, at such high levels above the wet lands as may be necessary. The drainage of lands that lie below the level of the sea can only be effected by means of locks erected for the purpose of preventing the entrance of the tides, and by windmills and other expensive kinds of machinery constructed for the purpose of raising the stagnant water. Draining hilly lands is not in general attended with great expense, as the drains need seldom be covered or filled up, but in such places as may be sufficient for passages for the animals to cross by ; and though, where the depth of the trench does not come to the water confined below, it may be necessary to perforate lower, there need not be any fear that the holes will fill up, even where the drain is left open; as the im- petuosity of the water itself will remove any sand or mud that may fall into them, where much flood or surface water does not get in. Small openings may, however, be made along the upper side of the trench, in order the more effectually to secure them against any obstructions; and in these the perforations may be made, leaving the mouth of the holes about six inches higher than the bottom of the drain, which will be without the reach of the water that may be collected during the time of heavy rains. One of the greatest improvements of the hilly sheep pastures of Holland has been effected by drainage, while the expense is comparatively small. The depth and width of the small ones are only those of the spade. They are usually carried across the face of the hills in a slightly inclined direction, so as to avoid the injury of too rapid a descent after heavy rains; and these small cuts open into a few larger, formed with due regard to the same principle; the whole at last, for an extent of several hundred acres, being led into one still larger, which discharges itself into the nearest rivulet. Improvements of this kind are, perhaps, of greater benefit to the individual proprie- tors of land who undertake them than any other. Where the soil is of a mixed and varied nature, but the most prevailing parts of the clayey kind, the business of draining is considerably more tedious and difficult than where the superficial and internal parts have greater regularity. In such lands, as the collections of water are completely separated by the intervening beds of clay, each becomes so much in- creased in the time of heavy rains, as to rise to the level of the surrounding surface; when the water, finding a free passage, as it would over the edges of a bowl, overflows and saturates the surface of that bed of clay, rendering it so wet and sour that its pro- duce becomes annually more scanty, and the soil itself more sterile and unproductive. From the sand- beds in such cases having no communication with each other, it must evidently require as many drains as there are beds of this kind, in order fully to draw off the water from each of them. The estate of Spottiswoode in Berwickshire af. DRAINING. fords an interesting example of successful drainage of mixed soil and strata. It was begun in 1815, under the direction of Mr Stephens, an eminent drain- ing engineer, and author of a useful work on the Sub- ject (The Practical Irrigator, &c., Edin. 8vo, 1829); and eighteen miles and a half of drains, some parts of which were thirteen feet deep, but the medium depth of which was from five to seven feet, had, in 1820, ren- dered between five and six hundred acres of land most valuable, which had been before of little value. The drainage or drying up of lakes or ponds comes occasionally within the practice of the drainer, espe- cially in countries with an irregular surface. There are, perhaps, few natural lakes indeed, the surface of the water of which might not be very considerably lowered, by deepening their natural outlets, the conse- quence of which would be, in many cases, a very con- siderable accession of generally rich land round their margins, a better drainage for the surrounding country, and an improved climate. Much, it is said, might be done in this way in Ireland; but there can be no doubt that in every country in the world a great deal might be done. In flat countries nearly on a level with the sea, like Holland and parts of the counties of Cambridge and Huntingdom, the water will in gene- ral require to be raised by machinery; but in by far the greater number of cases, deepening the natural outlet will be found amply sufficient. • Bar Loch, in the county of Renfrew, was reduced in size by drainage and embanking, in 1814, at an expense of nearly £10,000, which has since re- turned 13 per cent. per annum; 280 acres have been Jaid dry, upwards of 200 of which have been since under crop. A very interesting account of this drain- age will be found in the Highland Society's Transac- tions, vol. vii. p. 375. The different sorts of drains in use may be classed in two di- visions; drains of conveyance alone, and drains of conveyance and collection jointly. In the former, all that is necessary is a channel or passage for the water, of sufficient dimensions, which may be formed by pipes of different kinds, arched or barrel drains, and box or walled drains. The construction of the latter requires not only an opening for conveying the water, but a superincumbent or surrounding stra. tum, of sufficient porosity to permit and induce all latent water to find its way to the channel of conveyance. The most complete drain of conveyance is a large pipe of metal, masonry, or brick-work, and the most complete collecting drain, one formed of a channel built on the sides, and covered with flat Stones, with a superstratum of round stones or splinters, di- minishing to the size of gravel as they rise to the surface, and there covered with the common soil. As the best constructions, however, are not always practicable, the following are a few of the leading sorts adapted for different situations. For drains of conveyance, there are the walled or box drain, the barrel drain, the walled or the triangular drain, and arched drain. Drains of collection are formed of stone, brick, gravel, cin- ders, wood, spray, straw, turf, and earth alone. The boared and rubble drain may be used either as a drain of conveyance or collection. The common rubble drain is formed of rough land-stones of any sort, broken so as not to exceed two or three inches in diameter. No good drainer uses stones six or eight inches in diameter in any part of a rub- ble drain, least of all at the bottom. The point kept in view is to use such small stones at the bottom as may allow the water a great many channels; so that, if a few should become impermeable, there should be many others remaining. The nearer the bottom of a drain of this kind approaches to the character of a natural bed of gravel, the more certain will be the free passage of the water. Gravel or ashes should be laid on the top of the stones, on these a thin layer of straw or haulm of any kind, and the remainder filled up with the surface soil. The brick drain is formed in a great variety of ways, either with common bricks and bats in imitation of the boxed and rubble, or rubble drain ; or with bricks made on purpose, of which there is great variety. Draining tiles, to be used with “ffect as collecting drains, should generally be covered a foot in depth or more with stones or gravel. But if the land to be drained be in grass, laying the sod over the tile is sufficient: if the land be not in grass, and be loose in texture, a little §traw may be profitably laid over the tile, to prevent the soil rom running in. The pantile is the best for general purposes, but ought not to have holes at top ; but sometimes such holes are made. In very loose soils, plain tiles are wanted to place the draining tiles on ; in other soils, old broken pieces of plain tiles are sufficient for the ends to rest on. Sometimes, even at depths of six feet, these tiles, though of five inches in the clear, will be entirely blocked up by the fibrous roots of trees, ! . 721 especially of the black poplar. A variety of this tile, of a more ample capacity, has lately been '...; into use in Lincoln. shire. The best draining tiles in England are manufactured at the Staffordshire potteries. The gravel or cinder drain is seldom made deep, though, i. the materials be large, they may be made of any size. In general they are used in grass lands ; the section of the drain being an acute-angled triangle, and the materials being filled in, the smallest uppermost, nearly to the ground's surface. The wood drain is of various kinds. A very sufficient and durable construction consists of poles or young fir-trees strip. ped of their branches, and laid in the bottom of the drain lengthways. They are them covered with the branches and Spray. Another form is that of filling the drain with faggot. Wood, with Soume straw over. A variety of this mode is formed by, first setting in cross stakes to prevent the faggots from sinking ; but they are of no great use, and often occasion such drains to fail sooner than common faggot drains, by the greater Vacuity they leave after the wood is rotten. In some varieties of this drain the brushwood is first laid down alongside the drain, and formed by willow or other ties into an endless cable of ten or twelve inches in diameter, and then rolled in ; which is said to form an excellent drain with the least quantity of materials, and to last a longer time than any of the modes above mentioned. Some cut the brushwood into lengths of three or four feet, and place them in a sloping direction with the root end of the branch in the bottom of the drain ; others throw in the branches at random, with little preparation, and gover them with spray, Straw, or rushes, and finally the sur- face soil. The spray drain is generally, like the gravel drain, of small size, and formed, like it, with an acute-angled bottom. In general, the spray is trod firmly in ; though in some cases it is previously formed into a cable, as in the brushwood drain. Drains of this sort are much in use in grass lands, and when the Spray of larch wood, heath, or ling can be got, they are of great durability. The straw drain, when reeds, rushes, and bean straw are used, is sometimes made like the spray drain, by pressing the loose material down, or forming a cable; but in general the Straw is twisted into ropes as big as a man's leg, by the aid of a machine, and three or more of these laid in the bottom of a triangular drain, with or without the protection of three turyes. Where some sorts of moss, as Sphagnum or Lycopo- dium, can be got, these drains are of unknown durability. Drains formed in this manner, through tough and retentive clays, will be found, in a short time after the work is finished, to have formed over the straw with which the drain was filled, an arch of sufficient strength to support the incumbent weight of the soil and the casual traffic of the field. In twelve or eighteen months it may be observed that the straw, being of one uniform substance, is all rotted and carried away, leaving a clear pipe through the land in every drain. The passage of the water into these drains may be much facilitated by a due attention to filling them with the most friable and porous parts of the surface the field may afford. The twºf drain, may be made of any convenient depth, but it must be at least the breadth of a turf at bottom. The drain being dug out as if it were to be filled with stones or any ordi- nary material; the operator next, with a spade three inches wide, digs a narrow channel along its centre, clearing it out with the draining scoop; and over this the turves are laid with- out any other preparation, or anything put over them but the earth that was excavated. This is found to be a very cheap, and, considering the materials, a surprisingly durable method of draining ; answering, in pasture-fields especially, all the pur. poses that the farmer can expect to derive from drains con. Structed with more labour, and at a much greater expense. They are said to last frequently twenty years and upwards: but the period which it can be supposed they will continue to prove effectual, must depend on the nature of the soil and the current of water. The wedge or triangular sod drain is thus made :-When the line of drain is marked out, a sod is cut in the form of a wedge, the grass side being the narrowest, and the sods being from twelve to eighteen inches in length. The drain is then cut to the depth required, but is contracted to a very narrow bottom. The sods are them set in with the grass side downwards, and pressed as far as they will go. As the figure of the drain does not suffer them to go to the bottom, a cavity is left which Serves as a water course; and the space above is filled with the earth thrown out. The work is performed by means of three spades of different sizes. The first may be a common spade of moderate breadth, with which the surface clay may be taken off to the depth of eight or ten inches, or not quite so much, if the clay be very strong. The breadth of the drain, at top, may be from a foot to fifteen inches; but it never should be less than a foot, as it is an advantage that the sides should have a considerable slope; and the two sides should slope as equally as possible. Another workman follows the first, with a spade six inches broad at the top, and becoming narrower towards the point, where it should not exceed four inches. The length of the plate of this second spade should be fourteen inches, and with it a foot or fourteen inches in depth can easily be gained. A third workman, and he should be the most expert, succeeds the second, and his spade should be four inches broad at top, only two inches broad at the point, and fourteen or fif- teen inches in length. With this spade a good workman can take out at least fifteen inches of clay. A sort of hoe or scoop, made of a plate of iron, formed nearly into the shape of a half cylinder of two inches diameter, and a foot or fourteen inches long, and fastened, at an acute angle of perhaps 70°, to a long wooden handle, is now employed to Scrape out the bot. Ž '722 tom of the drain, and remove any small pieces of clay that may have fallen into it. The grassy side of the turf being turned undermost, they are put down into the drain, the workman standing upon them after they are put in, and pressing them down with his whole weight till they are firmly wedged be- tween the sloping sides of the drain. The ends of the turves being cut somewhat obliquely, they overlap each other a little; and by this means, although there is sufficient opening for the surface water to get down, nothing else can. The open space, below the turf, ought to be five or six inches in depth, three inches wide at top, and an inch and a half or two inches at bottom. #."; Highl. Soc. vol. vi. p. 571.) - The ho?low furrow drain is only used in sheep pastures. Wherever the water is apt to stagnate, a deep furrow is turned up with a stout plough. After this, a man with a spade pares off the loose soil from the inverted sod, and scat- ters it over the field, or casts it into hollow places. 'The Sod, thus pared, and brought to the thickness of about three inches, is restored to its original situation, with the grassy Side upper- most, as if no furrow had been made. A pipe or opening two or three inches deep is thus formed beneath it, in the bottom of the furrow, sufficient to discharge a considerable quantity of surface water, which readily sinks into it. These furrows, indeed, are easily choaked up by any pressure, or by the growth of the roots of the grass; but they are also easily re- stored, and no surface is lost by means of them. The earth drain, called also the clay-pipe drain, is better calculated for the purpose of an aqueduct, or conveyance of water, than for drying the soil. A drain is dug to the neces- sary depth, narrow at bottom, in which is laid a smooth tree, or cylindrical piece of wood, ten or twelve feet long, six inches in diameter at the one end, and five at the other, having a ring fastened in the thickest end. After strewing a little sand upon the upper side of the tree, the clay or toughest part of the contents of the trench is first thrown in upon it, and then the remainder, which is trod firmly down. By means of the ring and a rope through it, the tree is drawn out to within a foot or two of the small or hinder end, and the same operation re- peated. A gentleman who has tried this experiment says, this clay pipe has conducted a small rill of water a considerable way under ground for more than twenty years, without any sign of failing. Pearson’s method of pipe-draining will be found described at length in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, vol. xlvii. for 1829. The wheel drain is a very ingenious invention, described in the Agricultural Report of the County of Essex. It consists of a draining wheel of cast-iron, that weighs about four cwt. It is four feet in diameter: the cutting-edge or extremity of the circumference of the wheel is half an inch thick, and increases in thickness towards the centre. At fifteen inches deep it will cut a drain half an inch wide at the bottom, and four inches wide at the top. The wheel is so placed in a frame, that it may be loaded at pleasure, and made to operate to a greater or less depth, ac- cording to the resistance made by the ground. It is used in winter when the soil is soft; and the wheel tracks are either immediately filled with straw ropes, and lightly covered over with earth, or they are left to crack wider and deeper till the ensuing summer; after which the fissures are filled with ropes of straw or of twisted twigs, and lightly covered with the most porous earth that is at hand. Thus, upon grass or ley lands, hollow drains, which answer extremely well, are formed at a trifling expense. . It is said that twelve acres may be fully gone over with this draining-wheel in one day, so as to make cuts at all necessary distances. In forming small drains, chiefly for retentive soils, the com- mon plough has been used in many places, and with some ad- vantage. The method practised by Young, as described in the Annals of Agriculture, is this:—When he has marked the drains in a field usually a rod asunder, he draws two furrows with a common plough, leaving a balk betwixt them about fifteen inches wide; then with a strong double-breasted plough, made on purpose, he splits that balk, and leaves a clean furrow fourteen or fifteen inches below the surface ; but where the depth of soil requires it, by a second ploughing he sinks it to eighteen or twenty inches; it is then ready for the land-ditching spade, with which he digs, fifteen inches deep, a drain as narrow as possible. But the method followed by some farmers, who do not possess ploughs made on purpose for the work, is this—With their common plough, drawn by four or five horses, and usually stirring about four or five inches deep, they turn a double furrow, throwing the earth on each side, and leaving a balk in the middle. This balk they raise by a second bout, in the same manner: then they go in the open fur- row twice, with their common double-breast plough, getting what depth they can. After this they shovel out all the loose mould and inequalities to the breadth of about a foot; and thus having gained a clear open furrow, the depth varying accord. ing to the soil, and ploughs, but usually about eight or nine inches, they dig one spit with a draining spade sixteen inches deep, thus gaining in the whole twenty-four or twenty-six inches. But as this depth is seldom sufficient, when necessary, they throw out another, or even two other spits, which makes the whole depth from thirty to forty inches. The best season for marking out and forming drains is the $pring or beginning of summer; because then the land springs, being still in vigour, are more easily discovered and traded than at a later period. - DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS, a distinguished English navi. gator, was born at Tavistock, in Devonshire, 1545, and served as a sailor in a coasting vessel, which DRAINING. sometimes made voyages to France and Ireland. Iſe gained the favour of his master, who, on his death. left his vessel to him. Sir John Hawkins, one of his relations, then took him under his care, and, at the age of eighteen, he served as purser of a ship which traded to Biscay. At twenty, he made a voyage to the coast of Guinea; at twenty-two, received the command of a ship, and distinguished himself by his valour in the unfortunate expedition of Sir John Hawkins against the Spaniards, in the harbour of Vera Cruz. In this affair, however, he lost all which he possessed. Hereupon he conceived an inveterate hatred against the Spaniards, and projected new ex- peditions against them. He had no sooner made his plans known in England, than a multitude of adven- turers joined him. He now made two cruises to the West Indies, but avoided an engagement with the Spaniards. The result of these voyages, however, was so successful, that he received the command of two vessels, in 1572, for the purpose of attacking the commercial ports of Spanish America. One of them was commanded by his brother. He captured the cities of Nombre de Dios and Vera Cruz, lying on the eastern coast of the isthmus of Darien, and took a rich booty. After his return, he equipped three frigates at his own expense, with which he served as a volunteer, in an expedition to Ireland, under the command of the earl of Essex, father of queen Elizabeth's favourite. On the death of his protector, he returned to Eng- land. Sir Christopher Hatton, vice-chamberlain and privy councillor of queen Elizabeth, introduced him to this princess. Drake disclosed to her his plan, which was to pass through the straits of Magellan to the South seas, and there to attack the Spaniards. The queen ſurnished him with means for equipping a fleet of five ships for this purpose. Drake sailed from Plymouth, Nov. 13, 1577, and arrived at the straits of Magellan, Aug. 20, 1578. Nov. 6, he succeeded in leaving the straits, but was overtaken by a storm the day after, which compelled him to steer to the south. Returning to the extremity of the straits, he called the bay in which he anchored The Parting of Friends, On account of the separation of one of his ships. New storms again drove him to the south. He now found himself between the islands which geographers, in later charts, have laid down as 200 leagues west of America. But Fleurieu has proved that they belong to those numerous islands, as yet but little known, which compose the south-western part of the Archi- pelago of the Terra del Fuego : he has shown, like- wise, that Drake then saw cape Horn, and has, therefore, the honour of the discovery. November 20th, Drake came in sight of the island of Mocha, South of Chile, where he had appointed a rendezvous for his fleet. As none of his vessels arrived, he con- tinued his course to the north, along the coast of Chile and Peru, in search of Spanish ships, and suita- ble places for making incursions into the country. When his crew was sufficiently enriched with booty, he followed the coast of North America, to 480 north latitude, hoping to find a passage into the Atlantic. T}eceived in his expectations, and compelled by the Cold to return to 38°, he named the place where he repaired his vessels New Albion, and took possession of it in the name of queen Elizabeth. Sept. 29, 1579, he directed his course to the Moluccas, and anchored at Ternate, Nov. 4. He marrowly escaped being lost near the Celebes. Nov. 3, 1580, he arrived at Ply- mouth ; April 4, 1581, Elizabeth herself went on board Drake's vessel, then at anchor at Deptford, dined with him, knighted him, and approved of what he had done. . In 1585, Drake disturbed the Spaniards anew in the Cape Verd islands, and in the West Indies. In DRAM.A. 1587, he commanded a fleet of thirty sail, which burned a part of the celebrated armada in the harbour of Cadiz, and, in 1588, Commanded, as vice-admiral, under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the conflict with the Spanish armada. A rich galleon surrendered to him at the mere sound of his name, and he distinguished himself in the pursuit of the enemy. In 1589, he commanded the fleet intended to restore don Antonio to the throne of Portugal. But this enterprise failed on account of a misunderstand- ing between Drake and the general of the land forces. The war with Spain still continued. Drake and Hawkins proposed to Elizabeth a new expedition against the Spaniards in the West Indies, which should surpass all that had preceded it. They were willing to bear a part of the expense, and the queen furnished ships. The expedition, however, was un- fortunate. Nov. 12, 1595, the day of Sir John Hawkins's death, Drake's vessel, in sailing from the port of Porto Rico, was struck by a cannon ball, which carried away the chair in which he sat, with- out doing him any injury, The next day, the Spanish vessels were attacked before Porto Rico with great violence, but without success. He then sailed to the continent, and set fire to Rio de la Hacha and Nombre de Dios; but, having undertaken an expe- dition against Panama, Some days after, which entirely failed, the disappointment threw him into a slow fever, which terminated his life, Dec. 30, 1596, O. S. (Jan. 9, 1597). Among the honourable uses of his wealth must be mentioned his providing Ply- mouth with water, which he brought from the distance of twenty miles. To him Europe is indebted for the introduction of the potato. (See The famous Poyage of Sir Francis Drake into the South Sea, and hence about the whole Globe of the Earth, London, 1600, 12mo, edited by Francis Pretty, who served under Drake.) DRAMA (the Greek 33322, from 36%al, I act); a class of writings in which the author does not appear as such, either reasoning or relating, but persons are represented as acting and speaking, and the course of the story and the feelings of the parties are to be gathered from what they say. In epic poetry, the persons of the poem are also often introduced speak- ing, but description is the prevailing characteristic of the epopee, whilst, in the drama, everything is represented as actually happening. The drama, therefore, represents action and its motives directly, not in the way of description. Taking the word in its most general sense, we also call an epic poem or a novel dramatic, when a quick succession of inter- esting events is rapidly developed; when, in a word, action prevails over description or reasoning. The French, however, designate by drame only something intermediate between tragedy and comedy. The origin of the drama must be sought for in that powerful agent in human nature—the love of imita- tion. The rude war-dance of a savage tribe is a be- ginning of the drama, because it represents an action or the entertainment of the spectators or performers, and the dance is found among all early religious rites. (See Dance.) So dramatic performances, that is to say, imitative representations of important events, in religious history, are found among the rites or religious services of all nations in their early period. With many they are always preserved ; as the Catholics, both Greek and Roman, to this day, at the celebration of their various festivals, bring forward exhibitions, which represent, with more or less accuracy, the chief particulars of that event which is to be commemorated. These religious per- formances are connected with or give rise to the sym- bolical performances in the different rites. Thus the Catholic priest, by moving from one end of the altar h dual. 723 to the other, while reading mass, indicates the flight of Joseph and Mary to Egypt. The elements of the dramatic art, as has already been said, are found among all nations; and every people, which has made progress in civilization, has, at the same time, developed this art. The Chinese and the Indians have their dramatic performances; but the Europeans are indebted for the drama, as for so many other productions of civilization, to the Greeks. From them it passed to the Romans, whose acquisitions in civilization were in part preserved, and in part revived by the Italians, though the latter never cultivated this species of poetry, at least the tragic branch of it, so much as the epic and lyric. The gifted Machiavelli, inspired by the productions of the ancients, may be said to have commenced a new era of the drama, though the art had been in some measure cultivated by the Italians before his time. But the dramatic genius who has surpassed all ancient and modern writers, in universality of con- ception and knowledge of human nature, appeared among the English. The drama began with action; that is to say, with pantomimic dances. No art, useful or ornamental, is, in its origin, clearly defined. The dramatic art, in its origin among the Greeks, was by no means so dis- tinctly separated from epic and lyric poetry as we find it at a later period. The Greek comedy commenced about 580 B. C., with Susarion, the contemporary of Thespis, who travelled from place to place, holding up to ridicule, on a small movable stage, the follies and vices of his age. The old comedy of the Greeks consisted of dramatic-epic songs connected with dancing, by which travelling actors entertained the people; hence the name comedy (zoºio), signifying, originally, village-song. The contents of these songs were mirthful, ludicrous, often indecent. By degrees, tragedy became a distinct branch of the art, and its graver scenes served as an entertainment for the in- habitants of the cities, whilst the comedy retained its gay character, and chiefly served to amuse the coun- try people of Attica. Regular companies of come- dians were at length established at Athens, where they were only tolerated by the government. A chief, a dancing and singing chorus, together with several actors, appeared on a convenient stage. Epi- charmus, about 485 B.C., introduced unity of action, and modelled his comedies after the tragedies. His comedies were popular in Greece, and among his followers are distinguished Phormes, Magnes, Crates, Cratinus, Eupolis, Pherecrates and Aristophanes. With all these, personal satire was the chief object, and magistrates, as well as private persons, were called by name and exhibited on the stage. The old comedy of the Greeks was thoroughly national, with somewhat of a political tendency. It was in vain prohibited by laws and decrees of the people. At the end of the Peloponnesian war, comedy re- ceived a new character and form. The middle comedy, so called, now began. The new oligarchy deprived the people of the privilege of ridiculing the measures of government. It was strictly prohibited to bring living persons by name on the stage, and the chorus, till then the chief instrument of vituperation, was abolished; whilst, with the representations of general characters, corresponding masks were introduced, instead of those imitating the countenances of par- ticular individuals. Even Aristophanes was obliged to submit to these regulations in his last productions, and thus comparative decorum was introduced into the representations. The subjects of comedy con- tinued to be taken from mythology and history; but the descriptions of the ridiculous were more general than formerly, when they were often entirely indivi- The chorus rarely appeared. To the new 2 Z 2 724 comedy of the Greeks belongs Menander, about 300 B. C., who, by the keenness of his wit, and the regu- larity of his pieces, began a new period of the Greek comedy. Of him and Philemon fragments only have come down to us. For a particular account of the character of the Greek comedy, as distinguished from the tragedy, we refer the reader to the excellent Lectures on Dramatic Literature, by A.W. Schlegel. Tragedy consisted, originally, of lyric and epic Songs, sung in honour of Bacchus, at the festival of the vintage. The traces of its origin are lost. (See Greek Literature.) The invention of tragedy is generally ascribed to Thespis, who was followed by Phrynichus. The true creator of the tragedy was AEschylus; Thespis had only one actor, who from time to time relieved the chorus by declamation. AEschylus changed this representation into real ac- tion, by making use of two, sometimes three or four actors, and inventing the dialogue. Being assisted by the liberality of the government, he increased the number of his actors, who now became the prin- cipal object of interest with the spectators: the cho- rus, on the other hand, became less prominent; its songs were shortened, though they still remained very long, and were always written in a tone of the highest lyrical elevation, which sometimes ap- pears even in the dialogue. AEschylus aimed more at Sublimity than beauty. There are many traces of rudeness in his plays, yet they are wonderfully grand. The action is simple in the extreme. The chorus no longer chants songs which have no connexion with the play, but it forms a part of one whole, is the adviser of kings, the confidant of the per- Sons of the action, the comforter of the unhappy, the terror of tyrants. Instead of wine lees, with which the actors of Thespis had besmeared their faces, AEschylus introduced masks; and, by means of a long gown and the cothurnus, the lofty stature of the heroes was imitated. The accommodations for the spectators were improved, and machinery and scenery were introduced. AEschylus generally in- structed his actors himself, in the declamation of his pieces. Sophocles followed him, and showed himself a master of the tragic art : he knew better than his redecessor how to excite compassion and to move the human heart. Euripides (q.v.) was superior to both in this respect, but he is not happy in the plan and ex- ecution of his plays. These three great poets carried the Greek tragedy to its perfection. Many poets fol- lowed them, but only the three just named have left works which have come down to us. (See Bockh Ueber die griechischen Tragiker, On the Greek Tragedians.) The Romans, a practical nation, and not possess- ing that keen sense of beauty which we find in an- cient Greece, never accomplished much in this branch. The earliest specimens of the drama in Italy were the Fabulae Atellanae, so called from Atella, a city of the Oscians, whence the performers in these entertainments came to Rome. Plautus and Terence were imitators of the new Greek comedy. Of the Roman tragedy, the dramas which go under the name of Seneca are the only specimens extant. (See Seneca, and Ennius.) When the enormous accumula- tion of wealth in Rome, and the total depravity of morals, had corrupted almost everything which an- cient Rome and Greece had produced, the theatre became little better than a show-place, where spec- tacles were exhibited, rather than plays performed. In the beginning of the middle ages, when every- thing noble was buried under the deluge of barbar- ism, the dramatic art was lost, or existed only among the lowest classes of the people, in plays improvis- ated at certain festivals, for instance, the carnival. These were attacked as heathenish, immoral, and indecent exhibitions; but the favour which they en- DRAMA. joyed among the people, and the spirit of the times, induced the clergy to encourage theatrical exhibi- tions of subjects from sacred history. These were called mysteries (q.v.), and, in all the southern coun- tries of Europe, as well as in Germany and England, preceded the rise of the national drama. (See An- cient Mysteries, especially the English Miracle-Plays, by William Home, London, 1823.) Of this kind were the ridiculous Festa Asinaria, in which mass was read by persons dressed like asses, and every means taken to divert the people in churches, on the occurrence of the festival of Easter. So popular were these extra- vagances, that even the decrees of popes against them were for a long time of little avail. With Albertino Mussati (born 1260) a better kind of drama arose. He wrote some tragedies, and the drama, in Italy, was divided into the erudita and the commedia dell'arte, which last is supposed to be derived from the ancient Fabulae Atellana, and the mimi. Cardinal Bibbiena wrote the first genuine Italian comedy—the Calandria—an account of which would startle the reader, who should be told that it was performed for the amusement of the holy fathers of the church, and the principal clergy, in the presence of the ladies of the court. Ariosto and Machiavelli wrote dramas; and of the Mandragola of the latter, Voltaire says, that it is worth all the comedies of Aristophanes; which shows, at least, that it is a valuable performance. The comedy was cultivated by many Italians, including numerous ecclesiastics. Leo X. was a great patron of the theatre. Alfieri is the most important of the dramatic writers of Italy; yet his comedies are to be considered rather as bitter Satires. His comedies are more tragic than his tra- gedies. See Alfieri and Goldoni. The other European nations cultivated the drama- tic art much later than the Italians. The English and Spaniards devoted their attention to it almost at the same time; the former reaching their acme in Shakspeare, the latter in Lope de Vega. The his- tory of the English theatre and the drama is naturally divided into two parts, the first of which begins with Elizabeth, and ends with the reign of Charles I. The Puritans then prohibited all kinds of plays, and the theatres were shut up for thirteen years. With Charles II. the drama re-appeared, and exhibited a licentiousness hardly equalled by that of any other Christian nation. No species of literature was more admired and more debased than this. From the close of the seventeenth to that of the eighteenth century, British comedy was cultivated with much success by Cibber, Farquhar, Congreve, Sheridan, and others. In tragedy, during the same period, we have little to boast of, and at present the theatre of Britain is at a very low ebb. The French drama was in a miserable state before Corneille. “It was,” says Schlegel, “in its child- hood, and that not a healthy and promising child- hood, but a crippled one.” Corneille, Racine, Wol- taire, Molière, Scarron, Boursault, &c., are some of the most distinguished dramatists. The theory of the unities, to which the French have so tenaciously adhered, is so opposed to what the British and Ger- mans call true, elevated poetry, that the latter have been little Satisfied with the French tragic muse, whom they consider cold, stiff, and unpoetical ; but French comedy is universally admired. So much has been said about the difference be- tween tragedy and comedy—a difference greater than exists between any other species of poetry that fall under the same general class—and the explana- tions of what constitutes this difference are often so unsatisfactory, that we may be excused for introducing the remarks of Schlegel on this subject, in his work above mentioned :— DRAMA-DRAUGHT. “Tragedy and comedy bear the same relation to one another As earnestness and mirth. Both these states of mind bear the stamp of our common nature; but earnestness belongs more to the moral, and mirth to the sensual side. The creatures des- titute of reason are incapable of either. Earnestness, in the most extensive signification, is the direction of our mental powers to some aim. But as soon as we begin to call our- selves to account for our actions, reason compels us to fix this aim higher and higher, till we come at last to the highest end of our existence; and here the desire for what is infinite, which dwells in our being, is thwarted by the limits of the finite, by which we are fettered. All that we do, all that we effect, is vain and perishable; Death stands everywhere in the back ground, and every good or ill spent moment brings us in closer contact with him. And even if a mau has been so singularly suc- cessful as to reach the utmost term of life without misfortune, he must still submit to leave all that is dear to him on earth. There is no bond of love without separation, no enjoyment without grief for its loss. When we contemplate, however, all the relations of our existence; when we reflect on its de- pendence on an endless chain of causes and effects; when we consider that we are exposed in our weakness to struggle with the immeasurable powers of nature, and with conflicting de- sires on the shores of an unknown world; that we are subject to all manner of errors and deceptions, every one of which is capable of undoing us : that, in our passions, we carry our own enemy in our bosoms; that every moment demands from us the sacrifice of our dearest inclinations, in the name of the most sacred duties, and that we may, at one blow, be robbed of all that we have acquired by toils and difficulties; that, with every extension of possession, the danger of loss is propor- tionally increased, and we are the more exposed to the Snares of hostile attack,-then every feeling mind must be filled by melancholy, against which there is no other protection than the consciousness of a destiny above this earthly life. This is the tragic tone; and when the mind dwells on the consideration of the possible, as an existing reality; when that tone is inspired by the most striking examples of violent revolutions in human destiny, either from dejection of soul, or after powerful but in- effectual struggles,—then tragic poetry has its origin. We thus see that tragic poetry has its foundation in our nature, and, to a certain extent, we have answered the question, why we are fond of mournful representations, and even find some- thing consoling and elevating in them 2 As earnestness, in the highest degree, is the essence of the tragic tone, the essence of the comic is mirth. The disposition to mirth is a forgetful- mess of all gloomy considerations, in the pleasant feeling of present happiness. We are then inclined to view everything in a Sportive light, and to admit no impressions calculated to disturb or ruffle us. The imperfections of men, and the in- Congruities in their conduct and relations, are no longer an ob- ject of dislike and compassion, but serve to entertain the mind. The comic poet must, therefore, carefully abstain from whatever is calculated to excite moral disgust with the con- duct of men, or sympathy with their situation, because this would bring us back to a tone of earnest feeling. He must paint their irregularities as arising out of the predominance of the sensual part of their nature, and as constituting a mere ludicrous infirmity, which can be attended with no ruinous consequences. This is uniformly what takes place in what we call comedy, in which, however, there is still a mixture of seriousness, as I shall show in the sequel. The oldest comedy ºf the Greeks was, however, entirely gay, and, in that respect, formed the most complete contrast with their tragedy. Not only the characters and situations of individuals were worked up into a picture of the true comic, but the state, the constitu- tion, the gods, and nature, were all fantastically painted, in the most extravagantly ridiculous and laughable colours.” We shall now say a few words respecting the so much talked of unities in the drama. In consequence of a passage in the Poetics of Aristotle, the French, principally through the influence of Boileau, adopted the theory of the three unities in a drama, those of action, place, and time;-and this theory has recom- mended itself so strongly to the national taste, that a strict observance of the unities is considered, by the French, one of the chief merits of a dramatic production. The reader who wishes to form a cor- rect idea of the theory of Aristotle, may consult with advantage the work of Schlegel, above mentioned. The French have construed it to mean, in substance, as follows:—1st, that the action of the drama must be one ; the interest or attention must not be dis- tracted by several plots, but everything must be subservient to the main action ; 2dly, all the actions must take place on the same spot, or very nearly so, in order that the illusion may not be disturbed ; and, 3dly, everything ought to happen on the same day, for the same reason. These three rules are all true to a Certain degree. The unity of action is as neces- sary in a drama as in any production of the fine arts; the whole must be essentially one; but the Germans and British think it absurd to confine unity of action 725 within such narrow limits as the French do. On the contrary, as in a picture of Raphael, many groups exist, all interesting, yet all contributing to form one great picture, and subservient to the main object of the work; so they think it not only allowable, but an excellence, to introduce a number of actions in a drama, if they are so connected as all to make but one whole. What a variety of character and action is to be found in Romeo and Juliet ! and yet how closely is everything connected how directly every scene draws towards the great tragic end | The grandeur of a lofty dome is not diminished by the statues and bas-reliefs which it may contain. The two other unities—those of place and time— may also be too servilely followed. As for disturb- ing the illusion, Schiller very truly says, that every- thing on the stage is different from reality. Who thinks that the light of the lamps is daylight? Who, we ask, ever found such a precise square as the stage in a forest? or who ever saw people in real life turning their faces all to one point, as the actors necessarily do, that their action may be seen. The French consider it a great fault if an actor turns his back towards the audience. Is not this incon- sistent? Besides, is not the very theory of unity of time, which requires all the events in a drama to happen on one day, entirely at variance with nature? and which is easier, to consider all the events repre- sented in a drama, all the developments of the actions as happening in one day, or to transport ourselves, in imagination, from one place to another, and suppose weeks and months to pass between the falling and rising of the curtain? Yet there is no doubt that the performance may make too great claims on our imagination. It is impossible to settle precisely the limits within which the dramatic writer should confine himself. As long as he can avoid offending the imagination by the abruptness of his transitions, he may be considered as not having over- stepped the just bounds. The liberties allowed in the drama, as in all the higher branches of art, must depend very much on the genius of the artist. Since 1814, a new dramatic school has been formed in France, which, departing from the ancient strict ness of the classic drama, so called, approaches more and more to the German and British, or the romantic drama, so called. Madame de Stael, in her L’Allemagne, treats this subject at some length. We must refer the reader, for further information on this interesting subject, to Augustus William Schlegel's work, Ueber dramatische Kunst und Lit- teratur, Heidelberg, 1809 (On dramatic Art and Literature; translated into English, by John Black, London, 1815), which may be considered at once as a model of the higher species of criticism, and a spe- cimen of German erudition and philosophy. DRAMATURGY; the science which treats of the rules for composing a drama and representing it on the stage, as far as the subject can be brought under general rules. It comprehends the whole poetry of the drama, and the theory of dramatic re- presentation. No work embracing the subject in its whole extent has yet been published. The splendid lectures of Schlegel on dramatic art and literature approach nearest to it. The first who published a work under this name was Lessing. Tieck's Dramaturgical Essays deserve to be men- tioned here. T)RAPERY. See Costume. - DRAUGHT ; the depth of a body of water neces- sary to float a ship ; hence a ship is said to draw so many feet of water, when she is borne up by a column of water of that particular depth; for in- stance, if it requires a body of water whose depth is equal to twelve feet, to float or buoy up a ship on its 726 surface, she is said to draw twelve feet water; and, that this draught may be more readily known, the feet are marked on the stem and stern post from the keel upwards. DRAUGHTS; a game played on a checkered board, like the chess board, with twenty-four pieces, which, by angular movements, are enabled to take each other, according to certain rules, until one of the parties has lost all his men, or is placed in a situation to lose them all, when the game is at an end. DRAWBACK, in commerce; an allowance made to merchants on the re-exportation of certain goods, which in some cases consists of the whole, in others of a part, of the duties which had been paid upon the importation. A still more equitable arrange- ment than that of drawbacks, is, to allow the mer- chant, who imports any commodity, which he may probably wish to export again, to deposit it in the public warehouses, giving a bond for the payment of the duties, should he dispose of it for home consump- tion. This is called bonding, and is allowed to a considerable extent in Britain. DRAWING, considered as a distinct branch of art, is the elder sister of painting, and, in the Course of time, became connected with geometry. It is the art of representing, by means of lines, upon a flat surface, the forms of objects, and their positions and relations. The attempt to imitate, by lines, the forms which we see in nature, is the commencement of all drawing. According to a Greek, tradition, drawing and sculpture took their rise together, when the daughter of Dibutades drew the outline of the shadow of her lover upon the wall, which her father cut out and modelled in clay. We can distinguish, in the earliest attempts at drawing, different epochs, which are found in almost all nations:–1. Objects were delineated only with rude, shapeless lines; e. g., an oval represented a head. 2. In order to make such drawings more striking to the eye, the sketch was filled up with black, or some other colour, and then the eyes, eyebrows, nose, mouth, and hair. Were marked with white upon the dark surface. To all these figures the name was attached, and, in general, explanatory words, such as we find upon all the old vases. This custom was continued by the Greeks, even in the most flourishing period of the art of drawing among them; for the figures of the great picture of Polygnotus, at Delphi, were designated by such inscriptions. In the third epoch, an attempt was made to give animation to pictures, by represent- ing the different colours of the drapery; but, as yet, there was no attempt at perspective. In this man- ner Helen and Andromache embroidered tapestry, as described in the poems of Homer. In the fourth period, the want of prominence in the figures was remarked. Ardices and Telephanes (probably fictiº tious names) began, by drawing lines in the back ground, to produce the appearance of shadow, and to give prominence to their figures. In later times, ... di Caravaggio delineated in this way many frescoes in Rome, where he used only a single colour, but produced the shading by lines drawn thus, in the manner called hatching. These works are called aſ sgrafito or peintures hachées. This manner of drawing, however, was very hard. Philocles and Cleanthes invented the monochrome, or picture with one Colour. In the monochrome, the colour used was mixed with white, so that this resembled the manner that is now called en camayeu. This was the first step frºm drawing to proper painting, which is distinguished by having the back ground of the picture filled. The Greeks were very careful and particular in their in: struction in drawing. Pamphilus, the teacher of Apelles, wished his pupils to remain with him ten years. There were three stages of instruction: in DRAUGHTS-DRAWING. the first, firmness of hand and of stroke was obtained and the learners drew with styles upon tablets cow- ered with wax; in the second, fineness and delicacy of stroke were studied, while the learner laboured with the style upon Smooth tablets, made of boxwood, and sometimes upon membranes, or upon the skins of wild beasts, properly prepared and covered with wax. In the third stage, freedom and ease were to be acquired ; here the pencil was used instead of the style, and with it black or red sketches were drawn upon white tablets, or white sketches upon black tablets. The tablets used were covered either with chalk or gypsum. Line-drawing was carried to the highest perfection, and was the glory of the greatest masters. The rivalship of Apelles and Protogenes in such lines, drawn with distinguished delicacy and skill, and displaying a master's hand, is well known. This finemess and clearness of outline is also the chief merit of the celebrated vase painters. Something hard and dry was found in the pictures executed on such outlines, and it may well be maintained that this manner of drawing, through the influence of the By- Zantine school on the west of Europe, gave rise to the dry and meagre style of the old Italian as well as of the old Dutch school. When we consider the art of drawing as it exists at the present time, we perceive that the kinds of drawing are three—with the pen, with crayons, and with Indian ink, or similar substances. Artists some- times employ coloured and sometimes white paper; in the former case, the lights are produced by white crayons; but in the latter case, they are produced by leaving the paper uncovered. The drawings with the pen have always something hard and disagreeable, yet they give steadiness and ease to the hand, and are peculiarly serviceable to landscape painters. There are two different ways of drawing with the pen; either the drawing is darkened on the shaded side with lines, or the outline only is given by the pen, and the shades are delicately touched in with India ink. This mode is peculiarly adapted to ar- chitectural drawings. The crayon drawings are the most common, and the most suitable for beginners, because any faults can be effaced or covered over. Artists make use of black, as well as of red crayons; and, when the ground is coloured, they produce the light by means of white crayons. If the crayon is scraped, and the powder rubbed in with little rolls of paper or leather, the drawing becomes exceedingly delicate and agreeable, though its outline is deficient in strict precision. This manner, which, from the French name of the rolls used, is also called di l'est- ompe, is peculiarly suitable for large masses, and shades, and chiaro-scuro, and for producing a harmon- ious effect of light. There are also crayon drawings, where the principal colours of the objects painted are delicately sketched with coloured pencils. These are peculiarly suitable for portraits. To this kind of drawings belong likewise those made with lead and silver pencils, upon paper and parchment, which are suitable for the delicate delineation of small objects. In some cases, drawings of this description are softly touched with dry colours. There is another style of drawing, in which India ink, or sepia and bistre in- termingled with carmine and indigo, are used. The lights are produced by leaving the white surface un- covered. This mode produces the finest effect, and is very much used in the representation of all kinds of subjects. There are various classes of drawings, as sketches, studies, academy figures, cartoons, &c. Sketches are the first ideas of the subject of a picture, thrown off hastily, to serve as the basis of a future drawing. They are made with charcoal, with the pen or the pencil. To the rapidity of their exe- cution may be ascribed the animation perceptible in DRAWING. the sketches of great masters, of which there are rich collections. Studies are copies of single parts of subjects, made either after life or from models; as heads, hands, feet, sometimes also whole figures. Drawings from skele- tons and anatomical preparations, those of drapery, animals, plants, flowers, scenery, &c., are also called by this name. Academy figures are drawn from living models, who stand in academies of fine arts and other estab- | lishments, intended for the education of artists. The models, male and female, of all ages, are placed in different situations and attitudes, on an elevated spot, by lamp light. The pupils stand round and draw, under the direction of professors. Experienced hº and sculptors likewise continue to draw from living models, either in private or in company. The most perfect figures, of course, are selected. In order to study drapery, a little figure of wood, with movable limbs, is placed so that the student can draw from it. The drapery is often put on wet, that it may follow more closely the form of the body, and that the folds may be more marked and expressive. Cartoons are drawings on gray paper, of the saille size as the paintings which are to be copied from them. These are, for instance, large oil paintings, fresco pictures, &c. Artists make use, also, of other means, in order to transfer the outlines of a painting upon another canvass, if they wish to copy very faithfully. If the copy is to be on a larger or a smaller scale than the original, it is customary to place on each canvass frames of wood, the space enclosed by which is divided, by means of threads, into quadrangular compartments. The compartments on the original are larger or smaller than the others, as the case may be. The artist then draws in each square of his can- vass what he finds in the corresponding square in the original. If the copy is intended to be precisely of the same size with the original, the outlines are often traced through a black gauze, from which they are afterwards transferred by pressure to the canvass of the copy. This, it is true, does not give any distinct forms, but it indicates precisely the spot where every object is to be placed, which saves much time. If the intention is to copy the outlines of the original exactly, it is necessary to make a calque, that is, a paper Saturated with warnish, and quite transparent, which is put on the painting; the outlines are drawn; then the paper is blackened with crayons on one side, put on the new canvass, and the outlines are followed by some pointed instrument, and thus transferred to the canvass. It is evident that it is never allowable to take a copy in this way from very valuable pic- tures. The sketches of great masters are always valued very highly, because they show most distinctly the fire and boldness of their first conceptions. But for this very reason, because their excellence depends on the freedom with which they are thrown off, it is far more difficult to make copies from them than from finished paintings. The great schools in painting differ quite as much in respect to drawing as in respect to colouring. The style of drawing of the old Italian school is as hard, dry, and meagre, as that of the old German School. The defects of the former are more often redeemed by beautiful forms and just proportions, whilst in the latter a meaning is frequently expressed which in- clines more to poetry than to art. . At a later period, the Roman school became, in Italy, through the in- fluence of Raphael's exquisite sense of the beautiful and expressive in form, and through the study of the antique, the true model of beautiful drawing. The Florentine school strove to excel the Roman in this respect, and lost, by exaggeration, the superiority which it might, perhaps, otherwise have gained from ‘727 its anatomical correctness and deep study of the art. The masters of the Florentine school often foreshorten too boldly. In the Lombard school, delicate draw ing appears through enchanting colouring; but per. haps it is more true to nature and feeling than to Scientific rules. The Venetian school, in reference to the other schools of Italy, has many points of re- Semblance, good and bad, with the Dutch school, in reference to Germany. In the Venetian school, the drawing is often lost in the glow and power of the colouring; and it is very often not the nobleness of the figures and ideas in the drawing, but the rich- ness, boldness, and glowing nature of the painting, which delight us. The French school was, in Pous- sin's time, very correct in drawing; and he was justly called the French Raphael. At a later period, the style of this school became maniéré. David intro- duced again a purer taste in drawing, and a deep study of the antique. This study of the antique, to- gether with the precision of their drawing, are the º characteristics of the modern French School. In Britain and Germany, there cannot be said to be any general style of drawing peculiar to their artists. To make up a finished drawing, four parts are es- sential: namely, an outline, lights, shadows, and colour. By outline is meant the boundary line of the object represented; which is next to be filled up with lights and shadows, and lastly washed over with pro- per colours. The great advantages of drawing are, that it speaks an universal language, presenting at One view the most complicated forms in mechanics, and which no words alone could sufficiently describe; whilst to the traveller it affords the means of bring- ing home Scenes of remote countries, with the cos- tume or dress of different nations, their implements of War, &c. Moreover, it stamps an additional value on the manufactures of a country, by exhibiting the most elegant forms which it is possible to impart to any object; whilst, as an accomplishment and branch of liberal education, its advantages are considerable, by furnishing us with a continual source of amusement, giving a higher relish for the beauties of nature, and a more intimate knowledge of all works of art, and indeed of whatever is connected with the pleasures of the imagination. - The best means of acquiring the art of drawing, is, to commence by the simplest geometrical lines, pro- ceeding on to geometrical figures, from the more simple to the most complex. The learner should first practise drawing accurately—perpendicular, ho- rizontal, oblique, curved, and waved lines; then he should draw squares, triangles, circles, and ovals. These forms being by far the best for early in- struction, because from their simplicity any devia. tion from them is easily detected, and children being made to practise them early as an amusement, may be readily prepared for the more complicated forms. When the learner has conquered the difficulty of making these forms with accuracy, he should pro- ceed to draw those of a more arbitrary kind, such as the scroll and cylinder; then cubes, pyramids, obe- lisks, or vases, cups, books, baskets, &c., by which he will gradually become possessed of a more correct vision, and be able to give a proper degree of grace to his curved lines. Having acquired a sufficient facility in drawing and shadowing these simple forms, he ought next to com- mence on the outlines of antique busts and statues, as being the best calculated for giving a greater cor- rectness to the eye, from their beauty and perfection, whereby any slight deviation from their just propor- tions instantly offends and is detected; whereas in the irregular shapes found in landscapes and flowers, the faults, being much less obvious, the pupil gets. 728 into negligent habits of drawing, which he cannot afterwards shake off. All these drawings should be made on a large scale, and be executed in a bold, distinct, and what painters call a broad style. Thus, all the separate features of the face should be drawn the full size of life; for, next to drawing from bad examples, nothing is more injurious to proficiency than the making of small and miniature drawings. When the pupil has made a few copies of drawings of busts, statues, &c., he should next commence draw- ing from a model. Under this term is comprehended any object presented for imitation, whether a bust, statue, living human body, or a tree, flower, &c. The antique busts of the Antinous, Niobe, Apollo Bel- videre, and Laocoon, are the best to draw from. ... In making these drawings, it is of importance to choose good materials, and the best of these is black, white, and red chalks. Chalk drawings are generally executed on a coloured paper, for the purpose of pro- ducing a middle tint, so that a drawing on blue or gray paper will have three degrees or tones of colour, two from the chalks and one from the paper. In this way, charcoal is used to sketch in the outline, which is then made more correct by Italian or hard black chalk, and the shadows are laid in freely and broadly with Soft black French chalk; and then softened and blended together with what is called a stump, which is a cylinder made of soft chamois leather, rolled up tight, and cut to a point at each end. Chalk draw- ings have many advantages over those made with black lead; for they will embrace subjects of a larger size, by which a greater freedom of hand is acquired. The beauty of chalk drawings consists in the firmness of the stroke, the regularity of shadowing, and the taste of laying and suiting the lines to the several sub- stances, whether of flesh, drapery, or back ground. In making drawings of landscapes, the following is the best process: the paper being stretched on a drawing frame or mounting board, and the outlines lightly sketched with a black lead pencil, the sky and distance are to be washed over with pure water laid on with a broad camel hair brush. When the gloss occasioned by the damping disappears, the Smaller masses of character on the clouds and dis- tant hills are to be laid in with a mixture of indigo and lake, or indigo and Venetian red, forming a pur- ple, according to the nature of the subject under treatment. This process of going over it with purple, is to be carried forward till it is lost in the middle distance of the picture, and then repeated till the larger masses of clouds and distant hills are brought pretty near the desired effect as to depth of tone, The larger masses of the foreground and nearer trees are now to be gone over with warm colours, such as Venetian red, burnt Sienna, raw sienna, and the like, nearly pure or slightly mixed with indigo, accord- ing to the nature of the substance desired to be re- presented, carrying the warm colours through the smaller masses, and losing them in the purple of the middle distance. Then return to the sky and lay in the azure with indigo or Prussian blue, according to the intensity required. The character and broad touches of the foreground are next to be put in with Indian red and indigo, burnt sienna and indigo, or other strong colours, gradually covering the bright- ness of the warm colours formerly laid on, and get- ting the picture into tone. If the clouds and distant hills are warm and sunny, they may be covered with a wash of yellow ochre, or yellow ochre and light red, bringing it forward to the nearer parts, and thereby brightening them up. At this stage the figures (which have been carried forward with the rest of the drawing) ought to be finished, or as nearly so as circumstances will permit, which at once will give the drawing much additional character and effect. DRAWING. The minute details of the foliage and buildings of the foreground are now to be put in with care, and the full toned shadows strengthened, warmed or cooled, according to the desired effect, the crisp edges of bright trees and small details of buildings may be brought out by wiping; this is done by touching the parts with a small hair pencil and water, allowing it to dry for a few moments, then wiping the parts smartly with a handkerchief, which will bring off the colour clean; or it may be only half wiped off, and modified by some other colour, if desired. Before attempting to make sketches of landscapes from nature, the pupil ought to be pretty well acquainted with the general rules of perspective. He may then proceed to the fields and sketch whatever pleases him, commencing with the foreground and near- est objects, and from them comparing the size and relative positions of the more distant ; for instance if a wall or building come into the fore- ground of the sketch, from it he may find the posi- tion of a more distant object, such as a church, by comparing horizontally what part of the wall the church is opposite, and so on, for the retiring distance in the plane of the picture. The relative positions of objects on the same plane, may be determined in the same way by comparing them perpendicularly with the objects in the foreground over which they are seen ; these sketches he may afterwards wash slightly in with bistre, or a weak infusion of tobacco leaves. But in making studies, or finished sketches of single groups of rocks, trees, buildings, &c., it is best to em- ploy black and white chalk and coloured gray paper. In drawing the human figure from the model, it is necessary to have some previous knowledge of anatomy, and the proportions of the human form. The ancients allowed eight heads to the length of their adult figures, though some of their statues have only seven, They divided the head thus: from the crown of the head to the forehead, one part of the four into which the head is divided ; the forchcad to the top of the nose another, then to the bottom of the nose another, and thence to the bottom of the chin the fourth. From the chin to the collar-bone, two lengths of a nose; from the depression between the collar-bones to the bottom of the breast, one face; from the bottom of breast, to the navel, one face; from the navel, the next measure of a face to the centre of the figure ; from the centre to the upper part of the knee, two faces. The knee contains half a face; from the lower part of the knee to the ancle, two faces; from the ancle to the sole of the foot, half a face. A man, when his arms are stretched out, is, from the longest finger of his right, to the longest finger of his left hand, as broad as he is long; from one side of the breast to the other, two faces; the bone of the arm, from the shoulder to the elbow, is two faces; from thence to the root of the little finger, with part of the hand, two faces; the sole of the foot is the sixth part of the figure; the hand is the length of the face; the thumb the length of the nose; the largest toe the length of the nose. As to the breadth of the limbs, no precise measure can be given, because the mea- sures themselves are liable to change, according to the size of the muscles and their movement. See Plates XXIV., XXV., and XXVI., for illustrations of drawing the human face and figure. As a mechanical aid towards drawing, it is usual to draw perpendicular and horizontal lines across a drawing, and, in this way it is easy to increase or re- duce the size of any picture, by dividing the copy into a similar number of squares of greater or less extent. DRAWING SLATE, sometimes called black chał, is a fine-grained, soft stone, pretty nearly allied to clay slate or argillite, a rock along with which it al- ways occurs. It adheres slightly to the tongue, and DRAYTON.—DREDGING. feels fine and rather meagre. It soils more or less, and writes; hence its use as a marking or drawing material. The best kind comes from Italy, Spain, and France. DRAYTON, WILLIAM HENRy, a statesman of the American revolution, and an able political writer, was born in South Carolina, in September, 1742. In 1753, he went to England, and was placed in West- minster School; thence he removed, in 1761, to Ox- ford, where he continued nearly three years, when he returned to South Carolina. In 1771 he was ap- pointed, by the British government, privy councillor for the province, and became conspicuous by his de- fence of the rights of his country against the encroach- ments and irregularities of the crown officers and judges. In 1774, he accepted the office of an assist- ant judge of the province. When the continental congress was about to sit at Philadelphia, he wrote and published a pamphlet under the signature of Freeman,—a production, of which Ramsay, in his History of South Carolina, observes, that “it sub- stantially chalked out the line of conduct adopted by the congress.” . The lieutenant-governor suspended him from his place in the king's council, in conse- quence of his representation of American grievances, and the “bill of American rights,” which he sub- mitted to the congress in his pamphlet. As soon as the revolution began, he became an efficient leader, and, in 1775, was chosen president of the provincial congress. In March of the next year, he was elected chief justice of the colony, in which character he delivered to the grand jury political charges of the most emergetic character. He published, besides, a pamphlet, refuting the suggestions in favour of lord Howe's plan of a reconciliation with the mother Country. Independence—unqualified independence— was his constant advice. In the year 1777, Mr Drayton was invested with full powers, as president of South Carolina, and, early in the following year, was elected a delegate to the continental congress. In this body he took a prominent part. His speeches and writings against the propositions of the three British commissioners were particularly celebrated. The congress employed him on various important missions. The censure which he pronounced upon major-general Charles Lee's conduct at the battle of Monmouth, caused that officer to challenge him. The reasons which he assigned for declining the duel are such as become a true patriot and honourable IIla,Il. Mr Drayton continued in congress until Septem- ber, 1779, when he died suddenly at Philadelphia, in the thirty-sixth year of his age. He left behind a considerable body of historical materials, which his only son, John Drayton, revised and digested, and published at Charleston, in 1821, in two octavo volumes, under the title of Memoirs of the American Revolution, from its Commencement to the Year 1776, inclusive, as relating to the State of South Carolina, and occasionally referring to the States of North Carolina and Georgia. The work is much esteemed. DREBBELL, CoRNELIUS ; a natural philosopher and philosophical instrument-maker, was born at Alkmaer, in North Holland, in 1572. He possessed a great spirit of observation, and a sufficient fortune to enable him to perform his mechanical and optical experiments. He soon became So famous, that the emperor of Germany, Ferdinand II., intrusted to him the instruction of his sons, and appointed him impe- rial councillor. In the troubles of 1620, he was made prisoner by the troops of Frederic V., elector #. and plundered of his property. He was iberated by the interference of James I. of England, the father-in-law of Frederic, who delighted in the 729 conversation of learned men, and to whose court he repaired. From this time he lived in London, con- stantly occupied in scientific pursuits, and died there in 1634. The accounts which his contemporaries give of his experiments are not to be trusted, on ac- count of the ignorance and credulity of the time. It is certain that, in mechanics and optics, he possessed great knowledge for the age. He invented several mathematical instruments, and the thermometer (about 1630), which Halley, Fahrenheit, and Réau- mur afterward brought to perfection. The invention of telescopes, which has been also attributed to him, probably belongs to Zachariah Janson (1590). His Tractatus de Natura Elementorum et Quinta Essentia published by Joh. Ernst Burggrav, Leyden, 1608, passed through several editions. His Epistola de Machina Astronomica perpetuo mobili, was published at Leyden, 1620, by Joach. Morsius. A letter in German, to the emperor Rodolph II., in which he describes an instrument of his called Machina musica perpetuo mobilis, is contained in Harsdorffer's Delicia, physico-mathematica, second volume. DREDGING is commonly applied to the operation of removing mud, silt, and other depositions, from the bottom of harbours, canals, rivers, docks, &c. The process of silting may be readily conceived, when it is considered that every rill of water carries with it a quantity, however minute, of earthy parti- cles, and that these rills are so many tributaries to the brooks and rivulets falling into the great streams which form the drainage of the vast valleys through which they flow, finally carrying their waters to the sea. The beds of all large rivers, more particularly those which pass along comparatively flat or alluvial soils, are much encumbered in their channels by banks of sand and small gravel, while on their mar- gins are found the finer or more minute depositions of silt and mud. Large streams, from the great body of water which they bring, and from the greater strength of their currents, will be always able to make a passage; but narrow and winding rivers, with slowly-flowing waters, are often materially in- jured by the depositions. To such a degree has this been experienced at Sandwich, in Kent, that that ancient seaport is left almost in the state of an inland town ; and the port of Little Hampton, On the coast of Sussex, which was a harbour for the largest vessels two centuries since, at present admits only small colliers, and even those with difficulty, at high spring tides. The rivers of Holland, and those flowing through the plains of Italy, are likewise thus affected; and, according to the impurity of the waters, the entrances of docks and harbours, canals, basins, &c., are more or less silted up, and require to be cleansed or dredged. The late Mr Rennie reported that 400,000 tons of mud were annually discharged into the Thames from the sewers of London. The immu- merable shoals between the Nore and the Downs amply prove that this calculation is not exaggerated. The most simple mode of dredging, and probably the one originally adopted for removing the inequali- ties from the bottom of rivers and harbours, is the spoon dredging-boat. An apparatus of this de- scription was used for dredging the harbour of Leg- horm so far back as 1690, the expense of which was fifteen paoli (about eight shillings sterling) the boat load, of the size of a small river barge. , But Cornelius Meyer, a Dutch engineer in the employ of Cosmo III., grand duke of Tuscany, built, at Leg- horn, a dredging-boat, after the fashion of those in common use in Holland at that period. The expense of the construction of this boat is stated to have been about £25, and the cost of dredging a boat load five paoli, being only one-third of the Italian apparatus. The spoon dredging-boat has been long, and is, in- 73() deed, still used in Holland and Flanders, in deepen- ing the extensive tracts of canals. The excavated matters are generally of a mossy description, which, being compressed in moulds and dried, are used as turf-fuel. On the Thames, this operation is con- ducted on a large scale, under the immediate direc- tion of the Trinity board ; and the stuff dredged from the bottom, consisting chiefly of gravel, is sold, at the rate of about one shilling a ton, for ballast, particularly to the colliers; and, to such an extent is this process carried on, that the ballast hills of Shields and Newcastle, which are curious from their great extent, have been chiefly raised by the dis- charge from the vessels which have brought gravel in ballast from the Thames. The spoon apparatus consists of a strong ring or hoop of malleable iron, about six or seven feet in cir- cumference, properly formed for making an impres- sion upon the soft and muddy ground. ... To this ring is strongly attached a large bag of bullock's hide or tanned leather, perforated with a number of Small holes, with a capacity of four or five cubic feet. A long pole or handle is attached to the spoon, and a rope to the bottom of the bag, for directing their position at the commencement of each opera- tion. The pole or handle varies in length and thick- mess, according to the depth of water, from fifteen to thirty feet. This apparatus is generally worked with a wheel and pinion, or winch; and the chain or rope is brought from the spoon to the winch, through a block suspended from a small crane, for bearing the spoon and its contents to the side of the boat. The purchase-rope is led upon deck by a Snatch-block, in the proper direction for the barrel of the winch. In situations where the command of head-water is con- siderable, it is retained in a scouring basin, which is a water-tight compartment of a harbour, furnished with sluices to run off the water as required. All harbours left dry every tide at low water, wherein the deposition of mud is most apt to take place, ought, if possible, to be furnished with a scouring basin. For clearing the bottom and bar of a harbour, in conjunction with that mode of dredging which simply loosens the stuff, the use of the Scouring basin is most effectual. The harbour of Montrose is a striking instance in point, where the great matural basin con- nected with that port is covered every tide, by which, it has been computed, about fifty-five millions of cubic yards of back water are obtained, which pro- duce so great a current that the shifting sand-bank off the coast, called the Annet, is prevented from being thrown across the mouth or entrance of that harbour, in gales of wind from the eastward; and the navigation is kept open and preserved of consi- derable depth, even, at the lowest ebbs. The same remarks are applicable to the entrance of all great rivers, in which the navigation can only be preserved by a strong current of water. The most eminent engineers in Europe, in accordance with this idea, have introduced scouring basins into their designs of tide-harbours. Of these, the sluices at Ostend and Ramsgate harbours are particular ex- amples, where the silt in the outer harbours is dredged and loosened, and raked into the tracks or courses of the water issuing from the scouring basins. To effect this, the dredging-harrow, consisting of a frame of timber and plate iron, is used ; the common har- row, the ordinary plough, and even large rakes, have been employed with good effect in many places, par- ticularly in Holland, upon the extensive flats at the entrance of some of the large rivers. In wet docks connected with each other, much use may be made of this mode of scouring or floating away mud by opening numerous sluices from one dock into another. This has been done at Liver- DREDGING. pool, Leith, and Bristol, with good effect. But in the improvement of navigable rivers, many of these modes of dredging and scouring have been laid aside, and the operation of narrowing the channel and con- fining the current has been adopted. By this sys- tem, the bed of the river Clyde has been deepened from five to nine feet, to the great advantage of the trade and commerce of Glasgow. In like manner the opening of the Eau Brink Cut, a little above Lynn-Regis, has produced the most salutary effects in clearing away the obstructions in the river Ouse, below Ely; and the depositions in front of the town of Lynn will be scoured away so soon as a proper direction has been given to the current. The bucket dredging machine has been generally supposed to be of British origin; and it was certainly first used in England, by the late Mr Rennie, at Hull. It is probable that steam was not applied to the bucket dredging apparatus prior to the commence- ment of the present century, nor brought into gen- eral use sooner than ten or twelve years after that period. At the present day, whenever a continued necessity exists for dredging, the steam apparatus is always employed. In plate XXVIII., we have given an elevation and round plan of one of the dredging machines em- ployed on the river Clyde. A short description will be sufficient to render the construction of this ma- chine understood. A is the room in which the steam engine and boilers are contained, the engine being similar in construction to those employed in steam packets. It is furnished with a fly-wheel for the purpose of regulating the motion. There is a spur- wheel, B, with wooden cogs, fixed on the end of the lying shaft, C, C, which receives motion from a wheel on the end of the crank shaft of the engine; but as the lying shaft gives motion to the buckets, and as they may meet with some sudden obstruction, and the machinery thereby receive injury, this wheel is constructed after a peculiar manner to obviate such accidents. The wheel, B, has a large eye ac- curately turned, and made to receive a nave, also accurately turned, and firmly fastened on the lying shaft. The wheel is furnished with pinching plates, by which it may be fastened to the nave, and made tighter or slacker at pleasure, in consequence of which arrangement, when the buckets meet with any sudden obstruction, the nave of the lying shaft will stop, while the cog-wheel revolves, and thus the machinery receives no strain. The lying shaft, C, C, gives motion to the tumbler block, E, by means of the bevil wheel, D. The form of the tumbler block will be easily understood from the enlarged elevation, Fig. 3, and the ground plan of the tumbler block head, Fig. 4. The bucket frame, G, G, is movable on an axis at the head, and suspended by chains, O, O, at the lower end, which pass round the barrel, M, seen in the ground plan, Fig. 2; by turning which, the lower end, where the buckets meet the bed of the river, may be raised or depressed as the depth of the water may require. The buckets are made of iron, pointed with, steel on the cutting edges, and are fastened to two strong iron endless chains which pass round the tumbling blocks at the top and bottom of the bucket frame, G, G. The tumbler at the top is four-sided, that at the bottom has five sides. K is a barrel, round which the chain attached to the anchor is wound. The punt, H., on which the mud, gravel, &c. falls, is seen at the stern of the vessel. Nine men are required to work one of these dredging machines, and it is stated that those machines will raise, on an average, about 80 tons in an hour. This will vary with the nature of the bed of the river, there being more or less according as the bot- tom consists of gravel or clay. § DRESIDEN. '73 DRESIDEN, one of the finest places of Germany, 1 tilguished. Of the French school, there are many the residence of the kings of Saxony, is situated in he circle of Meissen, on the Elbe, which separates Dresden Proper from the Neustadt (New Town). Its population is above 55,000 inhabitants. It con- sists of the Royal Residence or Dresden Proper, and the Neustadt (so called since 1732, and handsomely built since the time of Augustus II., formerly Old Dresden), and of Friederichstadt (formerly Ostra, laid out since 1670). Among the objects worthy of notice are, the stone bridge across the Elbe, 552 feet long, consisting of 16 arches, with a raised foot- path of flag stones, round stone seats, and an iron railing ; the equestrian statue of Augustus II., erected in 1736, in the Neustadt, made of gilt bronze; the Catholic church for the court, and several pic- tures ; among others, the Ascension of Christ, by Mengs; the famous gallery of pictures; the royal library, and the cabinet of antiques, together with a Collection of porcelain, and the first attempts of Bott- cher; the gallery of the casts of Mengs (besides the antiques); the cabinet of natural history; the arsenal, and the cabinet of works of art; the great garden; the garden of Bruhl, with a small collection of pictures. In the vicinity of Dresden, the Plauensche Grund (valley of Plauen) and the vale of Seifersdorf are well known to the lovers of nature. Besides these, may be mentioned the royal summer residence, Pilnitz; the fortress of Konigstein; the Sonnenstein (at present an insane hospital); the Saxon Switzer. land; and the heights of Kesselsdorf, rendered fa- mous by a battle in the seven years' war. The city suffered much in this war. In 1760, it was bom- barded by Frederic the Great, nine days, and has been frequently exposed to the devastations of war. The importance of its situation occasioned the build- ing of a fort, probably as early as the ninth century. The Austrians occupied the city in 1809 without injuring it. In the following years they commenced pulling down the fortifications, but desisted from it on the breaking out of the Russian war. , Marshal Davoust caused a pier and two arches of the bridge to be blown up (March 19, 1813), which the Russian government rebuilt in 1814. The campaign of 1813 was most ruinous for the city and its environs. After mine years of war and suffering, on the 7th of June, 1815, peace and industry returned to the German Florence, as Herder calls Dresden. Since that time, dwelling-houses, gardens, and parks, have taken the place of the former fortifications. The city is also distinguished for its excellent literary institutions, among which are the surgical and medi- cal academy, and a veterinary school, which is Con- nected with it; the military academy; the academy for noblemen, established since 1725; the academy of fine arts, with a school for architecture. The last academy, enlarged since 1763, has a branch in Leipsic, and an exhibition yearly (3d of August). We may here say a few words on the collections of art. The gallery of pictures, one of the finest in the world, was begun very early, but first became of much importance under Augustus II., king of Poland, and elector of Saxony. It owes its most valuable treasures, however, to Augustus III., a pro- digal monarch, who exhausted his country by his extravagances. He purchased the gallery of pic- tures of Modena for 912,000 dollars, and many single pictures; among them Raphael's masterpiece, the Madonna di Sisto. The gallery is rich in pic- tures of the different schools, with the exception of the old German. From the Dutch School there are, among others, 30 Rubens, 18 Van Dykes, many Rembrandts, Ostades, Gerard Dows, Tenniers, Wou- vermanns, &c. Of the old German school, Hol- bein’s Madonna, a sublime work, is particularly dis- Claude Lorraines, Poussins, Le Bruns, and others. Of the Italian school, the gallery is rich in pictures of Coreggio, including his famous Night; of Ra- phael, the Madonna di Sisto, the Madonna della Seggiola, and others. There are also works of Leonardo da Vinci, Giulio Romano, Andrea del Sarto Battoni, Titian (his famous Venus), Garo- falo, Paul Veronese, Guido Reni, Carracci, Carlo Dolce, and every distinguished Italian painter.— There are 150 pieces in pastel. This collection is liberally open every day to all visitors. Six pieces of tapestry, from designs by Raphael, a present from pope Leo X., which were lost, have lately been found again. The gallery of pictures in the garden of Bruhl is likewise valuable. The Au- gusteum, or collection of antiques, was commenced as early as the 16th century. It contains some ex- cellent statues, among which are distinguished three female figures from Herculaneum. The cabinet of engravings is one of the richest in the world. It contains 200,000 pieces, and the rarest productions of the art. The cabinet of casts contains copies of all the most important antiques, made under the di- rection of Raphael Mengs, in Italy. The collection of porcelain is valued at several millions. Dresden being thus rich in treasures of art, and favoured by a beautiful natural situation, is the summer resort of many foreigners, especially since the artificial mineral waters have been prepared in the beautiful garden of Struve. - Dresden was the centre of operations in the contest of 1813, when almost all the powers of Europe were arrayed against Napoleon. Besides the political importance of Dresden a8 a capital, the possession of the Elbe, by means of the fortresses of Torgau, Wittenberg, and Magdeburg, was another motive which induced Napoleon to place himself with his whole army a cheval (that is, on both sides) of the river; and the whole neighbourhood resembled a great fortified camp, from which he could pour out his columns, with equal ease, on Prague, Breslau, or Berlin. . The king of Saxony had left his capital, Feb. 7, 1813. March 7, a division of French and Saxons, con- sisting of only 3500 men, pursued on their retreat from Poland by the Russian light troops, entered Dresden. The 12th, mar- shal Davoust, with 12,000 men and 20 cannon, marched from Meissen, where he had burnt the bridge, to Dresden. The Cossacks kept up a continual skirmishing before the Neustadt. The 19th, marshal Davoust left Dresden with his corps, with the exception of a garrison of 3000 men, under general Durutte. 'I'he Neustadt was surrendered on the 22d, to a division of Cos- sacks. A few days after, several hundred Cossacks swam across the Elbe, and Durutte left Dresden to the Russians, un- der Winzingerode, who was followed by the army of Blucher, which passed the Elbe, April 16th, at Dresden. The second Russian army, under Miloradowitsch, followed, and, after the entry of the emperor Alexander and the king of Prussia, another division of 16,000 men. May 2d was fought the bloody battle of Lutzen, after which the two sovereigns returned to Dresden, and their troops crossed, without interruption, to the right bank of the Elbe, by Meissen and Dresden. May 8th, the Russians occupied only the Neustadt, and the French army under Napoleon, entered Dresden. On this and the fol: lowing day, a violent firing was begun from the walls and houses. On the morning of the 10th, the allies retreated to Bautzen, closely followed by the French. The country was devastated, and many villages burnt down. The king of Sax: ony returned, May 12. The French were actively employed in fortifying the Neustadt. After the battles of Bautzen, Wurschen, and Hochkirch (19th, 20th, and 21st of May), there were more than 20,000 wounded men to be provided for in Dresden : the slightly wounded, and many of the sick, were distributed in the houses of the citizens. The distress of the city was increased during the armistice of ten weeks, during which nearly 30,000 soldiers had to be provided for. A forti- fied camp, connected, by two bridges, with the fortress of Konigstein, and capable of containing 60,000 men, was laid out at the foot of the Lilienstein. On the right bank, the works round the Neustadt covered the roads to Berlin, Warsaw, and Bautzen; another extensive line of retrenchments surrounded the suburbs of the old city, round which large bodies of troops encamped on both banks. At this time, Metternich and Bubna came to Dresden, but the negotiations were broken off, and the war was renewed the 17th of August. Dresden was the centre of operations of the French army. August 15th, Na- poleon passed through Bautzen to Silesia; and Vandamme, with 40,000 men from the Lower Elbe, passed to the right bank of the Elbe, between the 17th and 19th, and moved, with Poniatowski, towards Rumburg and Gabel on the frontiers of Bohemia, But the grand army of the allies, under princa Schwarzenberg, unexpectedly advanced, in four divisions, from the passes of ºft Bohemian mountains, on the left bank of the 732 Elbe. The Russians, under Wittgenstein, drove marshal St Cyr, with his 20,000 men, from the strong positions of Giess- hübel and Pirna. Whilst Blucher occupied Napoleon on the frontiers of Silesia, the principal force of the allies advanced to the great line of communication of the French in Saxony; and it was resolved to take Dresden. The Russians and Prussians, under Wittgenstein and Kleist, now advanced from Pirna ; but the Austrians were obliged to take a longer route, upon the road of Commotau. Couriers were dispatched with the information to Napoleon, who immediately returned to Dres- den. The 25th, the allies surrounded the city. On this day, the allied army was wholly united before Dresden, and, includ- ing the reserve, consisted of 120,000 men. Napoleon advanced, with the flower of his army, by forced marches, and entered the city on the 26th, with part of his guards, after having dispatched Vandamme in the direction of Pirna. Between noon and even- ing, more than 60,000 men had marched from the Bautzen road, through the city, to the field of battle. About four o’clock in the afternoon, after the whole body of the guard, and the cav- alry under Latour-Maubourg, had passed the Elbe, the allies advanced to the city in six columns. The Prussians drove the young guard to the walls of Anton's garden, where the latter were driven back by the balls of their own comrades, and obliged to renew the combat. At the same time, the city was bom- barded. In the evening the French undertook a general at- tack. . The guards, supported by sixteen cannon, drove the Prussians out of the suburbs, and the allies perceived the im- possibility of taking a city defended by 100,000 men, and strongly fortified. At might they withdrew their forces into their former position upon the heights. August 27, the French were re-enforced by the corps of Marmont and Victor. Napo- leon made several ineffectual attacks on the centre of the allies; and here Moreau (q.v.) was mortally wounded by a cannon ball, at no great distance from the emperor Alexander. About noon, the king of Naples (Murat), with the columns under Victor, and the French and Saxon cavalry under La- tour-Maubourg, succeeded in Surrounding and overpowering the Austrians. More than 10,000 men, with general Mesko, were made prisoners. Meanwhile the commander of the allies, hear- ing that Vandamme had passed the Elbe, mear Konigstein, on the 25th, and was advancing towards Pirna, decided on a re- treat, which was accomplished in the night. The king of Naples pursued only to Marienburg. The allies lost, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 30,000 men. The French, in these two bloody days, had more than 10,000 men wounded : the number of killed was considerable, but cannot be given exactly. There were now twenty-four hospitals in the city. After the 27th August, the star of Napoleon declined. The news of Oudinot's defeat near Grossbeeren (q.v.), of the defeat of Macdonald on the Katzbach (q.v.), and the defeat of Vandamme, near (q.v.), rapidly followed each other. The marches and coun- termarches of the French army now caused great injury in the vicinity of Dresden. Three new retrenchments were thrown up before the Altstadt, Meissen was to form an outwork of Dresden, and the French army seemed to be able to bid defi- ance to the allies from their strong position. The allied army advanced anew from Bohemia. The defeat of Ney at Denne- witz (q. v.), September 6th, and the advance of Blucher, on the 10th, towards Herrnhut, compelled the French emperor to retire from the frontiers of Bohemia to Dresden, and to turn upon the right bank of the Elbe. These marches devastated the country, and turned it into a desert. The 14th, Napoleon ad- vanced again towards the frontiers of Bohemia, and penetrated, on the 15th, to Culm ; but his guards were driven back at Nol- lendorf, with considerable loss, by Colloredo, on the 16th : on the 21st, he returned to Dresden. The Austrians occupied Freyburg on the 17th: detachments from the army of the crown prince of Sweden advanced to Leipsic, and Blucher formed a unction with Bubna. Napoleon drove back the Prussians to autzen, but was on the 24th again in Dresden. He mow en- tirely abandoned the right bank of the Elbe, and concentrated his forces on the left. The 28th and 29th, the allies attacked the bridge at Meissen without success. The forces of Napo- leon marched through Freyburg towards Chemnitz, and through Rossen towards Leipšic. The unexpected passage of Blucher over the Elbe, at Wartenburg (3d of October), de- cided the march of Napoleon from Dresdén (October 7). The king of Saxony followed him. (See Leipsic, Battle of.) About 30,000 men, under St Cyr and the count von der Lobau, remained in the vicinity of Dresden. Bubna Stormed, on the 8th, the bridge of Pirna, and the allies attacked the outworks of the Neustadt. At the same time, 16,000 Russians under Tolstoi, Iwanoff, and Markoff, approached Dresden, to cover the march of Benningsen towards Leipsic. On the 17th, St Cyr drove Tolstoi back to Dohna, with a loss of six cannons, and some hundred men on the side of the Russians; but, on the 20th, the Russians obliged the marshal to retreat towards Dresden, which was now entirely surrounded, as the Austrian generals Chasteler and Klemau had joined Tolstoi on the 20th. The city, which was cut off from all supplies, suffered more and more from want of provisions. St Cyr, however, prepared for the most obstimate resistance ; he barricaded the suburbs, converted a number of dwelling-houses into block-houses, and destroyed most of the gardens round the city. November 6, 10,000 infantry and 1000 cavalry, under the count von der Lobau, with 200 waggons, marched out from the Neustadt, on their way towards Torgau; but they were driven back near Reichenberg, by the prince of Wied-Runkel, and returned to the city in the evening. Famine and disease raged among the soldiers and inhabitanst. More than 200 corpses were daily carried from the hospitals, and from 200 to 300 deaths occurred every week in the city. No- vember 11, articles of capitulation were agreed to by Klemau, but hut ratified by prince Schwarzenberg. The garrison were made DRESIDEN–DROPSY. prisoners of war. 6000 sick remained in the hospitals. Dresden received a strong Russian garrison, and became the seat of the Russian administration, under the prince Repnin. The excel- lence of Napoleon's tactics was never, perhaps, displayed to greater advantage than in the battle of Dresden, a masterpiece of military skill. DRINK. Before the invention of wine, when mankind quenched their thirst only with pure water or milk, diseases must have been rare, as the period of human life was materially abridged after the deluge, when the use of wine and fermented liquors had become general. The Moors appear to have introduced the practice of distillation into Europe, and from the use of ardent spirits may be traced much of the crimes and misery which afflict human society at the present era. See Dietetics. DRESS. See Clothing. DROGHEDA, a town in the province of Leinster, Ireland, situated on the banks of the river Boyne, about five miles from its mouth, and thirty miles north of Dublin. It is a place of considerable importance in the annals of Ireland. (See Ireland.) Population in 1831, 17,365. DROMED ARY. See Camel. DROPSY ; a preternatural collection of serous or watery fluid in the cellular substance, or different cavities of the body. It receives different appellations, according to the particular situation of the fluid. When it is diffused through the cellular membrane, either generally or partially, it is called anasarca : when it is deposited in the cavity of the cranium, it is called hydrocephalus ; when in the chest, hydro- thoraw, or hydrops pectoris ; when in the abdomen, ascites; in the uterus, hydrometra; and within the scrotum, hydrocele. The causes of these diseases are a family disposition thereto, frequent salivations, excessive and long con- tinued evacuations, a free use of spirituous liquors (which never fail to destroy the digestive powers), scirrhosities of the liver, spleen, pancreas, mesentery, and other abdominal viscera; preceding diseases, as the jaundice, diarrhoea, dysentery, phthisis, asthma, gout, intermittents of long duration, scarlet fever, and some of the easanthemata ; a suppression of accus- tomed evacuations, the sudden striking in of erup- tive humours, ossification of the valves of the heart, polypi in the right ventricle, aneurism in the arteries, tumors making a considerable pressure on the neigh- bouring parts, permanent obstruction in the lungs, rupture of the thoracic duct, exposure for a length of time to a moist atmosphere, laxity of the exhalants, defect in the absorbents, topical weakness, and gen- eral debility. The first of these species which we shall describe is ascites (from &zzès, a sack or bottle; so called from its bottle-like protuberancy), or dropsy of the belly, a tense, but scarcely elastic, swelling of the abdomen from accumulation of water. Ascites is often preceded by loss of appetite, sluggishness, dryness of the skin, oppression of the chest, Cough, diminution of the natural discharge of urine, and costiveness. After the swelling has com- menced, it increases until the whole belly be- comes uniformly swelled and tense. The disten sion and sense of weight vary somewhat with the position of the body, being greatest on the side on which the patient lies. As the collection of water becomes more considerable, the difficulty of breath- ing is much increased, the countenance exhibits a paie and bloated appearance, an immoderate thirst comes on, the skin is dry and parched, and the urine is very scanty, thick, and high coloured, and depo- sites a lacteritious sediment. The pulse is variable, being sometimes considerably quicker, sometimes slower than natural. The operation of tapping should be performed only where the distension is very great, and the respiration or other important T}ROPSY-DROU AIS. functions impeded; and it will often be best not to draw off the whole fluid at once. Great care must be taken, also, to keep up a sufficient pressure, by a broad bandage over the abdomen, as even fatal syn- cope has arisen from the neglect of this. The con- traction of the muscles will be promoted by friction. The remedies for this disease are cathartics, dieuret- ics, gentle friction of the abdomen with oil, &c. Tonic medicines, a nutritious diet, and, if the Com- plaint appears giving way, such exercise as the patient can take without fatigue, with other means of s .# the general health, ought not to be neglected. Another species of dropsy is called anasarca, (from &va, through, and r&gé, flesh). It is occasioned by a serous humour, spread between the skin and flesh, or rather by a general accumulation of lymph in the cellular system. This species of dropsy shows itself at first by a swelling of the feet and ankles towards the º which, for a time, disappears again in the morning. The tumefaction is soft and inelastic, and, when pressed upon by the finger, retains its mark for some time, the skin becoming much paler than usual. By degrees, the swelling ascends, and occupies the trunk of the body; and, at last, even the face and eyelids appear full and bloated: the breathing then becomes difficult, the urine is small in quantity, high- coloured, and deposits a reddish sediment; the belly is costive, the perspiration much obstructed, the countenance yellow, and a considerable degree of thirst, with emaciation of the whole body, prevails. To these symptoms succeed torpor, heaviness, a troublesome cough, and a slow fever. In some cases, the water oozes out through the pores of the cuticle; in others, being too gross to pass through them, it raises the cuticle in small blisters; and sometimes the skin, not allowing the water to escape through it, is compressed and hardened, and is, at the same time, so much distended as to give the tumor a con- siderable degree of firmness. In some few cases, the disease goes off by a spontaneous crisis, by vomiting, purging, &c. Where the quantity of fluid collected is such as to disturb the more important functions, the best mode of relieving the patient is to make a few small incisions with a lancet, not too near each other, through the integuments on the fore and upper part of each thigh; the discharge may be assisted by pressure. In the use of issues or blisters, there is Some risk of inducing gangrene, especially if applied to the legs; and the same has happened from Scari- fications with the cupping instrument. Absorption may be promoted by friction, and bandaging the parts, which will, at the same time, obviate further effusion; but most powerfully by the use of different evacuating remedies, especially those which occasion a sudden considerable discharge of fluids. Emetics have been often employed with advantage; but it is necessary to guard against weakening the stomach by the frequent repetition of those which produce much nausea. Cathartics are of much greater and more general utility. Diuretics are universally proper. Tigitalis is often a very powerful remedy. Opium, and some other narcotics, have been occasionally useful. In the use of diuretics, the patient should not be re- stricted from drinking freely. It is very desirable to promote evacuation iy the skin. Sometimes much relief is obtained by promoting perspiration, locally, by means of the vapour bath. Mercury has been much employed. Regular exercise, such as the patient can bear the limbs being properly supported, especially by a well-contrived laced stocking), ought to be enjoined, or diligent friction of the skin, particularly of the affected parts, employed when the tumefactionis 733 usually least, namely, in the morning. The cold bath duly regulated, may also, when the patient is conval- escent, materially contribute to obviate a relapse. The next species of dropsy which we shall consi- der, is hydrocephalus (from Öoe, water, and x802×n, the head); hydrocephalum, hydrencephalus ; dropsy of the brain, dropsy of the head, It is sometimes of a chronic nature, when the water has been known to increase to an enormous quantity, effecting a separa- tion of the bones of the head, and an absorption of the brain. Pain in the head, particularly across the brow, stupor, dilatation of the pupils, nausea, vomiting, preternatural slowness of the pulse, and convulsions, are symptoms of this disease. Hydrocephalus is almost peculiar to children, being rarely known to extend beyond the age of twelve or fourteen; and it seems more frequently to arise in those of a scrofu- lous and ricketty habit than in others. It is an af- fection which has been observed to pervade families, affecting all or the greater part of the children at a certain period of their life; which seems to show that, in many cases, it depends more on the general habit, than on any local affection, or accidental cause. The disease has generally been supposed to arise in con- sequence either of injuries done to the brain itself, by blows, falls, &c., from scirrhous tumours or excres- cences within the skull, from original laxity or weak- ness in the brain, or from general debility and an impoverished state of the blood. With respect to its proximate cause, very opposite opinions are still entertained by medical writers, which, in conjunction with the equivocal nature of its symptoms, prove a Source of considerable embarrassment to the young practitioner. When recoveries have taken place in hydrocephalus, we ought, probably, to attribute more to the efforts of nature than to the interference of art. It is always to be regarded as of difficult cure. The treatment should be prompt and active. The inflammatory action should be lessened, and then absorption promoted. After taking some blood by bleeding or by leeches, the torpid bowels are to be evacuated by some active cathartic, and their activity kept up, in the progress of the complaint, by calomel or some other mercurial preparation. Mercury also contributes powerfully torouse the absorbents. After the bowels are cleared, some evaporating lotion is to be applied to the shaved scalp, and the antiphlogis- tic regimen observed. Sudorific medicines will gene- rally be proper, assisted by the warm bath. Blisters may be applied to the temples, behind the ears, or to the nape of the neck. If the progress of the disease is arrested, the strength is to be established by a nutritious diet and tonic medicines. - DROSKY; a kind of light, four-wheeled carriage, used by the Russians. It is not covered, and its side seats contain a greater or less number of persons. The lower wheels are covered with wings, which keep off the mud. DROSOMETER ; an instrument for ascertaining the quantity of dew which falls. It consists of a balance, one end of which is furnished with a plate fitted to receive the dew, the other containing a weight protected from it. , DROUAIS, JoHN GERMAIN ; the most distin- guished French painter of the school of David, was born at Paris, in 1763. His desire of going to Rome to study the great works of art, induced him to enter the lists for the great prize, which con- sisted of a pension for four years; but, being dis- satisfied with his work, he destroyed it, and left the prize to another. When reproached for this by his master, who saw with surprise the remains of his picture, he said, “Are you satisfied with me?” * Perfectly,” answered David. “Well, then, I have gained the prize,” returned Drouais; “this was my 734 aim ; the prize of the academy belongs to another, to whom it may be more useful than it would have been to me; the next year I hope to deserve it by a better work.” In 1784, Drouais again entered the lists. The Canaanitish woman at the feet of Jesus was the fruit of his study. He was publicly crowned, and led in triumph, by his fellow students, to their master. He accompanied him as a pensioner to Rome, where he studied and copied the greatest masters. His Dying Gladiator, and, particularly, his Marius at Minturnac, on being exhibited in Paris, gained him and David's school a new triumph. He now sketched his Philoctetes at Lemnos; but his career was suddenly checked by an inflammatory fever, which put an end to his life before he had com- pleted his 25th year, and while he was engaged on a picture of Caius Gracchus. His rivals and his friends united in erecting a monument to him in St Mary’s church (in the Via Lata). DROWNING is a sort of death caused by im- mersing the exterior opening of the respiratory tube in a liquid. Actual death is often preceded by ap- parent death (asphyxia, q.v.); and it is possible, if this state has not continued too long, to resuscitate a person apparently drowned. This circumstance has led to careful investigations of the nature of drowning, and also, in the neighbourhood of seas and large rivers, to the erection of public institu- tions for the resuscitation of persons apparently drowned. This kind of death furnishes, likewise, a difficult subject for medical jurisprudence, and gives occasion to the inquiry, whether a body found in the water was actually drowned, or whether life was lost in some other way; and great attention has been paid to the marks of this sort of death, which are to be found upon the body. But, notwithstand- ing all this pains, much uncertainty still hangs over the subject. This remark is true, as well of the manner in which death is the consequence of immer- sion, as of the signs of having been drowned, and the means of resuscitating from apparent death. If a person voluntarily immerses his head in water, he perceives a roaring in his ears, a tickling in his nose, a pressure upon his breast, and a kind of stupid feel- ing. If a man, unable to swim, falls into the water, he instinctively makes every exertion to escape from it; he holds his breath, moves his head up and back- wards, lays hold of every solid body which presents itself, and even grapples at the bottom of the water. These struggles continue a longer or shorter time, according to the strength and presence of mind of the unhappy subject: at last, he sinks, exhausted, becomes unconscious, strives to breathe, draws in water, and life is gone. If the body is taken from the water, it is commonly found to be very cold ; the limbs are stiff, the countenance distorted, livid, and often pale, the eyes half open, the pupils enlarged, the mouth filled with foam, the breast and region of the upper stomach expanded. Sometimes the body is still warm, though it cannot be re-animated, the countenance blue and distorted, the veins of the neck much swollen. This takes place when one is drowned in alcohol, or in marshy or warm water, or when a person, in a state of intoxication, or with a full stomach, or a heated body, falls overboard. On opening the body of a person who has been drowned, the epiglottis is found to be raised, bloody foam ap- ears in the wind-pipe and bronchial passages, the ungs are soft and distended, a large quantity of black fluid blood is collected in the right, and less in the left cavity of the heart, a little water is in the stomach, and the vessels of the brain are swelled with blood. Death is sometimes caused by Suffoca- £ion and want of air, and sometimes as in apoplexy : in the latter case, it happens very speedily, and a IDROWNING. little water is sufficient to produce it, if the person falls upon his face. In this case, when the body is opened, the foam in the wind-pipe is wanting, and the vessels of the head are fuller. The various coll- stituents of the water, such as irrespirable gases, contribute also to modify and complicate the mode of death. The following are the methods of treatment re- commended by the London Humane Society for the Recovery of Persons in a State of Suspended Anima- tion. As drowning is, probably, the most frequent accident by which animation is suspended, we give all the rules of the society here, and shall refer from Freezing, Hanging, &c., to this article. Cautions. Lose no time. Avoid all rough usage. Never hold the body up by the feet; nor roll the body on casks; nor rub the body with salts or spirits; nor inject tobacco smoke or infusion of tobacco. Restorative Means. If apparently drowned, send quickly for medical assistance; but do not delay the following means:–Convey the body carefully, with the head and shoulders supported in a raised position, to the nearest house. Strip the body, and rub it dry; then wrap it in hot blankets, and place it in a warm bed, in a warm chamber. Wipe and cleanse the mouth and nostrils. In order to restore the natural warmth of the body, move a heated covered warming pan over the back and spine; put bladders or bottles of hot water, or heated bricks, to the pit of the stomach, the arm-pits, between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet; foment the body with hot flannels; but, if possible, immerse the body in a warm bath, as hot as the hand can bear without pain, as this is preferable to the other means for restor- ing warmth; rub the body briskly with the hand; do not, however, suspend the use of the other means at the same time. In order to restore breathing, introduce the pipe of a common bellows (where the apparatus of the society is not at hand) into one nostril, carefully closing the other and the mouth ; at the same time drawing downwards, and pushing gently backwards, the upper part of the windpipe, to allow a more free admission of air; blow the bellows gently, in order to inflate the lungs, till the breast be a little raised; the mouth and mostrils should then be set free, and a moderate pressure made with the hand upon the chest. Repeat this process till life appears. Electricity to be em- ployed early by a medical assistant. Inject into the stomach, by means of an elastic tube or syringe, half a pint of warm brandy and water, or wine and water. Apply salvolatile or hartshorn to the nostrils.-If ap- parently dead from intense cold, rub the body over with Snow, ice, or cold water. Restore warmth by slow degrees; and after some time, if necessary, em- ploy the means recommended for the drowned. In these accidents, it is highly dangerous to apply heat too early. If apparently dead from hanging, in addi- tion to the means recommended for the drowned, bleed- ing should early be employed by a medical assistant. If apparently dead from noxious vapours, &c., remove the body into a cool, fresh air. Dash cold water on the neck, face, and breast, frequently. If the body be cold, apply warmth, as recommended for the drowned. Use the means as above recommended for inflating the lungs. Let electricity (particularly in accidents from lightning) be early employed by a me- dical assistant.—If apparently dead from intoxication, lay the body on a bed with the head raised; remove the neckcloth, and loosen the clothes. Obtain in- stantly medical assistance, as the treatment must be regulated by the state of the patient; but, in the mean time, apply cloths soaked in cold water to the head, and bottles of hot water, or hot bricks, to the calves of the legs and to the feet.—If apparently dead T}ROZ–DRUMMOND. from apoplexy, the patient should be placed in a cool air, and the clothes loosened, particularly about the neck and breast. Bleeding must be early employed by a medical assistant ; the quantity regulated by the state of the pulse. Cloths soaked in water, spirits, or vinegar and water, should be applied to the head, which should be instantly shaved. All stimu- lants should be avoided.—In cases of coup de soleil, or strokes of the sun, the same means are to be used as in apoplexy. General Observations. On restoration to life, a tea- Spoonful of Warm water should be given; and then, if the power of Swallowing be returned, small quan- tities of warm wine, or weak brandy and water, warm; the patient should be kept in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged, except in cases of intoxication, apoplexy, and coup de soleil. Great care is requisite to maintain the restored vital actions, and, at the Same time, to prevent undue excitement. The treat- ment recommended by the society is to be persevered in for three or four hours. It is an erroneous opinion that persons are irrecoverable, because life does not Soon make its appearance ; and it is absurd to sup- pose that a body must not be meddled with or re- moved without the permission of a coroner. DROZ; the name of three celebrated mechani- ClallS : g” 1. PIERRE-JACQUET, born at Chaux-de-Fond. As- piring to be something more than a mere workman, he endeavoured to perfect the different parts of clock. Work, and succeeded in attaching to common time- pieces, at a small expense, machinery which pro- duced music resembling the chime of bells, and the music of a flute. His attempts to discover the means of effecting a perpetual motion, led him to important discoveries. He contrived, among other things, a pen- dulum, which, being composed of two metals of un- equal dilatability, remained unaffected by heat or cold. He afterwards made his celebrated writing automaton, which, by means of machinery contained within the figure, was made to move its fingers and hands, and to form handsome letters. His last work Was an astronomical clock. He died before this was finished. 2. HENRI-Louis-JACQUET, son of the preceding, born 1752, at Chaux-de-Fond. From his earliest youth, he was employed in mechanical works. At the age of twenty-two, he went to Paris with some of the pro- ducts of his labour; among which was an automaton, representing a young female, which played different tunes on the harpsichord, followed the notes in the music book with her eyes and head, and, having finished playing, rose and saluted the company. In Paris, he caused one of the workmen, taught by his father, to make a pair of artificial hands for a young man who was mutilated, by means of which he was enabled to perform most of the necessary offices for himself. “Young man,” said the famous Vaucanson to Droz, when he saw this work, “you begin where I should be willing to end.” He died 1791, at Naples, where he had gone for the recovery of his health. 3. JEAN-PIERRE, who united himself, in 1783, with Boulton, in Birmingham, for the purpose of striking all the English copper coin. He made for the French mint a stamping machine, which, with one stroke, and less expenditure of power than is required in the usual process, stamps both sides and the rim of coins. DRUIDS. These priests of the Celts, or Gauls, resembled, in many respects, the Bramins of India : they formed a distinct caste, possessing the greatest authority, being the learned men and philosophers of these people, and having also very great authority in the government of the state. Julius Caesar has left more information concerning them than any other Writer. According to him, they performed all pub- joyed his dignity for life. 735 lic and private sacrifices, explained the doctrines of their religion, distributed all kinds of rewards, ad- ministered justice at stated times, and determined the punishment which should be inflicted on offend- ers. Whoever opposed their decisions, was excom- municated by them, and thereby deprived of all share in religious worship. They could even pronounce this curse against a whole people; and, in fact, their power had hardly any limits. They appointed the highest officers in all the cities, and these dared not undertake anything without their advice and direc- tion. They were free from taxes and all public bur- dens. Instruction in religious and all other kinds of knowledge, the art of war alone excepted, was in- trusted entirely to them. They gave oral instruction in the form of verses, which often had a hidden meaning, and which were committed to memory. According to Caesar, they believed in the immortality of the soul, and its transmigration through different bodies. They taught, moreover, the nature and motions of the heavenly bodies, the magnitude of the universe and the earth, the nature of things, and the power of the gods. They also practised astrology, magic, and soothsaying. According to Pliny, they were not ignorant of natural philosophy and physic. * They had a wonderful reverence for the holy mistle- toe (a parasitical plant, which grows, not from the earth, but on other plants, particularly on the oak, and which, even at the present time, is celebrated as a remedy for epilepsy). This they looked upon as the holiest object in nature, and as a panacea : they likewise esteemed the oak sacred, from which cir- cumstance they have derived their name. The Druids had a common superior, who was elected by a ma- jority of votes from their own number, and who en- Their principal seat was in Britain. The temples of the Druids bear a strong resemblance to those of India. DRUM. Instruments which produce a sound by means of a tightly extended skin, are common in almost every part of the world. The tambourine is found among most nations; the ancients called it tympanum. All these instruments are used both for profane and sacred purposes. But the peculiar use of the drum for military purposes seems to have been introduced among the Europeans in the time of the crusades. There are very many different kinds of drums in the East, described by Niebuhr, the father, in his Reisebeschreibung, i. 180, with his well known accuracy. The kettle drum, the base drum, tam- bourine, and other kinds, are all common in the East. The drum, as a military instrument, is used both to beat the march and to give signals. No man, who has not experienced it, can imagine the exciting power of the drum. The fatigued and exhausted soldier is at once animated by its Sound ; and in battle it preserves order, and inspires courage in a body attacking en colonne. The French drummers perform admirably, and, under Napoleon, a great number were attached to each battalion. A drum which has acquired historical celebrity, is that which, by the order of Zisca, was covered with his own skin, that he might still aid in battle, where he had so often commanded, even after he had become blind. DRUMMOND, WILLIAM, of Hawthornden, a poet of the seventeenth century, distinguished for the ele- gance and tenderness of his verses, was born at Haw- thornden House, on the Esk, within seven miles of Edinburgh, 13th December, 1585. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh; after which he spent four years in foreign travels, residing, for a part of the time, at Bourges, to study the civil law. On his return to Scotland, he resigned all idea of the law, and, retiring to his romantic seat of Hawthornden, gave himself up to the cultivation of poetry and polite 736 literature. A dangerous illness fostered a serious and devout turn of mind, which was evinced by his first productions, The Cypress Grove, in prose, containing reflections upon death, and Flowers of Sion, or Spirit- ual Poems. The death of a young lady, to whom he was about to be married, rendered home insupport— able, and drove him again abroad. He remained on the continent eight years. In his forty-fifth year, he was married, and again took up his residence at Haw– thornden. He died in December, 1649, in his sixty- fourth year. As a historian, Drummond is chiefly remarkable for an ornate style, and a strong attach- ment to the high-church principles of the Jacobites. His History of the Reigns of the Five Jameses was published several years after his death. He is now remembered only as a poet. There is much sweetness and melody in his verse, and although tinged with the conceits of the Italian School, there is much genuine imagery and truth of feeling in all his poetry, but par- ticularly in his sonnets, which are replete with ten- derness and delicacy. Various editions of his poems have been published, the most recent of which is that, with his #Life by Peter Cunningham, London, 1833, 12mo. An edition of his whole works was pub- lished at Edinburgh, 1711, folio, under the superin- tendence of Ruddiman. DRUPE ; in botany, a simple succulent fruit, con- taining a hard kernel or stone. Peaches, cherries, &c., are drupes. DRURY LANE THEATRE, one of the princi- pal theatres in London, was established in the reign of James I., under the name of the Phoenia. After the restoration, patents for stage performances were issued, and ten of the actors were called king’s ser- vants, which usage still exists. In 1671, it was burnt down, and was rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren, but again consumed, Feb. 24, 1809, and rebuilt by B. Wyatt, 1811. It was opened with an address com- rºl by lord Byron. The interior was entirely re- built in 1822, and is estimated to be capable of con- taining 3611 persons. DRUSES ; a people of Syria, inhabiting a tract of country about 1165 miles square, in the mountains Libanus and Anti-Libanus. They are about 160,000 in number, 40,000 of whom are able to bear arms. Their pretended descent from the Franks, who came to this region in the time of the crusades, is a fable. Their name is derived from one of their religious teachers. At the end of the sixteenth century, this people began to excite attention in Europe, par- ticularly on account of their religion, concerning which they maintain the utmost secrecy. The sa- cred books of the Druses, which were concealed in the earth, contain doctrines which prove the selfish policy of their authors, and are a disgrace to hu- manity. The layman who should accidentally be- come acquainted with the contents of these books, was punished with death. The doctrines of the Druses are a mixture of those of the Sadducees, the Samaritans, and the Mohammedans. The Druses were formerly governed by many sheiks or lords, but one by the name of Ibrahim contrived to make himself master of the whole nation, and thereby became formidable to the Turks. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Druses, under the renowned emir Fakreddin (usually called Fakardin), reached the summit of their power; but this leader was, in 1631, strangled at Constantinople ; and, al- though other princes were placed over them, they never recovered their former reputation. They en- deavoured, indeed, by the assistance of the Russians, in 1773, to regain their freedom ; but they were soon obliged to become again dependent on the Turks. They are now governed by emirs (princes), who, in their turm, are subject to a grand emir : they are tri- ORUPE—DRUSUS. butaries of the Porte, but are almost entirely inde. pendent, cultivating the soil, and producing wine and silk. Their religion divides the people into wise men (akales, learned or initiated) and secular persons (djabel, or laymen, ignorant, uninitiated). They have no public worship, but they frequent Christian and Mohammedan churches: they have, nevertheless, º symbols and persons devoted to religious Wol- Snip. DRUSUS. There were several distinguished Ro- mans of this name : I. MARcus Livius (B. C. 123) was tribune of the people with Caius Gracchus. He was also the father of Livia, the wife of M. Cato and the mother of Cato of Utica. He opposed the projects of the popular favourite, Caius Gracchus, so strenuously, that the patricians called him the patronus senatus. By his vic- tories in Thrace, he made the Danube the boundary of the republic, was honoured with a triumph, and died in the office of censor, B. C. 110. 2. His son, Marcus Livius (grandfather of Livia, wife of Augustus), was distinguished for his talents, energy, and eloquence; but his zeal often led him to neglect the regular forms of proceeding in the repub- lic, while his extravagant munificence and high opinion of himself sometimes caused him to commit imprudent actions. Rome was then divided by the disputes of the senate and the equestrian order. The power of the latter, which, since the time of the Gracchi, had risen to its utmost height, excited the jealousy of the Senate, who struggled, zealously for their old but now almost lost authority. TXrusus en- deavoured to gain over the people to the party of the senate, by the division of lands, to which the senate agreed with the utmost reluctance, and to gain the Roman allies by the promise of citizenship. He came forward, relying on this assistance, as a mediator be- tween the hostile parties. He proposed to supply the vacant seats of the senators with knights, and to al- low the new magistrates the judicial authority, which, from the time of the Gracchi, had belonged to the knights alone, but before that time, to the senators. He succeeded in this plan, notwithstanding the most violent opposition from both parties. But the jealousy with which each party guarded its rights, and the rash and violent manner in which Drusus had effected the union, rendered him unpopular with both parties. When, therefore, he proposed to grant the right of citizenship to the allies, for their services to the se- nate, that body rejected the proposition decidedly, so that Drusus could effect nothing. On his return to his house from an assembly of the people, accom- panied by a number of the Latins, he was stabbed at his door, by an unknown hand. He died a few hours after, with these words—“When will the republic again possess such a citizen as I have been P” His death (B. C. 93) was the signal for the beginning of the social war, which had been so long threatening. 3. CLAUDIUS NERO, son of Tiberius Nero and of Livia (afterwards wife of the emperor Augustus), and brother of Tiberius, who was afterwards emperor, was sent as questor, with his brother, against the Rhaetians, whom he subdued. He then suppressed an insurrection in Gaul, defeated the Germans who dwelt beyond the Rhine, passed the river, and van- quished the Sicambri and Bructeri, and made the Frisians tributary to the Romans. He was the first Roman general who ventured upon the Northern ocean. After these campaigns, he became pretor (il B. C.), but returned in the next spring to Ger- many, subdued many tribes as far as the Weser, and commenced the erection of fortresses. On this account, he was honoured with an ovation at Rome, and was appointed proconsul; the army saluted him with the title of imperator, which was not, however, DRY ADS—DRYE) EN. sanctioned by Augustus. B. C. 9, he was made consul, but returned soon after to Germany, and pene- trated as far as the Elbe, but was unable to pass the river. He, however, ordered trophies to be erected there, to testify his progress. He died in the same year, while on his return, in the thirtieth year of his age. The canal, uniting the Rhine with the Yssel, was his work; and the place called Drusenheim, in Alsace, where he encamped for some time, received its name from him. By his wife Antonia, he had a daughter, Livia, and two sons, Germanicus and Claudius, who afterwards became emperors. Rome lost, in Drusus, a man equally distinguished in the field and the council, and one of her most virtuous and noble citizens. See A. Benedict Wilhelm's work, Die Feldzuge des Nero Claudius Drusus in dem wordl. Deutschl. (Halle, 1826.) DR YADS; wood-nymphs, in the mythology of the Arcadian Greeks; supposed to be the tutelar deities of trees in groves, particularly of the oak ; hence their name. DRYDEN, JoHN, one of the most eminent English poets, was descended from an ancient family in the north of England. He was born at Aldwinkle All- Saints, Northamptonshire, August 9th, 1631; and received the rudiments of his education at Tichmarsh, in the same county. He was afterwards admitted a king's scholar at Westminster, under the celebrated Dr Bushby, whence he was removed to Trinity col- lege, Cambridge. He left the university without giving any proofs of those talents for poetry for which he was afterwards so much distinguished, unless we may consider as such two or three Small pieces, disfigured by all the false taste of the age. The fa- mily of Dryden were thoroughly tinctured with puri- tanism, and some of its members held situations of considerable distinction in the Protector's court, and he naturally imbibed the opinions of those around him. The first theme for his muse was the Death of Cromwell, but the times were unfavourable for poetry. It is questionable whether this piece made any impression on the public mind. The Restora- tion brought the downfall of Dryden's friends and patrons. Sir Gilbert Pickering, his cousin-german, one of Charles's judges, with whom Dryden lived—in what capacity is not known, it is supposed in that of amanuensis or secretary—was too happy to escape into obscurity. The influence of Sir John Dryden, his uncle, ended at the same time. He was, there- fore, left to find his way to distinction by his own exertions. He joined the Royalist party, and has- tened to congratulate the king by publishing, in 1661, the verses, entitled A Panegyric to his Sacred Ma- jesty. In that age it was considered neither indeli- cate nor improper for a poet to receive gratuities from those to whom his pieces were inscribed. These, with the income of his small patrimonial estate, were probably the only means of livelihood Dryden at that time possessed. He became, there- fore, anxious to form some more certain means of support than was afforded by such occasional contri- hutions, or by literary drudgery to the booksellers. The theatres, which had been early closed by the puritans, now newly opened, after so long a silence, were resorted to with all the ardour inspired $3y novelty, and seemed to offer the most promising reward. He accordingly prepared for representation the Wild Gallant, which was acted in 1662-3, but with- out success. Not cast down by brought forward the Rival Ladies, in 1663, which was well received. His next production was the Indian Emperor, a piece engrafted on the Indian Queen, written, or at least published by Dryden in connexion with his friend Sir Robert Howard, which had been flatteringly received. The Indian Emperor at {{. his failure, he 737 once raised Dryden to the highest pitch of public esti mation, an elevation which he retained till his death. The great fire of London put a stop for some time to theatrical exhibitions. In the interval Dryden published the Annus Mirabilis, an historical account of the events of the year 1666, one of the most elabo- rate of his productions, though not written in his later and more peculiar style of poetry. In 1668, he also published his celebrated Essay of Dramatic Poesy—the first attempt to regulate dramatic writ- ing. The publication of this piece involved him in various controversies, particularly with his brother- in-law, Sir Robert Howard, who was by no means flattered by being, under the name of Crites, made, during the whole of the piece, the champion of un- Successful opinions. They were, however, soon reconciled. The fame of Dryden was now at its height, and so confident was he of the readiness and ease with which he composed, that he entered into a contract with the king's company of players, by which he became bound to produce to them no less than three plays in the course of the year. This was, however, tasking his muse too highly, as he could only produce about half the number contracted for. In 1667, the Maiden Queen, a tragic comedy, was represented, with what success we are not told, though the established fame of its author may war- rant us in supposing it to have been well received. This was followed by the Tempest, an alteration from Shakspeare, in which he was assisted by Sir William Davenant. It was received with general applause, notwithstanding the very questionable taste and pro- priety of the added characters. Dryden was shortly afterwards appointed to the offices of royal historio- grapher and poet-laureat, with a salary of £200 a- year. From this period till 1780, when political partisan- ship was at its height, and the rival factions of Pro- testants and Catholics, each striving for the ascend- ency, had called all their available forces into action, the life of Dryden was passed in dramatic composi- tion, and in repressing the insolences put upon him by the jealousy of the small wits of the day. In this time, he produced about a dozen of plays, mostly with marked success, which was only interrupted by the witty duke of Buckingham's satirical play of The Rehearsal, in which the heroic style of compo- sition was satirized with a power and effect which has seldom been equalled. Long before the period referred to, Dryden had become tired of the uninter- rupted labours of dramatic writing, and the rivalries of Crowne and Settle, and longed for leisure to engage in an epic poem. He had even gone so far as to select a subject: but the taste of the age was against this species of composition; the splendid poem of Milton had fallen on the public ear, “a faint unheeded sound,” and the necessities of Dryden compelled him to incessant labour. Stimulated to exertion by the state of parties, he produced, in 1681, Absalom and Ahithophel, a piece which for powerful yet delicate satire is perhaps unsurpassed by any poem in the language. Its success was so great. that the court party had again recourse to his pen on the release of the earl of Shaftesbury from the tower, and notwithstanding Dryden had already in the poem just mentioned drawn his character with unequalled power and felicity, he again sketched with the same masterly hand the leading points of Shaftesbury's history, in a strain in which the beauty of the poetry added additional force to the satire. In retaliation of the slanders and petty impertinences called forth by these vigorous satires, especially those by one Shad- well, Dryden published, in 1682, Mac Flecknoe, a satire superior in point of execution to either of its predecessors, 3. A 738 The ascension of James II. opened up new sources of hope in the breast of Dryden ; but before proceed- ing farther, it is proper to advert to a circumstance than which no passage in his life has called forth more speculation, we mean his conversion to the Roman Catholic faith—a well grounded cause for suspicion, when it is remembered that it occurred shortly after James, a rigid Catholic, ascended the throne. It will be recollected, that Dryden's family was deeply tinged with puritanism, and that he began life under the patronage of this party. During his connexion with the profigate court of Charles, * e * - e * where everything savouring of puritanism was of course detested, his religious opinions, though they suffered a revulsion, it is probable settled into no very distinct channel. His biographers have, with much ingenuity, attempted to trace the steps by which he was led to the adoption of Roman Catholicism, and to prove that it was the only haven in which, with his views, there was appearance of safety; and if the Sacrifices which his staunch adherence to these doc- trines at the Revolution, when others of higher name changed their principles without reproach, and when adherence to them was a heavy disqualification, may be taken as evidence of his sincerity, it can hardly be questioned that Dryden was from conviction a sincere Roman Catholic. At court the new convert was received with open arms; a considerable addition was made to his pension, and his pen was put in requisition to defend the cause which he had adopted. The Hind and the Panther, a polemical poem, which affords the best specimen of the peculiar beauties of his style and its blemishes, and which raised the voice of the nation against him as the avowed defen- der of James's attempts at establishing arbitrary power, was his first production. It went rapidly through several editions, which is rather to be attri- buted to the fame of the author, and to the adventi- tious circumstances in which it was published, than to any disposition to acquiesce in its arguments. The hopes of Dryden were again blasted by the revolution; he was deprived of the offices of poet- laureat and historiographer, which were bestowed on his despised opponent Shadwell, a wretched poet, with perhaps just sufficient power of rhyme to vindi- cate his claim to the honours of the laurel. Deprived of the certain income which these offices secured him, at least during the reign of James, Dryden again turned his attention to dramatic composition. The unpopularity of the party with which he had connected himself, his unfortunate religious tenets, and the exertions his enemies were making for the ruin of his reputation, made him pause ere he again ventured on the stage, and caused him to bestow more care on his next piece than was usual with him. This was his tragedy of Don Sebastian, which has been regarded as the chef-d'aºuvre of his plays. It was at first coolly received, though brought out with great splendour, and it was not tú several retrench. ments and alterations were made, that it rose to that high place in public estimation which it so long maintained. His last play, Love Triumphant, was acted in 1692; it met with a very unfavourable recep- tion, and is in truth the worst of all Dryden's com- positions. In the course of the same year, he pub- lished, in conjunction with Congreve, Creech, and others, a translation of Juvenal and Persius. Dryden translated Persius, and about a third part of Juve- mal, prefixing to the whole an essay on satire. We now come to the production on which much of i) ryden's fame depends, his translation of Virgil. {}n the announcement of his purpose of translating the Mantuan bard, the undertaking was hailed as a national one. Men of learning supplied various editions of the author, and contributed to his assist- DRY DEN. ance in other ways; nor was the public backward in lending their aid. The subscription lists contained the names of most of the noble and learned in the land. It appeared in 1697, and so eagerly was it sought after, that a new edition was called for in the course of the first six months. This great work, which was the fruit of about three years’ labour, has been pronounced by Pope, a competent judge, “the most noble and splendid in any language.” As if increase of years brought no abatement of poetic feeling, Dryden, now in his sixty-sixth year, had hardly finished Virgil, when he distinguished himself by his immortal ode to St Cecilia, commonly known by the name of Alexander's Feast. The space of time occupied in the composition of this noble ode, which was written for the stewards of the musical meeting, to celebrate the feast of their patro- ness St Cecilia, has been the source of much dispute, one party insisting that it was a work of time, in support of which they quote I)ryden's letters, which seem to give some countenance to the supposition. Dr Birch, indeed, says, that Dryden himself observes in an original letter of his, not now to be found, that he was employed almost a fortnight in composing and correcting it; while the other, on the authority of lord Bolingbroke, state that it was completed at one sitting. “These accounts are not, however,” says Sir Walter Scott, whose dictum must in a case of this kind have all the force of decision, “so contradictory as they may at first sight appear. It is possible that Dryden may have completed at one sit- ting the whole ode, and yet have employed a fort- night or much more in correction.” It may be mentioned, in proof of the indomitable spirit of Dryden, that even now, bowed down by age and ill health, he should contemplate a translation of Homer. The first book was even completed as a specimen, by which, says the poet, in a letter to Halifax, in 1699, “I find him a poet more according to my genius than Virgil, and consequently, I hope, I may do him more justice in his fiery way of writing.” In the mean time, he employed himself in the compo- sition of his Fables, imitations of Boccaccio and Chaucer, which were published early in 1700. He survived their publication only a few months. He died May 1st, 1700, in the sixty-ninth year of his age. As if to make amends for their neglect during his life, the great and the noble now hastened to show every mark of respect to his memory. His body was removed to the Physicians' Hall, where it lay embalmed for twelve days; it was then conveyed, with considerabie state, to Westminster Abbey, and deposited between. the graves of Chaucer and Cowley. In 1665, Dryden married lady Elizabeth Howard, eldest daughter of the earl of Berkshire, and sister to his friend Sir Robert Howard. How much this added to his happiness may be questioned. . Her ladyship's temper was imperious and haughty ; indeed, her wayward disposition—the effect of a disturbed ima- gination—shortly after Dryden's death degenerated into absolute insanity, in which state she remained till her death in 1714. By her ladyship he had three Sons, none of whom survived him ten years. The personal appearance of Dryden ought not to be omitted. In youth, he was eminently handsome ; but as he advanced in years, he became corpulent and florid, which procured him, from the witty and profligate earl of Rochester, the nickname of Poet Squab. In society he was modest, reserved, and taciturn ; his whole demeanour was characterized by a mildness which was not to be expected from his powers of satire. As a poet, Dryden stands very high—second only to Shakspeare and Milton. What was said of Rome, adorned by Augustus, has been applied by Johnson to English poetry, improved by DRY-ROT-DUBLIN. Pryden—he found it of brick, and left it of marble. in his hands it lost the harshness which distinguishes the writings of Donne and of Cowley, and nearly ap- proached the harmonious numbers, the flowing ver- sification of Pope. In Alexander's Feast, he at ence raised the Ode to its highest elevation, denuded it of the cerements in which his predecessors had bound it, and, in language simple and harmonious, conveys ideas of the most lofty and striking descrip- tion. The power of his satire is unrivalled. While the lesser poets of the day were encumbering it with foul invective, he struck out a new path in the art. His fine and delicate raillery cut deep, when the coarse weapons of his rivals would not penetrate the surface. Of his powers as a tragic poet, his Don Sebastian affords the best example. His comedies are unfortunately stained by the license of the age : they possess, in general, a certain heaviness of cha- racter, a continuous flow of wit was not to be looked for from one who wrote rather for subsistence than from any peculiar taste for this species of composi- tion. Indeed, he himself complained that he was “forced upon composing comedies, to gratify the taste of the age, while the bent of his genius was otherwise directed.” Of recent editions of Dryden's works, we may re- fer to the prose works, by Malone (1800, 4 vols. 8vo); his poetical works, edited by Todd, with notes by Warton (1812, 4 vols. 8vo) ; and the whole of his works, by Sir Walter Scott (1818, 18 vols. 8vo). DRY-ROT; a term or name applied to a rapid decay of any vegetable matter, when it has the ap- pearance of being tolerably dry, but, in general, is applied only to timber when in that state, and is so named in contradistinction to the common mode of decay, by being exposed to the alternate states of wet and dry. There are a great number of causes for this species of decay : some are quite simple, others are very complicated ; yet, whatever may be the original cause, simple or compound, the effects are the Same, namely, to render the timber useless, by destroying its elasticity and toughness, rendering it insufficient to resist any considerable pressure, and, indeed, for any of the useful purposes to which timber is applied. When timber is in a tolerably dry State, any means which will absorb or extract its oxygen from the other component parts, will leave it in the state commonly called dry rotten. Moist, warm situations, with little or no current of air, are the most likely to generate this evil. The effluvia from timber in such a state of decay will rapidly carry its effects to the circumjacent timber, however dry it may appear; and any sort of timber will be, in a very little time, rendered quite useless. When timber is exposed to any considerable degree of moisture and heat, fungi of various shapes and tex- ture, according to the species of timber, and other causes, will appear upon it; and although this fungous matter be really an effect of the dry-rot, yet it is as truly a cause of the same evil. There are no means of restoring rotten timber to a sound state, and the dry-rot can only be cured, as it is called, by removing the decayed and affected parts, clearing away . the fungi, and destroying its vegetating, principle, with which the hard materials, such as bricks or stone, may have been impregnated. For this purpose, a strong solution of iron, copper, or Zinc, is used with advantage. This, with the admis- Sion of a large quantity of air, is very advantageous. Many persons have written on the subject; and the nostrums proposed are as numerous as their authors. But no means of checking the evil can be depended upon, except that of removing the corrupted and con- tagious matter, and admitting a free circulation of air. Much also may be done by cutting timber in 739 winter, and properly seasoning it, by steeping it in water for some time, and then thoroughly drying it before it is used in building. DSHAMY; a Persian poet. See Jami. DSHINGIS KHAN. See Gengis Khan. DUAL, in grammar; that number which is used, in some languages, to designate two things, whilst another number (the plural) exists to express many. The dual, in some languages, is a firmly established grammatical form, as in the Attic dialect ; in other languages, it is used only in certain cases, with cer- tain words, or only faint traces of it are to be recog- mised. The Sanscrit has a dual number. Of modern languages which have a literature, Arabic is the only idiom which has retained it. That copious language has a dual, to designate two things; a particular plural form, to express from three to nine objects : the plural, for several of any number whatever ; and the plural-plural, formed from the plural (though only in some words), to designate ten or any larger Or indefinite number. Even for substantives which express a number of things, as a species of animals or plants, the Arabians have a characteristical singu- lar, of which also a plural may be made. See Sil- vestre de Sacy's Grammaire Arabe, tom. i., pp. 702, 704, 710. In the American languages, traces of the dual are very often met with, from Greenland to Araucania. See William Vom Humboldt's Discourse {Jeber den Dualis, read in the academy of Sciences at Berlin, April 26, 1827, printed at Berlin, 1828; a treatise which does not pretend to exhaust the Sub- ject, but will assist a scholar in making further in- vestigations. DUALISM ; DUALIST. 1. Dualism is the phi- losophical exposition of the nature of things by the adoption of two dissimilar primitive principles, not derived from each other: such, for instance, are the ideal and the real, or the material and the thinking substance. Dualism may be either dogmatical, or critical, or sceptical. In a stricter sense, dualism is confined to (a) the adoption of two fundamental beings, a good and an evil one, as is dome in the Oriental religions; (b), to the adoption of two different principles in man, viz., a spiritual and a corporeal principle: this is called the psychological dualism. He who embraces this view is called a dualist. Op- posed to the system of dualism is monism, which is either idealism or realism, spiritualism or materialism. 2. In theology, dualism is the doctrine of those who maintain that only certain elected persons are capable of admission to eternal happiness, and that all the rest will be subjected to eternal condemnation. DUBLIN, the metropolis of Ireland, is situated in the province of Leinster and county of Dublin, within a mile of the bay of that name, which is of a circular form, and about six miles in diameter, and into which the river Liffey runs, after dividing the city, through which its course is nearly west to east, into equal parts. Though spacious, this bay is neither commod- ious nor safe, particularly in winter. Its defects are, in part, remedied by a magnificent wall of stone, which runs out into the bay the distance of 8564 yards, and is terminated by a light-house. On the opposite side of the harbour is another light-house, together with a pier and harbour; and, lately, a pier has been begun at Dunleary, a village on the south side of the bay, and two and a half miles within its mouth. From the point of Ringsend, where the Liffey enters the bay, it is embanked on either side with a noble wall of freestone, forming a range of beautiful and spacious quays through the whole city. The river is crossed in its course through the city by seven stone bridges. Dublin is, besides, nearly insulated by two canals, which give great advantages for inland com- munication. The houses, with the exception of the 3 A 2 740 principal public structures, are generally brick, and from three to five stories high. the city, the streets are irregular, although those which range parallel to, and at right angles with, the Liffey, are uniform and capacious. Few cities of its size can boast of a greater number of magnificent and useful buildings. The castle, which was completed and flanked with towers in 1213, is situated about the centre of the city, and is the seat of government. The castle chapel, recently rebuilt, is an exquisite specimen of Gothic architec- ture. The other public buildings are, the royal ex- change, the commercial buildings, the corn exchange or burgh-quay, the linem hall, the custom-house (in front 375 by 209 feet), the stamp-office, the post- office, and the parliament house (now converted into the national bank). the custom-house are the government wet docks; and adjacent to the post-office is Nelson's pillar, raised to the height of 130 feet. In the centre of college-green is an equestrian statue of William III., erected in 1701. In the Phoenix park, an obelisk, 210 feet high, has been erected in honour of the duke of Wellington. On the east side of college-green is the grand front of Trinity college, which is of Port- land stone, of the Corinthian order. This building extends in depth 600 feet. The park is behind the college, and contains 25% acres, adorned with fine trees. Dublin university (viz., its provost, fellows, and scholars, arrived at twenty-one years of age) returned two members to the parliament of Ire- land, and still returns one to that of the United King- dom. Dublin contains nineteen parishes, two cathedrals, nineteen parish churches, besides several chapels of the established religion; two meeting-houses of the church of Scotland, seven of other dissenters, four of Methodists, two of Quakers, one Lutheran Danish, one French Calvinist, and about twenty-six Roman Catholic chapels. St Patrick’s cathedral is an an- tique building, in a low and ruinous part of the town, erected in 1190, decorated with a steeple in 1370, and a very lofty spire in 1750. Christ church, built in 1038, the ancient cathedral of Dublin, is another venerable pile, containing some curious monu- ments. St George's church is a superb edifice, lately built, with a magnificent front and lofty spire. No city, for its size, abounds more in charitable institu- tions. These are, in general, well endowed, and some of them are splendid buildings. The royal bar- racks are in the west end of the town, near the river. At the west of the city, opposite to the Phoenix park, is the royal hospital of Kilmainham, for the reception of disabled and superannuated soldiers, on the plan of the Chelsea hospital. Dublin is a corporate body, with a chief magistrate, who has the title of lord mayor, elected annually from the aldermen, who are twenty-five in number, elected for life from citizens who have served as sheriffs: two sheriffs are chosen annually from the common council, who are ninety- six in number, and are triennially elected from their respective guilds by the freemen, a very numerous body, amounting to perhaps 2000. The freemen of Dublin, in conjunction with its freeholders, also re- turn two members to the united parliament. The Fº of Dublin, in 1831, taking its utmost imits, was calculated at 265,316; according to other limits it was only 203,752. DUBOIS, WILLIAM, cardinal, prime minister of the duke of Orleans, regent of France, was the son of an apothecary, and was born in 1656, in a small town in the province of Limousin. twelve years, he was sent to Paris; and, after having studied in the college of St Michael, he obtained the place of private tutor. He afterwards became ac- In the old part of Opposite to the east front of' At the age of DUBOIS. quainted with the sub-tutor of the duke of Chartres, M. de St Laurent, who, having become infirm, was assisted in his duties by Dubois. Dubois ingratiated himself into the favour of his pupil, and, after the death of St Laurent, was chosen to succeed him From this time he played two parts—that of a tutor and that of a pimp to his young master. Louis XIV. wished to marry his nephew to his natural daughter Mlle. de Blois. Monsieur, the king's brother, was not averse to the match, but the king was too well acquainted with the haughty spirit of the duchess to expect her consent. Dübois was therefore employed to gain her and the young prince. His address was successful, and he was rewarded with the abbey of St Just, in Picardy. Louis, who had become sensible of his talents, allowed him to join the French ambas- sador at London. Here the chevalier Dubois made Some important acquaintances, through the influence of St Evremont. He was # connected with lord Stanhope, whose friendship was the source of his future fortune. Dubois returned to France, and, under the modest title of a secretary, soon be- came the privy councillor of the duke of Orleans, and overseer of his household. He encountered, with Success, the numerous obstacles and enemies op- posed to his advancement. In 1715, the duke was declared regent ; and Dubois, not less ambitious than artful, now ventured to indulge extravagant hopes. In spite of the opposition of the most influential persons, he was appointed by the duke councillor of state. The intrigues of the Spanish court, at that time under the direction of the cardinal Alberoni, gave the duke much trouble, and made him desirous of a powerful ally. Dubois directed his attention towards England, and offered to conduct a secret negotiation with the court of that country. His acquaintance with lord Stanhope was now very useful to him. He succeed- ed in overcoming the dislike of George I. to the person of the regent, and, in 1718, concluded the triple alliance between England, France, and Holland. It has been asserted that Dubois sold himself to England; but this is not true ; on the contrary, it was necessary for him to buy others, to succeed in his negotiations. He was rewarded by the place of minister of foreign affairs, and now began to aspire to the highest dignities of the church. The arch- bishopric of Cambray having become vacant, Dubois ventured to request it of the regent, although he was not even a priest. The regent was astonished at his boldness; but, as the king of England united with Dubois in his request, he obtained it, and, in one morning, received all the orders, and, a few days after, the archbishopric. By his consummate address, he obtained a cardinal's hat, and, in 1722, was appointed prime minister. His power had now no bounds; but his excesses had rendered him infirm. He was scarcely able to get in and out of his carriage, and yet he appeared on horseback for the sake of receiving military honours at a review. The exertion caused an internal injury, of which he died, August 10, 1723. The duke of St Simon has given an accurate pic- ture of him : “T)ubois was a little, thin, meagre man, with a polecat visage. All the vices, falsehood, avarice, licentiousness, ambition, and the meanest flattery, contended in him for the mastery. He lied to such a degree as to deny his own actions, when taken in the fact. Notwithstanding an affected stammering, which he had adopted for the purpose of gaining time to penetrate the motives of others, his rich, instructive, and insinuating conversation would have rendered him agreeable, had it not been for the mist of falsehood which issued from every pore, and rendered even his gayety unpleasant. In TXUBOS—DUCK. spite of his debauchery, he was very industrious. His wealth was immense, and his revenue amounted to millions of francs. His memory was hated and ridiculed. Even the inscription on his tomb is a satire ; for, after enumerating all his offices and dignities, it concludes, solidiora et stabiliora bona, viator, mortuo precare.” DUBOS, JEAN BAPTISTE ; one of the earliest French writers who endeavoured to found a theory of the arts on general principles. He enriched the theory of the arts by his comparison of poetry, paint- ing, and music, (Reflewions sur la Poésie, la Peinture et la Musique, Paris, 1719 ; 6th ed., 1755, in 3 vols.). The foundation on which he rested his theory was, the necessity which every one feels of exercising the powers of his mind, and of setting his invention at work. He was born at Beauvais, in 1670, studied there and at Paris, and was placed, in 1695, in the office of foreign affairs, under the minister De Torcy, who gave him important commissions in Germany, Italy, England, and Holland. In these journeys, he collected the information concerning the arts which his book contains. After his return to France, he obtained a benefice, a pension, and, in 1722, was elected perpetual secretary of the French academy. He distinguished himself as an historian by his Histoire de la Ligue de Cambray (Paris, 1721, 2 vols., 12mo), and by his Histoire critique de l’Etablissement de la Monarchie Francaise dams les Gawles (Amsterdam, 1743, 2 vols, 4to and 12mo). Voltaire ranks him among the writers who were an honour to the age of Louis XIV. He died at Paris, 1742. - DUCANGE. See Dufresne. DUCAT is a gold or silver coin. For its value, see Coins.—In Switzerland, ducats are called Schild- franken. The Dutch ducats, which are coined in great numbers, are the most used in commerce, and are to be found in all quarters of the world. . In the northern countries of Europe, and particularly in Russia, the dealings in money and goods are carried on mostly by means of this coin. The exportation of ducats, is, therefore, an important branch of Dutch commerce. This coin and the name are derived from Longinus, a duke of Ravenna, in the sixth cen- tury: the first issue of them has also been ascribed to St Roger II., of Apulia, who, in 1140, coined ducats bearing the figure of Christ, and the inscrip- tion, Sittibi, Christe, datus, quem tº regis, ste decatus. The Venetians took his ducats for their pattern in 1280: they were found to constitute a convenient medium of exchange, were adopted by Genoa, and thus came into general use. This standard of coin was also adopted in Hungary; and, for a long time, all foreign coins bore the name of Ongri or Hungar- ians, in Italy, where the trade of the world was, at this period, concentrated. They were, in many kinds of business, the favourite standard of reckon- ing. They did not become so common in Germany till a much later date. The golden bull of Charles IV. gave to all the members of the empire the privilege of issuing gold coins, with any stamp they chose ; but these were only gold gilders, equivalent to the favourite florin. The ducats most generally met with are the old Dutch ducats, bearing the impression of an armed figure, which gave way, for a short time only, to the figure of Louis, king of Holland. They circulated almost as merchandise, but had been frequently counterfeited in the Grisons. The counterfeits were very good to appearance, both in weight and sound. See Coins. I)UCATOON ; a Dutch gold coin (also called Ruyder) worth about twenty florins (see Coins); also an Italian silver coin current for about five shillings. The Dutch gold ducatoon is a national coin, only circulating in the country. There is also a silver 74 i ducatoon, used particularly in the East India trade. There is likewise a French silver coin of this name, of nearly the same value as the Italian ducatoon. DUCHESNE, or DU CHESNE, ANDRE (Lat., Chesnius, Duchenius, Quercetanus), from his histori- cal researches, has been called the father of French history. He was born 1584, at Isle Bouchard, in Touraine ; he studied at London and Paris, Was appointed royal geographer and historiographer, and died in 1640. His most important works are his collection of French historians (Historia, Franco. ºrum Scriptores, 3 vols., to which his son Francois Duchesne added a fourth and fifth from the papers left by his father), which the French government. have since several times expressed a wish to have completed; his Historiae Normanorum Scriptores ab Anno 838–1220; and his genealogical works, which throw much light on the history of France. The number of his writings is very great; some were published by his son after his death. He left more than a hundred folios in manuscript. DUCIS, JEAN FRANgois, a French dramatic poet, known by his adaptation of many pieces of Shak- speare to the French theatre, was born at Versailles, and, late in life, became a writer for the stage. His first piece, called Amélise, was unsuccessful, and those which followed it shared the same fate. His Hamlet attracted much attention, as it was the first of Shakspeare's plays which appeared on the French stage. This play and his next, Romeo and Juliet, and likewise those which appeared later, were so much changed, to adapt them to the French taste, that the title, in some instances, is almost the only thing which reminds us of the original. These changes, however, only added to the applause with which they were received in France. He afterwards endeavoured, in his CEdipe chez Admete, to imitate the Greeks; but he soon returned to Shakspeare, and translated successively Lear, Macbeth, Othello, and other plays. , Abuſar or the Arabian Family is one of the best of his original pieces. His style is, perhaps, harsh, but sometimes noble, and full of tragic dignity. He succeeded Voltaire, in the academy, in 1778. He was subsequently secretary to Louis XVIII. He remained true to this monarch under all circumstances, and, while on the point of starving, refused the place of a senator, with 40,000 francs a-year, and the cross of the legion of honour, offered him by Bonaparte. The return of Louis XVIII. made his old age happy. He was gratified when the king recited some of his verses to him at his first audience. “I am more happy,” said he, “ than Boileau and Racine ; they recited their verses to Louis XIV; the king recites mine to me.” He died, March 31, 1817, at Versailles. His CEuvres appeared, in 1819, at Paris, in 3 vols. Campenon published, at Paris, in 1824, Lettres sur la Pie, le Caract. et les Ecrits de J. F. Ducis. DUCK (anas, Lin.); a very extensive and natural genus of water birds, which are found in all parts of the world. It has been divided by naturalists into an infinity of different genera ; to such a degree, indeed, that, according to Some of the distinctions which have been made, it would be impossible to leave the females of several species in the same genus with the males. The prince of Musignano is of opinion, that they might be advantageously separ- ated into four sub-genera, in which we shall follow him. These are anser, or goose, cygnus, or Swan, anas, or duck, and fuligula. Thirty-two species of this interesting genus inhabit Europe, and thirty- one North America; of these, twenty-one are common to the two continents, leaving ten peculiar to America, and eleven to Europe. The mallard, or common wild duck (A. boschas), is found both in Europe and 742 America. This is the original stock of the domesti- cated duck, which appears to have been reclaimed at a very early period. It is found in every fresh water lake and river of the United States, in winter, but seldom frequents the sea shores or salt marshes. During the summer, it resides in the north, along with the immense flocks of other water-fowl that retire thither for the purpose of breeding. A few pairs, however, occasionally met, remain in the Middle States during the whole year. The nest is usually placed in the most solitary recesses of a marsh or bog, among coarse grass, reeds, and rushes, and generally contains from twelve to sixteen eggs, of a dull greenish-white. The flesh of the wild duck is held in general estima- tion, and various methods are resorted to, in order to obtain these birds in quantities. In Picardy, in France, vast numbers are taken in decoys, and sold in the Paris market, where, in one season, thirty thousand francs have been paid for the produce of the small lake of St Lambert. They also abound in Lincoln- shire, in England, and are there taken in great quan- tities, by nearly the same means as in Picardy. Pen- nant had an account sent him of the produce of ten decoys, which, in one winter, amounted to thirty-two thousand two hundred. We are indebted to Wilson (American Ornithology) for an enumeration of several simple and effective contrivances made use of, in America, for the capture of these wary birds. In some ponds frequented by them, five or six wooden figures, cut and painted to represent ducks, and sunk by pieces of lead mailed to the bot- tom, so as to float at the usual depth on the surface, are anchored in a favourable position to be raked from a concealment of brush, &c. These attract the passing flocks, which alight, and thus expose them- Selves to certain destruction. In winter, when de- tached pieces of ice are occasionally floating in the river, Some of the sportsmen on the Delaware paint their boats white, and laying themselves flat in the bottom, direct them almost imperceptibly near a flock, before the ducks have distinguished them from a floating piece of ice. On land, another stra- tagem is sometimes practised with great success. A fight hogshead is sunk in the marsh, or mud, near the place where ducks are accustomed to feed at low water, and where, otherwise, there is no shelter; the edges and top are artfully concealed with tufts of long, coarse grass, and reeds or sedge. From within this, the sportsman watches his collecting prey, and usually commits great havoc. In China, the sports- man covers his head with a calabash, pierced with eye-holes, and, thus equipped, wades into the water, keeping only his head above the surface, and, on arriving amidst a flock, seizes them by the legs, fas- tems them to his girdle, and thus takes as many as he wishes, without disturbing the rest. Muscovy Duck (A. moschata). This well known bird is the largest of the duck kind, and approaches nearly to the size of a goose. It has obtained its name from a strong smell of musk, which exhales from its body, and not because it comes from Russia as has been supposed. The Muscovy ducks are tamed in great quantities in the West Indies, and are found wild in Guiana, where they nestle on the trunks of trees, close upon the water's edge. They feed in the morning upon a plant called wild rice, and seldom permit the sportsman to approach within gunshot. Canvass-back duck (A. vallisneria). This deli- cious bird is peculiar to America, and was known to the epicure long before it was described by the na- turalist. We are indebted to Wilson for the first account of it. He gave it the name of the plant on which it feeds, and which had been called after the I) UCK. celebrated Wallisneri. The canvass-back ducks af. rive in the United States, from the north, about the middle of October, and, principally, assemble in the numerous rivers in the neighbourhood of the Chesa- peake bay. On the Susquehannah, they are called canvass-backs, on the Potomac, white backs, and on James' river, sheldrakes. When they first arrive, they are very lean ; but from the abundance of their favourite food, they become fat about November. They are sometimes found in such multitudes as to cover several acres. From the great demand for these ducks, and the high price they always com- mand, various methods are employed to decoy them within gun-shot. The most successful is that termed tolling, in which they are enticed to approach the shore, by means of a dog properly trained. The article in Wilson's work is extremely interesting, and Mr Ord has made a long and valuable addition to it. The canvass-back is constantly attended by another species, the widgeon (A. Americana), which man- ages to make a good subsistence from his labours. This bird is extremely fond of the tender roots of that particular species of plant on which the canvass- back feeds. The widgeon, which never dives, watches the moment the canvass-back rises, and, before he has his eyes well opened, Snatches the morsel from his mouth, and makes off. - Among other species of ducks are, A. clypeata, or shoveller, remarkable for the strange form of its bill. A. strepera, or gadwall, which is more rare in America than in Europe. A. acuta, pintail, or sprigtail, remarkable for the form of its tail; it is abundant in both hemispheres. A. obscura, black or dusky duck, peculiar to America, and very abun- dant; this is perhaps the most sagacious and timid of all the American ducks. A. sponsa, Summer or wood duck; not more remarkable for its great beauty, in which it stands pre-eminent, than for its habits, its migrations being directly opposed to those of the other species. A. discors, blue-winged teal. A. crecca, green-winged teal. (See Teal.) A., mollis- sima, eider duck (q.v.). A. perspicillata, black or surfduck. This is common to both hemispheres, but it is very rare in Europe. A. fusca, velvet duck, also found in both hemispheres; its flavour is rank andfishy, and it is therefore seldom sought after. A. nigra, Sco- ter; found both in Europe and America; these birds, and a few others of the same fishy flavour, are ex- empted from the interdict which forbids Roman Ca- tholics the use of animal food on certain days, on the supposition of their being cold-blooded, and partak- ing of the nature of fish. A. rubida, ruddy duck; this species was very rare in Wilson's time, but has since become more plenty. A. ferina, red-head; common to both continents; it approaches very near to the canvass-back in delicacy; its usual weight is about one pound and three quarters. A. marilla, scaup duck or blue-bill, a well known and common species in both continents. A. rufitorques, tufted duck; a species confounded with the A. fuligula of Europe, until the differences were pointed out by the prince of Musignano. (See Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. 3.) A. clangula, golden-eye; common to both hemispheres. A. albeola, buffet-head, or butter-ball ; peculiar to America, where it is common. A. glacialis, long-tailed duck, south southerly oldwife; common to both continents, remarkable for the long and slender middle feathers of its tail. A. labrado- via, pied duck; a beautiful and rare species, pecu- liar to America. A. histrionica, harlequin duck; a magnificent species found on both continents; it de- rives its name from the singularity of its markings; along the coast of New England it is called the lord. DUCK ; a sort of strong, brown, linen cloth, used chiefly by sail-makers. IDUCKING-STOHOL– DUIDLEY. DUCKING-STOOL. See Cucking-Stool. DUCLOS, CHARLEs PINEAU, a French novelist, writer of memoirs, and grammarian, born 1705, at Dinant, received a good education at Paris, early turned his knowledge to profit, in 1739 was chosen member of the academy of inscriptions, in 1748 member, and soon after secretary of the French academy. Though he resided at Paris, he was elected mayor of his native town in 1744. When the states of Bretagne, in reward of their zeal for the welfare of the kingdom, were permitted to nominate such of their number as they thought most Worthy of the royal favour, Duclos was unanimously elected one of the number, and re- ceived letters of nobility. Not long before his death, he was appointed historiographer of France, in Voltaire's place. He died at Paris, 1772. Among the best of his novels are Confessions du Comte de B + + + (1741, 12mo); and of his me- moirs, his Mémoires sur les Maeurs du XVIIIme Siècle (1751, 12mo); both full of acute and striking remarks, especially on women and love. His Consi. dérations sur les Moeurs de ce Siècle are full of strik- ing sketches of character, and deep knowledge of human nature. His History of Louis XI. is esteemed, but shows the hand of the novelist. Of more value are his Mémoires secrets sur les Régnes de Louis XIV. et XP. This work was composed in his character of historiographer. He also distinguished himself in his Remarques sur la Grammaire générale de Port- Royal (1764, 12mo), as a grammarian. Desessarts published the CEuvres complètes de Duclos (Paris, 1809, 10 vols.). The last volume contains a frag- ment of his autobiography. In the entertaining Mé- moires de Madame d'Epinay, the character of Duclos is represented in no very favourable light. DUCTILITY; the extensibility and cohesion of particles, which enables metal to be drawn into wire without breaking. The ductility of some bodies, especially of gold, is very surprising. A single grain of gold may be stretched under the hammer into a leaf that will cover a house, and yet the leaf remain so compact as not to transmit the rays of light, nor even admit spirit of wine to transude. But M. Réaumur has shown the ductility of gold to be still greater. What is called gold wire, every body knows, is only silver gilt. The cylinder of silver, covered with leaf gold, is drawn through the hole of an iron, and the gilding is extended with the wire, to what- ever length it may be stretched. Now, M. Réaumur shows, that, in the common way of drawing gold wire, a cylinder of silver, twenty-two inches long, and fifteen lines in diameter, is stretched to 1,163,520 feet, or is 634,692 lines longer than be- fore, which amounts to about ninety-seven leagues. To wind this thread on silk, for use, it is first flat- tened, in doing which it stretches at least one-seventh further, so that the twenty-two inches are now III leagues; but in the flattening, instead of one-seventh, it could be stretched one-fourth, which would bring it to 120 leagues. This appears a prodigious exten- sion, and yet it is nothing to what this gentleman has proved gold to be capable of. Ductility of Glass. When glass is penetrated with the heat of fire, it can be managed like Soft wax, and may be drawn out into threads exceedingly long and fine. Ordinary spinners do not form their threads of silk, flax, or the like, with half the ease and expedi- tion the glass-spinners do threads of this brittle mat- ter. Some of them are made into plumes, and used in other works; they are made much finer than hair, and bend and wave, like hair, with every wind. Two workmen are employed in making them : the first holds one end of a piece of glass over the flame of a lamp, and, when the heat has softened it, the -long enough to be serviceable. 74 § Second operator applies a glass book, and draws out a thread of glass, which still adheres to the mass ; them, fitting his hook on the circumference of a wheel about two feet and a half in diameter, he turns the wheel as fast as he pleases, till it is covered with a skein of glass thread. The parts, as they recede from the flame, by gradually cooling, become more cohesive : the parts nearest the fire are least cohe- sive, and, consequently, must give way to the effort made to draw them towards the wheel. These threads are commonly of a flat oval shape, being three or four times as broad as thick : some of them seem Scarcely bigger than the thread of a silk-worm, and are surprisingly flexible. If the two ends of such threads are knotted together, they may be drawn and bent till the aperture, or space in the middle of the knot, does not exceed one-fourth of a line, or one forty-eighth of an inch, in diameter. The flexibility of glass increases in proportion to the fineness of the threads; and, probably, had we the art of drawing threads as fine as a spider's web, we might weave stuffs and cloths of them, but could never make them For further infor- mation see Divisibility. DU-DEFFAND, MADAME. See Deffand. DUDLEY, EDMUND ; noted in English history as an instrument of Henry VII., in the arbitrary acts of extortion practised during the latter years of his reign. He was born in 1462, of an ancient and re- spectable family ; and was educated at the univer- sity of Oxford. Becoming a student of the law at Gray's Inn, he arrived at such eminence in his pro- fession as recommended him to the favour of the king, who made much use of his services, and con- ferred on him various offices and emoluments. In 1505, he was made speaker of the house of commons, and, through his influence, several enactments took place, oppressive to the people and profitable to the monarch. On the accession of Henry VIII., he perished on the scaffold, August 18, 1510, with his associate, Sir Richard Emson (who was the son of a Sieve-maker at Towcester). DUDLEY, JoHN, duke of Northumberland, son of the preceding. He was born in 1502, and, after his father's execution, was restored in blood by act of parliament. In 1542, he was raised to the peer- age as viscount Lisle, in right of his mother, who inherited that title. Soon after, he was made K.G.; and at length the post of lord-high-admiral was con- ferred on him for life. He served with reputation in Scotland and France, and was left, by Henry VIII., One of the executors named in his will, as a kind of joint-regent during the minority of Edward VI, Under that prince, he manifested the most insatiable ambition, and obtained vast accessions of honours, power, and emoluments. At first, he joined his inte- rest with that of the duke of Somerset, the king's uncle, whom, however, at length he undermined and destroyed. He had been advanced to the titles of earl of Warwick and duke of Northumberland; and, after the fall of his rival, his authority was almost unbounded. The illness of the king, over whom he had gained complete ascendency, alarmed his fears, and he endeavoured to strengthen his interest by marrying his son, lord Guilford Dudley, to lady Jane Grey, descended from the younger sister of Henry VIII., and persuaded Edward to settle the crown on his kinswoman by will, to the exclusion of his two sisters, the princesses Mary and Elizabeth. The death of the king, the abortive attempts to place lady Jane Grey on the throne, and the ruin of all those concerned in the scheme, are among the most familiar events in the amnals of England. Northum- berland himself was beheaded on Tower-hill, August 22, 1553. He professed himself a Catholic a short 744 time before his execution, and died in that faith, though the avowed object of the plot was to secure the establishment of Protestantism in England. i)UDLEY, SIR HENRY BATE, baronet, was born at Fenny Compton, August 25, 1745. His father, the reverend Henry Bate, was rector of North Farm- bridge, in Essex, in which benefice his son Henry succeeded him at his death; but the emoluments of the living being but trifling, he established the Morning Post newspaper, and, in 1780, the Morning Herald, commencing also, about the same time, the Courier de l'Europe—a journal printed in the French language—and the English Chronicle. At this period he was a contributor to the Probationary Odes, the Rolliad, and other works of a similar class. In 1781, the advowson of the rectory of Bradwell juxta-Mare was purchased in trust for him, subject to the life of the reverend George Pawson. In 1784, he as- sumed the name of Dudley, in compliance with the will of a relation. Mr Pawson dying in 1797, Mr Dudley presented himself to the vacant benefice ; but the bishop of London refused institution, and a compromise was at length effected. In 1812, he received the living of Willingham, in Cam- bridgeshire. Shortly after, he obtained a baron- etcy; and, in 1816, the dignity of a prebend in Ely cathedral, which he retained till the day of his death, February 1, 1824. Sir Henry distinguished himself as a useful magistrate; while his literary abilities were manifested in the composition of a variety of dramatic pieces. Among these are the Flitch of Ba- con, written for the purpose of introducing his friend Shield to the public; the Woodman ; the Rival Can- didates; the Blackamoor Washed White (at the re- presentation of which, party spirit ran so high as to produce a serious conflict, in which Swords were drawn, &c., among the audience); the Travellers in Switzerland ; and the popular piece At Home. In his earlier years, the warmth of his temperament be- trayed him, notwithstanding his cloth, into several quarrels. The cause of two of these rencontres was Mrs Hartley, an actress celebrated for her beauty. A third, of more equivocal character, fought with Mr Stoney Bowes, made a great noise at the time. Sir Henry, at the time of his decease, was a magistrate for seven English counties, and four in Ireland. DUDLEY, Rober T, earl of Leicester, was the fifth son of the duke of Northumberland, and was born about 1532. He was knighted when young, and was made gentleman of the bed-chamber to Edward VI. Though involved in the criminal designs of his father, and included in the sentence of attainder passed against him on the accession of Mary, he was par- doned, and employed by that queen. After Elizabeth ascended the throne, Dudley soon acquired the dis- tinction of being her favourite. Offices, honours, and wealth were showered on him with an unsparing hand. He was appointed master of the horse, knight of the garter, and privy councillor ; and he received grants of the princely domains of Kenilworth, Den- bigh, and Chirk castle. In 1560, the death of his wife took place, at Cumnor-hall in Berkshire. This ºvent, according to popular opinion, as appears from Aubrey, involved Dudley in the guilt of murder. If he sacrificed the life of his consort in the hope of mar- rying the queen, his ambitious views were disap- pointed. Elizabeth, however, encouraged him to aspire to the hand of Mary of Scotland, who rejected him with disdain. In 1564, he was created baron Denbigh and earl of Leicester, and was the same year elected chancellor of Oxford university, having º been chosen to the same office at Cam- ridge. About 1572, he appears to have married the baroness dowager Sheffield, lady Douglas How- ard, by whom he had children, but whom he disowned DUIDLEY-T) UEL. as his wife, and even compelled her to marry another person. In 1575, he gave a princely entertainment to the queen, at Kenilworth castle; the festivities of which are described in a picturesque manner, in the celebrated romance of Kenilworth, and, in defiance of chronology, connected with the death of Leicester's first wife. Leicester, in 1578, offended the queen by his marriage with the widow of Walter Devereux, earl of Essex. He, however, recovered her favour, and, in 1585, was appointed, through her influence, governor of the Netherlands, then recently emanci- pated from the Spanish yoke. His conduct in this station did not give satisfaction to the queen, or to the states over which he presided, and he was recalled the following year. He returned to his command in June, 1587; but he was finally displaced a few months after, and returned to England. He was accused of misconduct by Lord Buckhurst and others; but Eliza- beth still retained so much partiality for him, that She supported him against all his enemies; and, on the prospect of the Spanish invasion, in 1588, she appointed him commander of the forces assembled at Tilbury, for the defence of the kingdom. Leicester died September 4, the same year, at Cornbury park, in Oxfordshire, and was interred in a chapel of the collegiate church of Warwick, where a splendid mo- nument was raised to his memory. His memory has been revived by the romance of Kenilworth. DUEL (from dwellum, derived from duo) is a combat between two, at a time and place appointed, in conse- quence of a challenge, and so is distinguished from an encounter, taking place without any previous arrange- ment. The custom of duelling was derived from the northern nations; the judicial combat and the private duel, upon the principle of the point of honour, having both been unknown to the ancients. The Germans, Danes, and Franks carried the practice of the judicial combat so far, that none were excused, except women, sick people, cripples, and such as were over sixty years of age. Even ecclesiastics and monks were obliged to maintain their controversies by a champion in arms; and this singular species of jurisprudence was not confined to criminal accusations, but the titles to estates were decided in the same manner. At length, however, this mode of trial was limited to those accusations of capital offences, in which there was no other testimony, and in which common fame pronounced the accused party to be guilty. The party vanquished was punished by hanging, behead- ing, or mutilation of members. A judicial combat was authorized by Gundebald, king of the Burgun- dians, as early as A. D. 501. Fleta (l. 1. c. 32) Says it is a combat between two, to prove the truth in respect to their controversy, and the party who conquers shall prevail in the suit. The practice of trying rights to land, as well as the guilt or innocence of an accused party, by combat under judicial autho- rity, very naturally suggested the decision of personal quarrels in the same way (particularly those in which the point of honour was concerned), and all cases in which there was no adequate redress provided in the ordinary tribunals. The example of Francis I. of France, and Charles V. of Spain, gave a sanction to this mode of arbitra- tion. On the breaking up of the treaty between these sovereigns, and the declaration of war by the French and English heralds, at the court of Charles, Jan. 2, 1528, the emperor, in replying to the decla- ration of the French monarch, desired the herald to acquaint his sovereign, that he would henceforth con- sider him, not only as a base violator of public faith. but as a stranger to the honour and integrity becom- ing a gentleman. On receiving this message, Francis immediately sent back the herald with a cartel of de- fiance, gave the emperor the lie in form, challenged DUEL. buu to single combat, and required him to appoint the time, place, and weapons. Charles accepted the challenge ; but, after many messages concerning the arrangements for the combat, accompanied with mu- tual reproaches, bordering on the most indecent Scur- cility, all thoughts of the duel were given up. But this affair, though it thus terminated without any rencounter, is supposed to have had a great influence in producing an important change in manners all over Europe. Upon every insult or injury, which seemed to touch his honour, a gentleman thought himself en- titled to draw his sword, and to call on his adversary to give him satisfaction. Such an opinion becoming prevalent among men of fierce courage, of high spirit, and rude manners, where offence was often given, and revenge always prompt, led to the sacrifice of many lives. The “detestable practice of duelling, introduced,” as the council of Trent say, “at the in- stigation of the devil,” raged with the greatest vio- lence in France, where it is calculated that 6000 persons fell in duels, during ten years of the reign of Henry IV. His celebrated minister, Sully, remon- strated against the practice; but the king commived at it, supposing that it tended to maintain a military spirit among his people. But afterwards, in 1602, near the close of his reign, he issued a very severe decree against it, and declared it to be punishable with death. This decree was opposed by Sully, as being so far beyond the sentiments of the people on the subject, that it could not be carried into execu- tion ; and experience proved the correctness of Sully's opinion. Under Henry's successor, the cardinal Riche- lieu introduced a law, that every person who should fight a duel should lose his offices and pensions, a third of his property, and be exiled for three years from the kingdom. Duels soon decreased. Two Erench noblemen were executed for this offence in 1627. In 1632, two noblemen killed each other in a duel; their corpses were hung upon the gallows, with the legs uppermost. (Mercure, XIII., 450.) Duels are not severely punished by the present French code. “It must be admitted,” says Mr Robertson, in connexion with his account of the challenge be- tween Charles and Francis, “that to this absurd cus- tom we must ascribe, in Some degree, the extraordi- mary gentleness and complaisance of modern manners, and that respectful attention of one man to another, which, at present, render the Social intercourses of life far more agreeable and decent than among the most civilized nations of antiquity.” Duelling sprang up as a branch of the chivalrous spirit of the middle ages; and the remnant of that spirit, which has survived to our own times, and which makes an insult, or an injury to honour, insup- portable, has preserved this custom, in opposition to the exhortations and denunciations of the teachers of religion, and the prohibitions and penalties of the laws, which have been levelled against it in all civil- ized countries. A duel provoked from a spirit of re- venge and thirst of blood, shocks the moral sense, and excites the horror of mankind, little less than a cold-blooded assassination. But, where a man burns with a sense of atrocious insult which no laws can redress, and resorts to the duel, not from a spirit of revenge, but as the only means supplied which he considers to be left him for vindicating his honour, although this remedy is ever so inadequate, and even absurd, and although it is liable to so great abuse, still, in such a case, the general Sentiment, in spite of all laws to the contrary, regards a challenge with tolerance ; and it is these instances that sustain the practice of duelling, and defeat, in a great degree, the execution of the laws against duels. As far as men are impelled to combat by these motives, as 745 ishment of death, by the law, has feeble influence with them; since they expose their lives in the com- bat itself, in order to avoid what they consider a greater evil than death. This evil is one inflicted, in many instances, by the public opinion, and depends on the customs of particular societies. Thus, in France, Spain, and Italy, a blow with the hand is a mortal injury; and that it is so is matter merely of public opinion, for in England and America, this is by no means so burning a disgrace. But, in both of the latter countries, a stroke with a whip is, by the pub- lic opinion, rendered exceedingly galling. After all, however, parties in the heat of resentment, and the high excitement of their sensibilities, are apt greatly to overrate the importance of the supposed disparagement of their reputation; and the frivolity of the occasion would frequently make duels subjects of ridicule, if they were not cases of life and death. And, though the public are disposed to palliate them in extreme cases, still the laws very properly prohibit the practice of duelling, in toto. Accordingly, the laws of England make killing in a duel, after time for reflection and deliberation, murder. “A party,” says Mr Russell, in his treatise on crimes, “killing another in a deliberate duel, is guilty of murder, and cannot help himself by alleging that he was first struck by the deceased; or that he had often declined to meet him, and was prevailed upon to do so by his importunity; or that it was his intent only to vindi- cate his reputation; or that he meant not to kill, but only to disarm his adversary. He has deliberately engaged in an act highly unlawful, and he must abide the consequences.” Such is the law of Eng- land, but it does not prevent duels; and the parties concerned in them often come off with impunity. “Some advocates for duelling,” says Coke, “al- lege the combat of David and Goliath, in vindication of the practice;” and there are some other instances on record, of single combats proposed, which Coke looks upon in a more favourable light. He mentions that Edward III., in the 16th year of his reign, pro- posed a speedy trial of all right in controversy be- tween him and the French king, by a personal com- bat with his rival. And Richard II, of England, having a controversy with the king of France, con- cerning the title to the French crown, “it was,” says Coke, “an honourable offer that Richard made to Charles, the French king, for saving of guiltless Thristian blood, and to put an end to that bloody and lingering war, through his uncle, the duke of Lan- caster,” that the war should be concluded, 1, by a personal combat between themselves; or, 2, between themselves, with three of their uncles on each side; or, 3, by a general battle, at an appointed time and place, between all the forces that they could respec- tively muster. The duke of Lancaster, according to his commission, made these offers to Charles, the king of France, “but king Charles liked none of their offers.” In 1196, in the eighth year of the reign of Richard I., Philip, king of France, sent this chal- lenge to Richard I. of England,-" that king Rich- ard would choose five for his part, and the Ring of France would choose five for his part, which might fight in lists for trial of all matters in controversy between them, for the avoiding of shedding of more guiltless blood. Richard accepted the offer, with the condition that either king might be of the num ber, but this condition would not be granted.”— Upon which Coke remarks, that “these and the like offers, as they proceeded from high courage and greatness of mind, so had they been lawful if they had been warranted by public authority. To take away all motive and excuse for the duel, Henry IV. of France erected a court of honour, to try and Sully remarked to Henry IV., the threat of the pun- administer redress in those cases which are the usual '746 subjects of martial arbitrament. But this did not supplant the mode of decision by combat; and no court of this sort seems to be now in existence, or, at least, in the course of practical administration, in any country; and whether it be at all practicable, remains yet to be determined. DUFRESNE, or DU FRESNE, CHARLEs, lord of Cange, hence often called Ducange; a man of let- ters, who did much for the history of the middle ages, especially as regards his own country, as well as for the Byzantine history. He was born in 1610, at a farm near Amiens, of a respectable family, and studied in the Jesuits’ college, at that place, after- wards at Orleans and Paris. At this last place he became parliamentary advocate, in 1631, and, in 1645, royal treasurer at Amiens, from which place he was driven by a pestilence, in 1668, to Paris. Here he devoted himself entirely to literature, and published his great works, viz., his Glossary of the Greek and Latin peculiar to the Middle Ages and the Moderns; his Historia Byzantina (Paris, 1680, fol.); the Annals of Zonaras; the Numismatics of the Middle Ages, and other important works. He died in 1688. DUGUAY-TROUIN, RENE, a distinguished French seaman, was the son of a rich merchant and skilful navigator, and born at St Malo, in 1673. He made his first voyage in 1689, in a vessel of eighteen guns, which his family fitted out, in the war against º and Holland. His courage induced his family to trust him with a ship of fourteen guns. Being driven on the coast of Ireland, he burnt two ships, and took a fort, in spite of the op- position of a numerous garrison. He was once taken prisoner, and carried into Plymouth. He there :ained the love of an English female, who procured him his liberty. IHe once more made a cruise on the coast of England, and took two ships of war. Duguay-Trouin, now in his twenty-first year, at- tracted the attention of the goverlinieut. Louis XIV. sent him a sword. He captured great num- bers of English and Dutch ships on the coast of Spain and Ireland; in 1696, he took a great part of the outward bound Dutch fleet, under Wassenaer; in 1697, he entered the royal marine, as a captain. He signalized himself so much in the Spanish war, that the king granted him letters of nobility, in which it was stated, that he had captured more than 300 merchant ships, and twenty ships of war. By the capture of Rio de Janeiro, 1711, he brought the crown more than twenty-five millions of francs. Under Louis XV. he rendered important services in the Levant and the Mediterranean. He died at Paris, 1736. His memoirs appeared there, in 1740, in 4 vols. His Eloge was written by Thomas. DUJARDIN, CHARLEs, a Dutch artist, who ex- celled in painting landscapes, animals, and scenes in low life, was born in 1640, at Amsterdam. He went to Italy when young, and was a member of the society of painters at Rome, among whom he was called Barba di Becco. His works met with general approbation. On his return to his native country, he contracted considerable debts at Lyons, to free himself from which he married his old and rich land- lady. He went with her to Amsterdam, where his pictures were valued very highly. He soon secretly left his home in that city, probably from dislike to his wife, and went to Rome, where he was welcomed by his old friends and admirers, and lived at great expense. Thence he went to Venice, where he died, in 1678, in the prime of his life. His land- scapes have spirit and harmony, his figures expres- sion, and his colour the brilliancy which distinguishes his school. His paintings are rare, and command a high price. He also published fifty-two landscapes, etched with much spirit and ease. H} UFRESNE—J) ULW ICH. DUKE (from the Latin dur, leader, commander). Among the ancient German tribes, the military leaders were chosen by the people (reges ea nobilitate, duces ea virtute sumunt, says Tacitus), with whoma, however, the whole legislative power remained. this is the natural and probably the common origin of the princes of all nations. By degrees, as ap- pears from Marculphus, and Gregory of Tours, the oath of allegiance was introduced among the Franks, which was taken, not only by the followers of the prince (comites), but also by the people at large, who still continued, however, to hold the legislative power. The counts and dukes, after this time, were no longer chosen by the people, but by the prince. Dukes were set over provinces or districts, to regulate the military affairs, and counts to administer justice, and to collect the taxes. (See Count.) Charlemagne suffered the dignity of the dukes to cease, because their power seemed to him too dangerous. But the incursions of foreign tribes into Germany made the re-establishment of dukes necessary under his succes- sors. In 847, the emperor Louis appointed a duke of Thuringia, to protect the frontiers against the Wendes, or Wandals, a Sclavonic tribe. The power of the dukes now gradually increased, their dignity, like that of counts, became hereditary, and they soon became powerful members of the German empire. An archbishop of Cologne, Bruno, was the first who bore (in 959) the title of archduke, which, since the time of the emperor Frederic III. (1453), has been given exclusively to the princes of the house of Austria. All the Austrian princes are archdukes. The kings of Poland styled themselves grand-dukes of Lithuania; and Maximilian II., emperor of Ger- many, gave this title of grand-duke to the dukes of Florence. Napoleon conferred the arch-ducal dignity on several German princes, which the con- gress of Vienna confirmed to them. In other coun- tries, duke is only a title of nobility, as duca in Italy, duc in France, and duke in Britain. In the two first countries, dukes are the second in rank among the nobles; in the latter, the highest. , Napoleon created dues, after he had assumed the title of empe- ror, and gave them titles generally taken from places or countries in which they had distinguished them- selves; as, for instance, Duroc was created duke of Friuli. In England, the first hereditary duke was the Black Prince, created by his father, Edward III., in 1336. The duchy of Cornwall was bestowed upon him, and was thenceforward attached to the eldest son of the king, who is considered dual natus. The duchy of Lancaster was soon after conferred on his third son, John of Gaunt, and hence arose the special privileges which these two duchies still in part retain. In the reign of Elizabeth, in 1572, the ducal order was extinct, and not revived till the crea- tion of Villars, duke of Buckingham, by James I. There are now, besides the brothers of the king of England, who are all dukes, twenty British dukes. The coronet of a British duke consists of eight strawberry leaves, on a rim of gold. His style is most high, potent, and noble prince—your grace. In the distribution of the empire, under Constantine, dua was the title borne by a military provincial governor. On the division of the empire, thirteen duces were nominated in the East. In the Bible. the word dukes is used, Gen. xxxvi. I5, for the duces of the Vulgate. DULWICH; a village in Surrey, England, noted for the College of God's Gift, five miles S. E. of Lon- don. The gallery of paintings at Dulwich college is one of the finest collections in the world. Dil- wich is charmingly situated, and the delightful walk to the village, after leaving the long and noisy streets of the metropolis, . to the enjoyment of DUMARSAIS-J} UM BARTONSHIRE, the gallery, where the pieces of Cuyp and other masters seem to reflect the beautiful Scenery on which you have just been #. In that collec- tion you find paintings of all characters and schools, from the comic, and, sometimes, almost too natural Tepiers, and Wouvermann, up to Cuyp, Claude, Paul Potter, and the grave Ruysdael. The gallery contains, likewise, many works of Murillo, Vandyke, Rubens, Rembrandt, Poussin, Salvator Rosa, Cara- vaggio, Guercino, Paul Veronese, Guido, Andrea del Sarto, and Titian. Of the last there is a nymph, a picture in which this glorious artist expressed, per- haps more than in any of his other productions, that iuxuriant beauty and glowing voluptuousness, which so often inspired him. The gallery at Dulwich is also advantageously distinguished from many others in England, by the facility of admittance. Not a few of the greatest works of art are immured in the retired seats of the nobility, and only seen, if at all, after tedious applications, which contrast very dis- agreeably with the facility of reception in Italy. DUMARSAIS, CESAR CHESNEAU, a philologist, was born in 1676, at Marseilles. He early lost his father, his fortune was dissipated by the extravagance of his mother, and a library, which he inherited, was sold. The idea of losing the latter so disturbed the boy, then but seven years old, that he concealed all the books of which he could possess himself. He became an advocate, married unhappily, kept a school, and died in misery, 1756. His merits were overlooked by his own age, and his best works re- mained for a long time unknown. D'Alembert aptly calls him the La Fontaine of philosophers. De Ge- rando, in a prize dissertation, presented to the French institute in 1805, has justly appreciated the merit of this profound inquirer. His works were published at Paris, 1797, in seven vols. The principal are, A New Method of teaching the Latin Language; a Treatise on Tropes; the Principles of (general) Grammar ; and his contributions to the Encyclopædia. DUMBARTON ; the chief town of Dumbarton- shire, is a royal burgh, situated about fifteen miles west of Glasgow, near the southern confines of the County, where the Leven joins the Clyde, and is nearly insulated at the time of high water. The Spring tide arises about eleven feet in the harbour, to which about 2000 tons of shipping belong. It is an ancient place, and has a strong castle situated on a precipitous rock, divided about the middle, and forming two summits, at the junction of the Leven and the Clyde, by which its base is washed on two sides. Bede says, the ancient Britons named this castle Alumth or Aleluid (the place on the Clyde ;) the Caledonians, Dun Briton, because it was within the British territory. It was formerly considered impregnable, and regarded as the key to the western Highlands; nevertheless it was taken, by escalade, from the adherents of the unhappy Mary, under cover of a thick fog, in 1571. The enterprise, conducted by captain Crawfurd, was singularly hazardous, and an interesting account of it is given by Buchanan, and from him by Robertson (Hist. of Scot. book vi.). The principal manufacture is that of crown glass, which employs a great number of persons. Tanning and weaving are also carried on here, but to a less extent; and the fair in June is the principal mart in the west of Scotland for Highland cattle. Dumbar- ton was made a royal burgh by Alexander II. in 1221. Population in 1831, 3623. DUMBARTONSHIRE, or DUNBARTON- SHIRE, anciently called the Shire of Lennow, a small county of Scotland, consisting of two districts, Separated from each other by an intervening space of about six miles in breadth, and containing jointly Awelve parishes. The western division, which is the advantage on the adjacent tracts. 747 larger of the two, is nearly 40 miles long and from 5 to 13 broad. It is bounded by Perthshire on the north, Loch Long on the west, by the Clyde and Lanarkshire on the south, and by Stirlingshire on the east. The smaller portion is completely enclosed by Stirlingshire and Lanarkshire. The area of the larger part is about 205 square miles, and that of the Smaller only 25, making together a surface of 230 Square miles. By another measurement, it is said to Comprise 261 Square miles. The smaller tract for- merly was included in Stirlingshire, till the earl of Wigton, to whom it belonged, became heritable Sheriff of Dumbartonshire, and got it annexed to the latter county. A great part of the surface of this county consists of a series of mountains, forming part of the ridge that crosses the country from Forfarshire to the Frith of Clyde. The highest of these summits is Benvor- lich, in the parish of Arrochar, on the west side of Loch Lomond, which is nearly equal in elevation to Benlomond, (3262 feet above the level of the sea,) one of the topmost of the Grampians, on the opposite side of the lake. The only river of any note, which can properly be said to belong to this county, is the Leven, which forms the outlet of Loch Lomond, and flows through a fine valley of five or six miles in length, and joins the Clyde near Dumbarton castle. The waters of this stream are singularly pure and Soft, and so well adapted to bleaching and printing Cottons, that several extensive works of both kinds are established in this short distance. The other streams by which it is intersected, are the Luss, Froon, Finlas, Doulas, Falloch, and Luggie ; while the Clyde, the Endrick, and the Kelvin wash its con- fines. Lochs Dong and Garloch, are arms of the sea, which either penetrate or stretch along the borders of this county. The former separates it from Argyle- Shire, bending to the north-east till it approaches the northern part of Loch Lomond ; the latter enters the County for about seven miles, and almost detaches the peninsula of Roseneath from the main land. These lochs, therefore, afford the means of an extensive in- land navigation to all the western districts; while the Forth and Clyde Canal, which runs for about sixteen miles through the county, confers a similar Loch Lomond, separated from Loch Long by a narrow neck of land, called the Tarbat, (the drawing up of ships,) is situ- ated between the counties of Dumbarton and Stirling. This lake is about twenty-four miles long, and about six broad towards the south, where it is widest. It contains about thirty islands, most of which, with about two-thirds of the shore, belong to Dumbarton- shire. The kippered salmon of Loch Lomond and the Leven is a great national luxury, and the fisheries are of considerable value. Its wooded banks and islands afford a striking contrast with the rugged and towering scenery by which it is surrounded; which for variety and magnificence is, perhaps, not Surpassed by any other lake in Great Britain. The whole surface of the lake is estimated at 28,000 acres, and the best view of it is from a promontory near Luss, a village on its western shore. The climate in the lower parts of Dumbartonshire is moist, and more favourable to pasturage and the growth of wood than to tillage, though by no means insalubrious. Stone and peat occupy much of the elevated tracts. Most of the estates, as well as the farms in this county, are Small, particularly in the arable part. The hilly pastures are let in farms of several hundred acres. Besides the regular produce of agriculture, this county affords to the landed pro- prietors a considerable source of income from its woods and plantations. These are extensive and valuable, and many of them, in situations where the 748 land would otherwise be of little use, yield a return nearly equal to the arable land. The banks and islands of Loch Lomond are distinguished by a number of yew trees, Some of them of great size. Most of the low lands are well enclosed, either with hedges or walls: and several good mansions are spread over the county, belonging to the principal landed proprietors; among which is Roseneath, a still unfinished seat of the duke of Argyle. The Roman wall marked out by Agricola, . completed in the reign of Antoninus Pius, forming the northern boundary of the Empire, extended from Dunglass on the Clyde to Abercorn on the Forth. It may be traced in many places, and is minutely described by general Roy, in his Military Ant. of Scotland; in its line at Duntocher, near Kilpatrick, are the remains of a very picturesque Roman bridge. The wall is more generally known by the name of Graham's Dyke. Coal, ironstone, limestone, freestone, and slate are found in the county. Three or four thousand tons of ironstone are annually sent to the Carron foundery. Limestone abounds in many parts, but in Some it is of an inferior quality, and in others the want of coal prevents it from being used. The principal place where it is worked is in the neighbourhood where the coal is found, and where, indeed, they are quarried together. Both white and red freestone are found in several districts ; but the finest quarry is at Garscube, near the Forth and Clyde canal, by the neighbourhood of which conveyance the value of the quarry is much increased. The only slate quarry which is now worked with success is Camstradam, near Luss, whence there is a ready conveyance to Glasgow by the rivers Leven and Clyde. Dumbartonshire may be considered rather as a manufacturing than an agricultural county ; as vari- ous establishments are there carried on upon an ex- tensive scale. Calico-printing and bleaching occupy a great number of people. There are also several extensive cotton and paper mills, an iron-work for all sorts of edged tools and wrought iron; and large glass-works and tanneries at Dumbarton. Popula- tion in 1831, 33, 211. DUMBLANE, or DUNBLANE; a post-town and parish in Perthshire; the former, anciently the seat of a bishop, is pleasantly seated on the eastern bank of the river Allan, which is here crossed by a substantial bridge, and gives the name of Strathallan to a large tract through which it flows. Like most of the old Scottish towns, it consists of one principal street, intersected by narrow lanes. Here are a jail and a tolbooth, in which the sheriffs and justices re- spectively hold their courts. The see of Dumblane was founded about 1142, by David II.; who also built the cathedral, the choir of which is in good pre- servation, and used as the parish church. It was endowed with certain lands in England, and near it may still be seen the ruins of the episcopal palace. Bishop Leighton, translated hence to Glasgow in 1669, bequeathed to the clergy of the diocese of Dun- blane his valuable library, which is still preserved here, with many choice additions. A convent of Culdees, at the head of which was St Blaan, from whom the see derived its name, was established here by David I. A mineral spring, recently discovered in the neighbourhood, is in great repute. The parish extends nine miles in length by six in breadth. The battle-ground of Sheriffmuir is within the east side of the parish. Population in 1831, 3228. DUMFRIES, the capital of the county of Dum- fries, and indeed of the south of Scotland, is a royal burgh of great antiquity, although the period of its incorporation is not exactly known. During the border wars, it was frequently stormed, and the pub- DUMBLANE–DUMFRIESSHIRE. lic records were destroyed. It is beautifully situated on the eastern bank of the Nith, about mine miles above its conflux with the Solway Frith, the river being navigable for small vessels up to the town, and there crossed by two bridges, the most ancient of which consists of nine arches, and both communicate with Maxwell Town, a large village in the stewartry of Kirkcudbright, situated on the opposite bank. Dumfries is distant from Edinburgh 71 miles, and from Glasgow 79. The jurisdiction of the port ex- tends from Southwick, in the parish of Colvend, up the Frith as far as Sark water, but no vessel takes in or discharges her cargo along the whole coast of that tract, except at Annan and in the river Nith, the navigation of which has been recently improved. Dumfries is a large well built town, consisting of several spacious streets of elegant houses running parallel with the rivers, and intersected by numerous lanes, rising gradually from its banks ; a site so con- venient, cleanly, and salubrious as to render it the resort of many genteel families from the adjoining counties for the greater part of the year, to partake of the various amusements it affords. The principal public buildings are two handsome churches sur- mounted with lofty spires, episcopal and Roman catholic chapels, places of worship belonging to the Burghers, Antiburghers, Methodists, and the Mis- sionary Society, a town-house, a jail and court-house, an hospital for aged persons and orphans, an infirmary, an asylum for lunatics, a theatre, a suite of assembly rooms, and in a square in the centre of the town a fine column of the Doric order, erected to the memory of the late duke of Queensberry, its liberal bene- factor. In Friar's Wennell Street are the remains of the Franciscan convent, founded by Devorgilla, the mother of John Baliol, king of Scotland, in which John Duns Scotus, surnamed the Subtle Doctor, took the habit of St Francis ; he died at Cologne in 1308. And at the north-east end of the town are the founda– tions of St Christopher's chapel, built by king Robert Bruce, for the purpose of having masses said for the soul of Sir Christopher Seaton, his father-in- law, who was executed on the spot by order of Edward I. Before the high altar of the ancient col- legiate church of St Michael, Bruce and his asso- ciates, in 1305, slew Red John Cuming, lord of Badenoch, for revealing to Edward I. the patriotic designs they had formed for the emancipation of their country; the edifice thus defiled with blood was shortly after demolished. Within the burying ground of this church, lie entombed the mortal remains of Robert Burns, over which is erected a handsome mausoleum. Many other monuments, some of con- siderable antiquity, adorn the church-yard. Hosiery, leather, hats, wooden-shoes, and baskets, are the chief manufactures of Dumfries. The freight of vessels belonging to the port is upwards of 4000 tons. The circuit courts for the southern district of Scotland, are held here twice a-year. The parish of Dumfries comprises a fine valley about seven miles in length by three in breadth. Population of burgh and parish in 1831, 11,606. DUMFRIESSHIRE, a county in the south of Scotland, bordered on the south-east by the Solway Frith and Cumberland, and on other points by the counties of Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, Roxburgh, Kirkcudbright, and Ayr. The greatest length, from north-west to south-west, is about sixty miles, while from the shores of the Solway Frith to the borders of Peebles is little more than thirty miles. Its surface includes about 1006 square miles. Dumfriesshire was anciently divided into three districts, each under a separate jurisdiction. These derived their appel- lations from the principal rivers, and were Annan- dale, in the middle, (containing twenty parishes,) Dij MFRIESSHIRE–DUMONT. Eskdale, on the east, (five,) and Nithsdale, on the ravine on the side of that mountain. west, (seventeen ;) names which are still retained in the common language of the county. The northern, eastern, and western borders of this county being formed of ridges of lofty mountains, the general inclination of its surface is towards the south. The following are some of the highest sum- mits within its precincts— Names. Feet. Black-larg 2890 Cairn kinnow . ſº º . 2080 Constitution Hill . - I032 Errickstone Brae . tº © • 1118 Hart Fell o º & 3302 Lowther Hill . * º e º e . 3100 Queensberry Hill. º - e * @ 2259 Whis Hill . . - • - º º The ramifications from this circular range of mountains necessarily render the surface of the coun- try hilly and abrupt, except in Some places toward the south, in those tracts through which the principal rivers flow. The chief streams are the Nith, the Annan, and the Esk. The Nith enters from Ayr- shire, from the north-west, and after traversing the county towards the South-east for nearly fifty miles, including the windings, and passing the town of Dumfries, falls into the Solway Frith, about three miles below, its estuary forming the harbour of that town. It abounds with Salmon near the sea, and with excellent trout nearer its source. The Annan takes its rise in the mountains within the borders of Peebles, not far from those of the Clyde and the Tweed : thence it flows through the central parts of Dumfriesshire, watering the district of Annandale. The Esk springs from the mountainous borders of Selkirkshire, and after passing Langholm forms for a short distance the boundary between England and Scotland, and then entering Cumberland, ultimately falls into the Solway Frith, after a course of about forty miles. Each of these receives various tributary streams. Loch Skeen is situated about 1300 feet above the level of the sea, and gives rise to the cas- cade called the Gray Mare's Tail, near the head of Moffat Water. This lake is about three quarters of a mile long, and one quarter broad; a few other small lakes are found in different parts of the coun- ty. The climate of Dumfriesshire is moist, mild, and Salubrious. The chief soils are gravel, sand, loam, clay, and moss, and in some places alluvial tracts are found along the banks of the rivers, and near the Solway Frith. There are a few large landed pro- prietors in this county. Among the chief, are the duke of Buccleuch, the earl of Hopetoum, and the earl of Mansfield, Mr Johnston of Annandale, General Sharp of Hoddam, Mr Menteath of Close- burn, &c. The farms vary much in size ; those comprising arable land being generally from fifty to three hundred acres, while the sheep farms of the mountains sometimes contain two or three thousand. Lead, antimony, manganese, coal, iron, limestone, marble, slate, and other kinds of stone are found in this county. Particles of gold are also occasionally found, near the lead hills, adhering to quartz. Silver is sometimes extracted from the lead, in the propor- tion of from six to twelve ounces in a ton. Coal is only obtained near the north-west and south-east extremities of the county. Mineral waters are found in several parts, but the two springs held in most repute are near Moffat, at the foot of Hart Fell, in the upper part of Annandale. One of these is sulphureous, and the other chalybeate. The former has been known for nearly 200 years, and its waters, though less powerful, resemble those of Harrowgate both in taste and medicinal properties. The other Spring, which is usually termed Hart, Fell Spa, is four or five miles from the village, in a sequestered 1940 749 It is a strong tonic, and is commonly taken in the spring. It may be carried to any distance without injury. It is gener- ally considered to obtain an increased virtue after Tall Il. Manufactures are confined to a little cotton-spin- ning at Langholm and Annan, and some weaving at the latter place. Linen is made for home consump- tion in several places. There are small iron-works, breweries, tanneries, and a paper-mill at Dumfries. A carpet manufactory is also carried on near San- quhar. The fisheries are of slight importance, as the only communication with the sea is by the Sol- way Frith. The commerce of this county, which is carried on by sea, chiefly centres in the port of Dumfries, and consists of the importation of coals, and the export of grain and wool. The cattle, sheep, and bacon, which form the most valuable exports, are mostly sent out of the county by land. Population of the county in 1831, 73,770. DUMQNT, STEPHEN, the friend and literary as- sistant of Mirabeau and Jeremy Bentham, was born at Geneva, in 1759, of a family which had suffered great reverses of fortune. From his infancy, he had to contend with adversity. He early displayed supe- rior talents, spirit, and intelligence. He was destined to the ecclesiastical career, and was ordained a min- ister of the Protestant church in 1781. He attached himself to the democratic party in Geneva, and, When the opposite party gained the ascendency, he went to Petersburg, where he was appointed pastor of the French reformed church. His talents for the pulpit caused his acquaintance to be sought by the eminent men, Russians or strangers, who were at the court of Catharine II. He had remained there but eighteen months, when lord Lansdowne invited him to England, with the intention of employing him to finish the education of his son. It was in the house of this statesman that he formed intimate connexions with some of the men who have dome most honour to Great Britain, particularly Sir Samuel Romilly. The French revolution brought him to Paris in the year 1789. He was soon called to associate himself with the men who were selected, for their strength and intelligence, to direct the destinies of France. It is asserted that the famous address of the king, propos- ed by Mirabeau, July 9, 1789, to obtain the sending back of the troops, was composed by Dumont. They undertook together a journal, the Courier of the Pro- vinces, designed to develope and render popular the new doctrines; and, as was likely to happen in such a partnership, the most assiduous as well as the most important labour fell upon Dumont. As soon as scenes of violence and cruelty began to Sully the cause of liberty, Dumont quitted Paris, and returned to England, before the sickness of Mirabeau, who died, April 2, 1791. When the details of the reign of terror reached Dumont in England, he was overcome with grief, and remained for Some years plunged in sadness. What contributed the most to draw him from this state of depression, was his in- creased intimacy with Jeremy Bentham, whom he had known since 1788. The enthusiasm of Dumont for Bentham was kept up, without deviation or divi- sion, to the end of his life. The English lawyer was for him written reason. He sometimes said of what he most admired in other philosophers, “It is con- vincing ; it is truth itself; it is almost Benthamic.” —It is well known that M. Dumont has edited many of the works of this distinguished lawyer, after divest- ing the ideas of the uncouth garb in which the author had clothed them. Dumont has spoken of the manu- scripts which his friend put into his hands as “a first draft,” “unfinished manuscripts,” “not correct- ed,” “fragments or simple notes.” (Preface to the s '#50 Treatise on Punishments.) This was pointing out but a small part of their imperfections. But it is from this source that he drew out all the philosophy of Bentham. The public had afterwards an occasion to judge of Mr Bentham's style (when he published himself), of his obscurity, his neologism, his pleasan- tries, at the same time grotesque and learned. M. Dumont, judging that the manuscripts of Mr Bentham would never be published, or, if they were, in the original form, would produce no impression, succeed- ed in having them given up to him to do what he wished with them. Bentham “refused at the same time any participation in the work, and declared that he should in no way hold himself responsible for it.” (Theory of Punishments, pref. 10.) Dumont, then, penetrating to the original ideas, remodelled, and made them over again, so far as not only to change entirely the style of the work, but also the argumenta- tion, distribution, sometimes even the results. Sup- pressing much, sometimes adding, always making more perfect, he finally produced a system which has powerfully excited thought and reflection all over Europe. The works ºãº by this singular fusion of two minds into a single one, were published in the following order:—l. Treatise on Civil and Penal Legislation (Paris, 1802, 3 vols.; 2d edit., Paris, 1820); 2. Theory of Rewards and Punishments (London, 1811, 2 vols.); 3. Tactics of Legislative Assemblies, followed by a Treatise on Political Sophisms (Geneva, 1816, 2 vols.); 4. 'Treatise on Judicial Proofs (Paris, 1823, 2 vols.); 5. Of the Organization of the Judiciary and Codification (Paris, 1828, 1 vol.). Numerous manuscripts of Bentham, which had already received the first labour from Dumont, still remained in his hands, and he disposed of then in favour of one of his nephews. When Geneva recovered her independence, in 1814, M. Dumont hastened back to his country, where his attempts to introduce liberal principles into the constitution of this little state, exposed him to much political persecution; but he succeeded, eventually, in effecting some important improve- ments. He afterwards laboured assiduously to in- troduce an improved penal code, and was a member of a committee, appointed in May, 1817, for this pur- pose. A great deal of time was spent by Dumont, and the other members of the committee, in digesting a plan, which, however, was not laid before the legislature at the time of his death, in September, 1829. He was also active in getting up a peniten- tiary, for which he drew up a plan in 1824, and which is in very successful operation. He died at Milan, while on a party of pleasure, in September, 1829. See a fine notice of Dumont, by Sir James Mackintosh, in the Foreign Quarterly Review, No. IX. DUMOURIEZ, CHARLEs FRANgois, a French ge. neral of great military talent, was born at Cambray, in 1739, of a noble family of Provence. He joined the army in Germany, under marshal Estrées, in 1757, and was appointed a commissary. He then served as a cornet in the regiment of Escars. The day before the battle of Clostercamp, he was wounded and taken prisoner ; in 1761, was made a captain ; dismissed in 1763, and presented with the cross of St Louis. Too active to remain unemployed, he offered his services to the Genoese, and then to Paoli ; and, both parties declining his proffers, he went on his own account to Corsica, then returned to France, and proposed a plan for reducing the island, but was not listened to. Hereupon he went to Spain, visited the Portuguese frontiers, and, in 1766, wrote his well known Essay on Portugal (1768). The conquest of Corsica being determined upon, Dumouriez went as quarter-master- general of the small army which was sent thither, and was afterwards inade colonel. IIe had frequent DUMOURIEZ. quarrels with all the generals, especially with Mar- boeuf. In 1770, the government gave him the comi- mission to oppose the measures of the Russian court, at the confederation of Bar. He took part in the campaign of 1771, against the Russians. In 1773, he was sent by the king on a mission to Sweden, but was arrested at Hamburg, by D'Aiguillon, to whom the mission was not agreeable, and put in the Bastile. In 1776, he was appointed one of the commissioners to examine whether a naval dock should be constructed on the coast of the English channel, and, in 1778, made an unsuccessful application for the command of Cherbourg. In 1788, he was appointed brigadier. In 1789, he came out, in a pamphlet, in favour of the principles then in vogue, but failed in obtaining, as he wished, the rank of general. He therefore re- turned to Cherbourg, where he was made commander of the national guard in that city, and governor of Lower Normandy. At the end of the year, he again returned to the capital, where he became a member of the Jacobin club. He afterwards sought to effect a union with Mirabeau, with whom he had formerly been at variance. About this time, he was made field-marshal of the twelfth division of the army ; but, being dissatisfied with a post where he had little opportunity to distinguish himself, he staid in the ca- pital, and courted more than ever the Jacobin party. After leaving the ministry, in which he had been placed for Some time, he was made lieutenant-general in the army of Luckner, on the northern frontiers, and was invested with the command of this army after the departure of Lafayette (19th of August). The Prus- sians, Austrians, and united emigrants, had then made themselves masters of Longwy and Verdun and were advancing upon Champagne. He took his position at Grandpré, and occupied the five passes of the woody heights of Argonne ; but, when the pass of Croix aux Bois was forced by the Austrians, he retired to St Ménéhould, while Kellerman maintained his position at Valmy (Sept. 20, 1792), and then opened a negotiation with the king of Prussia. In October, he returned to Paris, and formed a plan with the executive council for the winter campaign. On his return to the army, he issued a proclamation, calling upon the Belgians to rise against their sove- reign, and, November 6, assaulted the Austrian camp at Jemappe. Notwithstanding their small numbers, the imperial troops did not yield till after a long and bloody battle ; after which he took up his winter quarters on the Meuse and the Roer. At this time, his hostility to the minister Pache, with whom he had been at open variance during the whole campaign, for neglecting the supplies of his army, broke out into an open quarrel. He then re- paired to the capital, with the view, as he tells us in his Memoirs, of delivering the king, whose trial was then beginning. On a secondjourney thither, he saw many more deputies on the side of the Girondists ; but he had little influence, and was himself accused in the convention. Feb. 15, he opened the campaign with the bombardment of Maestricht, and, from Breda and Clundert, both which places he had cap- tured, he made his attack on Holland. The greatest part of his troops, however, whom he had scattered in winter quarters, were in no condition to meet the prince of Coburg. This general, March 1, assaulted the French outposts on the Roer, overcame them, and threatened Maestricht. TXumouriez now drew together his troops to the plains of Tirlemont, gave battle to the Austrians at Neerwinden, and was de- feated, owing, according to his own account, to the mismanagement of Miranda, who commanded the left wing. He met with another loss at Louvain, and found himself obliged to retreat. These disasters were the signal for his downfall. DUN--DUNC AN. All who wished his ruin now rose against him. On his arrival at the French frontiers, four commission- ers, and the minister Beurnonville, who were sent to arrest him, were delivered by him into the hands of the Austrians. He then issued a proclamation, in which he promised the restoration of the Constitu- tional monarchy, in the person of the heir to the crown, but was attacked by the Versailles volunteers, compelled to cross the Scheldt, and to fly to the prince of Coburg (April 4, 1793). The convention set a price of 300,000 livres upon his head. At first, he retired to Brussels, afterwards to Cologne. The elector refusing him a residence in Mergentheim, he went to Switzerland, and, in July, passed over to England, which, however, he was compelled to quit, by command of lord Grenville, roved about, for some time, in Switzerland and Germany, and, at last, settled near Hamburg. Here he published his Me- moirs. There was no party, except that of the Moun- tain, for which this political Proteus did not declare himself, in some of the various pamphlets that he pub. lished during his exile. In 1805,at the time of the battle of Austerlitz, he was in Teschen. It is certain, that, in 1803, he was made counsellor of war to the duke of York; but he did not keep the office long. Shortly after the battle of Eylau, he wrote his Jugement sur Bona- parte, adressé à la Nation Française et à l’Europe. During the Spanish and Portuguese war, he was very active in communicating plans to the British govern- ment, and to the Spanish and Portuguese authorities. In the Neapolitan revolution, in 1821, he also com- municated plans of defence to the parliament. The Pritish ministry granted him an annual pension of #1200. He died, March 14, 1823, at Turville park, dear Henley-upon-Thames, England, at the age of 84. Of his Memoirs (Hamburg, by Hoffmann) there has appeared an enlarged edition of 4 vols., in the Paris Collection of Memoirs, by Baudouin. There is a very complete article on Dumouriez in the Bio- || graphie des Contemporains. DUN (hill); a Celtic or ancient Teutonic word, from which comes the French word dune and the final syllable dunum in Latin, as Augustodunum (Autun). The same word is found in Dunkirk (church of the hills). In Low-German, the word Dune is still used for sandy hills on the sea-shore. It is, perhaps, from the same root with the German Dehnen, Dunst. In several English names, the syl- lable dun is used in a sense corresponding to down. Denmark (Icelandish, Dawnmark) is in part Com- posed of a word of similar sound and signification. It means low country. DUNBAR ; a royal burgh and sea-port town in Haddingtonshire, situated on a gentle acclivity, at the mouth of the Frith of Forth, twenty-seven miles east of Edinburgh. It is a place of great antiquity, and originated in a castle, once of great strength and importance as a bulwark against the invasions of the English. The castle underwent several memo- rable sieges, but is now an entire ruin. The har- bour and quay of Dunbar are rather incommodious, and the usual depth of water is scarcely sufficient to float vessels of 300 tons burden. With the excep- tion of some trade in corn, almost the only traffic carried on by sea here is connected with the catch- ing, curing, and selling of fish, particularly herring. The manufactories of the town are, a Soap work, an iron foundery, and an engineering establishment. The parish of Dunbar is about nine miles in length by two in breadth. Population of burgh and parish in 1831, 4735. DUNBAR, WILLIAM, the most eminent of all the old Scottish poets, was born, probably in East Lo- thian, about the middle of the fifteenth century. In his youth, he seems to have been a travelling movi- 75] ciate of the Franciscan order, but he returned to Scotland in 1490, and attached himself to the court of James IV., from whom he received a small pen- SIOIl. On the marriage of James IV. to Margaret of Eng: land, Dunbar celebrated that event, so auspicious of the happiness of his country, in a poem of singular beauly, entitled “the Thistle and the Rose,” in which he emblematized the junction and amity of the two portions of Britain. He seems to have afterwards been on good terms with the queen, for he addressesse- veral poems in avery familiarstyleto her majesty. Not- withstanding, however, his great merit as a poet, he seems to have lived a life of poverty, with perhaps no regular means of subsistence but his pension. He appears to have addressed both the king and the queen for a benefice, but always without success. How it came to pass that king James, who was so kind a patron to men possessing powers of amuse- ment, neglected to provide for Dunbar, is not to be accounted for. Next to “the Thistle and the Rose,” the most considerable poem by Dunbar was “the Golden Targe,” a moral allegorical piece, intended to demonstrate the general ascendency of love over reason: the golden targe, or shield of reason, he , shows to be an insufficient protection to the shafts of Cupid. He is also supposed to be the author of an exquisitely humorous tale, entitled “the Freirs of Berwick,” which has supplied the ground-work of a well known poem of Allan Ramsay, designated “ the Monk and the Miller's wife.” Another com- position, styled “the Twa Marriet Wemen and the Wedo,” contains much humorous sentiment, and many sarcastic reflections upon the fair sex. An- other poem of his, entitled “a Dance,” presents pic- tures of the seven deadly sins, equally expressive, perhaps, with any that could have been delineated by Milton himself. Dunbar died about 1536. He had the fortune, rare in that age, of seeing some of his works printed in his own lifetime. In 1508, among the very first efforts of the Scottish press, Chapman and Millar published his “Golden Targe,” his “Twa Marriet Wemen and the Wedo,” and several other poems. The remainder of his compositions have only reached us through the medium of the Bannatyne and Mait- land manuscripts. An edition of his poems, with a copious life and notes, was published by Mr David Laing, of Edinburgh, in 1834. DUNCAN, ADAM, viscount, a naval officer of dis- tinguished skill and courage, was born in Dundee, in 1731. He went to sea when young, obtained a lieutenancy in 1755, was made master and commander in 1759, and was a post captain in 1761. In that station he served, in the following year, at the taking of Havanna ; and, in 1779, he shared in the victory of admiral Rodney over the Spaniards. . In 1789, he was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral of the blue; and, by regular gradation, in 1794, he bacame vice- admiral of the white squadron. . The following year he was appointed commander of the North Sea fleet; when, after a tedious and harassing service of two years, occupied in watching the motions of the Dutch, in the harbour of the Texel, admiral Duncan found himself obliged to leave his station, and sail to Yar- mouth roads, in consequence of the mutinous dispo- sition of his sailors. The Dutch fleet put to Sea, which was no sooner made known to admiral Dum- can's men than they returned to their duty, and he immediately sailed in pursuit of the enemy, came up with them, defeated them, and captured the com- mander, admiral De Winter, and eight of his ships. The conqueror was rewarded with the title of vis- count Duncan, and a pension of £2000 a-year. He died, August 4, 1804. 752 DUNDAS, HENRy, viscount Melville, a distin- guished statesman, was born in 1741, studied at the university of Edinburgh, and, in 1763, was admitted a member of the faculty of advocates. He obtained the post of solicitor-general in 1773, that of lord- advocate in 1775, and was made joint keeper of the signet for Scotland in 1777. In 1782, he was ap- pointed treasurer of the navy, and member of the privy council; but he continued only a short time in office, the coalition between lord North and Mr Fox having displaced his party. The triumph of his op- ponents was but temporary ; and, on their retreat from power, he resumed his office under Mr Pitt, whose firm partisan he approved himself during their joint lives. On the passing of the act of parliament for regulating the affairs of the East India company, Mr Dündas was appointed president of the board of control; in 1791, he was made secretary of state for the home department ; and, in 1794, he became secretary at war. On the resignation of Mr Pitt, he also retired from public life; and, when the former resumed the helm of state, he was appointed first lord of the admiralty. In 1805, he was impeached, before the house of lords, of high crimes and misde- meanours in his former office of treasurer of the navy. As the evidence adduced against him did not directly implicate him in the malversation proved against his deputy, he was acquitted. He did not, however, hold any situation afterwards, except that of privy councillor. His death took place in May, 18il. He was created viscount Melville in 1801, and was succeeded in that title by his son. The city of Edinburgh contains two public monuments to lord Melville's memory—one, a marble statue, by Chan- trey, which stands in the parliament house, the other a column, surmounted by a statue, which stands in St Andrew's square. DUNDEE, a large and thriving town in Forfar- shire, Scotland, situated on the north bank of the river Tay, about twelve miles from its mouth ; dis- tant from Edinburgh, forty-two miles; from Perth, twenty-two miles; from Glasgow, eighty-four miles; lat. 56° 2'23" north; long. 3° 2' 55" west. The town was anciently called Alectum, or Ail-lec, which in Gaelic signifies pleasant or beautiful, a name said to have been changed for that of Don-dei, a cor- ruption of Donum Dei, in commemoration of the earl of Huntingdon's miraculous escape from ship- wreck here on his return from the Crusades in 1189. It was at one period strongly fortified, evi- dences of which are still discernible, and was twice taken and sacked by Edward I., but as often recov- ered by the patriotic party. Richard II. reduced the town to ashes, and it underwent a similar fate in the reign of Edward VI., when the English held Brough Tay castle. It was sacked and burned by the mar- quis of Montrose, in 1645; but the last and greatest disaster that befell the place was in 1651, when general Monk took it by storm, and gave it up to pillage. Such was the wealth of Dundee at this time, that every soldier in Monk’s army had nearly sixty pounds sterling as his share of the plunder. From the latter period it has been rising by degrees to its present eminence, that of ranking as one of the larg— est and best built towns in Scotland. Dundee consists chiefly of four spacious streets, meeting in the centre or market-place, which forms a large and handsome square, having on its south side the town-house, a fine building erected in 1734, the ground story comprising the guild-hall, court room, offices, and bank, and the upper part, a strong and commodious jail, surmounted by a spire 140 feet high—on the east side of the square, the trades-hall, an elegant structure, occupied below by shops; above, by the halls of meeting for the several incor- DUNDAS–10 UN FERMLYNE. porated bodies, and crowned with a handsome cupola. Not far distant stands the ancient church, a stately and magnificent pile, with a square tower 156 feet high, and near the Cowgate, an elegant new church, called St Andrew's, with a spire 139 feet high; be- side these there are two or three chapels of ease. From the south-east angle of the square runs a beautiful street, quite down to the quay, in which all episcopal chapel and an elegant theatre have lately been built. Among the rest of the public buildings and charities, are the infirmary for indigent sick, the dispensary, the orphan asylum, the public gram- mar-school, the English school, and the academy or college, where are established efficient profes- sors for teaching the mathematics, the French and Ital- ian languages, belles-lettres, and matural and experi- mental philosophy, with proper apparatus for the purpose. The charitable funds are large and well bestowed, and here are also several union benefit so- cieties. Dundee was not erected into a royal burgh till the reign of William III., in 1165, though it enjoyed many privileges before as well as since that of Ed- ward I., who destroyed its ancient records. Its trade has long been extensive, and of late years it has greatly increased. Its chief manufactures are, brown and bleached linens, Osnaburgs, sail-cloth, sacking, &c., much of which is exported to all quarters of the world. These stuffs are now wrought by means of steam, there being in the town and neighbourhood, about fifty spinning mills, driven by steam. It has a considerable commerce with the Baltic, and also employs a number of vessels in the whale fishery. It has a regular communication with London, by means of sailing-smacks, and two or three splendid steam-vessels. Some years ago, a railway was opened between Dundee and Newtyle, a village about ten miles distant, which lays open a traffic, chiefly agricultural, with that district. This railway is about to be extended to Cupar Angus, Glammis, Forfar, &c. About £200,000 has been expended on the harbour of Dundee. In front of the quay, are various docks and ship-yards, terminated on the west by Craig Pier, which is exclusively used for large ferry steam-boats. On the east, there project into the deep water the piers, on which are placed various coloured lights, to guide the seamen at night. Oppo- site to the town is a beacon built on a dangerous rock. The quays of Dundee are unequalled in Scot- land, and, considering the difficulties attending their erection, convey a striking impression of the public spirit of the inhabitants. The tonnage of the port amounted in 1832, to 32,868 tons. Its imports in flax and hemp, in the same year, amounted to 21,967 tons. The increase in trade in Dundee, within the last fifteen years, has been in a greater ratio than that of any other town in Scotland, not even excepting Glasgow. In 1815, 66 vessels entered inwards with cargoes from foreign ports, registering 10,620 tons; in 1832, there were 307 vessels, registering 46,539 tons. In 1815, three vessels cleared outwards with cargoes for foreign ports, registering 679 tons: in 1832, 56 vessels cleared outwards for foreign ports, registering 11,159 tons. The same marked in- crease has been made on the population of Dundee. In 1821, it was 30,575, but by the census of 1831, it was 45,355, exclusive of seamen belonging to the port. DUNFERMLINE, a large burgh-town in the county of Fife, situated fifteen miles north-west of Edinburgh. From a very early period this was a royal residence, traces of which are still existing in the ruins of a castle, anciently occupied by Malcolm Canmore; and in the remains of a palace, which was rebuilt by Anne of Denmark, said to have been the birth-place of Charles I. These relics are within the T) UNKER—IDUNOIS. new and extensive suburb of Pittencrieff, which is connected with Dunfermline by a bridge of one arch over the river Lyne; it is rapidly increasing in size and population. . The principal part of the town is seated on a declivity, commanding most extensive prospects, and descending towards the Frith of Forth, from which it is distant three miles, but that portion of it termed Nether Town occupies a plain. The streets, though irregular, and many of them narrow and inconvenient, are well built, and the houses abundantly supplied with water, by pipes from several fountains, two miles distant. The parish church, a venerable and interesting object, somewhat resem- bling the cathedral of Durham, is all that remains of a sumptuous and richly endowed Benedictine abbey, founded by Malcolm Canmore, and destroyed by Edward I. It was the place of sepulture of the founder, his queen, and seven subsequent monarchs, including Robert Bruce, whose tomb and remains were brought to light in 1818, during the erection of the new church, which adjoins the east end of the ancient pile, and vies with the handsomest temple in the kingdom. Besides these, there are within the town and parish a chapel of ease and places of wor- ship for Burghers, Antiburghers, Methodists, and Baptists. The other principal public buildings are the town- house and prison, erected in 1769; the guild-hall, built in 1808, under the roof of which are halls belonging to the various incorporated bodies, and apartments ºsed as assembly rooms. To these are to be added St Leonard's Hospital, and various other charitable in- stitutions, highly beneficial and admirably conducted, including the free grammar-school, the rector of which is nominated by the marquis of Tweeddale, as heritable baillie of regality, and the doctor or usher by the town-council and kirk-session, with suitable Salaries, derived from queen Anne's bounty and vo- luntary contributions. This place has long been celebrated for the manufacture of damask and diaper table-linen, at which no less than 1500 looms have been in operation. The privileges of this town emanated from its monastery for nearly two centuries, but by a charter of James VI. it was erected into a royal burgh, in 1588. The town is remarkable as being the theatre in which the principal dissents from the established church of Scotland have taken their rise ; namely, the Seceders, under Ralph Erskine, and the Relief, under George Gillespie. The parish of Dunfermline is about eight miles in length, five in breadth, and includes several villages, of which the most important are Charlestown and Limekilns, on the Frith of Forth, each possessing a harbour, capable of admitting ships of 300 tons bur- den, and convenient for exporting coal, with immense quantities of iron-stone raised here for the Carron company, also limestone, freestone, and granite, the produce of the extensive quarries adjacent. Popula- tion of the parish in 1831, 17,068 ; of the town 10,624. DUNKER. See Ephrata, also Baptists. DUNKIRK (French, Dunkerque, signifying the church on the downs), a strong commercial city, about twenty-seven miles from Calais, containing 24,200 inhabitants, in the department du Nord. It was formerly a constant cause of jealousy between England and France. It was captured from the Spanish, in 1658, by the French and English in con- innction, Cromwell having formed an alliance with the French. It was now put into the hands of the English, and, in 1662, bought of Charles II. by Louis XIV., for £400,000. Louis made every ex- ertion to fortify the place, and to improve the har- bour. This is capable of accommodating 200 large vessels at anchor, and is one of the most convenient iH. 753 in Europe. In the wars between England and France, the freebooters of Dunkirk did great injury to the English and Dutch trade. This, together with the increasing prosperity of the place, induced Eng- land to make it a principal condition of the peace of Utrecht (1713), that France should demolish the for- tifications, and destroy this master-piece of military architecture. The French attempted, by digging a new canal to Moerdyk, a league from Dunkirk, to indemnify themselves for the loss they had sustained by the treaty: the inhabitants of Tºmkirk also occu- pied themselves in quietly restoring the harbour ; but the English, from time to time, urged the des- truction of these works. The peace of Paris, 1763, which England dictated, repeated the conditions of the peace of Utrecht in relation to Dunkirk. Lord Chatham replied, in answer to the attempts of count Bussi, the French negotiator, to arrange other terms with regard to Dunkirk, that the people of England considered the demolition of Dunkirk as a perpetual memorial of the subjugation of France, and the minis- ter who should dare to change the conditions of this treaty would risk his head. An English commissioner was even established there to superintend the execu- tion of the treaty, who was to be supported by France. But, by the peace of Paris, 1783, this article was annulled. The restoration of the town was afterwards attempted, as far as the condition of France permitted. The importance of the place induced the duke of York, in August, 1793, contrary to the advice of Coburg, to advance with his own division, from the main § of the Austrian army, before Dunkirk, and make vigorous preparations for pushing the siege. The surrender was daily ex- pected, when the approach of general Houchard, with a superior force, and the vigorous sorties of the besieged, compelled the duke to raise the siege, and retire in haste, with field-marshal Freitag, under whom he commanded. Dunkirk is a free port, and, in peace, has an extensive commerce. The manufac- ture of tobacco in this place is extensive. DUNNING, John, lord Ashburton, an eminent lawyer, was the son of an attorney at Ashburton, in Devonshire, where he was born, October 18, 1731. He was educated at the free-school of his native place, and served his clerkship to his father; but, early determining to study for the bar, he pursued a course of assiduous application, both before and after his admission. The first thing which established his character, was his employment, in 1759, to draw up a defence of the East India company against the claims of the Dutch. This memorial, being esteemed a masterly production, gained him considerable prac- tice; which was prodigiously augmented by his be- coming counsel for #. in all the causes produced by the question of the general warrants. He dis- tinguished himself in such a manner, on this popular occasion, as to obtain the character of a Sound con- stitutional lawyer; and his practice Soon after became the most lucrative at the English bar. In 1766, he was chosen recorder of Bristol, and, in 1767, Solicitor- general, which office he resigned in 1770, in conse- quence of the resignation of his patron, lord Shel- burne, by whose interest he had been chosen member for Calne, in Wiltshire. From the time of his resig- nation, he remained a firm opponent to the ministry who conducted the American war; and, on the re- turn of lord Shelburne to power in 1782, he was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and advanced to the peerage by the title of lord Ashbur- ton. He died, August 18, 1783, leaving one son, the present possessor of the titles. DUNOIS, JEAN, count of Orleans, and of Longue- ville; born 1402, died 1468; a natural Son of Louis, duke of Orleans (who was murdered by the duke of 3 B 754 Burgundy), and of the wife of Cany. Dunois made the name “Bastard of Orleans' illustrious by his military exploits. He began his career with the defeat of Warwick and Suffolk, whom he pursued to Paris. Being besieged by the English, he defended Orleans with the greatest courage until relieved by the maid of Orleans. To the count of Orleans belongs, almost entirely, the honour of expelling the enemies of his country from Normandy and Guienne. In 1441, he gave them their death-blow at Chatil- lon; and it may truly be said, that Charles VII. was indebted to him for his crown. Dunois received from him the title of “deliverer of his country,” the county of Longueville, and the dignity of high-chamberlain of France. Louis XI. valued him no less. Not- withstanding this, Dunois was the Soul of the league which was formed against Louis, under the name of the league for the public good. DUNS, JoHN, commonly called Duns Scotus, an eminent scholastic divine of the thirteenth and four- teenth centuries. The place of his birth has been much disputed, but the best supported hypothesis is, that he was a native of Duns in Scotland. He was admitted, when young, into an institution belonging to the Franciscan friars at Newcastle, whence he was sent to Merton college, Oxford. Becoming cele- brated for his skill in scholastic theology, civil law, logic, and mathematics, he was, in 1301, appointed divinity professor at Oxford; and the fame of his learning and talents drew crowds of scholars from all parts. In 1304, he was sent by his superiors to Paris, in the university of which city he was admit- ted to the highest honours, and appointed professor and regent in the theological schools, in which situa- tion he acquired the title of “the most subtle doc- tor.” Nothing, however, could be more barren and useless than the chimerical abstraction and metaphy- sical refinements which obtained him this title. Duns opposed Aquinas on the subject of grace; and hence the Scotists are opposed to the Thomists. The im- maculate conception of the Virgin Mary was another of the tenets which divided these fierce antagonists; and it is believed by many authors, that it was Duns who first propounded it. In the year 1308, he was sent to Cologne, by the head of his order, to teach theology, but was cut off by an apoplexy, and, as a disputed account asserts, buried before he was actually dead, as was discovered by an examination of his grave. His death happened, according to , some writers, in his thirty-fourth, and to others, in his forty-third year. He left behind him numerous works, which were collected by Lucas Waddingius, in 12 vols., folio, Lyons, 1639. DUNSE ; a market-town and parish in Berwick- shire, the name of which is derived from the Celtic Dun, a hill, the ancient town having occupied the summit of the beautiful eminence, Dunse Law, which comprises an area of thirty acres, elevated 630 feet above the level of the Sea, and whose base is about three miles in circumference. At its foot stands the modern town, forty-two miles South-east of Edin- burgh, upon the banks of the Whittadder, a neat place, consisting of several spacious well paved streets terminating in a square, where the markets are held, and in the centre of which a new town- house has been recently erected in the Gothic style. Besides the church, an elegant fabric with a spire, built in 1792, there are places of worship for various denominations of dissenters, and a free grammar- school in high repute. Dunse is the seat of a presby- tery, and was constituted a burgh of barony before 1661, when it became the county-town, and continued so about thirty-five years, at the end of which the pre-eminence was again given to Greenlaw. Here are manufactures of wooſen cloth and fine linen, an L) UNS-D UPATY. extensive bleaching-ground, a large brewery, and several paper mills, established on the Whittadder. which has its source in the Lammermuir Hills, runs through the parish, and yields excellent salmon. The parish is eight miles in length by five in breadth Population in 1831, 3469. DUNSTAN, ST, an Anglo-Saxon divine and states- man of the tenth century, alike celebrated in legend- ary and authentic history, was born at Glastonbury, in 925, and was educated under Irish ecclesiastics, who were inmates of the famous abbey at that place. He acquired a knowledge of the Latin language and of philosophy, and studied the Scriptures and the writings of the fathers; besides which, he became skilled in music, painting, carving, and working in metals. He was introduced, early in life, to the court of king Athelstan, by his uncle Athelm, arch- bishop of Canterbury. Some indiscretion, or the jealousy of rivals, compelled him to retire from court and the disappointment of his prospects, together with a dangerous fit of sickness, seriously impressed his mind, and led him to seek for tranquillity in the monastic life. He took the vows at Glastonbury, and devoted himself with ardour to the duties of his profession. So entirely had he relinquished all views of secular ambition, that he divided between the church and the poor a valuable estate, bequeathed to him by a wealthy Saxon lady, as well as his paternal inheritance, which devolved to him at this period. On the death of Athelstan, Edmund, the brother and successor of that prince, invited him to court; and Edred, the next king, made him his prime minister and principal director in civil and ecclesias- tical affairs. On the death of Edred, his nephew Edwy, who was, probably, not more than fourteen years of age, ascended the throne. The enmity of the profligate courtiers was particularly directed against Dunstan, who was obliged to flee from his native country. He took refuge in Flanders, where he remained till he was recalled to England by king Edgar, to whom the imprudent Edwy had been oblig- ed to cede a part of his dominions. Dunstan was made bishop of Worcester, and, when Edgar became possessed of the whole kingdom, was raised to the see of Canterbury. In this station, his influence was exerted in promoting the introduction of the rule of St Benedict, which inculcated vows of chastity into the monastic institutions in England. The secular priests, who were generally married, were expelled from religious houses, and replaced by Benedictine monks, wherever the power of Dunstan extended. During the reign of Edgar, he was supported in the execution of his plans by the royal authority ; but, under Edward the Martyr, he experienced great op- position from the patrons of the secular clergy; and, after Ethelred II. became king, his influence still further declined, and he thenceforward interfered but little in public affairs. He died in 988. Few charac- ters in English history have been more variously re- presented than that of Dunstan. The monks repre- sent him as the most learned and accomplished pre- late, and most eminent statesman of his age. Popular tradition paints him as a master of magic arts, sub- jecting demons to his power. Modern Protestant writers have imputed the imaginary miracles of Dun- stan to his hypocrisy, overlooking their real origin in popular misconception. Osbern, who wrote the life of Dunstan a century after his decease, first appears to have propagated the legendary tales which have been so injurious to his fame, and of which no notice is taken by a contemporary anonymous biographer, whose memoir of the saint has been published by the Bollandists, and has every mark of authenticity. DUPATY, JEAN BAPTIsTE MERCIER ; born 1746, at Rochelle. In 1767, he became advocate-general DUPONT DE NEMOURS–DUQUESNE. to the parliament of Bourdeaux, afterwards president d mortier of that body, drew upon himself, by his love of strict justice, the persecutions of the ministerial despotism which oppressed France in the last years of Louis XV. Having written, in the name of the parliament of Bourdeaux, against the duke of Aiguil- lon, when this nobleman became minister (1770), he was sent to Pierre-en-Cise (a fortress at Lyons, once a state prison), and afterwards banished, until the accession of Louis XVI. Being acquainted with the defects of the ancient administration of justice in Frauce, he made every exertion to expose them. The memorial by which he preserved the lives of three innocent citizens of Chaumont, who were con- demned to the wheel, deserves particular mention. His other works are, Réflexions historiques sur les Loiw criminelles, a valuable work; various Discours aca- démiques ; and Lettres sur l’Italie en 1785, which ap- peared 1788, in 2 volumes. These letters, among many prejudiced views, contain some excellent observations on the arts, and interesting descriptions of natural Scenery; but his style is often disfigured by laboured ornaments. He died, 1788, at Paris. – His son (Charles Mercier), born at Bourdeaux, September 29, 1771, died at Paris, November 12, 1825. He was the restorer of sculpture in France, a member of the institute, and professor in the école des beaua arts; was at first an advocate, served during the revolution as a dragoon, then as dessinateur géographe, and finally went to Rome, where he studied sculpture, under the direction of Lemot, and, during a residence of eight years, made himself known by numerous works. His principal productions are Ajax pursued by Neptune; his equestrian statue of Louis XIII. (1816); and Orestes pursued by the Furies. Cortot, his suc- cessor in the academy, completed some of his works. DUPONT DE NEMOURS, PIERRE SAMUEL, born at Paris, December 1739, distinguished as well for his knowledge and talents as for his mild and bene- volent character, his excellent principles, and his blameless life, lived almost unknown, at Paris, as a private man of letters, until 1773, when his principles of philosophy and political economy, set forth in his Les Ephémérides du Citoyen, excited the displeasure of the minister Choiseul, and obliged him to leave France. Several foreign princes offered him a recep- tion, and conferred honours upon him. He returned, however, to his native country, and accepted of a Small place, given him by Turgot, minister of finance. In 1782 and 1783, with Dr Hutton, the English agent, he negotiated the basis of the treaty by which the in- dependence of the United States of America was acknowledged. As inspector-general of commerce and manufactures, and as a counsellor of state, he after- wards did much to encourage French industry. In 1787 and 1788, he was appointed, by Louis XVI., secretary to the assembly of the notables. In 1789, he became a member of the first national assembly, where he distinguished himself by his principles, his courage, his talents, and his firm opposition to the intrigues of factions. He was twice president of the national assembly, and always supported moderate principles. Under Robespierre, he was imprisoned, and nothing but the fall of the tyrant preserved him. He was afterwards a member of the council of elders. After the directory was abolished, he went to Ame. rica, in 1798. In 1802, he returned to France, but did not, at that time, take any office, notwithstanding the offers made him by Napoleon. The confidence of his fellow citizens followed him in his retirement, as was shown by his appointment to several important offices. In 1814, Dupont was made secretary of the provisional government which prepared the way for the return of the house of Bourbon to the throne of France. After Napoleon's return from Elba, he went. 755 again to America, of which country his two sons had already become citizens. Here he terminated his useful life, August 6, 1817, at the advanced age of seventy-eight. DUPONT DE L'ETANG. See Baylen. DUPUIS, CHARLES FRANgois, a member of the French national institute,was born at Trie-le-Chateau, near Gisors, in 1742, and instructed by his father in mathematics and surveying. The duke de la Roche- foucault sent him to the collége d'Harcourt, to pursue his studies; and, in his 24th year, he was made pro- fessor of rhetoric at . Lisieux. His intimacy with Lalande, and his own inclination, led him to devote himself particularly to mathematics; the knowledge and the prejudices of that learned man had a great influence on him. In 1778, he invented the tele- graph, which was afterwards improved by the bro- thers Chappe. His Mémoire sur l’Origine des Com- stellations et sur l’Eaſplication de la fable par l'Astro- homie (1781), is full of originality and learning. In 1788, he became a member of the académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, and went to Paris, where he was named one of the four commissioners of public instruction, to ascertain the resources of all the institu- tions for education and learning in Paris. As a mem- ber of the national convention, he was constant in his support of moderate measures. On this account, he was chosen a member of the council of five hun- dred; and the reputation which he there acquired for activity and information, procured him admission into the national institute. The tribunat and the legislative body proposed him as a senator. His work, Origine de tous les Cultes, ou la Réligion zºniverselle (1794, 3 vols., 4to, with an atlas), was severely criticised in Germany, Holland, France, and Italy, but is a re- markable monument of his learning. In this work, he attempted to explain, not only all the mysteries of antiquity, but also the origin of all religious tradi- tions. An abridgment, in one volume, afterwards followed. His two works on the Pelasgi, their origin in Ethiopia, their spreading over Lybia, Cyre- naica, and the north of Africa, and thence to Spain, Greece, and Italy, attracted great attention. His treatises on the Zodiac of Denderah, and on the Phoenix, succeeded. In his last work, Mémoire ev- plicatif du Zodiaque chronologique et mythologique (1806, 4to, engravings), he maintained that the astronomical and religious opinions of the Greeks, Egyptians, Chinese, Persians, and Arabians, had a common origin. He died at his estate near Dijon, 1809, 77 years old, and left, in manuscript, a work on cosmogony and theogony, the object of which was to confirm the theory he had laid down in his Origine de tous les Cultes. He also endeavoured, in this work, to explain hieroglyphics. DUQUESNE, ABRAHAM, a French admiral, under Louis XIV., was born at Dieppe, in 1610, and acquired his knowledge of naval affairs under his father, who was an experienced captain. In his seventeenth year, he was in the sea-fight off Rochelle, and distinguished himself, during and after the year 1637, in the war against Spain. In 1644, he entered the service of Sweden. He was recalled, in 1647, to France, and commanded the expedition against Na- ples. Bourdeaux, which had rebelled, he reduced, notwithstanding the assistance afforded it by Spain. In the Sicilian war, he thrice defeated the combined fleets of Holland and Spain, under the renowned De Ruyter. After he had reduced Algiers and Genoa to the necessity of supplicating the mercy of Louis XIV., the king Conferred upon him the fine estate of Bouchet, and made it a marquisate, with the title of Duquesne. More than this he could not do, be- cause Duquesne was a Protestant. He was, also. the only person exempted from the banishment of w 3 P 2 756 his sect, occasioned by the repeal of the edict of Nantes. He died at Paris, in 1688. Mildness and modesty tempered his heroic character; and De Ruyter was his model. He left four sons, of whom the most famous, Henry, marquis of Duquesne, was also distinguished as a naval character. DURANGO ; a town in Mexico, capital of the province of New Biscay, or Durango; 335 miles N.W. Mexico; lon. 103° 35' W.; lat. 24° 25' N.: population, according to Humboldt, 12,000; accord- ing to Pike, 40,000. It is a bishop's see. The town is situated on an elevation, 6845 feet above the Sea. The air is healthy, the surrounding country fertile, producing an abundance of wheat, maize, fruits, &c., and the trade of the town is considerable. DURANTE, FRANCEsco, a celebrated composer, was born in 1693, at Naples, and received his first instruction from the famous Alexander Scarlatti. The fame of Pasquini and Pittoni drew him to Rome, whither he went to perfect himselfin the knowledge of counterpoint. He then returned to Naples, as maestro di capella (director of the musical choir), and composed, almost exclusively, for the church. In vocal church music, he attained a high degree of eminence. He also educated the most celebrated musical masters of the eighteenth century in Naples —Pergolese, Sacchini, Piccini, Guglielmi, Traetta, Jomelli, &c.—and died at Naples, 1755, at the age of sixty-two. - DURER, ALBERT ; born at Nuremberg, 1471. His father was a skilful goldsmith of Hungary, and himself instructed his son Albert. Durer's talent early developed itself; and, although he had made great progress in his father's profession by the time he was fifteen, his inclination took a decided turn for painting. Michael Wohlgemuth, then the best painter in Nuremberg, became his instructer in 1486. Having finished his studies, he entered upon his travels, and, in 1490, travelled through Germany and Alsace. In 1492, he passed through Colmar and Basle, and, in 1494, returned home. Here he executed his masterpiece, a drawing of Orpheus. To please his father, he married the daughter of Hans Fritz, a celebrated mechanic ; but this con- nexion imbittered his life, and perhaps brought him to an early grave. In 1505, he went to Venice to accomplish himself in his art. His abilities excited envy and admiration. He painted the Martyrdom of Bartholomew, for St Mark’s church, which paint- ing was purchased by the emperor Rodolph, and removed to Prague. He also travelled to Bologna, to improve his knowledge of perspective. This journey had no effect upon his style. At his return, in 1507, begins the proper era of his greatness. In 1520, he again visited the Netherlands, probably for amusement only. His fame spread far andwide. Maximiſian I. appointed him his court-painter, and Charles V. confirmed him in this office, bestowing upon him, at the same time, the painter's coat of arms, viz., three escutcheons argent, in a deep azure field. Durer was in favour with high and low. All the artists and learned men of his time honoured and loved him, and his early death, in 1528, was greatly lamented. Profound application, great facility in the mechanical part of his art, and a remarkable talent of imitation, were the characteristics of Durer, and enabled him to exert a great influence on the charac- ter of German art. He was the first in Germany who taught the rules of perspective, and of the pro- portions of the human body, according to mathe- matical principles. His treatise on proportions was occasioned, it is said, by his studies on the picture of Adam and Eve. He not only made use of the burin, like his predecessors, but was also the inventor of etching, or, if not the inventor, the first who excel- DURANGO--DURHAM. led in the art. IIe invented the method of printing wood-cuts with two colours. His great mathemati- cal knowledge enabled him to form a regular system of rules for drawing and painting. He wrote the first book on fortification, in Germany, and showed how to cast the letters of the alphabet according to fixed proportions, by geometrical calculations. He was particularly eminent as a portrait painter. He had the power of catching the exact expression of the features, and of delineating all the passions. Among his best engravings in copper are his Fortune, Melancholy, Adam and Eve in Para- dise, St Hubert, St Jerome, and the Smaller Passion, (so called), in sixteen plates. Among his best wood-cuts are the Greater Passion (so called), in thirteen plates; the Smaller Passion with the frontispiece, thirty-seven pieces; the Re- velation of St John, with the frontispiece, fifteen plates; the Life of Mary, two prints, with the from- tispiece. Bartsch, however, has made it more than probable, that Durer himself did not engrave in wood. He only made the drawings on wooden tablets, which were then cut by form-cutters, of whom there were many skilful ones at that time. Durer has, also, much merit as a writer. He laboured to purify and elevate the German language, in which he was assisted by his friend, W. Pirkheimer. His writings, which were afterwards translated into Latin, French, &c., were published, in a collected form, at Arnheim, by J. Jansen (1603, folio). J. J. Roth has written a life of him (Leipsic, 1791). T}URESS, in law, is restraint or compulsion ; and it is a general principle, that a contract made under compulsion is not binding ; and many acts will be excused on this ground, which would otherwise be blamable. There may be very different degrees of constraint, from absolute necessity down to a slight motive of fear; and the motives of fear may be of very different strength ; for, if a man’s life is cmdan- gered by his refusal to do an act, the law considers him to be under the highest compulsion, and contracts made under such motives are not binding. Duress may take place in two different ways: 1. by actual imprisonment, and, 2. by threats, per minas. If a man be illegally confined to compel him to sign a deed, he may avoid it ; but, if he be legally impri- soned, and, to gain his liberty, signs a deed or agree- ment, it will bind him. This is not the duress con- templated by the law. Compulsion will excuse acts, which, done voluntarily, and from choice, would be capital crimes; for, by compulsion of an enemy, a man may do acts which, had they been of his free choice, would have been treason, and yet be excused. But the evil committed must be in Some proportion to that feared, as a man would not be excused for homicide, to avoid even a serious injury to himself. But in regard to civil transactions, a smaller degree of restraint will be the ground of avoiding an obliga- tion. It has been adjudged that, if one make a deed to avoid the duress done by merely taking his cattle, in other words, to procure their liberation, if they were unlawfully detained, the deed may be avoided. A Son may allege the duress of a father, a husband that of his wife, a servant that of his master, and a master that of his servant, in avoidance of a deed. A marriage, as well as any other contract, made by one under duress, may, on this ground, be avoided. DURHAM, BishopRic of, the only county palatine remaining in England. It is called a county palatine a palatio, because the owners thereof had the authority to use the royal prerogative as fully as the king had in his palace. It has a court of chancery, and the bishop is at the head of the administration of justice. Durham is bounded on the east by the German Ocean, on the north by Northumberland, DUR.HAM—IDUROC. from which it is divided by the rivers Tyne and Derwent, by Cumberland on the west, from which it is separated by barren hills and moors, and by York- shire on the south, the river Tees parting the two counties. The outline of this county forms an irre- gular triangle, the western angle of which is a moun- tainous, bare, and barren region, crossed by a ridge of hills, which has not unaptly been styled the English Appenines. This tract, however, is enrich- ed by mines of lead and iron, and it extends along the northern part of the county, till it terminates in the great coal-fields, between the Tyne and the Wear. Coal is likewise found on the southern side of the county. In the eastern and central parts are fair and fertile valleys, agreeably varied with hill, dale, arable, and pasture land. The soil, in the neighbourhood of the Tees, and on the borders of Some other rivers and brooks, is a rich clay or loam; but at a distance from these streams it is of an inferior quality, interspersed with spots of sand and gravel. The principal rivers are the Derwent, the Wear, and the Tees. The first-mentioned rises near the confines of Northumberland, forms, for some distance, the boundary of the two counties, and crossing an angle of Durham, takes its course through a romantic tract of country, and falls into the Tyme, near New- castle. The Wear has its source in the western heights, and, flowing eastward through a fine valley, passes the city of Durham, and enters the sea below Sunderland. The Tees rises from the same range of hills with the preceding, and after a winding course along the south border of the county, falls into the Sea some miles below Stockton. This county, considering its extent of coast, is not very amply provided with ports and harbours. The most important are South Shields, Sunderland, Hartle- pool, and Stockton. From the variety of its Soil, the agricultural produce of the county is not easily estimated. On the best lands wheat may yield twenty or thirty bushels from an acre, barley from thirty to forty, and oats, from twenty to forty. some spots, where the soil is gravelly, barley and turnips are grown alternately, with the occasional interposition of a crop of clover. The wood-lands are not considerable, principally consisting of the ornamental plantations belonging to the seats of the nobility and gentry, and others bordering some of the rivers, especially near the city of Durham. The cattle are abundant, and are justly esteemed both for the dairy and for fattening; the sheep are generally large, with long wool, and the breed, called the Tees-water sheep, are in great request, as well as the Wear-dale sheep, which are small, but produce delicately flavoured mutton. In connexion with the Commerce of the county, may be noticed its cast- metal founderies, iron-works, potteries, glass-houses, copperas, coal-tar, and salt-works, quarries of marble, firestone, and limestone, brick, lime, and tile-kilns, and linen and woollen manufactures. The only city is Durham ; the principal towns are Barnard Castle, i)arlington, Stockton, Sunderland, Hartlepool, Bis- hop's Auckland, Marwood, Wolsingham, Stanhope, and Staindrop ; but at some of these places the markets have been discontinued. Population of the county in 1831, 253,700. DURHAM, the capital of the county of that name, is situated on the river Wear, about 260 miles from London. It is irregularly built on a rocky eminence, almost encompassed by the Wear, whose precipitous banks are fringed with woods, which add much to the beauty of the scene. The highest ground in the Centre is occupied by the cathedral and castle, which, with the streets called the Baileys, are included with- in the limits of the old walls of the city. Below the walls on one side the declivity is ornamented with On 757 gardens and plantations reaching to the banks of the Wear; and on the opposite side are steep and lofty rocks; while the more distant prospect displays rich meadows, green hills, and houses, in beautiful variety. The market-place is a small quadrangle, having in the centre a conduit to supply the inhabitants with water, on the south side a piazza, where the corn- market is held, and on the west the guildhall, ori- ginally erected by Bishop Tunstal, about 1555, but since repaired and much improved. The central conduit is an octagon building, surmounted by a statue of Neptune ; and the water is conveyed from a spring about half a mile distant. A new and handsome bridge over the Wear was erected between 1772 and 1777, at the expense of the Dean and Chapter, instead of a former bridge at some distance, which was destroyed by a flood in November, 1771. There are also two ancient bridges, Framwell-gate bridge, built about 1120 by Bishop Flambard, and Elvet-bridge, built by Bishop Pudsey. The new jail, house of correction, and county court-house, are at the head of Old Elvet; they occupy a large square area, on the north side of which is the court-house, which, besides the Crown and Nisi Prius courts at each end, contain commodious apartments for the judge, jury, counsel, &c. These extensive buildings were commenced in 1809, and cost the county 38140,000. A handsome theatre was erected in 1791. There are two public libraries, besides those of the Bishop and Dean and Chapter, an agricultural and a horticultural society. Here are also handsome public assembly-rooms, and a race-course, where races have been annually run in April or May, since the reign of Charles II. The bishopric is esteemed One of the richest benefices in the kingdom, and is valued in K. B. at £2821 : 1 : 5d.; but its real annual revenue is supposed to exceed £20,000. The dignity attached to this see is very great, the Bishop being Count Palatine and Custos Rotulorum, possessing the appointment of high sheriff and all the officers of justice. Population in 1831, 10,125. DUROC, MICHAEL, duke of Friuli, a distinguished general under Bonaparte, was born at Pont-à-Mous. Son, in 1772. His father was of an ancient family of Auvergne ; having become a captain and knight of St Louis, he married, and established himself in Lorraine. Young Duroc was early destined for the army, and studied at the military school of Pont-à- Mousson. March 1, 1792, he was made lieutenant of artillery. He then served in the republican armies. Honourable mention is made of his name in the bulletins of the Italian army, particularly at the siege of Mantua, and at the battle of Sismone, in 1796. He served, during the first campaign in Italy, as aid-de-camp of the general of artillery, Lespinasse. Being subsequently appointed aid-de- Camp to general Bonaparte, he soon made himself Conspicuous for coolness, courage, and ability. He distinguished himself at the battle of Grimolano, where he was wounded, and his horse was killed under him. At the passage of the Izonso, in Friuli, he was mentioned as one of the bravest and most able officers. The title of duke of Friuli, which he received ten years afterwards, was chosen in allusion to his conduct at Izonso. Duroc followed general Bonaparte into Egypt, and was promoted to the rank of chief of battalion the twenty-fifth of Brumaire, year VI. During this campaign, in which his Services were of the greatest value, his name was again mentioned with honour, after the battle of Salahia, the successful result of which was mainly owing to his valour. T)uring the expedition into Syria, at the siege of Jaffa, Duroc, seeing the grena- diers falling at the foot of the breach, and wavering, put himself at their head, and engaged, hand to 7.58 hand, with several Turks. The army, seeing him disappear in a tower which was defended with great fury, gave him up for lost, but soon received him with shouts on seeing him appear on the top, master of the tower and of the ramparts. After having distinguished himself, on several occasions, before St Jean d’Acre, he was severely wounded by the bursting of a howitzer, in one of the last assaults made during the siege, the most bloody and obstinate in the military . of France. He distinguished himself no less at the battle of Aboukir. Being named chief of brigade, he accompanied general Bonaparte on his return to France; he was almost the only aid-de-camp of the commander-in-chief who survived the expedition : four had been killed in the campaign. Duroc took part in the events of the eighteenth Brumaire, and, a few days after, was sent to the court of Berlin, where he was received with great distinction. This embassy contributed to pre- Serve the peace between these two countries. War continuing between France and Austria, the first consul set out on the campaign, which was ter- minated at Marengo. Duroc accompanied him as first aid-de-camp. His name is honourably men- tioned in the account of the passage of the Ticino, where he was one of the first to leap into a boat, at the head of the grenadiers. Amiens, he was sent, on diplomatic missions, to the courts of St Petersburg, Stockholm, and Copenhagen, On his return, he was promoted to the rank of general of brigade and governor of the Tuileries; and, on the 9th Fructidor, year X. he was made general of divi- Sion. When the first consul assumed the title of em- Fº he made Duroc grand marshal of the palace. he courtier and favourite never ceased to be a Sol- dier. He accompanied Napoleon in all his cam- paigns. In 1805, he was charged with a mission to the Prussian court, at the time when Napoleon was marching against Vienna. He rejoined the army previously to the battle of Austerlitz, and took the command of the division of grenadiers, which had been left without a head, in consequence of the wound of Oudinot. At the battle of Austerlitz, he also com- manded a division of this chosen corps. During the Campaign in Prussia, in 1806, Duroc was commis- Sioned to sign the treaty of peace with the king of Saxony; and, at a later period, he was the principal negotiator of the armistice which preceded the peace of Tilsit. He followed Napoleon to Spain, and dur- ing the campaign of Wagram. At the battle of Ess- lingen, he arranged and directed his batteries in such a way as to arrest the progress of the enemy in a decisive movement. After the battle of Znaym, Na- poleon sent him to the archduke Charles, to nego- tiate an armistice. On the return from the Russian Campaign, in 1812, Duroc reorganized the imperial guard, which, at this time, and on several other oc- casions, he commanded. Before his last departure for the army, he was appointed senator. Duroc fin- ally followed Napoleon to Germany, in 1813, and was killed, May 23, after the battle of Lutzen, on entering the village of Merkersdorf, by a ball, which also killed general Kirschner, with whom he was convers- ; behind the emperor. This ball was the last which fell on that day; and the piece from which it was discharged, was at So great a distance, and surround- ed by so many obstacles, that it is inconceivable how it could have reached the place. , Napoleon visited Duroc on his death-bed, and mingled fears with his farewell. He lost in him a true counsellor, a faithful friend, and one of his bravest officers. The deaths of the duke of Friuli and of the duke of Montebello are the two events on which Napoleon showed the great- est sensibility. Successively charged with the most important duties, military and political, the duke of After the peace of DUROC–D UTENS Friuli was ever remarkable for a moderation rare in a soldier, for ability, disinterestedness, modesty, firm- mess, and a presence of mind which never deserted him. For fifteen years, he was the confidant and friend of that extraordinary man. When Napoleon left France, in 1815, and embarked on board the Bel- lerophon, he wished to live in England, under the name of colonel Duroc. Seven years afterwards, we have another proof of the constant and affectionate remembrance which Napoleon retained of him. He left to his daughter one of the largest legacies be- queathed by his will. DUSSELDORF; capital of the government of Dusseldorf, in the Prussian province of Juliers-Cleves- Berg, formerly the capital of the duchy of Berg, si- tuated in a beautiful plain on the Rhine and the Dus- sel, which unite under its walls. It was bombarded by the French in 1794, and the castle and many of the finest buildings were destroyed. The town is one of the finest on the Rhine; some of the streets are regularly laid out ; the houses are of brick. It con- tains 2200 houses and 26,600 inhabitants, and is di- vided into the Old Town, New Town, and Charles's Town. The New Town was built by the elector John William. The buildings resemble palaces, and the principal street is adorned with lime-trees. Charles's Town owes its existence to the elector Charles Theodore, from whom it derives its name. It has recently been much embellished, and contains several spacious squares. The collegiate church, and principal parochial church, which contains the tombs of the ancient dukes of Juliers and Berg (among which the marble mausoleum of the duke John is distinguished), deserve mention. The Jesuits' church, which is, however, too much ornamented ; the bronze statue, by Crepello, of the elector John William (a great patron of the arts, to whom Dusseldorf was ir. debted for its prosperity), which stands in the mar- kel-place, and a marble statue of the same elector, by the same artist, in the yard of the castle (the beauti- ful castle itself is in ruins); the observatory, in what was formerly the Jesuits’ college, and the fine Scien- tific apparatus, are also worthy of attention. The gallery of paintings, containing the richest collection of the works of Rubens, and other great artists of the Dutch and Flemish schools, and formerly the chief ornament of Dusseldorf, has been removed to Mum- ich ; only the valuable collection, containing 14,241 original designs, 23,445 copperplates and casts in plaster, is º retained for the use of the academy of arts at Dusseldorf. The town has some important silk and cotton manufactories and sugar refineries, with glass founderies and vinegar and soap manufac. tories. Dusseldorf is one of the principal commercial towns on the Rhine. D UTC H L A N G U A G E, LITERATURE, SCHOOLS OF ART, &c. See Holland. DUTENS, Louis, born at Tours, 1730, of Protest- ant parents, died in London, 1812. At the time of his death, which happened at an advanced age, he was historiographer to the king of England, and mem- ber of the academy of sciences in London, and of the Paris academy of inscriptions. Being convinced, by some unsuccessful attempts in twagedy, that he had no genius for poetry, he obtained, with some difficul- ty, the place of a tutor. He became the friend of many distinguished men, who enriched him with pensions, benefices, and legacies. He was three times British chargé d'affaires to Turin, travelled through Europe several times, and formed an ac- quaintance with many of the learned men in different parts of the continent. His works have been often republished, and show the variety of his learning, refined by intercourse with the polite world. He published the works of Leibnitz, at Geneva, in six TXU TIES-HDWIGHT, vols., not quite complete. The preface to the ma- thematical part is highly esteemed by mathemati- cians. Dufens made himself known as a poet by the two collections Le Caprice poétique and Poésies. His Recherches sur l’Origine des Découvertes attribuées awa, Modernes show the extent of his reading, but rate the knowledge and invention of the ancients somewhat too high. His Tocsin ou Appel au bon Sens, of which he printed several successive editions, contains severe remarks upon Voltaire and Rousseau. In general, he was an opponent of the French philo- sophers, and attacked them on every occasion. In his CEuvres melées (London, 4 vols.) may be found his Logique ou l'Art de raisonner. His Histoire de ce qui s'est passé pour le Rétablissement d'une Régence en Angleterre (1789) has historical interest. Dutens also composed a work, rather alien from his common pursuits, On the Genealogy of the Heroes of Ro- mance. Three volumes of Mémoires d'un Poyageur qui se repose (Paris, 1806) were received with gene- ral approbation. The third volume, entitled Duten- siana, contains anecdotes and observations. An ear- lier work of a similar kind was interesting as a sort of scandalous chronicle of the distinguished men of his time ; but he thought it advisable to destroy the whole edition before it was made public, and, what is rarely the case, he accomplished his object. DUTIES. See Revenue. DUVAL, WALLENTINE JAMERAY, librarian of the emperor Francis I., born in 1695, was the son of a poor peasant in the village of Artomay, in Cham- pagne. In his tenth year, he lost his parents; in his fourteenth year, being driven from his native place by the want of employment, half famished, and soon after attacked by the small pox, he wandered about in the open country, in the terrible winter of 1709. Providence conducted him to the cell of the good her- mit Palemon, who received him, permitted him to share his labours, and taught him to read. Here Duval became devout without being superstitious. He then exchanged this quiet retreat for another at St Anne, near Luneville. Here his only company was four ignorant hermits; his employment, tending six cows ; and his only means of improvement, some volumes of the Blaue Bibliothek ; but he finally suc- ceeded in learning to write. An epitome of arith- metic, which fell into his hands, highly interested his youthful mind. In the solitude of a forest, he re- ceived his first ideas of astronomy and geography. In order to procure the means of educating himself, he killed game, and, in a few months, the proceeds of his toils furnished him with a little stock of money. Happening to find a gold seal engraved with a coat of arms, he had it advertised by the minister of the place. An Englishman by the name of Forster ap- peared as the owner, and Duval gave it up to him on condition that he would explain to him the coat of arms. Surprised by this honesty and curiosity, Forster rewarded him so bountifully, that his library, which had been gradually forming out of the hunting fund, was increased to 200 volumes, while he spent nothing on personal or external conveniences. En- gaged in his studies, Duval paid little attention to his herd, and thereby displeased the hermits. One of them even threatened to burn his books. This roused the spirit of Duval. He seized a fire-shovel, drove the brother out of his own cell, and shut him- self up in it. The other brothers came with the su- perior, but he refused to open the door till they had agreed to pass over all that had happened, and to allow him, in future, two hours a-day for studying, while he, on his part, was to serve them ten years more for his clothes and victuals. Duval was now Secure. He pursued his studies with more zeal than ever in the forest where his cows were grazing. He 7.59 was found one day by the young princes of Lorraine, while thus busy with his maps and charts. They made him an offer, on the spot, of placing him with the Jesuits, at Pont-a-Mousson. He accepted it, but only on condition that his liberty should not be sacri- ficed by it. He soon made such rapid progress, that duke Leopold took him with him to Paris, in 1718, to see what effect this new scene would have upon him. But Duval declared that all the pomp of the city and its works of art were far inferior to the majesty of the rising or setting sun. On his return, Leopold ap- pointed him his librarian, and made him professor of history in the academy at Luneville. These offices, and the lessons which he gave to the young Englishmen studying there (among whom was the famous Chat- ham), afforded him the means of rebuilding his old hermitage of St Anne. When Lorraine was ceded to France, he removed, with the library under his care, to Florence, where he staid ten years. The emperor Francis invited him to Vienna, to form a collection of medals. Here he died in 1775. With all his learning, Duval was exceedingly modest. His CEuvres, précédées de Mém. sur sa Pie, were pub- lished at Petersburg, Bale, and Strasburg, in the year 1784, in two volumes quarto. DWARFS. In ages when knowledge depends mostly on tradition, it is natural for the human mind to people the world with a thousand imaginary beings. Such are dragons, giants, and dwarfs; all of which have some foundation in reality, and afford amusement to the imagination, even after experience has corrected the belief in the reality of their mar- vellous character. We need hardly say, that the pygmies of the ancients, and the Quimos, whom Com- merson tells us that he discovered, are as fabulous as the renowned Lilliputians. The dwarfs which ac- tually exist are deviations of nature from her general rule; and the term dwarf is a vague one, as we can- not say how small a person must be to be so called. There is no instance on record of dwarfs distinguished for talents. Their figures are sometimes perfectly well proportioned. They have generally one trait in common with children—a very high opinion of their own little person, and great vanity. The Romans used dwarfs for several purposes; sometimes in gla- diatorial exhibitions, on account of the ridiculous contrast which they afforded to their opponents. To- wards the end of the middle ages, and even in some countries, as late as the beginning of the last century, dwarfs were a fashionable appendage to the courts of European princes, and the families of the nobles. Who does not recollect the numerous pictures of those times, with a negro or a dwarf in the back ground P. They seem to have been great favourites with the ladies of the family. They were sometimes, also, used as fools. Peter the Great carried this fancy for dwarfs to a great extent. He assembled indivi- duals of this kind from all parts of his empire, and ordered the famous marriage of the dwarfs. At the court of Constantinople, a number of dwarfs are al- Ways maintained, as pages. Those who happen to be, at the same time, deaf and dumb, and have been mutilated, are particularly valued, and reserved for the Sultan. DWELLING. See Domicil, and Habitation. DWIGHT, TIMOTHY, an eminent American divine, was born at Northampton, in Massachusetts, May 14, 1752. He was admitted a member of Yale col- lege in September, 1765, when he had just passed his thirteenth year; and after leaving college, he took charge of a grammar-school at New Haven, where he taught for two years. While in this situa. tion, his time was regularly divided: six hours a day in school; eight hours in study; and the remaining ten hours in exercise and sleep. In 1771, he be. ‘76{} came a tutor in Yale college, where he remained for six years. At the age of nineteen, Mr Dwight commenced writing the Conquest of Canaan, a regu- lar epic poem, founded on a portion of Sacred his- tory. It was concluded in 1774, but was not pub- lished until 1795. On receiving the degree of master of arts (1772), he delivered a Dissertation on the History, Eloquence, and Poetry of the Bible, which was immediately printed, and afterwards re- published, both in America and in Europe. He was also deeply engaged, during his residence in college as a tutor, in the study of the higher branches of the mathematics. About this period, he attempted by restricting his diet, to remove the necessity of bodily exercise; but, after pursuing his course of abstinence and study about a year, he became subject to severe attacks of the bilious colic, which so wasted his strength, that it was with the utmost difficulty he could be removed to Northampton. His physician, having adminis- tered successfully for his present relief, advised the daily use of strong bodily exercise, as the only means of restoring his constitution. Adopting this system, he walked upwards of 2000, and rode up- wards of 3000 miles in the course of a twelvemonth. The result of this was the perfect restoration of his health, which continued good for the ensuing forty years of his life. In 1777, Mr Dwight, was licensed as a preacher, by a committee of the northern association, in his native county of Hampshire; and, in addition to teaching his pupils, he preached during the summer of 1777; and, in September of the same year, he was nominated chaplain in the army. In addition to the duties of his station, he contributed not a little to heighten the enthusiasm of the soldiers by writing several patriotic songs, which enjoyed a deserved popularity. The circumstance of his father's death, in October 1778, obliged him to resign his office, in order to assist his mother in the support and educa- tion of her family. He accordingly removed his own family to Northampton, where he resided five years, labouring on the farm through the week, preaching to different congregations in the neigh- bourhood on Sundays. He likewise established a school, in which he received a large number of pu- pils, and employed two assistants. He was twice elected, about the close of the revolutionary war, a member of the legislature of the state. In 1783, he was ordained minister of Greenfield, a parish in the town of Fairfield, in Connecticut. Immediately upon settling at this place, doctor Dwight opened an academy, which soon acquired a reputation then un- equalled in America. A large number of pupils from all parts of the Union, as well as from abroad, resorted to this school, where in the course of his twelve years' residence, he taught more than 1000 scholars ; adopting to a certain extent, the system since called the monitorial. In the year 1787, the college of Princeton, New Jersey, conferred upon him the degree of D. D. In 1794, he published a poem, in seven parts, under the title of Greenfield Hill, which as well as the Con- quest of Canaan, was republished in England. On the death of the reverend doctor Styles, in 1795, doctor Dwight was elected president of Yale col- lege, which was in a depressed state. His reputa- tion soon brought to the college a great accession of students. When he entered the office of president, the professorship of theology was vacant, and se- veral fruitless attempts having been made to fill it, he engaged to perform the duties. He was annu- ally elected to this chair for ten successive years, at the end of which period the appointment was made permanent, and he continued to fill it for the remain- DWIGFIT-D YEING. der of his life. In the year 1797, at the request of the general association of Connecticut, he undertook the revision of doctor Watts' version of the psalms to supply such as were omitted, and to make a se- lection of hymns adapted to public worship. In 1800, he submitted his work to a joint committee of that body and of the general assembly of the Presby- terian church, by whom it was approved and recom- mended. Besides making many alterations in the version of doctor Watts, he wrote thirty-three entire psalms. In the year 1796, he commenced travelling, during the college vacations, particularly in May and September, for the sake of exercise, and con- tinued this practice through the remainder of his life. In these excursions, principally through the New Eng- land states and New York, he took notes, and after. wards wrote them out, for the gratification of his fa- mily. This work was published after his death, in four volumes, octavo. It embraces an account of the natural aspect of the territories over which he trav- elled, and of the condition of society in those states. It also contains notices of eminent men of that por- tion of the Union, and anecdotes illustrative of the history and customs of the aborigines. Doctor Dwight died January 11, 1817, after repeated and Severe attacks of a disease, the character of which was not well understood. His death was regarded as a severe loss to the cause of learning and religion in his country. Besides the works already men. tioned, is his Theology, being a collection of his the- ological lectures, which has been published since his death, and has passed through several editions, in America and Britain. DYEING is a chemical art, and consists in fixing upon cloths of various kinds any colour which may be desired, in such a manner as that they shall not easily undergo any alteration, by the agents to which the cloth is ordinarily exposed. The chief materials of stuff to be dyed are wool, silk, cotton, and linen ; of which the former two are more easily dyed than the latter. Wool, in its preparation for dyeing, re- quires to be cleansed, by scouring, from a fatty sub- stance, called the yolk, which is contained in the fleece. This is done by means of a weak alkaline Solution, which converts the yolk into soap. Putrid urine is commonly employed, on account of its cheapness ; the ammonia it contains being sufficient to remove the grease. Silk, when taken from the cocoon, is covered with a kind of varnish, which, be- cause it does not easily yield, either to water or alco- hol, requires also the aid of a slight portion of alkali. Much care is necessary, however, in this operation, since the silk itself is liable to be corroded, and dis. coloured. Fine soap is commonly used; but ever, this is said to be detrimental ; and the white China silk, which is supposed to be prepared without soap, has a lustre superior to the European. The prelimi- mary process of washing is intended to render the stuff to be dyed as clear as possible, in order that the aqueous fluid, to be afterwards applied, may be imbibed, and its contents adhere to the minute inter- mal surfaces. Another preparation, and one which constitutes, in reality, an important part of the dyeing process, consists in applying to the stuff a material to which it adheres ; and afterwards the desired colour is ob- tained by the application of another substance. We might dye a piece of cotton black by immersing it at once in ink; but the colour would be neither good nor durable, because the particles of precipi- tated matter are not sufficiently comminuted to enter the cotton, or to adhere to it firmly. But, if the cotton be soaked in an infusion of galls, then dried, and afterwards immersed in a solution of sulphate of iron, the acid of galls being everywhere diffused DYEING. through the fabric, it will receive the particles of oxide of iron, at the very instant of their transition from the fluid to the solid state; by which means a perfect covering of the black, inky matter will be applied in close contact with the surface of the most minute fibres of the cotton. The name of mordant is applied to those substan- ces which unite with the different stuffs, and aug- ment their affinity for the various colouring matters. There exists a great number of mordants; some, however, are very feeble in their activity, while others are attended with too much expense for Com- Inon stuffs; some alter the colours which they are intended to combine, or modify their shades: hence it results, that there are but a small number which can be employed. These are alum, acetate of alu- mine, muriate of tin, and nut-galls. The mordant is always dissolved in water, into which the stuffs to be dyed are plunged. . If the mordant be universally applied, over the whole piece of goods, and this be afterwards immersed in the dye, it will receive a tinge over all its surface; but if it be applied only in parts, the dye will strike in those parts only. The former process constitutes the art of dyeing, properly so called ; and the latter the art of printing woollens, cottons, or linens, called calico-printing. In the art of printing piece goods, the mordant is usually mixed with gum or starch, and applied by means of blocks or wooden engravings, in relief, or of copper plates, and the colours are brought out by immersion in ves- sels filled with suitable compositions. The latter fluids are termed baths. The following are the processes adopted, when alum is the mordant employed :—1. Alum mordant for silk. In water containing the sixtieth part of its weight of alum, at the ordinary temperature of the air, the silk is plunged, and allowed to remain for twenty-four hours, when it is withdrawn, drained, and washed. If the liquid is warmed, it is found that the silk absorbs less of the mordant, and that, of course, it combines less easily with the colouring matter, besides losing, in part, its natural gloss. 2. Alum mordant for wool. When it is wished to com- bine wool with this mordant, after its cleansing has been effected, it is plunged into a boiling solution, composed of 8 or 900 parts of water, and twenty-five of alum, where it is allowed to remain during two hours; when it is taken out, suffered to drain, and washed. Frequently a little cream of tartar is added in this process, in order to engage the excess of acid in the alum, as well as the portion arising from a slight decomposition of the alum by the oily matter of the wool. 3. Alum mordant for cotton, hemp, and flaw. This operation is effected by plunging the body to be imbued with this mordant into water slightly warmed, and which contains one quarter of its weight of alum, and leaving it for twenty-four hours, at the common temperature of the air; when it is withdrawn, washed, and dried. The cotton will be sufficiently imbued with the mordant, if al- lowed to remain in the solution only seven or eight minutes, pressing it a little, without twisting it, however, on taking it out, and not immersing it in the colouring bath until twelve or fifteen hours after in alfalum mordants for wool, the alum of commerce may be employed; but when silk or cot- ton is to be dyed, especially if the colours are bright, it is necessary to make use of the alum of Rome, or of that which is equally pure ; that is to say, of alum which does not contain above 1-500th of its weight of sulphate of iron; otherwise there will be a great quantity of oxide of iron adhering to the fabric, which will affect the shade we desire to obtain. The colouring matters to be transferred to the various stuffs, are either soluble or insoluble in water. 761 When they are soluble in water, which is most gen- erally the case, they are dissolved in it at a boiling temperature; and the material to be dyed, after hav- ing been duly prepared, and impregnated with the mordant, is plunged into it, where it is allowed to re- main for a certain time, and at a temperature varying with the nature of the stuff. When, on the Contrary, the colouring matter is insoluble in water, its solution is effected in some other fluid, and the article to be coloured (prepared as in the former case, with the exception that the application of the mordant is omitted) is immersed, and the colouring matter is precipitated by the addition of a third body. Silks are dyed at a temperature which is gradu- ally increased from 86° to 175° Fahr. If the bath is heated above 86°, at the commencement of the process, the effect of the mordant is diminished, and the desired shades of colour will not be produced. For the same reason, in dyeing hemp and flax, the temperature should not exceed 97° Fahr. Cotton and woollens may be dyed at a boiling heat. Various mechanical contrivances are made use of in immers- ing the different materials to be dyed into the col- ouring solution, so as to cause all their parts to be equally affected at the same time. As soon as they are withdrawn from the colouring bath, they are washed in a large quantity of water, in order to de- prive them of those particles of colouring matter that are merely superficial. The following are the dye-stuffs used for produc- ing fast colours:–1. Black. The cloth is impreg- mated with acetate of iron (iron liquor), and dyed in a bath of madder, and logwood. 2. Purple. The preceding mordant, diluted with the same dyeing bath. 3. Crimson. The mordant for purple, united with a portion of acetate of alumine, or red mordant, and the above bath. 4. Red. Acetate of alumine is the mordant (see Alumine), and madder is the dye-stuff. 5. Pale red, of different shades. The preceding mordant, diluted with water, and a weak madder bath. 6. Brown of Pompadour. A mixed mordant, containing a somewhat larger proportion of the red than of the black, and the dye of madder. 7. Orange. The red mordant, and a bath, first of madder, and then of quercitron. 8. Yellow. A strong red mordant, and the quercitron bath, whose tem- perature should be considerably under the boiling point of water. , 9. Blue. Indigo, rendered soluble and greenish-yellow coloured, by potash and orpi- ment. It recovers its blue colour by exposure to air, and becomes firmly fixed upon the cloth. An in- digovat is also made by diffusing indigo in water, with quicklime and copperas. These substances are Sup- posed to act by deoxidizing indigo, and, at the same time, rendering it soluble. Golden dye. The cloth is immersed alternately in a solution of copperas and lime-water. The protoxide of iron, precipitated on the fibre, soon passes, by absorption of atmospheri- cal oxygen, into the golden-coloured deutoxide. Buff. The preceding substances, in a more dilute state. Blue vat, in which white spots are left on a blue ground of cloth, is made by applying to these points a paste, composed of a solution of sulphate of copper and pipe-clay, and, after they aredried, immers- ing it, stretched on frames, for a definite number of minutes, in the yellowish-green vat, of 1 part of indigo, 2 of copperas, and 2 of lime, with water. Green. Cloth dyed blue, and well washed, is imbued with the acetate of alumine, dried, and subjected to the quer- citron bath. In the above cases, under 9, the cloth, after receiving the mordant paste, is dried, and put through a mixture of cow-dung and warm water. It is them put into the dyeing vat or copper. The foregoing colours are also produced from de- | coctions of the different colouring woods; but, as 7.62 they possess but little fixity when thus formed, they Bre denominated the fugitive colours. 1. Red is made from Brazil wood and peach wood. 2. Black. A strong extract of galls and deuto-nitrate of iron. 3. Purple. Extract of logwood and the deuto-nitrate of iron. 4. Yellow. Extract of quercitron bark, or French berries, and nitro-muriate of tin. 5. Blue. Prussian blue and solution of tin. Fugitive colours are thickened with gum tragacanth, and are some- times sent to market without being washed. DYER, JoHN, an agreeable poet, of the secondary class was born at Aberglasney, in Caermarthenshire, in 1700, and educated at Westminster school. Being left, by the death of his father, at liberty to follow his own inclination, he became a pupil to Richard- son, the painter, and travelled through Wales as an itinerant artist, but never seems to have gained any distinction in that capacity. In 1727, he made him- self known as a poet, by the publication of his cele- brated Grongar Hill. The intermixture of moral re- flections, introduced in an easy manner, with the de- scription of rural scenery, has rendered this poem highly and deservedly popular. After the publication of Grongar Hill, he went to Rome for professional improvement, and published, in 1740, a poem in blank verse, under the title of the Ruins of Rome. Not appearing likely to succeed in his profession, he was recommended to take orders, and was accordingly or- dained by doctor Thomas, bishop of Lincoln. He then married, and retired to a small living in Leicester- shire, which he soon afterwards exchanged for another in Lincolnshire, to which a second was subsequently added. In 1757, he published his largest poem, the Fleece, in five books, a very ingenious produc- tion. He died in 1758. His poems, which comprise a few more pieces than those already mentioned, were published in I vol. 8vo. 1761. DYKE. See Dike. DYKE, VAN. See Pandyke. DYNAMETER, measurer of increase, augometre ; an instrument for measuring the magnifying power of telescopes. It consists of a small tube, with a transparent plate, exactly divided, which is fixed to the tube of a telescope, in order to measure exactly the diameter of the distinct image of the eye-glass. DYNAMICS is the science of moving powers, or of the action of forces on solid bodies, when the re- sult of that action is motion. Mechanics, in its most extensive meaning, is the science which treats of quantity, of extension, and of motion. Now, that branch of it which considers the state of solids at rest, such as their equilibrium, their weight, pressure, &c., is called statics; and that which treats of their mo- tion, dynamics. So when fluids instead of solids, are the subjects of investigation, that branch which treats of their equilibrium, pressure, &c., is called hydro- statics, and that which treats of their motion, hydro- dynamics. DYNAMIC AND ATOMIC THEORIES; the names given to two celebrated systems, explanatory of the essential constitution of matter. In the dy- namic theory, every body is considered as a space filled with continuous matter; porosity then becomes an accidental quality, but compressibility and dilata- bility essential properties. The state of a body de- pends entirely on certain attracting and repelling forces; and its volumes must change with every change in the relative proportions of these forces. All the varieties of matter are explained by suppos- ing the existence of certain primitive simple substan- ces, the different combinations of which produce all bodies. When two substances combine chemically, they must be considered, on this system, to penetrate each other mutually. The partisans of the atomic theory suppose every body to be composed of indi- DYER—- DYSART. visible and impenetrable particles, which they term atoms. These are almost infinitely small, with void Spaces between them, so that this theory makes porosity essential to matter. The atoms are not in contact, but are kept in their relative positions, at certain distances, by certain attractive and repulsive forces; from whence it arises, that, in the volume of each body, there is much more void space than mat- ter. On this system, the diversities in bodies may be explained either by an essential difference in the atoms themselves, or by a difference in their form, size, position, and distance. When two substances combine chemically, the atoms of one penetrate the interstices of the other, and the atoms of the two combine so intimately, that they become, in a manner, new sorts of constituent particles, excepting they are not simple, but compound. DYNAMOMETER. Instruments for measuring the relative strength of men, and animals, as also the form of machinery are so called. The accompanying cut represents a very simple Dynamometer, for measuring the force of machinery, A E B is a lever made of steel, having two spreading branches D A, D B capable of being fixed on the circumference of a pulley by means of the pinching screws A and B. This pulley is firmly fixed on the end of the shaft C, so as to revolve with it. The pulley revolving in the direction A B, would carry the lever round with it, and the end E would revolve also, but it is checked by the pin F fixed in the wall. But there is a scale G attached to the end E of the lever, into which weights are put in order to weigh down the lever so that it will not rise to the pin F. When the pulley continues to revolve, and has power sufficient to keep the lever nearly touching the pin F, then the weights in the scale will indicate the mechanical effect of the shaft. Care however should be taken not to add more weights to the scale G, than are just sufficient to keep the lever clear of the pin, for if more be added the effective leverage will be shortened. DYSART, a royal burgh in the county of Fife, si- tuated on the Frith of Forth, 14 miles N. E. of Edinburgh. It has a good harbour, formerly defended by a battery, called the Fort, constructed by Oliver Cromwell, on the summit of a high rock. To this port belong about forty sail of shipping, employed in the exportation of coal and iron from the rich mines in the vicinity, also of vast quantities of sea- salt manufactured here, and in the importation of foreign produce, which has much increased since 1756. A number of the inhabitants likewise find employment in the iron-works, ship-building, in an extensive manufacture of limen, particularly checks, The town, said to occupy the site of a Roman sta- tion is pleasantly seated on a gentle acclivity, rising from the south or margin of the Frith, and consists of three principal streets, diverging from the market- place in the centre, and crossed by several inferior ones ; its markets are well supplied, though it la- T}YSENTERY-DYSPEPSI.A. bours under a great disadvantage in the scarcity of good fresh water. - Dysart, so early as 1546, was deemed one of the principal commercial towns in Fife, and about that period was erected into a royal burgh. On account of its trade it received the popular name of “Little Holland.” . Though its revenue is comparatively trifling, a liberal income is allowed by the town-coun- cil in support of a public grammar-school. An an- cient chapel, once belonging to the priory of St Denis, has been converted into a forge. The parish, which is bounded on the north-east by the river Ore, comprises 3054 acres, and includes several villages; the chief of these are Sinclairtown, Borland, Gala- town, and Pathhead, in each of which are extensive manufactures of iron, especially of nails. Near the latter place is Raven's Craig, an old castle belonging to the St Clairs. Besides the valuable productions of coal and iron, freestone and limestone abound in various parts of the parish. Population ofburgh and parish in 1831, 7105. DYSENTERY (dysenteria; from 39;, difficulty, and #wregg, the bowels); the flux. It is known by contagious fever; frequent griping stools; tenesmus; stools, chiefly mucous, sometimes mixed with blood, the natural faeces being retained, or voided in small, compact, hard substances, known by the name of seybala ; by loss of appetite, and nausea. It occurs chiefly in Summer and autumn, and is often occasioned by much moisture succeeding quickly intense heat or great drought; whereby the perspiration is suddenly checked, and a determination made to the intestines. it is likewise occasioned by the use of unwholesome and putrid food, and by noxious exhalations and vapours; hence it appears often in armies encamped in the neighbourhood of low, marshy grounds, and proves highly destructive; but the cause which most usually gives rise to it, is a specific contagion; and when it once makes its ppearance, where numbers of people are collected together, it not unfrequently spreads with great rapidity. A peculiar disposition in the atmosphere seems often to predispose or give rise to the dysentery, in which case it prevails epide- mically. If frequently occurs about the same time with autumnal intermittent and remittent fevers; and with these it is often complicated. The disease, how- ever, is much more prevalent in warm climates than in cold ones; and, in the months of August, Septem- ber and October, which is the rainy season of the year in the West Indies, it is very apt to break out, and to become very general among the negroes on the different plantations in the colonies. The body having been rendered irritable by the great heat of the summer, and being exposed suddenly to much moisture with open pores, the blood is thereby thrown from the exterior vessels upon the interior, so as to give rise to dysenteries. An attack of dysentery is sometimes preceded by a loss of appetite, costiveness, flatulency, sickness at the stomach, and a slight vomiting; and comes on with chills, succeeded by heat in the skin, and frequency of the pulse. These symptoms are in general the forerunners of the griping and increased evacuations which afterwards occur. More or less fever usually attends, with the symptoms which have been des- cribed, throughout the whole of the disease, where it is inclined to terminate fatally; and is either of an inflammatory or putrid tendency. In other cases, the febrile state wholly disappears after a time, while the proper dysenteric symptoms probably will be of long continuance. Hence the distinction into acute and chronic dysentery. When the symptoms run high, produce great loss of strength, and are accom- panied with a putrid tendency and a fetid and invol- untary discharge, the disease often terminates fatally 763 in the course of a few days; but when they are more moderate, it is often protracted to a considerable length of time, and so goes off at last by a gentle perspiration, diffused equally over the whole body; the fever, thirst and griping then ceasing, and the stools becoming of a natural colour and consistence. When the disease is of long standing, and has become habitual, it seldom admits of an easy cure ; and when it attacks a person labouring under an ad- vanced stage of scurvy, or pulmonary consumption, or whose constitution has been much impaired by any other disorder, it is sure to prove fatal. It Sometimes appears at the same time with autumnal intermittent and remittent fevers, as has been ob- served, and is then more complicated and difficult to remove. Upon opening the bodies of those who die of dysentery, the internal coat of the intestines (but more particularly of the colon and rectum) appears to be affected with inflammation, and its consequences, such as ulceration, gangrene and contractions. The peritona-um, and other coverings of the abdomen, seem likewise, in many instances, to be affected by inflammation. DYSPEPSIA (300-respio, from 30s, bad, and respis, digestion); difficulty of digestion. The strict etymo- logy of the term implies an imperfect or disordered condition of the function of digestion. , Systematic writers have been not a little perplexed to find an appropriate location for this affection in their artifi- cial arrangements; and this difficulty must exist whilst symptoms, which are always fluctuating, are admitted, as the elements of nomenclature and ar- rangement, into systems of nosology. From the same circumstance, different symptoms of the affec- tion have received the character of separate diseases as apepsia, bradypepsia (36230s, slow), anorexia, car- dialgia, &c. These are no more than different grades in the symptoms, or varieties of the affection, and are not different diseases. The disorder of the dig- estive function is the most frequent and prevailing of the ailments that afflict man in the civilized state; all classes and all ages suffer from its attacks. Few are so happy as to pass through a life of ordinary dura- tion, without undergoing a protracted struggle with this malady, and experiencing its torments. Once let it be fully established, and the comfort of exis- tence disappears, or is regained, in most cases, tedi- ously, and at the price of the most ascetic self-denial. The greater prevalence of dyspepsia or indigestion, in modern times, arises from the more frequent in- jury done to the stomach and its functions, directly, by the habits of luxurious indulgence, which have been exceedingly increased and extended; and, indi- rectly, by the multiplication of intellectual and moral agitations, from the extension of the commercial and financial operations of society, the greater activity and employment of the intellectual faculties, and augmentation of political, social, and individual reverses. Something, too, is to be ascribed to the mere change of names. We call that dyspepsia now, which, formerly, was termed liver disease, bilious dis- order, &c. A large proportion of the discomfort produced by this malady, arises from an ignorance of the digestive functions, leading to their abuse and premature derangement, and may be obviated, to a great extent, by instruction as to the nature of these functions, and their natural exercise. A general view of the digestive organs and functions is, there. fore, requisite to an understanding of their disorders the means to prevent, and the methods to remedy them. All organized or animated beings hold their exis- tence under the condition of renewing, incessantly, the elements of their composition, by the appropria tion to themselves of exterior matters The simile 764 animals (polypi, &c.) find, in the medium in which they live, and from which they directly receive them, the principles serving for their composition. The decomposition of animal and vegetable matter in the Soil prepares the aliment or nutritive principle of vegetables, which, being held in solution by water, is absorbed by their roots. In all these beings there are no digestive organs or functions. The prepara- tion of their nutriment is effected by physical opera- tions exterior to themselves, and over which they have no control. In the higher or complete animals, or in man, the case is very different. Nature does not present to them the nutritive elements in a state fitted to be introduced, at once, into the interior organism, and to be employed in its composition. Their aliment consists of the nutritive principles in a compound state, intimately combined with other substances, from which they require to be disengaged. This is accom- plished by the animal itself, which is provided with especial organs or apparatus and functions for this purpose. Digestion, then, consists in the disengage- ment of the mutritive elements from their combina- tions, and their reduction to the molecular state, admitting their introduction into the vessels, and their diffusion throughout the organism, for the pur- poses of its composition. It is a process analogous to the decomposition of the aliment of vegetables in the Soil, and is affected, like all decompositions, by analogous or chemical operations. In this class, the procuring of the aliment is the act of the animal. depending on its voluntary powers, and is controlled by a great variety of circumstances, affecting the quantity and quality of the food. The Organs composing the digestive apparatus in man are numerous. They are the mouth, armed with teeth, for mechanically breaking down the food by mastication ; the salivary glands, furnishing a fluid intimately combined with the food, in mastica- tion, and collected in the stomach, which is its reser voir; the pharynx, a muscular and membranous bag, for the reception of the masticated bolus from the mouth ; the oesophagus, a muscular and membranous tube, for conducting the bolus into the stomach; the stomach, a muscular and membranous bag, or en- largement of the alimentary canal, secreting a fluid or fluids, and a reservoir of the salivary and other Secretory fluids of the interior surfaces, and in which the food is subjected to the decomposing process, until reduced to a pulpy mass, called chyme, consist- ing of the nutritive and innutritive elements, in a State of mechanical mixture ; the duodenum, or second stomach, in which the chymous mass is sub- mitted to the action of the biliary and pancreatic fluids, and in which the nutritive elements begin to separate from the innutritive matters, and to be absorbed by the lacteals, the roots of the animal economy; the liver and pancreas, furnishing bile and a species of saliva, which are mixed with, and act on, the chyme in the duodenum ; the jejunum and ileum, or small intestines, in the course of which the separation, begun in the duodenum, is com- pleted, and nearly the whole of the nutritive prin- ciples forming chyle are absorbed ; and, lastly, the large intestines, a reservoir for all the excre- mentitious principles, and which, in it, are con- verted into feces. The whole of these organs compose the apparatus of digestion, but all are not of equal importance. The stomach and duo- denum are the most eminent organs, and those whose condition exercises the greatest influence over the powers of digestion. This apparatus is intimately connected, and a natural state of each of its parts, and a due exercise of the function of each, are essen- tial to the healthy, undisturbed performance of diges– tion. This connexion is maintained through the | I) YSPEPSIA, ganglionary system of nerves, which not only unites these organs together, but combines them with all their congeries, appropriated to the perfect elabora- tion of the nutritive and sustaining principles of the economy. The stomach is the centre of the diges– tive apparatus, and may be regarded in nearly the Same view, for the whole of the organs connected with individual nutrition. It owes this character to its intimate union with the great solar plexus, the centre or brain, if it may be so termed, of the gang- lionary system, regulating the nutritive functions. It is also immediately associated with the brain, through the medium of the eighth pair of pneumo- gastric nerves, and thus is placed in relation with the exercise of the moral and intellectual faculties. The stomach is consequently exposed to be disordered in its functions by violent impressions from these faculties, as they are also liable to be affected by the disordered conditions of the stomach. It is neces- Sary to have these diversified connexions pointed out, to possess a clear understanding of the numerous and very different sources from which disturbances reach the process of digestion. A few words will now be necessary as to digestion itself. It is not all substances that are fitted for aliment, and are susceptible of digestion. Food is intended for the renovation of the body. It must consist of the same elements as the animal structure, and be capable of becoming organized and living. It must then contain, at least, three elementary animal principles—hydrogen, carbon and oxygen ; and much of it contains, also, a fourth—azote. These elements form secondary compounds, in which state alone they constitute aliment ; such are albumen, fibrin, gelatin, Osmazome, oil, engan, farina, mucil- age, and other animal and vegetable compounds. In all these substances, themolecules are easily separable without being chemically decomposed, which is one of the primary requisites of digestibility, and to effect which the chief object of digestion. The masticated and insalivated food passes into the stomach. Here it is macerated in the saliva collected in the stomach, and in the proper liquid secreted by the villi of the gastric mucous membrane, at a temperature of 104° Fahr. This liquor is called gastric juice. Its true nature is not accurately determined, but, as far as examination has ascertained, it resembles Saliva mixed with a small portion of lactic or muriatic acid. The stomach, in a healthy state, always contracts on its contents, so that its parietes, in digestion, are always in contact with the food. During digestion, the stomach has a constant vermicular motion, its muscular fibres contracting, successively, from the Smaller to the larger end. The food is thus agitated, acquires a rotatory movement, and is mingled with the fluids of the stomach. In a short time, the change accomplished in the stomach commences ; it becomes pulpy, and then reduced to a semifluid of a light, grayish colour. From the uniform pressure of the stomach, the solid and most resisting portions are forced into the centre, while the digested and more fluid matter is found on the surface, and is gradually carried by the contraction of the muscular fibres, into the duodenum. Mr Philips and others have been led to suppose, from this circumstance, that the food in contact with the parietes of the stomach was alone digested ; but it is a mere physical result, as uniform pressure in every direction, on a mass of different consistency, will always drive the most fluid to the circumference. The pulpy, grayish substance resulting from the stomachic digestion is called chyme. (q.v.) When examined with the microScope, the writer of this article has always found it to consist of an immense number of transparent globules, of various sizes, inter- DYSPEPSIA. mixed with undissolved fragments of the fibres of the alimentary substance. When food is masticated, and macerated for a few hours in simple saliva, he has found it to present exactly the same appearances as the chyme of the stomach. The digestion of the stomach, he infers from his eaperiments, is not a de- composition of the alimentary matter, but is a simple disintegration or reduction of it into its component molecules, the animal character remaining unchanged. The chyme, having passed into the duodenum, meets with the pancreatic liquor and the bile. What are the positive changes induced by these fluids, cer- tainly is not accurately known. The acids of the chymous mass are neutralized by the alkaline princi- ples of the bile, the picromel and colouring matter of which appear to coalesce with the unassimilable principles of the food, and assist in their conversion into faces. A chemical modification in some of the alimentary elements may also be effected. It is cer- tain that chyle, or the nutritive principles of which blood is formed, does not appear in the lacteals until after the action of the bile and pancreatic fluid on the chyme, the product of the stomachic digestion. The action of the stomach on the food is that usually designated as digestion, and it is the derangement of this process that is usually expressed by the term dyspepsia. The process accomplished in the duode- dum is also a true digestion, and the symptoms arising from its disordered state are confounded with those of the stomachic digestion, in the general accounts of dyspepsia. From this sketch of the function of digestion, it is evident, that its most important agents are, 1st, the Secreted fluids collected in the stomach; 2d, the con- tractile movements of the stomach, keeping the ali- mentary mass in constant agitation, mixing it with the fluids as they are secreted, and removing the portion digested or reduced into chyme; 3d, the application of the biliary and pancreatic fluids to the chyme in the duodenum; and, 4th, the contractile movements of this viscus. Most of the derangements of the di- gestive functions may be traced immediately to a departure from a natural state of some one or more of the above requisites of digestion. But this devia- tion from the natural order is, itself, an effect. The Secretions are products of organs, and all excitement of the secretory organ, beyond the range of healthy action, causes vitiation of the secretion, or its total Suspension. The action of the organ, diminished be- low the physiological range, is attended with other witiations of the fluid, or the cessation of its secretion. Indigestion or dyspepsia is a consequence of both these conditions of the organs furnishing the fluids of digestion. Digestion is a very stimulating process. All functional actions are exciting. The increased demand for Secreted fluids renders an augmented ac- tion, and increase of blood in the furnishing organ, necessary for their production. The presence of the food, drinks, &c., in the stomach, add to the stimula- tion of digestion. If the stomach of an animal be examined in the act of digestion, the mucous mem- brane is found of a diffused scarlet colour. The movements of the stomach essential to digestion de- pend on its nervous communications, and especially on the integrity of the eighth pair of nerves. When these are divided, the stomach and oesophagus are paralyzed ; the food is no longer agitated and mixed up with the digestive fluids, and it often regurgitates from the stomach into the oesophagus. This experi- ment proves the influence of the contractile motion of the stomach in the act of digestion. The ganglionic nerves are not less important, though their specific influence cannot as readily be determined. But in many cases of disease of these ganglions, vomiting, eruciations, pain in the gastric region, and impaired 765 digestion, are accompanying symptoms. Through the nervous system, the function of digestion is ex- posed to numerous disorders from moral impressions, especially those of an agitating character. From the preceding principles, it is evident that dyspepsia or indigestion is not, properly speaking, a disease, but rather a symptom, attached to diseases of the apparatus of digestion, of very various and even opposite character. No specific treatment can, therefore, be laid down for the cure of dyspepsia, but each case requires to be managed according to its peculiar cause and nature. The organ of the digestive apparatus the most frequently productive of dyspeptic Symptoms is the stomach, and the most usual cause of dyspepsia is its irritation and inflammation. The stomach is more liable than any other organ to these states, from its direct exposure to so many irritating aggressions, and its intimate sympathetic communi- cations, which make it participate in the irritations of almost every other organ. The sub-acute and chronic forms of gastric irritation and inflammation, the signs of which have only of late been fully appre- ciated, are the disorders that, in seven or eight cases out of ten, are termed dyspepsia. Hence dyspepsia So frequently succeeds to febrile diseases, especially when treated by emetics, drastics, and the improper use of tonics and stimulants, which, although the patient escapes the fever, leave him a martyr to the chronic, disorganizing, and perturbating irritations of the gastric mucous membrane. Hence, too, dyspep- sia almost inevitably follows continued abuse of the digestive functions, from too highly seasoned or too abundant food, and stimulant drinks. The constant stimulation of the stomach finally becomes pathologi- cal or morbid. The simple prolongation of the func- tional excitement essential to digestion, continued from meal to meal, without permitting the stomach to revert to a state of repose, is sufficient to constitute a morbid state. All functions, for their perfect per- formance, require alternate periods of repose and activity. Incessant action irritates, inflames, and finally disorganizes the structure of the organs. A second condition of the stomach, productive of dyspepsia, is the congestion of its mucous tissue. This may be confined to the stomach alone, succeed- ing to an attack of acute gastritis, or following on its protracted irritation; or it may be an attendant on a general congestion of the whole portal system involv- ing most of the abdominal viscera. Every irritation is attended with an afflux of the circulating fluids into the structmre where it is seated, proportioned to its intensity and the vascularity of the structure. This gorged state often continues after the subsidence of the irritation that provoked it, and prevents the re- sumption of the healthy functions. It is a state of passive congestion, and often exists in the mucous membrane of the stomach, after attacks of inflamma- tion or acute irritation, and embarrasses its digestive operations. In all the extensive irritations of the alimentary canal, especially when attended with fever, having a paroxysmal character, the great portal sys- tem of the abdomen becomes loaded with blood, and congestion of its radical vessels ensues. The func- tions of the viscera are then disordered, the Secretions are defective, and indigestion, costiveness, and their attendant nervous affections, are the necessary Conse- quences of this condition. A third state of the stomach, a cause of dyspeptic symptoms, is precisely the reverse of the preceding. Asthenia, or diminution of vitality and actions below the healthy degree, occasionally takes possession of the stomach. Its circulation is then deficient, its secreted fluids are defective in quantity or quality, its sensibility is impaired, and digestion is imperfect. It is not probable that gastric asthenia is ever primitive. 766 It succeeds to previous irritation, and is often occa- sioned by irritation in other organs. The preceding form a first class of dyspeptic dis- eases, which, depending entirely on the stomach, may be termed gastric dyspepsia. They present charac- ters totally different, and require a very opposite treatment. This class embraces three species. A second class of dyspeptic diseases is connected with the duodenum and its functions. This viscus, similarly constituted to the stomach, is subject to the same morbid alterations. Its mucous membrane is the seat of irritation, in its various grades, and pro- ductive of its usual consequences—augmented irrita- bility, sensibility, perversion of secretions, vitiation of structure, and disorder of function. Duodenic irritation most commonly accompanies gastric irrita- tion, and the symptoms of the two are blended toge- ther. It exists, however, in many instances, inde- pendently, and then manifests particular symptoms, which are often termed dyspepsia. It is, more espe- cially, the chronic irritation of the duodenum, that passes for dyspepsia. It is not probable, that con- gestion, or asthenia, ever affect the duodenum exclu- sively to the detriment of its function. When these states prevail, it is in conjunction with similar con- ditions of the whole digestive apparatus. At least we have no knowledge of these states limited to the duodenum. A third class of dyspeptic diseases depend on the nervous organs, which furnish nerves to the digestive viscera. The gangliomic system of nerves, distributed on each side of the spine, from the head to the pelvis, transmits nerves to all the organs connected with the nutritive function. The stomach, especially, is largely supplied from the Solar plexus, and it receives, like- wise, numerous nervous filaments from the pneumo- gastric, placing it in connexion with the functions of relation. The offices of the ganglionic system are not ascertained with precision. It is, however, well determined, that diseases of the ganglions disorder the functions of the viscera to which they transmit nerves. Hence arises an order of dyspeptic symp- toms, independent of any immediate affection of the stomach, but occasioned by disease in the great solar, or other neighbouring plexus. The disorders of the digestive functions, from this cause, are various. The sensibility of the stomach is sometimes greatly increased, constituting gastralgia. At other times, the Secreted fluids of the stomach are morbidly acid. The stomach appears, in other cases, to be partially paralyzed, and the peristaltic movements necessary for the admixture of the food, and the gastric fluids, and the continuous passage of the chyme into the duodenum, are suspended. At the same time, con- siderable quantities of flatus collect in and distend the stomach, preventing its action on the food. Me- chanical manipulation of the abdomen, and particu- larly of the epigastrium, after a meal, becomes a DYSPEPSIA. substitute for the natural motion of the stomach, expels the wind, and facilitates digestion, that would otherwise be laborious and painful. Dyspepsia, or indigestion, from this analysis of its modes of production, is seen not to be a disease of uniform character, and depending on an identical State of the digestive organs. It is attached, as a symptom, rather, to a variety of conditions, each of which requires to be managed in its appropriate mode. It is not possible that it can be remedied by any one general mode of treatment, or by any set of specific remedies. The most common causes of dys- pepsia are excesses of various kinds, especially in the quantity of food eaten. Most individuals, in this country, err in this respect. Meat at three meals, daily, can be borne only by the most robust frames, and by hard labourers. Persons of a sedentary life require less nutriment ; the economy makes less de- mand on the stomach for supplies ; and if it be com- pelled then to labour, it is at its own loss. Exercise, or the expenditure of the nutritive elements by the economy, and the quantity of food to be digested, must be proportioned to each other, for the preserva- tion of health and the due vigour of digestion. This fundamental principle is laid down in an axiom by Hippocrates—Homo edens sanus esse non potest, nisi etiam laborat.—DE DIAETA, Lib. I. Good cookery, by rendering food more digestible, is one preservative against dyspepsia. The food, by being rendered tender and pulpy, is reduced to chyme in a shorter period, with a smaller expenditure of the secreted fluids, and less excitement of the stomach, than when it is not properly concocted. The art of long and healthful living will depend on a perfect system of cooking, and a rational mode of eating. The powers of the stomach differ, in individuals, as much as the force of their muscles ; and each one must adopt a mode of nutrition, both as to quantity and quality of food, suitable to the wants of his economy and the digestive capacity of his stomach. The quality of food is a frequent cause of dyspepsia. Tough and badly dressed meats, and crude vegetables, are among the prominent causes of this affliction, as are also hot bread and cakes, heavy and fresh bread, and the daily use of hot coffee for breakfast. In enumerating the more common causes of dyspeptic symptoms, we ought not to omit the frequent exacerbations of the malevolent passions, as anger, hatred, envy, jealousy, and, what is not often suspected, excessive indul- gence and abuses of the venereal propensity. An- other fruitful source of the digestive disorders is found in the employment of emetics, and in a fre- quent resort to saline or drastic cathartic medicines. When a constipated habit prevails, it should always be overcome, if possible, by a laxative regim'º, and the aids of purgatives be cautiously and rafely in- voked. E—EAGLE. E; the second vowel and the fifth letter of the Eng- lish alphabet. The sound e (as in bench, or long as in the French père) in the early stages of all lan- guages, often passes into i (as in liver, or the Italian i), into a (as in father), and into o. But of the lan- guages of modern civilized nations, since their ortho- #º has been settled, the English gives to the etter e the most different sounds; as that of the Ger- man Short e, for instance, in bet; that of the German i, as in revere, he, me; that of the German a, in clerk (pronounced clark), sergeant (pronounced sar- geant ; at least, this mode of pronouncing exists in England); that of u, as in voter, murder. We find similar sounds of ein different dialects of Germany; for instance, in the dialect of Silesia, where spoken most broadly, Seele (soul) is pronounced as an Eng- lishman would pronounce it, whilst the true German pronunciation of the word is as if it were written Sa-le. In Latin we also find here for heri, Pergilius, for Pirgilius, Deana for Diana; and, in old Italian, desiderio and disiderio, peggiore and piggiore. In French, e is pronounced in three different ways—the & ouvert, & fermé and e muet—all three in the word fermeté. In German there are four different ways of pronouncing the letter e : I. merely as an aspiration, or very short indeed, as in hatte or hoffen ; 2. short, like the English e in bet, met, as in recht, rennen ; 3. long, like the English a in fate, as in reden, predi- gen; and like the French é ouvert, or like the Ger- man a or ae, as in Elend, although little distinction is generally made between the two latter. Some provinces generally pronounce both like the latter; others pronounce them like the former, or like a in fate. The letter e may be called an intruder into the German language, because it has taken the place formerly occupied by full and melodious vowels, and it occurs too often. The Greeks, it is well known, had two characters—s, or epsilon, and n, or eta, the latter corresponding to the French é ouvert, if it was not pronounced, as in modern Greek, like the Italian i., E, in the Greek numeration signified five. Many dictionaries state that E was used by the ancients for 250, according to the verse— E quoque ducentos et quinquaginta tenebit; But this was only in late and barbarous times. E, as an abbreviation, stands, in English, for east. On an- cient medals, it stands for the names of cities which begin with this letter; for exercitus, effigies, edictum, or for iros, the year, $xsváielo, liberty, &c. The letter E, on modern French coins, signifies the mint of Tours; on Prussian, the mint of Konigsberg ; on Aus- trian that of Karlsburg. See Abbreviations. EAGLE ; a coin. See Coins. EAGLE (falco). This well known bird belongs to the genus falco, which has been much subdivided by modern ornithologists. In the present article, those species only will be noticed which belong to the subgenera of aquila and haliatus. The eagle has been elevated, by the popular voice, to the rank of the noblest and most courageous of the rapacious birds. Its natural fierceness is so great, that it has seldom been employed for the purposes of the chase, as it never can be rendered sufficiently tractable to obey its keeper. The eagle soars to a greater height 767 than any other bird, from which circumstance the ancients considered it as a messenger of Jove, “Ful- vam aquilam Jovis nuntiam.” Its sense of sight is exquisite. It lives for a great length of time, even in the captive state. Mr Pemnant mentions one in the possession of a gentleman, which he had kept for nine years, and the person from whom he had received it, thirty-two. The principal species are, 1. The falco imperialis (Bechst), or imperial eagle. This species is the largest known. It is distinguished by a large white spot on the scapulars, transverse nostrils, black tail, marked with gray on its superior portion. The female is fawn-coloured, with brown spots. It is stouter than the common eagle. It in- habits the high mountains of the middle of Europe; and to this species may be referred all the accounts of the ancients respecting the strength, courage, and magnanimity of these birds. 2. Falco chrysaetos (golden eagle). This fine bird measures, from the point of the bill to the ex- tremity of the toes, upwards of three feet, and, from tip to tip, above six, weighing from twelve to eighteen pounds. The male is smaller than the female. The bill is of a deep blue colour, the cere yellow, the eyes are large, deep sunk, and covered by a projecting brow ; the iris is of a fine bright yellow, and sparkles with uncommon lustre. The general colour is a deep brown mixed with tawny on the head and neck; the quills are chocolate, with white shafts; the tail is black, spotted with ash colour, the legs are yellow, the toes very scaly, and the claws remarkably large. It occurs in various parts of Europe and of North America; in the latter, however, it is rare. 3. F. fulvus (common or ring-tailed eagle) is said to be the young of this bird. The same nests are made use of by eagles for a succession of years. These nests are, in fact, of great bulk, and of such durable materials as to be almost indestructible. They are built in dry and inaccessible situations, of large twigs, lined with several layers of reeds or brambles; of a flat form, several feet in breadth, and of such strength as to support not only the eagle and her young, but likewise the large quantity of food she provides for them. This is so great, that it is related by Smith, in his history of Kerry, that a peasant procured a comfortable subsistence for his family, during a summer of famine, by robbing the eaglets of the food provided for them by the old birds. In the middle of this aerie, the female depo- sits two or three eggs, and sits upon them about thirty days. The plumage of the eagles is not as dark as it becomes when they arrive at the adult state; , but age, famine, and captivity gradually diminish their natural colours, and give them a faded appearance. 4. White-tailed eagle (F. Albicilla). This bird is inferior in size to the golden eagle. It inhabits far north, and is extremely ferocious; feeds principally upon fish, and usually lays two or three eggs, build- ing its nest upon lofty trees. It is distinguished by its black bill and claws, and white tail. 5. Great eagle of Guiana (F. harpyia). This bird belongs to the sub-genus harpyia of Cuvier, and is furnished with a terrible beak and claws. Its '768 size is larger than that of the common eagle; its plumage is ash-coloured on the head and neck, blackish-brown on the breast and sides, whitish beneath, rayed with brown on the thighs. It has Jong plumes, which form a black tuft on the back of the head, and can be raised, giving it somewhat the physiognomy of an owl. This bird is said to be so powerful as to have destroyed men by a blow of its beak. Its usual food is the sloth, though it some- times carries off fawns. There can be no doubt but that this species is the y2guautzli of Hernandes, though this author is guilty of great exaggeration when he says it is as large as a sheep. 6. Bald eagle (F. leucocephalus). The bald eagle is the most distinguished of the North Ameri- can species, not only from his beauty, but also as the adopted emblem of that country. This bird has been known to maturalists for a long time, and is common to both continents, chiefly frequenting the neighbourhood of the sea, and the shores and cliffs of i. and large rivers. He is found during the whole year in the countries he inhabits, preferring the spots we have mentioned from his great partiality for fish. The following poetic description of one of his modes of obtaining his prey is given by Alexander Wilson: “Elevated upon a high, dead limb of some gigantic tree, that commands a wide view of the neighbouring shore and ocean, he seems calmly to contemplate the motions of the various feathered tribes that pursue their busy avocations below—the snow-white gulls, slowly winnowing the air; the busy tringae, coursing along the sands; trains of ducks, streaming over the surface; silent and watch- ful cranes, intent and wading; clamorous crows, and all the winged multitudes that subsist by the bounty of this vast liquid IIlagazine of nature. High over all these hovers one, whose action instant- ly arrests all his attention. the fish-hawk, settling over some devoted victim of the deep. , His eye kindles at the sight, and, balanc- ing himself with half-opened wings on the branch, he watches the result. Down, rapid as an arrow from heaven, descends the distant object of his at- tention, the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it disappears in the deep, making the surges foam around. At this moment, the eager looks of the eagle are all ardour, and, levelling his neck for flight, he sees the fish-hawk once more emerging, struggling with his prey, and mounting in the air with screams of exultation. These are a signal for our hero, who, launching into the air, instantly gives chase; soon gains on the fish-hawk; each exerts his utmost to mount above the other, display- ing, in the rencounter, the most elegant and sublime aerial evolutions. The unincumbered eagle rapidly advances, and is just on the point of reaching his opponent, when, with a sudden scream, probably of despair and honest execration, the latter drops his fish; the eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more certain aim, descends like a whirl- wind, Snatches it in its grasp, ere it reaches the water, and bears it silently away to the woods.” The bald eagle also destroys quadrupeds, as lambs, pigs, &c.; and there are well authenticated instances of its attempting to carry off children. When this bird has fasted for some time, its appetite is ex- tremely voracious and indiscriminate. Even the most putrid carrion, when nothing better can be had, is acceptable. In hard times, when food is very scarce, the eagle will attack the vulture, make it disgorge the food it has swallowed, and seize this disgusting matter before it can reach the ground. The nest of this species is usually found on a lofty tree, in a Swamp or morass. It is large, and, being increased and repaired every season, becomes of He knows him to be . EAGLE. It is formed of large sticks, sods, liay, moss, &c. Few birds provide more abundantly for their young than the bald eagle. Fish are daily carried to the nest in such numbers, that they some- times lie scattered round the tree, and the putrid smell of the nest may be distinguished at the dis- tance of several hundred yards. The eagle is said to live to a great age—sixty, eighty, or even an hundred years. In poetry and the fine arts, the eagle plays a very important part. As king of birds, the eagle was the bird of Jove, the carrier of the lightning, and thereby expressive of sole or supreme dominion. In this sense, he is used as the emblem and symbol of na- tions, princes, and armies. He was the hieroglyphic sign of the cities Heliopolis, Emesus, Antioch, and Tyre. Among the attributes of royalty, which the Tuscans once sent to the Romans, as a token of amity, was a sceptre with an eagle of ivory; and from that time the eagle remained one of the princi- pal emblems of the republic, and was retained also by the emperors. As the standard of an army, the eagle was first used by the Persians. Among the Romans, they were at first of wood, then of silver, with thunderbolts of gold, and, under Caesar and his successors, entirely of gold, without thunderbolts. For a long time, they were carried, as the standards of the legions, on a long staff, thus: great size. §W # j *''' i | } t ! §- - |- and reverenced as their peculiar deities. Napo- leon chose the Roman eagle as his banner. It was of metal, gilt, and elevated on a long staff; but the royal army in France no longer retains this standard. The double-headed eagle was first found among the emperors of the East, who thereby expressed their claims to the Eastern and Western empires. It was afterwards adopted by the Western emperors. The German emperor Otho IV. had it first on his seal. King Philip afterwards made it the impress on his coins. Austria received this emblem from the inher- itance of the East. The eagle was also adopted by the kings of Prussia, Poland, Sicily, Spain, Sardinia, by the emperors of Russia, by many princes, counts, and barons of the German empire, and by the United States of America. Napoleon's eagle was seated, with his wings folded. The eagle of the United States of America stands with outspread wings, guarding the shield below him, on which are the stripes and stars representing the states of the Union, and the motto E pluribus unum.—The eagle is also the badge of several orders, as the black eagle and the red eagle of Prussia, the white eagle of Poland, &c. EAHEINOMAUWE ; a large island in the South Pacific Ocean, and the most northern of the two con- EAR —EAR-RING. stituting New Zealand, extending from lat. 34° 30' to 41° 30' S. Its form is irregular. From lat. 37° 30 to 30° 40' S., the breadth is from 150 to 180 miles; afterwards it decreases gradually to thirty miles, the distance from cape Tierawitte to cape Palliser, its most southern point. EAR (auris). The ear is the organ of hearing. It is situated at the side of the head, and is divided into external and internal ear. The auricula, or pinna, commonly called the ear, constitutes the ex- termal part. It is of a greater or lesser size, accord- ing to the individual. The pinna is formed of a fibrous cartilage, elastic and pliant : the skin which covers it is thin and dry. There are also seen, upon the different projections of the cartilaginous ear, certain muscular fibres, to which the name of muscles has been given. The pinna, receiving many vessels and nerves, is very sensible, and easily becomes red. It is fixed to the head by the cellular tissue, and by muscles, which are called, according to their position, anterior, superior and posterior. These muscles are much developed in many animals: in man, they may be considered as simple vestiges. The meatus auditorius, or auditory passage, extends from the concha to the membrane of the tympanum ; its length, variable according to age, is from ten to twelve lines in the adult; it is narrower in the middle than at the ends; it presents a slight curve above and in front. Its external orifice is commonly covered with hairs, like the entrance to the other cavities. The middle ear comprehends the cavity of the tympanum, the little bones which are contained in this cavity, the mastoid cells, the Eustachian tube, &c. The tympanum is a cavity which separates the external from the internal ear. Its form is that of a portion of a cylinder, but a little irregular. The external side presents the membrana tympani. This membrane is directed obliquely downward and | inward; it is bent, very slender and transparent, covered on the outside by a continuation of the skin; on the inside, by the narrow membrane which covers the tympanum. Its tissue is dry, brittle, and has nothing analogous in the animal economy; there are neither fibres, vessels, nor nerves found in it. The cavity of the tympanum, and all the canals which end there, are covered with a very slender mucousmem- brane: this cavity, which is always full of air, con- tains, besides, four small bones (the malleus, incus, os orbiculare, and stapes), which form a chain from the membrana tympani to the fenestra ovalis, where the base of the stapes is fixed. There are some little muscles for the purpose of moving this osseous chain, of stretching and slackening the membranes to which it is attached : thus the internal muscle of the malleus draws it forward, bends the chain in this direction, and stretches the membranes; the anterior muscle produces the contrary effect: it is also supposed that the small muscle which is placed in the pyramid, and which is attached to the neck of the stapes, may give a slight tension to the chain, in drawing it towards itself. The internal ear, or labyrinth, is composed of the cochlea, of the semicircular canals, and of the vestibule. The cochlea is a bony cavity, in form of a spiral, from which it has taken its name. This cavity is divided into two others, which are distin- guished into external and internal. The partition which separates them is a plate set edgeways, and which, in its whole length, is partly bony and partly membramous. The semicircular canals are three cylindrical cavities, bent in a semicircular form, two of which are disposed horizontally, and the others vertically. These canals terminate by their extremi- ties in the vestibule. They contain bodies of a gray colour, the extremities of which are terminated by swellings. The vestibule is the central cavity, the 1. 769 point of union of all the others. It communicates with the tympanum, the cochlea, the semicircular canals, and the internal meatus auditorius, by a great number of little openings. The cavities of the in- termal ear are entirely hollowed out of the hardest part of the temporal bone: they are covered with an extremely thin membrane, and are full of a verythin and limpid fluid : they contain, besides, the acoustic nerve. The internal ear and middle ear are tra- versed by several nervous threads, the presence of which is, perhaps, useful to hearing. External Wºew. Internal Wºew. º A, helix; B, antihelix; C, fossa navicularis of the antihelix; D, groove between the helix and anti- helix; E, tragus; F, antitragus; G, lobe; H, concha; I, cartilaginous portion of the auditory canal; J, os- seous portion of the auditory canal; K, internal extremity of the auditory canal, closed by L, the membrana tympani, the internal or convex surface of which is here seen, the walls of the tympanum being removed; M, head of the malleus; N, han- dle of the malleus, between the camina of the mem- brana tympani; O, processus gracilis of the malleus; P, body of the incus; Q, short crus of the incus; R, long crus of the incus, articulating with S, the os orbiculare; T, stapes, its base applied against the fenestra ovalis; U, vestibule of the labyrinth ; V, anterior semicircular canal; W, posterior semicircu- lar canal; X, external semicircular canal; Y, begin- ning of the cochlea; Z, end of the cochlea ; * aque- duct of Fallopius. See Acoustics and Music. EAR-RING, an ornament for the ear, consisting of a * on' hook passing through the lobe, with a pendant of diamonds, pearls, or other jewels, frequently attached. It seems to be in re- pute among ail nations, the most savage as well as the most civi- lized. The Roman ladies used ear-rings of great value. The an- nexed cut represents a gold ear- ring with pearl pendants, found at Pompei. It is drawn the size of the original. 770 EAR-TRUMPETS; instruments used by persons partially deaf, to strengthen the sensation of sound. They are of various forms, and are intended to com- pensate for the want of the internal ear, or to augment its power when the external organs perform their functions but imperfectly. The purpose of the ex- termal ear, both in men and beasts, is to collect, by its funnel form, all the rays of sound (if we may be allowed the expression), and conduct them to thein- termal organs, the seat of the sense of hearing. . All the artificial instruments then, ought to resemble, in form, the natural ear. In ancient times they were made like a trumpet, of moderate size, and usually provided with handles, by which they might be held up to the ear. They were so fitted that the smaller aperture entered the ear, and the wider was directed to the quarter from which the sound was to proceed. But these instruments were soon found inconvenient, both on account of their size and the necessity of continually holding them to the ear. Another, ob- jection was, that they did not sufficiently conceal the defect they were designed to remedy, and therefore they were soon thrown aside. New instruments were made without these defects. One resembles a small silver funnel, with a long winding channel in its in- terior, which terminates at the beginning of the au- ditory passage. On the broad, bent rim there are holes, with ribbons passing through them, to fix the machine to the external ear. A second form con- sists of a lackered tin tube, with numerous windings, having the narrow end communicating with the au- ditory passage, and the exterior, wider end made fast to the external ear. these instruments might be connected by an elastic hoop, and fitted, at the same time, to both ears. A third instrument consists of a sort of hollow tin case, curving so as to fit the head, having a broad aperturein the iii. of the front surface, and terminated by two tubes bent inwards. This hoop is so fixed un- der the hair, that the aperture in the middle is exactly over the upper part of the forehead, and the lateral tubes communicate with the right and left auditory passages. The great advantage of this last instrument is, that it receives directly sounds which come from before. EARL ; a degree of the British nobility, between marquis and viscount. (For the origin of the title and the dignity, see Alderman.) In Latin the earls are called comites, corresponding to the count or Graf of the European continent. (See Count.) It is now become a mere title, the official authority which the earls formerly possessed in the counties having devolved entirely on the sheriffs (in Latin, vice-comites). In official instruments, they are called, by the king, trusty and well beloved cousins—an appellation as ancient as the reign of Henry IV., who, being, either by his wife, mother, or sisters, actually related or allied to every earl in the kingdom, art- fully acknowledged this connexion in all his letters and other public acts. An earl’s coronet is composed of eight pearls, raised upon points, with small leaves between, above the rim. There are, at present, 105 earls in England, 5 in Scotland, and 19 in Ireland. As the earls, for some time after the Norman con- quest, were called counts, their wives are still called C02/72teSSéS. EARL MARSHAL OF ENGLAND ; a great of. ficer, who had, anciently, several courts under his jurisdiction, as the court of chivalry and the court of honour. Under him is also the herald's office, or college of arms. He has some pre-eminence in the court of Marshalsea, where he may sit in judgment against those who offend within the verge of the king's court. EARLOM, Richard, a mezzotinto engraver, was In the same way, two of | EAR TRUMPETS--EARTH. born in London, and was the son of the vestry-clerk of the parish of St Sepulchre. His taste for design is said to have been excited by the inspection of the ornaments on the state-coach of the lord-mayor, which had been painted by Cipriani. About 1765, he was employed by alderman Boydell to make draw- ings from the celebrated collection of pictures at Houghton, most of which he afterwards admirably engraved in mezzotinto. In this branch of art he had been his own instructer, and he introduced into the practice of it improvements and instruments not previously used. . The fruit and flower-pieces executed by Earlom, after Van Huysum, established his fame. In history, he distinguished himself by his engraving of Agrippina, from the grand picture by West. He also engraved some Oriental scenes, from paintings by Zoffani, and published two volumes of plates from the Liber Peritatis or sketch book of Claude. He died Oct. 9, 1822, aged 79. EARNEST; a part of the price paid in advance, to bind parties to the performance of a verbal agreement. The party is then obliged to abide by his bargain, and is not discharged upon forfeiting his earnest, but may be sued for the whole money stipulated, and dama- ges. No contract for the sale of goods not to be de- livered immediately, to the value of £10 or more, is walid, unless a written contract is made by the parties, or those lawfully authorized by them, or earnest is given. EARTH ; the name of the planet which we in- habit. We may view it in regard to its physical, ma- thematical, and political condition. (See Geography.) First, as to the form of the earth: to an observer whose view is not obstructed, it presents itself as, a circular plain, on the circumference of which the heavens appear to rest. Accordingly, in remote an- tiquity, the earth was regarded as a flat, circular body, floating on the water. But the great distances which men were able to travel soon refuted this limited idea as an optical illusion ; and, even in antiquity, the spherical ſorm of the earth began to be suspected. On this supposition alone can all the phenomena re- lating to it be explained. A sphere of so great a magnitude as our earth, surrounded by a stratum of air, or the visible firmament, must present to the eye of an observer, on a plain, the appearance just de- scribed. But how could the earth appear, from every possible position, as a surface bounded by the firmament, if it were not a sphere encircled by it? How else could the horizon grow wider and wider, the higher the position we choose? How else can the fact be explained, that we see the tops of towers and of mountains, at a distance, before the bases become visible? But besides these proofs of the sphericity of the earth, there are many others, such as its circular shadow on the moon during an eclipse, the gradual appearance and disappearance of the Sun, inequality of day and night, the changes in the position and course of the stars, and the gradual disappearance of some and appearance of others, as we go from the equator to the poles. Finally, if the earth were not spherical, it would be impossible to sail round it, which is frequently done. The cause of the earth's sphericity is very evident, if we consider it as having been at first, a yielding mass, capable of assuming any form; then, by the force of gravity, every parti- cle contained in it tending towards the common cen- tre, the globular form is the necessary consequence. As to the objection to the sphericity of the earth, drawn by weak and ignorant people, from the imagi- nation that our antipodes (q.v.) would fall from its surface, and many similar ones, they will appear to have no force whatever, when we consider that, in a globe of the magnitude of the earth, everything on the surface tends to the centre, and, that if we speak of EARTH. what is above and below, the whole surface of the earth is below, and the surrounding atmosphere above. The earth is not, however, an exact sphere, but is flattened at the poles. Philosophers were first led to observe this by the variation in the vibrations of the pendulum under the equator and near the poles. It was found that the pendulum performed its vibrations slower the nearer it approached the equator, and hence was inferred the variableness of the force of gravity. This was easily explained on the theory just mentioned, because, the circle of daily revolution eing greatest at the equator, all bodies revolve pro- portionally faster there than at the poles, so that the centrifugal force is greater, and the force of gravity less, than at other parts of the earth's surface; and because, at the equator, the centrifugal force is ex- actly opposed to that of gravity, but towards the poles, being oblique to it, produces less effect. From these observations it was justly inferred, that the earth is a sphere flattened at the poles, or a sphe- roid; and this form was satisfactorily accounted for by the fact that the particles of a yielding mass, which revolves on its own axis, depart from the poles and tend to the centre, by which the poles are, of course, flattened, and the middle elevated. Various measurements have put this beyond all doubt. See Maupertuis, and Condamine, and Degree, Measure- ment of. Another important desideratum for a more intimate acquaintance with the earth was, to fix its magnitude. The labours of the ancients, in this respect, were all fruitless, owing to their want of suitable instruments. Accurate results were first obtained in the year 1615. Willibrord Smellius, a Dutchman, first struck into the only true way, and measured an arc of a meridian from Alcmaar to Leyden and Bergen-op-Zoom, by means of triangles. After him, the measurements of Picard, and the later ones of Maupertuis, approxi- mated nearer the truth. These made the circumfer- ence of a great circle of the earth 25,000 miles. But it is to be remarked that, in this calculation, the earth is regarded as a perfect sphere. Further measurements of all parts of the surface of the earth will be necessary to find, rigidly and accurately, the true magnitude of it. See Account of Eaſperiments, to determine the Figure of the Earth, by Means of the Pendulum, &c., by Captain Ed. Sabine, (London, 1825, 4to), under the direction of the board of lon- gitude. If we take a view of our earth in its relation to the Solar system, astronomy teaches us that, contrary to appearances, which make the sun revolve about the earth, the earth and ten other planets revolve about the sum, and, being themselves opaque bodies, receive from the sun light and heat. The earth completes its revolution round the Sun in about 365 days and six hours, which forms our common year. The orbit of the earth is an ellipse, with the sun in one of its foci. Hence the earth is not equally distant from the Sun in all parts of the year: its least distance is estimated at 93,336,000 miles, and its greatest, at 95,484,572, making a difference of more than 2,000,000 of miles. In winter, we are nearest the sun, and in Summer, farthest from it; for the difference in the seasons is not occasioned by the greater or less distance of the earth from the sun, but by the more or less oblique direction of the sun's rays. The length of the path travelled over by the earth is estimated at 567,019,740 miles, and, as this immense distance is passed over in a year, the earth must move seventeen miles a second—a rapidity so far exceeding our conceptions, that it gave very just occasion to the pleasant remark of Lichtenberg, that, while one man salutes another in the street, he goes many miles bareheaded without catching cold. Besides this annual motion about the 77 I sun, the earth has also a daily motion about its own axis (according to mean time, in twenty-three hours, fifty-six minutes, and four seconds). This diurnal revolution is the occasion of the alternation of day and night. But as the axis on which the earth per- forms its diurnal rotation forms, with its path about the sun, an angle of 23# degrees, the Sun ascends, from March 21 to June 21, about 23% degrees above the equator towards the north pole, and descends again towards the equator from June 21 to Septem- ber 23; it then sinks till December 21, about 23# degrees below the equator, towards the South pole, and returns again to the equator by March 21. This arrangement is the cause of the seasons, and the in- º of day and night attending them, which, for all countries lying beyond the equator, are equal only twice in the year, when the ecliptic coincides with the equator. The moon, again, revolves about the earth, in a similar elliptical path, in twenty-eight days and fourteen hours. Copernicus first laid down this as the system of the universe. To the physical knowledge of the earth belongs, especially, the consideration of its surface and its in- terior. The earth's surface contains over 196,000,000 square miles, of which scarcely a third part is dry land; the remaining two-thirds are water. Of the surface of the earth, Europe comprises about one fifty- fourth part ; Asia, one fourteenth ; Africa, a seven- teenth ; and America, a sixteenth. The islands of the Pacific, taken together, are somewhat larger than Europe. The population of the whole earth is esti- mated at from 800 to 1000 millions. The interior of the earth is entirely unknown to us, as the depth to which we have been able to penetrate is nothing in comparison with its diameter. Many modern specu- lators are of opinion that the interior is composed of a metallic mass. Respecting the origin and gradual formation of the earth there are various hypotheses. See Geology; see also Day, Cycle, Degree, &c.; and Mountain, Polcano, Earthquake, Current, &c. Earth, Motion of the. The earth has two motions, the daily motion round its axis, and the yearly motion in its orbit round the sun. The theory of the motion of the earth has become memorable in the history of the human mind, showing, as it does, a marked ability in man to resist the impressions produced by appear- ances, and to believe the contrary of that which had been believed and taught for many centuries. The theory of Copernicus not only founded the modern system of astronomy, but made men eager to examine other articles of their creed, after they were thus con- vinced that they had erroneously taught and believed the earth to be stationary for 6000 years. All the opinions of the ancients respecting the motion of the earth were speculative hypotheses, arising from the Pythagorean school, which, as we know, considered fire the centre of the world, round which all was moving. Thus we ought to explain the passage of Aristarchus of Samos, mentioned by Aristotle in his Arenario. Aristarchus, as a Pythagorean, held the idea that the earth revolves round its axis, and, at the same time, in an oblique circle round the Sun; and that the distance of the stars is so great, that this circle is but a point in comparison with their orbits, and therefore the motion of the earth produces no apparent motion in them. Every Pythagorean might have entertained this idea, who considered the sun or fire as the centre of the world, and who was at the same time, so correct a thinker, and so good an astronomer, as Aristarchus of Samos. But this was not the Copernican system of the world. It was the motions of the planets, their stations, and their retrogradations, which astronomers could not ex- plain, and which led them to the complicated motions of the epicycles, in which the planets moved in 3 c 2 772 cycloids round the earth. Aristarchus lived 280 B.C., Hipparchus, the great astronomer of antiquity, 150 B. C., therefore 130 years later. At this time, all the writings of Aristarchus were extant, and had the Coperilican system been set forth in them, Hippar- chus would not have despaired of explaining the motions of the planets. The same is true of Ptolemy, in whose Almagest, the most complete work of an- tiquity on astronomy, this system is not mentioned in the account of Aristarchus. Every Copernican. speaks of the motion of the earth, but not every one who speaks of the motion of the earth is a Coperni- can. Copernicus was led to the discovery of his system by consideration of the complicated motion of the planets, and, in the dedication of his im- mortal work, De Revolutionibus Orbium, to pope Paul III., he says, that the truth of his system is proved by the motion of the planets, since their successive stations and retrogradations are the simple and necessary consequence of the motion of the earth round the Sun ; and we need not take refuge in the complicated epicycles. Copernicus did not live to see the persecutions which the Ro- man Catholic priests raised against his system. They began only 100 years later (about 1610), when the telescope was invented, when the moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus were discovered, and, by these means, the zeal for astronomy had been highly excited. Every city in Italy was then a little Athens, in which the arts and sciences flourished. Galileo obtained high distinction, and defended the new system of the world. The Roman inquisition sum- moned him before its tribunal, and he was compelled to abjure this theory. (See Galileo.) The general sympathy for the fate of this astronomer increased the popularity of the system, and it was as violently defended on one side as it was attacked on the other. Among the arguments against the motion of the earth, it was alleged, that a stone, falling from a tower, did not fall westward of the tower, notwith- standing this had advanced eastward several hundred feet during the four or five seconds of the fall of the Stone. Copernicus had answered justly : the cause of its remaining near the tower is, that it has the same motion eastward, and, in falling, does not lose this motion, but advances with the earth. Galileo said the same, and asserted that a stone, falling from the top of the mast of a vessel at full sail, falls at the foot of the mast, notwithstanding the mast ad- vances, perhaps, ten or more feet during the fall. Gassendi tried these experiments in the harbour of Marseilles, and the stones fell at the foot of the mast, notwithstanding the vessel was under full sail, Gal- ileo therefore maintained, that it is impossible to draw any conclusions concerning the motion of the earth from such experiments, since bodies would fall on the earth in motion precisely the same as on the earth at rest. In 1642, Galileo died. In the Same year, Newton was born. He proved, in 1679, that the opinion of Galileo was erroneous, and that we certainly can try experiments on the motion of the earth; that the balls would not deviate west- ward, but would fall a little eastward of the plumb- line, about a half inch at the height of 300 feet. The cause is this: since the top of the tower is at a greater distance from the axis of the earth than its base, the centrifugal force must be greater at the former point than at the latter; the ball, in falling, does not lose this impulse, and, therefore, advances before the plumbline, which strikes the foot of the tower, since it has a less impulse eastward. This hint, given by Newton, was followed by Hooke He tried experiments on the motion of the earth, at a height of 160 feet, and asserts that he succeeded. The academy appointed a committee, Jan. 14, 1680, EARTH-EARTHQUAKE. in the presence of which he was to repeathis experi- ments. Probably they were not satisfactory, since they have never been mentioned in the Philosophical Transactions, and were entirely forgotten. Only 112 years later, a young geometrician in Bologna, Guglielmini, attempted to repeat these experiments, which had been considered very difficult by astrono- mers, in the tower Degli Asinelli, in that city, at a height of 240 feet. After having surmounted all difficulties, he succeeded in causing the fall of sixteen balls, which perceptibly deviated eastward. But Guglielmini committed an error in not suspending the lead every day when he tried his experiments, of which he often made three or four in one night. He did not drop the plummet until after he had finished all his experiments, and, as it did not come to a per- pendicular position until six months, on account of stormy weather, the tower in the meantime was a little bent, the point at which the plummet should have fallen was altered, and his experiments were lost. This happened in 1792. Benzenberg, a Ger- man, performed similar experiments in 1804, in Michael's tower, in Hamburg. He let fall thirty balls, from the height of 235 it. the balls deviated from the perpendicular four lines eastward. But they deviated, at the same time, 1% line southward, pro- bably owing to a gentle draft of air in the tower. He ...i these experiments in 1805, in a coalpit, at Schlebusch, in the county of Mark, at the height of 260 feet: there the balls deviated from the per- pendicular five lines eastward, just as the theory of the motion of the earth requires for the latitude of 518, but neither southward, nor northward. From these experiments, Laplace calculated that the chances are 8000 to 1 that the earth turns round its axis. The invention of the telescope, by means of which the rotation of Jupiter was soon observed, but still more Newton’s discovery of universal gravity, and of the nature of the celestial motions, estab- lished the theory of the motion of the earth; and, in modern times, no man of intelligence dombts it any longer. The French general Allix, however, en- deavoured to prove that the motion of the planets does not depend on the law of gravitation. The flat- tening of the earth (see Degree, Measurement of) and the diminution of gravity in the vicinity of the equa- tor, proved by the experiments of Richers and others on the motion of the pendulum in the equatorial regions (see Pendulum), also give as convincing proofs of the rotation of the earth, as the aberration of light (q.v.) affords of the revolution of the earth round the sun. Thus the human intellect has triumphed over the evidences of sense, and the oppo- sition of authority. EARTHQUAKE ; a shaking of certain parts of the earth’s surface, produced by causes not perceiv- able by our senses. This motion occurs in very dif- ferent ways, and in various degrees of violence. Sometimes it is perpendicular, throwing portions of the ground into the air, and making others sink. Sometimes it is a horizontal, undulating motion, and sometimes it appears to be of a whirling nature. Sometimes it is quickly over ; sometimes continues long, or recurs at intervals of weeks, days, or months. At one time, it is confined within a small circle; at another, it extends for many miles. At one time, it is hardly perceptible; at another, it is so violent, that it not only demolishes the works of human art, but changes the appearance of the ground itself. Sometimes the surface of the ground remains un- broken ; sometimes it bursts open into clefts and chasms; and then occasionally appears the pheno- menon of the eruption of gases, and also of flames, with the ejection of water, mud, and stones, as in volcanic eruptions. The eruptions of proper and EARTHS. permanent volcanoes are preceded by, and propor- tionate to, the agitations of the earth in their neigh- bourhood. These observations furnish grounds for the conclusion, that earthquakes cannot proceed from external causes, but arise from certain powers operat- ing within the circumference or crust of the earth. Moreover, all the phenomena of earthquakes bear so much affinity to those of volcanoes, that there can hardly be a doubt, that both proceed from the same causes, acting differently, according to the difference of situation, or different nature of the surface on which they operate. A volcano differs from an earth- quake, principally, by having a permanent crater, and by the reappearance of the eruptions in the same place, or in its immediate vicinity. All the other phenomena of a volcano, such as the subterranean thunder-like noises, the shaking, raising, and bursting asunder of the earth, and the emission of elastic fluids, the fire and flames, the ejection, too, of mineral substances, all occur, now and then, more or less, in earthquakes as well as in volcanic eruptions, even when at a distance from active volcanoes ; and the genuine volcanic eruptions are, as has been remark- ed, accompanied or announced by shakings of the earth. All our observations go to prove, that volca- nic eruptions, earthquakes, the heaving of the ground from within, and the disruption of it in the same way, are produced by one and the same cause, by one and the same chemical process, which must have its seat at a great depth beneath the present surface of the earth. The most remarkable earthquakes of modern times are those which destroyed Lima, in 1746, and Lisbon, in 1755; in the latter, 20,000 persons were killed. It extended from Greenland to Africa and America. A similar fate befell Calabria, in 1783, the province of Caracas, in South America, in 1812, and Aleppo, in Syria, in 1822. Several earthquakes have taken place quite lately, in South America, one particularly dreadful at Lima. The city of Guatemala, also, was nearly destroyed in the spring of 1830, by earthquakes, which continued five days successively. EARTHS. The term earth is applied, in com- mon life, to denote a tasteless, inodorous, dry, unin- flammable, sparingly-soluble substance, which is diffi- cultly fusible, and of a moderate specific gravity. Several of the earths are found in a state of purity in nature ; but their general mode of occurrence is in intimate union with each other, and with various acids and metallic oxides. Under these circum- stances, they constitute by far the greatest part of the strata, gravel, and soil, which go to make up the mountains, valleys, and plains of our globe. Their number is ten, and their names are silew, alumina, magnesia, lime, barytes, strontites, zircon, glucine, 3yttria, and thorina. The four first have long been known to mankind; the remainder have been dis- covered in our own times. Silex exists nearly pure, in large masses, forming entire rocks, as quartz rock, and constituting the chief ingredient in all granitic rocks and sandstones, so that it may safely be asserted to form more than one half of the crust of the earth. Alumine is found pure in two or three exceedingly rare minerals, but, in a mixed state, is well known as forming clays and a large family of rocks, usually called argillaceous. Lime, an earth well known from its important uses in Society, occurs combined with carbonic acid, in which state it forms limestone, marble, chalk, and the shells of Snails. It exists also, upon a large scale, in combination with sulphu- ric acid, when it bears the name of gypsum. Mag- nesia is rare in a state of purity, but enters largely into the composition of some of the primary rocks, especially of the limestones. The remaining eight ‘if we except barytes, which, in combination with 773 sulphuric acid, is often met with in metallic veins) are only known to the chemist as occurring in the composition of certain minerals, which, for the most part, are exceedingly rare. The earths are very similar to the alkalies (q.v.), forming, with the acids, peculiar salts, and resembling the alkalies likewise in their composition. They consist of pecu- liar metals in combination with oxygen, and com- pose the greatest part of the solid contents of the globe. They differ from the alkalies principally in the following peculiarities: they are incombustible, and cannot, in their simple state, be volatilized by heat ; with different acids, especially the carbonic, they form salts, insoluble, or soluble only with much difficulty, and with fat oils, soaps insoluble in water. They are divided into two classes, the alkaline and proper earths. The former have a greater similarity to the alkalies. In their active state, they are soluble in water, and these solutions may be crystallized. They change the vegetable colours almost in the same way as alkalies, and their affinity for acids is some- times weaker and sometimes stronger than that of the alkalies. They combine with sulphur, and form compounds perfectly similar to the sulphureted alka- lies. With carbonic acid, they form insoluble salts, which, however, become soluble in water by an ex- cess of carbonic acid. The alkaline earths are as follows: 1. barytes, or heavy earth, so called from its great weight ; 2. Strontites (q.v.); both these earths are counted among the alkalies, by many che- mists, on account of their easy solubility in water; 3. calcareous earth, or lime, forms one of the most abundant ingredients of our globe ; 4. magnesia is a constituent of several minerals. The proper earths are wholly insoluble in water, infusible at the greatest heat of our furnaces, and, by being exposed to heat, in a greater or less degree, they lose their property of easy solubility in acids. Some of them are incapable of combining with carbonic acid, and the remainder form with it insoluble compounds. They are the following: 1. alumine ; 2. glucine, which is found only in the beryl and emerald, and a few other minerals; 3. yttria is found in the gadoli- mite, in the yttrious oxide of columbium, &c.; 4. Zirconia is found less frequently than the preced- ing in the zircon and hyacinth ; 5. Silex. The earths were regarded as simple bodies until the brilliant researches of Sir H. Davy proved them to be compounds of oxygen with peculiar bases, somewhat similar to those of the alkalies, potassium, and sodium. Some of the heavier of the earths had often been imagined to be analogous to the metallic oxides; but every attempt to effect their decomposi- tion or reduction had proved unsuccessful. ... After ascertaining the compound nature of the alkalies, Davy submitted the earths to the same mode of analysis by which he had effected that fine discovery. The results obtained in his first experiments were less complete than those afforded with the alkalies, owing to the superior affinity between the principles of the earths, as well as to their being less perfect electrical conductors. By submitting them to gal- vanic action, in mixture with potash, or with metallic oxides, more successful results were obtained ; and a method employed by Berzelius and Pontin, of placing them in the galvanic circuit with quicksilver, terminated very perfectly in affording the bases of barytes and lime, in combination with this metal.— By the same method, Sir H. Davy decomposed strontites and magnesia; and, by submitting silex, alumine, zircon, and glucine to the action of the gal- vanic battery, in fusion with potash or soda, or in contact with iron, or by fusing them with potassium and iron, appearances were obtained sufficiently indi- cative of their decomposition, and of the production 774 of bases of a metallic nature. Thorina, the last dis- covered earth, was decomposed by heating the chlo- ride of thorium with potassium. The metallic bases of the earths approach more nearly than those of the alkalies to the common metals, and the earths them- selves have a stricter resemblance than the alkalies to metallic oxides. Viewing them as forming part of a natural arrangement, they furnish the link which unites the alkalies to the metals. Accord- ingly, many of the more recent systems of chemistry treat of all these bodies as forming a single group under the name of the metallic class. Still, (as doc- tor Ure justly remarks), whatever may be the revo- lutions of chemical momenclature, mankind will never cease to consider as earths those solid bodies composing the mineral strata, which are incombusti- ble, colourless, not convertible into metals by all the ordinary methods of reduction, or, when reduced by Scientific refinements, possessing but an evanescent metallic existence. For a more particular account of the properties of the earths, and of their bases, consult the articles relating to them respectively, in this work. EARWIG ; an insect whose name is derived from its supposed habit of insinuating itself into the ears of persons who incautiously sleep among grass where it is found. It is extremely doubtful whether the animal intentionally enters the ear; and, indeed, there is no reason whatever that it should, except from mere accident. A piece of an apple applied to the orifice is said to entice the insect, and thus relieve the sufferer ; where this fails, a few drops of sweet oil destroy the life of the earwig, which must then be extracted with a proper instrument by a physi- cain. A remarkable fact, in relation to the earwig, is its great abundance at particular times, and its Subsequent rarity. From the observations of ento- mologists, it has been proved that these insects mi- grate in considerable flocks, selecting the evening for their excursions. Much damage is sustained by gardeners from the depredations of these little ani- mals among fruit and tender vegetables, which con- stitute their proper food; occasionally, however, they feed on animal substances, and even devour each other. The places in which the species of this small genus are found are chiefly damp and cool situations, under Stones and the bark of trees, among chests and boxes which have been long undisturbed, and in similar haunts. In the systems, the family which is formed of the original genus forficula of Linnaeus, consists of two genera, forficula and labidura ; to which another is added by Leach, the characters of which differ in so trifling a degree from the preced- ing, as to prevent its .# generally received as distinct. It is even doubtful whether the simple dis- parity in the number of joints in the antennae, is worthy of any distinction further than a section.— The forfieula auricularia is a small insect, about three quarters of an inch in length, having the wings folded under very short and truncate elytra or wing cases, and the extremity of the abdomen armed with a horny forceps. When alarmed, the insect elevates the abdomen, and opens these forceps, in order to defend itself from the attack of its enemies. EAST; one of the four cardinal points of the world, being the point of the horizon where the sun is seen to rise when in the equator. In Italy and throughout the Mediterranean, the east wind is called the levante. For the origin of the word, see Easter. EASTER ; the festival commemorating the resur- rection of Christ. The Greek ºrzzzz, and the Latin pascha, from which come the French pâques, the Italian pasqua, and the name of the same festival in several other languages, originated from the notion EAR WIG –EAST INDIA COMPANIES. that Christ was typified by the paschal lamb, or- dained by Moses in the feast of the passover: thus Paul says (I Cor. v. 7.), “For even Christ our pass- over is sacrificed for us.” The first Christians were therefore considered to continue the Jewish feast; understanding by the lamb, which was sacrificed at the festival, Jesus, who suffered for mankind. (See Passover.) Among the Greeks and Roman Catho- lics, Easter is the most joyful festival of the church, and is also observed with great solemnity by the English church, the Lutherans, and the European Calvinists. The Greek and Roman Catholic churches did not celebrate it at precisely the same time, and, while some Christians were mourning in commemoration of the passion, others were rejoicing in the resurrection of the Saviour. In the second cen- tury the dispute became warm. The Eastern church would not discontinue the celebration of the feast at the same time with the Jews; whilst the Western church insisted upon celebrating it without the pas- chal lamb, and beginning it on Sunday, the day of Christ's resurrection. The dispute was finally set- tled by the council at Nice, in 325, which ordered that the feast should be celebrated uniformly on the Sunday after March 14th, and not on the same day with the Jews. The English name Easter, and the German Ostern, are most probably derived from the name of the feast of the Teutonic goddess Ostera, which was celebrated by the ancient Saxons early in the spring, and for which, as in many other instances, the first missionaries wisely substituted the Christian feast. Adelung derives ostern and easter from the old word oster, osten, which signifies rising, because nature arises anew in spring. This is also the deri- vation of east, in German, osten. Easter-fires, Easter- eggs, and many other customs and superstitions, have all their origin from the ancient heathen feast, which, as the celebration of the resurrection of nature, was very appropriately succeeded by the festival which commemorates the resurrection of Christ. EASTER ISLAND, or DAVIS ISLAND ; an island in the South Pacific ocean, lon. 109° 50' W.; lat. 27° 8 S. It is of a triangular form, one side about twelve miles long, the other two about mine each. Square miles, about 114. Population, dif- ferently estimated at 700, 1500, and 2000. The inhabitants are of a tawny colour, well formed, Saga- cious, and hospitable, yet thievish. The surface is mountainous and stony, and the hills rise to such a height, that they are visible at the distance of forty- five miles. At the southern extremity is the crater of a volcano of great size and depth. The soil of the island is extremely fertile, but not a tenth part is under cultivation. EASTERN EMPIRE. See Byzantine Empire. EAST INDIA COMPANIES. From the earliest times, the commercial enterprise of the Europeans has been directed towards an immediate intercourse with the East Indies; but the Arabian empire, and its mercantile grandeur, at first, and the dominions of the Persians and Turks, at a later period, pre- sented insurmountable barrriers. The commercial shrewdness of the Italian republics did not succeed in entirely overcoming these obstacles; and even the Venetian commerce with India, extensive as it was, could not be called direct. After the Turks had established themselves in Europe, by the conquest of Constantinople, and in Africa, by that of Egypt, the access to India was more completely shut up, and the enterprising spirit of the merchants of Christendora was turned to the discovery of a direct channel to that land of commerce. The West of Europe was delivered from the Saracens, and the warlike spirit which had long been occupied by the contests with the infidels required some new scene of activity. EAST INDIA The great Portuguese prince Henry, surnamed the Navigator, directed this energy towards the ocean; and not half a century had elapsed from the taking of Constantinople, when Vasco da Gama (1498) landed in Hindostan, on the coast of Malabar, and the Portuguese successfully established themselves on those distant shores. The whole commerce of the East Indies was in their hands for nearly a century—the golden age of Portugal.—The efforts of Alphonso Albuquerque, Nuno da Cunha, and Francis Xavier—the latter with spiritual weapons, and the former by force of arms—will ever be re- membered with admiration, even had they not been sung in the glorious verses of Camoens. During eighty years, while the transportation of Indian pro- ductions through Genoa, Venice, and the Hanse towns, was constantly diminishing, Lisbon was the India of the north of Europe. The English and Dutch obtained their supplies of Indian spices either from Lisbon or from Portuguese merchants in Ant- werp. Venice also found herself supplanted by the military power of the Portuguese and the subjection of her commercial friends, the Saracens. When, however, Philip II., in 1580, united Portugal with the Spanish monarchy, and soon after commenced his war with England, against whose vessels he closed the ports of his empire, the British merchants were compelled to draw their supplies of Indian produce from the Netherlands. The Dutch took advantage of this circumstance, and raised the price of pepper to three times its former amount. But the revolt of the Netherlands from Spain induced Philip II. to take decided measures against the Dutch commerce also, and the capture of their vessels in the port of Lisbon compelled the Dutch to engage in a direct trade to India; the English soon followed their example. Thus, during the last ten years of the sixteenth century, the foundation was laid in England and Holland, nearly at the same time, of those great commercial corporations, called East India Companies. They are distinguished from the Hanseatic league, and other earlier unions of that kind, in being merely associations of individuals uniting for a common commercial purpose, with transferable shares, and not of political bodies; and also by having bought their privileges and rights at once from their own governments, while those of the earlier commercial confederacies were obtained, together with their political privileges, by successive treaties. As such an extensive commerce in distant parts of the world requires a political power to pre- serve and protect it, we find the English, Dutch, and other smaller East India companies, engaged, soon after their establishment, in labouring to form a po- litical power on the basis of wealth; which, even if it succeeded, would not accord with the politics of the mother country, and would not be able, for any great length of time, to resist the reaction that would arise in the conquered countries. I. The earliest East India company was the Por- tuguese, although essentially different, in its organi- zation, from the others. By the union of Portugal with Spain, the connexion between the distant Por- tuguese governments in India and the mother country became less close. Abuses of every kind, illicit traffic on the part of the viceroys and officers, smug- gling and piracy became prevalent. The Spanish government perceived that the East India commerce, if continued on account of the crown, would not only be unprofitable, but would occasion an annually increasing loss, and therefore granted the exclusive º of the East India trade, in 1587, to a com- pany of Portuguese merchants, in consideration of the annual payment of a considerable sum. This company, in attempting to enforce its privileges, COMPANIES. 775 became involved in disputes, equally disadvantageous to both parties, with the Portuguese government in India, which was engaged in the smuggling trade; and the way for the enterprises of the Dutch and English could not have been better prepared than by this weakening of the Portuguese power. To this may be added, the impatience of the Indian nations under the Portuguese yoke, and the jealousy and hatred entertained against both by the Arabians. The English and Dutch companies found every thing in that state of division which is favourable to the establishment of a third party, by means which, in any other case, would be entirely inadequate. This explains their immediate and brilliant success, not- withstanding the great inferiority of their strength. The Portuguese company, on the contrary, on the breaking out of open war between England and Holland and Spain, soon became unable to pay the annual tribute to the crown, and gradually declined, till, in 1640, on the re-establishment of Portuguese independence by king John IV., of the house of Braganza, it was entirely abolished.—From that time, the insignificant remains of the Portuguese Commerce with the East Indies have been in the hands of the government, if we except the unsuccess- ful attempt to form a new company in 1731. II. Eight years after the establishment of the first Portuguese company, the offer of a Dutchman, Cor- nelius Houtman, who had been taken prisoner by the Spanish, and had become acquainted with the Portu- guese East India trade, induced the merchants of Amsterdam, who had already made three unsuccess- ful attempts to discover a passage to India through the Northern ocean, to form a company, under the name of the “Company of Remote Parts,” and send their first commercial fleet round the cape of Good Hope to India, under the command of Houtman. Four Small vessels were equipped with a capital of 70,000 guilders, and sailed the 2d of April, 1595, from the Texel. The example of Amsterdam was followed in the other United Provinces; but these companies soon became aware that they interfered mutually with each other; and, March 20, 1602, they were united by a charter from the states general, conferring on them the exclusive privilege of trading to the East Indies for twenty-one years, together with all necessary civil and military powers. The former companies remained, in some measure, distinct from each other, and the six cities of Amsterdam, Middel- burg, Delft, Rotterdam, Horn, and Enkhuysén, which had made the first attempts, were allowed to continue the commerce from their ports. This company began its operations with a capital of 6% millions guilders; 65 directors (Bewindhebbers)—divided amongst the different members, in proportion to the amount of shares, so that Amsterdam had twenty-five, Middel- burg twelve, and each of the other cities seven— superintended the equipment of the vessels, in their respective ports ; a committee of fifteen directors, apportioned in the same manner, had the general direction of affairs. In 1622, the subject of the renewal of the charter being before the states general, it appeared that, during the twenty years of its existence, thirty millions guilders, that is, more than four times the amount of the original capital, had been divided amongst the stockholders ; besides which, a great amount of capital had been vested in colonies, fortifications, vessels, and other property, on which no dividend could be made. These results will not be surprising, if we consider how much more favourable was the condition of the East Indies, in every respect, for republicans and Protestants, than for Catholics and subjects of a monarchy. The Por- tuguese acted on the principle, that without a strong military force, and a religion common to the edis '776 EAST INDIA quered and ruling nation, no permanent commercial connexion could be formed ; and this system was pur- sued for a century; sometimes with prudence, but more frequently with great inhumanity. The Dutch, on the contrary, with their indifference to the moral relations of mations, and their well conducted com- merce, were well calculated to succeed. Their su- periority to the English, in their first enterprises, was owing not only to their superior skill by sea, their youthful republican spirit, and the greater amount of their capital, but chiefly to their having carried on all their operations, from the first, with a common capital, while the first English East India company, till 1610, was a mere association, each member of which transacted business on his own account, mere- ly conforming to certain general rules, such as the employing the company’s ships. It has been proved by subsequent results, that a mere money power can- not be upheld without an entire disregard of the claims of humanity; and the example of the first Portuguese conquerors has convinced enlightened men, that the dominion of Europeans in India re- mains insecure, if not founded on a certain moral, legal, and religious community with the inhabitants of the country. The charter of the Dutch East India Company was continued till 1644 ; Batavia was founded in a very favourable situation for the traffic with the Spice islands, the chief branch of the Indian trade; 34–41 freighted vessels annually left the ports of Holland for India ; 25–34 merchant vessels, on the average, returned. The commerce with Ja- pan increased rapidly, and the extension of Portu- guese power in the Brazils, after the accession of the house of Braganza to the throne, although a great disadvantage to the Dutch West India company, promoted the interest of the East India company, by directing the attention of the Portuguese wholly to America, and leaving free scope to the Dutch in Asia. In 1641, Malacca, the capital of the Portuguese East Indies, fell into the hands of the Dutch, by the treason of the governor. But the increasing activity of the English and French, and the political and military establishments of the company, diminished their pro- fits, and it was difficult to raise the 1,600,000 guild- ers, which were to be paid to the states general, in 1644, for the extension of the charter till 1665. Soon after, however, the independence of the republic of the United Provinces was secured by the peace of Westphalia—an event which was of great advantage to the company, and enabled them to found colonies on the cape of Good Hope. This was done inf the course of twenty years (from 1650), at an expense of twenty millions guilders. These colonies were a great assistance to the intercourse between Europe and India, and richly repaid the expenses incurred. In 1658, the conquest of Ceylon was completed, after a vigorous defence by the Portuguese; and the Tar- tar revolution in China occasioned the settlement of 30,000 Chinese, who would not submit to the new government, in the Dutch island of Formosa. These proved a valuable accession to the population. Al- though the direct commerce with China had to struggle with insurmountable difficulties, the indirect communication through these emigrants, who were well acquainted with the country, and the influx of Chinese productions from all sides into Batavia, amply recompensed the company. They were, how- ever, deprived of this valuable island in 1661, by a Chinese adventurer, named Kaxinga, whose family afterwards ceded it to the emperor of China. The energy of the company seemed to be excited by this loss. In 1663, the most valuable settlements of the Portuguese on the coast of Malabar were taken ; and, in 1666, by the conquest of Macassar, the object of the exertions of seventy years, they obtained the COMPANIES. monopoly of the spice trade. At this time, the civil and military expenses of the company, exclusive of the expenses of the war, amounted to three and a half millions guilders. In 1665, after much opposition, the charter was renewed till 1700, on condition of payment of a large sum into the treasury; and the report of the company showed an almost inconceiv- able extension of commerce. Their factories ex- tended from the cape of Good Hope to the coasts of Arabia and Persia. They were masters of all the important settlements of the Portuguese, from Surat, on the Malabar coast. Ceylon, with its cinnamom and ivory; the pearl fishery and cotton trade on the coast of Coromandel; Bengal and Orissa, with their silks and cottons, rice, sugar, Saltpetre, &c., were in the hands of the company, as was also the commerce with Pegu, Siam, and Tonquin, only interrupted by Some temporary accidents. They obtained valuable supplies of silver and copper from Japan; carried on an extensive trade in spices with Amboyna, the Banda islands, and the Moluccas, &c. Malacca, the principal seat of the Portuguese trade, appeared by this report to be on the decline, the expense of pro- tection being disproportioned to the size of the place ; and the straits of Sunda, on which Batavia is situ- ated, had superseded the straits of Malacca, as the general passage to the farther East. The charter of the company has since been several times renewed, and always on condition of the payment of large sums ; from 1701–40; then till 1775; and in 1776 for thirty years more, for the sum of two millions guilders, and the annual payment of 360,000 guilders. Avarice and cruelty, which increased with the gra- dual decay of the old patriotic spirit, and the decline of simple and moderate habits; a shameless system of intrigue towards their allies, and particularly their incapacity to appreciate the moral and religious cha- racter of the nations of India ; and, finally, the re- newed vigour of the British company at the com- mencement of the 18th century, and the change in the European demand ; the preference given to other Spices;–these are the principal causes of the decline of the Dutch East India company. In the 18th cen- tury, their annals abound with relations of conspira- Cies, insurrections, and generally unsuccessful wars; and, in 1781, we find them so completely broken up by the war with England, and by enormous political expenses, that the states-general, notwithstanding their own difficulties, were obliged to assist them with a loan. In the first revolutionary war, the company lost most of their possessions, and were obliged to suspend the payment of their dividends in 1796. They had scarcely taken possession of what was restored to them by the peace of Amiens, 1802, (England retaining only Ceylon,) wheneverything was lost by the new war; and at the general peace, they retained none of their early East India possessions, but the governments of Batavia and Amboyna, Ban- da, Ternate, Malacca, Macassar, and some scattered factories on the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel. The cape of Good Hope and Ceylon were lost to them for ever. At their commencement, the Dutch East India company had enjoyed the advantage of all the Portuguese establishments; their forts, magazines, artillery, and provisions for defence, their commer- cial and political relations, and an immense booty which the capture of the Portuguese ships on every Sea afforded them ; while, on the contrary, the Eng- lish had to struggle for a century with the difficulty of gradually gaining the ground on which to plant their commercial lever. But the very circumstance of their slow progress gave a firmer footing to their power. III. English East India Company.—The history of this great company may be divided into four periods. ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY. During the first fourteen years, its members were, in a great measure, independent. In the following ninety-five years, although it had a common capital, its operations were confined by the superiority of the T)utch in the Indian seas, by the civil wars at home, and particularly by the calling in question of its ex- clusive privileges, which were merely a royal and not a parliamentary grant. For the succeeding forty years, it enjoyed all its rights undisputed, and founded on parliamentary authority, but confined to mere commercial transactions. And, finally, during the Subsequent Seventy years, its political power was de- veloped. 1. Period from 1600 to 1613. The English, in their first attempts to reach India, directed their Course to the north-west, as the Dutch did to the north-east. John Cabot, in the employ of Henry VII., had discovered Newfoundland, and the coasts of North America, in 1497. In 1553, his son, Sebas- tian Cabot, under Edward VI., engaged in a second enterprise of this kind. The king chartered a com- pany, which, with a capital of £6000, equipped three vessels, for the discovery of a northern passage to India. Part of this expedition was lost in the nor- thern Ocean ; another part landed on the northern Coast of Russia, and formed commercial connexions which gave rise to the English Russian company, in the same manner as the Hudson's bay company owes its establishment to the attempts to discover a north- West passage, which have been continued to the present day. The English, at the same time, endea- voured to penetrate to India, directly, by land, and at least to rival the Venetians, if they could not con- tend with the Portuguese. This was the main object of the English Turkish company, established in 1581, which, however, soon became convinced of the im- practicability of the attempt, and was induced, by Sir Francis Drake's account of his circumnavigation (1591), to send out three ships to India, under the command of captain Raymond, on the route of the Portuguese. This attempt, and that made by Robert T}udley, in 1596, failed entirely. The Spanish war, the shutting up of Lisbon, and the avarice of the Dutch, gave, however, a new vigour to the enter- prise of the London merchants, and, September 22, 1599, a society was formed in London, which, in the course of two centuries, acquired the greatest power of any commercial association on record. The origi- mal capital amounted to £30,133 sterling; and queen Elizabeth, December 31, 1600, granted to the gover- nor and company of merchants of London trading to the East Indies, for fifteen years, the exclusive right of trading to all countries from the cape of Good Hope eastward, to the straits of Magellan, excepting those which were in the possession of friendly Euro- pean powers. Until 1613, the company consisted merely of a Society subject to particular regulations; each member managed his affairs on his own account, and was only bound to conform to certain general rules. Notwithstanding the disadvantages of this arrangement, the profits of eight voyages amounted to 171 per cent. 2. Period from 1613 to 1708. At this time (1613), the capital was united, and the constitution, in con- sequence, became more aristocratic ; the largest stockholders having the principal management, and the great mass of the stockholders having only a nominal control in the general meetings. Those lat- ter, in reality, had only in view speculation in the shares. The concerns of the company were so pros- perous, that, in the course of four years, the shares rose to the value of 203 per cent., and the Dutch became desirous, though they did not succeed, to unite with it against the Portuguese. Its factories were extended to Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Banda 777 islands, Celebes, Malacca, Siam, the coasts of Mala- bar and Coromandel, but chiefly to the states of the Mogul, whose favour the company had very prudently secured. Their success was such, that, a new sub- Scription being opened in 1616, the amount raised was £1,629,040. But, in 1627, complaints were made of bad management, and abuses of all kinds, particularly in regard to the private commerce of the officers, which has always been of the greatest disadvantage to all such companies. The opposition to the royal authority, under the Stuarts, brought into question the monopoly of the company which rested on a royal grant. The kings themselves con- tributed to raise these doubts, by granting to indi- viduals the privilege of trading to India, much to the disadvantage of the company. During the time of the commonwealth, the public opinion became very strong against monopolies, and Cromwell, by destroy- ing the charter, in 1655, attempted to make the East India trade free. But this was impracticable. To give up the company was to destroy the whole capi- tal of power and influence obtained in India. After the restoration of the royal family, the charter, which even Cromwell had been obliged to renew, was again in full force. During the short period which elapsed from this time to the Revolution of 1688, the com- pany obtained, by the acquisition of Madras and Bombay, the predominance on the coast of Malabar and Coromandel, and laid the foundation for the ex- tension of its possessions into the interior of Hindos- tan, and for that power which rose on the ruins of the empire of the great Mogul. The affairs of the Company were not, however, in a prosperous state ; and, soon after the Revolution, the question was started, whether the king could impose restrictions on commerce by a charter, and whether a sovereign, who possessed the rights of sovereignty conditionally, could confer them on a privileged company. The consequence was, that, the company not being able to perform their obligations, on account of the losses occasioned by wars, infidelity of officers, extrava- gance, &c., parliament granted a charter to a new East India company, in 1698, on condition of a loan of £2,000,000 sterling, at three per cent., for the service of the state. But the great contentions be- tween the two companies soon made it necessary to unite them, and a union was effected in 1708. 3. Period from 1708 to 1748. In 1708, an act of parliament was passed, uniting the two English East India companies into one, under the title of the United Company of Merchants of England trad- ing to the East Indies. Its exclusive privileges were granted till 1726, after which it was determina- ble upon three years’ notice. The capital was raised by the sale of the shares : one share (of the value of 36500) gave the holder a vote in the “General Court;” four shares, or stock to the amount of zé2000, rendered the holder eligible as one of the twenty-four “Directors,” who managed the govern- ment of the company. The shares being transferable, the great mass of stockholders are constantly chang- ing, and take no personal interest in the affairs of the company, but merely speculate in the shares. The whole management is thus left to the directors, and all the numberless abuses of an oligarchical constitu- tion are readily introduced. The local affairs of the company were intrusted to the three councils of Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, while the general direction was retained in England. But, as every- thing depended ultimately on the local officers in India, the pernicious abuse prevailed of attempting to secure the fidelity of the superior officers by al- lowing them to appropriate to themselves the inferior lucrative posts. The renewal of the charter in 1732 was not obtained without great difficulty, and against Y8 a powerful opposition. The company therefore thought it advisable, in 1744, to advance 261,000,000 Sterling, at 3 per cent., for the service of government, in consideration of an extension of their charter till 1780. 4th Period. The political power of the British in India commenced in 1748. The French had already set the example. In 1740, a French battalion had destroyed the army of the nabob of the Car- natic, and, Soon after, the French officers succeeded in disciplining Indian troops according to the Euro- pean method. The inferiority of the native Indian troops opposed to European soldiers, and the facility of instructing Indian soldiers, known by the name of Seapoys, in the European discipline, was thus proved. Ambition and avarice, political and mercantile cum- ning, could now act on a larger Scale; and the inde- pendence of the Indian princes was gone whenever this trading company, which was already encroach- ing upon all the rights, both of the rulers and the people of those countries, should establish a perman- ent military force. Thus far, the military organiza- tion of the company had been merely on the defen- sive : it now became able to act offensively; and the entire difference of the European and Indian notions of law could never fail to furnish opportunities to put this new means of power into action. The rights of succession, and all the rights of princes, subjects, and families, were so much disputed on the different Fº of the Indian, Mohammedan, and British aws, that the company (which often interposed as arbitrator) easily succeeded in extending their legal jurisdiction. If called to account in Europe for any of its undertakings, it was easy to uphold the correct- ness of its conduct, politically, on the ground of self- defence, which, at the distance of several thousand miles, could not be called in question ; and, in legal matters, by taking advantage of the impenetrable labyrinth of law. Edmund Burke, who experienced, in the case of Hastings (q.v.), this impregnability of the company, accused them justly “ of having sold every monarch, prince, and state in India, broken every contract, and ruined every prince and every state who hºld trusted them.” The high officers in India, what- ever great names may appear among them, become despotic from situation : I. because each receives an inheritance of injustice, which must be maintain- ed; 2. because public opinion has no influence;” 3. because Ino moral and religious connexion, not even that of language, exists between the ruled and the rulers; 4. because no fear of dangerous insurrec- tions can exist, on account of the great division of the Hindoo and Mohammedan classes and interests; 5. because the officers of the company have no object but to make money with a view of spending it in Britain as soon as they have accumulated Sufficient to satisfy their wishes, and therefore are not disposed to make opposition against abuses. In 1749, the robberies of the company began with its protection of the pretender of Tanjore. Under pre- tence of illegitimacy, the nabob of this district was driven out, for the purpose of obtaining some cessions of territory, and then restored, on making further concessions. The rapid progress of the company in the art of extending their possessions appears from their treaties with Surrajah-Dowlah, the nabob of * The East Indian government takes great pains to pre- vent the expression and consolidation of public opinion. Thus newspapers, which are so free in England, are under ctrict regulations in India. They are not allowed to criti- cise public measures or public officers, nor to say anything which may cause dissatisfaction among the natives. Vio- lence always produces violence. The statement, at the end of this article, of the proportion of the English to the na- tives, will easily show why such precautions are deemed Kiecessary. ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY. Bengal, in 1757, when large and rich provinces were the reward of their faithless policy. This enlarge- ment of territory caused such enormous expenditures, the difficulties of governing increased so greatly with the increase of power, the numerous officers became so much more independent, rapacious, and disobedient, that the finances of the company suffered. The direction in London was now nothing more than a mere control of the real government, which had its seat in India. Its orders were antiquated before they reached Calcutta. The governors having the advan- tage of being on the spot, it was to be expected that they would obey only when personal interests requir- ed it. Thus the repeated prohibition to carry on a traffic in the interior, with salt, tobacco, and betel nuts, was entirely disregarded, with the express con- sent of the East Indian councils; and, long after the directors had forbidden the officers of the company to accept presents from the Indian princes, it was proved that they had openly received them, to the amount of £6,000,000, from the family of the nabob of Bengal alone. On this account, the internal situa- tion of the company became constantly worse, and, in 1772, it was compelled to raise a loan, at first of £600,000, from the bank, and afterwards of £1,400,000 from the government, for its current expenses. The public dissatisfaction was the greater, as it had been expected that the extension of British power in India would have brought much wealth into the mother country. At the same time, great complaints were made against the unprincipled con- duct of the company's officers towards the princes and people of India ; and, as the expected advan- tages appeared not to have been obtained, it now began to be proclaimed, that the rights of humanity had been trampled upon. The popular hatred was unjustly directed against the directors; their power was to be limited ; they, who had to manage a dis. obedient world, were to be still more cramped. Control was demanded ; as if a control which sympa. thizes with the oppressors, and has no connexion with the oppressed, could avail anything ; as if oppression were a single act, which might be pre- vented by Superintendence, or punished like a crime : and what would be the effect of a controlling power whose commands would require 6–9 months to be conveyed to the spot, and as much more time before the result could be known in Europe P And, if the Company had obtained a power by force, which could only be preserved by the same means, on what prin- ciple should the control act P Burke's famous, but unsuccessful struggle of seven years, againsthastings, and in the cause of humanity in India, proved, that the only possible control of the officers in India, is the public opinion of the British nation. One party asserted that all would be well as soon as the com. pany divided its power with the ministry. Another party maintained, that all that was wanting to the Hindoo was the benefit of British law. Some thought it would be sufficient merely to increase the difficulty of becoming a director. Thus the incomplete reform of 1773 took place. Instead of £500, £1000 was made necessary to give the right of a vote, 263000 for two votes, #6000 for three votes, and £10,000 for four votes. Only six directors were to be ammu- ally elected. A governor-general, with four coun- sellors (at first named by parliament, that is, by the ministry, but afterwards by the directors, for five years), was to be placed over the provinces of Bengal, Bahar and Orissa ; the other provinces were to be dependent upon him. As a counterpoise to this concentration of power, a Supreme court was established in Calcutta, with a chief justice and three associate judges, who were independent of the Company, and were appointed by the crown. All the ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY. - 779 civil and military correspondence of the company was to be communicated to the ministry. Under the old system, in many disputed cases, conscience, or, at least, common Sense, had decided ; but now, the in- troduction of a new and strange legal constitution occasioned the ruin of all legal relations. The court decided in the case of every complaint made against any individual who was directly or indirectly in the service of the company, as well as all complaints relating to contracts in which the parties had sub- mitted to its jurisdiction. If we consider that nothing was more uncertain than the personal condition of the Indian and Mohammedan inhabitants of Hindos- tan ; that the company governed some provinces im- mediately, others indirectly, by means of the nabobs; that the Zemindars were sometimes considered as the independent mobility of India, sometimes as officers of the company, &c.—it follows, that the court could take all cases into its own hands, or decline them, at pleasure. Immediately after its establishment, it gave a specimen of the spirit by which it was actu- ated. Nunkomar, who had accused the governor- general, Hastings, was convicted, on insufficient grounds, of forgery, and hanged; which, as has been ingeniously remarked, is about the same as punishing a Mohammedan for bigamy. On the whole, the his- tory of the British East India trade justifies the as- sertion, that, except Burke and the family of Welles- ley, Scarcely a single Englishman has ever entered completely into the spirit of the people of India. When the inefficacy of the measures of 1773 was sufficiently proved, and the finances of the company. again suffered by the American war, the establish- ment of a board of control was again discussed in parliament, and on broader grounds; from 1782 to 1784, the greatest men of England were engaged on this important subject. The famous East India bill of Fox, which proposed seven commissioners, to be appointed by parliament, and invested with Supreme power, and, as it were, the right of protection over India, could not be agreeable to the court, as the principal object of the bill was to deprive the crown of all influence on Indian affairs, and to place an intermediate power between the king and India. Pitt's project, therefore, took effect. A board of con- trol was erected, dependent on the crown, authorized to superintend the civil and military government and the revenues of the company, and to transmit the despatches of the directors to the different pre- sidencies. The salaries of the governor-general, the president and the council were fixed by the king. But, notwithstanding the superintendence of this board, the finances of the company still continued unprosperous. TXazzling accounts were, from time to time, given of the immense revenue likely to be immediately derived from India; and, on the faith of these, many acts of parliament were passed for the appropriation of surpluses that never had any exist- ence. A striking example of this is afforded by the proceedings that took place at the renewal of the charter in 1793. Lord Cornwallis had then concluded the war with Tippoo Saib, and the company’s re- ceipts had been increased, in consequence of acces- sion to their territories, and subsidies from native princes, to upwards of eight millions sterling a-year; which, it was calculated, would afford an annual sur- plus, after deducting all charges, of £1,240,000. On the strength of this, parliament, in the act pro- longing the charter, enacted, Ist,Thatzé500,000a-year of the surplus revenue should be set aside for reducing the company’s debt in India to £2,000,000. 2d. That 36500,000 a-year should be paid into the exche- quer, to be appropriated to the public service, as par- liament should think fit to order. 3d, When the India debt was reduced to £2,000,000, and the bond debt to £1,500,000, one-sixth part of the surplus was to be applied to augment the dividends, and the other five-sixths were to be paid into the bank, in the name of the commissioners of the national debt, to be accumulated as a guarantee fund, until it amounted to £12,000,000. All these arrangements proved unnecessary. Instead of being diminished, the Company’s debts began immediately to increase. In 1795, they were authorized to add to the amount of their floating debt. In 1796, leave was given to the Company to add two millions to their capital stock, by creating 20,000 new shares; but as these shares sold at the rate of £173 each, they produced £3,460,000. In 1797, the company issued additional bonds, to the extent of £1,417,000. Between 1797 and 1805, the British empire in India was augmented by the conquest of Seringapatam, and the whole ter- ritories of Tippoo Saib, the cession of large tracts by the Mahratta chiefs, the capture of Delhi, and various other important acquisitions; so that the revenue, which in 1797 had amounted to 268,059,000, was in- creased, in 1805, to 3615,403,000; but the expenses of government, and the interest of the debt, in- creased in a still greater proportion than the revenue; having amounted, in 1805, to 2617,672,000, leaving a deficit of £2,269,000. Long before the termination of the company's charter in 1813, a conviction had been gaining ground with the public, that the trade to the East was capable of being greatly extended, and that the monopoly alone confined it within nar- row limits. Many efforts were accordingly made to have the monopoly set aside, and the trade to the East thrown open ; but the company had interest enough to procure a prolongation of the privilege of Carrying on an exclusive trade to China to the 10th of April, 1831, with three years’ notice ; the govern- ment of India being continued in their hands for the Same period. The trade to India, however, was opened to the public, under certain conditions. These were, that private individuals should trade, directly only, with the presidencies of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, and the port of Penang; that their vessels should not be under 350 tons burden; and that they should abstain from engaging in the carrying trade of India, or in the trade between India and China. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, the enterprise of private traders gained an immediate ascendency over the monopoly of the company, and in a short time more than trebled our trade with India. This fact was so powerful, that when the question as to the renewal of the charter came to be discussed in 1832 and 1833, the company could no longer oppose the privilege of free trading ; and the act 3 and 4, Will. IV. c. 85, for continuing the charter till 1854, terminated the company’s commercial character, by enacting that the company’s trade to China ceases on the 22d of April, 1834, and that the company is, as Soon as possible after that date, to dispose of their stocks on hand, and close their commercial busi- neSS. Under the new act, the functions of the com- pany are wholly political. It is to continue to govern India, under the supervision of the board of control, till the 30th of April, 1854. All the property be- longing to the company is vested in the crown, and is to be held or managed by the company in trust for the same. The company’s debts or liabilities are all charged on India. The dividend is to continue at 10% per cent., and provision is made for the establish- ment of a security fund for its discharge. The divi- dend may be redeemed by parliament, on payment of £200 for 26 100 stock, any time after April, 1874; but it is provided, in the event of the company being deprived of the government of India in 1854, that they may claim redemption of the dividend any time thereafter upon three years' notice. 780 The political importance of the East Indies, in their present state, to Britain, is too great to allow us to expect an essential improvement in the condition of this country. A taxable population of 83,000,000 of inhabitants, with 40,000,000 under dependent native princes; an army of 200,000 men, in the service of the company; about 16,000 civil officers; an annual export of about £14,000,000, and an import to the same amount, from all parts of the world; £4,000,000 paid in the shape of duties to the British government annually, and an annual contribution of £11,000,000 for the general circulation of the British empire, are objects which outweigh all moral considerations. The funded stock of the company, at present, amounts to £6,000,000, their indivisible and fluctu- ating property to about £50,000,000, and the amount of their annual land-tax is £28,000,000, half as large again as that of Russia. This gigantic political-mer- Cantile association will exist as long as a small mili- tary power is sufficient to prevent a great mation from attempting to throw off the yoke; as long as the System de faire le commerce en sultan et de faire la guerre en marchand can survive ; as long as the pre- tensions of the metis, the offspring of European fathers and Indian mothers, do not increase; and the Indians and Mohammedans remain ignorant of the real weak- ness of those to whom they are subject. . It appears that the revenue of the British possessions in India is greater than that of any European state, excepting France and Britain. In 1827 – 28, it amounted to £23,035,164 ; in 1828–29, it was esti- mated at £23,350,317. The interest on the debt is about £2,000,000 yearly; the total interest on the debt and charges, including those paid in England, and the expenses of the island of St Helena, was 2626,314,344 in 1827–28, and £23,994,503, in 1828–29 ; the surplus of charge above revenue was, in 1825–6, over three millions; the estimated surplus revenue in 1829, 38 1,318,593. Before the Burmese war, there was a surplus of revenue over expenditure of one million and a half; but in the twenty years pre- ceding 1828–29, there are only six which show a surplus revenue. The total assets of the company, including property of every description, amounted to £18,406,039. The rate of dividend, since 1793, has been 10; per cent. It is believed that the value of American imports from England into China amounts to 800,000 dollars, whilst that of the company amounts to £800,000. The East India company exported tea from Canton, from 1824–25 to 1827– 28, and sold in England and the North American colonies, during the same period, as follows:— Eaported from Canton. lbs. Prime cost 1824––25. 28 ,667 ,078 f 1,900,669 1825–26. 27,821,121 1,729,949 1826–27. 40,182,241 2,368,461 1827–28. 33,269,333 2,086,971 Sales. England. N. Am. colonies. lbs. lbs Amount. 1824–25. 26,523,327 £3,741,402 1825–26. 27,803,668 5 12,314 3,946,770 1826–27. 27,700,978 723,081 3,567,737 $827–28. 28,120,354 941,794 3,468,590 From Great Britain to the East Indies and China, together with Mauritius, in the year ending Jan. 5, 1829, goods were exported at the declared value of, #. the East . Company, f 1,126,926 7 7 Free trade, including the privileged trade . : 4,085,426 16 II Total, fö,212,353 4 6 In produce of goods of the East Indies and China, were imported into Great Britain in the year ending Jan. 5, 1829, EAST INDIA FLY-EATON. By the East India company . . . £5,576,905 Free trade, including the pºsses; 5,643,671 trade Q º º º Total e e $11,220,576 The amount of the population of the British East Indies cannot, of course, be known with anything like accuracy; but the following is probably as near an approximation as can be made :-In the Ben- gal presidency, 58,000,000 ; Madras presidency, I6,000,000; Bombay presidency, 11,000,000; total British, 85,000,000; subsidiary and dependent (say), 40,000,000; outports in the bay, &c., (say), 1,000,000; total under British control, 126,000,000; indepen- dent states, but controlled by the British arms. (say), 10,000,000; approximate total, not European, 136,000,000; total Europeans, about 40,000; about one European to three thousand four hundred natives, or, where they have the whole command of the go- vernment and revenue, one European to two thousand one hundred and twenty-five natives. See India, for details regarding the history, statistics, &c., of the country. IV. The French, Danish, and Swedish East India companies have been of little importance, even in their most flourishing state, to the commerce of the world. The French, established in 1664, could not succeed; in 1796, the trade was again thrown open. A new company, established in 1785, expired in 1791. The East India company in Denmark esta- blished in 1618, and several times renewed, finally surrendered its possessions to the king in 1777. The company has now only the Chinese trade. The Swedish East India company, established in 1731, and renewed in 1766 and 1786, still exists at Gothen- burg. For every voyage it pays 75,000 dollars in silver to the crown, to which, on its establishment, it was obliged to advance 3,000,000 dollars in silver, of which one million, not on interest, is merely a security, and the other two millions are considered as a loan. EAST INDIA FLY (lytta gygas). The colour is a deep azure or sea-blue ; all parts of the insect, head, elytra or wing-cases, body and legs, are of the same colour, with the exception of the under part of the chest, on which there is a brown spot. Its size is from three-fourths of an inch to an inch in length, being nearly twice the size of the lytta vesicatoria, or cantharides. They have little or no odour. This species of cantharides has been tried at the Philadel- phia alms-house. They proved to be exceedingly active as vesicatories, and never failed in their effect. They produce a vesication, in general, much earlier than the Spanish fly, and, from being found so much more active, only one half the quantity is added in making the emplastrum cantharidis. See Cantharides. EAST INDIES, the name generally bestowed on those continents and islands to the east and south of the river Indus, as far as the borders of China, in- cluding Timor and the Moluccas, but excluding the Philippine islands, New Guinea, and New Holland. See India, and the different articles, as Calcutta, Ben- gal, &c. EATON, WILLIAM, an American, remarkable for his adventures, was born at Woodstock, Connecticut, February 23, 1764. He was the son of a farmer, in straitened circumstances, and one of thirteen chil- dren. He displayed talent in his childhood, and acquired the rudiments of a good English education. When about sixteen years of age, he enlisted in the army, in which he remained for a twelvemonth, in the capacity of waiter to an officer. In 1783, he was regularly discharged, with the rank of sergeant. He then undertook the study of the Latin and Greek languages, which enabled him to gain admission into Dartmouth college. From January, 1788, to August, EATON.—EAU. 1791, he taught a school in Vermont, devoting him- Self, at the same time, to the classics, in order to qualify himself for the degree of bachelor of arts, which he obtained from the college in the last men- tioned year. In October of the same year, he was chosen clerk to the house of delegates of the state of Vermont, and, in 1792, received a captain's commis- sion in the American army. He proceeded with his company down the Ohio, to the western army, at Legionville, with which he continued until 1794. In 1797, he was appointed consul for the kingdom of Tunis. Here he became involved in negotiations and altercations with the bey, which he conducted with extraordinary spirit, and at the frequent risk of his life. The history of them, as left by himself, is not a little entertaining and curious. His official correspondence and private journal are full of striking anecdotes and descriptions. War was declared by the bashaw of Tripoli against the United States, in 1801. The reigning chief was a usurper, and the lawful one, his brother, happened to be at Tunis, in exile. With him Eaton concerted a project for attack- ing the usurper by land, while the American squadron in the Mediterranean operated against him by sea. In 1803, he returned to the United States, and open- ed his plan to the government; but, finding that no aid could be had from the government, he set out for Egypt, merely with the character of American agent. He sailed with the squadron for the Mediterranean in July, 1804, and proceeded to Alexandria, in Egypt, where he arrived in November. In the following month, he was at Grand Cairo, where he learned that Hamet Bashaw, after a series of vicissitudes and dis- asters, had been reduced to the alternative of joining the Mamelukes, and that he was actually with them, Commanding a few Tripolitans and their Arab auxi- liaries, in Upper Egypt. Eaton contrived to obtain from the viceroy of Egypt an amnesty for Hamet Bashaw, and permission for him to pass the Turkish army unmolested. A rendezvous was appointed ; they met near Alexandria, and formed a convention, in the eighth article of which it was stipulated, that Eaton should be recognised as general and commander- in-chief of the land forces which were or might be called into service against the common enemy, the -eigning bashaw of Tripoli. The forces consisted of nine Americans, a company of twenty-five cannoniers, and a company of thirty-eight Greeks, the bashaw's suite of about ninety men, and a party of Arab caval- ry; which, including the footmen and camel-drivers, made the whole number about 400. Such was the land expedition against Tripoli. The march was pursued with a great variety of adventure and suffer- ing, and Bomba was reached April 15th, where the United States' vessels, the Argus, captain Hull, and the Hornet, had arrived with provisions, to enable the almost famished army to proceed to Derne. April 25, they encamped on an eminence which commands this place, and immediately reconnoitred. On the morning of the 26th, terms of amity were offered the bey, on condition of allegiance and fidelity. The flag of truce was sent back with this laconic answer— “My head or yours ?" Derne was taken, after a furious assault, but its possession was not secure. An army of the reigning bashaw of Tripoli, consist- ing of several thousand troops, approached the town, and gave battle to the victors, May 13, but were repulsed, with considerable loss. June 2, they re- turned to the assault, and met with no better fate. Qn the 10th, an engagement took place, in which there were supposed to be not less than 5000 men on the field. The hopes of Eaton were, however, sud- denly blasted by the official intelligence, received on the 11th, that the American negotiators, in the squa- dron before Tripoli, had concluded a peace with the 78] usurper. Eaton was required to evacuate the post of Derne, and with his Greek and American garrison, to repair on board the ships. It was necessary for him to do this clandestinely, lest his Arabian auxili- aries should endeavour to prevent him. Hamet Bashaw embarked at the same time; the Arabians fled to the mountains ; and thus ended this gallant and romantic affair, which is stated, in the official correspondence of the American commissioners, who negotiated the peace, to have had the effect of bring- ing the Tripolitans to terms. Eaton returned to the United States in August, where he received the most flattering marks of public favour. The president, in his message to congress, made honourable mention of his merit and services. A resolution was moved in the house of representatives, at Washington, for pre- senting him with a medal; but the motion, after being warmly debated, was rejected by a small ma– jority. The legislature of Massachusetts bestowed upon him a tract of land, of 10,000 acres, in testi- mony of their sense of his “undaunted courage and brilliant services.” In the winter of 1806-7, Aaron Burr endeavoured, without effect, to enlist him in his conspiracy. On the trial of Burr at Richmond, he gave full testimony against him. About this period, he was elected a representative in the legislature of Massachusetts. A few years after, this bold and enterprising man fell a victim to habits of inebriety, which he contracted soon after his return. His death took place in 1811. Mr Eaton was well acquainted with French and Italian, and with history, geography, and tactics. His official and private correspondence is marked by great acuteness and energy. The letters and journal in which he has left the history of his life on the coast of Barbary, and his celebrated expedition to Derne, denote no common powers of observation and description. They are replete with curious remarks and incidents, and may be found in an octavo volume, entitled The Life of General Eaton, and published by one of his friends in Mas- sachusetts. EAU; a French word, signifying water, and used in English, with some other words, for several spiritu- ous waters, particularly perfumes; as, eau de Cologne, eau de luce, eazz de Portugal, &c. The two most cele- brated are the Eau de Cologne, or water of Cologne, a fragrant water, made originally, and in most perfection, in Cologne. Formerly many wonderful powers were ascribed to this water, but it was probably never so much in demand as at present, in Europe and America, and numberless recipes have been given for its manufacture. It was invented by a person named Farina, in whose family the Secret, as they say, continues to be preserved, since chemistry has not been able, as yet, to give the analysis of it. . It is imitated, however, everywhere. The consumption of this perfume has increased much ever since the seven years' war; and there exist, at present, fifteen manufactories of it in Cologne, which produce several millions of bottles yearly; much, also, is manufactured at Paris, in Saxony, and other places. One of the many recipes to make eau de Cologne is the following: Alcohol,or spirit of wine, at 30° 2 pints. Oleum neroli” de cedro —— de cedrat * cort aurant | 24 drops. — citri bergamot rosmarin J Seed of small cardamun, 2 drachnas. Distil it in the Mary-bath, until three-fourths of the alcohol have evaporated. * Ethereal oil of orange-flowers. 782 Eau de Luce (aqua Lucia, or spiritus salis ammo- niaci succinatus); invented by a person named Luce, at Lille, in Flanders; a volatile preparation, thus made: ten or twelve grains of white soap are dis- solved in four ounces of rectified spirit of wine, after which the solution is strained, and a drachm of recti- fied oil of amber is added, and the whole is fil- trated. Afterwards, some strong volatile spirit of sal ammonia should be mixed with the solution. This water is much in use in England. EBB water. See Tide. EBELING, CHRISTOPHER DANIEL ; an eminent geographical writer; was born in 1741, at Garmis- sen, in Hildesheim. He studied theology at Gottin- gen, from 1763 to 1767, paying particular attention to ecclesiastical history and exegesis, which led him to a careful study of the Oriental languages, especi- ally the Arabic. He also studied political history, Greek, Roman, and English literature, and the fine arts, for which he, at length, relinquished theology. In order to procure himself further advancement, he went to Leipsic as a tutor, and, in 1769, accepted a place offered him in the academy of commerce at Hamburg. As good manuals were wanted for the study of modern languages, he published, for the academy of commerce, in 1773, his Miscellaneous Essays in English Prose, which passed through six editions, and were soon followed by similar manuals for the Italian, French, Spanish, and Dutch lan- guages. For the same reason, he applied himself more to the study of geography, and published transla- tions of many, especially English travels. Encou- raged by his connexions with Hamburg, the academy of commerce, and the house of Busching, he soon found means to open for himself new sources of geographical information. Britain, Spain, Portugal, and America, especially the United States, were the subjects of his particular attention. In the new edi- tion of the great geography of Busching, he under- took an account of Portugal and the United States of North America. The long interruption of commerce with foreign countries, and the author's wish to give his work the highest perfection, were the causes of the slow progress of this labour. But all that is completed, is justly viewed as a master-piece. This is the acknowledged opinion, not only in Europe, but also in the North American states. This great work of his is entitled Geography and History of TNorth America (Hamburg, 1793–99, 5 vols.). After the removal of Wurm from the academy of commerce, Busching, in company with Ebeling, undertook the management of this establishment, and they published the Library of Commerce. In 1784, Ebeling was appointed professor of history and the Greek language in the Hamburg gymnasium ; and the Superintendence of the Hamburg library was afterwards committed to him. He filled both offices till his death, June 30, 1817, with great reputation. For almost all the literary periodicals of Germany he prepared articles in the geographical and kindred departments. In his earlier years, he wrote a history of German poetry for the Hanover Magazine, and furnished several contributions to the German Lib- rary, published by Frederic Nicolai, and, at a later period, contributed many literary articles to the New Hamburg Gazette. His frank, cheerful, and amiable manners never deserted him, though, for nearly thirty years, he suffered a partial, and, finally, an almost total deafness, and was thus deprived, among other pleasures, of the enjoyment of music, of which he was passionately fond, and in which he had made uncommon attainments. He left behind two collec- tions, perhaps unique in their kind—a collection of from 9 to 10,000 maps, and a library of books re- lating to America, and containing more than 3900 EBB---EBONY. Volumes, which was purchased, in 1818, by Israel Thorndike, , of Boston, and presented by him º Harvard college, in Cambridge, Massachu- Set LS. EBENEZER. (Hebrew ; the stone of help); the name of a field where the Philistines defeated the Hebrews, and seized on the sacred ark, and where, afterwards, at Samuel's request, the Lord discomfited the Philistines, with thunder, &c. On this occasion, Samuel set up a stone, and gave it this designation, to indicate that the Lord had helped them. It is said to be about forty miles south-west of Shiloh. The name of Ebenezer has also been given to a town in Georgia, Effingham county. EBERT, JoHN ARNOLD ; a poet and translator, particularly of English works; was born in 1723, at Hamburg; His love of the English language was awakened and cherished by Hagedorn, who contri- buted much to the influence of English literature upon the German. Not long after the establishment of the Carolinum, in Brunswick, he received an appointment, in 1748, in the school connected with it, and instructed the hereditary prince, afterwards duke of Brunswick, in the English language. About this time, he conceived the idea of translating, and thus making known to his countrymen, the best English poets and authors. The best of his transla. tions were those of Young's Night Thoughts, which gained him great reputation as a translator; and Glover's Leonidas. In 1753, he obtained the place of regular professor in the Carolinum, and afterwards the station of court counsellor. He died in 1795. Ebert had a lively fancy, and a warm imagination. His Writings, collected by himself, appeared under the title J. A. Ebert's Epistles and Miscellaneous Poems, to which another volume was added after his death (Hamburg, 1789 and 1795, 2 vols.). EBIONITES; a sect of the first century, so called from their leader, Ebion. They held several dog- mas in Common with the Nazarenes, united the cere- monies of the Mosaic institution with the precepts of the gospel, observed both the Jewish Sabbath and Christian Sunday, and, in celebrating the Eucharist, made use of unleavened bread. They abstained from the flesh of animals, and even from milk. In relation to Jesus Christ, some of them held that he was born, like other men, of Joseph and Mary, and acquired Sanctification only by his good works. Others of them allowed that he was born of a virgin, but denied that he was the word of God, or had any ex- istence before his human generation. They said he Was, indeed, the only true prophet; but yet a mere man, who, by his virtue, had arrived at being called Christ, and the Son of God. They also supposed that Christ and the devil were two principles, which God had opposed to each other. Of the New Testa- ment they only received the Gospel of St Matthew, Which they called the Gospel according to the Hebrews. See the article Nazarenes. EBONY; a kind of wood, extremely hard, and Susceptible of a very fine polish, which is much used in mosaic, inlaying, and other ornamental works. Its colour is red, black, or green. The black is most esteemed, and is imported principally from Madagascar and the Isle of France. Red ebony, so called, though its colouris brown striped with black, is less compact, and is also brought from Madagas. car. The green is softer than either of the preced- ing, yields a fine green tincture, which is employed in dyeing, and is brought from the West indies, particularly from Tobago, as well as from the abové mentioned islands. The best is jet black, and free from knots, or reddish veins. Ebony is imitated by subjecting some hard kinds of wood, especially that of the pear tree, to a hot decoction of galls, and, EBRO—ECCLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS. when this is dry, applying ink with a stiff brush; a little warm wax is then used to give it a polish; another method is by heating and burning the wood. The ebony tree (diospyros ebenum) grows wild in the East Indies, and has been cultivated for many years in the Isle of France, which supplies a great part of that consumed in Europe. The central part, or heart-wood, only is black; the sap-wood does not differ in colour from that of other trees. Several other species of the genus afford ebony, among them D. decandra and docecandra of Cochin China, which are used in that country for cabinetwork, &c. The species of diospyros are trees or shrubs, with alter- mate petiolate and coriaceous leaves; the flowers monopetalous, dioecious, axillary, and sessile or sub- sessile. About thirty species are known, one of which, the persimmon, is found in the United States. That which the Greeks used in the most ancient times was procured from India; but it was unknown in Rome till after the victories obtained by Pompey over Mithridates. The ancient inhabitants of India, the Greeks, and finally the Romans, made frequent use of this fine wood, inlaying it with ivory on account of the contrast of colours. According to Pliny, the statue of Diana at Ephesus was of ebony, but according to Vitruvius, it was of cedar. Artists and poets used ebony allegorically for the attributes of the infernals, giving a throne formed of it to Pluto and Proserpine, and making the gates of hell of the same dark and durable material. It is also used at the present day for Sculptural decorations, embel- lished and inlaid with ivory, mother of pearl, silver, and gold. EBRO (Latin, Iberus), a river in Spain, once the boundary between the territory of Rome and Car- thage, has its source in a little valley east of Reyno- sa; it proceeds from a copious spring at the foot of an ancient tower, called Fontibre, and, after travers- ing many open and fertile districts, passes by the city of Tortosa, where there is a bridge of boats over it, and then falls into the Mediterranean, at the island of Alfachs; but, on account of its current and many rocks and shoals, it is navigable no higher than Tortosa, and even to that place only for small craft. Length about 350 miles. EC.BATANA ; the chief city or ancient metropo- lis of Media, built, according to Pliny, by Seleucus. It was the summer residence of the Persian and Me- dian kings, and existed in great splendour at a very early period in the history of the world. It was situated on a rising ground, about twelve stadia from Mount Orontes, and 1200 stadia south of Palus Spauta. Its walls are described by ancient writers in a style of romantic exaggeration, and particularly by Herodotus and the author of the book of Judith. Daniel is said by Josephus to have built one of its most magnificent palaces, some of the beams of which were of silver, and the rest of cedar plated with gold. This splendid edifice afterwards served as a mausoleum to the kings of Media, and is affirmed, by the last mentioned author, to have been entire in his time. There are no traces now remain- ing of these lofty buildings; and even the site of this celebrated city has become a subject of dispute among modern travellers. It was pillaged by the army of Alexander. ECCE HOMO (Latin ; Behold the man 1) This name is often given to crucifixes and pictures which represent the suffering Saviour, because, according to John, xix. 5, Pilate broke out in these words, when he saw with what patience Jesus suffered Scourging. ECCLEFECHAN, a thriving village in Dumfries- shire, near the foot of Annandale, distant sixteen Iniles north-east of Dumfries. 783 ECCLES, a parish of Berwickshire, bordering on the river Tweed, eight miles in length, and six in breadth. Population in 1831, 1885. ECCLES, an extensive parish in Lancaster, the population of which in 1831 amounted to 28,083. It comprehends the extensive morass called Chat Moss, which formerly contained a surface of 7000 acres, much of which, however, is now cultivated. ECCLESIASTICAL *COURTS. See Courts. ECCLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS. In the following article, an account is given of the number of the clergy, and the expense of supporting the ecclesiastical establishments in some of the prin- cipal countries of Europe. In the Tableau de la Con- stitution Politique de la Monarchie Française selon la Charte, &c., par A. Mahull, is the following account of the French clergy: “The Catholic clergy, before the revolution, were composed of 136 archbishops and bishops, 6800 canons and priests of the bas choeurs, attached to the cathedral and collegial churches, 44,000 curates, 6400 succursalistes (a sort of curates, removable by the bishops), 18,000 vicars, 16,000 ecclesiastics, with or without benefices, 600 canonesses, 31,000 monks, 27,000 nuns, 10,000 servants of the church; total, 159,936. The Catholic population of France then comprised 25,000,000 souls. The clergy thus formed the hundred and sixty-eighth part of it. The possessions of the clergy then afforded, according to the statistical tables of M. César Moreau, 121,000,000 of the revenue. The French clergy, at the commencement of 1828, according to the documents collected by the editor of the Almanach did Clergé, comprised 5 cardinals, 14 archbishops, 66 bishops, 5 cordons bleus, of the order of the Holy Ghost, 468 vicars-general, 684 titular canons, 1788 honorary Canons, 3083 curates, 22,475 desservans (who perform the duties of the titular clergy), 5705 vicars, 439 chap- lains, 839 almoners, 1076 priests resident in the parishes, or authorized to preach or hear confession, i044 priests, directors, and professors of Seminaries. The number of priests deemed necessary by the bishops amounts to 52,457, which would give for the present population of France, excluding the Protestant sects, one for each 550 Souls. The total number of officiating priests is 36,649. In 1824, the number was estimated at only 30,443. Consequently, 15,808 are required to complete the number desired by the heads of the church. It is estimated, that 13,493 of the priests employed are over sixty years of age, and that there are 2328 whom age and infirmity, render incapable of act- ing. The number of ecclesiastical eleves is 44,244, of whom 9285 are theologiens, 3725 philosophes, 21,118 are in the seminaries, 7761 in the col- leges, 2355 with the curates. The whole ex- pense of supporting the Catholic worship, according to the calculation presented by M. Charles Dupin, June 21, 1828, to the chamber of deputies, is 62,845,000 francs. Before the revolution, the pos- sessions of the clergy afforded, as we have said, 121 millions, leaving a difference of expense in favour of the present system, of 58,155,000 francs, although the lower orders of the clergy receive much ampler compensation than before, and the clergy are much more equally distributed among those whom they are to serve. In 1828, according to the Almanach du Clergé, the whole number of nuns in France was 19,340. De jure or de facto, there exist 3024 esta- blishments of nuns, to wit, 1983 definitely author- ized, and 1041 en expectative. There are but a small number of religious houses for males in France. The state of the clergy of Spain before the revolu- tion is thus given in the Diario de la Coruna for July 1, 1821:— jºf 784 ECCLESIASTICAL Archbishops and bishops, 62 Canons and dignitaries, 2,399 Prebends, * & g e e 1,869 Parish rectors, e * º & * * 16,481 Curates, tº * - º ſº tº 4,927 Other beneficed clergy, . * g 16,400 Religious inen of the greater orders, 17,411 Religious men of the minor orders, 9,08S Hermitarids . * & sº º e * I,416 Servants, . & s º * * * & 3,987 Sacristans, church clerks, ** tº {e 15,000 Monks, tº g & º º * * wº 5,500 Friars with shoes, & * & * & 13,500 Friars without shoes, . tº º e * 30,000 Regular congregationists, 2,000 Servants of regulars, tº 6,400 Youths in their houses, we 1,800 Total, . 148,242 Nuns and religious women, * § 32,000 Total of regular and secular clergy, . I80,242 Property belonging to the Clergy. Waltze. Pious foundations for the use of both sexes, consisting in lands and buildings, 362,500,000 Estates of the Secular clergy, 62,000,000 Estates of the regular clergy, 62,000,000 Real property, land, and buildings, .. 31S6,500,000 eaclusive of tithes, and various other taxes and dues for the clergy. The population of Spain, in 1827, was estimated in Hassel's Historical and Statistical Almanac, published in 1829, at 13,953,959. The number of places of worship may be 11,000. At the period of the Spanish revolution, the cortes, by a decree of October 24, 1821, introduced a new organization of the Spanish church, abolishing all the monasteries, excepting ten or twelve, declaring all gifts and legacies to monasteries, churches and hos- pitals unlawful, and curtailing the whole ecclesias- tical establishment, so as to effect a saving of forty- four and a half millions of dollars annually to the nation, reckoning the annual expense of the church to the nation, before the revolution, at six per cent. on the church property. But the king, on his restora- tion to absolute power, October 1, 1823, immedi- ately annulled all the decrees of the constitutional government and the ecclesiastical establishment was placed on its former footing. The Spanish clergy, however, contribute considerably to the support of the government. Their contributions are as follow: 1. The subsidio, or voluntary gift of £100,000 annu- ally ; the eacusado, or tithe, of the tenth house or farm, originally appropriated for building and repair- ing churches. Pope Pius V. allowed Philip II. to apply the produce of this tax to his wars against the infidels. It is now applied to the ordinary expenses of the state. The king has the choice of all the houses and farms, and selects the most valuable; so that this tenth may be considered equivalent to one- eighth or one-seventh of all the tithes of the parish. 2. The tiercias reales is a tax of two-ninths of the tithes received by the clergy. 3. The noveno, another ninth part of the tithes annually paid to the clergy. 4. The movales, tithes on land newly brought into cultivation. 5. The diezmos eatentos, the tithe of all lands originally exempted from clerical jurisdic- tion. The whole of the above taxes are farmed. These, however, are not the only burdens imposed on the clergy. It has for some time been the practice to oblige them to pay two years' revenue upon their appointment to a new benefice. The payment is made during a period of four years, being the half of each year's income; and, on the expiration of this term, the incumbent is sometimes removed to another living, to undergo the same depletory operation dur- ing another four years. In consequence of this policy, the Spanish clergy, formerly, so wealthy, are now, in many cases, but indifferently provided for, and are daily becoming of less consequence in the estimation of the people as well as of the government. Many ESTABLISHMENTS. of the great dignitaries, however, are very rich. Next to the ecclesiastical principalities of Germany, the richest Catholic prelacies are found in Spain. The archbishoprics of Toledo, Seville, Santiago, Valencia, and Saragossa have larger revenues than any in France, or any other country. Some of the bishops and other dignitaries, also, have very consi- derable incomes. The bishop of Murcia receives annually about £20,833 sterling, and the bishop of Lerida 3610,000. The possessions of some of the monasteries, particularly some of the Carthusians and Ieronymites, include the greatest part of the district in which they are situated. These religious foundations, while they depopulate and impoverish the neighbouring country, increase poverty and idle- ness by indiscriminate charity. Latin Catholic Church in Hungary. Hearers, * * e e & & $ & 4,000,000 Places of worship tº e * tº e e * 3,230 Average number of persons to a place of worship, 1,240 Clergymen, º * & * g e te & . 5,469 3 archbishops, 1s bishops, 16 titular bishops, 274 preben- daries and canons, 515S working clergy. Average number of clergymen to a place of worship, . 1 : or 5 clergymen to 3 places of worship. Average number of clergymen to 1000 persons, tº l; Income, . . . . . . . . . * £314,214 37 archbishops and bishops, 96,000 37.4 prebends and canons, * e 58,000 - $154,000 5158 working clergy, averaging 3233 each, & 170,214 4,000,000 of hearers, f at £80,000 per million of hearers, - & & e * * © 38.320,000 This is, perhaps, the greatest instance on the continent of Europe of the abuse of church property : 311 compar- atively idle churchmen possess themselves of nearly as much income as 5158 working clergymen, who, with scan- ty means of existence, labour in the ministry, and are the real spiritual pastors of the people. The richest benefices are considered a provision for members of the great fami- lies of Hungary. ... Any benefice producing more than ; a-year, pays the surplus to the fund for the working clergy. Calvinistic Church of Hungary. Hearers, e 1,050,000 Places of worship, 1,351 Clergymen, , . & g & gº * g 1,3S4 One place of worship for every 750 people. One clergyman for every place of worship. Income—13S3 clergymen, average :644 each, . . 3660,896 1,050,000 hearers, at £60,000, per million of hearers, £63,000 Lutheran Church of Hungary. Hearers, . gº e e © & Places of worship, . º Clergymen, * sº © e g g * One place of worship for every 1500 persons. One clergyman for every place of worship. . 650,000 • 4.48 456 Income, g ſº e * #25,0S) Highest stipend, æso—average, $55 for 456 per- S011S. 650,000 hearers, at £40,000 per million of hearers . 4:26,000 Estimated Expenditure on the Clergy in Italy. Hearers, . gº e e * e e 19,391,200 The Italians are all Roman Catholics. According to a publication called Prospetto, geographico statistico, degli Stati Europei, printed at Milan, IS20, they are distributed. as follows :- Kingdom of Sardinia, (of which the island 520,900), 3,985,000 Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, subject to Austria, 4,117,000 Duchy of Parma, . . . 2. * 390,000 Duchy of Modena (Reggio and Mirandola), 350,000 Duchy of Massa and Carrara, . g * § 30,000 Duchy of Lucca, * º * e * . 127,000 Grand duchy of Tuscany, g 1,198,000 States of the Church, . 2,430,000 Republic of San Marino, * g tº . 7,000 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, or Naples, e 7,576,000 (Of which the island of Sicily 1,660,000.) ass=s* *=- 19,391,200 Malta, 104,600 Corsica, 180,000 2S4,600 Italians, but detached from Italy. Places of worship, gº * * 15,170 Clergymen, gº & . 20,400 Estimated at one working clergyman for every 1000 per- sons (being more than in France, and iess than in Spain), and 1000 dignitaries, as follows:– *mº * fe ECCLESIASTICAL Y pope, 46 cardinals, 38 archbishops, e Estimated at one prelate for every §2 bishops, 200,000 people, $53 other dignitaries, 19,400 working clergymen. 20,400 One clergyman for every 950 persons. One place of worship for every 1200 persons. Income, . e * e G e * e Being at the rate of £40,000 per million of hearers. 19,391,200 hearers, at £40,000 per million of hearers, £776,000 £776,000 This table is taken from Remarks on the Consump- tion of the public Wealth, by the Clergy of every Nation, &c. (London, 1822), and is said to have been framed with the assistance of a gentleman who had resided a considerable time in the great cities of Italy, particularly in Rome, and had given much attention to the subject. The following statements respecting Russia are taken from the Statistique et Itineraire de la Russie, par J. H. Schnitzler, Paris and St Petersburg, 1829. The population is estimated at 55,000,000. The clergy of Russia may be estimated at 230,000 indivi- duals in actual service, of whom the cities comprise about 60,000; over 190,000 belong to the orthodox Greek church, inclusive of the lay brothers, the chor- isters, &c.; the Catholic clergy amount to more than 30,000; the Protestant clergy do not exceed 1000, and there are over 9000 Mollahs. These are all allowed to marry, except the Catholics. Nearly 200,000 are fathers of families, and the total number of persons connected with the clergy may be com- puted at 900,000. Their condition differs according to their rank: the metropolitans, the archbishops, bishops, and the archimandrites are rich ; but the great mass of the clergy is poorly provided for. The monks are numerous, and are supported at the expense of the state ; but their wants are few, and their manner of living extremely simple. The secular clergy, which is under the superintendence of the bishops, is divided into protohiereis or archpriests, &iereis or priests (popes), and deacons. The regular clergy, which is also called the black clergy (tchormoie doukhovenstro) comprises the archimandrites, the igou- memoi or priors, the goumenai or abbesses, the monks (monachi), and nuns (monachini), and the hermits (potºstynniki). The bishops are taken from the regu- lar clergy, and any priest, who desires to remain attached to the ecclesiastical order after the death of his wife, must enter that body, and is then called a hiero-monk. The revenues of the clergy consisted originally of tithes; but, after it had come into pos- session of large Janded estates, cultivated by boors, its support was derived partly from their produce, and partly from the raskolºnitchii-prikaze, or tax paid by dissidents for the privilege of wearing the beard. . The management of the revenues was in the hands of the patriarch, until Catharine I. established a com- mission for the purpose, which was, however, Sup- pressed in 1742. The holy synod was then intrusted with their administration ; and it appears, from an enumeration made by order of the empress Elizabeth, in 1746, that 839,546 male boors were attached to the estates of the clergy. These estates were secu- larized by Peter III. in 1762, who appointed a new commission for their management. Catharine II. began by abolishing this board, and improving the condition of the clergy. In 1764, she secularized all the ecclesiastical possessions, re-established the Com- mission, and assigned a fixed revenue to the mem- bers of the clergy. The chambers of account, in the capitals of the governments, are now invested with the administration of these estates, the annual revenue of which is estimated at 250,000 silver rubles, which is expended in paying the salaries of the RSTABLISH MENTS. 785 clergy. Notwithstanding this seizure of their do- mains, the clergy have still a considerable amount of land connected with the convents, or with the church, but there are no boors attached. i Church or Kirk of Scotland. The established religion in Scotland is the Presbyterian or Calvinistic sect, and is denominated the kirk of Scotland. Hearers, tº • º tº 1,500,000 According to Sir John Sinclair, in 1814, there were in Scotland, Hearers of the established Presbyterian church, h; * 2 Dissenting Presbyterians, º e 56,000 Baptists, Bereans, Glassites, e gº . 50,000 Scottish Episcopalians, © g 28,000 Church of England, * 4,000 Roman Catholics, * e wº ë . 50,000 Methodists, • tº º e 9,000 Quakers, e e º * e & 300 Total, , . & . 1,804,824 Places of worship, g * te & g 1,000 One place of worship for every 1,500 persons, Clergymen, g * $ g e 1,000 Average number of clergymen for a place of worship, | Average number of clergymen for 1500 persons, & ... 1 Income, & g g e * * £206,360 Being an average of £220 for 938 clergymen. Their sti- pend can in no case be under £150; it averages much more; and then they are provided with a manse, or dwel- ling-house, and a glebe of land. 1,500,000 hearers, at £135,000 per million hearers, fºo2,500 The revenue of the Scottish clergy, according to the Remarks, is derived from a charge on the rents of land, paid by the landlord throughout Scotland. It is a moderate charge, amounting to about ninepence sterling an acre onlands in cultivation, and, although it is called teinds or tithe, does not amount nearly to the tithe in England. An estate in Scotland pays #30 on 800 statute English acres, while the same sum of £30 is in some cases paid by an estate of eighty acres in England. The average Number & People for whom there is a ºwrch. In France, * g * G * e 1,150 In Scotland, . e & ſº iº * . 1,500 In Spain, . e tº e º g 1,000 In Portugal, º & e * gº tº 1,000 In Hungary, Catholics, e & gº * • 1,240 In do. Calvinists, º * e e . 750 In do. Lutherans, . g te & 1,500 The average Number of Persons for, whom there is a Clergy- man provided. In France, e e g º tº 1,150 In Scotland, . * g º ſe tº . 1,500 In Spain, o º gº tº tº wº . 700 In Portugal, & tº gº & * * 700 In Hungary, Catholics, tº & º tº 730 In do. Calvinists, . e * © e 750 In do. Lutherans, & sº & e . 1,500 There are in France about 9000 clergymen generally en- gaged in tuition, who have not employments in the church, but who render occasional and regular aid to the ministers of the churches; they are the remnants of the times before the revolution; their number is diminishing fast, and is not renewed. Taking these into consideration, there is in France one clergyman for every 830 persons. The following estimates are taken from the Re- marks above quoted, as are also the preceding re- specting Scotland, &c. Estimated Expenditure on the Clergy of the Established Church of England. IN ENGLAND AND WALEs. Hearers, © gº e 6,000,000 The whole population is 12,000,000; if one half are hearers of the establishment, it is certainly the outside. Places of worship, I 1,743 Clergymen, s & * 18,000 Archbishops, g º * 2 Bishops, º & e tº º 24 Archdeacons, e * * > te - 60 Deans, g e e * * g & 27 Canons and prebends, wº & * B44 Dignitaries, & * * & 657 working clergy, rectors, viciira, eitrates, and chap- lains, se º º º 17,343 3 I) I . 786 One place of worship for every 500 hearers One clergyman for every 333 hearers. One archbishop for every 3,000,000 hearers. One prelate for every 23,000 hearers. Income, tº & e * & te $7,600,000 5,000,000 of hearers at £1,266,000 per million iº 7,596,000 Estimated Expenditwre on the Clergy of the Established Church of England and Ireland. IN IRELAND. Bearers, . © º º tº º & . 400,000 According to the population return, there are in Ireland 6,846,000 people, say, 7,000,000 The following is deemed their distribution into sects: Roman Catholics, . * gº * 5,500,000 Presbyterians, g & g ‘e * * * 800,000 Church of England and Ireland, . * . . 400,000 Methodists and other sects, . 300,000 Places of worship, º & e "40 Clergymen, & * g e e & 1,700 Archbishops, . gº & e sº g 2 Bishops, . £º g tº g & g * }8 Deans, . © & tº & & tº gº * 33 Archdeacons, º º & º sº & * 34 Canons, prebends, &c. . gº & & e . 500 Dignitaries, . * sº & g e & gº . 587 Working clergy, . e e g * . 1,113 (For full particulars see Ecclesiastical Register, printed by Nolan, Dublin.) One place of worship for every 540 hearers. One clergyman for every 235 hearers. One archbishop for every 200,000 hearers. One prelate for every 28,000 hearers. Income, . & - & * e & & . 4:1,300,000 400,000 hearers, at £3,250,000 per million of hearers, 361,300,000 Estimated Earpenditure on their own Clergy, by the People who are not hearers of the Established Church. IN ENGLAND AND WALEs. Hearers, . i * gº 6,000,000 Places of worship, . ſº . . 8,000 Clergymen, . 8,000 One place of worship to 750 hearers. One clergyman to 750 hearers. Income, . e t Voluntary contributions, at an average each clergyman. 6,000,000 of hearers, at £85,000 per million, , . £510,000 Estimated Expenditure on the Clergy of that Part of the People whose Ministers do not receive Stipends from the Kirk, IN Scotland. tº tº º 4:500,000 rate of £65 for Hearers, . tº 500,000 l § the numbers of each sect in the table of the Scottish K 1ſlº. Places of worship, . . g 333 At an average of , one place of worship for every 1500 persons, as in the kirk. Clergymen, § e * * * tº gº & & 400 At an average of six clergymen to five places of worship. Income, . sº 3644,000 Voluntary contributions at an average of £110 each, to 400 clergymen. A place of worship to every 1500 hearers. A clergyman to every 1250 hearers. 500,000 hearers, at £90,000 per million, . 3:45,000 Estimated Earpenditure on their own Clergy, by the people of Ireland who are not of the Established &ºff. Hearers, . 6,600,000 Computed as follows :- Catholics, tº & . 5,500,000 Presbyterians, gº * +- * & e . 800,000 Methodists, and other sects, & © 300,000 Places of worship, . e © e & . 2,378 Clergymen, º º g tº * & e 2,378 One place of worship for every 2400 hearers. One clergyman for every 2400 hearers. Income, . e * £ 61,580 Voluntary contribution, at an average of £110 each, for 2378 clergymen. 6,600,000 hearers, at £40,000 per million of hearers, £264,000 Government grant, yearly, the sum of £13,487 to certain Pro- testant ministers, viz., to Presbyterians, £8,697; to seceding Presbyterians, £4,034; to other Protestant dissenting minis. ters, 3.756. To these tables succeed, in the Remarks above- mentioned, comparative tables, showing in one view the expense of supporting the ecclesiastical establish- ments in all the countries of Europe and America. These latter, it must be recollected, were drawn up during the short sway of the constitutional goverii- ECCLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS---ECHENEIS. ments in Spain and Portugal, when the expense cf the church in these countries was greatly reduced. The following comparison, therefore, is true only of that time :- Christians throughout the World, Roman Catholics. Protestants. Greek Church. In Great Britain and Ireland, 5,800,000 15,200,000 In all the rest of the world, 118,872,060 38,856,000 41,500,000 Total, 124,672,000 54,056,000 41,500,000 Catholics, . . . 124,672,000 Pay to their clergy, £6,106 000 Protestants, . . 54,056,000 tº e º 'º 11,906,000 Greek Church, 41,500,000 tº e º e 760,000 Total of Christians, 220,228,000 * * * * £18,772,000 Of which England, for twenty-one millions, pays more than half (as things then stood). The restric- tion in the preceding paragraph applies to a similar estimate in our article Church. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. See Christian- atuſ. "EcclesiasticAL STATES. States of the ; also Curia, Papal. ECHALOTE (allium ascalonicum); a kind of onion, a native of Syria, which has been cultivated in Europe for some centuries. The leaves are radical, awl-shaped, and hollow ; the stem naked, six to eight inches high, terminated by a globose umbel of pur- plish flowers. The roots are pungent, but have an agreeable taste, and are generally preferred to the onion for various purposes of cookery. ECHARD, LAwRENCE ; an English divine and historian of the last century. He was born in Suf- folk in 1671, and studied at Cambridge. He died in 1730. Among his works are, The Roman History, 3 vols. 8vo; A General Ecclesiastical History, 2 vols. 8vo; both works extending only to the age of Constantine; A History of England to the Revolution, 3 vols. folio; The Gazetteer's or Newsman's Inter- preter. ECHEA (#242 from #2.Éw, I sound), in ancient ar- chitecture; the name which the ancients gave to the somorous vases of bronze or earth, of a bell-like shape, which they used in the construction of their theatres, to give greater power to the voices of their actors. The size of these vases was proportioned to the mag- nitude of the building, and their conformation such, that they returned all the concords, from the fourth and fifth to the double octave. They were arranged between the seats of the theatres in niches made for the purpose ; the particulars of which are described in the fifth book of Vitruvius. According to this an- cient author, such vases were inserted in the theatre at Corinth, from whence Lucius Mummius, at the taking of that city, transported them to Rome. It would appear that similar means have been employed in some of the Gothic cathedrals, to assist the voices of the priests and choristers; for in the choir of that at Strasburg, formerly belonging to a monastery of Dominicans, professor Oberlin discovered similar vases in various parts of the vaulted ceilings. The student is referred to Mr Wilkin's translation of Wi- truvius for further speculations on this curious mode of construction. ECHELON (French; a ladder or stairway); used in military language. A battalion, regiment, &c., marches en ächelon, or par échelon, if the divisions of which it is composed do not march in one line, but on parallel limes. The divisions are not exactly behind each other, but each is to the right or left of the one pre- ceding, so as to give the whole the appearance of a stairway. This order is used if the commander wishes to bring one part of a mass sooner into action, and to reserve the other. If the divisions of the échelon are battalions, these are generally from 100 to 200 steps from each other. ECHENEIS; the remora in matural history, a See Church, ECHNODERMAT A. genus of fishes of the order thoracici. Generic character: head furnished on the top with a flat, oval, transversely grooved shield; gill-membrane, with ten rays, according to Gmelin, and six, accord- ing to Shaw ; body not scaled. There are three species. The echineis remora, or Mediterranean remora, is of the length of from twelve to eighteen inches. Among the ancients its peculiarity of struc- ture and habits was connected with the most incredi- ble and marvellous circumstances, which are, how- ever, detailed with all possible gravity and faith, by their most profound naturalists. Pliny states, that the force of the tide, the current, and the tempest, joining in one grand impulse with oars and sails, to urge a ship onwards in one direction, is checked by the operation of one small fish, called remora by the Roman authors, which counteracts this apparently irresistible accumulation of power, and compels the vessel to remain motionless in the midst of the ocean. He credits the prevailing report, that Antony's ship, in the battle of Actium, was kept motionless by the exertion of the remora, notwithstanding the efforts of several hundred sailors; and that the vessel of Cali- gula was detained between Astura and Antium by another of these fish found sticking to the helm, and whose solitary efforts could not be countervailed by a crew of 400 able seamen, till several of the latter, on examining into the cause of the detention, per- ceived the impediment, and detached the remora from its hold. The emperor, he adds, was not a little astonished, that the fish should hold the ship so fast in the water, and, when brought upon deck, appear to possess no power of detention over it whatever. This confiding naturalist expresses himself as per- fectly convinced that all fishes possess a similar power, and states, as a notorious example, the deten- tion of Periander's ship by a porcellane, near the cape of Gnidos. Quitting, however, the fables of antiquity, it may be observed, that the fins of the remora are particularly weak, and thus prevent its swimming to any considerable distance, on which account it attaches itself to various bodies, inanimate or living, being found not only fastened to ships, but to whales, sharks, and other fishes; and with such extreme tenacity is this hold maintained, that, unless the effort of separation be applied in a particular di- rection, it is impossible to effect the disunion without the destruction of the fish itself. As the remora is extremely voracious, and far from fastidious in its food, it may attach itself to vessels and large fish with a view to secure subsistence. This fish will often adhere to rocks, and particularly in boisterous and tempestuous weather. The apparatus for accom- plishing this adhesion consists of an oval area on the top of the head, traversed by numerous dissepiments, each of which is fringed at the edge by a row of very numerous perpendicular teeth, or filaments, while the whole oval space is strengthened by a longitudi- rial Septum. It is reported by Some authors, that, in the Mozambique channel, a species of remora is employed by the natives of the coast in their pursuit of turtles with great success. . A ring is fixed near the tail of the remora, with a long cord attached to it, and, when the boat has arrived as near as it weli can to the turtle, sleeping on the surface of the water, the remora is dismissed, and immediately pro- ceeds towards the turtle, which it fastens on so firmly, that both are drawn into the boat with great (28Se. ECHINODERMATA ; the tenth class of inver- tebrate animals, or such as are devoid of a backbone. These animals have a suborbicular body, protected by a Coriaceous or crustaceous covering. They are radiated, and destitute of a head and eyes, and have isot articulated limbs; the mouth is placed beneath, 78'ſ and is either simple or multiform ; the organs of digestion are compound; and the covering is pro- vided with exterior tubes or pores for respiration. The older naturalists arranged this class of ani- mals among the testaceous mollusca, others placed them in the class Zoophytes; and in more modern times they occupied a situation among the crustaceous animals. The strict attention which has recently been paid to comparative anatomy, has enabled physiolo. gists to form more distinct and decided Zoological arrangements, founded principally on their internal structure; in consequence of which this group of animals has been formed into a separate class by Lamarck, who placed them as the first of the great division of radiated animals. Besides the external distinctions which we have above given, the internal cavity is furnished with dis- tinct viscera, and a sort of vascular system maintains a communication through the different parts of the intestine, and with the respiratory organs. These consist of pores or orifices, or tubes placed on the exterior covering for the passage of water. . Their nervous system is but indistinctly traced, and they have but extremely imperfect organs of mo- tion. The whole of the animals constituting this class, inhabit the ocean, and, like many other of the lower animals, have the power of regenerating parts of their bodies which have either been injured or broken off, Lamarck divides the Echinodermata into three Sections, under the names Fistulides, Echinides, and Stellerides ; and we have followed Mr Millar in add- ing a fourth section, which he names Crinoidae, formed from the Encrimites. SECTION I.-FISTULIP) ES. Body elongated, cylindrical, soft and very retractile; covered by a soft mobile and irritable skin. These animals respire through the medium of water by . or tubes, which are retractile, and inhabit the sea Słł ()TeS. - The genera are Sipunculus, Priapulus, Holothuria, and Fistularia digitata, pl. 32. f. 1. Body free, soft and cylindri- cal ; covered with a very rough and tubercular coriaceous skin; mostly terminal, surrounded with dilated tentacula at the summit, the flattened part divided or dentated ; anal vent at the posterior extremity. SECTION II.-ECHINIDES. With a solid immovable crust or shell; body subglobular or depressed, destitute of radiating contractile lobes; mouth and anal opening distinct; tubercles on the exterior surface ; the shell immovable, but the spines susceptible of motion. The differences of the animals of this section require to be formed into two sub-sections. First, those having the anal opening above the margin and dorsal, and vertical, and with a regular shell. The genera are Cidarites, and . Echinus esculentus, pl.32. f. 2. With a regular, gibbous, orbi- cular, globular, or oval body ; shell solid, crustaceous, and pro- vided externally with imperforate tubercles, upon which are articulated movable spines; compartments five, each margined by two multiporous divergent bands, extending in rays from the summit to the mouth, which is inferior, central, and armed with five bony enamelled pieces; anal opening above. This sub-section is again subdivided into animals with a dor- Sal anal opening, but approaching the margin. The genera are Nucleolites and Cassidulus. The second sub-section consists of animals whose anal open. ing is under the margin of the disk, or on the margin. This is again subdivided into, first, those with the mouth beneath, not central, but approaching the margin. The genera are An. anchytes, and Spatangus purpºreus, pl.32, f.3. Having an oval or cordiform and subgibbous body, covered with very small spines; from four to five unequal compartments ; mouth labiated transverse, approaching the margin; anal opening lateral, placed opposite the mouth. The animals of this section are known by the familiar names of sea urchines, sea eggs, &c. SECTIO N III.-STELLER IDES. Having a coriaceous, but not irritable skin, which is mov- able in certain points; body short, depressed, broader than long, provided with marginal lobes, more or less numerous, radiáting and movable ; no anal opening. The genera are Ophiura, Euryale, Comatula, and Asterias rubens, pl.32.f4. With a suborbicular depressed body, divided in its circumference into angles, rays, or lobes, disposed in a stellated form; under surface of the rays provided with a 3 D 2 788 longitudinal furrow, bordered on each side by movable spines, and orifices for the tubular or retractile feet; mouth central and placed beneath, at the union of the furrows. 'The animals of this genus are known by the name of star-fish, and are common on most coasts. They feed on marille worms, and the smaller crustacea. SECTION IV.-CRINOIDAE. The animals of this section have been divided into four sub- sections by Mr Millar. 1. Plates of the body or pelvis resting on the last columnar joint, and forming the cup containing the viscera, articulated with each other by lip-like transverse processes; having a minute perforation. The genera are Apiocrinties, and Pentacrinus Europaeus. The pelvis consisting of five plates, supporting five costals; column not enlarging at the summit; fingers formed of a single series of joints; column pentagonal; the articulating surface of the columnar joints petal-shaped. This animal has been found alive at the cove of Cork 2. Plates of the body articulating imperfectly with each other by transverse processes, having a minute central perfora- tion. But one genus, Poteriocrinites. 3. , Having the plates of the body adhering by sutures lined by a muscular ligament. The genera are Legothocrinites, Actinocrinites, Rhodocrinites, and Platycrimites. 4. The plates of the body anchylosing with the last columnar joint. J These different genera have all been found in a fossil state in the limestone in different parts of Great Britain, and are known by the names of Lily Encrimites, St Cuthbert’s beads, &c. See Organic Remains. DIVISION II.-ACA LEPHA. Animals with a gelatinous body, circular, and radiated in their structure, with a soft, transparent skin, susceptible of contraction and dilatation. Cuvier formed a distinct class of this division, under the de- signation of Acalepha. It comprehends the Radiaires Medw- saires, and Anomales of Lamarck, together with the genus Actinia, which he embraced in his class Echinodermata. The Acalepha are either fixed by a base, or float at free- dom in the ocean, suspended by the air which is contained in their bodies, or by being themselves of less specific gravity than the surrounding fluid. Their bodies are not fibrous, but con- sist of a gelatinous substance, which is susceptible of dilatation and contraction. The vessels found in some of these animals, consist merely of canals unprotected by any coating, which are connected with the stomach, and penetrate the gelatinous Inass in various directions. There is no cavity for the recep- tion of intestines; they do not appear to have any muscular action. On their inferior surface in the centre they are provided with a mouth, or suckers, or tentacula, none of which, how- ever, are furnished with hard parts. The stomach, or organ of digestion, consists of a simple sac, unprovided with any out- Jet ; between which and the external skin is a simple, but obscure organization. 'The external surface of many of the species displays a fine arrangement of beautiful colours. They are common to the seas of all countries, and emit a phosphòr- escent light in the dark. SECTION I.-BODY FIXED. Although these animals are usually fixed by their base to rocks, stories, &c., yet they have the power of moving on their base, from one situation to another, or of detaching themselves entirely, and swimming at freedom in the ocean. The genera of the section are Zoanthus, Lucernaria, and Actinia Verrucosa, pl. 32.f. 5. With a cylindrical, fleshy, sim- ple and very contractile body, fixed by its base, but having the power of removing itself; mouth terminal, and having one or many rows of radiated tentacula, which they can con- tract entirely. They have the appearance of a flower in blos- som ; hence their familiar name, sea anemone. They feed on the smaller marine animals, ejecting the undi- gested parts by their mouths. SECTION II.-BODY FREE. 'The general figure of these animals is a disk, of various de- grees of convexity above, and not unlike the head of a mush- room ; and having the mouth below, which is somewhat leng- thened into a pedicle, and furnished with variously formed tentacula. The genera are Phorcynia, Pelagia, Cyanaea, Rhizostoma, Cassiopea, Geryonia, Orythia, Berenix, Eudora, Carybdea, Beroe, Cestum Diplytes, Porpita, Venella, Physalia, Physso- phora, Rhizophyza, and Stephanomia. ECHINUS, or SEA EGG ; a marine animal, in- habiting the seas of most countries, and subject to great variety in the species. Echinus esculentus, the edible sea egg, is common on the coast of Europe, and is esteemed as an article of food. In systematic arrangements, the genus echinus of Linnaeus has been much divided, and is at present restricted to those Species which have an orbicular, oval, or globular body, covered with spines, articulated on imper- forate tubercles. These spines are very slightly attached, and fall off the dead animal on the least friction ; in consequence, the specimens which com- ECHIN US—ECHO. monly come under observation are deprived of them entirely. Five ranges of pores diverge from the summit, and tend to the centre beneath, di- viding the shell into well marked sections. The mouth is situated on the inferior surface, in the cen- tre, and is armed with five osseous pieces or plates; anus Superior. Many species are ornamented with a profusion of long and pointed spines, while, in others, they are quite short. It is by means of these spines that the animals change their position, and move from place to place. The apparatus of the mouth is provided with strong muscles, and is well calculated for crushing the hard portions of the ani- mal's food. In the same species the colours vary considerably, the traits changing, however, on the death of the animal. Echini are said to retreat to deep water on the approach of a storm, and preserve themselves from injury by attaching themselves to submarine bodies. E. melo is perhaps the largest species known, and is found not uncommonly in the Mediterranean. Many fine species have been dis- covered in a fossil state, imbedded in chalk, &c., in beautiful preservation. See Espinodormata, Section II. Echinides. ECHO ; daughter of the Air and Tellus; a nymph, who, according to fable, was changed by Juno into a rock, because her loquacity prevented Juno from listening to the conversation of Jupiter with the nymphs. The use of her voice, however, was left her So far as to be able to repeat the last word which she heard from others. Another account is, that Echo fell in love with Narcissus, and, because he did not reciprocate her affection, she pined away, until no- thing was left but her voice. Echo. When sound strikes against a distant hard surface, it is reflected, and heard again after a short Space ; this repetition is called echo. If the sound is repeated several times, which is the case when it strikes against objects at different distances, many echoes are heard. This phenomenon is not caused by a mere repulsion of the sonorous particles of air, for then every hard substance would produce an echo; but it probably requires a degree of concavity in the repelling body, which collects several diverg- ing lines of sound, and concentrates them in the place where the echo is audible, or, at least, reflects them in parallel lines, without weakening the sound, as a concave mirror collects in a focus the diverging rays of light, or sometimes sends them back parallel.— Still, however, the theory of the repulsion of sound is not distinctly settled, probably because the nature of reflecting surfaces is not sufficiently known. The reflecting surface must be at a certain distance, in order that the echo may come to the ear after the Sound, and be distinctly separated from it. Obser- vation proves that sound travels 1142 feet in a second ; consequently, an observer, standing at half that dis- tance from the reflecting object, would hear the echo a second later than the sound. Such an echo, then, would repeat as many words and syllables as could be heard in a second. This is called a polysyllabic echo. If the distance is less, the echo repeats fewer syllables ; if only one is repeated, then the echo is monosyllabic. The most practised ear cannot dis- tinguish, in a second, more than from nine to twelve successive syllables, and, for a monosyllabic echo, a period of at least half a second is requisite. Hence we see why arched walks and halls echo, without producing a clear and distinct sound. Some of the walls are too near ; and some form an uninterrupted Series of surfaces at different distances, and the ear is not able to distinguish the original sound from the first echo, nor to separate the numerous echoes which are thus confounded with each other. On the con- trary, if several reflecting surfaces are at different ECKHEL–ECKMU HL. distances, each of them may produce a distinct echo, of which the first is the strongest, because the others are weakened by a longer passage through the air. As the reflection of sound depends on the same laws as those which regulate the reflection of light, on which the science of catoptries depends, the doctrine of echoes is sometimes called the catoptrics of sound; a better name is cataphonics, or catacoustics. The place of the sounding body is called the phonic centre, and the reflecting place or object, the phonocamptic centre. The most celebrated echoes are that at Roseneath, in Scotland, and that of the Villa Vimour- tia, near Milan, which repeats a word thirty or forty times. ECKHEL, Joseph HILARY, a learned Jesuit, who distinguished himself greatly by his works on coins, medals, and other remains of classical antiquity. He was born at Enzersfeld, in Austria, in 1737. After becoming a member of the society of St Ignatius, he was appointed keeper of the imperial cabinet of me- dals, and professor of archæology at Vienna. He died in 1798. Eckhel may be regarded as the ſounder of the science of numismatics, the principles of which are elaborately developed in his treatise entitled Doc- trina Nummorum Peterum, 8 vols. folio, finished in 1798. He also published catalogues of the ancient coins and gems in the imperial cabinet, and other learned treatises. His first work was Nummi veteres anecdoti, 1775. - ECKMUHL ; a village on the Laber, in the Ba- varian circle of the Regen, remarkable for the battle of April 22, 1809. Austria, encouraged by the national war, which had been kindled in Spain against Napoleon, entered the contest without allies, but, trusting chiefly to Britain and the Porte, with an energy greater than she had ever before displayed. She called out all her regular forces, and the mili- tia, lately organized by the archduke John ; the archduke Charles commanded in the character of generalissimo. While count Stadion, with Gentz and others, summoned the Germans to arms by proclama- tions, and conducted the negociations, the army was destined to put an end to the confederation of the Rhine, and the power of France in Germany, Poland, and Italy, and to restore to Austria and the German empire their former independent position in the European system. Six corps d'armée, under the arch- duke Charles, with two bodies of reserve, in all 220,000 men, guarded the Iser and Munich (April I6), and the Danube and Ratisbon (April 20); the seventh corps, under the archduke Ferdinand of Este, 36,000 strong, took possession of the duchy of Warsaw ; and two corps, 80,000 strong, under the archduke John, menaced Italy, the Tyrol having already (April 11) taken up arms in favour of Aus- tria. Napoleon's victory at Eckmuhl decided the campaign of 1809, on the Danube, in the vicinity of Ratisbon, and compelled Austria to give up her offensive operations, and to re-assume the disadvan- tageous attitude of defensive war. The operations on the Danube, during the five days from the 19th to the 23d of April, cannot, therefore, be disconnected from the important battle of Eckmuhl. Napoleon left Paris, April 13, and promised the king of Bavaria, at Dillingen, on the 16th, to restore him to his capital within a fortnight, and to make him more powerful than any of his ancestors; on the 18th, his head-quarters were at Ingolstadt. Here he determined to concentrate the different corps of his army commanded by Davoust, Oudinot, and Masséna, the Bavarians under the command of Lefebvre, and the Wurtemberg troops under Vandamme, in all 200,000 men ; Poniatowski, in expectation of the Russian auxiliary corps, was charged with the de- fence of Warsaw ; the viceroy Eugene, step-Son of 789 Napoleon, was to protect Italy; and marshal Mar- mont, Dalmatia. Napoleon himself prepared for the attack. For this purpose, Oudinot, by the affair at Pfaffenhofen, on the 19th April, effected a junction with Masséna, on the 20th ; at the same time, Da- voust, who advanced from Ratisbon, attacked the archduke Louis at Tann (a town in the Bavarian circle of the lower Panube) and Rohr, while the Ba- varians, under Lefebvre, fell upon his rear. Davoust, with the Bavarians, then joined the main army, under Napoleon, who now commenced the attack in person. While Davoust kept in check three corps of the Aus- trian main army, under the archduke Charles, Na- poleon, with the Bavarians and Wurtembergers, and the French corps under Lannes and Masséna, fell upon the Austrian left wing, consisting of about 60,000 men, under the archduke Louis and general Hiller, at Abensberg (near Ratisbon), on the 20th, who were thus cut off from the Danube and the arch- duke Charles. Charles, meanwhile, had taken pos- session of Ratisbon on the 20th, formed a junction with the corps which advanced from the upper Pala- timate, stormed the heights of Abbach, on the right bank of the Danube, on the 21st, and taken position at Eckmuhl, which commands the communication with Ratisbon. Here, having concentrated four corps, he menaced the victor of Abensberg in his rear, and hoped to make himself master of the road to Donau- werth, on which the possession of Bavaria depended. But Davoust and Lefebvre held him in check on the 21st, and, on the 22d, Napoleon, with the divisions of Lannes and Masséna, the Wurtembergers and the cuirassiers, advanced from Landshut to the Danube, and attacked the archduke, at two o'clock in the af. ternoon, at Eckmuhl, where the Bavarians and Da- voust were already engaged. This movement decided the contest. The Wurtembergers took the village of Burghausen ; the Bavarian general Seidewitz, with two Bavarian regiments of cavalry, carried an Aus- trian battery, which commanded the road from Land- shut to Ratisbon ; Lannes flanked the Austrian left, whilst Davoust, Lefebvre, and Montbrun, attacked them in front. The Austrians obstimately defended their second position, and the Wurtemberg infantry took the village of Eckmuhl by storm. At this time, the French cavalry broke the Austrian lines, on the plain in the rear of Eckmuhl. The Austrian infantry, thus taken in flank, were thrown into disorder, and the archduke Charles himself was saved only by the fleetness of his horse. Thus, about 110,000 Austrian troops, under an able general, covering a position of twelve miles in length, were attacked from all quar- ters by about 130,000 French and Germans, extend- ing over a line of twenty-nine miles, were outflanked on their left wing, and totally routed. During the night, the archduke passed the Danube, and at- tempted to cover his retreat by defending Ratisbon, which was indifferently fortified. Napoleon moved on like a storm. The French cuirassiers chased the Austrian cavalry, destined to cover Ratisbon, over the Danube. The French-Bavarian artillery made a breach in the walls, the French infantry, headed by Lannes, forced their way into the city, and, after a bloody combat in the streets, Napoleon became mas- ter of Ratisbon. Napoleon was slightly wounded in his foot by a spent musket ball, on the 23d. His bulletin of the 24th announced that the fruits of the five days’ campaign, of the three victories at Tann, Abensberg, and Eckmuhl, and the combats at Frei- sing, Landshut, and Ratisbon, were 100 cannon, forty stands of colours, 50,000 prisoners, three pontons, and 3000 wagons; and added, “in four weeks, we shall be in Vienna.” Davoust, duke of Auerstadt, re- ceived the title of prince of Eckmuhl. The same day, Napoleon abolished the Teutonic order n all the 790 States of the confederation of the Rhine. The conse- quences of the battles of Eckmuhl and Ratisbon were very important. The Austrian general Jellachich was obliged to evacuate Munich, which the king of Bavaria re-entered on the 25th. The Austrian main army, strengthened by the corps of Bellegarde, re- tired, under the archduke Charles, to Budweis, in Bohemia, and was concentrated on the left bank of the Danube, at the foot of the Bisamberg, and on the Marchfield, ready for the more famous combats at Aspern and Wagram. Charles, however, was not able to Save Vienna. Napoleon advanced along the right bank of the Danube, notwithstanding the insur- rection in the Tyrol, and passed the Inn. On the 3d of May, general Hiller made an obstimate resistance at Ebensberg, with 35,000 men, but was compelled to retreat to the left bank of the Danube. The French passed the Ems, and advanced to the capital of Aus- tria, which capitulated, May 12. On the 13th, Na poleon fixed his head-quarters at Schonbrunn. May 20, Napoleon crossed to the left bank, and thus brought on the memorable battles upon the March- field, that of Aspern, or Essling, and that of Wagram. This whole campaign is highly interesting and in- structive to a military man, who may derive useful lessons from the conduct of both parties; from that of Napoleon, who followed up a grand plan with unpre- cedented ability and spirit; and from that of Charles, who displayed great military skill in his manoeuvres, as was always acknowledged by the victors. ECLECTICS (from the Greek #x2 exºtzis, select, from #x2.Éyo, to select) is a name given to all those º who do not follow one system entirely, ut select what they think the best parts of all sys. tems. Their philosophy is also called eclectic. the history of philosophy, this term is chiefly applied to that sect of Greek philosophers, who strove to unite and reconcile the opinions of Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle, and to bring them into one har- monious system. ECLIPSE. An Eclipse of the Moon is a privation of the light of the moon, occasioned by an interposition of the earth between the sun and the moon ; consequently, all eclipses of the moon happen at full moon; for it is only when the moon is in opposition, that it can come within the earth's shadow, which must always be on that side of the earth which is from the sun. The earth being in the plane of the ecliptic, the centre of its shadow is always in that plane; if, therefore, the moon be in its modes, that is, in the plane of the ecliptic, the shadow of the earth will fall upon it. This shadow, being of considerable breadth, is partly above and partly below the plane of the ecliptic ; if, therefore, the moon in opposition be so near one of its nodes, that its latitude is less than half the breadth of the shadow, it will be eclipsed. But, because the plane of the moon's orbit makes an angle of more than five degrees with the plane of the ecliptic, it will fre- quently have too much latitude, at its opposition, to allow it to come within the shadow of the earth. An Eclipse of the Sun is an occultation of part of the face of the sun, occasioned by an interposition of the moon between the earth and the Sun ; thus all eclipses of the sun happen at the time of new moon. The dark or central part of the moon's shadow, where the sun's rays are wholly intercepted, is called the wmbra, and the light part, where only a part of them are intercepted, is called the penumbra; and it is evident, that if a spectator be situated on that part of the earth where the umbra falls, there will be a total eclipse of the sun at that place ; in the penum- bra there will be a partial eclipse, and beyond the penumbra, there will be no eclipse. As the earth In is not always at the same distance from the moon, if ECILECTHCS–ECLIPSE. an eclipse should happen when the earth is so far from the moon that the rays of light proceeding from the upper and lower limbs of the sun cross each other before they come to the earth, a spectator situated on the earth, in a direct line between the centres of the Sun and moon, would see a ring of light round the dark body of the moon; such an eclipse is called annular; when this happens there can be no total eclipse any- where, because the moon's umbra does not reach the earth. People situated in the penumbra will perceive a partial eclipse ; and an eclipse can never be an- nular longer than 12 minutes 24 seconds, nor total longer than 7 minutes 58 seconds; nor can the dura- tion of an eclipse of the sun ever exceed 2 hours. The cut below will illustrate the phenomena of both solar and lunar eclipses. S is the sun, E the earth, 2n the moon in conjunction with the sun, and m'in op- position. When the moon is in the position m the Sun will be eclipsed by her, but when she is in the position m'she will be eclipsed by the shadow of the earth. ...” g º s * * * º * 771, * §§ N The sun being larger than the earth, the earth's shadow is a come, whose base is on the surface of the earth, and the moon is eclipsed by a section of the earth's shadow. If the earth were larger than, or equal to, the sun, its shadow would either perpe- tually enlarge, or be always of the same dimension; but, in this case, the superior planets would some- times come within it, and be eclipsed, which never happens. Therefore the sun is larger than the earth, and produces a shadow from the earth of a comical form, which does not extend to the orbit of Mars. An eclipse of the moon is partial when only a part of its disc is within the shadow of the earth ; it is total when all its disc is within the shadow ; and it is central when the centre of the earth's shadow falls upon the centre of the moon’s disc. Now, the nearer any part of the penumbra is to the umbra, the less light it receives from the sun; and as the moon enters the penumbra before she enters the um- bra, she gradually loses her light, and appears less brilliant. The duration of an eclipse of the moon, from her first touching the earth's penumbra to her leaving it, does not exceed five hours and a half. The moon does not continue in the earth's umbra longer than three hours and three quarters in any eclipse, neither is she totally eclipsed for a longer period than one hour and three quarters. As the moon is actually deprived of her light during an eclipse, every inhabitant upon the face of the earth, who sees the moon, sees the eclipse. An eclipse of the sun, as we have said, happens when the moon, passing between the sun and the earth, intercepts the sun's light; and the sun can only be eclipsed at the new moon, or when the moon, at its conjunction, is in or near one of its nodes. For, unless the moon is in or near one of its modes, it cannot appear in or near the same plane with the sun; without which it cannot appear to us to pass over the disc of the sun. At every other part of its orbit, it will have so much northern or southern latitude, as to appear above or below the sun. If the moon be in one of its nodes, having no latitude, it will cover the whole disc of the sun, and produce a total eclipse, except when its ap- parent diameter is less that that of the sun; if it be ECLIP'H'I C. near one of its modes, having a small degree of lati- tude, it will only pass over a part of the sun's disc, or produce a partial eclipse. In a total eclipse of the sun, the shadow or umbra of the moon falls upon that part of the earth where the eclipse is seen, and a spectator, placed in the shadow, will not see any part of the sun, because the moon will intercept all the rays of light coming directly from the sun. In a partial eclipse of the sun, a penumbra, or imperfect shadow of the moon, falls upon that part of the earth where the partial eclipse is seen. Were the orbit of the earth and that of the moon both in the same plane, there would be an eclipse of the Sun every new moon, and an eclipse of the moon every full moon. But the orbit of the moon makes an angle of five degrees and a quarter with the plane of the earth's orbit, and crosses it in two points, called the nodes. Astronomers have calculated, that if the moon be less than 17° 21' from either mode, at the time of new moon, the sun may be eclipsed; or if less than 11° 34' from either node, at the full moon, the moon may be eclipsed; at all other times there can be no eclipse, for the shadow of the moon will fall either above or below the earth at the time of new moon; and the shadow of the earth will fall either above or below the moon, at the time of full moon. An eclipse of the sun begins on the western side of his disc, and ends on the eastern; and an eclipse of the moon begins on the eastern side of her disc, and ends on the western. The average num-. ber of eclipses in a year is four, two of the sun, and two of the moon ; and as the Sun and moon are as long below the horizon of any particular place as they are above it, the average number of visible eclipses in a year is two, one of the Sun and one of the moon. See Astronomy. ECLIPTIC ; the sun's path; the great circle of the celestial sphere, in which the sun appears to de- scribe his annual course from west to east. The Greeks observed that eclipses of the Sun and moon took place near this circle; whence they called it the ecliptic, from eclipses. By a little attention, we shall see that the sun does not always rise to the same height in the meridian, but seems to revolve round the earth in a spiral (see Day). We likewise observe every day, at its rising and setting, new stars in the neighbourhood of the sun. It will also be seen, that the sun is in the equator twice a-year; about March 22 and September 22. The points of the equator, at which the sum is stationary on these days, are at the intersection of the equator with the ecliptic. June 21, the Sun reaches its greatest height in the heavens; and December 21, it descends the lowest. Because the Sun appears to turn back at these points, they are called the tropics; and the times at which the turning appears to commence are called solstices (solstitia, solis stationes). At these points, the sun has attained its greatest distance from the equator. These four points, the equinoctial and solstitial points, are distant from one another a quar- ter of a circle, or 90 degrees. Each of these qua- drants, or quarters of a circle, is divided into 3 equal arcs of 30 degrees; thus the whole ecliptic is divided into 12 equal arcs or signs: these receive their names from certain constellations through which the eclip- tic passes, and which extend each 30 degrees. The constellations, or 12 celestial signs, succeed one another in the following order, from the vernal equinox, reckoned towards the east: * Aries, March 20. -o- Libra, September 23. 8 Taurus, April 20. Til Scorpio, October 23. II Gemini, May 21. 1 Sagittarius, Nov. 22. 90 Cancer, June 21. VS Capricornus, Dec. 21. Sl, Leo, July 22. & Aquarius, January 19. 12 Virgo, August 23. K. Pisces, February 18. 79] The days of the month annexed show when the sun, in its annual revolution, enters each of the signs of the zodiac. The thirty degrees in every sign are divided into minutes and seconds, not reckoned separately, but after the signs. An arc of the ecliptic, for ex- ample, of 97° 15' 27", reckoned from Aries, east- ward, is called three signs, 7° 15' 27" long, or, what is the same thing, it terminates in 7° 15' 27" of Can- cer. In this way the longitude of the stars is given. The ecliptic, like all circles, has two poles, which move about the poles of the earth every twenty-four hours, and in this manner describe the polar circles. What appears to be the path of the sun, however, is, in reality, the path of the earth. The planets and the moon revolve in different planes; but these are inclined at only a very small angle to the plane of the ecliptic ; hence these bodies can be but a small distance from the ecliptic. The plane of the eclip- tic is very important in theoretical astronomy, be- cause the courses of all the other planets are pro- jegted upon it, and reckoned by it. Ty the obliquity of the ecliptic we understand its inclination to the equator, or the angles formed by the planes of these two great circles. This angle is measured by the arc of a third great circle, drawn so as to intersect the two others perpendicularly, in the points at which they are farthest apart. These points of in- tersection are ninety degrees distant from those points at which the equator and ecliptic intersect each other, i. e. the Solstitial points. The ancients endeavoured to measure the obliquity of the ecliptic. According to Pliny, it was first determined by Anaximander ; according to Gassendi, it had been ascertained by Thales. The most celebrated measurement of this obliquity in ancient times was made by Pytheas, at Marseilles. He found it, 350 B. C., to be 23° 49' 23". A hundred years later, according to Ptolemy, Eratosthenes found it to be 23° 51' 20". Various measurements have subsequently taken piace, even down to our own time; and it is remarkable that almost every measurement makes the angle less than those which preceded it. Among the modern esti- mates are that of Cassini, 23° 28′35"; of La Caille, 23° 28′ 19"; of Bradley, 23° 28′ 18"; and of Mayer, 23° 28′ 16" : the observations of Delambre, Maske- lyne, Piazzi, Bessel, and others, give this important astronomical element, for the year 1800, at 23° 27' 56". In respect to the decrease of the inclination of the ecliptic, the most celebrated astronomers of our time, as Lalande, adopted the opinion that this de- crease continues uninterruptedly. Louville deter- mined the annual decrease to be l', La Caille 44", and Lalande 33". Several philosophers of modern times concluded, from these observations, that the equator and the ecliptic were formerly in the same plane; that the shock of a comet, or Some mighty revolution on the earth, gave the axis of our planet this inclination, and that, for thousands of years, the axis has been returning to its original position, which it will reach after 190,000 years. Laplace, on the con- trary, in his Mécanique Céleste, showed that this will never take place, but that the decrease of the angle between the planes of the equator and the ecliptic depends merely upon a periodical effect, arising from the action of the other planets; that, after a certain time, it will increase again, and that the limits of variation are narrow and fixed. A very long space of time will be required to make satisfactory obser- vations respecting this fact. The inclination of the ecliptic, or, which is the same thing, the inclination of the axis of the earth towards the ecliptic, is subject to another change, which makes it increase and de- crease alternately for nine years, during which time the greatest difference amounts to 18": of this more is said under the article Nutation of the 792 Earth's awis. See Astronomy, Degree, Equinoctial, pay, &c. ECLOGUE, in poetry; a select piece, of any sort; in general, select poems, or several poems of the same form; thus the satires of Horace were called eclogues. Since Virgil's Bucolics received this name (from grammarians, probably, and not from the poet), the term eclogues has usually been applied to what Theocritus called idyls, short, highly finished poems, principally of a pastoral nature. See Idyl. ECONOMY, PoliticAL. See Political Eco- 7.0my. EDAM ; a town of North Holland, near the Zuyder-Zee ; twelve miles north of Amsterdam ; lon. 5° 3' E.; lat. 52° 31' N. ; population, 2745. It is built in a triangular form, and has a good port, formed by the river Ey, on which it stands, and which, with the dam thrown up against the inunda- tions of that river, gives its name to the town. This place is chiefly noted for its trade in cheese : in 1801, not less than 6,660,631 pounds of Dutch cheese were weighed here. The two great divisions of Dutch cheese are sweet milk and curds. The latter is also called komyne (cummin) cheese, also kastert. The Edam cheese is all sweet milk cheese, which is again divided according to its rind, into red and white. Its mean price is from twenty to twenty-five gilders for 100 pounds. A large quantity goes to England. The whole annual production of cheese in Holland is estimated at thirty millions of pounds. EDDA ; two collections of ancient Icelandic poems, which, as they came from the Norwegians (Normans), who emigrated to Iceland, are of Ger- man origin. They are the chief source of the mythology of the gods and heroes of the north of Europe. The first of these collections, called the Older or Samundic Edda, is said to have been pre- pared by Samund Sigfusson, a learned Icelandish clergyman, and Are Frode, the oldest historian of the north, who lived from 1056 to 1133, and studied at Paris. Sigfusson’s life has been written by Arne Magnæus, and is annexed to the first part of the Edda. But this statement of its origin, as well as its claim to the general name Edda, has been denied. It consists of a number of the poems of the Scalds and the most ancient traditionary songs; hence the name of Old Edda (mother of poetry). This Edda was formerly concealed and forgotten in Iceland for 400 years. A part of it seems to be lost for ever. In 1643, the best copy extant of these old poems, written on parchment, was found and rescued from decay by bishop Brynjolf Svensen. The Edda has since been considerably studied, and the following portions have been published:—Begthamgsnida, Pol- wspap (prophecies), Havamaal (elevated conversation) and Runa Capitule, or the Rumic chapter (in which Odin boasts of his power in magic songs).--From these poems, then complete, and other songs, the prose extracts were formed, perhaps 120 years later, called the Younger Edda, ascribed to Snorro Stur- leson, lagmann of Iceland, and sewer of king Haco, about A. D. 1200. This extract forms a kind of sys- tem, and cyclus of those songs, and is to be considered as a religious system (of course, no longer believed at the time when it was compiled), and, as a compend of the old Norse poetry, showing the versification and grammatical structure of the language. It is of much importance, too, on account of the numerous hiatuses in the ancient songs of the country, of which it often gives passages. The work was afterwards still more extended and remodelled. It consists of three parts, of which the first is dogmatical; the second, narra- tive ; and the third, entitled Scalda, contains an al- phabetical index of the poetical idioms which are found in the preceding parts. The Icelandic text ECLOGUE—ED ELINCK. of this Edda, with numerous, but very erroneous translations, was published by Resenius, Copenhagen, 1665, 4to: hence it is also called the Resertian Eida. A better edition was published by Rask, Stockholm, 1818. Nyerup published a Danish translation (Copenhagen, 1808), and has done much for the gene- ral elucidation of the Edda. There is a German translation by Buhs (Berlin, 1812). The first part of the Older or Samundic Edda was printed in the original text, 1787, by the Magnæan institute, ani- mated by the zeal of Suhm, accompanied with a Latin translation and a glossary, both prepared principally by Gudemand Magnaus. The second part was published in 1818, by the Magnaan insti- tute, containing the Polundarquida, and all the poems which form the connexion of the Scandinavian and German heroic era. New editions and translations of the parts already known, have been prepared among the Germans, by Denis, Schimmelmann, Grater, Herder, and Fred. Majer. Some of the sagas of the Edda, before unprinted, have been lately published by von der Hagen and Grimm, in the origi- mal, and subsequently in German. Adelung, Schlozer, and, lately, Ruhs, have doubted the genuineness and antiquity of the Older Edda. Their opponents are P. C. Muller (On the Genuineness of the Doctrine Asa, and the Value of the Edda of Snorro, Copen- hagen, 1811, and On the Origin and Decline of Icelandic Historiography, with an Appendix on the nationality of the old Norse Poems, Copenhagen, 1815), von der Hagen, the brothers Grimm, Docen, and others; and truth seems to be on their side. For not only the inherent verisimilitude and peculiar development of the doctrine of the Edda, but vari- ous historical traces, vouch for its antiquity and genuineness. On the connexion of the German Niebelungenlied and the Heldenbuch (the Book of Heroes) with the Edda, interesting investigations have been instituted by the authors last named. EDDYSTONE ROCKS ; well known to seamen who navigate the English channel, consisting of three principal ridges, and extending 600 or 700 yards in length. They lie nearly in the fair way from the Start to the Lizard, and are therefore an object of the utmost importance to mariners. Hence it is, that on the summit of the largest rock a light- house has been erected, to serve as a beacon or sig- mal to avoid the danger, as they are covered at the flood tide, but become dry at the ebb. The founda- tion of the lighthouse is one entire solid mass of stones to the height of 35 feet, engrafted into each other, and united by every means of additional strength. It is about 80 feet in height; 15 S.S. W. Plymouth, 45 E. Lizard point ; lon. 4° 15' W., lat. 50° 11' N. The swell at these rocks is tremendous. After a storm, when the sea is to all appearance quite smooth, and its surface unruffled by the slightest breeze, the ground-swell or under-current meeting the slope of the rocks, the sea often rises above the lighthouse in a magnificent manner, overtopping it as with a canopy of foam. Henry Winstanley, in 1696, built the first lighthouse, but, in 1703, perished in it, having too much confidence in his building's standing any storm. Another lighthouse stood from 1709 till 1755. The third was begun in 1757, by the late Mr John Smeaton, and finished in 1759. It has withstood all the rage of the weather. The structure of the edifice of Mr Smeaton is highly in- teresting. In the beginning of 1830, the upper structure had become so racked, that it was deemed necessary to rebuild it. EDELINCK, GERARD, a painter, and distinguish- ed engraver, was born at Antwerp, in 1649. He learned the elements of his art in his native city, but fully developed his talents in France. Louis XIV. EDEN.—EDICT. attached the artist to his service by marks of favour. He was commissioned to engrave, on copper, the Holy Family of Raphael, and Alexander's Visit to the Family of Darius, by Lebrun. He executed, likewise, the Battle of the Four Cavaliers, after Leonardo da Vinci. In his great works from histo- rical pictures, his choice is often to be regretted. Many paintings first obtained celebrity by his masterly engravings. Edelinck was no less happy in his portraits, and left a great number of the most distinguished persons of his age. Many of them are found in Perrault's collection of famous men. A peculiarly chaste and brilliant burin, a noble style, correct and easy drawing, truth and inimitable harmony of execution, have raised the works of this artist above any others of his nation. Edelinck was engraver to the king, and counsellor of the royal academy of painters, when he died, in 1707, aged sixty-six. Neither his brother, nor his Son equalled him. EDEN. See Paradise. EDEN, Sir FREDER1c MoRTON, baronet; a British diplomatist and statistical writer. He was sent ambassador to Berlin in 1792, and in the following year was removed to Vienna. In March, 1794, he quitted that court for Madrid; but, returning thither again, he concluded, in May, 1795, a treaty of alli- ance offensive and defensive, between England and Austria. He died at his house in Pall-Mall, Nov. 14, 1809. He was the author of a work of consid- erable research, entitled The State of the Poor, or History of the Labouring Classes in England; 1797, 3 vols. 4to. EDGAR, one of the most distinguished of the Saxon kings of England, was the son of king Edmund. He succeeded to the throne in 959, and managed the civil and military affairs of his kingdom with great vigour and success. He maintained a body of troops to control the mutinous Northumbrians, and repel the incursions of the Scots, and fitted out a powerful navy to protect his subjects from the Danes. By these precautions, he not only prevented invasion from the Danes, but secured the submission of the independent provinces of Wales and Ireland, and the surrounding islands. During the reign of Edgar, wolves were nearly extirpated from the Southern parts of the island, by exchanging a tribute from Wales for payment in the heads of these animals. His adventure and marriage with the beautiful Elfrida, daughter of the earl of Devonshire, are well known. He died in 975, and was succeeded by his son, Edward the Martyr. EDGEWORTH DE FIRMONT, HENRY Essex, father-confessor of Louis XVI. ; born 1745, in Ireland, in the village of Edgeworthtown. His father, an Episcopalian clergyman, adopted the Catholic faith with his family, and went to France. Henry studied first under the Jesuits at Toulouse, and then at the Sorbonne in Paris. His piety and virtue obtained him the confidence of the princess Elizabeth, sister of Louis XVI., who chose him for her con- fessor. The revolution broke out, and the king was thrown into prison. Elizabeth was an angel of consolation to her brother during his confinement, and by her means Louis was first made acquainted with the character of Firmont, who then lived in concealment at Choisy-le-Roi, under the name of Essex. When the king was informed of his con- demnation, he requested a delay of three days, to pre- pare himself to appear before his God, and free communication with a priest of his own choice. This was Edgeworth. The convention assented to the latter request, but refused the respite. Edge- worth discharged the duties devolving on him with the deepest devotion. He offered personally to 793 attend the king to the place of execution. Edge- worth ascended the scaffold with him; the execu- tioner placed the king under the guillotine; Edge- worth exclaimed, “Son of St Louis, ascend to heaven l’’ and the axe fell. Edgeworth succeeded in escaping from France in safety, and arrived in England in 1796. Pitt offered him a pension in the name of the king, which he declined. He soon after followed Louis XVIII. to Blankenburg, in Brunswick, and thence to Mittau. As he had de- voted his life to soothe the unhappy in the true spirit of Christian charity, he lost it in services of benevo- lence. In 1807, a number of French prisoners of war were brought to Mittau, where Edgeworth was living with Louis XVIII. A contagious fever made the most dreadful devastation among them. Edge- worth, so far from being repelled by the danger, devoted himself to the care of the sick, and was himself attacked by the disease, of which he died, May 21, 1807. The duchess of Angouleme attended him in his sickness; the royal family followed him to the tomb, and Louis XVIII. wrote his epitaph. EDGEWORTH, RICHARD LovELL, a gentleman distinguished for the versatility of his talents, was born in 1744, at Bath, of a family possessed of landed property at Edgeworthtown, in the south of Ireland. He received his education at Trinity college, Dublin, and Corpus Christi, Oxford, after which he entered at the Temple, but not probably with any serious intention of adopting the law as a profession. Me- chanics and general literature chiefly attracted his attention. He formed an acquaintance with doctor Erasmus Darwin, Mr Thomas Day, and other men of congenial pursuits, to whose researches, as well as his own, what may be termed practical philosophy is not a little indebted. In 1767, he contrived a telegraph, with regard to which, however, he had not the merit of having started the original idea, neither did he bring it into general use. After residing some years in England, he went to France, where he was engaged in the direction of some works on the Rhone at Lyons. In the latter part of his life, he resided much on his own estate, occu- pying himself with plans for constructing rail-roads, draining bogs, and other undertakings for the im- provement of agriculture, manufactures, and com- merce. Much of his time, too, was devoted to literature, and, in conjunction with his daughter, the celebrated Maria Edgeworth, he wrote a Treatise on Practical Education, one on Professional Educa- tion, as well as some subsidiary works, all remark- able for the air of good sense, and adaptation to the exigencies of common life, which they exhibit. He j in June, 1817. Mr Edgeworth married four wives, of whom two were sisters. His Memoirs, partly written by himself and partly by his daughter, were published in 1821. EDICT; a public proclamation. In ancient Rome, the higher officers of state, who were elected annually, publicly declared, at their entrance upon office, the principles by which they should conduct their administration. This was done particularly by the AEdiles (q.v.), who superintended buildings and markets, and by the pretors, as supreme judges. These annual proclamations, by which the deficien- cies of the general statutes were supplied, and the laws were adapted to the peculiar wants of the period, gradually acquired a certain permanency, as each officer retained, unaltered, most of the regula- tions of his predecessor edictum tralatitium); and they became, in fact, the source of the whole system of Roman law, which, being founded on the official authority of the authors, was called jus honoraristm, and was opposed to the strictly formal law, jus civile. The edictum praetoris, under the emperor Adrian, '794 A. D. #3}, was reduced to a regular form (edictum perpetºum), by Salvius Julianus, and received the sauction of legal authority, although the pretors seem to have retained for a long time their privi- lege of issuing edicts, till all legislative power fell exclusively into the hands of the emperor. The form of the edict was still made use of occasionally, although general principles were often brought for- ward in the decision of particular cases (decrees and rescripts). The name edict has since been applied in several monarchical countries, as a general term, to an ordinance of the supreme authority. See Civil Law. EDICT OF NANTES. See Huguenots. EDILE. See Złdile. EDINBURGH ; the metropolis of Scotland, and one of the finest, as well as most ancient, cities in the empire, is situated within two miles of the south shore of the Firth of Forth, in 55° 57' 20" north latitude, and 3° 10' 30" west longitude; distant from London 392 miles; from Glasgow 42 miles ; from Dumfries 71; from Dundee 42; from Perth 44; and from Aberdeen 121. History.—A history of Edinburgh would em- brace much of the history of Scotland. In this place, we shall merely advert to those events in which it took a prominent part, or in which its interests were particularly involved. The origin of the town, and the etymology of the name, are both involved in obscurity. Some suppose it was founded by the Caledonians, and deduce its appellation from Dun Edin, signifying, in Gaelic, the Face of a Hill; but more probability attaches to the conjecture that this place owes its present name to Edwin, the Anglo-Saxon King of Northumbria, in the early part of the seventh century, who, having made himself master of a part of the Pictish territories in the south of Scotland, built the castle, which from him. was called Edwyne's Burg, or Edinburgh. In cor- roboration of this etymology, it may be mentioned that the former term occurs in a charter granted by 3David I. to the Abbey of Holyrood in 1128, as well as in some other ancient documents. At a period coeval with or preceding the era of Edwin, the name applied to the fort was Mai-din in British, or Magh-dun in Gaelic, which signifies either the fortified mount on the plain or the good fort. Some, however, conceived that Mai-din was the English word maiden, and hence arose the title which it receives in old writings of Castrum Puel- larum, the castle of maidens, and the fable that it had been the residence of the daughters of British kings. Edinburgh was the object of frequent contests between the Scots and Anglo-Saxons, the former of whom obtained permanent possession of it about 960. A considerable period afterwards elapsed before it became the capital of the kingdom. A parliament was held here under Alexander II., in 1215; but it was not till subsequently to 1456 that such assemblies took place regularly ; and the Scottish sovereigns, encouraged by the strength and security of the castle, removed from Scone to Edin- burgh, and made it the residence of the court and the seat of government. The year 1513 was the epoch of a dreadful plague, and also of the defeat at Flodden, on which last calamity the inhabitants of Edinburgh behaved with great firmness. During the minority of James W., Edinburgh was the fre- quent scene of tumults, especially one between the Hamiltons or Arran's party, and the Douglasses or party of Angus, which is known in history by the name of Clear the Causeway. In 1532, the College of Justice was established in Edinburgh, and from that period the city assumed, more unequivocally EDICT OF NANTES-EDINBURGH. than formerly, a metropolitan character. In 1544, the city was taken and burnt by an English army under the earl of Hertford; but from the conse- quences of this disaster it soon recovered. The Contests between the Catholics and Protestants, which terminated in the establishment of Presby- terianism in Scotland, occasioned frequent tumults at Edinburgh; and its public buildings, especially the churches, suffered greatly from the indiscriminat- ing zeal of the celebrated John Knox and his fol- lowers. In the reign of Mary, usually styled Queen of Scots, as having held the crown in her own right, the Presbyterians riotously interrupted the public services of the Catholic church, and the magistrates of the city effaced from their banner the image of St Giles, who had been the patron of the corporation, substituting for it the national emblem of the thistle. In 1592, Presbyterianism was established by law in Scotland, but the mutual distrust of James VI. and the clergy occasioned such commotions as induced the king to withdraw with his court to Lin- lithgow ; and the parliament and the courts of law were commanded to quit the city ; but this dissen- sion was terminated by the interference of the queen of England, and harmony was restored between the conflicting parties. In the year 1603, James was called to the throne of the sister kingdom, and the regal dignity of Scot- land was merged in that of England. The king, however, made repeated visits to Scotland, and on the last occasion he was received at Edinburgh with extraordinary magnificence. Under Charles I. the peace of the city was greatly disturbed by the attempts of archbishop Laud to restore episcopacy, the general antipathy of the nation to which occa- sioned insurrections against the royal authority, and tended to induce them to join the English parliament in the ensuing civil war. After having thus contributed to the overthrow of Charles I. they took up arms in favour of his son, being deceived by that prince's solemn oath to support Presbyterianism. This drew on them the vengeance of Oliver Cromwell, who took the castle of Edin- burgh, and it remained in the hands of the English till the Restoration. Soon after the accession of James VII. to the British throne, the city was the Scene of several tumultuary proceedings, on ac- Count of that monarch's attempts to restore the Roman Catholic religion. The Abbey of Holyrood- house was demolished, after a vain attempt of the military to defend it, in which many lives were lost, and other religious houses of the Catholics were attacked and plundered. In 1689, a convention of estates held at Edinburgh declared that James had forfeited the crown, and an offer of it was made to William and Mary. The celebrated Darien expedi- tion was the next public event which disturbed the tranquillity of Edinburgh. In 1699, when intel- ligence came of the settlement being formed, the rejoicings were great; but when, in the following year, the news of its utter failure arrived—a failure to be attributed not to the miscalculations or miscon- duct of the projectors, but to the base jealousy of the English—the indignation of the inhabitants was unbounded, and the streets of the city for several days were the scene of tumult and riot. In 1707, Edinburgh was again thrown into a state of agitation by the proposed union of the kingdoms. Notwithstanding the unpopularity of the measure, it was finally carried amid many violent proceedings of the people, and the city of Edinburgh was thus deprived of its ancient parliament, and much of the wealth of the country, which used to be circulated there, was transferred to London. Neither Edin- burgh nor Scotland in general recovered from the EDINBURGH. effects of this union for half a century, although the Subsequent prosperity of the country is commonly attributed to the union alone, while the true causes are to be found in the cessation of civil and religious broils, in the general progress of education, in the mighty advances made in the practical arts and sciences, and the naturally enterprising and la- borious character of the people. In the civil war of 1715, an unsuccessful attempt was made by the Jacobites to surprise the castle of Edinburgh. In 1736, one of the most remarkable affairs connected with the history of the town took place, namely, the extraordinary riot, styled the Porteous Mob. Por- teous was captain of the city guard, and at the exe- cution of a smuggler named Wilson, whose case excited much sympathy, a disturbance arose, upon which Porteous ordered his guard to fire, whereby six people were killed and several wounded. For this Porteous was tried and condemned to death; but being afterwards reprieved, the populace,—re- solved that he should not escape a fate which they conceived he merited,—broke open, at night, the jail in which he was confined, and having dragged him to the Grassmarket, then the .# place of execution, hanged him there, by torch light, on a dyer's pole. An elaborate account of this transac- tion is to be found in Sir Walter Scott's admirable tale, “The Heart of Mid-Lothian.” Indeed, that work may be generally referred to, as giving a faithful, though picturesque, view of the state of Society and manners in Edinburgh at that period. In 1745, Edinburgh was taken possession of by the rebels under Prince Charles Edward. The castle was, however, held by the troops of George II., between whom and the Highlanders some hostili- ties took place. After the defeat of the rebels at Culloden, the provost was tried on the charge of not having properly defended the city, but was acquitted. The events which have occurred in Edinburgh since that period are not of sufficient moment to re- quire particular commemoration here. The latter half of the last century was distinguished by several tumults and riots, some in consequence of the high price of provisions, and others in consequence of a supposed disposition on the part of the government to concede political influence to the Roman Catho- lics. It is gratifying to think that on both these sub- jects the public in general has now become better informed, and that a ‘meal mob' or a ‘no popery mob are little likely again to occur. In August, 1822, king George IV. visited Edinburgh, remaining in Scotland about a fortnight, during which time the city was the scene of much bustle, parade, and festivity. In 1824, a series of conflagrations, of a most destructive and appalling nature, occurred in Parliament Square and the High Street, by which a great number of the tenements were destroyed. uring the passing of the Reform Bill, Edinburgh took an active hand in furthering the measure; and the first election of members of parliament under that act took place at the cross, on the 21st of T}ecember, 1832. In the autumn of 1834, shortly after the retirement of earl Grey from office, a large portion of the inhabitants of Edinburgh invited that nobleman to a public banquet, in token of their re- spect for him as a statesman, and more particularly as the author of the Reform Bill. In the absence of a hall of sufficient dimensions, a temporary erec- tion was made on the Calton Hill, by which above 2000 gentlemen were accommodated to dinner; and, altogether, the reception of the noble earl in the ancient capital of Scotland was highly honourable to Himself and creditable to the people. Description.—Edinburgh is picturesquely situated, 795 being built on three eminences which run in a direc. tion from east to west, and surrounded on all sides except the north, where the ground slopes gently towards the Firth of Forth, by lofty hills. The cen- tral ridge, which constituted the ancient city, is termi- mated by the castle on the west, and Holyroodhouse on the east, near which rise the lofty elevations of Salisbury Crags, Arthur's Seat, and the Calton Hill. The valley to the north of this ridge consisted for- merly of a loch (called the North Loch) which is now drained but which still retains its original name. On the rising ground beyond this valley stands the New Town, being connected with the Old Town by a bridge and Earthen Mound. The city altogether ex- tends, at the present day, about two miles in length and the same in breadth, and, when viewed from the Calton Hill, presents an unrivalled panoramic Scene. On the right, are the splendid lines of streets of the New Town, constructed of white free-stone, and spreading down with moderate descent towards the sea. Opposite is displayed the vista of Prince's street, nearly a mile in length ; and on the left, the huge unbroken line of tall structures forming the Old Town, terminated by the towers of the castle. Beyond and towards the south, the town is seen to spread out in lines of streets and detached houses, till arrested by the enclosures towards the Braid Hiſls, or on the east by Arthur's Seat and Salisbury Crags. Towards the north, the view from the Cal- ton Hill is also striking, comprehending a prospect of the Firth of Forth and the hills of Fifeshire on the opposite shore. - In taking a more minute survey of Fdinburgh, we shall first proceed from the castle to Holyroodhouse, a line of street which bears in different places the names of Lawnmarket, High Street, and Canon- gate. From the castle the first object of notice is the general reservoir for supplying the city with water; further on to the south branches off a street called the Bow, winding downward to the Grass Market; advancing, the street becomes wider; and after passing Bank Street, on the north, leading to the Bank of Scotland, and the County Hall on the South side, the street opens into Parliament Square, on one side of which is St Giles' Church, and ad- joining it the parliament house. The buildings which formed one side of this square, said to have been the highest in Edinburgh, were destroyed by the great , fires, which took place in the months of June and November, 1824. Proceeding eastward down the High Street, we reach the site of the ancient cross of Edinburgh, taken down, in 1758; a structure cele- brated in Scottish history as the place whence royal proclamations were issued, and where state Criminals were executed; and from this spot, marked by a star in the pavement, announcements of war and peace are still made, and farmers and merchants assemble for the transaction of business. Indeed, such is the power of custom, that the commercial people of Edin- burgh persist in holding their meetings in the open air, notwithstanding aroyal exchange was erected fortheir accommodation near the cross in 1753; and which is now therefore occupied by the municipal officers of the city, and by bankers, merchants, and others. Beyond the Cross stands the Tron Church, and be- hind it Hunter's Square; and further on the High Street passes between the North and South bridges, which stand on one of the grand lines of communi- cation between the Old and the New Towns. About three hundred yards eastward of the bridges, the street becomes very narrow ; and a little further on is the site of the Netherbow Port, one of the ancient gates of the city. This was formerly the court end of the town, the buildings still retain traces of their original grandeur, and almost every spot possesses 796 some degree of historical interest. From the win- dow of a house near the Netherbow, the celebrated John Knox is said to have harangued the populace. Here branch off a street called the Leith Wynd to the north, and another called St Mary's Wynd to the south; in the former of which may be seen a specimen of the old city wall. The main street now takes the name of Canongate extending to Holyrood House. From the High Street descend laterally in regular rows, numerous narrow lanes called Closes, many of them extremely steep, and very few more than six feet wide; those which are broader, and admit of the passage of carriages, are called Wynds. In these and the adjacent streets, the houses are fre- quently more than forty yards in height, and divided into from six to ten stories, or as they are locally termed flats, the communication between which is preserved by broad stone stair-cases, winding from the lowest part of the building to the top; and each floor or flat is inhabited by two families, the entrance to all the different dwellings being from the common stair-case. The Wynds and closes on the south side of the High Street, communicate with a street run- ning parallel with it, called the Cowgate, at the bot- tom of the ridge on which the ſormer is built. It is a continuation of the line of communication that enters the city westward, in the street called Portsburgh, which terminates in the Grass Market; and the whole line extends nearly two miles from Port Hopetoun to Holyrood. The West Bow, the steep winding street which leads from the High Street to the Grass Market and Cowgate, is noted in the history of superstition, as the residence of Major Weir, a reputed sorcerer, whose midnight incanta. tions and conferences with the devil have been the subject of much legendary lore. The South Bridge, already mentioned, extends across the ravine in which the Cowgate is situated; this structure was commenced in 1785: in a line with it is a street pas- sing southward, and dividing the Old Town into two nearly equal parts. On the western side of the street, stands the College or University, and on the eastern is Infirmary Street, leading to the Royal In- firmary. In the southern part of the city are several handsome squares, including St George's Square, admired for its healthy and pleasant situation, Nichol- son's Square, St Patrick's Square, Brown's Square, and Argyll Square. In the vicinity is a level tract of ground styled the Meadows, intersected by walks between rows of trees, which afford a cool shade from the summer's heat, and a shelter from the keen blast in winter. In order that the High Street might be thrown open to an approach from the south, an act of parliament was obtained in 1827, empowering certain persons to open two lines of approach to the Old Town, one on the south-west, and the other from that district on the south adjacent to George's Square, the outlay to be defrayed by assessments on the in- habitants. These improvements are now in pro- gress. The New Town forms a complete contrast with the Old Town, and as respects regularity of design and beauty of situation, may, perhaps, be considered as the most splendid assemblage of buildings in the kingdom. which the plan was arranged in 1767, when the ground to the north of the ancient city was added to the royalty of Edinburgh ; and the more recent and superb ranges of buildings northward of the preced- ing. The New Town, as we have already said, is divided from the Old Town by a deep valley, formerly a morass, called the North Loch ; and the communi- cation between the two towns is preserved by the North Bridge, and by an earthen mound or embank- ment. The bridge was erected in 1763, when the It consists, however, of two parts, that of EIDINBURGH. loch was drained ; and it is remarkable for the lightness and elegance of its structure, and for the singularity of the prospects which it affords. It con- sists of three large central arches, and two smaller ones at each side, extending about three hundred feet, exclusive of the abutments and causeway, which make the entire length eleven hundred feet. Westward of this structure is the mound, which was formed from the soil and rubbish procured in digging the foundations of buildings in the New Town. At the north end of the mound stands a handsome edifice, in which the Antiquarian Society, the Royal Society, and the Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts hold their meetings. The valley to the West, formerly under water, is now a fine pleasure ground, handsomely laid out and planted, forming an agreeable and refreshing promenade for the neigh- bouring residents. In describing the New Town, as approached by the North Bridge or by the mound, the first part which is entered is that bounded by Prince's Street on the South, and Queen Street on the north, both of them noble and extensive terraces, or single ranks of houses; the former commanding a wide view over the ancient city, with the Pentland Hills in the back ground; the latter yielding a prospect of the country, stretching towards the Firth of Forth, and of the handsome streets which occupy the foreground, with the pleasant gardens and shrubberies, which divide Queen Street from the new streets on the north. Parallel with Prince's Street and Queen Street, through the central space passes George Street, more than half a mile in length, terminating eastward in St Andrew's Square; and at the western end is Charlotte Square, considered as the handsomest square in Edinburgh. In this street there are no less than three monuments, one, a lofty column, with figure on the summit, erected in memory of lord Melville, and two bronze figures by Chantrey, one of George IV. and the other of Mr Pitt. These streets are crossed at right angles by several other good streets, and the buildings thus form a series of quadrangles, displaying a uniformity in the general plan which has been already noticed. To the west of this part of the New Town are Atholl Crescent, Coates Crescent, Melville Street, Walker Street, &c., of recent erection ; north of Charlotte Square are the new buildings called Moray Place, Ainslie Place, Great Stewart Street, Darnaway Street, and Randolph Crescent. From the latter is the entrançe to a bridge, called Dean's Bridge, over the water of Leith, north- ward of which are St Bernard's Crescent, Raeburn Place, &c. Beyond Queen Street, to the north, are Heriot Row, Abercrombie Place, Albany Street, and Forth Street, forming one continued range of build- ings. Parallel with this line, further north, is Great King Street, at the west end of which is the Royal Circus, and at the east Drummond Place. The eastern continuation of Queen Street is named York Place, having elegant ranges of houses on both sides ; and it is connected with various streets extending towards the Calton Hill, and communicating with the new grand entrance into the city by Prince's Street. The entrance to Edinburgh, from the London road, was formerly through narrow and inconvenient streets; but in 1814 a new road was commenced across the Calton Hill, in one part of which a passage has been cut through the solid rock, an immense mass of ground having been levelled, to facilitate the ascent. Between the Calton Hill and Prince's Street a deep ravine intervenes, over which an elegant arch, called Regent Bridge, has been thrown, connecting the hill with Prince's Street; and now the road forms a fine terrace, affording varied and delightful views of the ancient metropolis of Scotland. EDINBURGH. The Castle of Edinburgh is built on a rugged rock, which rises almost perpendicularly on three sides, the entrance to it being from the east quarter, where it is defended by palisades and a dry ditch, over which there is a drawbridge and a gate, flanked by two batteries. Before the invention of gunpowder, this fortress was deemed impregnable, a character to which it has no claim at present. It was a royal residence previously to the union of England and Scotland, and the room is still shown in which James VI. was born. The fortress is now appropriated to the accommodation of troops, and it will contain more than three thousand : the regal apartments have been converted into rooms for the officers. A new range of barracks has likewise been erected, said to be very commodious, but by no means advan- tageous to the general appearance of the place. At the time of the Union, the Regalia of Scotland were deposited in a room called the Crown Room ; and for a long period a motion prevailed among the populace that they had been subsequently removed to London, but in 1818 a search being made, under the authority of a royal commission, the chest in which they had been placed was opened, and found to contain the crown, sceptre, Sword of state, and silver rod of office, with a copy of the deposition. The prospect from the castle on every side is grand and beautiful, and to the north very extensive, stretching beyond the Firth of Forth, with its islands and shipping, and taking in not only the hills and fields of Fifeshire, but also, in clear weather, the top of Ben Lomond. The Palace of Holyrood, originally a monastic foundation, is a large quadrangular edifice of hewn stone, with a central court surrounded by piazzas. At each angle of the western front are circular towers, and in the middle is a portico, with four columns of the Doric order, surmounted by a cupola in the form of a crown. In the north-west tower is to be seen the bed-chamber of queen Mary, with her bed ornamented with crimson damask, greatly de- cayed; and also a cabinet adjoining, whence her favourite David Rizzio was dragged from her pre- sence and murdered. The Palace contains a picture gallery, in which are exhibited imaginary portraits of the kings of Scotland from Fergus I. Here the Scottish peers hold their meetings, to choose sixteen of their number as members of the British House of Lords. The north-west towers of Holyrood-house were erected in the reign of James I., and the chapel was founded by David I. in the twelfth century. A large portion of the Palace was burnt by the soldiers of Oliver Cromwell, but it was rebuilt after the Restoration by Charles II. When George IV. visited Edinburgh, soon after his accession, he held his court at Holyrood, and subsequently gave orders for the repair of the building. Charles X., the ex- king of France, after the revolution of the Three Days, resided for some time at Holyrood House, which many years before afforded an asylum to this prince and his brother, Louis XVIII. The Parliament house, in which are held the supreme courts of Scotland, was originally erected between the years 1632 and 1640, but has been in recent times renewed and extended, and now ex- hibits on the south and west sides beautiful erections in the Grecian style of architecture, with piazzas underneath. Adjoining it is the Library of the So- ciety of Writers to the Signet, and also a large new building, facing the approach from the south, for the reception of the Advocates' Library, the most exten- sive and valuable collection of books and manu- scripts in Scotland. The Courts possess accommo- dations for their records in a building called the General Register House, which stands on the easter: 797 extremity of Prince's Street. It was designed by Robert Adam, and the foundation laid in 1776, but it was not fully completed till 1822. The interior con- sists principally of small fire-proof chambers, in which are deposited state papers, title-deeds, legal con- tracts, mortgages, &c. Opposite the Register Office stands the Theatre, a very humble building, but which generally can boast of an excellent company of comedians. Farther east in Waterloo Place stand the Post and Stamp Offices, two elegant modern structures. On the summit of the Calton Hill is the monument erected in commemoration of Lord Nel- Son. In 1822, on the same hill, was laid the founda- tion of the National Monument of Scotland, in honour of the military genius of Britain, which is on the model of the Parthenon at Athens, and is in- tended to include a church and a cemetery. Three other monuments adorn Calton Hill, commemorative respectively of Robert Burns, Dugald Stewart, and Mr Playfair; and David Hume's monument, within the old Calton Hill burying-ground, is also conspicuous. On it also is the Observatory, an ele- gant Grecian edifice. Near Regent Bridge, leading to Prince's Street, stands the New Prison, the interior arrangements of which are on the plan recommended by Howard; and at a little distance is a Bridewell, or a Penitentiary, beyond which is to be built a prison for debtors. The University was founded by royal charter of James VI., in 1582, and had at first only one pro- fessor, to which others have been added at different periods; and the number at present is about thirty, of whom eleven are connected with the various branches of medical study, three with the divinity classes, three with those of law, and the rest with the classes of general literature, the languages, logic, mathematics, ethics, and natural philosophy. The reputation of this establishment, as a school of science, is sufficiently testified by the resort of students from every part of Europe, especially in the medical classes; and among the professors of sciences connected with the art of healing, occur the names of Monro, Gregory, Cullen, and Black, whose talents enabled them to extend the boundaries of knowledge, and whose genius shed a lustre over the age and country to which they belonged. The average number of students attending all the various classes of the University, amount to nearly 3000. The buildings belonging to this establishment were originally erected on so small a scale, as to have become utterly unsuited to its increasing celebrity and im- portance ; in consequence of which a part of them was taken down in 1789, and a magnificent structure, designed by Mr William Adam, was begun, the ex- pense of which was to be defrayed by subscription. The undertaking was, however, on so extensive a plan, that the progress of the work was long inter- rupted, but in consequence of a grant from govern- ment the buildings were completed under the direc- tion of Mr W. Playfair. The Museum, belonging to the University, is remarkable for the variety, singu- larity, and importance of its contents, the value and usefulness of which are much augmented by the modes of classification and arrangement adopted by Professor Jameson, celebrated for his researches in mineralogy and geology. Among the more considerable scientific institutions are the Botanic Garden, the Horticultural Society, the Royal College of Physicians, the Medical Society and the Physical Society, both established by royal charters; the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the So- ciety for the study of Natural History, the Wernerian Society, the Astronomical Institution, and the High- land Society. The oldest church in Edinburgh, is that of St '798 Giles, formerly the cathedral, situated in the High Street, and said to have been founded as early as the ninth century. Between the years 1829-33, the edifice was remodelled by an entire casing of new walls, and now forms two churches, with a spacious hall for the meeting of the General Assembly. The other churches connected with the establishment are Trinity collegiate church, the Old and New Grey Friars, the Tron church, the Canongate, St Cuth- berts, and Lady Yesters—all in the Old Town; and the churches of St Andrew, St George, St Mary, and St Stephen, in the New Town, all fine buildings. Be- sides these, there are numerous chapels, belonging to Episcopalians, Catholics, and Dissenters. The High School of Edinburgh ranks among the first establish- ments for the elementary education of youth in the British empire; and the new building for the pur- poses of this institution, erected from a design by Mr Hamilton, is a fine specimen of the Grecian style of architecture. The Edinburgh Academy is a similar institution with the High School, but the fees are higher. - †iors Hospital, founded in 1658, through the munificent bequest of George Heriot, jeweller to James VI., was erected at the expense of £30,000, by the magistrates of Edinburgh, and other nomi- mated trustees for the education and support of the Sons of poor burgesses and freemen of the city.— Watson's Hospitaſ is a similar institution, established in consequence of the bequest of George Watson, who died in 1723, and bequeathed 2612,000 for the maintenance and education of the children and grand- children of members of the Merchant Company. Among the other charitable foundations, are, Trin- ity Hospital, the Orphan Hospital, the Merchant Maiden and the Trades’ Maiden Hospitals, Gilles- pie's Hospital, the Asylum for the Blind, the Mag- dalen Asylum, the Deaf and Dumb Institution, the Lying-in Hospital, and the Dispensary. The manufactures carried on in Edinburgh at present are chiefly such as contribute to support the wants or luxury of the inhabitants; among which may be included the making of cabinet work and various kinds of household furniture, of carriages, and of musical instruments; the linen manufacture, which has been long established; the manufacture of shawls, silks, and Sarsenets; those of glass, marble, brass, and iron work. the maritime commerce of Edinburgh.) There are also several distilleries on a large scale; and Edin- burgh has long been famous for its ale, large quan- tities of which are sent to London and other parts of the kingdom. Printing and bookselling form an important feature in the trade of Edinburgh. In- deed, this ancient metropolis, though inferior in ex- tent as a literary mart to London, has, during the present century, taken the lead in publishing, so far as the fashion of the trade is concerned. Without adverting to the poems and movels of Sir Walter Scott, which found such a host of imitators, we may state that the Edinburgh Review established a new species of periodicals in the country, and Black- wood's Edinburgh Magazine, by its life and vigour, revolutionized the character of the old Monthlies.— Constable's Miscellany, also, and the uniform edition of the Waverley Novels, gave the first examples of a method of publication now very generally adopted by the London booksellers, and Chambers's Edin- burgh Journal, more recently, has been followed by a number of similar cheap publications. The prin- cipal periodical works now publishing in Edinburgh are, the Edinburgh Review, the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, the Journal of Agriculture, and the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, quarterly; the Presbyterian Review, every two months; Black- (See Leith, for an account of EDINBURGHSHIRE. wood's Edinburgh Magazine, Tait's Edinburgh Mag- azine, the Christian Instructor, the United Secession Magazine, the Christian Herald, and Stephen's Ec- clesiastical Journal, monthly. Among the estab- lished newspapers in Edinburgh, are, the Caledonian Mercury, and the Evening Courant, published on Monday, Thursday, and Saturday; the Gazette, the Observer, and the Advertiser, on Tuesday and Friday; the Scotsman on Wednesday and Saturday; the Weekly Journal on Wednesday; and the Weekly ºlºnicle, and Saturday Evening Post, on Satur- ay. Edinburgh, by the burgh reform Act of 1833, pos- sesses a town council, consisting of thirty-one mem- bers, chosen by the qualified voters for members of Parliament; a deacon convener, elected by the incorporation of trades, and a dean of guild by the incorporation of guildry. The council elects a lord provost and four bailies, who compose the magis- tracy. The city returns two members to parlia- ment. There are fourteen incorporated trades, or char- tered companies, namely, the Royal College of Sur- geons, chartered in 1505; the Goldsmiths’ Com- pany, 1581; the Skinners, before 1586; the Fur- riers, uncertain; the Hammermen, 1483; the Wrights and Masons, 1475; the Tailors, the Bakers, the Fleshers or Butchers, 1488; the Cordiners or Shoe- makers, according to Maitland, 1449; the Weavers, 1475; the Waulkers or Cloth Scourers, 1500; and the Bonnet Makers, 1530. The more modern com- mercial institutions include the Merchant Com- pany, established by royal charter in 1611; the Bank of Scotland, established by act of parliament in 1695; the Royal Bank of Scotland, incorporated by charter in 1727; the British Linen Company, incor- porated in 1746; the Commercial Bank, and the National Bank of Scotland. - Edinburgh, within the last thirty years, has greatly increased in size and population. In 1801, its inha. bitants, including Leith, were 82,560; in 1831 they had increased to 162,156. Its main support is de- rived from the law, to which belong judges, to the number of about 20 ; advocates 500 ; writers to the signet 700, and a variety of inferior practitioners.— The professors of the University and private lecturers, &c., constitute a considerable number, and genteel families are attracted there from every part of Scot- land, by the opportunities of education and agreeable society. Yet the city cannot be said to be at present in a flourishing condition. Of late years many curtail- ments have been made on the Scottish legal depart- ments, which have proved injurious to Edinburgh, and there must necessarily be a limit to the pros- perity of a place in which neither trade nor com- merce form a prominent feature. In wealth and population, Glasgow now greatly exceeds Edin- burgh; and, unless some new sources of business arise in the east, there is reason to fear that the old capital of Scotland will, at no distant period, be distinguished chiefly in the recollections of the past. —See Maitland's History of Edinburgh, folio ; Hugo Arnot's History of Edinburgh, quarto; and, more particularly, Mr Robert Chambers's very interesting Traditions of Edinburgh, Walks in Edinburgh, Reeki- &lla. EDINBURGHSHIRE, or MID Lothian, a county of Scotland, bounded on the north by the Firth of Forth and the river Almond, which divides it from West Lothian or Linlithgowshire; on the east by Haddingtonshire, on the south by the counties of Lanark, Peebles, and Berwick; and on the west corner by part of the county of Linlithgow. . It ex- tends about thirty miles in length, and its breadth varies from sixteen to twenty; containing in all EDINBURGH REVIEW-EDRIDGE. about 360 square miles, or 230,400 English acres. The surface of the county is pleasant, having much level ground, interspersed with some hills, Watered with many agreeable streams, and sheltered and decorated with woods. The arable land, which may be calculated about one-third of the whole, is in a high state of cultivation, and affords excellent crops. The two great ridges of hills which pass through the county, called the Moorfoot and the Pentland hills, afford pasture ; but the former is far Superior in quality to the latter. In these hills it is generally remarked, that the north side of the hill is the finest and best pasture, contrary to what we should be apt to imagine. Like the other parts of the country, this district experiences those variations of weather consequent to an insulated situation, being subject to such instability, that the climate in one day often exhibits that of every season in the year. The cold east winds in the spring are exceedingly detrimental to fruit, and in autumn the hadrs or mists from the sea are apt to whiten and wither the corns before they are ripe. The chief rivers of the county are the north and south Esks, which uniting, fall into the sea at Musselburgh : the Almond which falls into the Firth at the village of Cramond; and the Water of Leith, which forms the harbour of that town: all these contain a few trout. Inchkeith, Cramond, and Inchmickery, belong to this county. Few districts of Scotland afford more minerals than the county of Edinburgh. It abounds everywhere with coal, limestone, and freestone, of Superior quality, and iron ore of different species is very abundant. The compound stome called the Petunse Pentlandica is found in great quantity in the Pent- land hills, and has been successfully employed in the manufacture of British porcelain. Ratho is found a species of whetstone or hone, of the finest substance; and in the parish of Duddingstone, at Brickfield, is found some clay, fit for making fine earthen ware. Some of the hills exhibit marks of volcanic origin, being chiefly composed of por- phyric lava and basaltic whinstone, which in many places, particularly at Arthur Seat and Craig Lock- hart, exhibit regular crystallizations. Near Glen- cross, and in the Braid hills, are found great veins of the heavy spar, barytes, or, as it is termed by the miners, marmor metallicum, which is a regular attend- ant on metallic veins, especially of lead and Copper. All the hills contain specimens of those curious and rare minerals, which are termed Zeolites, jaspers, prehnite, &c. From the vicinity to the metropolis numerous seats of mobility and gentry are every- where to be seen. Besides the city of Edinburgh, and the town of Leith, this county contains Several towns and villages, as Dalkeith, Musselburgh, Por- tobello, Lasswade, Pennycuik, Mid-Calder, and Gilmerton, and is divided into thirty-one parishes, which contained in 1831, a population of 219,592. EDINBURGH REVIEW (The). This celebrated journal was established in 1802, at a time when the periodical literature of the United Kingdom consisted Gf works conducted with inferior talent, and occupy- ing narrow grounds. Its success was immediate and very great. Discussing all the great subjects of literature, science, philosophy, and politics, with free- dom, boldness, spirit, varied learning, acute reason- ing, elegant criticism, a piquant satire, and profound and original views, in politics it has supported the principles of the Fox whigs ; in religion, it is more than suspected of a sceptical leaning. It is said to have originated in the social studies of a number of young men in Edinburgh, who were accustomed to meet occasionally to discuss questions in every branch of science and philosophy. It was edited, during the The islands of In the parish of 799 first year, by the reverend Sydney Smith, after whom Mr Jeffrey, then a young Scottish advocate, is well known to have been the editor, and one of the most fruitful contributors during the long time which he conducted it. His articles relate principally to the belles-lettres. Among the principal writers are to be found the distinguished names of Playfair, Leslie, Mackintosh, Brougham, Dugald Stewart, Dr Brown, besides Macculloch (on political economy and Ireland), Williams (the advocate), Macauley, &c. Dr Brown was the author of the article on Kant (No. 2), but owing to some liberties taken with a paper intended for the fourth number, he discontinued his contribu- tions. Playfair wrote the articles relating to Laplace, &c. Sir J. Mackintosh was the author of numerous literary, historical, and political articles, which dis- play the liberal and generous principles, the exten- sive views, and the varied learning of a statesman and Scholar. The great influence of the Edinburgh. Re- view in the hands of the whigs led to the establish- ment of a tory periodical, as a counterpoise. The London Quarterly Review was established in 1809. under the direction of Gifford. Blackwood's Maga. zine, edited first by Mr Lockhart (now editor of the Quarterly), and afterwards by professor Wilson, owed its existence to the same cause. The multiplication of quarterly and other periodicals has co-operated with the diminution of intellectual power in the Edinburgh itself, in depriving it of its former undis- puted Supremacy. The editorship has lately passed into the hands of Mr Macvey Napier. The Edin- burgh Review had at one time 12,000 subscribers. This Review, and also the London Quarterly, are re-published, and circulate extensively, in Ame- l’ICà,. EDMUND I., king of England, an able and spirited prince, Son of Edward the Elder, succeeded his brother Athelstan in 941. He conquered Cumberland, which he bestowed on Malcolm, king of Scotland, on con- dition of homage. He was stabbed at a banquet by Leolf, an outlaw, who entered among the guests, and provoked the king to a personal attack upon him. Edmund immediately expired of the wound, in the sixth year of his reign. EDMUND II., surnamed IRoNSIDE, king of Eng- land, was the eldest son of Ethelred II. On the death of the latter, in 1016, he was obliged to take the field against Canute, by whom he was defeated at Assingden, in Essex, in consequence of the defec- tion of Edric, duke of Mercia. A compromise was then effected, by which the midland and northern counties were assigned to Canute, and the southern to Edmund. He was soon after murdered at Oxford, at the instigation of the traitor Edric. This event made Canute master of the entire kingdom ; but the line of Edmund was again partially restored by the marriage of his great grand-daughter, Matilda, to Henry I. - EDRED, king of England, son of Edward the Elder, succeeded to the throne on the murder of his brother, Edmund I. (947.) He quelled a rebellion of the Northumbrian Danes, and compelled Malcolm, king of Scotland, to renew his homage for his English possessions. Although active and warlike, he was extremely superstitious, and subservient to the cele- brated Dunstan, abbot of Glastonbury. Edred died after a reign of mine years, and left the crown to his nephew, Edwy. EDRIDGE, HENRY, A.R.A., F.S.A.; a landscape and miniature painter of eminence, was born at Pad- dington, in 1768. His earlier portraits are principally drawn on paper, with black lead and Indian ink. It was in later years only that he made those elaborate and high-finished pictures, uniting the depth and richness of oil-painting with the freedom and fresh- * 800 fless of water colours, of which there are so many specimens in Britain. He died in 1821. EDWARD the Elder, king of England, Son of Alfred the Great, whom he succeeded in 901. Ethel- wald, the son of his father's elder brother, claimed the crown; but this insurrection ended with the death of Ethelwald in battle. The reign of Edward was further distinguished by successes over the Angli- cised and foreign Danes. He fortified many inland towns, acquired dominion over Northumbria and East Anglia, and subdued several of the Welsh tribes. He died, after a reign of twenty-four years, in 925. EDWARD, surnamed the MARTYR, king of Eng- land, son of Edgar, succeeded his father, at the age of fifteen, in 975. His step-mother, Elfrida, wished to raise her own son, Ethelred, to the throne, but was opposed by Dunstan, through whose exertions Edward was peaceably crowned. His short reign was chiefly distinguished by the disputes between Dun- stan and the foreign monks on one side, and the Secu- lar clergy on the other. The young king paid little attention to anything but the chase, which led to his unhappy death. Hunting one day in Dorsetshire, he was separated from his attendants, and repaired to Corfe castle, where Elfrida resided. After paying his respects to her, he requested a glass of liquor, and, as he was drinking on horseback, one of Elfrida's servants gave him a deep stab behind. He immedi- ately set spurs to his horse, but, fainting from loss of blood, he was dragged in the stirrup until he died. The pity caused by his innocence and misfortune in- duced the people to regard him as a martyr. He had reigned four years. EDWARD, surnamed the ConFESSOR, younger son of Ethelred II. On the death of his maternal brother, Hardicanute the T)ane, in 1041, he was called to the throne, and thus renewed the Saxon line. He was not the immediate heir, as his brother, Edmund Iron- side, had left sons; but, as he received the Support of Godwin, earl of Kent, on condition of marrying his daughter, Editha, his claim was established. Edward was a weak and superstitious, but well-intentioned prince, who acquired the love of his subjects by his monkish sanctity, and care in the administration of justice. He gained the title of Saint and con- fessor by abstaining from nuptial connexion with his queen. Having been educated in Normandy, he in- troduced so many natives of that country to his court, that the French language and manners became pre- valent in England, to the great disgust of earl Godwin and his sons. A rebellion took place, and Edward was forced to dismiss his foreign favourites. Per- ceiving that the youth and weakness of his son, Edgar Atheling, would not secure the succession against the power and ability of Harold, the son of Godwin, he turned his eyes upon his kinsman, William of Nor- mandy, in whose favour it has been asserted, with little probability, that he executed a will. He died in 1066, leaving the point of the succession undeter- mined; and with him ended the Saxon line of kings. Edward was the first English monarch who touched for the king's evil. He caused a body of laws to be compiled from those of Ethelbert, Ina, and Alfred, to which the nation was long fondly attached. EDWARD I. (of the Norman line), king of Eng- land, son of Henry III., was born at Winchester in 1239. The contests between his father and the barons called him early into active life, and he finally quelled all resistance to the royal authority, by the decisive defeat of Leicester, at the battle of Eves- ham, in 1265. He then proceeded to Palestine, where he signalized his valour on many occasions, and inspired so much terror, that an assassin was em- ployed to despatch him, from whom he received a wound in the arm, which, as tradition reports, being EDWARD. supposed to be from a poisoned weapon, was sucked by his faithful consort, Eleanor of Castile. On as- suming the government, he acted with great vigour in the repression of the lawlessness of the nobles, and the corruption in the administration of justice; but often evinced an arbitrary and grasping disposi- tion. In 1276, he summoned Llewellyn, prince of Wales, to do him homage, and, upon his refusal, ex- cept on certain conditions, commenced the war which ended in the annexation of that principality to the English crown in 1283. Edward then spent Some time abroad, in mediating a peace between the Crowns of france and Arragon, and, on his return, commenced his attempts to ãestroy the independence of Scotland. The expense attendant upon this strong, but unprincipled policy, was such that Ed- ward was necessitated to use every expedient to raise Supplies; and, for this purpose, in the twenty-third year of his reign, he summoned to parliament repre- sentatives from all the boroughs in the kingdom: this is therefore considered by some authors the true epoch of the formation of a house of commons in England. After his return from the Scottish expedi- tion in 1296, which terminated in the capture of Baliol, he became involved in a quarrel with his clergy, who, supported by the pope, refused to sub- mit to a tax which he had imposed on them. Edward forced their compliance, by placing them out of the protection of the law. His frequent expedients to raise money at length produced great discontent among the nobles, and people also, which obliged him to confirm the great charter, and charter of forests, and also to give other securities in favour of public liberty. He then made a campaign in Flam- ders against France, which terminated with the re- covery of Guienne, and his second marriage with Margaret, the sister of king Philip. Meantime new commotions took place in Scotland, under the guid- ance of the celebrated William Wallace. These transactions recalled Edward from Flanders, who hastened to the borders with an army of 100,000 men. The events of this interesting campaign can- not be detailed here ; but the ignominious execution of the brave Wallace, in 1303, as a traitor, forms a blot in the character of Edward. Neither did it avail; since Robert Bruce was able, in 1306, to place himself at the head of a new confederacy. Highly indignant at this determined spirit of resis- tance, Edward vowed revenge against the whole Scottish nation, and, assembling another army, was on the point of passing the border, when he was arrested by sickness, and died at Burgh-upon-Sands, near Carlisle, July 7, 1307, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, and thirty-ninth of his reign. Few princes have exhibited more vigour in action, or policy in council, than Edward I. His enterprises were directed to permanent advantages, rather than to mere personal ambition and temporary splendour. Nor was he less intent upon the internal improve- ment of his kingdom than its external importance. The laws of the realm obtained so much additional order and precision during his reign, that he has been called the English Justinian. He passed an act of mortmain, protected and encouraged com- merce; and in his reign first originated the society of merchant adventurers. The manners of this able sovereign were courteous, and his person majestic, although the disproportionate length of his legs gave him the popular surname of Longshanks. He left a son and three daughters by his first wife, Eleanor, who died in 1290, and two sons by his second wife, Margaret of France. EDWARD II., king of England, born at Caer. narvon castle in 1284, and the first English prince of Wales, succeeded his father, Edward I., in 1307. He § EDWARD III. 83 i was of an agreeable figure and mild disposition, but indolent and fond of pleasure. After marching a little way into Scotland, with the army collected by his father, he returned, dismissed his troops, and abandoned himself entirely to amusement. His first step was to recall Piers Gaveston, a young Gascon, whom his father had banished and whom he created earl of Cornwall, and married to his niece. He then went over to France to espouse the princess Isabella, to whom he had been contracted by his father. Soon after his return, the barons associated against the favourite, Gaveston, whom they more than once obliged the king to send away. He was, however, as constantly recalled when the immediate danger was over, until an open rebellion took place; and, the person of Gaveston being captured, he was executed as a public enemy. In 1314, Edward as- sembled an immense army, to check the progress of Robert Bruce, but was completely defeated at Ban- nockburn. After the death of Gaveston, he selected a similar minion in the person of Hugh Spenser, a young nobleman whose father was living, upon whom he lavished favours of every kind, until the barons again rebelled, and, the parliament dooming the Spensers to exile, the king was obliged to confirm the sentence. Edward, however, on this occasion, in concert with the Spensers, contrived to raise troops and attack the barons, at the head of whom was his cousin, the earl of Lancaster, who, being taken pris- oner, was executed at Pomfret. Several others also suffered, and the Spensers were enriched with the spoils. Edward subsequently made another fruit- less attempt against Scotland, which ended in the conclusion of a truce of thirteen years. In 1324, queen Isabella went to France to settle some disputes in relation to Guienne, and, while there, entered into a correspondence with several English fugitives, in whose hatred to the Spensers she participated. Among these was Roger Mortimer, a young baron of the Welsh marches, between whom and Isabella a criminal intercourse succeeded, in consequence of which the queen was still more determined upon the ruin of her weak and unhappy husband. Having formed an association with all the English malcon- tents, and being aided with a force by the count of Hainault, she embarked for England in September, 1326, and landed in Suffolk. Her forces seized the Tower of London and other fortresses, captured and executed both the Spensers without trial, and at length took the king prisoner, who had concealed himself in Wales, with a view of escaping to Ireland. The unfortunate Edward was confined in Kenil- worth castle, and in January, 1327, his deposition was unanimously voted in parliament, on the ground of incapacity and misgovernment. A resignation of the crown was soon after extorted from him, and he was transferred to Berkeley castle, where Mortimer despatched two ruffians, who, it is said, murdered him, by thrusting a red-hot iron into his bowels, that no external marks of violence might remain, 21st of September, 1327, in the twentieth year of his reign and forty-third of his age. EDWARD III., son of Edward II., by Isabella of France, was born in 1313. On his father's deposi- tion in 1327, he was proclaimed king, under a coun- cil of regency, while his mother's paramour, Mor- timer, really possessed the principal power in the state. The pride and oppression of Mortimer now became so intolerable, that a general confederacy was formed against him, at the head of which was the young king himself, who, now in his eighteenth year, could iſ brook the ascendency of his mother's minion. The result was the seizure of Mortimer, in the castle of Nottingham, where he lodged with the queen, and his immediate execution upon a gibbet. The queen was also confined to her house, with a reduced allowance, and, although treated with outward respect, never again recovered any degree of authority. Edward now turned his attention to Scotland. Assisted by some principal English no- bles, who enjoyed estates in that country, which were withheld from them contrary to the terms of the late treaty, Edward Baliol, son of the John Baliol to whom the crown had been awarded by Edward I., raised a force, and, defeating the Scots in a great battle, set aside David Bruce, them a minor, and was crowned at Scone, in 1332. Baliol, .# driven away on the departure of his English auxiliaries, applied to Edward, who levied a well- appointed army, with which he defeated the regent, Douglas, at the famous battle of Halidown-hill, in July, 1333. This victory produced the restoration of Baliol, who was, however, again expelled, and again restored, until the ambition of Edward was called off by a still more splendid object. The crown of France, by the Salique law, having de- volved to Philip de Valois, cousin-german to the deceased king, Charles the Fair, Edward was in- duced to claim it in right of his mother, that mo- narch's sister. There existed other claims that were Superior; but these considerations weighed very little with a young, ambitious monarch, eager for conquest and glory. The first hostilities produced nothing of much moment. Edward, in order to obtain fresh supplies, made concessions to parliament, which he never intended to keep; and, finding his territory of Guienne threatened, he sent over a force for its defence, and quickly followed himself, accom- panied by his son Edward, the famous Black Prince, all his chief nobility, and 30,000 men. The memor. able battle of Crecy followed, Aug. 25, 1346, which was succeeded by the siege of Calais. In the mean time, David Bruce, having recovered the throne of Scotland, made an incursion, at the head of a large army, into England; but, being met at Durham by a much inferior force, raised by queen Philippa, and headed by lord Percy, he was totally defeated and taken prisoner, with many of his principal nobles. Philippa went over to her husband at Calais, and, by her interference prevented the barbarous execution of Eustache de St Pierre and five other citizens, whom Edward, on the capitulation of the place, had determined to execute, in revenge for his long detention in the siege. In 1348, a truce was concluded with France. The year 1349 was dis- tinguished by the institution of the order of the garter; which, owing to the fame and chivalrous character of Edward and his eldest son, soon became one of the most illustrious orders of knighthood in Europe. Philip, king of France, dying in 1350, was succeeded by his son John, the commencement of whose reign abounded with intestine commotion, and, in 1355, Edward again invaded France on the side of Calais, while the Black Prince, at the same time, led a large army from Gascony. Both these expeditions were attended with much plunder and devastation; and Edward, being recalled home by a Scottish in- road, soon repelled it, and retaliated by carrying fire and sword from Berwick to Edinburgh. During this time, the prince of Wales had penetrated from Guienne to the heart of France, where he was op- posed by king John, at the head of an army nearly five times more numerous. The famous battle of Poictiers ensued, in which the French monarch being taken prisoner, Edward held at the same time in captivity the kings of France and Scotland, the most dangerous of his enemies. John was taken to England, and treated with the greatest respect; and David was soon after liberated upon ransom. A truce had been made with France after the battle of II. 802 Poictiers, at the expiration of which, in 1359, Ed- ward once more passed over to Calais with a large army, and desolated the provinces of Picardy and Champagne, but at length consented to a peace, which was concluded in May, 1360. Besides the stipulation of a large ransom for king John, several provinces and districts in the south-west of France and neighbourhood of Calais were yielded to Ed- ward, who, in his turn resigned his title to the crown of France and duchy of Normandy. The successor of John, Charles W., invaded the provinces intrusted to prince Edward, then in the last stage of declining health, and Edward had the mortification of witnessing the gradual loss of all his French pos- Sessions, except Bourdeaux and Bayonne, and of all his conquests except Calais. In the decline of life, he was in other respects unfortunate: becoming a widower, he fell into a species of dotage; and an artful mistress, named Alice Piers, so abused her in- fluence, that, on a parliamentary remonstrance, he found it necessary to dismiss her. His administra- tion also became unpopular; and he had the afflic- tion of witnessing his heroic son, Edward, sink a victim to a lingering illness; which calamity he sur- vived about a year, dying June 21, 1377, in the sixty-fifth year of his age, and fifty-first of his reign. EDWARD, prince of Wales, surnamed the Black Prince ; one of the most chivalric and heroic charac- ters of history, the eldest son of Edward III. and Philippa of Hainault. He was born in 1330, and at the age of fifteen accompanied his father in his in- vasion of France, and received from him the honour of knighthood. The victory of Crecy, which king Edward left principally to the exertions of the force under his son's command, to use that warlike king's language, “showed that he merited his spurs.” It was on this occasion that he assumed the motto of Ich diem (I serve), used by all succeeding princes of Wales, and derived, it is said, from the crest of the king of Bohemia, slain in that battle, which tradition, however, later antiquaries seem disposed to discredit. In 1355, he commanded the army which invaded France from Gascomy, and the next year fought the great battle of Poictiers (see Edward III.), and dis- tinguished himself by the courtesy with which he treated his prisoner, king John. By the peace of Bretagne, his father had obtained the provinces of Poictou, Saintonge, Perigeux, Limousin, &c., which he annexed to Guienne, and formed into a so- vereignty for his son, under the title of the principa- lity of Aquitain. There the prince took up his re- sidence; and at his court Pedro the Cruel sought refuge, when driven from his throne by his natural brother, Henry of Trastamare. Edward undertook the re-establishment of this tyrant, which he accom- plished, but lost his health in the enterprise. Dis- appointed, by the perfidy of Pedro, of the stipulated reimbursements, the taxes he was obliged to levy on his new subjects rendered his government unpo. pular; and an appeal was made to the king of France, as his liege lord, who summoned him as his vassal to appear at Paris. “I will come,” replied the angry prince, “but it shall be at the head of 60,000 men.” His health, however, was too far declined to enable him to take the field, when the king of France invaded his dominions; and, having suffered the mortification of seeing his generals de- feated, he withdrew into England, and after linger- ing Some time, died, June 8, 1376, in his forty-sixth year, leaving an only son, afterwards Richard II. EDWARD IV., king of England, was born in 1441. His father, Richard, duke of York, was grandson of Edward, earl of Cambridge and duke of York, fourth son of Edward III., while the Lancaster branch descended from John of Gaunt, the third son. EDWARD IV. The York line had intermarried with the female descendants of Lionel, the second son, which gave it the preferable right to the crown. Edward, on the defeat and death of his father at the battle ol Wakefield, assumed his title, and, having entered London, was declared king by acclamation in 1461. Soon after his accession, he had to fight for his crown against an army of 60,000 Lancastrians as: sembled in Yorkshire; and the field of Towton con. firmed his title by a decisive victory. Although the high-spirited Margaret was enabled, by the aid of Louis XI. of France, again to take the field, the re. sult of the battle of Hexham, in May, 1464, obliged her to return to Flanders, and leave her husband, the imbecile Henry, a prisoner in the hands of his enemies, who immured him in the Tower of London. Freed from warlike cares, Edward indulged himself in the gallantries too common to his age and station, and, by a marriage of passion with Elizabeth Wood- ville, widow of Sir John Grey of Groby, a Lancas. trian, betrayed himself into very serious difficulties, since, at the same time, he had despatched the earl of Warwick to negotiate a marriage for him with Bona of Savoy, sister to the queen of France ; so that he at once offended two royal houses, and his powerful friend, Warwick. Aided by France, War- wick, who had contracted his daughter to the Lan- castrian prince Edward, landed with Clarence and Some other lords at Dartmouth ; and such was his popularity, that he quickly saw himself at the head of 60,000 men, with whom he marched to encounter Edward. They approached each other near Not- tingham, where the king, by the treachery of the marquis of Montague, in whom he placed great con- fidence, had nearly been betrayed into the hands of . his enemies. He had just time to mount on horse- back, and with a few attendants proceed to Lynn, where he instantly embarked, and reached a port in Holland, leaving Warwick in full possession of his kingdom, eleven days after he had set his foot in it. Henry’s title was again recognised by parliament, and Warwick and Clarence were declared regents of the kingdom. Edward, who at first had been re- ceived rather coldly by his brother-in-law, the duke of Burgundy, was at length secretly assisted by him with a small squadron of ships, and a force of about 2000 men, with which he safely reached Ravenspur, in Yorkshire. Here his forces quickly increased by partisans from all quarters, and he was soon enabled to march to London, where, through the influence of many rich merchants who had advanced him money, he obtained entrance as king, and the un- fortunate Henry again became prisoner. Warwick advanced against him as far as Barnet, where, on the 4th of April, 1471, another great battle was fought, which ended in the death of Warwick, and a de- cisive victory on the part of Edward. On the same day, queen Margaret and her son landed at Wey- mouth, and marched into Gloucestershire, where she was met by the victorious Edward, who totally de- feated her at Tewkesbury. The queen and her son Edward, being taken prisoners, and brought into the presence of the victor, Edward asked the latter how he dare to invade his dominions. On receiving a spirited answer, he basely struck the captive prince on the face with his gauntlet—the signal for imme- diate massacre by the king's brothers and other nobles attendant. Margaret was thrown into the Tower, where Henry VI. soon after died, but whether by violence or by disease is uncertain. Edward now once more resigned himself to pleasure arid gayety, until seized with a desire to make French conquests. Baffled by the arts, intrigues, and money of Louis XI. (which he condescended to accept), these attempts ended in nothing of importance. The latter EDWARD V.—EDWARDS. part of his reign was disturbed by his jealousy of his brother Clarence. The consequence of this ill-will was the attainder of Clarence, who was indulged in his desire of meeting his death by immersion in a butt of Malmsey wine. Edward was preparing for another expedition against France, when he was taken off by sickness, in April, 1483, in the forty- Second year of his age, and twenty-third of his reign. He left two Sons and five daughters. Edward IV. possessed some ability and activity, but was, how- ever, more showy than solid. His valour was stained by cruelty, and he was less fitted to prevent evils, than, by his courage and enterprise, to remedy them. EDWARD V., king of *.i. the eldest son of Edward IV., was in his thirteenth year when he suc- ceeded his father, in 1483. His uncle, the duke of Gloucester, the regent, caused the young king and his brother, who were lodged in the Tower, to be Smothered by ruffians. Two bodies, answering their description, being found buried at the foot of the stairs of their apartment, in the reign of Charles II., were taken up by that king's order, and deposited in Westminster abbey. EDWARD VI., king of England, son of Henry VIII., by Jane Seymour, was born in 1538. At his father's death, he was only nine years of age, and, as be did not live to attain majority, the public acts of his reign are to be deemed those of his counsellors. His education was intrusted to men of the first char- acter for learning, among whom were Sir Anthony Cooke and Sir John Cheke. The progress of the young king, whose disposition was very docile and amiable, was great, especially in classical acquire- ments, and a rooted zeal for the doctrines of the reformation. His reign was, on the whole, tumul- tuous and unsettled. After his father's death, his maternal uncle, Seymour, duke of Somerset, became protector; but his administration raised up such º enemies, that he was brought to the Scaf. fold. consenting to his execution, and with equal reluctance consented to the death of a fanatical female, named Joan Bocher, who was sentenced to the flames for heresy. When Cranmer urged Edward to sign the warrant for her execution, he long resisted, and at length, overcome by his importunities, told him, that if it was wrong, the guilt lay with him. After the death of Somerset, Dudley, duke of Northumber- land, became all-powerful, and through his influence, Edward, in a declining state of health, was induced to set aside the succession of both his sisters, and to Settle the crown upon the lady Jane Grey, claiming through his father's younger sister, the duchess of Suffolk. His decease, from a pulmonary complaint, soon after followed, July 6, 1553, in the sixteenth year of his age, and seventh of his reign. EDWARD, PRINCE CHARLEs. See Charles Edward Stuart. EDWARDS, BRYAN, the historian of the West' Indies, was born at Westbury, in Wiltshire, in 1743. On the death of his father, in adverse circumstances, he acquired the protection of his maternal uncle, a person possessed of great property in the island of Jamaica. He inherited not only the large fortune of his uncle, but of a Mr Hume, of Jamaica, and, be- coming an eminent merchant, returned to England, and, in 1796, took his seat for the borough of Gram- pound, which he represented until his death, in July, 1800. His first publication was a pamphlet, entitled Thoughts on the Trade of the West India Islands with the United States, 1784; this was followed by his Speech on the Slave Trade ; but his most distin- guished performance is his History, civil and com- mercial, of the British Colonies in the West Indies, 1793, 2 vols. 4to. A new edition of this work, Edward was much afflicted at the necessity of 803 published after his death, in 1801, 3 vols. 8ve. includes a History of St Domingo. Mr Edwards also published, in 1796, the Proceedings of the Governor and Assembly of Jamaica, in regard to the Maroon Negroes, 8vo. All these works are valuabic for their information, and are written with ease and elegance. EDWARDS, JonATHAN, the most celebrated ef American metaphysicians and theologians, whola Dugald Stewart describes as “indisputably the ables: champion of the scheme of necessity since the time of Collins,” was born in East Windsor, Connecticut, October 5, 1703. His father, a minister of the gospel, instructed him in the dead languages. Jonathai. entered Yale college, in New Haven, in September, 1716, where he was distinguished for good morals, diligence, and proficiency in the collegiate studies. At fourteen, he read with pleasure Locke on the Human Understanding. His habits of applicatio: and thought, and his delight and success in metaphysi- cal studies, were extraordinary. Papers, in his hand writing, show, that at fourteen he conceived the design of composing a complete Treatise on Natural Philosophy and Natural History, including Chemistry and Geology. His piety, his devotion to the Bible, and his propensity for theological inquiries, were equally remarkable. In 1720, he took his first degree, and remained nearly two years at Yale, preparing for the ministry. In 1722, he went to New York, where he preached for about eight months, with great distinction. In September, 1723, he was elected a tutor in Yale college, and in the following year began to act in that capacity, but resigned his office in 1726, in order to become the minister of the people of Northampton, where he was ordained February 15, 1727. The record of his labours as a pastor, divine, and metaphysical writer, is edifying in the highest degree. His various sermons and disquisitions procured for him a wide reputation. His Treatise on Religious Affections was immediately republished in England and Scotland, and placed him among the first writers of his sect. After more than three years of zealous Service in Northampton, a total rupture occurred be- tween him and his congregation, owing to the candour and boldness with which he publicly reproved certain irregularities of some young persons of the principal families connected with his church. An ecclesiasti- cal council dismissed him in June, 1750; and, in the following year, he accepted a call to serve as a mis- sionary among the Indians at Stockbridge, in Massa- chusetts. Here he remained six years, exerting him- self with an apostolical spirit, and, at the same time, prosecuting the deepest investigations in mental philosophy. Here he composed his famous works on the Freedom of the Will, and on Original Sin.—The first is his masterpiece, and worthy of the powers of a Locke or Leibnitz. It was complete within the space of four months and a half. The date of its first appearance is the early part of 1754. in 1757, he was chosen president of the college at Princeton, New Jersey, and accepted this invitation, though not without reluctance, on account, chiefly, of his desire to accomplish two great literary enterprises, which he had begun long before—a History of the Work of Redemption, and a View of the Harmony of the Old and New Testament. In January, 1758, he repaired to Princeton, where the Small-pox then prevailed. He was inoculated by the physician of the college. “He had the malady favourably, but a secondary fever set in, and, by reason of a numbel of pustules in his throat, the obstruction was such, that the medicines necessary to check the fever could not be administered. This disorder put an end to his life, March 22, 1758, in the 55th year of his age.” 3 E 2 804 This eminent man gave, to the last moment, an ad- mirable example of Christian patience, resignation, and hope. He left five daughters and three sons. One of his sons was president of the college at Sche- nectady, New York, having been, like his father, a tutor in the institution in which he was educated; subsequently dismissed from a parish under his care on account of his religious opinions, settled again in a retired situation, elected to the presidentship of a college, and called to leave this world shortly after his inauguration, and nearly at the same age with his father.—The physical constitution of Edwards (the father) was extremely delicate ; but his mind was so active and well disciplined, that he was able to produce, besides the works already mentioned, a very large number of tracts and sermons. Various mar- ratives of his life, and editions of his works, have been printed in Great Britain and the United States. The latest is in ten octavo volumes, published in 1830, at New York, and edited from original mate- rials, by Sereno E. Dwight. The first volume is nearly occupied by the memoir of his life, compris- ing his resolutions, diary, and a part of his corres- pondence. The description, which he has furnished, of his own mind, temperament, theological senti- ments, and literary projects, deserves particularly to be consulted. He wrote with perspicuity, though not with elegance, and generally in a rugged and negligent style. EDWY, king of England, son of Edmund I., suc- ceeded his uncle Edred in 955. Taking part with the secular clergy against the monks, he incurred the confirmed enmity of the latter. Having called TXunstan to account for his share in the administra- tion in the preceding reign, the latter refused to at- tend the summons, and was in consequence banished. His party was, however, so strong, that a rebellion was excited, and Edwy driven from the throne, to make way for his brother Edgar. That his intrigue or marriage with Elgiva, may have given a pretence for his deposition and excommunication is very pro- bable, but there is reason to believe, from his youth and other circumstances, that the story of the fate of Elgiva, as related by Carte and Hume, is materially incorrect. Edwy died in 959. EEL ; a fish well known from its peculiar form and savoury flesh. Many varieties of eels are de- scribed by naturalists, some tenants of fresh-water streams, others inhabiting the sea. The latter ac- Quire a vast size, and numerous instances are on re- cord of their having attacked and overpowered boys and even men, while bathing. Gifted with prodigi- ous strength and agility, and capable of inflicting severe wounds with its powerful jaws, the sea eel, or conger, must prove a most dangerous assailant, when encountered in its native element. Fresh water eels, inhabiting running streams with gravelly bottoms, are said to be uniformly white upon the belly, and infinitely more delicate than those of muddy waters, which are always yellow, and possess a peculiar smell and flavour, very disagreeable. In the choice of its food, the eel is far from cleanly, feeding indis- criminately upon all kinds of small fish, and decayed animal matter; in consequence of which, many per- sons refuse to eat them. In the seas of India, there are large species caught, varied with the most beau- tiful colours, resembling serpents; and one in parti- cular, has so much the aspect of one of these reptiles, as to bear the name of snake eel. The flesh of eels is sapid and mourishing, but owing to its fatness, of. fensive to weak stomachs. Oil is procured from Sea eels, which is remarkably clear, and burns very brightly. A curious opinion prevails as to the pro- perties of eel-skins in preventing the cramp, so dan- gerous to bathers. Boys are frequently seen with ED WY— EFFENDH. one fastened round the ankle for the purpose of averting the attack of this dangerous spasm while in the water. It is needless to observe, that the vir- tues ascribed to it are very apocryphal. The Romans are said to have fed eels upon human flesh ; and one of the most cruel of the emperors caused his slaves to be thrown alive into the fish-ponds for dis- obedience. A similar tale is related of Vedius Pol- lio. Murana was the term used to express the mal. eel, and myrus the female. The common eel be longs to the subgenus mura-na of Lacepede, and may be distinguished thus: dorsal fin commencing very much in the rear of the pectorals; lower jaw shorter; colour, olive-green above, silvery or yel- lowish beneath. In the sea eels, or congers, the dorsal commences near the pectorals, or over them, and the superior jaw is always longest. The conger of our seas attains the length of five or six feet, and the thickness of a man's leg. A prejudice exists in America against the flesh, which in Europe is salted in large quantities. Some kinds of eels occur, in which there are no perceptible fins whatever. Few animals are more tenacious of life; they con- tinue to move for a long while when deprived of the head and skin, preserving the muscular irritability for many hours after death. Great quantities of river eels are consumed for food among the lower classes, and the numbers taken during a night, in a trap, contrived for the purpose, and sunk upon the bottom, is frequently enormous, amounting to several hundreds. A barrel or box is used, having an aper- ture cut in the top, to which is attached a stocking or tube of coarse cloth, which hangs down in the in- terior ; the fish enter with ease from without, but find it impossible to return. At daylight the trap is raised to the surface, and the captives secured. In England, a kind of Leident is used, called an eel spear. A fisherman wades to the shallows, and, striking his spear in the mud in every direction around him, the eels, reposing on the bottom, are caught between the prongs, and shaken into a bas- ket. The respiration of most subgenera of the eel family is conducted through lateral openings at the gills, as in other fishes; but in some a different arrangement is observed. For instance, in the sphagebranchus, the apertures are approximated under the throat, and in the symbranchus, the external orifice of the gills is a single hole under the throat. A great variety is observable in the form of the air bladder of these fishes, which is wanting only in a few species. Want of scales is usually mentioned as a characteristic of the family, but nevertheless inac- curately. Scales do exist; but they are very min- ute, and so imbedded in the skin, as to be impercept- able in the recent animal, though sufficiently evident in the dried skin. Some marvellońs accounts are on record of the migrations of eels from one river to another, over intervening portions of dry land. It is sufficiently well known, that such journeys are taken by these fish, and mostly over very small portions of soil, covered with damp grass. Authors relate stories, also, of eels having been rained down from the clouds, which phenomenon is ac- counted for in the same manner as the raining of frogs, small fishes, &c., frequently mentioned as as- tonishing matters by the ancient writers. Eels are viviparous, and quite productive. EFFENDI; a corruption of the Greek word aiºsy- +ns, which signifies lord, or master, in the modern dialect, and is pronounced apthendis, or aphendis. It is a term of modern use in the Turkish language, and has been substituted for the Tartar word che- lebi (noble), now applied to persons of inferior rank. Effendi is particularly applied to the civil, as aga is to the military officers of the Sultan; and EFFIGY—E{; ERTON. both are used in conversation, commonly joined to the name of their office. Thus the sultan's first phy- sician is called Hakim effendi, the priest in the ser- aglio, Iman effendi, &c. The Reis effendi, or chancel- lor of the empire, is also minister of foreign affairs, and negotiates with the ambassadors and interpreters of foreign nations. Greek children are in the habit of calling their fathers effendi. The term is often used much in the same way as Sir, while the Greek zve los may be compared to our Mr. EFFIGY, to eaſecute or degrade in. The word effigy is derived from the Latin effigies, picture; and the phrase at the head of this article denotes the exe- cution or degradation of a condemned criminal, when he cannot be personally apprehended, by subjecting his picture to the formalities of an execution ; for instance, affixing the picture, with a rope round the neck, to the gallows (hanging in effigy). This prac- tice is still continued sometimes in Prussia, and pro- bably in other countries. - EFFLORESCENCE ; a term applied in chemistry to the crystals of certain salts, which, on exposure to the air, part with a portion of their water, and crumble down into a white powder. See Crystalli- zation, under the article Cohesion. EGALITE, PHILIP, that is, Philip Equality; the name adopted, after the abolition of monarchy in France, by Philip Bourbon Capet, duke of Orleans (q.v.). *º BERT, considered the first king of all Eng- land, was of the royal family of Wessex. Egbert served in the armies of Charlemagne. On the death of Brithric, he succeeded him as king of Wessex, in 800. He reduced the other kingdoms, and rendered them dependent on him, in 827. He was much an- noyed by the repeated inroads of the Danes. Egbert died in 838. - EGEDE, JoHN, the apostle of Greenland, was born, 1686, in Denmark, and, in 1707, became a preacher at Wogen, in Norway. Having heard that Christianity had been once established in Greenland, but had become extinct in the country for want of" teachers, he was filled with grief. After the most careful inquiry, he heard that the eastern coast of Greenland was inaccessible, on account of the float- ing ice, and that the Southern was inhabited by Sa- vages. He resolved to visit the country, and to preach the gospel to the inhabitants. But he was without resources. The merchants in Bergen were unwilling to undertake to trade with Greenland, and the government refused his petition for ships, money, and men, because they were involved in a war with Sweden; the bishops of Bergen and Drontheim praised his noble resolution, but were unable to help him. Having collected some money to aid him in his purpose, he resigned his charge, received from the Danish government, after the conclusion of peace with Sweden, the title of royal missionary to Green- land, with a small pension and three ships, one to remain with him, another to bring back the news of his arrival, and a third to engage in the whale fish- ery. The government encouraged the Bergen mer- chants to establish a Greenland trading company. May 21, 1721, Egede embarked, with forty-six per- sons under his command. The whaling vessel was wrecked ; the other two reached Greenland, but an extent of twelve leagues of floating ice seemed to make it impossible to land. June 4, they finally suc- ceeded. The appearance of the country was wretched. A house was built, and called the haven of hope. The Conversion of the Greenlanders was now under- taken, but offered great difficulties; and the whole colony, tired of struggling against misery and wretch- edness of every description, were eager to return to Tenmark. Egede resolved to adopt that course; 805 but the firmness of his wife prevailed upon them all to remain, and trust to the arrival of a vessel from Denmark with the necessary supplies. June 27, the news was brought that two ships had arrived from Denmark, with the necessary articles, and letters which contained the assurance of efficient support In the mean time, Egede had caused his son Paul to paint several scenes from the Bible, perhaps to con- vey to the Greenlanders some idea of the history, or to excite their curiosity. As this did not succeed, he took up his residence, with his two sons, among the natives, in order to learn their language. He care- fully noted down every word of which he discovered the meaning ; he often performed long journeys, at the peril of his life, to visit the remotest Greenland- ers, for the purpose of gaining their confidence, in which he succeeded by a thousand acts of kindness; he also endeavoured to render the trade more profit- able to the crown, which sent him a vessel annually with supplies. Though he was unsuccessful in learn- ing the language, his two sons, and especially Paul, attained it with little difficulty. Egede, therefore, sent him to Copenhagen for four years, to study theology, that he might leave him as his successor in Greenland. Egede, the father, after spending fifteen years in Greenland, amid innumerable discourage- ments, returned, in 1736, to Copenhagen, to make new exertions for the support of Christianity in that Country. The government appointed him director of the Greenland missions, and established his son Paul in the office of missionary there. When age ren- dered him incapable of the exercise of his duties, he retired to the island of Falster, where he died, 1758. His writings are in Danish, and have been translated into German. They relate to the natural history of Greenland, and his sufferings and adventures there. His Son, Paul Egede, born 1708, was his assistant from the time he was twelve years old. He went to Copenhagen, in 1723, carrying with him some Green- landers, to be instructed in various trades : they all Soon died of the Small-pox. Notwithstanding a strong inclination for the naval service, he submitted to the wishes of his father, studied divinity, and took charge of the mission in Greenland. In this undertaking he embarked in 1734, carried out with him new colonists, and remained there till 1740. He then returned to Copenhagen, received the office of chap- lain in the hospital dedicated to the Holy Ghost, and was commissioned, also, to direct the affairs of the mission. The next year, he was appointed by the king bishop of Greenland. He died in 1789. We have from him an Account of Greenland, extracted from a Journal kept from 1721 to 1788, published at Copenhagen, 1789, 12mo; moreover, a Dictionarium, Graenlandicum, Copenhagen, 1754; a Grammatica Groenlandica; a translation of the Gospels, the Pen- tateuch, several Danish prayers and liturgies, and the Imitation of Christ, by Thomas a Kempis, in the Greenland tongue. EGERAN. See Idocrase. EGERIA ; a nymph who received divine honours among the Romans. Numa pretended to have secret conversations with her, and to receive from her the laws which he gave to the Romans. Some say Egeria was the wife of Numa. EGERTON, FRANCIS (duke of Bridgewater); an English nobleman, very highly distinguished for pub- lic spirit, born in 1726. His father, the first person who bore the title of duke of Bridgewater, had ob. tained, in 1732, an act of parliament, authorizing him to dig a canal from Worsley, one of his es: tates, containing very valuable coal mines, to Man- chester; but the difficulties in the way of executing it deterred him from attempting it. Francis Eger- ton, by the death of his father and elder brother, 806 coming into possession of the great estates of the family, resolved to complete the plan of his father, ſaid succeeded, by the help of Brindley (q.v.), a self- taught man of remarkable genius. To effect his object, he limited his personal expenses to £400 a- year, and devoted all the rest of his income to his great undertaking. The canal, which bears the name of the duke, was completed in five years, after the expenditure of immense sums, and enabled him to supply Manchester and the neighbouring towns with coal. He afterwards extended his canal to the Mersey, so as to bring Liverpool into the line of his 1:avigation. The success of his undertaking was so great, that canals were now projected in every direc- tion. Brindley formed the grand idea of establish- ing a water communication between London, Bristol, Łiverpool, and Hull, and completed it in part, as the duke, in 1766, began the grand trunk navigation, so called, whereby the rivers Trent and Mersey were united. This canal, which is ninety miles long, was inished in 1777, and connects Liverpool and Hull. The duke of Bridgewater died unmarried, in 1803. See Canal, and Brindley. EGG. Birds, reptiles, fishes, insects, and worms bring forth eggs; birds, indeed, without any excep- tion. The eggs of fishes are called roe or spawn. They contain the germ of the young animal, and, in this respect, resemble the seeds of plants. Seeds require heat and moisture to develope them ; and a great part of their substance serves for the nourish- ment of the germ. So it is with eggs, which have, in addition, the necessary moisture in themselves, and, therefore, only need external heat for their de- velopment. The bird's egg consists (1.) of the shell. Immediately beneath this hard, porous covering lies irmly enclosed (2.) the external membrane, which is also a little porous. Next comes (3.) the white of the egg, and, lastly, (4) the yolk. In the yolk is seen a small, lens-shaped speck, in which is found a little oval sack, of a grayish colour. This is the place where the young animal is developed. The form of the eggs of birds is generally more or less of an oblong round. It is different in other oviparous animals. Amongst reptiles, the crocodile, for in- stance, has a cone-shaped egg. There is a great variety of shades in the colours of birds' eggs, though they are confined chiefly to white, blue, and green. The spots, points, or stripes, with which many are marked, run in countless degrees and shades, from red into gray, ash-coloured, &c. The eggs of birds, especially of hens, are a pleasant and nutritive food. Among reptiles, turtles produce eggs which are good for eating. The roe of fishes is also eaten, and caviar is composed wholly of the eggs of fish. The white of hens' eggs is used for applications in com- plaints of the eyes. It is also made use of for clarify- ing certain liquors, whey, sugar, &c., (See Clarifica- tion.) The simple white of eggs also furnishes a shining varnish for many works of art, especially paintings and playing-cards. Mixed with powdered, fresh-burnt lime, with brick-dust, clay, meal, and other substances, according to circumstances, it forms a very strong cement. To preserve eggs for any le:ngth of time, they must be kept from the air. They are covered with varnish or oil, set on the small end, upon a perforated board, or, which is still better, they are placed in layers, upon the small end, in very dry ashes, in chopped straw, &c., enclosed in tºibs and boxes, and put in a dry place, protected from severe cold in winter, but at the same time, not too warm.* See Hatching. EGG-PLANT (solanum melongena); an herbaceous *. It happens not very rarely, that a small egg is found within one of corumon size. See Albumen. EGū—EGLANTINE. annual, from a foot to eighteen inches high, a little branched, and more or #. covered with a sub- stance resembling cotton: the leaves are oval, sinuate, and petiolate ; the flowers large, white, or purplish, lateral, and frequently solitary; but some- times two or three are situated upon a common divided peduncle; the calyx and peduncles are fur nished with a few short prickles ; the fruit is very large, smooth, and shining, and generally of a violet colour, but sometimes yellow or white. It is culti- vated in the warm parts of both continents, and the fruit is much used as an article of food, when cooked, which is done in various ways: in India, it is gene- rally served up with sugar and wine, or simply sugared water; in the south of France, with olive- oil. There are several varieties, one of which bears a white fruit, exactly resembling a pullet’s egg, and has been sometimes confounded with another species, which is acrid and poisonous. EGIL SCALLAGRIM ; an Icelandic bard or poet of the tenth century, who distinguished himself by his warlike exploits in predatory invasions of Scot- land and Northumberland. Having killed in Com- bat the son of Eric Blodox, king of Norway, he was doomed to death on being subsequently taken pri- Somer by that prince. Egil demanded permission to redeem his life by giving aspecimen of his powers as an improvisatore. This was granted, and he im- mediately composed and recited a poem in praise of Eric, entitled Egil's Ransom, which procured him his life and liberty. This piece is still extant, and a Latin version of it was published by Olaus Wormius, in his Literatura Danica Antiquissima, from which doctor Percy translated it into English, and printed it in his Northern Antiquities. EGINA. See AEgina. EGINHARD (EINARD), born in the Odenwalden at first the companion of Charlemagne, then his pri- vate Secretary and chaplain, and general superinten- dent of the emperor's houses. His talents and learn- ing gained him the love and confidence of Charle- magne, in whose court he was educated, and induced him to bestow on Eginhard his daughter Emma, or Imma, in marriage. It is a common story, the truth of which, however, is much doubted, that she once admitted the fair young German to a nightly inter- view in her own room ; the snow fell during the night, and Emma carried her lover from the castle on her shoulders, to save him from detection ; the emperor, who had risen early, saw them from the window, and, instead of punishing, united them in marriage. On the death of the emperor, Eginhard left his wife, entered the order of Benedictine monks, and became first abbot of the monastery at Seligen- stadt, in Darmstadt, where he died, 839. Eginhard is the oldest German historian ; and we have from him a full and well written history of the life of Charlemagne, which was published by Schmink, 1711, in 4to, with illustrations and a biography. An edition was published by Bredow (Helmst. 1806). Eginhard's Annals of the Franks, from 741 to 829, appeared also in 1711, in 4to, at Utrecht. His let- ters, which are of much importance as contributions to the history of his age (Frankfort, 1714, fol.), are still extant. A plan is likewise ascribed to him of uniting the German ocean with the Mediterranean and the Black seas, by two canals, one of which was to form a connexion between the Moselle and Saone, and the other between the Rhine and the Danube. EGIS. See Agis. EGISTHUS. See Agamemnon. EGLANTINE ; one of the names of the Sweet- brier (rosa rubiginosa); but there is a good deal of confusion in its application, and it is often given in- discriminately to other species of rose. EGMONT—EGYPT. EGMONT, LAMoRAL, count of, was born in 1522, of an illustrious family of Holland. He entered the military service, and gained a high reputation under Charles V. whom he accompanied to Africa in 1544. He distinguished himself as general of cavalry, under Philip II., in the battles of St Quentin (1557) and Gravelines (1558). Philip having gone to Spain, Egmont took part in the troubles in the Low Coun- tries; he endeavoured, however, to adjust the diffi- culties between the duchess of Parma, who governed the provinces, and the nobles confederated against her. He even swore, in the presence of this princess, to support the Roman Catholic faith, to punish the sacrilegious, and to extirpate heretics. Still his con- nexion with the prince of Orange and his most dis- tinguished adherents, made him an object of suspicion to the court of Aranjuez, and Egmont, with the noble Philip of Montmorency, count Horn, became the victims of hate and famaticism. The duke of Alva, who was sent by Philip II. to the Netherlands, to reduce the insurgents, ordered them both to be executed at Brussels, June 5, 1563. Egmont was then in the 46th year of his age. He died with heroic firmness. The French ambassador announced the event to his court with these words : “I have seen that head fall which twice made France trem- ble.” Egmont had before written to Philip II., that “he had never joined in any undertaking against the Catholic religion, nor violated his duties as a loyal subject.” But an example was thought necessary to strike terror into others. Philip II. expressed him- self thus on the subject ; “he had caused those two heads to fall, because a pair of such salmon heads was worth more than many thousand frogs.” Eg- mont's line became extinct in Procopius Francis, count of Egmont, general of cavalry to the king of Spain, and brigadier in the French service, who died without children, at Fraga, in Arragon (1707), at the age of thirty-eight years. (See J. J. de Cloet's Eloge historique du Comte d’Egmont, &c., Brussels, 1825.) Maximilian von Egmont, count of Buren, general in the service of the emperor Charles V., who distinguished himself in the wars against Francis I., belonged to another line.—A well known drama of Goethe, called Egmont, is founded on the above catas- trophe; yet we cannot help thinking, that, if poetry often gives to historical characters a fictitious eleva- tion, the reverse has taken place in this instance, and that Egmont in history, the father of a family, is greater than Goethe's Egmont, a lover and imprudent conspirator. EGMONTISLAND, in the South Pacific ocean, six miles long and four broad, is low, and full of trees. Lon. 138° 30' West ; lat. 19° 20' S. E GM O N T ISLAND, or NEW GUERNSEY ; principal island in the group called Queen Charlotte's 1slands, in the South Pacific ocean. According to the account given of them by captain Carteret, the inhabitants are extremely nimble, vigorous, and active, with a bravery undismayed by the fire of musketry. They seem as fit to live in the water as on land. The country in general is mountainous, covered with woods, and intersected with many valleys and small rivers. This island is about fifty-four miles in length, and from twenty to thirty-two in breadth. Lon. 166° E.; lat. 11° S. EGRA, EGER, or CHEBBE; a town in Bo- hemia, in Saatz, capital of a district ; seventy- six miles west of Prague ; lon. 12° 21' E. ; lat. 50° 3' N. ; population, 8111; houses, 740. It was formerly imperial, and has a castle, seven churches, an hospital, and a Catholic gymnasium. Near it are some medicinal springs, the waters of which are exported in bottles, sealed with the arms of the town. Wallenstein was assassinated here in 807 1634. The population of the district, 23,000; square miles, 106. EGRA, or EGER ; a river which rises in Ba- varia, and runs into the Elbe, near Leitmeritz, in Bohemia. EGYPT ; called by the Arabs, Mezr; by the Copts, Khemi; and by the Turks, El Kabit; formerly a mighty empire, the seat of a high civilization, the land of wonderful creations of human power, and an object of endless curiosity to the philosophic inquirer; now scarcely a fifth part inhabited, and governed by a Turkish pacha or viceroy, (Mohammed Ali) appointed or confirmed by the Sultan; but who has recently rendered himself independent of the Porte, and made himself master of Palestine and Syria. Egypt lies in North Africa, between 22° and 32° N. lat. and 27° and 34° E. lon. It is bounded on the N. by the Mediterranean sea, on the E. by the Red Sea and by Arabia, with which it is connected by the isthmus of Suez, on the S. by Nubia, and on the W. by Barca and the great desert. It contains about 200,000 square i. of which only about 17,000 square miles, in the valley of the Nile (600 miles long, and from twelve to twenty-five broad), are sus- ceptible of cultivation. The population is differently estimated at from 2,500,000 to 4,000,000. Geogra- phers divide it into Upper Egypt (Said), Middle Egypt (Postani), and Lower Egypt (Bahari), including the fertile Delta. These are again divided into twelve provinces, each of which is governed by a bey, and which, together, contain about 2500 cities and vil- lages. Three chains of mountains run through the country. The Nile (the Blue river) flows through it in a northerly direction. Besides lake Moeris, cele- brated in antiquity, at present called Birket Karun (Charon's lake), and almost dried up, there are others, especially the matron or salt lakes. The climate is in general hot, and is moderate in Lower Egypt only. The great heat produces the rankest vegetation. The simoom (chamsin), a formidable south wind which blows at intervals during the first fifty days after the vernal equinox, the plague, and ophthalmia are the peculiar torments of Egypt. It has but two seasons—spring and Summer: the latter lasts from April to November. During this period, the sky is always clear, and the weather hot. In the spring, the nights are cool and refreshing. The greater part of the land is arid, and covered with burning sands; but wherever the waters of the Nile are conducted in canals beyond the natural limits of their overflow, the earth becomes fertile, and fruits thrive with great luxuriance. Corn, rice, millet, pulse, kitchen vegetables, melons, sugar cane, sweet rush, papyrus (peculiar to the country), flax and hemp, onions, carthamus or Saffron, indigo, aloe, jalap, coloquintida, saltwort (salsola soda), Cardamom, cotton, palm-groves, Sycamores, tamarinds, cassia, acacias, &c., cover the country. There is not a great variety of garden flowers, but roses are raised in large quantities, especially in the marshy Fayoum, and rose-water forms an important article of export. The soil consists of lime, with numerous shells and petrifactions; it contains marble, alabaster, por- phyry, jasper, granite, common salt, matron, salt- petre, alum, &c. The woods and marshes, rivers and plains, furnish a great variety of animals, including horned cattle, buffaloes, asses, horses, camels, sheep with large fat tails, dogs, cats, lions, tigers, hyaenas, jackals, wolves, foxes, gazelles, giraffes, storks, ibises (which devour the snakes in the mud of the Nile) hens (the eggs of which are hatched in ovens), cro- codiles, river-horses, ichneumons, &c. The people consist of Copts (embracing, at most, 30,000 families), Arabs (who are the most numerous, and are divided into Fellahs, or peasants and Bed- 808 ouins, the wandering tribes of the deserts), and Turks, the ruling people. The Mamelukes have been driven out of the country, and nearly exterminated. Besides these, there are Jews, Greeks, Armenians, &c. The Egyptian generally has a strong, active frame, tawny complexion, gay disposition, and a good heart, and is not devoid of capacity. He is temperate and religious, but superstitious. The prevailing religion is that of Mohammed. The pre- wailing language is the Arabic. At Cairo, the capital, resides the patriarch of the Eastern Chris- tians. The inhabitants devote themselves to agricul- ture, the raising of bees and poultry, the preparation of rose-water and sal-ammoniac, the manufacturing of leather, flax, hemp, silk, and cotton, of carpets, glass, potters' ware, and carry on an important commerce. Constantinople is supplied with grain from Egypt, which, when a Roman province, was called the granary of Rome. The coasting trade is considerable. Alexandria, Damietta and Suez are the principal harbours, and much inland traffic is carried on, chiefly with Syria, Arabia, and Western Africa. Egypt was once the theatre of enterprise, civiliza- tion, and Science. An ancient astronomical observa- tion authenticates the tradition, that, about 3362 B. C., the Babylonian Hermes (Thoth), the hero of mythological antiquity, went to Ethiopia (as, subse- quently, Cecrops, from Sais, on the Nile, went to Attica), and founded this state on the model of that to which he himself belonged. The Ethiopians and Babylonians were the first nations enlightened by Indian civilization. The organization of Ethiopia was probably soon followed by the migration of an Ethiopian colony to Upper Egypt, then inhabited by Nomadic, pastoral tribes. Subsequently, the Egyp- tians became the third among the nations of anti- quity; distinguished for a high degree of cultiva- tion. The similarity of the inhabitants and their language increases almost to certainty the probability that Egypt received her first civilized inhabitants from Ethiopia. This agrees with the Mosaic ac- count, that, after the flood, the descendants of Ham Settled in Upper Egypt. Even the Israelites, under Joseph, belonged to the Nomades, living on the frontiers, till they migrated again, under the conduct of Moses. Although Egypt had Babylon and Ethiopia for models, society in this country made but slow advances towards perfection. The general division of the people into hereditary castes, and the influence of the priesthood, checked the spirit of the Egyptians. Before the time of the enterprising Sesostris, they had but little commerce, especially by sea, and, con- sequently, few of the collisions with foreign nations which spring from an active trade. This was another reason of the slow progress of Egypt in intellectual culture. The first important impulse was received when the Egyptians were subdued by foreign nations. Previously to this, however, there were astronomers in the country. The Egyptian solar year contained twelve months and five supplementary days, like the republican calendar of the French. The form of the earth was known to Egyptian scholars; solar and lunar eclipses were calculated; the moon they re- garded as another earth; the fixed stars as burning torches; sun-dials and water-clocks were not unknown among them: the immense ring of Osymandyas seems to have been used for this purpose, and they appear to have been acquainted with the quadrant. They must, therefore, have made considerable progress in arithmetic. The arithmetical figures (the same that we call Arabic) they wrote from right to left. The overflowing of the Nile rendered geometry necessary to them ; and their acquaintance with mathematics EG Y PT. is evident from the instruments for measuring the height of the Nile at Syene, Memphis, and other. places on the river, from their use of the water- screw, from their canals, and the sluices of lake Moeris, which presuppose a knowledge of mechanics, hydraulics, and hydrostatics. The Egyptian music is the basis of the Hebrew, Greek, and Roman. The first musical instrument— the three-stringed lyre (see Lyre)—was invented among them by Hermes. But this discovery was soon secluded among the secrets of the priests, and further perfected under their mystic veil. In this circumstance, and in the serious, gloomy character of the nation, is to be found the reason why music was only used at funerals, and the public worship of the gods. Besides the lyre above mentioned, they had a dichord, two kinds of flutes, the sistrum, the kettle- drum, the trumpet, and the triangular lyre. Musical notation seems not to have been known to them. Their short, simple songs were committed to memory. Their knowledge of natural history was confined to their native country and its productions. They penetrated farther in chemistry and mineralogy: their metallic encaustics, their artificial emerald, the in- laying of silver with a blue colour, display Science and skill. They probably made much progress in the art of healing. Every disease had its particular physician. Osiris, Isis, and Hermes were the gods of health. The Pastophori (a class of priests) were the physicians. The king, as well as the lowest peasant, was subjected to the regimen prescribed by them. Their dietetics became celebrated in other countries. Care of the skin, a thorough cleanliness, preserved by frequent bathing, and the practice of circumcision, were their principal prescriptions. From their skill in embalming the dead, we may judge of the anatomical knowledge of the Egyptians. Their natural philosophy was mystical; they ascribed everything to the immediate operation of the gods: on this depended their system of magic. In the arts, their proficiency was various. Their sculpture has an insufferable dryness, stiffness, and uniformity ; their painting was limited to covering stones, wood, cloths, &c., with a single colour, or, at the most, to illuminating their hieroglyphics, variegat- ing them with colours laid on without taste. The celestial planispheres on the ceiling of the sepulchre of Osymandyas, and the figures on the ancient tombs of the kings of Thebes, exhibit the utmost stretch of the Egyptian pencil. Their architecture is more remarkable : its characteristic is solidity rather than beauty, as appears from their labyrinths, pyramids, obelisks, temples, mausoleums, &c. See Architec- ture, History of.” Robert Vaugondy, in his Essai sur l’Histoire de la Géographie, says of the geography of the Egyp- tians, that they made the first maps (in the reign of Sesostris). Gatterer endeavours to prove the exist- ence of geographical delineations in the time of # Champollion, the famous explorer of Egyptian antiqui- ties, uses the following language at the end of his fifteenth letter, dated Thebes:-" It is evident to me, as it must be to all who have thoroughly examined Egypt, or have an accurate knowledge of the Egyptian monuments existing in Europe, that the arts commenced in Greece by a servile imitation of the arts of Egypt, much more advanced than is vulgarly believed, at the period at which the first Egyptian colonies came in contact with the savage inhabitants of Attica or the Peloponnesus. Without Egypt, Greece would probably never have become the classical land of the fine arts. Such is my entire belief on this great problem. I write these lines almost in the presence of bas-reliefs which the Egyptians executed, with the most elegant delicacy of workmanship, 1700 years before the Christian era. What were the Greeks doing then 2° . * The sculptures of the monument of El Asaffif are ascer- tained to be more than 3500 years old. EG Y PT. Joshua. Their acquaintance with navigation they owed to the great Sesostris; previously, they hardly dared trust themselves to rafts on the overflowing waters of the Nile ; they abhorred the Sea ; it was the Typhon which devoured the Nile, their national god (Osiris). Their first coasting trade seems to have been caused by a smuggling trade of the Phoenicians, and by inachus leading an Egyptian colony to Greece, in Phoenician vessels, 1836 B. C. It was confined, however, to the natives of the nor- thern coasts. The inhabitants of the interior were repelled from the sea by superstition. On the other hand, the navigation of the Nile became more im- portant after it was incorporated with the public worship of their divinities. Sesostris the Great broke down the obstructions of religious prejudice. A splendid ship was consecrated to Osiris, and thus the co-operation of the priesthood was gained. The suc- cess of navigation was implored in the public prayers, and the Egyptians now committed themselves to the back of the malicious Typhon. Commerce was thus established, and carried on with various degrees of success and activity, according as the kingdom was more or less flourishing. It prospered most under the Ptolemies. Alexandria became the first empo- rium ; the famous Pharos was erected; and the canal, 1000 stadia in length, joined the Red sea with the Mediterranean. When Egypt became a Roman province, after the death of Cleopatra, it lost its pre- vious commercial distinction. The Egyptians were particularly devoted to agriculture, and their mea- sures for promoting it were bold, both in contrivance and execution. On what principle they conducted mining may be seen from their vast undertakings, in which whole mountains were dug down, and the earth was washed from the ore by entire rivers turned from their channels for this purpose. Gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and iron were the principal metals known to them. The trade of the Egyptians was confined, for a long time, to the sale of their own productions to foreigners who visited Egypt to purchase them. In the time of Psammetichus, they began to export for themselves. The principal traffic by land was car- ried on by means of caravans. Measures, weights, and money, the chief instruments of trade, they were acquainted with, and a good police watched over justice. To industry, this traffic was necessarily lucrative. Their skill in weaving and colouring Sup- plied them with articles of exchange. These, how- ever, they did not carry to as high perfection as they might have done. If we contemplate the ancient Egyptians in their private life and political character, taking into view their manners, customs, and laws, we shall find a solution for many perplexities respecting this peculiar people. The gloomy religion of the Egyptians banished gayety from their private circles. Pleasure was a stranger to them. They were serious, devout, and superstitious. Songs, dances, and sports they disliked ; but they, nevertheless, possessed a great degree of industry, good temper, politeness, and, at the same time, a vanity which prepossessed them in favour of whatever originated with themselves. As the Greeks and Romans called all foreign nations barbarians, so the Egyptians gave this name to all the nations which did not speak their language ; but, in spite of their national pride, gratitude for benefits, whatever might be the country of the individual conferring them, was ever one of their national vir- tues. The government of the state was mostly in the hands of females. Every priest might have, at least, one wife : to the laity, the number was not łimited by law. The husband had the charge of the domestic concerns; the wife, of buying and sel- 8(39 ling, and all affairs that were not of a domestic cha- racter. The Egyptian was distinguished for temperance; he never drank wine; his only drink was beer, made of barley; his bread was of spelt; in his kitchen, he used vegetables of all kinds, and increased his numerous poultry, by artificially hatching the eggs ; beans and pork were interdicted by his religion, as impure ; and, on the other hand, he was forbidden to touch some other animals, as Sacred. His dress was very simple. The respectable matron was dis- tinguished from the maiden and the prostitute by a veil, which the latter were not allowed to wear. The children went naked till of considerable age. Funerals and times of sadness were the only occa- sions of parade and competition in expense. The sovereign, however, and those who immediately sur- rounded him, glittered in all the pomp of Qriental magnificence. The power of the Pharaohs (the general name of the earlier kings of Egypt) was un- Timited. At their pleasure, they could throw the grand vizier from the summit of his power, and raise to their own side the lowest of their slaves, as the his- tory of Joseph evinces. The spirit of Industry in- herent in the Egyptian was the support of public virtue, and the police took care that criminals should be constantly employed. As early as the time of Joseph, there was a work-house for impris- oned slaves. The unsocial disposition of the Egyp- tians, and their fear of offending the gods by inter- course with strangers, checked their improvement, but, at the same time, established their independence, their national character, and their national virtues. When they were brought into closer contact with the Greeks, their industry was somewhat abated, so that Amasis found it necessary to enact a law, which obliged every Egyptian to report annually to the superior authorities his name, and the trade by which he obtained, or hoped to obtain, a subsistence.— Disobedience to this law was punished with death. Justice was administered in a strict and speedy man- mer. Written laws were handed down by Menes, Tnephactus, Bocchoris, and Amasis. All causes were tried before a supreme court of justice. The parties themselves were obliged to conduct them in writing without the aid of advocates. Perjury and murder (even of a slave) were punished with death, without any chance of pardom. Calumniators and false accusers received the punishment belonging to the crime of which they charged the innocent per- son. Falsehood was punished by the loss of the tongue; forgery, by the loss of the hands; deser- tion from the army, or emigration, by infamy; and adultery, by flogging. The king had the power of mitigating any of these punishments. But, notwithstanding the appearance of unlimited sovereignty, the will of the ruler was subject to the power of the priests, who imposed laws, even on the private life of the monarch, and relaxed or con- tracted them as the interest of their order required. The daily duties of the king's slaves were minutely determined, his bill of fare regulated, may, the very Secrecy of the royal bed-chamber was penetrated by the priests. For this reason, they were his physi- cians in ordinary. The education of the children was in unison with the rest of the Egyptian system. The children were carefully brought up to the trade of the father, and instructed by the priest, in various public schools. Few were taught reading and writ- ing; yet the Egyptians were the first people who could write, that history mentions, after the Baby- lonians and Phoenicians. They wrote, at first, on stones and bricks; afterwards, a paper was made of papyrus, which continued to be used for 2000 years, arid even after the invention of parchment, by the 810 whole literary world. This art was taught to those only who were educated for merchants, and that in a limited degree; for it was the system of the priests to keep the mass of the people in ignorance. The division of the people into seven castes— priests, soldiers, shepherds, Swineherds, mechanics, interpreters, and fishermen—sprang partly from local circumstances, many districts affording but one mode of subsistence; partly from the policy of the priests, since it was necessary, for the management of the machine of state, that strict lines of demarcation should be drawn between the various constituent parts of the nation. At the head of them all stood the caste of priests, the first and most influential.— They maintained this rank as teachers of the people and patrons of science. From them all the offices of state were filled; they were the physicians, judges, architects, astronomers, astrologers, &c. But they held their knowledge, which they regarded (with justice) as the talisman of their political importance and mighty influence, strictly within the limits of their order. The religion, mythology, and philosophy of the Egyptians varied with the different periods of their political history. Their religion and philosophy were one thing before Moses, another from the time of Moses to that of Herodotus; and thus they con- tinued to deviate from their original character till the times of the Ptolemies and the Romans. Their whole religion and mythology were founded on astronomy; it was natural that the beneficial influ- ences of the celestial bodies should be followed by adoration. Osiris and Isis (the sun and moon) were the two principal deities, and the Nile was thought to be very nearly related to them. We frequently find Osiris and the Nile treated as one deity. The period of 360 days, computed from the regular inun- dation of the river at the summer Solstice, constituted the religious year. The natural Solar year consisted of 360 days and six hours. The planets, together with the signs of the Zodiac, were revered as deities, and rulers of the days of the week and hours of the day. The ruler of the first hours of the day was the patron of the whole day, and communi- Cated to it his name ; the physical character and the agricultural relations of each month were likewise adored as divinities, under the twelve signs of the Zodiac. Thus was the religious year constituted. The want, subsequently discovered, of five days and six hours, gave rise to seven more deities, and the Solar year was introduced. These symbolical beings, however, were regarded as actually existent, the authors and governors of time and the world; Osiris and Isis were considered as beings of unlimited power, exercising an immediate influence over the earth and its inhabitants. To each divinity was assigned a particular order of priests, into which females were never admitted. Pilgrimages and sacri. fices were a part of the system of religion. The latter were employed for the expiation of sins. The worshipper placed his hand on the head of the vic. tim, loaded it with imprecations, and its last gasp was the Seal of his pardon. Till the reign of Ama- sis, even human victims were offered. Besides the heavenly bodies, Some kinds of animals, also, were worshipped. These were not regarded as mere symbols, but adored as actual gods, like the Apis and Mnevis; this worship arose from the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. (See Hieroglyphics.) The most remarkable phenomena in the philosophy of the Egyptians is the doctrine of the transmigration of Souls (see Metempsychosis), which was the immediate offspring of the worship of the stars. Plato has honoured the metempsychosis of the Egyptians by adopting it into his system, as a symbol of the moral EGYPT. purification of human nature. The Egyptians, how- ever, did not make so accurate a distinction between the spiritual and corporeal as this philosopher; the idea of the soul, as a pure intelligence, was unknown to them ; and it is a very remarkable fact, that the Pythagorean doctrine of the transmigration of souls, as delineated by Aristotle, although different from the Egyptian, is equally devoid of any moral SellSe. Political History of Egypt. If we go back beyond the period of tradition, to which belong the fabulous Pharaohs (kings), Menes (2000 years before Christ), Osymandyas, Moeris, Sesostris, Rhampsinitus, &c. we find, on the extreme confines of history, the Pha- raoh of Joseph, and the migrations which took place in the storms of revolutions under Cecrops, Moses, and Danaus. In the history of foreign states, Shi- shak is named, 878 before the Christian era, as the Pharaoh of Egypt, and the ally of Jeroboam ; the Tnephactus and Bocchoris of Diodorus, and the Asychis of Herodotus, are famous as legislators. The forty years' subjection of Egypt to the Ethiop- ians, the internal anarchy of thirty-three years, the dodecarchy (reign of twelve), which lasted fifteen years, preceded the monarchy founded by Psamme- tichus, one of the dodecarchs. It lasted from 636 to 525 B. C., and exhibits, besides Psammetichus, the famous names of Necho, Psammis, Apries or Hophra, Amasis, and Psammenitus. This period is a bright spot in the history of the civilization of Egypt. The kingdom next became subject to Cam- byses, and belonged to the Persian empire, till after its conquest by Alexander, 332 B. C. After the division of the Macedonian empire, begins the splen- did period of the Ptolemies (see Ptolemies, and the Alexandrian School). Ptolemy Lagus or Soter, Ptolemy Philadelphus (under whom the foundation of the future dominion of the Romans was laid), Ptolemy Euergetes I., Ptolemy Philopater, Ptolemy Epiphanes, Ptolemy Philometor, Euergetes II., Cleopatra Minor (with Ptolemy Soter or Lathyrus, and Ptolemy Alexander I.), Ptolemy Alexander II., Berenice, Ptolemy Alexander III., Ptolemy Auletes, Cleopatra Tryphana and Berenice, and Cleopatra with Ptolemy Puer, under the guardianship of Caesar and Antony, are the names of the rulers of this period, several of whom are famous in the history of science and art. The suicide of Cleopatra, after the victory of Octavius at Actium, transferred the kingdom into the power of the Romans, and it now became a Roman province. This took place thirty years B. C., and Egypt remained 670 years in the hands of the Romans. The Christian religion, dur- ing this period, ſº footing in this country, and was accompanied by the same enthusiasm, sectarism, and mental gloom, which, in the earlier history of Egypt, had accompanied the pagan mysteries. An- chorites and monks had their origin here. After the division of the great Roman empire, in the time of Theodosius, into the Western and East- ern empires, Egypt became a province of the latter, and sank deeper and deeper in barbarism and weak- ness. It was the prey of the Saracens, Amru, their general, under the caliph Qmar, taking Alexandria, the capital, by assault. This happened A. D. 640, when Heraclius was the emperor of the East. As a province of the caliphs, it was under the government of the celebrated Abbasides—Harun-al-Raschid and Al-Mamon—and that of the heroic sultan Saladin. The last dynasty was, however, overthrown by the Mamelukes (1250), and under these formidable despots the last shadow of former greatness and civilization disappeared. Selim, sultan of the Turks, even- Eually (1516 to 1517) conquered the last Mameluke sultan, Tumanbai, and Egypt became altogether a EG Y PT. 8 : 1 Turkish province, governed by a pacha. It has Under the government of Mohammed, all the since been the theatre of continual internal wars of the Mameluke beys against the Turkish dominion, which has been several times, especially under Ali Bey (1766), nearly extinguished in this country.- From 1798 to 1801, Egypt was occupied by the French (see the latter part of the present article). This country has subsequently, more than ever, engaged the attention of the statesman and scholar. We behold a prince, who has divested himself of many prejudices of his nation, and has taken Euro- pean models for imitation, in order to establish anew the kingdom of the Ptolemies. This prince, Mo- hammed Ali Pacha, governs Egypt with unlimited sway. He is particularly attentive to the public security; he takes, therefore, all Franks under his immediate protection, and permits no abuse of the Greeks. When the Morea was conquered by his arms (1825), he caused all the Christian population to be transplanted to the countries on the Nile. He has done much for the commerce and industry, as well as for the civilization of Egypt. He is the greatest merchant of the country, and no others can deal with foreign countries without his consent. The income of the pacha, which has been estimated at between six and seven million pounds, arises from poll and land taxes, customs of the ports of Cairo, Suez, Damietta, Alexandria, &c.; branches of revenue farmed out, including various fisheries; from the mint, from the sale of the cotton, indigo, silk, sugar, rice, saffron, wool, ivory, frankincense, &c., which he monopolizes, purchasing them at a low rate from his subjects, &c. The number of vessels, which arrived at Alexandria in the year 1829, was 909; in 1828, the arrivals were 891; in 1827, they were 605. Of the arrivals in 1829, 361 were Aus- trian vessels, 1 American from Smyrna, 4 Danish, 44 French, 200 British and Ionian, 8 Dutch, 32 Papal, 1 Russian, 135 Sardinian, i9 Sicilian, 5 Spanish, 13 Swedish, and 26 Tuscan. Most of the voyages were from the Archipelago, or from Turkish ports. Some years since, Ibrahim, the pacha's son, forced the Wahabites (q.v.) to withdraw to their deserts, and his second son, Ismael Pacha, undertook an expedi- tion into Nubia, in order to extend the authority of his father there. Ismael penetrated (1820) from Syene to Dongola, on the left bank of the Nile, defeated the residue of the Mamelukes, and re- duced Dongola to an Egyptian province. At the same time, Mohammed completed the new canal of Alexandria, called by him in honour of the Sultan, Mahmudie canal; a vast undertaking, commenced January 8, 1819, under the superintendence of six European engineers, with about 100,000 labourers; and their number, though more than 7000 men died of contagious diseases, was gradually increased to 290,000, each of whom received about 10d. Sterling, per diem. The canal was completed on the 13th September. It extends from below Saone, on the Nile, to Pompey's pillar, and is 47# miles long, 90 feet wide, and 18 feet deep. This is the first essay ..owards the execution of his plan of restoring the ancient commerce of Alexandria with Arabia and the Indies. Within a short time, he has established a line of telegraphs, a printing-press at Boulac near Cairo,” a military school, and a higher institu- tion, for education, principally to form dragomans (i. e., interpreters) and other public officers. The Leachers consist of French and Italian officers. In 1826, he sent several young Egyptians to France, to receive a European education. * Several works bave already been issued from this press; smong others, a 12icionirio italiano et Arabiano, Bolacco, della stamp. reale, 1822, 2 toni, European travellers, whom the love of discovery now draws in greater numbers than ever to those sepul- chres and monuments of departed civilization, find protection and support. But it is impossible to re- move all the obstacles that suspicion, the hatred of foreigners, and the avarice prevailing among the Bedouin sheiks, throw in the way of the European. Passing over the earlier travels of Brown, of Horne- mann, and Burckhardt, (the two first of whom were unable to discover any traces of the temple of Jupiter Ammon), we will mention some of the latest. Among these, the travels of Belzoni, in 1819, deserve especial notice. The Italian chevalier Frediani has published a pompous description of the ruins of the temple of Jupiter Ammon, in his letters from Schiwah, dated March 30, 1820; but Gau, a Prussian architect from Cologne (see Gau), contradicts the accounts of Frediani; so also does Drovetti, late consul-general of France in Egypt. These ruins the French Cailliaud asserts he has examined and mea- sured. He also discovered the old emerald mines in the mountain Zabarah, and found them in the very state in which they had been left by the engineers of Ptolemy, with all their implements, from which we can, in some degree, deduce the mode of mining among the ancients. In 1820, Cailliaud accompanied the son of the viceroy on the above mentioned expe- dition to Dongola. The travels of Cailliaud to the Oasis of Thebes, and the deserts to the east and west of it, were published by Jomard. The travels of Henry Light (a British captain of artillery) to Egypt, Nubia, and the Holy Land, are not to be compared with those of Burckhardt, but they are not without interest, as far as respects the pacha of Egypt, Jeru- salem, and the Druses. The four months' journey of lieutenant Fitz-Clarence (aid to the marquis of Hastings, governor-general of India), from Bombay through India and Egypt, to London, (1818), are more interesting. We ought to mention the travels of two Englishmen (Waddington and Hanbury), who accompanied the pacha on his expedition from Egypt to Nubia, (1820). They pretend to have examined, minutely, Dongola, and Darshegga, and to have dis- covered the ancient Saba, subsequently called Meröe. In 1824, captain N. F. Gordon, of the British navy, undertook to travel up the Nile, to discover the sources of the Behr-el-Abiad. He only reached Villel-Medinet, (a day's journey from Sennaar), where he died. Several Germans, also, have, within a short time, undertaken scientific expeditions to the East and Egypt; e.g., Seetzen, Sieber, whose book of travels describes Crete, Cairo, and Jerusalem ; and Ruppel, from Frankfort on the Maine. (See Africa.) With the same view, the Prussian general Menu von Minutoli undertook such a course of travels in August, 1820. Ehrenberg, who accom- panied him, has published, in Berlin, his discoveries in matural history. They were supported in the enterprise by the Prussian government. The gene- ral returned to Germany in September, 1821, and published an interesting work respecting his collec- tions and discoveries. The travels in Egypt, how- ever, which have excited most interest, are those of Champollion, who, by various publications, greatly increased our knowledge respecting this country. For a general account of what the late discoveries have taught of the ancient history of Egypt, and for a popular account of Egyptian antiquities, we must refer the reader to the marquis Spineto's Lectures on the Elements of Hieroglyphics and Egyptian Antiqui ties (London, 1829). For information respecting the Egyptian language, we refer to 4 compendious Grammar of the Egyptian Language, as contained in ſhe Coptic and Sahidic Dialects, with Observations on 812 the Bashmuric, together with Alphabets and Numerals in the Hieroglyphic and Enchorial Characters, by Henry Tattam, with an Appendia, consisting of the Rudiments of a Dictionary of the ancient Egyptian Language, in the Enchorial Character, by Thomas Young (London, 1830); also an Account of Egyptian Antiquities, by Doctor Th. Young (London, 1823); the Two Letters of Champollion the Younger, to the Duke Blacas D'Aulps (Paris, 1826), and the other works mentioned under the article Champollion, who unfortunately died before he could give to the world all the results of his indefatigable researches, during his stay in Egypt. See the articles Hieroglyphics (in which the reader will find an account, also, of Egyptian mythology), Mummies, Pyramids, Nile, Esmeh, Denderah, Rosetta Stone, &c.; also the note at the end of Constitution. Respecting the present state of the Egyptian institutions, which are founded, in part, on the ancient division into castes, L. Rey- nier, who served in Egypt under Bonaparte, has pub- lished an instructive statistical work, which does not, however, treat of the ancient history of the country —De l’Economie publique et rurale des Egyptiens et des Carthaginois (Paris, 1823). For information con- cerning the modern history and administration of Egypt, see Felix Mengin's Histoire de l’Egypte sous te Gouvernement de Mohammed Aly ; (Paris, 1823, 2 vols., with engravings and maps.) CAMPAIGN OF THE FRENCH IN EGYPT. Landing and Campaign of the French in Egypt. By the two campaigns of 1796 and 1797, general Bonaparte had compelled the continental powers of Europe to make peace with France—a result ardently desired by the French, to allow their country time to recover from the deep wounds which she had suffered during the convulsions of the revolution, and from the worthless administrations that had preceded it. The next object was to force Britain, also, to a peace, as she in- flexibly opposed the general wish of Europe, and Bonaparte was appointed commander-in-chief of an army destined for the invasion of Britain. In February, 1798, he visited in person the coasts of the Channel, and all Europe was expecting the commencement of the expedition, when, in May of the same year, the general appeared as commander-in-chief at Toulon, where an expedition had been fitting out, of the destination of which the public knew nothing—a circumstance highly remark- able, as so many persons, military and civil, were acquainted with it. It was the expedition to Egypt. It also appears, from a letter written by general Bonaparte to the minister Talleyrand, dated Passeriano, 27th Fructidor, year V. (Septem- ber 13, 1797), that one of the main objects of this great under- taking was to put the French in possession of part of the East India trade, then entirely in the hands of Britain, by the Con- quest of Egypt—a plan by no means chimerical. It was intended to establish French colonies on the Nile, and thus to recom- pense the republic for the loss of St Domingo, and of the Sugar islands, and to open a channel for the French manufactures into Africa, Arabia, and Syria, where they might be exchanged for commodities wanted in France. Napoleon's views were, in fact, similar to those which, it is said, led the French to undertake the conquest and colonization of Algiers—an object which seems to be generally applauded. It seems, also, to have been intended to make Egypt a military position, from which a French army could march into India, raise the Mahrattas against the British, and injure the power of the latter there. On this point we refer the reader to the count St Leu's (Louis Bonaparte's) Answer to Sir Walter Scott, Paris, 1829, page 33. The directory probably encouraged the enterprise with the further object of getting rid of a general whose victories and rapidly increasing popularity it feared. It has, indeed, been said, that it was, at first, decidedly opposed to the plan; but this is very improbable. March 5, Bonaparte received the decree of the directory, relative to the expedition against Egypt.” He had full power to conduct the business as he saw fit. "ſhe ministers in all the departments, Were ordered to give him whatever assistance he should require ; and he had full powers to act according to his discretion in Egypt, to re- turn whenever he saw fit, and to appoint his successor, Na- poleon now collected all the information necessary for his own direction ; engaged some of the most distinguished savants and artists of France to accompany him, drew up questions and problems to be resolved in Egypt, and informed himself accurate: ly respecting the commercial connexioms which it was proposed to establish. In fact, he seems to have always viewed this ex- pedition in the double light of a military and a scientific enter- prise. The beginning of his proclamation, before landing in Egypt, is remarkable: “ Bonaparte, member of the national institute of France, and general in chief of the army of * Leibnitz endeavoured to turn Louis XIV.'s attention to the conquest of Egypt, in order to deliver Germany and Holland from his attacks. Under Iouis XV., this project was again discussed, at the time when all the French possessions in America were in danger ; and it was again renewed, when the alliance of Joseph II. and Catharine II, threatenºid the partition of Prussia, Egypt.” His brother Joseph (count de Survilliers) still pos. sesses the papers of general Bonaparte relating to these prepara- tions; and we hope that such important and interesting docu- ments will not be forever withheld from the public, as they must give a great insight into Napoleon's views. . The number of these papers is very great. Bonaparte was to leave Paris in April, for the purpose of embarking ; but despatches from Rastadt, and from the French ambassador at Vienna, Berna- dotte, made a new rupture with Austria probable. Bonaparte, however, left Paris May 3, and went on board of the Orient the 19th. The fleet set sail the same day, commanded by ad- miral Brueys.” Bonaparte's proclamation issued before sail- ing, and several others, either prove how much he himself was animated by the military fame of ancient Rome, or that he thought it the strongest stimulus to the French soldiers. Re- ports had been carefully spread to divert the attention of the British to other points; and the admiral, lord St Vincent, sent rear-admiral Nelson, with only three vessels of the line, four frigates, and one corvette, to watch the gulf of Lyons, and to prevent the French from leaving it. But Nelson arrived too late. He also suffered severely from a gale, so that the French fleet was not molested. Bonaparte had an assurance from the directory, that the minister of foreign affairs should go to Constantinople, still retaining his office, for the purpose of ne- gotiating with the Porte, and preventing it from interfering in favour of the Mamelukes. Talleyrand, however, never went. This omission, and the defeat at Åboukir, proved fatal to the expedition. About 2000 savants, artists, physicians, surgeons, mechanics, and labourers of all descriptions, accompanied the army. The flower of the troops was that Italian army, whose valour had effected the peace of Campo-Formio. The principal officers were Berthier (who was averse to going to Egypt, be- cause in love with the marchioness Visconti), Desaix, Regnier, Menou, Kleber, Dumas, Caffarëlli, Murat, Junot, Marmont, Belliard, I)avoust, Lannes, Duroc, Louis Bonaparte, Eugène Beauharnois, and others. June 9, the armament appeared be- fore Malta. Bonaparte solicited of baron von Hompesch, the grand master, permission to procure a supply of fresh water from the island. His refusal afforded a pretext for the conquest of the island, which had been long contemplated. 'The next morning, the French had landed on all points, and at evening, and notwithstanding a brisk cannonade, were masters of the island, which was surrendered at midnight, with all its fortres- ses. The victors left a garrison of 4000 men, and on the 19th sailed for Alexandria. July 1, the minarets of Alexandria were seen, and Bonaparte issued an order on board the fleet, in which he exhorted his army to endure with patience the diffi- culties before them, to respect the religion of Mohammed, and the customs of the Egyptians, not to plunder, to imitate the Roman legions in protecting all religions. Nelson had been here a short time before in search of the French. The appre- hension that he might soon return induced the general to has- ten the disembarkation of the troops. This was accomplished, without interruption, July 2, at Marabout, an anchorage to the east of Alexandria, notwithstanding the wind and waves were unfavourable. The French army marched, without cannons or horses, towards Alexandria. Bonaparte was himself on foot. Some Arabs attacked the French; general Kleber was severely wounded. On the 5th, Alexandria was taken and immediately fortified. Rosetta was taken at the same time, by general Mar- mont, and, July 6, the whole fleet was moored in the roads be- fore Aboukir. Garrisons were left in Alexandria (where Kle- ber was made governor), Rosetta, and Aboukir, and the army, now 30,000 strong, marched in five divisions towards Cairo, the capital of Egypt. Not far from it, near the pyramids of Gizeh, a decisive battle was fought. Murad Bey had intrenched him- self there, with about 20,000 Mameluke infantry, several thou- sand Mameluke cavalry, and forty pieces of cannon. The well- directed fire of the French, and the resolution with which they used their bayonets, frustrated all the attacks of the Mame- lukes, who fled to the contiguous deserts, as soon as the camp and the village of Embabey were taken by storm. All the Can- mon and 400 camels fell into the hands of the French; 3000 of the enemy lay dead on the field ; the French lost few men in comparison. This happened on the 23d, and Bonaparte entered Cairo on the 24th ; for Ibrahim Bey, who was to cover it, after the unfortunate issue of the battle of the pyramids, was driven by Desaix over the deserts to Upper Egypt. Napoleon establish- ed a government here, consisting of seven members, summoned the sheiks, mollas, and sheriffs, who promised to acknowledge the French republic, and, on his side, pledged himself to respect the Mohammedan religion, and the property of the inhabitants. July 25, general Bonaparte left Cairo to pursue the Mamelukes, and, after many combats with them, returned to the capital, leaving Regnier as commandant of the province of Charquich, On his return to Cairo, an aid of Kleber brought him the news of the defeat of the French fleet at Aboukir (q.v.) by Nelson. The defeat was in part owing to the negligence of admiral Brueys and vice-admiral Villeneuve, who allowed themselves to be sur- prised when the whole fleet was taking in water, and not ready for battle, and who have always been said to have acted against the express orders of general Bonaparte, who had directed them to enter the harbour of Alexandria, or to sail for Corfu, before he left the shore to penetrate into the country. Bouri- enne, however, in his Memoirs (Paris, 1829), asserts that * The fleet consisted of ten 74's, with one ship of 120 and two of 80 guns, two Venetian vessels of 64 guns, fourteen frigates, seventy-two corvettes, &c. and 400 transports, from Toulon, Genoa, Ajaccio, Civita Vecchia,—one of the greatest naval armaments that ever sailed, containing 40,000 soldiers, and jo,000 sailors. The fleet which sailed for Algiers, in April, 1830, Gop- sisted of eleven ships of the line, twelve frigates of 60, and as many oſ 50 guns, with corvettes, &c.; in the whole, ninety-seven men-of-war, CAMPAIGN OF THE FRENCH IN EGYPT. Bonaparte never gave such orders.” General Bonaparte saw his communication with France threatened, and himself ex- posed to the greatest of all enemies, want. Exasperated by the transformation of so important a dependency as Egypt into a French province, the Porte declared war against France, Sep., 2, 1798, and menaced an attack from the side of Asia. The in- habitants of Cairo rebelled. Many of the French, especially the savants, artists, and mechanics, were murdered; but, after a bloody conflict in the city, September 23 and 25, the insurgents, who had fled to the principal mosque, were compelled to sur- render unconditionally. After the restoration of quiet, Bona- parte, having organized a system of government for Egypt, on French principles, marched, February 27, 1799, with about 18,000 men, from Cairo to Syria, took the fort of El-Arish, in the desert, then Jaffa, and, having conquered the inhabitants of Naplous, at Zeta, procured there a supply of provisions, which he greatly needed, in order to be able to under: take the siege of St Jean d’Acre, and was again victorious at Jafet. In the mean while, the British, who had appeared before St Jean d'Acre under Sir Sidney Smith, had succeeded in reinforcing the Turkish garrison of this place with several hundred infantry and artillery, and introducing ammunition. This enabled the Turks to repel several assaults, and, notwith- standing the most violent fire from the French batteries, to sustain the attack so long, that Bonaparte was obliged to raise the siege. During this siege, general Bonaparte marched with 25,000 men, towards the plain of Fiuli, where 40,000 of the enemy had assembled. On the 16th and 17th of April, they were beaten in the memorable battle of mount Tabor, near the Jordan. It was on the retreat from St Jean d’Acre, that the Turkish prisoners were said to have Ireen pill, ſo death at Jaffa, and the French soldiers, sick of the plague in the hospitals, poi- soned. (For some remarks on this subject, see the article Jaffa.) A third of the army had become the victims of war and the plague. After a fatiguing march of twenty-six days, the troops arrived at Cairo. A Turkish fleet soon after landed 18,000 men at Aboukir, who took the fort there. Bonaparte quickly led his best troops thither, stationed himself near the fountain between Alexandria and . Aboukir, and offered battle to the Turks, July 25. Mustapha Pacha, with all his retinue and artillery, was taken ; 2000 Turks perished in the waves or in battle, and the remainder of the army, which had thrown itself into the fort of Aboukir, was compelled to surrender unconditionally Aug. 2. By this victory, general Bonaparte's power in Egypt was again confirmed. At this period, the French had experien- ced considerable reverses in Europe. The battle of the Trebia had been lost, the French had evacuated the Genoese territory, Massena, in Switzerland, was in great danger. General Boma. parte saw the danger of his country, and the loss of his com- quests in Italy, and resolved to return, having from the begin- Iting permission to do so whenever he chose. But how could he know the state of things in Europe 2 It has been often asserted, that he obtained his information from English papers, which the French officers had received from the English, when engaged in the exchange of prisoners. But would the general have undertaken so important a step merely on the authority of IEnglish papers, which were known to contain many misrepre- Sentations 2 The fact is, that his brother Joseph sent a Greek of Cephalonia, mamed Bombachi, to induce him to return. The order which gave the command to Kleber was dated August 22, 1799, and contained wise directions respecting the army and country. The instructions contain two keys of ciphers, one to be used in communications to the directory, and the other in those made to himself. The conclusion, also, shows, that it did not escape him how necessary it might become, in some future time, to have the army personally attached to him. By the time his departure was known to the army, Bonaparte's frigate had weighed anchor. August 23, he left Aboukir in the Muiron, a Venetian vessel, commanded by rear-admiral Gantheaume. The situation of the troops under Kleber’s com- mand became more critical every day. General Verdier re- elled a new disembarkation of the Turks, in November, 1799; ut, for an army that could not be recruited, the smallest loss was serious. The advices from Europe were not encouraging ; and, at this juncture, Kleber, having been informed that the grand vizier was marching from Syria to Egypt, with a large army, concluded, January 24, 1800, the treaty of El-Arish, with the vizier and Sir Sidney Smith. By this treaty it was pro- vided, that a truce should be granted to the French for three months, till the ratification of the treaty, when they should evacuate Egypt. But the letter of Kleber to the directory, in which he set forth the miserable state of the army, and urged the ratification of the treaty, fell into the hands of the English admiral Keith, and was sent to Britain. It was now de- manded that the whole French army should be made prisoners of war. Kleber immediately resumed his arms, and defeated the vizier at Heliopolis, March 18, exacted a tax for the pay- ment of his soldiers, formed new regiments of the Copts and Greeks, gave security to the coasts, and founded magazines. In the midst of his untiring activity, he was murdered in Cairo by a Turk, June 14, and the command devolved on Abdallah Menou. Meantime the British government had resolved to Wrest Egypt from the French. March 1, the British arrived before Alexandria, and, on the 13th, the disembarkation was accomplished at Aboukir. 'The French, about 4000 men strong, gave battle on the next day, but were forced to retire. :Aboukir surrendered on the 18th, and the British intrenched themselves there. On the 21st, Menou commenced an attack, with 10,000 men, was beaten, and threw himself into Alexan. * Bonapate, wrote an affectionate letter to the widow of admiral Brueys, who had been killed in the battle of Aboukir, gave her a pension after he became consul, and educated her sons. - 813 dria. . But the British general Abercrombie was mortally wounded and died on the 2Sth ; Hutchinson succeeded him in the command. On the 2sth, reinforcements were brought by a 'Turkish fleet, and the vizier was now approaching from Syria. On the 19th of April, Rosetta surrendered to the coin- bined forces of the British and Turks. A French corps of 4000 men was defeated at Ramanieh, by 8000 British and 6000 Turks. 5000 French were obliged to retreat, at Elmenayer, May 16, by the vizier, who was pressing forward to Cairo, with 20,000 men ; and the whole French army was now blocked up in Cairo and Alexandria. June 20, the siege of Cairo was for- mally commenced. There were but 7000 men to defend the city against 40,000. It capitulated, June 27, to the British and Turks, on condition that general Belliard and his troops should evacuaté the city and country, should be transported to France at the expense of Britain, and that the native Egyptians should be permitted to accompany him. August 17, they embarked at Rosetta, and arrived at Toulon in September, 1801, about 13,000 in number, of whom hardly 4000 were armed. General Memou still remained in Alexandria. Admiral Gantheaume had sailed, before Belliard’s arrival, with several ships of the line, and from 3 to 4000 troops, from France, and arrived before Alexandria, but was compelled to hasten back to Toulon, with a loss of 4 corvettes. On the other hand, the British had re- ceived 5000 fresh troops from Britain, and now attacked Alexandria. They were already masters of castle Marabout, when Menou requested a truce ; to which he was impelled by a want of provisions, and a new reinforcement which had joined the British, consisting of 6000 men under general Baird, from the East Indies. Memou capitulated September 2. Alex- andria, with all the artillery and ammunition, 6 French ships of war, and many merchantmen, together with all the Ara- bian manuscripts, all the maps of Egypt, and other collections made for the French republic, were given up. The French army was transported, with its arms and baggage, to a French harbour, which they reached at the end of November. The garrison of Alexandria had comprised above S000 soldiers, and 1307 marines. Three years and six months had elapsed since the first embarkation at Toulon. Four weeks after the loss of Egypt, the preliminaries of peace were signed at London, Oc- tober 1, 1801. This expedition to the valley of the Nile, as far as Philae, on the frontiers of Nubia—the island which served as the extrérne frontier post of the Roman empire in the south (a Ger- man, named Waldeck, however, pretends to have discovered a pillar, erected by Vespasian's warriors, at the foot of the Moun- tains of the Moon)—was attended with important conse- quences for the higher interests of humanity; because science and art, in this expedition, went hand in hand with war. Those who say that Napoleon was not a friend to the arts and sciences will find it difficult to name any expedition, in which such ample provision was made for their advancement. These cam- paigns revealed to scientific Europe treasures which had been too long concealed by tyranny and barbarism. The ancient Denderah, Thebes, Latopolis and Edfu were disclosed, with their temples, palaces, ruins, obelisks and catacombs, to the view of the learned men who accompanied the expedition to Egypt. Secrets which neither Herodotus, Strabo, nor Dio- dorus had been able entirely to penetrate, and which had re- mained closely hidden from the view of all modern travellers, were now unfolded. The so long misunderstood Egyptian ar. chitecture was now displayed in all its grandeur; and the veil was raised, which had formerly covered a great portion of the history, the manners, the science and geography of this coun- try. In one and the same spirit, this people inscribed on the walls of its palaces, temples, and Sepulchres, the images of its gods and kings, the forms of its celestial observations, of its Sacred usages and domestic life. These monuments of stone are the oldest traces of the human mind, showing to us the customs of nations in the ages reputed fabulous. The study of antiquities and legislation, as well as the history of Egypt, teaches , anew the great , truth, that all progress in the arts and Sciences has an intimate connexion with the spirit of the political constitution and government of a coun- try, and the necessity of a careful observance of justice and right. We now know, that, of all civilized nations, the Egyp- tians were the first to observe the course of the stars; since Europe has become acquainted, by means of the French, with the sculpture and architecture in which the Egyptians imbodied in stone their astronomical knowledge. Thus the zodiac of Denderah (see Denderah), now in Paris, and other monuments show the progress which this people had made in astronomy. Previously, no one suspected the existence of the store of papyrus manuscripts, which were found in the catacombs of Thebes. The rich decorations of these catacombs, including paintings almost uninjured by time, give us a glimpse of the habits and domestic life of the generation by whom they were built; and the discovery of the famous stone of Rosetta has done much towards affording the long-desired clue to the hiero- glyphics. (See, Spohn.) The monuments of Egypt witnessed the rise and fall of Tyre, Carthage, Athens, and Rome, and yet exist. When Plato lived, they were venerable for their anti- quity, and will cominand the admiration of future generations, When, perhaps, every trace of our cities shall have vanished. In the Egyptian nation, everything that concerned religion and government partook of the character of eternity, in a cli- mate where all animal and vegetable life rises speedily to per- fection, and as speedily decays. The permanence of the insti- tutions of the country was certainly influenced by the sight of the public monuments, on which time had tried its corroding power in vain. While beholding these stupendous works, we reflect with awe on the generations that have passed away since they arose, and the ages that must elapse before the pyramids 814 shall bow their heads to the dust. Everything that zeal in the cause of science, combined with the most extensive knowledge, has been able to collect, in a land rich as Egypt is in monuments of every kind, and in the rarest curiosities, is comprised in a work, compiled at the cost of the French go- vernment, by the committee for Egyptian antiquities. This work corresponds, in the grandeur of its proportions, to the edifices which it describes. The Description de l'Egypte, 016 Recueil des Observations et des Recherches pendant l'Expédition de l'Armée Française, 25 vols., with more than 900 engravings and 3000 sketches (the last number appeared in IS26), contains all the transactions of the institute of Cairo. The first of the three great divisions contains the antiquities, the Second the modern condition, and the third the natural history of Egypt. In compliance with the wishes of Napoleon, only a few copies were printed. Of these, a small number were sent to foreign courts. None of the essays were received till after a previous examination by a committee consisting of the savants and ar- tists who had accompanied the army under Bonaparte to Egypt. Among these were Berthollet, Costar, Degenettes, Fourier, Girard, Monge, Conté and Laurent. The place of the two last, who died during the progress of the work, was supplied by Jomard and Jallois, to whom were afterwards added Délille and I)evilliers. Louis XVIII. and Charles X. caused the ublication of this valuable work to be continued, and, in 1821, anckoucke, a bookseller in Paris, was permitted to undertake a new edition, and make use of the valuable copperplates of the former edition. Jacotin's splendid map of Egypt, coºl- structed by the French engineers on the spot, is annexed to the Atlas of Egypt. The discoveries of Champollion, and the pre- valent zeal for investigating the “country of wonders,” may be said to have had their origin in the French expedition to Egypt. The account of this expedition and of the motives which prompted it, given in the third and eighth chapters of the second volume of Buchholz's Geschächte Napoleon Bonaparte's History of N. Bonaparte), Berlin, 1829, 3 vols., is good. See also the memoirs of the duke of Rovigo (Savary). There has been published, L’Histoire scientifique et militaire de l'Expédi- tion Française en Egypte (Paris, 1830), under the direction of X. B. Saintine, with an atlas, preceded by a history of Egypt from the earliest times, and with an account of the administra- tion of Ali Pacha, and likewise Campagne d’Egypte, stºče de l’Histoire de France, par Anquetil, 3d vol. by F. Fayot, Paris, 1830. EG YPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. Charon, and Hieroglyphics. EHRENBREITSTEIN; an important fortress, on a rock upon the Rhine, opposite Coblentz, in the former archbishopric of the Treves. The French con- tinued to blockade it in 1798 and 1799, during the negotiations for peace, till at length it was obliged to surrender for want of provisions, January 29, and, in 1801, was blown up. At the bottom of the rock, near the little town of Thal-Ehrenbreitstein, is the castle of the elector, which, however, was in great part de- stroyed during the siege. In 1802, the dilapidated for- tress, the village, and the jurisdiction appertaining to it, were bestowed upon the prince of Nassau-Weilberg, by way of indemnity. They were subsequently ceded to Prussia, and now belong to the Prussian grand-duchy of the Lower Rhine (the province of Cleves-Berg). The fortress has been lately rebuilt, on the newest and most approved principles, so that it is considered one of the finest fortresses in the world. See Coblentz. EIDER, DUCK (anas mollissima, Lin., Wilson; fuligula, Bon.) This valuable bird is found from 45° north to the highest latitudes yet visited, both in Eu- rope and America. Its favourite haunts are solitary rocky shores and islands. In Greenland and Iceland, they occur in great quantities. In particular spots, their nests are so abundant, that a person can scarcely walk without treading on them. The eider duck is about twice the size of the common duck. Their nests are usually formed of drift grass, dry sea-weed, lined with a large quantity of down, which the fe- male plucks from her own breast. In this soft bed she lays five eggs, which she covers over with a layer of down; then the natives, who watch her ope- rations, take away both the eggs and the down : the duck lays a second time, and again has recourse to the feathers of her body to protect her offspring : even this, with the eggs, is generally taken away; and it is said, that, in this extremity, her own stock being exhausted, the drake furnishes the third quan- tity of down : if the robbery should be repeated, however, they abandon the place. See Cemetery, EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY-EISENACH, nerally furnishes about half a pound of down, which is worth about two dollars. This down, from its superior warmth, lightness, and elasticity, is preferred by the luxurious, to every other article for beds and coverlets; and, from the great demand for it, those districts in Norway and Iceland, where these birds abound, are regarded as the most valuable property, and are guarded with the greatest vigilance. Each proprietor endeavours, by every means in his power, to draw those birds from his neighbour's ground to his own, and, when they settle in an island off the shore, the cattle and herdsmen are removed to allow them to breed undisturbed. Very little of the eider down remains in the countries where it is collected. As found in commerce, this down is in baſis of the size of a man's fist, and weighing from three to four pounds. It is so fine and elastic, that when a ball is opened, and the down cautiously held over hot coals to expand, it will completely fill a quilt five feet square. The down from dead birds is little es- teemed, having lost its elasticity. The length of this duck is two feet three inches, extent of the wings three feet, weight from six to seven pounds: the head is large, and the bill of sin- gular structure, being three inches in length, forked in a remarkable manner, running high up in the fore- head, between which the plumage descends nearly to the nostrils : the whole of the bill is of a dull, yel- lowish horn colour, somewhat dusky in the middle. The male is black, head and back white, with a black crown. The female is wholly reddish drab, spotted with black, with two white bands across the wings. The young of both sexes are the same, being covered with a kind of hairy down, throat and breast whitish, and a cinereous line from the bill through the eyes to the hind head. These birds associate in flocks, generally in deep water, diving to great depth for shell-fish, which constitute their principal food. They frequently retire to the rocky shores to rest, particularly on the appearance of an approach- ing storm. Their flesh is eaten by the Greenlanders, but tastes strongly of fish. The eggs, however, are esteemed. These and the down are both frequently obtained at the hazard of life by people let down by ropes from craggy steeps. With five pounds of the best eider down, a whole bed may be well filled. The Greenlanders likewise use the skin, taken off, feathers and all, for their under dresses. The down is divided into two sorts; sea-weed down, and grass down. The former kind is the heaviest ; but the labour of cleaning is greater. Much of the down is lost in cleaning. Iceland furnishes annually from 200 to 300 pounds cleaned, and from 1500 to 2000 pounds impure. EIFEL ; a district rich in monuments of the Ro- mans, and of the middle ages, lying between the Moselle, the Rhine, and the Roer. Schannat's Eiſlia, illustrata was published by Barsch in Latin, with an- notations (Cologne, 1824, 2 vols.). EISENACH (anciently Isemacum); a town in Ger- many, and Capital of a principality of the same name, belonging to the grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar, on the Nesse ; 26 miles west Erfurt, 40 west Weimar; lon, 10° 20' E.; lat. 500 59' N. It is a well built town, and contains five churches, a gymnasium with a library, and has some manufactures, chiefly of coarse woollen. It is most agreeably situated, near the mountains of Thuringia. Half a league from this town lies the Wartburg, an ancient mountain castle, to which the elector, Frederic the Wise, of Saxony, ordered Luther to be carried, after the latter had been placed under the bann of the empire, by the diet at Worms. Luther lived here as the chevalier George, from May 4, 1521, to March 6, 1522, and One female ge- laboured zealously in the translation of the Bible. E.JECTMENT—ELAIN. The view from this castle over an ocean of leaves is charming. In 1817, many German students assem- bled here, and celebrated the anniversary of the bat- tle of Leipsic, (October 18, 1813). The zeal which they evinced for the union of their divided and lacerated country, together with the burning of various books, the political character of which was offensive to them, displeased the German govern- ments, and gave rise to the prosecution of many stu- dents supposed to be disaffected. The War on the Wartburg is an ancient German poem, of great inte- rest in the history of German literature. Population of Eisenach, about 8,000. EJECTMENT, in law, is an action by which a person ousted from the possession of an estate for years, in lands or tenements, may recover that pos- session. But, though the action is intended only for the recovery of a term for years, it is, in fact, used in England to try the title to an estate of inheritance or for life. In the early periods of the English law, the tenant, or person dispossessed of his estate for years, could not recover the possession of it, in this action, in the courts of law ; he could only recover damages for the injury sustained by being driven from the possession; but the dispossessor kept pos- session of the term, just as is the case at present in the action of trover and conversion, in respect to a chattel, in which the owner does not recover the chat- tel itself, but damages for being deprived of it. But the court of equity, in this case, as in many others, led the way in ameliorating the law, and enlarged the remedy, so that the plaintiff might recover the term itself; and the courts of law, following those of equity, as early as Edward IV., adopted the same remedy, and awarded execution for putting the plain- tiff into repossession of his estate, though no such thing was warranted by the writ, or prayed for by the declaration. After taking this step, the next one was to adopt the same form of action for trying the title to the lands. This application of the action of ejectment was made as early as the time of Henry VII. To do this, the person who claimed an estate of inheritance, of which another was in possession, entered upon it, and then made a lease, and the lessee took posses- sion, and remained upon the land in virtue of the lease, until the person claiming under an adverse title put him out ; or, if no such person appeared to expel him from the land, he pretended to be driven off by the first person who happened to pass that way, and who was thence called the casual ejector, who was, in fact, no ejector at all. Being thus ejected in fact, or by fiction, he brought his action of eject- ment, or the party claiming the title brought it in his name, and in this suit the title was necessarily brought into question; for, in order to get possession, he must prove that he had a good and valid lease, which he would endeavour to do by showing that the lessor had the right to make such a lease ; that is, that he had the title and right of possession. Besides prov- ing the title of his lessor, he must also prove the lease, his entry under it, and his ouster, or being driven out of possession. When the object was to try the title, the lease, entry, and ouster, were a mere ceremony, and might as well be supposed or imagined as actually to take place. The courts, ac- cordingly, allowed a fiction of the lease, entry, and ouster; the plaintiff stated them to have taken place, though there had, in fact, been no such thing, nor was there any such person as the one named as being the lessee, who, in England, is always John Doe. Thus the action of Doe ea dem. [demissol Johnson, against Sampson, means the action of Doe, the lessee of Johnson against Sampson. If the nominal plain- tiff, Doe, were liable to be called upon to show him- 815. self to the court, there would be an end of the suit, as there would be no such person to be found. Nor would the demandant succeed any better, were he called upon to prove that there had been any such lease, entry, or ouster; as all this is a fiction. Formerly, the defendant also, the casual ejector, as well as the plaintiff, was a man of straw, or little better; for he was frequently a person who acci- dentally came in sight at the time of making the lease, if there was any in fact made, and who would not be disposed to trouble himself to prevent the de- mandant from getting possession of land, in which he himself had no interest or concern ; or he might be a friend of the demandant, who had come upon the land at his request, to act as ejector, and would be very willing that the demandant should recover it. The tenant, therefore, who is in actual possession of the estate, unless his right is defended by some other person than the indifferent defendant whose name appears on the docket of the court, is likely to lose his inheritance. To prevent this, the court allows him to appear and defend himself, against the claim ; and the court always requires that notice shall be served upon him, to give him an opportunity to appear. But, before the court will permit him to appear for this purpose, they require of him to admit all these fictions of a lease to John Doe, his entry and ouster, which he is willing to do rather than lose his land. These being admitted by him, he may then proceed to defend the action, and try the ques- tion whether he has a better right to continue in pos- session than this supposed John Doe has to recover the possession, upon his supposed lease. The titles of the demandant and tenant are thus brought into comparison, and decided upon. But when the object is, in fact, to recover a term for years, of which the demandant has been dispossessed, the lease, entry and ouster are of importance, and must be proved. EL, or AL; the only article of the Arabian lan- guage. It is contained in many geographical names ; for instance, Aldjezair (Algiers), the islands; El- Arisch, the cradle. This syllable has remained in many names of places in Spain and Portugal, as Al- cantara, the bridge ; Alcazar, the palace ; Algarve, the west. ELAIN ; the oily principle of fat, obtained by submitting fat to the action of boiling alcohol, allow- ing the stearin to crystallize, and then evaporating the alcoholic solution; or, by the simple process of pressing any oily or fatty substance between folds of bibulous paper, the oily matter or elain is absorbed, while the stearin remains. The paper being then soaked in water, and pressed, yields up the elain. It possesses much the appearance and properties of vegetable oil, is liquid at the temperature of 60° Fahr., and has an odour derived from the solid fats from which it has been extracted. It is readily So- luble in alcohol, and forms Soaps with alkalies; in doing which, however, it undergoes decomposi- tion, and is converted, according to Chevreul, into a peculiar acid, called by him oleic acid, which com bines with the alkali employed. This acid is ob- tained by submitting the soap formed by the action of potash on hog's lard to the action of boiling water; the solution, on cooling, deposits a sediment con- sisting of the margarate of potash, while the oleate of potash remains in solution. The oleate of potash is decomposed by tartaric acid, again combined with potash, and again decomposed by tartaric acid, when the oleic acid rises to the top in the condition of an oily-like fluid. It is insoluble in water, Soluble in alcohol, reddens litmus, and combines with the dif. ferent salifiable bases, forming compounds somewhat analogous to soaps. At a temperature of 35° Fahr., it congeals into crystalline needles. 816 CLASTIC GUM. See Caoutchouc. ELALIA ; a town of Africa, in Tunis, near the eastern coast, in a large extent of ruins on the bor- ders of a fertile plain; 90 S. S. E. Tunis; lon. 11° 2' E.; lat. 350 67 N. Besides such ruins as it has in common with other places, there are several cis- terms, with large paved areas built over them, in order to receive the rain water, that, in the rainy season, is to fill and replenish them. Several Com- veniences of the like mature are dispersed all over this dry country. Elalia seems to be the Acolla or Acilla of the ancients. ELASTICITY; the peculiar property of bodies, by virtue of which, the particles of which they are composed, when moved out of their positions by an external force, or pressed into a narrower space, tend to return to their former position, as Soon as the external force ceases to act. A bow, bent by the tension of the string, recovers its previous form when the tension is relaxed. Let an ivory ball fall upon a plate of marble, it is partially flattened by the impulse, but becomes immediately round again as soon as the force of the blow is destroyed. Here we see the cause of its rebounding from the hard surface. Feathers are in a high degree elastic. This property of elasticity is particularly observable in atmospheric air. If it is enclosed in a vessel, and pressed with a piston, as soon as the force is removed from the piston, the air throws it up violently. This is the principle of the air-gun. There is an impor- tant difference between the elasticity of solids and fluids; the former tend to recover their previous form ; the latter to expand into a greater space, whence the term eaſpansibility is applied to them. For the sake of distinction, the elasticity of Solid bodies may be termed attractive, and that of fluids, expansive. The degree of it is very different in different bodies, and in many it is increased by art. Those bodies in which it cannot be perceived at all are called unelastic. The elasticity of a solid body is greater the more its particles are expanded. . If all the particles of a body are so far expanded that their elasticity is just equal to the expansive power, the expansion can be carried no further without separating the particles. The weights, necessary to produce a given degree of extension, must be pro- portionate to the extension already existing. If three cords, of the same size and substance, stretched in pro- portion to the numbers 1, 2, 3, are to receive each a given amount of additional extension, the weights necessary to produce this extension are as 1, 2, 3. The laws of elasticity in fluids are different from those in solids. In heavy elastic fluids, the inferior layers support the weight of the Superior; in a cy- lindrical vessel, therefore, the bottom suffers the Fº of the whole mass of elastic fluid, and the ower strata are sensibly denser than the upper. A difference is made, too, between absolute and specific elasticity. By the former is understood the peculiar property of bodies to repel a pressing force, in itself, and without regard to temperature and density. This must be always equal to the pressing force. But as different kinds of matter may press with equal force under unequal densities and tempera- tures, that is called specifically most elastic, which with a less density presses with a force equally strong, and with an equal density stronger. In all elastic fluids, the specific elasticity increases with the temperature; it is likewise augmented by greater density: if air is confined, and made more dense, its specific elasticity is greater in proportion to its in- crease of density. ELATER ; the name of an insect remarkable for a singular apparatus between the thorax and abdo- men, by which it is enabled to throw itself to a con- ELASTICITY ELIBE. siderable height in the air, when placed on its back. It thus regains its proper position when accidentally overturned. The arrangement by which this is effected is so curious, that we cannot suppose it in- tended solely for this purpose, and deem it most probable that other and more valuable services are rendered to the insect, by it. A spine is produced from the centre of the breast or sternum, and enters a socket in the ante-pectus or breast. The force and elasticity with which the spine enters its appro- priate receptacle, aided by the form of the thorax, produces a jar or concussion sufficient to throw the insect several inches into the air. When alarmed, the elater draws its limbs close to the body, and fall. ing to the earth quite motionless, counterfeits death. Flowers, grass, and decaying wood, are the proper ha- bitations of these animals, which are almost always found singly, and not in numbers collected together, as in the case of many other beetles. One species is accused of depredations on the roots of wheat— the E. striatus of Fabricius, an inhabitant of Europe. The elater noctilucus possesses luminous proper- ties, which are unlike those of the glow-worm, &c., being seated near the head. In South America, where they abound, the natives term them cucuyos, and the Spanish residents, cucuffo. Colour, dark brown, with an ash-coloured down; thorax on each side, with a convex round spot, from which the light is emitted; clytra with lines of impressed punc- tures. The light emitted by several of these insects, enclosed in a glass vase, is sufficient to read by with- out much difficulty. As ornaments for the hair and evening dresses of the Spanish ladies, they are said to be in great request; but it is probable that the feeble light which they produce would be entirely eclipsed by the glare of artificial light. It has been asserted, that the luminous quality of the cucujo is not confined to the spots upon the thorax, but that the whole interior of the animal possesses the pro- perty of affording light. This is considered doubtful. ELBA (anciently Ilva); a small island in the Mediterranean, near the coast of Tuscany, to which, at present, it belongs, and from which it is separated by the channel of Piombino. The island is about eight miles in length, and two in breadth; was known to the Greeks by the name of Aithalai, and to the Romans by that of Ilva, or Elva, and has been renowned for its mines from a period beyond the reach of history. Pliny gives it a circuit of 100 miles; late geographers allow only sixty to its circuit. The difference might be accounted for by the encroachments of the sea, and by the tumbling in of rocks, which are in many places of a moulder- ing contexture. Being extremely mountainous, Elba affords but scanty room for cultivation, and produces little more than six months’ provision of corn for its inhabitants. The climate is much milder than that of the adjacent continent. Elba contains two grand ports—Porto Ferraio, with 3000 inhabi- tants, and Porto Longone, with 1500 inhabitants, both defended by fortifications and garrisons. Lon. 10° 26' E.; lat. 42° 53' N. ; population, 13,750; square miles, 153. It produces annually near 36,000 cwt. of iron ore, which yield, at least, fifty per cent. of metal. It is rich in silver, marble, and load- stone; 600,000 bags of salt are annually produced. In 1814, Elba was granted to Napoleon, with all the rights of sovereignty. He took possession of , it May 4, and left it February 26, 1815, to undertake his memorable march to Paris. ELBE (anciently Albis); one of the largest rivers of Germany. It rises in the Riesengebirge mountains, about 4260 feet above the level of the sea, and takes a southerly course through a part of Bohemia to Pardubitz, where it turns towards the W. and N. W. ELPEE—ELDERS. At Melneck, having received the Moldau, it becomes navigable; after which it enters Saxony, passes by Konigstein, Pirnau, Dresden, Meissen, Belgern, enters Prussia, and passes Torgau, Wittenberg, Coswick, Dessau, Barby, Magdeburg, Tangermunde, runs between Mecklenburg and Hanover, passes Lauenburg, Hamburg, Gluckstadt, &c., and runs into the German ocean, about lon. 8° E., lat. 54° 3' N., near Cuxhaven, after a course of more than 500 miles. In commerce, the Elbe gives to Hamburg its command of the navigation far into the interior. The circumstance, however, that this noble river passes through so many kingdoms, dukedoms, and petty states, has rendered the navigation of it a point of much contest, which, in spite of the promise of the congress of Vienna to make the navigation of all the German rivers free, has not yet been settled. ELBEE, GIGoT D', generalissimo of the Vendean royalists, a man of distinguished courage and charac- ter, was born at Dresden, 1752. He served in the electoral army of Saxony, and entered the French army as lieutenant of cavalry. At the beginning of the revolution, he retired to his estate in Anjou, where the insurgent peasants of La Vendée, in 1793, chose him their leader. He alternately conquered and was conquered; and was at last wounded and taken prisoner, in the island of Noirmoutier, brought before a court-martial, and shot, January 2, 1794. ELBERFELD ; a commercial city, and capital of the district of Dusseldorf, in the Prussian province of Cleves-Berg, containing about 2000 houses, and 25,000 inhabitants. Two centuries ago, the popula- tion was scarcely 800. The pure mountain stream of the Wupper, particularly adapted to bleaching, first led to the establishment of linen bleacheries there. The undressed yarn comes from Hesse, Brunswick, Hildesheim, and Hanover. The manu- factures of linen and woollen ribands, and of lace, were the first established. France, Italy, Spain, Russia, America, &c., consume vast quantities of these goods. Fringes, bed-tickings, thread, thread- lace, &c., employ a large number of workmen. When the English process of spinning yarn became known, the manufacture of cotton articles was highly improved. Dyeing with Turkish red has been another very important branch of business in Elberfeld since 1780. The silk manufacture, since 1760, has been of great importance. The annual amount of the silk stuffs made in the province of Berg is upwards of £450,000, and the amount of all the manufactures in Elberfeld and Barmen is about £2,025,000. Large quantities of manufactures from this place are sent, by way of Hamburg and Antwerp, to Mexico, Buenos Ayres, Chile, Peru, and the East Indies. Here is the seat of the Rhenish East India company. - ELBEUF, or ELBOEUF ; a town in France, im- portant for its cloth manufactories, in the depart- ment of the Lower Seine, four leagues S. S. W. of Rouen. It has about 10,000 inhabitants ; 7000 of whom manufacture annually from 28 to 30,000 pieces of cloth, most of which is consumed in France; the rest is sent to Spain, Italy, and the Levant. ELBING ; a town in West Prussia, on the river Elbing, near its entrance into the Frische-Haff; thirty miles S. E. of Dantzic ; lon. 19° 22' E.; lat. 54° 8' N. ; population, about 20,000. It is divided into the old and new towns, exclusive of the suburbs, and contains five Lutheran churches, one Reformed, one Catholic, and one Mennonist, five hospitals, and a gymnasium. In former times, it was an important commercial place for the exportation of grain, but it has since sunk very much. ELDER ; a name given to the different species II. - 8, 7 of the genus sambucus. These are small trees or shrubs, with opposite and pinnated leaves, bearing Small , white flowers, in large and conspicuous corymbs. The berries are small, and of a black or red colour. The leaves are bitter and nauseous to the taste, and possess purgative and emetic pro- perties. The bark, flowers, and berries are some- times used in medicine, particularly in cases of dropsy. The wood of the young shoots contains a very large proportion of pith. Two species inhabit North America—S. Canadensis, a common plant, from the 49th to the 30th parallel of latitude, and found even among the Rocky mountains, the berries of which are black, and have a sweet taste; and S. pubescens, which bears red berries, and inhabits Canada, the northern parts of New England, and the Alleghany mountains. The species called sam- bucus migra, common in England, is a wild shrub distinguishable by its winged leaves, with serrated and somewhat oval leaflets; its clusters of Small white flowers, divided into five principal branches, and the small black berries, by which these are succeeded. The uses of the elder are more numerous than those of most other shrubs. There is scarcely any part of it which has not been advantageously employed in some way or other. The wood is yellow, and, in old trees, becomes so hard, that it will receive a polish almost as well as box, and indeed is often used as a substitute for box-wood. Its toughness also is such that it is made into skewers for butchers, tops for fishing rods, and needles for the weaving of nets. It is likewise employed by turners. Sir J. E. Smith has remarked that this tree is, as it were, a whole magazine of physic to rustic practitioners, and that it is not quite neglected even by professional men. Oint- ments have been made of the green inner bark, and of the leaves. The dried flowers, infused in water, are used in formentations or as tea, and, mixed with buttermilk, have sometimes been used as a wash for the face. An infusion of the leaves is sometimes sprinkled by gardeners over the buds of such ſlowers as they wish to preserve from caterpillars. Elder flowers have an agreeable flavour, which they impart in distillation to water; they are likewise used to give a flavour to vinegar. The berries are poisonous to poultry, but their juice, properly fer- mented, makes a pleasant and wholesome wine ; and, in Germany, a very pure and strong spirit is distilled from them. The juice of elder berries is sometimes employed to give a red colour to raisin or other sweet wine. The young shoots of this shrub are filled with an jº, light pith, which is cut into balls, for electrical experiments; and is also made into toys for the amusement of children. The elder will thrive in almost any soil and situation; and every part of it has an unpleasant narcotic Smell, which ought to render people cautious not to sleep under its shade, since, in such case, it might prove of serious injury to them. ELDERS. We find among almost all nations, in the infancy of civilization, that the oldest men of the tribe, being considered as the most experienced, and the least liable to be influenced by passion, administer justice, discuss the Welfare of the people, &c. Many names for the highest officers, in various countries, convey the idea of old age, as senator, which is connected with senew. With the ancient Jews, the elders were persons the most considerable for age, wisdom, and experience. Of this sort were the seventy men whom Moses associated with him- self in the government. In the modern Presbyterian churches, elders are officers, who, with the pastors or ministers, and deacons, compose the consistories or 3 F 818 kirk-sessions, with authority to inspect and regulate matters of religion and discipline. In the first churches of New England, the pastors or ministers were called elders, or teaching elders. ELDORADO ; a fabulous country, in which gold and precious stones are as common as rocks or sand in other countries. Francis Orellana, a companion of Pizarro, first spread the account of this fabulous region in Europe; and an Englishman even pub- lished, at the end of the sixteenth century, a de- scription of this favoured country, with a map. The German Schlaraffenland, where roasted pigeons fly into one's mouth, or where, as Goethe has it, the vines are tied by sausages to the stocks, is some- thing similar, as is likewise the French pays de co- cagne. See Cocagna. ELEATIC. A Grecian philosophical sect, so called because three of its most celebrated teachers, Parmenides, Zeno, and Leucippus, were natives of Exez (in Latin Velia) a town in Magna Græcia, built by a colony of Phocaeans, in the time of Cyrus. The founder was Xenophanes. The sect included two parties, one approving the other rejecting ap- peals to observation and experiment. . The latter class maintained the eternity and immutability of the world, that all which existed was only one being, without generation or corruption, and this was God. The apparent changes in the universe they consi- dered as mere illusions of sense. Some learned men have supposed that they understood, by the one being, not the material world, but the originating principle of all things, or the true God, whom they expressly affirm to be incorporeal. The other branch of the Eleatic sect were the Atomic philosophers, who formed their system from attention to the phenomena of nature. Accordingly, Xenophames maintained that the earth consisted of air and fire; that all things were produced out of the earth, and the sun and stars out of the clouds; and that there were four elements. For further information, see Cudworth's Intellectual System, and Brucker's History of Philoso- phy, translated by Enfield. ELECAMPANE (inula helenium); a plant which belongs to the natural order compositae. The stem is three or four feet high, thick, pubescent, and branching above; the radical leaves are often two feet and more in length; the flowers are large and yellow ; the root is perennial, possesses a bitter aro- matic and somewhat acrimonious taste, and has been celebrated in disorders of the breast and lungs; it is useful to promote expectoration, and is also sudorific. ELECTION, in politics. . To give an accurate description of the elections of public officers, as they have existed in the various periods of history, would almost be to give the history of politics, ſor which many valuable materials exist, but which it is much to be regretted, has never yet been fully treated. The subject is worthy of the study of a philosophical mind. Elections are one of the vital elements of all free nations; they have, therefore, always occupied much of the attention of lawgivers, and may, to a certain degree, be considered as a standard to measure the degree of national liberty. The forms of election may be divided into two kinds: 1. those which have grown up, in the course of time, under the various influences which have contributed to modify the po- litical constitution of the country, such as civil war, or internal troubles, conquest, particular laws, &c.; and, 2. those established by a written constitution, of a certain date. Elections, also, may be divided, like constitutions, into aristocratic, and democratic; in the former, the person elected representing a much larger number and more classes of citizens than are comprised in the body of his immediate ELDORADO--ELECTUR, electors; the latter representing his constituents only. Elections, also, may be direct or indirect; in the latter case, the people at large choose electors, who elect the representative or magistrate, as is the form of elections in Bavaria. See the articles Bri- tain, France, &c., for an account of the forms of elections in the respective countries. See also the article Consul, (for an account of the manner of election of that magistrate at Rome,) and the fol- lowing article regarding the electorates of Germany. ELECTOR (Latin); he who chooses, or has the right to choose; a title given to certain members of the German empire, called, in German, Kurfursten, from Furst, prince, and Kur, an old word for elec- tion. . When we hear the ancient German empire called an elective government, we must not connect with this phrase the idea of election, such as it exists in modern governments. The election to the sove- reignty of the German empire was, as indeed might easily be supposed, ill defined, during the middle ages, until the right of election was arrogated by a few members of the empire. This elective constitu- tion was a thousand times more injurious to the empire than a hereditary succession would have been, be- cause the main object of the electors seemed to be, to extort concessions from the emperor, and diminish his authority as much as possible, by the unfortunate, to use the mildest term, elective capitulation. (APahlcapitulation ; see Capitulation). In fact, it is chiefly owing to the defective constitution of the empire, that, whilst France and Britain rose in power by the union of their several parts under one i. the German empire sunk in authority, eing split into a host of sovereignties of every de- gree of consequence, some very important, others very insignificant. - In the early period of the German empire, under the Carlovingian race, the empire was hereditary; but with Conrad I. (chosen in 911) it became elec- tive. The elections, however, became almost con- fined to one powerful family; and the glory which the German empire acquired was owing, in no small measure, to this circumstance, that' the imperial authority remained for generations within the same family. Unity, strength, and internal peace, are essential to the beneficial operation of any political constitution; and if they cannot be attained by good laws, and the spirit of the nation, it is much better that they should be secured by a hereditary monarchy, than that the main objects of a political organization should be lost in the confusion of anarchy, and the struggles of petty ambition. With the fall of the Hohenstaufen family, the ancient great duchies of Bavaria, Saxony, Suabia, Franconia, and Lorraine were divided into parts, yet their claims were not extinguished. Thus originated, from 1245 to 1256, the seven electors, who are found taking part in the election of the emperor Richard of Cornwall, in 1258. The seven electors were those of, 1. Mentz ; 2. Treves ; 3. Cologne (who were archbishops, and chancellors of the empire, and therefore called spiritual electors); 4. the Palatinate ; 5. Branden- burg; 6. Saxony; and 7. Bohemia, which received its electoral authority, in 1290, from Bavaria, which had not appeared in the diet for several elections, having been represented by Bohemia. The other members of the empire, indeed, protested against this authority arrogated by the electors, which was, however, at last acknowledged, in 1338, by the em- peror Louis the Bavarian, and confirmed by Charles IV. (who died in 1378), by the law called the golden bull. Frederic W., elector of the Palatinate (who died in 1632), was declared an outlaw by the empire, and his electoral privilege conferred on Bavaria; and when it was attempted, in the peace ELECTRA—ELECTRICITY, of Westphalia, to settle the contests in the empire, an eighth electorate was created, and given to the Palatinate. Leopold I., in 1692, made Brunswick- Luneburg the ninth electorate, which, after much opposition on the part of the states of the empire, and the body of electors, was acknowledged as such in 1710. When, in 1777, the house of Bavaria became extinct, and the dukedom fell to the Palati- nate, the Bavarian electorship expired likewise, and the number of electors was again eight; of whom Mentz, Treves, and Cologne were ecclesiastical, and elective by the chapter of their archbishopric ; the others secular and hereditary. There were five Ca- tholic and three Protestant electors; Saxony was a Protestant electorate, though the ruling house was Catholic. The chief privileges, common to all the electors, were, 1... the right to elect the emperor; 2. to draw up the elective capitulation (see capitulation); 3. to possess the great offices of the empire ; 4. to form a separate college in the diets; 5. to hold electoral diets (Kurtage), for the election of the emperor, and for consulting on the affairs of the empire, &c.; 6. the exemption of their courts from the appellate jurisdiction of the imperial courts (privilegium de non apellando); 7. to possess the regal dignity, yet not the title of majesty; 8. to possess several electorates at once; 9. to acquire imperial fiefs, and allodial estates in the empire, without the special permission of the emperor. With each electorate there were also special privileges connected, too many to be enumerated here at length. The elector of Mentz, for instance, was president of the electoral college, director of the diet, and in the corpus Catholicorum with the right to crown the emperor, which right, however, was exercised by him alternately with the elector of Treves, after 1656, who was arch-chancel- lor in Gaul and Arles (a nominal dignity). The elector of Cologne was arch-chancellor in Italy, and legatus natus, that is, ea officio, representative of the pope. The elector of Bohemia was arch-cupbearer, and the first of the secular electors. The elector of the Palatinate was arch-sewer, vicar of the empire on the Rhine, and had more than one voice in the diet. The elector of Saxony was arch-marshal, impe- rial vicar of the empire, in the countries under the Saxon law, and director of the corpus evangelicorum. The elector of Brandenburg was arch-chamberlain, and had several votes in the imperial colleges. The elector of Brunswick-Luneburg was arch-treasurer, alternately with the bishop of Osnabruck. By the peace of Luneville, in 1801, the left bank of the Rhine was ceded to France, and the ecclesiastical electors lost their territory. Several changes took place. In 1802, the elector of Mentz was declared elector-arch-chancellor, the two other ecclesiastical electors set aside, and Baden, Wurtemberg, Hesse- Cassel and Salzburg declared electorates; so that there then existed ten electors. August 6, 1806, the emperor abdicated the imperial dignity, and the electors gradually adopted other titles. The elector of Hesse-Cassel fled from his domains against the advice of Louis Bonaparte (see his Réponse, 1829), and was declared by Napoleon to have abdicated his authority. When the elector, after the peace of Paris, in 1814, again took possession of his country, he retained the title of elector, which, hewever, in the new constitution of the German confederacy, has no meaning. ELECTRA ; in fabulous history, daughter of | Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. Her step-father, AF.gisthus, wished her not to marry any of the princes who were her suitors, lest her children should avenge the death of Agamemnon; he married her, however, 819 virgin. At the time of her father's death, she saved her brother Orestes; and when, afterwards, he was tortured by the furies, on account of the murder of his mother, to which his sister had instigated him, and he was informed by the oracle of Delphi that he was slain in Tauria, by a priestess of Diana, she was upon the point of killing with a fire-brand her sister Iphigenia, who had just entered the temple as a priestess of Diana, when Orestes came and pre- vented the deed. Electra afterwards married Py. lades, the intimate friend of her brother Orestes. ELECTRIC CALAMINE. See Zºne. ELECTRICAL EEL. A fish possessing the ex- traordinary property of communicating a sensation similar to an electrical shock, when touched with the hand, or an electric conductor. Body nearly of equal thickness throughout ; head and tail obtuse; length five or six feet. The seat of the organs which pro- duce this curious effect is along the under side of the tail. They are composed of four bundles of parallel membranaceous laminae, placed very near each other, and nearly horizontally, extended from the skin to the central medial plane of the body, con- nected together by numerous vertical laminae, ar- ranged transversely. The little cells, or rather the Small prismatic and transverse canals intercepted by these two kinds of laminae, are, according to Cuvier, filled with a gelatinous substance; and the whole apparatus is abundantly supplied with nerves. Elec- trical eels are of several species, the most famous of which is the gymnotus electricus, found in the rivers of South America. It is said to possess power, when in full vigour, to knock down a man, and benumb the limb effected, in the most painful manner, for several hours after communicating the shock. By frequent use of this faculty it becomes impaired, and a considerable interval of rest is required to recruit its electrical properties. Through the medium of water, it is able to destroy Small fishes at a considerable distance, directing the power at pleasure. Some authors aver, that the gymnotus is found so large and powerful as to be— numb a horse, and to drown him while bathing, by the violence of the shock. A specimen of the gym- notus, which was conveyed alive to England some years since, afforded the curious an opportunity of verifying the reports of travellers as to its electric property. Since that period, numerous specimens have been examined, and the preceding observa- tions confirmed. The property of communicating electrical shocks is common to some other fishes of the same subdivision. Specimens of the gymnot us electricus are reported to attain the length of six or Seven feet, but ordinarily they are about three and a half or four feet long. The flesh is eatable, and, in ap- pearance and flavour, said to resemble that of an eel. ELECTRICITY; a branch of natural philosophy, which investigates the attractions, and repulsions, the production of light, and the elevation of tem- perature, as well as the explosions and other pheno. mena attending the friction of vitreous, resinous, and metallic surfaces, and the heating, cooling, evapora- tion and mutual contact of a great number of bodies. Its name is derived from the Greek word #2 exºreov, (amber), in which substance its phenomena were first observed. The knowledge which the ancients were possessed of concerning this interesting and now very extensive branch of science, consisted in little more than the fact, that amber acquired the power of attracting to itself light bodies, on being rubbed, ascribed, by Thales of Miletus, to an inherent soul or essence, which, awakened by friction, went forth, and brought back the light particles floating around- In the year 1600, Dr Gilbert, an English physician, to a man of humble rank in Argos, who left her a | published a treatise upon the magnet, in which he 3 F 2 820 remarked, that several other bodies besides amber can, by friction, be made to attract light bodies. The observations of Boyle, Otto von Guericke, New- ton, and a few other philosophers of the same period, contributed somewhat to the extension of our know- ledge of electricity; but it was during the 18th cen- tury, that the most important discoveries and gene- ralizations of the phenomena before known upon this subject were made. Hawksbee made several very important discov- eries, and among other improvements he introduced the glass globe for producing electricity. Stephen Grey about the year 1729, made a numerous set of ex- periments with glass tubes and other apparatus, which led to the important discovery, that some bodies are conductors, and others non-conductors, of the elec- tric fluid ; and along with his friend W. Wheeler, he discovered the method of insulating bodies. M. Du Fay soon afterwards inferred the distinction of vitre- ous and resinous electricity, from having observed the difference of effects arising from exciting a body of a resinous nature, compared with bodies of a glassy nature. To the same philosopher is due the merit of introducing the metallic conductor in the electric machine. Von Kleist and Muschenbroek simultane- ously discovered the jar or Leyden phial, and Dr Frank- lim combined these jars in theform of what is called the electric battery. The latter philosopher, by experi- menting on the Leyden jar, was led to the conclusion, that while the oneside of thejar (when charged) posses- sed a greater quantity of electricity than its natural share the other side had lost just as much, and that thus while the one side had electricity in excess, the other had it in defect. The distinction which Du Fay had made betweenvitreousand resinous electricity, regard- ing them as different fluids, was by Dr Franklin accounted for, on the principle that one class of bodies were surcharged, and therefore gave out elec- tricity, others were under-charged, and were disposed to receive it,--the first class he called positive, cor- responding to the vitreous class of Du Fay, and the others he termed negative, the same as the resinous of the French philosopher. TXr Franklin was the first who brought down electricity from the clouds, by means of a kite, and he introduced the conducting rod for preserving buildings from the action of lightning. The more recent history of electricity is so intimately connected with galvanism, that it will be best detailed under that article. The order we shall adopt in the present article will be the following :—1. A general statement of electri- cal phenomena, independent of all theory. 2. The theories which have been proposed for explaining these phenomena. 3. Electrical machines. 4. Effects of electrical attraction and repulsion. 5. Distribution of electricity. G. Transference of electricity. 7. Laws of Induction. 8. Motion of electricity. 9. Chemical effects of electricity. 10. Effects of electricity upon living bodies. 11. Electricity developed by changes of temperature and of form, from contact, compression, and other changes in bodies. 12. Electricity of the atmosphere. - I. A dry glass rod, a piece of amber or sealing wax, when rubbed briskly with a dry woollen cloth, and immediately presented to light bodies, such as fragments of paper, thread, cork, straw, Cotton or gold leaf, will first attract and then repel them. The bodies which have thus acquired this attractive and repulsive power are said to be excited. All sub- stances, however, are not capable of becoming excited ; hence the distinction of bodies into classes —electrics, or such as become excited by friction, and non-electrics, or those which, when rubbed, do not display electric phenomena. The principal elec- tric substances in nature are the following:—viz. ELECTRICITY. amber, gum-lac, resin, sulphur, glass, the precious stones, silk, the fur of most quadrupeds, and almost all vegetable substances which have been thoroughly deprived of moisture, as baked wood, and dry paper. If the light bodies which have been repelled from an excited electric be again presented to it, they will, provided they have touched no other body, continue to be driven off. Some substances remain in contact with the electric longer than others; fibres of cotton adhere some time, while metallic bodies are repelled the instant after contact. Two bodies, which have both been in contact with the same electric, mutually repel each other. If a glass tube of considerable diameter, and two or three feet in length, be em- ployed for the experiment, we notice in a dark room, during the friction, flashes of light, of a bluish tinge, extending over every part of the tube ; and Sparks, attended with a sharp snapping Sound, are seen to dart out in every direction. If we present to it, after vigorous rubbing, a round metallic ball, sparks will be obtained as the ball approaches the tube ; and if the knuckle be presented instead of the ball, the same effect takes place, accompanied with a pricking sensation. If a metallic ball be suspended in the air by silk, thread, or fibres of worsted or hair, or a rod of glass, and rubbed while in this situation by an electric, it will exhibit the same properties of attraction and repulsion, as if it had been itself an electric.—That the ball should thus be cut off from contact with any substance, except the air and the electric which sustains it, is essential to the success of the experiment. If an excited electric be placed near a rush-pith ball suspended by silk, the ball will in the first place approach the electric, but after con- tact will recede from it. If now, uncovering the electric, we present to the ball which has thus touched it a second ball, similarly suspended, but which has had no previous communication with any electric, we shall find that these two balls will attract one another, and come into immediate contact. The same results are repeated between this second ball and a third, which may be presented to it, and so on in succession, with a continued diminution, however, in the rapidity of the movements, indicative of a diminished power, in consequence, as it would seem, of its being distributed among a number of bodies. From these facts we infer that the electric imparts to the balls, suspended as above, properties exactly similar to those which had been excited in itself by friction. By repeated contact with a number of bodies, an excited electric is found to lose its elec- trical powers, in the same degree as these powers have been acquired by the bodies themselves; and fresh excitation alone can renew them. It is evident, therefore, that electricity is capable of being trans- ferred, in the same sense as caloric, of which we speak, as being communicable, and, like caloric, it is weakened by diffusion among a number of bodies. If an electrified ball be touched with the finger or by a rod of metal, it will be deprived of the whole of its electricity, which will pass to the finger or rod touch- ing it; the ball being left in its original or natural state, and again becoming susceptible of being at- tracted, either by an excited electric, or by another body, to which electricity has previously been com- municated. If a rod of glass be applied instead of the finger or metallic rod as above, the body touched remains unaffected, notwithstanding the contact. We are thus led to conclude that some substances, such as glass, are incapable of conducting electricity; while others, such as metals and the human body, readily conduct it. And it is found that all electrics are non-conductors, while on the contrary, conductors are non-electrics. The permanence of electricity in metallic bodies, suspended in the air by silken ELECTRICITY. thread, proves that the air, as well as silk, is a non- conductor; from which circumstance bodies sur- rounded by it, except on one side, and this side being in contact with a non-conductor, are said to be insulated. If this condition be not observed, that is, if a body be in contact with conducting substances which communicate with the earth, its electricity will escape through them to the earth, which may be regarded as the great reservoir, both for the absorption and supply of this fluid. The insulating power of the atmosphere depends upon its density and its dryness. In proportion as the air is rarefied by the removal of the superincumbent pressure, its power of confining electricity diminishes, till, at length, when the rarefaction is very great, it opposes scarcely any resistance to the passage of electricity. The presence of moisture in the air also diminishes its insulating power. Water is a good conductor of electricity; accordingly, any portion of it suspended in the air tends to carry off electricity from bodies charged with it, and which are immersed in such an atmosphere. Moisture also easily attaches itself to glass and other electrics, depriving them of the power of insulation. Hence we discover the reason why experiments which succeed in a clear, dry day, will often fail in damp weather; and the utility of drying all the instruments, employed in electrical experiments, in order to exclude, as much as possible, the interference arising from the presence of condensed moisture. The conducting powers of most bodies are influenced by changes of temperature, and also of form. Thus water, in its liquid state, is a good conductor; but when in the state of ice, at a temper- ature of 13° Fahr., it is a non-conductor, and capable of being excited by friction like any other electric. Reducing substances to powder has an effect upon their powers of conducting electricity. Snow con- ducts less readily than ice at the same temperature ; but glass, as well as sulphur, on the contrary, acquire some conducting power by being pulverized. Vege- table and animal substances lose their conducting powers when made thoroughly dry. No substance with which we are acquainted can be said to be wholly impervious to electricity; mor, on the other hand, is there any body which opposes no resistance to the transmission of electricity. The following table presents a view of the principal classes of bodies, arranged in a series, beginning with those possessed of the greatest conducting power, and terminating with those that have the least. The order in which they possess the power of insulating, is, of course, the reverse of this:— The perfect, or least oxid- Animal fluids able metals. Water. The more oxidable metals. Charcoal prepared from the harder woods, and recent- ly ignited. Plumbago. The concentrated mineral acids. Dilute acids. Solutions of metallic salts. , Metallic ores. Snow. Living vegetables. Living animals. moke. Steam. Rarefied air. Earths and stones in their natural state. Pulverized glass. Flowers of sulphur. * Dry metallic oxides. ()ils. Vegetable ashes. Animal ashes. ice below 139 Fahr. Phosphorus. Hime. i\ry chalk. Caouchouc. Gamphor. Silicious and argillaceous stones, in proportion to their hardness. Porcelain. Baked wood. Dry atmospheric air, and other gases. White sugar. Dry parchment. Gotton. Feathers. Hair, especially that of a living cat. Silk. Transparent gems. Diamond. Glass. Fat. Wax. Sulphur. Resins. Amber. Guyn lag. 821 Although the exact point in the above scale, which forms the separation between conducting and insulating bodies, cannot be precisely marked, yet we have indicated it by a division. The laws which regulate the gradual dissipation of electricity from imperfectly insulated bodies, have been carefully investigated by M. Coulomb.-The causes which operate in these circumstances, are, 1. the imperfec- tion of the insulating property in the solids by which they are supported ; 2. the contact of successive portions of air, every particle of which carries off a certain quantity of electricity; 3. the deposition of moisture upon the surface of the insulating bodies, which establishes communications between their opposite ends, and may be considered as virtually increasing their conducting power. Still another circumstance, which materially affects the dissipation of electricity, is the shape of the body in which it is accumulated. The form most favourable for its retention is that of a sphere ; next, a cylinder termi- mated at both extremities by a hemisphere. On the other hand, electricity escapes most readily from bodies of a pointed figure, especially if the point projects to a distance from the surface. In such bodies, it is Scarcely possible to retain any accumula- tion of the electric fluid ; whereas, pointed bodies receive electricity more readily than those of any other form.—Electric excitation in different bodies exhibits different phenomena. We have seen that light substances excited by glass repel one another, and are likewise repelled by the excited glass. The same thing also happens with respect to bodies which have received their electricity from excited sulphur, or sealing wax. But on examining the action of any of the bodies of the former class upon any of those belonging to the latter, we find that, instead of repelling, they attract each other; and what is still more remarkable, the instant these bodies come in contact, provided they have both been electrified in an equal degree, they cease at once to exhibit any signs of electrical excitement; the electricity in the one appearing to neutralize that in the other. Thus we seem to have evidence of two kinds of electricity; and as these were first noticed, the one in glass and the other in resinous bodies, they Were º vitreous and resinous electricity. Their mode of action on matter has been expressed by the following general law, viz.: Bodies charged with either species of electricity, repel bodies charged with the same species, but attract bodies charged with the other species ; and at equal distances, the attractive power in the one case is ea actly equal to the repulsive power in the other. Accordingly, we learn the kind of electricity with which a given body is charged, by approaching it to an insulated pith ball, which has previously been touched either with excited glass, or with excited sealing wax. It is known, moreover, that, when two electrics are rubbed against one another, the one acquires, always, one kind of electricity, the other the opposite; and both are pro- duced in equal degrees. Thus, when glass is rubbed by silk or flannel, just as much resinous electricity is produced in the silk or flannel, as there is vitreous elec- tricity produced in the glass; and, consequently, as they are endowed with opposite electricities, there should be an attraction existing between the excited surfaces of the bodies rubbed. This fact is easily proved by the simple and familiar experiment of the ribbons. If a white and a black ribbon, of two or three feet long, and perfectly dry, be applied to each other by their smooth surfaces, and are then drawn repeatedly between the finger and thumb, so as to rub against each other, they will be found to adhere to- gether, and, if pulled asunder at one end, will rush together with great quickness; while united, they 822 exhibit no sign of electricity, because the operation of the one is just the reverse of that of the other, and their power is neutralized and inoperative. If com- pletely separated, however, each will manifest a strong electrical power, the one attracting those bodies which the other repels. The causes that determine the species of electricity excited in the respective bodies, of which the surfaces are made to rub against each other, have not been satisfactorily ascertained. The mechanical configuration of the surfaces appears to have more influence in the result, than the nature of the substances themselves. Thus smooth glass acquires vitreous electricity by friction with almost every substance, except the back of a cat, which induces the resinous electricity ; but roughened glass, if rubbed with the same substances, becomes charged with resinous electricity, while the rubbing bodies acquire the vitreous. Silk, rubbed by resin, takes the vitreous, but with polished glass, the resinous electricity. The following is a list of several substances, which acquire vitreous electricity, when rubbed with any of those which follow it, in the order in which they are set down; and resinous electricity, if rubbed with any of those which pre- cede :- The back of a cat. Paper. Polished glass. Silk. Woollen cloth. Gum-lac. Feathers. Wood. In the experiment above mentioned of the silk rib- bons, the black ribbon exhibited the vitreous, and the white one the resinous electricity. But when the ribbons are differently excited, as the one being drawn lengthwise and at right angles over a part of the other, the one which has suffered friction in its whole length acquires vitreous, and the other resin- ous electricity. Indeed, the slightest difference in the conditions of these and similar experiments, or the species of electricity arising from friction, will be often sufficient to produce opposite results. Another important observation, with regard to electrical phe- nomena, requires to be stated previous to our con- clusion of the present head. Whenever a body is charged with electricity, although it be perfectly insulated, it tends to produce an opposite electrical state in all the bodies in its vicinity, and this with greater energy in proportion as the distance is smaller. This effect is termed the induction of electricity. In consequence of this law, if an electrified body, charged with either species of electricity, be presented to an unelectrified or neutral body, the electrical condition of the different parts of the neutral body is disturbed. The electrified body induces a state of electricity con- trary to its own, in that part of the neutral body which is nearest to it, and consequently a state of electricity similar to its own in the remote part. Hence the neutrality of the second body is destroyed by the action of the first ; and the adjacent parts of the two bodies, having now opposite electricities, will attract each other. It thus appears, that the attraction which is observed to take place between electrified bodies and those that are unelectrified, is merely a conse- quence of the altered state of those bodies, resulting directly from the law of induction. II. The hypothesis which naturally suggests itself for the explanation of the phenomena above stated, is that of a very subtile, imponderable, and highly elastic fluid, pervading all material bodies, and capa. ble of moving with various degrees of facility through the pores or actual substance of different kinds of matter. In some, as in those we call conductors or non-electries, it moves without any apparent obstruc- tion; while in others, as in those we call non-con- ductors or electrics, it moves with difficulty. More- over, as the phenomena appear to indicate the Roughened glass. ELECTRICITY. agency of two kinds of fluid, we shall, for the pre- sent, assume the existence of two species, and shall speak of these under the names of the vit- ºreous and the resinous electricities. They must each have, when separate, the same general proper- ties as have already been enumerated above; while, in relation to each other, there must be a complete contrariety in their nature, So that, when combined together, their action on the bodies in their imme- diate vicinity shall cease. And it is when existing in this state of union or neutrality, that bodies are said to be in their natural state as respects electricity. We shall now proceed to compare the suppositions we have made with the facts, as presented to us by nature, and developed by experiment.—a. Facts connected with eacitation. From various causes (of which the friction of surfaces is one), the state of union in which the two electricities naturally exist in bodies is disturbed: the vitreous electricity is impelled in one direction, while the resinous is transferred to the opposite; and each manifests its peculiar powers. When accumulated in anybody, eachfluid acts in pro- portion to its relative quantity, i.e., to the quantity which is in excess above that which is still retained, ina state of inactivity, by its union with electricity of the opposite kind. Thus, when glass is rubbed with a me- tallic amalgam, a portion only of the electricities at the two surfaces is decomposed ; the vitreous electricity resulting from this decomposition attaches itself to the glass; the resinous to the amalgam. What re- mains in each surface undecomposed, continues to be quite inert.—b. Facts connected with distribution. Both of these fluids, being highly elastic, their par- ticles repel one another with a force which increases in proportion as their distance is less ; and this force acts at all distances, and is not impeded by the interposition of bodies of any kind, provided they are not themselves in an active electrical state. It has been deduced, from the most careful analysis, that this force follows the same law with that of gravita- tion: viz. that its intensity is inversely as the square of the distance. The mode in which the electricity imparted to a conducting body, or to a system of conductors, is distributed among their different parts, is in exact conformity with the results of this law, as deduced by mathematical investigation. While the particles of each fluid repel those of the same kind, they exert an equally strong attraction for the par- ticles of the other species of electric fluid. This at- traction, in like manner, increases with a diminution of distance, and follows the same law as to its inten- sity: viz. that of the inverse ratio of the square of the distance. This force, also, is not affected by the presence of any intervening body.—c. Facts connected with transference. Since the two electri- cities have this powerful attraction for each other, they would always flow towards one another, and coalesce, were it not for the obstacles thrown in their way by non-conductors. When, instead of these, conducting Substances are interposed, they enter into union with great velocity, producing, in their transit and confluence, several remarkable effects. When once united, their powers remain dormant, until again called into action by the renewed separation of the fluids.-d. Facts relating to attraction and repulsion. The repulsion which is observed to take place be- tween bodies that are insulated, and charged with any one species of electricity, and other bodies simi. larly charged, is derived from the repulsive power which the particles of this fluid exert towards those of their own species; and the attractions between bodies differently electrified, is derived from the at- tractive power of the vitreous particles for those of the opposite kind. In all cases, the movements of electrified bodies represent the forces themselves ELECTRICITY. which actuate the particles of the developed electrici- ties they contain.--e., Facts relating to induction. Wherever one of the electricities exists in an active state, it must repel all the particles of the same elec- tricity in all surrounding bodies, and attract those of the opposite species. Thus the law of induction is seen to be a direct consequence of the hypothesis we are considering.—Thus far we have proceeded upon the hypothesis of two distinct electric fluids. It was, however, discovered by Franklin, that it is equally easy to account for all the phenomena, on the sup- position of their resulting from the agency of a single electric fluid. This theory supposes, that the single agent in question, and which we shall call the electric fluid, is highly elastic or repulsive of its own particles, the repulsion taking place with a force varying inversely as the square of the distance; that its particles attract and are attracted by the particles of all other matter, following the same law of the in- verse Square of the distance; that this fluid is dis- persed through the pores of bodies, and moves through them with various degrees of facility, accor- ding as they are conductors or non-conductors. Bodies are said to be in their natural state, with re- gard to this fluid, when the repulsion of the fluid they contain of a particle of fluid at a distance, is exactly balanced by the attraction of the matter in the body for the same particle; and, under these circum- stances, they exhibit no electrical phenomena. – But if subjected to certain operations, as friction, the equilibrium is destroyed, and they acquire more or less than when in their natural state. Whenever they acquire a quantity of fluid greater than in their natu- ral state, they are said to be positively electrified, or to be electrified plus, and present the phenomena ascribed to what was called vitreous electricity.— When, on the other hand, there is a quantity less than what is required in order to be in their natural State, they are said to be negatively electrified, or to be electrified minus; in which case they correspond with the state of resinous electricity. The state of positive electricity, then, consists in a redundance of the electric fluid, or in matter over-saturated with this fluid ; that of negative electricity, in a deficiency of fluid, or in matter under-saturated, or, what may be considered the same thing, in redundant matter. In considering the mutual electrical actions of bodies, the portions in which the matter and the fluid mutu- ally Saturate each other, need not be taken into ac- count, Since their actions, as we have seen, are per- fectly neutralized; and we need only attend to those of the redundant fluid and the redundant matter. When a body contains more than its natural propor- tion of electric fluid, the surplus will, by the repul- sive tendency of its particles, overflow and escape, unless prevented by insulation, until the body is re- duced to its neutral state. When under-saturated, the redundant matter will attract fluid from all quarters, from which it can receive, until it is again brought to its natural state. The mutual recession of two positively electrified bodies is a direct consequence of the redundance of the electric fluid contained in each, this fluid being attracted to the matter by its attraction for it in both bodies; and the fluid in one being repulsive of the fluid in the other, the bodies are necessarily impelled in the direction of the re- pulsion. In the same manner, the mutual attraction between two bodies, one of which is electrified plus, and the other minus, is the immediate effect of the attraction of the redundant fluid in one for the redundant matter in the other, and vice versa; for this attraction is mutual. The mutual recession of two bodies, negatively electrified, does not appear to be accounted for upon the Franklinian theory. In order to do this, therefore, it has been found necessary to 823 append to it the folk,wing provision: that particles of simple matter, or bodies unsaturated with the electric fluid, are mutually repulsive. Without this provision, indeed, we are unable to explain the want of action between two neutral bodies; for, the re- pulsion of the fluids in both bodies being balanced by the attraction of the fluid in the one for the matter in the other, the remaining attraction of the fluid in the second body for the matter in the first, would be uncompensated by any repulsion; and the forces would not be held in equilibrium, as we find they really are:—The law of electrical induction is an immediate consequence of the Franklinian theory. When a body charged with electricity is presented to a neutral body, the redundant fluid of the former exerts a repulsive action on the fluid in the latter body; and if this happens to be a conductor, it impels a certain portion of that fluid to the remote end of this body, which becomes at that part positively electrified; while its nearer end, which the Same fluid has quitted, is consequently in the state of negative electricity. If the first body had been ne- gatively electrified, its unsaturated matter would have exerted an attractive force on the fluid in the second body, and would have drawn it nearer to it- self, producing an accumulation or redundance of fluid at the adjacent end, and a corresponding defi- ciency at the remote end ; that is, the former would have been rendered positive, and the latter negative. All this is exactly conformable to observation. The facts with respect to transference are easily explicable upon this hypothesis, and they arise from the destruc- tion of the equilibrium of forces which confined the fluid to a particular situation or mode of distribution. Indeed, there is no fact which is explained on the hypothesis of two fluids, which is not equally expli- cable on the Franklinian theory ; and the explana- tions by the first are easily converted into those of the second by substituting the expressions of positive and negative for those of vitreous and resinous electricities. The principal advantage of Franklin’s system is, its Superior simplicity. On the other hand, the pheno- mena of galvanism prove that the two electricities, whatever may be their nature, exert very different chemical agencies, and hence, whichever theory we may choose to adopt, it is necessary, in their chemi- cal history, always to preserve the distinction between them. When viewed, however, as a mere hypothesis, calculated to facilitate our comprehension of the phenomena and of their connexions, it is a matter of indifference which we employ, since they will either of them answer the purpose. For the future, how- ever, we shall more generally employ the language of the Franklinian theory, on account of its greater convenience. III. Electrical Machines.—Various electric ma- chines have been made; the simplest, though not the most ancient, is the electrophorus. This instrument is represented in fig. 1, plate XXIX. A circular disc, e, is fastened upon a stand, a b. The disc is composed of equal parts of shell lac, resin, and Venice turpentine, melted together, and poured upon a plate of wood or metal. On this there is placed a metallie disc, nearly of the same diameter with the lower one, having two glass handles, d and e. When we wish to draw electricity from this simple instrument, the resinous plate is rubbed with a cat's fur, or a piece of woolleu cloth. The metallic plate is then placed upon it, and then lifted by the glass handles, when it will be found to yield an electric spark on presenting a conducting substance to its edge. By bringing the plates again into contact, and again separating them, another spark will be obtained, and this may be con tinued, and the electricity collected into a Leyden phial, to be afterwards described. The electrophorus 824 will not answer well where large supplies are re- quired. The essential parts of an instrument for procuring large supplies of electricity for the purposes of experiment, are the electric, the rubber, the prime conductor, the insulator, and the machinery for setting the electric in motion. The electric, by the excita- tion of which the electricity is to be developed, may be made of various substances. Polished glass has, however, received the preference. Its form is that of a hollow cylinder, or of a flat circular plate, re- volving upon a horizontal axis. The cushion is usually made of soft leather, generally basil skin, stuffed with hair or wool, so as to be as hard as the bottom of a chair, but yet sufficiently yielding to ac- commodate itself, without much pressure, to the sur- face of the glass to which it is applied. The prime conductor is a cylindrical tube, each end terminating in a hemisphere. There is no advantage in its being made solid, for the electricity is only contained at the surfaces. It may be made of thin sheet brass or copper, or tin, or of pasteboard covered with gold leaf or tinfoil. Care must be taken that its surface be free from all points and asperities; and the per- forations which are made in it, and which should be about the size of a quill, for the purpose of attaching wires and other kinds of fixtures, should have their edges well rounded and smoothed off. In order to render the arrangement of these parts more intelligi- ble, we will describe two of the simplest and best of the machines. The glass cylinder, E F, Fig. 2 is from 8 to 16 inches in diameter, and from 1 to 2 feet long, Sup- ported, for the purpose of insulation, on two upright pillars of glass, DC, which are fixed firmly in a wooden stand, A B. Two hollow metallic conductors G, I, equal in length to the cylinder, and about one-fourth of its diameter, are placed parallel to it, one on each side, upon two insulating pillars of glass, J, K, which are cemented into two separate pieces of wood capa- ble of sliding out and in, and furnished with screws, M and N, so as to place the conductors farther from or nearer to, the cylinder. To one of these conductors the cushion, H, is attached, which is nearly of the same length with the conductor. Its pressure against the cylinder is regulated by an adjusting Screw, M, adapted to the wooden base, on which the glass pil- lar that supports the conductor is fixed. From the upper edge of the cushion there proceeds a flap of thin oiled silk, which is sewed on the cushion about a quarter of an inch from its upper edge. It extends Gver the upper surface of the glass cylinder to within an inch of a row of metallic points, proceeding, like the teeth of a rake, from a horizontal rod, which is fixed to the adjacent side of the opposite conductor. This figure will make the construction of that part of the machine more intelligible. The line D represents the side of the conductor next to the cylinder. E is a wire inserted into the conductor, and screwed into the rod A B. Into this rod pointed wires are fixed whose ends nearly touch the surface of the cylinder C C. The motion of the cylinder, which is given by a simple handle, must always be in the direction of the silk flap. That part of the cushion which comes in contact with the glass cylinder, should be coated with an amalgam of tin, zinc, and mercury, mixed with hog's lard. The amalgam should be placed uni- formly over the cushion, until level with the line formed by the seam which joins the silk flap to the ELECTRICITY. face of the cushion. No amalgam should be placed over this line, nor on the silk flap ; and it is even requisite to wipe the silk flap clean whenever the continued motion of the machine should have soiled it by depositing dust or amalgam on its surface, The best amalgam is formed by melting together one ounce of tin and two ounces of zinc, which are to be mixed, in a melted state, with six ounces of mercury, and agitated in an iron or thick wooden box until cold. It is then to be reduced to very fine powder in a mortar, and mixed with a sufficient quantity of hog's lard to form it into a paste. The mode in which the electrical machine just described acts, will readily be understood. The friction of the cushion against the glass cylinder produces a transfer of electric fluid from the former to the latter; that is, the cushion becomes negatively and the glass positively electrified. The fluid which thus adheres to the glass, is carried round by the revolution of the cylinder ; its escape is at first prevented by the silk flap which covers the cylinder, until it comes to the immediate vicinity of the metallic points, which, being placed at a small distance from the cylinder, absorb nearly the whole of the electricity as it passes near them, and transfer it to the prime conductor. Positive electricity is thus accumulated in the prime conductor, while the conductor connected with the cushion, being deprived of this electricity, is nega- tively electrified. If both these conductors are in- sulated, this action will soon have reached its limit; for when the cushion and its conductor have been exhausted of their fluid to a certain degree, they cannot, by the same force of excitation, supply any further quantity to the glass. In order to enable it to do so, we must replenish it, or restore to it a quantity equal to what it has lost. This is done by destroying the insulation of the cushion through the means of a metallic chain or wire, extending from the ball on the conductor,G, to the earth, which is the great reservoir of the electric fluid. The prime con- ductor will now be supplied with a constant stream of positive electricity. If it be our object, on the other hand, to accumulate negative electricity by the same instrument, we have only to insulate the conductor to which the cushion is attached, and to connect the prime conductor, I, with the ground, in order to allow the fluid to escape from it as soon as it is collected from the cylinder. The fluid will thus continue to be drawn, without interruption, from the negative conductor, as it now meets with no impediment to its discharge on the opposite side of the machine. That the quantity of positive electricity produced in one conductor is exactly equal to that of the negative electricity in the other, is proved by the fact, that, if the two conductors are connected by a wire, no signs of electricity are obtained in any of the conductors on turning the machine. The machine now described is that most commonly used, but when experiments are to be performed which require an expeditious supply of electricity, and that in large quantities, the plate machine, represented in figure 3, is used. It may be observed, however, that its advantage over the cylinder machine is, in Some degree, counterba- lanced by the great expence of its erection and its liability to be broken. A B is a stand in which the two uprights, F & E, are firmly fixed, and kept steady by a cross piece at the top. Through the middle of these uprights there passes a strong wooden axle car- rying the circular plate of glass, DE F, which ought to be truly ground and polished; in size it may vary from fifteen inches to two feet in diameter, and in thickness from one to two inches. The plate is made to revolve on its centre by means of the handle at- tached to the end of its axis. A pair of rubbers (similar to that in the cylinder machine,) are made to ELECTRICITY. press on the surface of the glass, they are opposed to each other, one pressing on each of the sides. They are attached to the cross piece on the top, and their pressure is regulated by means of Screws. A similar pair is attached at the bottom, there being in all four rubbers acting upon the plate. Each of the rubbers carries a silk flap, which extends to nearly a quarter of the circumference of the plate : one of these may be seen at E. A part of the metallic con- ductor is seen at H. Its construction is different from that employed in the cylinder machine. The knob, H, is attached to a large metallic sphere near the back upright, which sphere gives out two brass tubes, one of which is seen at G ; they are formed into curves, and terminate at the edges of the plate, one at G and the other a little below F. The ends of these tubes carry two wires with the points (simi- lar to those in the cylindrical machine,) which collect the electricity from the surface of the plate. The management of this machine is similar to that for- merly described. IV. The effects of electrical attraction and repul- sion may now be exhibited much more distinctly with the aid of those considerable accumulations of elec- tricity which we are enabled to form by the electrical machine. A pith ball, or a fragment of gold leaf, is very strongly and immediately attracted by the elec- trified conductor ; and the instant after it has come into contact with it, it is repelled; but it is now attracted by the other bodies in its neighbourhood, to which it communicates its own electricity, and then is again in a state to be influenced by the conductor, and to be again attracted ; and this alternation of effects will continue as long as the conductor remains charged. This alternation of attractions and repulsions accompanying the transferring electricity by movable conductors, is also illustrated by the motions of a ball suspended by a silk thread, and placed between two bells, of which the one is electrified, and the other communicates with the ground. The alternate mo- tion of the ball between the two bells will keep up a continual ringing. An elegant form of this apparatus is shown, fig. 8, where a is a metallic stand, on the top of which is fixed a brass cap, b. From the top of the cap there rises a glass rod, b c, terminated by a brass ball, c. Into this ball four wires with small brass balls at the ends c d, e d, c d, c d. From these balls four bells, e, e, e, e, are suspended, by means of wires or Small chains, and from the middle of the rods, c d, e d, c d, c d, four small brass balls, f, f, f, f, are suspended by means of silk threads. To set the bells a ringing it is only necessary to give the ball, C, a supply of positive electricity by connecting it with the prime conductor of the machine. This little instrument has been applied to give notice of changes taking place in the electrical state of the atmosphere. Another amusing experiment, depending on the same principles, is the following: Suspend from the prime conductor, by means of the chain d, fig. 10, a circu- lar disk of sheet tin, or any other metal, and place below it, at the distance of an inch or more, accord- ing to the strength of the electricity, another metallic disk, b, placed on a stand, a. If two little gilt paper figures be placed on the under disk, and the machine put in action, the little figures will begin to dance. The reason is, that when the upper disk becomes charged with electricity,it will attract the little figures, which themselves become charged, and being repelled fly to the bottom and pass it to the under disk, and and this is again repeated as the upper disk is sup- plied. . The mutual repulsion of bodies that are similarly electrified gives rise to many interesting experiments. A small figure in the shape of a human head, covered with hair, when placed upon the con- ductor and electrified, will exhibit the appearance of the other the negative end of the instrument. 825 terror from the bristling up and divergence of the hair. Advantage is taken of the repulsive property of electrified bodies for the construction of an instru- ment adapted to measure the intensity of the electri- city they may contain. This instrument is called an electrometer. That of Henley consists of a slender rod of wood, serving as an index, terminated by a small pith ball, d, Fig. 6 and suspended from the upper part of a stem of wood, b, b, which is fitted to a hole in the upper surface of the conductor c. An ivory semicircle or quadrant a, is fixed to the stem, having its centre coinciding with the axis of motion of the rod, for the purpose of measuring the angle of deviation from the perpendicular, which the repulsion of the ball from the stem produces in the movable rod. The number of degrees which is described by the index affords some evidence of the quantity of electricity with which the apparatus is charged, though the instrument cannot be viewed as affording an exact measure of its intensity. The gold leaf electrometer of Bennet, or rather electroscope, which is one of the most delicate instruments ever invented for detecting the presence of electricity, consist of two narrow slips of gold leaf suspended parallel to each other, in a glass cylinder (which secures.them from disturbance by the air), and attached to the end of a small metallic tube, terminating above either in a flat surface of metal or a metallic ball. Two slips of tinfoil are pasted to the inside of the cylinder, on opposite sides, in a vertical position, and so placed as that the gold leaves may come in contact with these, when their mutual repulsion is sufficiently powerful to make them diverge to that extent. These slips of tinfoil terminate in the foot of the instrument, and thus are in communication with the earth. A very minute charge of electricity, com- municated to the upper end of the tube, is immediate. ly transmitted to the gold leaves, which are thus made to repel each other; but if the repulsion is such as to make them strike against the tinfoil, their insula- tion ceases, and their electricity is carried off, and becoming neutral, they resume their original position. Fig. 7 represents two of these electrometers, a and b, with their metallic caps, c, c. The figure represents them as supporting an instrument invented by De Luc, called the electric pile. This instrument consists of a long glass tube, terminated by two caps, d d. Within the tube are enclosed discs of paper, gilded with Dutch leaf, and zinc, alternately, the column consisting of eight or ten hundred pairs. With this simple instrument electric bells have been kept con- stantly ringing for more than a year. The end which is terminated by the gilded paper is the positive, and It has been used as an electroscope and for other purposes. The most perfect electrometer, however, is that in- vented by Coulomb, and called by him the torsion balance. It consists of a cylindrical glass jar, covered at the top by a circular glass plate, with a hole in its centre, through which descends nearly to the bottom of the jar, a single fibre of the web of the silkworm, with a needle of gum-lac or a piece of straw coated by sealing-wax, affixed to its lower extremity. The needle is terminated at One end by a small pith ball, and at the other by a disc of warnished paper, to serve as a counterpoise to the ball. The upper end of the silk fibre is attached to a kind of button, having a small index, and capable of being turned round upon a circular plate divided into degrees. One side of the jar is perforated towards its bottom to allow of the insertion of a short horizontal bar, having a small metallic sphere at each of its ends, the one being within, and the other upon the outside of the jar; and the former being so situated as just to allow the ball of the suspended needle to come in contact with 826 it in the course of its revolution. By turning the button or the index, the needle may be brought into this or any other required position with regard to the ball. It is found by experiment, that the angle of torsion of the silk fibre is, within a certain range of distance, very nearly in the direct ratio of the force which acts in producing the torsion; and, therefore, if the two balls be placed in contact by turning the button, and then similarly electrified, the distance to which they are repelled by the angular motion of the suspended ball affords a measure of the repulsive force exerted. In like manner, the distance which the sus- pended ball is made to move, when it is attracted by the fixed ball, when the two have opposite electrici- ties, gives accurate measures of the attractive forces. V. It had long been observed, that the quantity of electricity which bodies are capable of receiving, does not follow the proportion of their bulk, but depends chiefly upon the extent of their surface. It was found, for example, that a metallic conductor, in the form of a globe or cylinder, contains just as much electricity when hollow, as it does when solid; from which it was inferred, that electricity does not extend throughout the mass of a body, but resides altogether at its surface. By the application of mathematical calculations to the theory, the most exact information with regard to the distribution of the electric fluid in bodies of different shapes has been obtained ; and whenever a comparison has been instituted, even in the cases of the most complicated kind, between the results of experiment and of theory, the most perfect agreement has been observed between them. For the purpose of measuring the proportional quantities of electricity, with which dif- ferent parts of the same or of different bodies are charged, no instrument is so well fitted as the balance of Coulomb. Such is its extreme sensibility, that a force only equal to the 270th of a grain is sufficient to make the needle perform an entire revolution; the 360th part of this force, therefore, or less than the 100,000th of a grain, is capable of being estimated by each degree of its angular motion. It would be inconsistent with the limits of the present article to go into a detail of the delicate methods of research adopted in the investigation of this subject. The following are among some of the most interesting results deduced from them. In a solid body, having the form of a perfect sphere, and charged with posi- tive electricity, the whole of the fluid is, in conse- quence of the repulsion of its own particles, which is everywhere directed from the centre outwards, accu- mulated in a thin stratum, at the very surface of the sphere. If the body be charged with negative elec- tricity, the deficiency of fluid will take place only in the superficial stratum of matter. If, instead of being spherical, the body have any other form, the electricity will be chiefly confined to the surface; and if it have an elongated form, there will be a greater charge in the remoter parts than in those nearer to the middle. This result of theory, respect- ing the limitation of electricity to the mere surface, is confirmed, in the most decisive manner, by the experiments of Coulomb. A conducting body, of a spheroidal shape, with Small pits in various parts of its surface, half an inch in diameter, and one-tenth of an inch in depth, was electrified, and examined by the torsion balance. The bottoms of these pits afforded no indications of having received any elec- tricity, while the even surface exhibited strong elec- trical excitement. We may conclude, both from theory and experiment, therefore, that although, strictly speaking, the electricity must reside within the substance of conducting bodies, it extends, in fact, to a depth so small as to be inappreciable by any known methods of observation. The effect of ELECTRICITY. an expansion of surface, in lessening the intensity of electricity, while its absolute quantity remains the same, is illustrated by the following experiment. Around an insulated cylinder, movable on a horizon- tal axis, and turned by an insulating handle, is wound a thin lamina of any metal, the end of which is semi- circular, and has attached to it a silk thread. The whole apparatus communicates with an electrometer, formed of two linen threads, each terminating in a pith ball. On communicating a charge of electricity to the cylinder, the threads and balls of the electro meter attached to it, diverge. Upon taking hold of the silk thread, and unrolling the metallic lamina from the cylinder, the balls gradually collapse, thus indi- cating a diminution in the intensity of electrical repulsion. But, on winding up the lamina, by turn- ing the insulating handle, the electricity is restored, and the balls diverge to the same extent as before, allowance being made for the small dissipation of electricity, from the contact of the air during the experiment. In the case of a long and slender lamina of conducting matter, charged with electricity, Cou- lombfound that its intensity continued nearly uniform, from the middle of the lamina to within a short dis. tance from the ends; at that part it rapidly increased; and at the very extremity, it became twice as much as at the middle part. He also found, that in a cylinder 30 inches long and 2 in diameter, the inten- sity of the electricity at the ends was to its intensity in the middle, or at any part more than 2 inches from the extremity, as 2.3 to 1. From which instances we infer, that if a conducting substance be drawn out into a point, the intensity of the electricity at that point will be exceedingly great ; and that the point will, accordingly, absorb and draw into itself nearly the whole of the electricity that is contained in the body. This great concentration of electricity is found actually to take place in all points that project beyond the general surface. The pressure excited by the electric fluid against a non-conducting medium, such as the air, which opposes an obstacle to its escape, is in a ratio compounded of the repulsive force of its own particles at the surface of the stratum of fluid, and of the thickness of that stratum ; but as one of these elements is always proportional to the other, the total pressure must, in every point, be proportional to the square of the thickness. If this pressure be less than the resistance, or coercive force, as it has been called, of the air, the electricity is retained; but the moment it exceeds that force, in any one point, the electricity suddenly escapes, just as a fluid confined in a vessel would rush out, if it were to burst open a hole in the side of the vessel. The eruption of the electric fluid is marked by seve- ral very striking phenomena. A sharp snap is heard, accompanied by a vivid spark, and there are eviden- ces of an intense heat being evolved in the line which the electricity takes. Its passage through a perfect conductor is unattended with light. Light appears only where there are obstacles in its path, by the interposition of imperfect conductors; and such is the velocity with which it is transmitted, that the Sparks appear to take place at the very same instant, .# the whole line of its course. Thus, if a row of Small fragments of tin-foil be pasted so as to be nearly in contact, on a piece of glass, and electricity be sent through them, by connecting one of its ends with the conductor of an electrical machine, while the other end communicates with the ground, it will not be possible to detect any difference of time in the occur- rence of the light in the different parts. If the tin- foil be arranged so as to represent a chain, it will appear luminous at each link, while conveying a charge of electricity. , Let A B, Fig. 14., represent a glass tube, about a foot in length, and an inch in ELECTRICITY. diameter. At each extremity there is a metallic cap terminating in a spherical knob. Small circular pieces of tinfoil are fastened on the surface of the tube, by means of gum, at a small distance from each, and arranged so as to resemble in form the thread of a screw, as represented in the figure. When one end of this is held So as to receive sparks from the machine, and the other made to communicate with the earth by being held in the hand, the sparks will pass along it, and the whole line of tinfoil disks will be illuminated. The longest and most vivid sparks are obtained between two conductors having a rounded form, as may be exemplified in a common electrical machine, by presenting a metallic ball to that side of the prime conductor which is furnished from the cylinder of the machine ; a spark is immediately seen, of consider- able length, resembling a long streak of fire, extend- ing from the conductor to the ball. Often, when the spark is very long, it is seen to have an angular or ZigZag course, exactly like that of a flash of lightning. This irregularity is probably occasioned by the fluid darting obliquely in its course to minute conducting particles, as those of moisture, that are floating in the air, a little removed from the direct line of pas- sage. Electrical light differs in no respect from the light obtained from other sources. Its brilliancy depends upon the conducting power of the bodies between which it passes. When dry wood is employ- ed, it appears in the form of faint red streams; but metals afford a light of greater brilliancy. Its colour is subject to variations, from a great number of dif. ferent circumstances. Sparks passed through balls of wood or ivory are of a crimson colour ; but this depends upon their position with regard to the sur- face. Electric sparks, passing from one polished metallic surface to another, are white; but if the finger be presented to an electrified conductor, the sparks obtained are violet. They are green, when taken from the surface of silvered leather; yellow, when taken from finely powdered charcoal ; and of a purple colour, when taken from the greater number of imperfect conductors. In exceedingly rarefied air, the colour of the spark is green ; in denser air, it acquires a blue tint, and passes to a violet and purple as the condensation of the air is increased. In making these experiments, it is found that in pro- portion as the medium is more rare, its conducting power ificreases, and a smaller intensity of electricity is required for the production of light. In the ordi- nary vacuum of the air-pump, the passage of electri- city is rendered sensible by streams or columns of diffused light occasionally varying in their breadth and intensity, and exhibiting movements which give them a marked resemblance to the coruscations of the aurora borealis. It was at first imagined, that the light which appears during the passage of elec- tricity was actually the electric fluid itself, become luminous from its high degree of accumulation. But, since we know that common atmospheric air becomes luminous by violent compression, and we must also presume that electricity exerts a very sudden and powerful pressure upon the air, by its passage through that resisting medium, we are certainly justified in drawing the inference, that the same phenomena proceed, in both cases, from the same cause. The sound, which accompanies the various modes of transference, is subject to modifications de- pendent upon the degree and suddenness of the im- pulses given to the air. The full, short, and undivided spark is attended with a loud explosion ; the more lengthened spark, with a sharperSnap, which becomes more broken and rattling in proportion to the dis- tance it has to traverse. The great increase of intensity which the electric fluid acquires at the 827 extremities of all elongated conducting bodies, and especially the indefinite augmentation of this inten- sity at the apex of all projecting points, has been alluded to above. This intensity will necessarily be accompanied with a powerful disposition in the fluid to escape—a circumstance which furnishes a natural and exact explanation of the rapid dissipation of electricity, which takes place from all bodies of a slender and pointed form. The illustration of these positions is seen in bringing metallic rods of different forms near the prime conductor of a machine charged with either species of electricity, the conductor being furnished with a pair of pith balls, suspended by a fine wire, whose divergence indicates the presence and degree of the electricity in the conductor : if the metallic rod have a bell at the end which is brought near the charged conductor, the pith balls will be but slightly affected ; whereas, if it terminate in a sharp point, and the point be presented to the con- ductor at the same distance as the ball was in the former case, the divergence of the balls will immedi- ately cease, showing that the electrical charge has wholly disappeared. Currents of air always accom- pany the discharge of electricity from pointed bodies; for each particle of air, as soon as it has received its electricity from the point, is immediately repelled by the body. Many amusing experiments are founded on this principle. , Let two cross wires, bent at right angles near the ends, which terminate in points, and pointing in a similar direction with respect to the axis, be supported at their centre upon a fine point, and electrified by being placed upon the prime conductor of a machine; each of the points will give off a stream of electricity, and the wires will revolve backward with considerable rapidity. An apparatus consisting of wires terminating in points, and having balls annexed to them, to represent the planets, may be constructed so as to revolve when electrified, and thus to imitate the planetary motions. Such an apparatus has been called an electrical orrery. When the transfer of electricity takes place between smooth surfaces of a certain extent, no difference can be perceived in the nature and appearance of the spark, whichever be the position of the negative surface. But in the passage of electricity through points, the effect is considerably modified by the species of electricity with which the bodies are charged; or, in other words, by the direction in which the fluid moves. When the electric fluid is escaping out of a pointed conductor, the luminous appearance is that of diverging streams, forming what is termed a pencil of light, and resembling the filaments of a brush. When, on the contrary, the electric fluid is entering into the pointed body, the light is much more concentrated at the point itself, having a resemblance to a star, in which, if any streams appear, they are disposed like radii, and equally so in all directions. This difference in these two appearances may be em- ployed, on many occasions, as a useful criterion of the species of electricity, at least, which is passing from one conductor to another, if not of the absolute direction of its motion. For if a needle be presented to an electrified body, the appearance of a star on the needle will show that the electricity of that body is positive ; while, on the contrary, a luminous brush on the needle will indicate that the body is negative. These observations seem to indicate the emanation of some material fluid from the positive, and its recep- tion by the negative point. It has, accordingly, been urged, as an argument in favour of the Frank- linian theory. The diverging lines on one side, and their reflections on the other, represent exactly the paths of particles flowing out as from a pipe, and urged forward by a force which gives them such a projectile velocity as to prevent their spreading out '828 beyond a certain distance from the direct line of pro- jection. But this very velocity will carry the par- ticles, that happen to have deviated most, somewhat beyond the point to which they are attracted ; while the attraction to this latter point will tend to deflect them from the line of their path, and gradually turn them back, so that they will arrive at the point of attraction by very different paths, and some even by a retrograde motion. Hence, while, in the first case, they form a diverging cone of rays, in the latter they must be distributed on all sides of the point, like the rays of a star. VI. Active electricity, existing in any substance, tends always to induce the opposite electrical state in the bodies that are near it. Now, it is impossible to induce one electrical state in any body, without, at the same time, producing the opposite state in the Same body, or in the one which is immediately con- tiguous. It follows, therefore, that if the bodies sub- jected to the inductive influence are non-conductors, although the tendency to produce the opposite elec- tricity exists, yet, in consequence of the immobility of the fluid, it can produce no visible change. In proportion as the body opposes less resistance to the passage of electricity, the operation of the disturbing force becomes sensible. For example, in the case of a positively charged electric, acting by induction on an insulated conducting body, the redundant fluid in the former must tend to repel all the fluid contained in the latter; a portion of this fluid must, therefore, be driven from the side adjacent to the first body, towards the remoter side. The adjacent side will thus be rendered negative; the remoter side, positive. But this will take place to a certain extent only ; for there is a limit at which the repulsion of the fluid accumulated at the remote end will just balance the repulsion of the fluid in the electric, added to the attraction of the under-Saturated matter, in the near end ; and when the limit has been attained, the flow of electric fluid from the near to the remote end of the body will cease, and an equilibrium will be esta- blished. Experiment fully confirms this theory, as may be seen by bringing a cylinder of metal of some length, with rounded ends, near an electrified globe of glass, taking care that it be not sufficiently near to receive any quantity of electricity by transference. By means of the electrometer of Coulomb, we per- ceive that the part of the conductor nearest to the electric is negative, and the part most remote is positive ; while, about the middle of the cylinder, the body is in a neutral state. The electricity is found to diminish as we proceed from either extremity to- wards this point of neutrality. These remarkable effects are solely the result of the action of electri- city at a distance; for they take place in an equal degree, whatever non-conducting substance may be interposed between the bodies exerting this influence on one another. But in an experiment, where the acting body, instead of being an electric, is a con- ducting body, the electrical state which the globe induces on the cylinder must react upon its own elec- tricity. The negative electricity, that is, the under- Saturated matter at the nearer end of the cylinder, must exert a tendency to induce positive electricity in the globe, and more especially upon the side next the cylinder ; that is, it will tend, by its attraction for the fluid, to draw it to that side, and thus render it still more highly positive than it was before. This can only be done at the expense of the other side, from which the fluid must be taken, and which is therefore rendered less charged with fluid, that is, less positive than before. But this new distribution of the electric fluid in the globe, by increasing the positive state of the side next the cylinder, tends to augment its inductive influence on the fluid in the ELECTRICITY. cylinder; that is, to drive an additional quantity of fluid from the negative to the positive end. This must be followed in turn by a corresponding re- action on the globe, and so on, constituting a Series of smaller adjustments, until a perfect equili- brium is established in every part. This reasoning is fully established by experiment. All that is re- quired for its illustration is simply to furnish the me- tallic globe, insulated and charged with positive electricity, with electroscopes upon its opposite sur- faces. No sooner do we bring near to it a conduct- ing body, than the balls of the electroscope, at the side most distant from that body, begin to collapse, while those at the nearer side diverge to a greater degree than before ; thus showing the nature of the reflex operation of the induced electricity of the conductor upon the body from which the induction originated. In all the changes thus alluded to, there has been no transfer of electricity from either of the bodies to the other, as is most satisfactorily proved from the circumstance, that the mere removal of the bodies to a distance from one another is sufficient to restore each of them to their original state. The globe remains as perfectly electrified as before ; the cylinder returns to its condition of perfect neutrality; and the experiment may be repeated as often as we please, without any variation in the phenomena. This would not be the case, however, if the cylinder were divided in the middle, and one or both of the parts were removed separately, while they still re- mained under the influence of the globe. The return of the electric fluid from the positive to the negative end being thus prevented, each part will retain, after its separation, the electricity which had been induced upon it ; the nearer portion will remain negative, the remoter one positive. If the division had been in three parts, the middle part only would have been neutral. It is found by experiment, that the effects of induction on a conductor are augmented by in- creasing its length; and they become as great as possible, by placing the conductor in communication with the earth, which carries off all the fluid the electrified body is capable of expelling from the nearest end. A conductor under the influence of induction, between which and the earth a communi- cation has been made, by touching the remote end with a metallic rod held in the hand, possesses but one kind of electricity, namely, the one opposite to that of the electrified body which is acting tipon it. The part touched is brought into a state in which it appears to be neutral, as long as it remains in the vicinity of the electrified body; but it really contains less fluid than its natural share ; and this will imme- diately become apparent, if the conductor that has been touched be again insulated, and then removed from the influence of the body producing the induc- tion. This peculiar condition of a body, in which its parts are really undercharged or overcharged with fluid, although, from the action of electric forces de- rived from bodies in its vicinity, a state of equilibrium is established, and no visible effect results, has been denominated by Biot, disguised electricity. We have hitherto supposed the acting body to be positively electrified ; but precisely the same effects would happen with regard to the degree, although opposite as to the species of electricity, if it had been mega- tively electrified. Our knowledge of the induction of electricity enables us to understand why bodies, between which it takes place, should attract one another. For the action of the adjacent sides, which are brought into opposite electrical states, is greater than the action of those sides which are in the same electrical states, and which are more distant ; hence the attractive force always exceeds the repulsive. The most convenient mode of obtaining an accumula- ELECTRICITY. tion of electricity arising from induction, is by the employment of coated glass, that is, of a plate of glass, on each side of which is pasted a sheet or coat- ing of tinfoil. Care must be taken to leave a suffi- cient margin of glass uncovered by the metal, for preventing the transfer of electricity from one coat- ing to the other, round the edge of the glass; and all sharp angles, or ragged edges in the coatings, should be avoided, as they have a great tendency to dissipate the charge. The form of coated glass best adapted to experiments is that of a cylindric jar ; this is coated, within and without, nearly to the top. The cover consists of baked wood, and is inserted with Sealing-wax, to exclude moisture and dust. A metallic rod, rising two or three inches above the jar, and terminated at the top in a brass knob, is made to descend through the cover till it touches the interior coating. The name of the Leyden phial, or jar, is applied to this instrument. In Fig. 4 we have given a view of the Leyden jar, as it is usually constructed; in which figure, fre- presents the knob at the top of the wire which passes through the wax-coated cover, and reaches the bottom of the jar e e. In this figure, the jar is re- presented as standing upon an insulated stool; that is, a stool, the top of which is made of baked, i. e. well dried wood, and the feet of glass, which prevents any passage of the electric fluid between the jar and the earth. A chain d, is represented as connecting the outside coating of the jar with the pith ball electrometer b a a, the stalk, c, of which is formed of glass. By this arrangement, the relative quantities of electricity in the jar may be determined by the degree of divergence of the balls a a. The Leyden jar is used in the following manner : the outer coating being made to communicate with the ground, by holding it in the hand, the knob of the jar is pre- sented to the prime conductor when the machine is in motion ; a succession of sparks will pass between them, while, at the same time, nearly an equal quan- tity of electricity will be passing out from the exte- rior coating, through the body of the person who holds it, to the ground. The jar, on being removed, is said to be charged; and if a communication is made between the two coatings, by a metallic wire, extending from the external one to the knob, the electric fluid which was accumulated in the positive Coating, rushes, with a sudden and violent impetus, along the conductor, and passes into the negative coating ; thus at once restoring an almost complete equilibrium. The conductor used for this purpose is called a discharging rod, a very convenient form of which is shown in fig. 5. It consists of a glass handle A, carrying two bent wires terminated in brass knobs B, C. The knobs may be placed at different dis- tances from each other ; as the wires on which they are fixed are movable round the joint, D, the in- strument resembles a pair of callipers. In order to use this discharging rod, the one knob is to be ap- plied to the knob of the jar, and the other to the outside coating ; the discharge instantly takes place, and the electric equilibrium is restored. Another discharging apparatus is shewn in fig. 9. It is called Cuthbertson's discharging electrometer, and is the best of those instruments that have been invented for measuring the intensity of the electric charge, by the weight which the electric force may be able to overcome. Into a wooden frame a a, two glass pillars are fixed, the one b, carrying the metallic ball, c, and the other the ball, g. A brass rod df, is made to pass through the ball c, is terminated by the two metallic balls, d and f. This rod rests upon a knife- edged centre within the ball C, and is capable of moving vertically, on that centre being delicately 829 balanced. Into the top of the ball c, another wire is fixed, which carries the ball e directly above the ball f. The ball g is made to communicate with the outside coating of the jar, by means of the chain i, and the ball c is made to communicate with the in- side coating by means of the chain h. On the por- tion c f of the rod a f, there is a slider which may be moved to or from the centre C, as may be re- quired. When the chain h and 7 are connected with the two sides of the jar, as stated above, and the in- strument in the position represented in the figure, it is clear that no discharge can take place. Before the jar can be discharged, the ball f, must be brought into contact with the ball g, which is effected by moving the slider along the arm ef, towards the ball. The slider is so adjusted, that it indicates, by its position on the arm, which is graduated, the number of grains requisite to weigh down the ball f. By the adjustment of the slider, the charge may be compelled to continue to increase, until the force exerted be equal to any required number of grains. From the experiments of Mr Singer, it would appear that this instrument is a tolerably exact measure of electric intensity ; from which experiments it may be inferred, that it is the same thing whether the electric charge be doubled in intensity, or the coated surface be doubled in extent. The sudden transfer of a large quantity of accu- mulated electricity is a real explosion ; and it gives rise to a vivid flash of light, corresponding in inten- sity to the magnitude of the charge. The effect of its transmission is much greater than that of the simple charge of the prime conductor of the ma- Chine; and it imparts a sensation, when passing through any part of the body, of a peculiar kind, which is called the electric shock. In the construc- tion of the Leyden jar, the thickness of the glass is an important consideration. The thinner the glass, the greater will be the power of taking a charge ; but the power of retaining it will be less, on account of the diminished resistance which the glass will oppose to the electricity through it. If the charge be higher than what the jar will bear, the glass will be broken by the violence with which the electric fluid forces a passage through its substance. An- other limit to the charge which a jar is capable of retaining, arises from the liability of the electricity to pass from one coating to the other, round the edges of the glass. The deposition of moisture, also, on the glass, will occasion a spontaneous discharge, since it forms a chain of conducting par- ticles, in the very line which the electricity has a tendency to take. Hence, in order to preserve the uncoated part of the glass in as dry a state as possi- ble, it is usually covered with a layer of sealing wax, or some other resinous warnish. By uniting together a sufficient number of jars, we are able to accumulate an enormous quantity of electricity : for this purpose, all the interior coatings of the jars, must be made to communicate by metallic rods, and a similar union must be established among the ex- terior coatings. When thus arranged, the whole series may be charged, as if they formed but onejar ; and the whole of the accumulated electricity may be transferred from one system of coatings to the other, by a general and simultaneous discharge. Such a combination of jars is called an electrical battery. In Fig. 11 we have given a view of an electrical battery, consisting of twelve jars contained within a case a a a a, of baked wood. The arrangement of the wires and knobs, b b b b, will be easily under- stood by an inspection of the figure. For the pur- pose of making the direct communication between the inner and the outer coating of a jar or battery, by which a discharge is effected, the instrument cal' 830 led the discharging rod is employed. . It consists, as shown above, of two wires, terminated at one end by brass balls, and connected at the other by a joint, which is fixed to the end of a glass handle, and which, acting like a pair of compasses, allows of the balls being separated at different distances. When opened to the proper degree, one of the balls is made to touch the exterior coating, and the other ball is then quickly brought into contact with the knob of the jar, and thus a discharge is effected, while the glass handle secures the person holding it from the effects of the shock. If we wish to send the whole charge of electricity through any particu- lar substance, which may be the subject of experi- ment, we must so arrange the connecting cónductors, as that the substance shall form a necessary part of the circuit of the electricity, as it is termed. With this view, we must place it between two good con- ductors, one of which is in communication with the outer coating; and the circuit may then be com- pleted by connecting the other conductor with the inner coating, by means of a discharging rod, to one branch of which, if necessary, a flexible chain may be added. VII. In forming arrangements for directing the passage of accumulated electricity, it should be borne in mind, that the electric fluid will, on these occasions, always pass through the best conductors, although they may be more circuitous, in prefer- ence to those which are more direct, but have infe- rior conducting power; and it must also be recol- lected, that when different paths are open for its transmission along conductors of equal power, the electricity will always take that which is the short- est. Thus, if a person, holding a wire between his hands, discharges a jar by means of it, the whole of the fluid will pass through the wire, without affect- ing him ; but if a piece of dry wood be substituted for the wire, he will feel a shock; for, the wood being a worse conductor than his own body, the charge will pass through the latter, as being the easiest, although the longest circuit. . During its transit through the human body, in like manner, the shock is felt only in the parts situated in the direct line of communication ; and if the charge be made to pass through a number of persons, who take one another by the hand, and form part of the circuit between the inner and outer coatings of the jar, each will feel the electric shock in the same manner, and at the same instant ; the sensation reaching from hand to hand, directly across the breast. By varying the points of contact, however, the shock may be made to pass in other directions, and may either be confined to a small part of a limb, or be made to traverse the whole length of the body, from head to foot. By accurate experiments it appears, that the force of the electric shock is weakened, i. e. its effects are diminished, by employing a conductor of great length for making the discharge. But it is difficult to assign a limit to the number of persons through whom even a small charge of electricity may be sent, so that all shall experience the shock; or to the distance along which it may be conveyed by good conductors. The abbé Nollet passed an elec- trical shock through 180 of the French guards, in the presence of the king ; and the sensation was felt at the same moment by all the persons compos- ing the circuit. An experiment was made near London, at a time when the ground was remarkably dry, to ascertain if any loss of time accompanied the passage of the fluid, when transmitted through con- siderable distances. It was made to perform a cir- cuit of four miles; being conducted for two miles along wires supported on baked sticks, and for the remaining distance through the dry ground. As far ELECTRICITY. as could be ascertained by the most careful observa- tion, the time in which the discharge was transmitted along that immense circuit was perfectly instantane- ous. A retardation in the passage of electricity, however, does take place, if the conductor be not of a sufficient size; and when this is the case, as well as in those instances where the conductor is not a good one, the discharge will not be effected So instantaneously or so completely. Under these circumstances, also, there is a tendency in the fluid to diverge from the direct line of its course, and to fly off to different objects in the vicinity, as is often exem- plified in the case of lightning, which, on striking a building, is apt to take a very irregular and seem ingly capricious route, darting towards conducting bodies which may happen to attract it, although at some distance from the immediate direction it was pursuing. The motion of electricity through perfect conductors is attended with no perceptible alteration in the mechanical properties of the conducting bodies, provided they be of sufficient size for the charge of the electric fluid transmitted. On the con- trary, very considerable effects are produced when a powerful charge is sent through a wire, which is too small to allow the whole quantity to pass with perfect freedom ; or through an imperfect conductor, though of a large size, as is proved when a tree is struck by lightning. A piece of dry writing paper, as well as pieces of dry, porous wood, are easily torn in pieces by an electric charge. VIII. Electricity exerts a most extensive and im- portant influence in effecting changes in the tempera- ture and chemical composition of bodies. The igni- tion and fusion of metals by the electric discharge, are phenomena which have been long observed. Thus, by passing a strong charge through slender iron wires, or the finest flatted steel, called pendulum, wire, they are ignited, and partly melted into globules, and at the same time partially oxidated. If a slip of gold or silver leaf be placed on white paper. and a strong shock passed through it, the meta} will disappear with a bright flash, and the impulse with which its particles are driven against the paper will produce a permanent stain of a purple or gray colour. The colours produced in this way have been applied to impressletters or ornamental devices on silk and on paper. For this purpose, the outline of the required figure should be first traced on thick drawing paper, and afterwards cut out in the manner of stencil plates. The drawing paper is then placed on the silk or paper intended to be marked ; a leaf of gold is laid upon it, and a card over that ; the whole is then placed in a press or under a weight, and a charge from a battery sent through the gold leaf. The stain is confined, by the interposition of the drawing-paper, to the limit of the design, and in this way a profile, a flower, or any other outline figure, may be very neatly impress- ed. The heat evolved by electricity, like most other of its effects, is in proportion to the resistances opposed to its passage. A rod of wood, of consider- able thickness, being made part of the circuit, has its temperature sensibly raised by a very few discharges. Most combustible bodies are capable of being inflamed by electricity. Thus alcohol, ether, cam- phor, powdered resin, phosphorus or gun-powder may be set on fire. And the sparks taken from a piece of ice are as capable of inflaming bodies as those from a piece of red-hot iron. The oxidation of metals, through which accumulated electricity has been passed, is rather to be ascribed to the tendency which they are known to possess of combining with the oxygen of the atmosphere when heated, than to any peculiar agency of electricity. A reverse pro- cess, however, is found to attend electrical discharges through metallic oxides, extricating their oxygen, ELECTRICITY. and restoring them to the metallic state. When a succession of electric discharges from a powerful electric machine are sent through water, a decom- position of that fluid takes place, and it is resolved into its two elements of oxygen and hydrogen, which immediately assume the gaseous form. When this experiment is conducted in a suitable apparatus, and a shock is transmitted through the mixed gases thus obtained, they are instantly kindled ; a re-union of the elements takes place; and precisely the same quantity of water is reproduced as was decomposed to furnish the gases. It may appear somewhat para- doxical that the same agent should, in the course of the same experiment, produce at one time decom- position, and at another combination, of the same elements. The simplest way of reconciling this apparent discordance, is to suppose that the combi- nation of the gases is the effect of the heat evolved during its forcible transit through an aeriform fluid that opposes considerable resistance to its passage; while the decomposition of the liquid is the direct consequence of the agency of electricity , when not interfered with by heat. When a solution of sulphate of copper is subjected to the action of elec- tricity by means of slender conducting wires termin- ating in the vessel containing the solution, the copper is revived, or precipitated in a metallic state, around the negative wire; but upon reversing the direction of the current of electricity, so that the same wire now becomes positively electrified, the copper which has collected around it is redissolved, and a similar deposit takes place on the opposite wire, which now becomes the negative oile. Similar experiments, made with other metallic solutions, are attended with similar results; and solutions of neutral Salts with alkaline and earthy bases obey the same law, being separated into their constituent parts, the ingredient containing oxygen always appearing at the positive wire, and the base at the nega- tive wire; but as these are a class of effects which have been more particularly investigated by that mode of agency denominated galvanism, we shall reserve a more full account of them for that article. IX. Having seen the effects of electricity on inani- mate matter, we now proceed to describe the agency it exerts over living bodies. Its passage through living plants immediately destroys the vitality of the parts through which it passes. A very small shock, sent through the stem of a balsam, causes its leaves to droop in a few minutes, and finally extinguishes its vitality. The approach of an electrified conduc- tor to the sensitive plant (mimosa pudica) produces no effect upon it; but when sparks are taken from it, the leaves collapse, just as they are accustomed to do from concussions of a mechanical nature. When the energetic effects of the shock from the Leyden Vial upon the animal system were first made known, high expectations were raised that electricity would prove a remedial agent of extraordinary power. It was supposed that, as a stimulant, it would have many advantages over other remedies ; for it can be administered in various degrees of intensity, which may be regulated with great exactness; and its appli- cation can be directed especially to the organ We wish to affect. Accordingly, we find, at one period, it was employed in a great number of cases : but at present it is confined to a very few ; such as palsy, contractions of the limbs, rheumatism, St Vitus's dance, some kinds of deafness, and impaired vision. Although the effects of ordinary shocks upon living animals are familiar to most persons, still a short account of these shocks, as they have been adminis- tered out of the common course may not be uninter- esting. If a person who is standing receive a charge 831 through the spine, he loses his power over the muscles to such a degree, that he either drops on his knees, or falls prostrate on the ground. A strong charge passed through the head gives the sensation of a violent but universal blow, and is followed by a transient loss of memory and indistinctness of vision. If the diaphragm be included in the circuit of a coated surface of two feet in extent, fully charged, the sudden contraction of the muscles of respiration will act so violently upon the air in the lungs, as to occasion a loud and involuntary shout ; but if the charge be small, a fit of convulsive laughter is induced, producing a most ludicrous scene to the by- stander. Small animals, such as mice and Sparrows, are instantly killed by a shock from thirty Square inches of glass. X. There are several mineral bodies, which, from being in a neutral state at ordinary temperatures, acquire electricity simply by being heated or cooled. This property is confined to crystallized minerals; and of these the most remarkable are the tourmaline and boracite (q.v.). In the former of these, it is best observed in the regularly terminated crystals. When one of these is heated from 1000 to 2120 Fahr., the extremity terminated by the greatest number of planes becomes charged with positive electricity, while the other extremity is negative. When the crystal is of considerable size, flashes of light may be seen along its surface. A large number of substances become electrified on passing from the liquid to the solid form. This happens to sulphur, gum-lac, bees- wax, and, in general, all resinous bodies. The Con- version of bodies into the state of vapour, as well as the condensation of vapour, is generally attended by some alteration of their electrical condition. Thus, if an ignited platina crucible be placed upon the gold leaf electrometer, and water be dropped into it, at the moment the vapour rises, the leaves of the elec- trometer diverge with negative electricity. Elec. tricity is evolved by the contact of different metals. Thus, if two discs, the one of copper, the other of zinc, rather more than two inches in diameter, and furnished with insulating handles, be brought into contact, and then separated and examined by an electroscope, the copper disc is found to be charged with negative, and the zinc with positive electricity. While the contact of the metals is preserved, neither of them gives any indication of its electrical state, the electricity being disguised until the separation takes place. This observation has an important re- lation to the theory of that mode of electrical excite- ment called galvanism, under which head it will be resumed. There are some bodies which are rendered electrical by pressure. Thus, if a crystal of Calca- rious spar or arragonite be pressed for a few mo- ments between the fingers, it exhibits a decided attraction. The same thing happens with regard to cork, paper and wood. Many mineral substances, when reduced to powder, exhibit electricity, if made to fall upon an insulated metallic plate, a mode of excitation which is to be considered as a species of friction. The most important circumstance in this inquiry is the connexion between electricity and the chemical properties of matter, first pointed out by Sir H. Davy. Most of the substances that act dis- tinctly upon each other electrically, are likewise such as act chemically, when their particles have freedom of motion. This is the case with the different me- tals, with sulphur and the metals, with acids and the alkaline substances. Of two metals in contact, the one which has the greatest chemical attraction for oxygen acquires positive electricity, and the other the negative. In the contact of acids with bases, as of crystals of oxalic acid with dry quicklime, the former is negative, the latter is positive. All acid 832 crystals, when covered by a plate of metal, render it positive, the crystals themselves becoming mega- tive. - XI. The resemblance between the electric spark, and more especially the explosive discharge of the Leyden jar, and atmospheric lightning and thunder, struck the mind of Dr Franklin with so much force, that he was determined, if possible, to verify their identity by experiment. Having constructed a kite, by stretching a large silk handkerchief over two Sticks in the form of a cross, on the appearance of an approaching Storm, he went into a field in the vicinity of Philadelphia, and raised it, taking care to insulate it by a silken cord attached to a key, with which the hempen string terminated. No sooner had a dense cloud, apparently charged with light- ning, passed over the spot on which he stood, than his attention was arrested by the bristling up of some loose fibres on the hempen string : he immediately presented his knuckle to the key, and received an electric spark. The rain now fell in torrents, and, wetting the string, rendered it conducting in its whole length; so that electric sparks were now collected from it in great abundance. This grand experiment was made in June, 1752; and, al- though the same idea which led Franklin to institute it had occurred to other philosophers, yet to him be- Hongs exclusively the glory of the discovery. The discovery of Franklin immediately engaged the at- tention of European philosophers; one of whom, professor Richmann, of St Petersburg, fell a victim to his attempt to draw down the electric fluid from the clouds. He had constructed an apparatus for obser- vations on atmospherical electricity, and was attend- ing a meeting of the academy of sciences, when the sound of distant thunder caught his ear. He imme- diately hastened home, taking with him his engraver, Sokolow, in order that he might delineate the appear- ances that should present themselves. While intent upon examining the electrometer, a large globe of fire flashed from the conducting rod, which was insu- lated, to the head of Richmann, and, passing through his body, instantly deprived him of life. A red spot was found on his forehead, where the electricity had entered ; his shoe was burst open, and part of his clothes singed. His companion was struck down, and remained senseless for some time ; the door-case of the room was split, and the door itself torn off its hinges. * The atmosphere is very generally in an electrical state. This is ascertained by employing a metallic rod, insulated at its lower end, elevated at some height above the ground, and communicating with an electroscope. the higher regions of the air, a kite may be raised, in the string of which a slender metallic wire should be interwoven. The atmosphere is almost invariably found to be positively electrified; and its electricity is stronger in the winter than in the summer, and during the day than in the night. From the time of sunrise, it increases for two or three hours, and then decreases towards the middle of the day, being generally the weakest between noon and four o'clock. As the sun declines, its intensity is again augmented, till about the time of sunset, after which it dimin- ishes, and continues feeble during the night. In cloudy weather, the electrical state is much more un- certain; and when there are several strata of clouds, moving in different directions, it is subject to great and rapid variations, changing backwards and for- wards in the course of a very few minutes. On the first appearance of fog, rain, snow, hail, or sleet, the electricity of the air is generally negative, and often highly so; but it afterwards undergoes frequent transitions to opposite states. On the approach In order to collect the electricity of ELECTRICITY. of a thunder storm, these alternations of the electric condition of the air succeed one another with re- markable rapidity. Strong sparks are sent out in great abundance from the conductor; and it becomes dangerous to prosecute experiments with it in its insulated state. Thunder is merely the noise pro- duced by the motion of the lightning * The protection of buildings from the destructive effects of lightning is the most important practical application of the theory of electricity. The con- ductors, for this purpose, should beformed of metallic rods, pointed at the upper extremity, and placed so as to project a few feet above the highest part of the building they are intended to secure ; they should be continued without interruption till they descend into the ground below the foundation of the house. Cop- per is preferable to iron as the material for their construction, being less liable to destruction by rust, or by fusion, and possessing also a greater conduct- ing power. The size of the rods should be from half an inch to an inch in diameter, and the point should be gilt, or made of platina, that it may be more ef. fectually preserved from corrosion. An important condition in the protecting conductor is, that no in- terruption should exist in its continuity from top to bottom ; and advantage will result from connecting together by strips of metal all the leaden water pipes, or other considerable masses of metal in or about the building, so as to form one continuous system of conductors, for carrying the electricity by different channels to the ground. The lower end of the con- ductors should be carried down into the earth, till it reaches either water, or at least a moist stratum. For the protection of ships, chains, made of a series of iron rods linked together, are most convenient, on account of their flexibility. They should extend from the highest point of the mast some way into the sea, and the lower part should be removed to some distance from the side of the ship, by a wooden spar or outrigger. The utility of conducting rods for buildings is well exhibited in an experiment with the following piece of apparatus : In Fig. 12, g represents a board, shaped like the gable end of a house, and three quarters of an inch in thickness. It is fixed perpen- dicularly into the board, a b, into which also is fixed the glass pillar, f. In the middle of the wooden gable there is a square hole g, about an inch wide, and a quarter of an inch deep, into which a square piece of wood is introduced a little Smaller than the hole itself, so that it may fall out when the instru- ment is shaken. On this small piece of wood a small piece of wire is placed, so that it may reach from one corner to the other diagonally. At the top of the gable there is a ball, d, which terminates a wire that passes down the gable, and reaches the cor- ner of the hole, g. The wire stops here ; but there is another which connects the bottom of the gable with the corner of the little hole next to a, that is, in a diagonal with the termination of the upper wire. From the top of the glass pillar, e, there proceeds a bent brass wire, e c, which carries a perpendicular wire, having a brass ball at each end; this wire is capable of being moved up or down in a spring socket in the end of the wire, ec, so that the under ball may be made to come nearer to or farther from the ball, d. For a similar reason, the glass pillar, f, is not fastened tightly into the board, but may be made to move upon its axis. Let now the Wire, e 6, be connected by a chain with the wire of the jar, h, and also the outside coating of the jar is in like man: ner to be connected with the wire at the bottom of # The air of close rooms, vitiated by respiration, is found to be negatively electrified. ELECTRO-DYNAMICS-ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. the gable. In this state of things, if the piece of wood in the Square hole, g, is placed in such a posi- tion that the diagonal wire shall connect the upper and lower wires on the gable; then if the lower ball of the wire, c e, be brought near the ball, d, a connex- tion will be formed between the outer and inner coating of the jar, and a discharge will take place, but the gable will remain unaltered. If, however, before the discharge is made, the piece of wood in the hole, g, be turned, so that the diagonal wire shall not connect the upper and lower wires of the gable, then when the discharge takes place, it will be found that the piece of wood in the hole, g, will be thrown out to a considerable distance. Unscrew the ball, d, which will leave the wire pointed, and repeat the experiment with the piece of wood, carrying the diagonal wire in the two positions above described, and it will be found that no change takes place in either case, that is, the piece of wood remains sta- tionary in the hole. These experiments clearly show that a house may be protected by a conducting rod of metal, which leads from the top to the bottom of the building, and also that the conducting rod is the more secure from being terminated in a point.— Somewhat similar to the foregoing is the thunder house, fig. 13. In this figure the side and part of the roof next the eye are taken away, in order to show the interior. The conducting rod A, a, c, at the gable, differs from that formerly described, in this, that the under part connecting the two windows with the bottom is in one line. The sides and gables are connected with the bottom by means of hinges, and they are kept upright by means of a ridge at the top. The tube resting on the stand, c, is filled with gun- powder, having wires in at each end, and arranged so that when the discharge of the jar takes place, the shock shall pass through the tube, and inflame the powder, in consequence of which the house will be thrown down. ELECTRO-DYNAMICS; the science which treats of electricity in motion through a system of conductors; a name used in contradistinction to electro-statics, or the science of electricity in equilibrio. For the facts belonging to this science, see Electro- Magnetism, Electricity, and Galvanism. ELECTRO-MAGNETISM ; the name applied to a very interesting class of facts, principally deve- łoped by professor Oersted, of Copenhagen, in the year 1819. The power of lightning in destroying and reversing the polarity of a magnet, and of com- municating magnetic influence to iron previously not magnetic, had long been observed, and had led to the supposition that similar effects might be pro- duced by the common electrical or galvanic appara- tus. The first observation of professor Oersted was, that an electrical current, such as is supposed to pass from the positive to the negative pole of a voltaic battery, along a wire which connects them, causes a magnetic needle, placed near it, to deviate from its natural position, and to assume a new one, the di- rection of which depends upon the mode of conduct- ing the experiment. The metallic wire to be made use of, in this experiment, should be two or three feet in length, in order to allow of its being bent or turned by the hands in various directions, and is called the conjunctive wire. When the wire is extended horizontally in the line of the magnetic meridian, with a freely suspended compass needle, whose centre is directly under the wire, the needle instantly deviates from the magnetic meridian, and declines towards the west, . that part of the conjunctive wire which is nearest the negative elec- tric pole, or the copper end of the voltaic apparatus, the amount of declination º upon the strength of the electricity, and the sensibility of the II. 833 needle. If we change the direction of the conjunc- tive wire out of the magnetic meridian towards the east or the west, no change in the above result takes place, except that of its amount. But if the wire be disposed horizontally beneath the needle, the effects take place in an inverse manner; i. e. the pole of the needle, under which is placed the portion of the conjunctive wire, which receives the negative electricity of the battery, declines towards the east. When the conjunctive wire is stretched alongside of the needle, in the same horizontal plane, it occasions no declination, either to the east or west: but it causes it merely to incline in a vertical line, so that the pole adjoining the negative influence of the bat- tery on the wire, dips when the wire is on its west side, and rises when it is on the east. If we stretch the conjunctive wire, either above or beneath the needle, in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic meridian it remains at rest, unless the wire be very near the pole of the needle; in which case it rises when the entrance takes place by the west part of the wire, and sinks when it takes place by the east part. When we dispose the conjunctive wire in a vertical line opposite the pole of the needle, and make the upper extremity of the wire receive the electricity of the negative end of the battery, the pole of the needle moves towards the east; but if we place the wire opposite a point betwixt the pole and the middle of the needle, it moves to the west. The phenomena are presented in an inverse order, when the proper extremity of the conjunctive wire receives the electricity of the positive side of the apparatus.-The foregoing observations induced professor Oersted to believe that the electric action is not enclosed within the conducting wire, but that it has a pretty extensive sphere of activity around it. He also concluded that this influence acts by re- volution; for, without such a supposition, it is im- possible to conceive how the same portion of wire, which, placed beneath the magnetic pole, carries the needle towards the east, should, when placed above this pole, carry it towards the west. Such was the nature of the first discovery in electro-magnetism. It was no sooner announced, than the experiments were repeated and varied by philosophers in all parts of the world; and a multitude of new facts were soon brought to light through the labours of MM. Ampère, Arago, and Biot, in France, and Sir H. Davy, and Mr Faraday, in England. Two very important facts were ascertained by Ampère and Davy, that the conjunctive wire becomes itself a magnet, and that magnetic properties might be communicated to a steel needle not previously pos- sessing them, by placing it in the electric current. The former of these facts is proved by throwing some iron filings on paper, and bringing them under the wire, when they will immediately adhere to it, forming a tuft around it ten or twelve times the dia- meter of the wire : on breaking the connexion with the battery, however, they immediately fall off, proving that the magnetic effect depends entirely on the passage of the electricity through the wire. The degree of force of this magnetic property thus com- municated to the uniting wire was imagined, by Sir H. Davy, to be proportional to the quantity of elec- tricity transmitted through it. Hence the finer the wire, the more powerfully magnetic was it rendered; and hence, also, a battery of very large plates, such as is used for producing intense heat, and light, was found to give the strongest magnetism to the wire connecting its poles. Accordingly we find that the calorimotor of doctor Hare (see Galvanism), a gal- vanic arrangement, in which the plates are nearly two feet square, exhibits the strongest magnetic effects, and this notwithstanding the powerful heating 3 G 834 effects that accompany its action; the heat excited not diminishing or interfering with the magnetism, but apparently increasing it; for a fine platina wire, so intensely ignited as to be near the point of fusion, is observed to attract larger quantities of iron filings than when at a lower temperature. To communi- cate magnetic properties to steel needles, which be- fore did not exhibit them, it is necessary merely to place them in contact with, or near to the conjunc- tive wire. The position in which they are to be placed, with regard to the wire, is important, as the permanence of their magnetic quality depends upon it. If they are placed parallel with it, they lose their magnetism when the connexion with the bat- tery is broken, which shows that their magnetism arose only from their forming part of the electric circuit, like the connecting wire itself. But if they are placed across the wire, they become permanently magnetized, and retain their power equally, with needles prepared in the ordinary way. The polarity is different, however, according as the needle is placed above or below the wire. When a needle is placed under the uniting wire, the positive end of the battery being on the right hand of the operator, the end of the needle next to him becomes the north pole, and the other end the south pole. On the contrary, when a needle is held above the wire, the reverse of this takes place; the end next to the ob- server becomes the south,and the other the north pole. Even the same opposition is observed when needles are placed in a perpendicular position, on different sides of the wire: in those on one side, all the lower ends are found to be north poles, while, in those on the opposite side of the wire, the upper ends are all north poles, and the lower extremities all south poles. Direct contact of the steel needles with the conjunctive wire is not necessary, for they become instantly magnetic when brought near it, even though thick plates of glass are interposed. As was remarked with regard to the connecting wire, galvanic batteries, consisting of large plates, are most powerful in communicating the magnetic influence. When the conjunctive wires of two dis- tinct galvanic arrangements are made to approach each other, we observe magnetic attractions and repulsions. Two wires of copper, silver, or any other metal, connecting the extremities of two galvanic troughs, being placed parallel to each other, and suspended so as to move freely, immediately attract and repel each other, according as the directions of the currents of electricity flowing through them, are the same or different. When both the negative or both the positive extremities of the troughs are turn- ed to the same quarter, so that the electric current passes along each wire in the same direction, the two wires attract each other; but when the position of One of the troughs is reversed, so that the electric currents in the two wires flow in opposite directions, the wires repel each other. Upon this experiment is founded the most plausible theory of magnetism, viz., that it arises from the attractions and repulsions of currents of electricity, constantly circulating around every magnet. This is conceived to explain the reason why the magnetic needle places itself at right angles to a wire conducting electricity, namely, that the electric current passing along the wire may coin- cide with that circulating round the magnet. The magnetic effects produced by galvanic arrangements are obtained also by electricity evolved from the common machine, and still more from this power concentrated in the Leyden jar ; the magnetism communicated agreeing in every respect as to the permanence of the polarity, the variations when the needle is placed placed above or below the wire, &c., with that produced by the voltaic pile. Magnetism ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. is communicated to needles in a different manner from that of placing them across the conjunctive wire. The wire is formed into a hollow screw, or helix, by rolling it round a Solid rod, and the needle to be magnetized, wrapped in a paper, or put into a glass tube, is placed in the centre of it, and the com- munication with the galvanic battery established. This arrangement (according to the theory of M. Ampère) conveys the electric current by the spiral Convolutions, round and round the needle, and com- municates to it, or developes in it, the electric circula- tion constituting magnetism. By this contriva ce, it is found that a maximum effect is obtained in a shorter time than by any other method. The position of the north and South pole varies according as either end of the helix is connected with the positive or the negative pole, which shows that the electric current flows along the uniting wire from the positive or zinc extremity to the negative or copper end of the pile. The electricity of a common machine produces the Same effect. Having alluded to the principal facts relating to electro-magnetic phenomena, the ingenious theory of M. Ampère, by which they are explained more extensively and with more precision than by any other hitherto advanced, deserves to be stated. It is the more deserving of attention, as having led its author to the discovery of some of the most remarka- ble facts detailed above ; and, if future researches shall continue to increase its probability, it will no doubt be regarded as one of the finest instances of correct induction, supported by minute experiment, which the history of any science can exhibit. The first principle of this theory has been already stated ; —that two currents of electricity attract when they move parallel to each other and in the same direc- tion, and repel when they move parallel to each other in contrary directions. This fact is directly the reverse of the usually observed phenomena of electri- city ; for it is well known that bodies in the same state of electricity repel each other, and in opposite states attract. Hence M. Ampère infers, that these results are not produced by electricity in its known and common state of tension, but are dependent on properties belonging to electricity, previously unsus- pected, and peculiar to it when in motion, or flowing in currents. Electricity, when accumulated, has the power of causing certain effects, particularly attrac- tions and repulsions, which are familiar to us, and are called electrical; but when moving in currents, it exerts new powers, and these constitute magnetism. Reviewing the various experiments which have been enumerated, we find, that the connecting wires of two batteries attract and repel each other, according to the directions of the electric currents flowing through them; that the magnetic needle is, exactly in the Same manner, attracted and repelled by a connecting wire, according to the direction of the current of electricity moving through the wire ; that the position of the needle may be varied, in almost any degree, by changing the position of the connecting wire; that whenever the electric circuit is broken, this influence on the needle ceases, and is renewed when- ever the communication between the poles of the battery is restored; that the connecting wire, of whatever metal it may consist, becomes a perfect magnet, as long as the current flows along it. So as to attract iron filings and small steel needles, without attracting copper filings, or any other metal but iron; that steel needles may be converted into per- manent magnets, by simply placing them across the connecting wire; that the electric currents having this magnetizing power are not, like accumulated electricity, confined by glass, or other non-conductors, but pass through all bodies with facility, as magnet E.ECTRO-MAGNETHSM. ism was before known to do; that the magnetizing power is exerted by electricity, whether procured by a galvanic apparatus, or a common machine ; that powerful magnets may be formed, by conducting electric currents round steel wires, as in the helix, and that the position of the north and South poles of these magnets depends upon the direction in which the currents are made to move round them. These, and a great number of other facts, it is conceived, clearly demonstrate the perfect resemblance, or rather identity, of electricity and magnetism. Mag- netic phenomena are thus, in fact, a series of elec- trical phenomena; and magnetism may, with pro- priety, form a branch of electricity, under the head of Electrical Currents. Though this intimate relation or identity be admitted, it is not so obvious how, by it, the properties of the common magnet are explained. Currents of electricity, according to the theory, are essential to the production of magnetic pheno- mena; but these are not obvious in a common magnet. M. Ampère has suggested their existence, however, and has so arranged them theoretically, as to account for a great proportion of magnetic appearances. A magnet he conceives to be an assemblage of as many electric currents, moving round it in planes perpen- dicular to its axis, as there may be imagined lines, which, without cutting one another, form closed curves round it. Magnetization, he says, is an operation by which there is given to the particles of steel (which, of the more common metals, appears to be the only one capable of being permanently impress- ed with this power) an electro-motive energy, which causes a circulation of these currents to be continued round them. The excitation and continuance of this electro-motive action is rendered less improbable, when we consider the electric power developed in the tourmaline and boracite by heat alone, and when we find, as in the electrical columns of De Luc and Zamboni, that electricity may be generated for years without ceasing or diminishing, by a small and simple apparatus. Such, then, is the constitution of a mag- net. If is a mass of iron or steel, round the axis of which electric currents are constantly circulating, and these currents attract all other electric currents flowing in the same direction, and repel all others which are moving in an opposite direction. From these attractions and repulsions another effect follows, that the currents of one magnet have always a tendency to move any other magnet near it, till the currents in the second shall coincide in direction with those of the first. It is from this cause, as will pre- sently be explained, that the magnetic needle always turns to the meridian, and that the needle in Oersted's experiments became at right angles to the connecting wire. One important circumstance is always to be kept in view, that the electric currents flow round every magnet in the same direction in reference to its poles. If, for instance, we place a magnet with its north pole pointing to the north, in the usual posi- tion of the magnetic needle, the current of electricity flows round it from west to east ; or, on the eastern side of the magnet, it is moving downwards, and on the western side upwards ; on the upper side, from west to east, and on the lower side, from east to west. This, it is found, is a uniform law. On these princi- ples the phenomena of magnetism are easily accounted for. Thus, to take one of the most obvious and well known facts, that of two magnets attracting when their opposite poles are approached to one another, as the north of one to the south pole of the other. Let us suppose a magnet in the position which has just been stated, with its north pole directed to the north ; and let a second magnet be placed beyond it, and in a line with it, with its north pole also pointed to the north. Then, it is obvious that the South pole 835 of the second magnet will be next to the north pole of the first ; and from their position it follows, ifiat the electric currents must be flowing in the same direction, or, in both of them, from west to east : hence, as currents moving in the same direction attract, these opposite poles, if within a certain dis- tance, Ought to attract each other, which, accord- ingly, will be found to be the case. Now, let the second magnet be reversed; let its south pole be directed to the north, and its north pole approached to the north pole of the first magnet ; the electric currents will flow round the magnet in the same man- ner as before; but in reference to the first magnet and to the meridian, their direction will be reversed : their direction will now be from east to west, upwards On the eastern side, and downwards on the western ; consequently, the currents in the two magnets, being now opposite, will repel, or the two north poles will repel each other. - In the experiments of professor Oersted, it was found, as has been stated, that when the extraneous influence of the magnetism of the earth was counter- balanced, the tendency of a magnetic needle always was to place itself at right angles to the wire con- necting the poles of the galvanic battery. The reason of this is easily explained upon the present hypothesis. In the needle, the currents flow round its axis from end to end ; but in the connecting wire there is no circulation round the axis, but a constant stream from One end, namely, the negative, to the other, the posi- tive extremity: hence, for the current along the wire to coincide with the current across and round the magnet, it is necessary that the latter shall stand across the former ; and as it appears, that, from the attractions and repulsions which these electric cur- rents exert, they are able to move one or both of the magnetic bodies (according as they are light and mobile), till they coincide, the needle moves if the wire is fixed till it stands at right angles to the wire; and if the magnet is fixed, and the wire movable, the reverse happens. The other phenomena, of the needle turning to the west when placed below the wire, to the east when placed above it, &c., may with facility be explained in the same manner by the principles, that currents flowing in the same direction attract ; and that in every magnet they move in a constant current, which is, when the north pole is turned to the north, from west to east, or upwards On the west side, and downwards on the east side. The development of permanent magnetism in steel needles when placed across the wire, while it is only temporary when they are fastened parallel with it, depends on the same cause : in the latter case, it arises merely from the transmission of elec- tricity from end to end, while, in the former, the elec- tro-motive energy of the particles is developed and called into action, which, when set in motion, seems to have the power of continuing itself. These elec- tric currents have the power, which accumulated electricity has not, of penetrating all substances, as was before known respecting magnetism. This is probably owing to their low state of tension ; and, in conformity with this, large plates, which evolve elec- tricity in but a slight intensity, produce magnetic effects most distinctly. The agency of galvanism, and that of common electricity, are equally capable of giving rise to magnetism when flowing in currents, which adds another to the proof that these are the Same power. To complete the view of Ampère's doctrine, it re- mains only to explain the influence of the earth on the magnet, by which the needle is kept always in one position, nearly coinciding with the meridian. He asserts, that currents of electricity, analogous to those which circulate round every magnet, are con- 3 G 2 836 stantly flowing round the globe, as the current of electricity in a galvanic apparatus moves in an unbroken circuit from the negative to the positive pole, and from it, by the connecting wire, round again to the negative pole. The direction of these currents he infers to be the same as has been stated with artificial magnets; and it is simply by the attractions and repulsions of these terrestrial currents, bringing the currents round the needle to coincide with them, that the latter always points to the north. To detect these currents, and to exhibit their influ- ence without the aid of any common magnet, M. Ampère contrived a small electric apparatus, which was distinctly affected by the magnetic influence of the globe. It consisted merely of a copper wire bent into a circle, with the two extremities brought near to each other. It was supported so as to move with the greatest facility; and the points were immersed in basins of mercury, with which the wires of a gal- vanic battery were connected. When the communi- cation was established so as to cause a current of electricity to pass through the circle, it immediately began to move, and, after some oscillations, placed itself nearly at right angles to the meridian, or east and west, or so that the electric current passed down- wards on the eastern side, and upwards on the west- ern side. This, it has been stated, is exactly the direction in which the currents in every magnet move (supposing it placed with its north pole to the north). The circle may, therefore, be regarded as a section across the axis of a magnet, or as repre- senting one of the currents flowing round it ; and if a number of these circles were placed one beyond another, the farthest would point, like the end of the needle, to the north pole, and the nearest to the south pole. However the experiment was varied, the circle always placed itself east and west : if the galvanic current was, by reversing the connecting wires, made to flow in an opposite direction, the circle turned round a semicircle, and still stood east and west, and so that the electric current should always flow downwards on the eastern side, and up- wards on the western side. Here, then, are distinct marks of magnetism, particularly that most charac- teristic one of the axes pointing always to the north, which can be attributed only to the combined influ- ence of electric currents moving round the earth. This result is very much in favour of the new theory; and there appears to be only one link now wanting, to connect magnetism and electricity, and to establish their identity. This is, by some combination of wires and magnets, to produce an undoubted electric effect, such as the decomposition of water. . This has been attempted in a number of ways; and in some of the arrangements, the desired effects appeared to be pro- duced; but no result has yet been obtained wholly free from doubt. All the phenomena of magnetism, it has been found, may be produced by electricity. If, then, any of the phenomena occasioned by electricity alone can be produced by magnetism, we shall have no hesitation in pronouncing them to be the same power, according to the doctrine of Ampère. With regard to the cause of the electric currents inferred to be constantly circulating round the globe, it is as yet in obscurity. They are supposed to move at right angles to the magnetic meridian, or nearly par- allel with the equator, on the eastern side of the earth moving from us, and on the western side flow: ing towards us. These currents may be compared to that which flows from the negative pole of a voltaic battery in action, to the positive pole, and, by the medium of the uniting wire, round again to the negative pole. It is conjectured, that the arrangement of the materials of the globe may be such as to constitute a battery, existing like a girdle ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. round the earth, which, though composed of compara- tively weak elements, may be sufficiently extensive to produce the effects of terrestrial magnetism. Its irregularity, and the changes which it may acciden- tally or periodically suffer, may explain the pheno- menon of the variation of the compass; or the general action producing the currents of electricity may be affected by different causes, as the earth’s motions, Currents of the atmosphere, evaporation, or the solar heat. It is supposed that much of the variation de- pends on the progress of oxidation in the continental regions of the globe. What is called the diurnal varia- tion may be conceived to be produced by the diurnal change of temperature in the superficial layers of the earth, which possess electro-motive energy. We will conclude our view of electro-magnetism by describing some of the apparatus employed in experimenting in this interesting branch of science. Fig. 15, plate XXIX., shows an apparatus for exhib- iting the effect of heat in exciting electricity. In this figure a b is a board into which is fixed an up- right brass rod, d. On the top of this rod a piece of agate is fastened, which receives a steel point des- cending from the top of the rectangular piece, e e. This rectangular piece is composed of rods of plati- num and silver, the former being represented by the faint lines, and the latter by the heavy ones. The bottom rods are made to diverge in the centre, in order to allow the centre rod, d, to pass up so that the rectangle e e, may revolve freely on the agate at the top of the rod d. c and c, are two magnets placed vertically in the board, the upper extremities of which nearly touch the corners of the rectangle e e. If a spirit lamp be applied at one of the under corners, the rectangle will begin to revolve, and the velocity will increase in a short time to thirty revolutions in the minute. If the north pole of the right hand magnet, and the south pole of the left be uppermost, and the lamp be held on the right, the motion of the rectangle will be towards the right, and the reverse will be the case if the magnets be inverted. A pleasing experiment, somewhat of the same kind with the last, may be exhibited with the apparatus shown in Fig. 16. A horse shoe magnet b, c, g, is fixed in an inverted position on the stand a. In this case the magnet is the support of the rectangles e, f, which move on agate. One lamp, at d, sets both in motion, and they will continue to revolve as long as the lamp burns. The horse shoe magnet may be made to cause a wheel and axle rotation, by means of the apparatus exhibited in Fig. 17, which is the invention of Mr Barlaw. There is fixed into the rectangular board, a a, an upright wooden pillar, b, into the top of which is fixed a piece of stout brass wire, c. A similar piece of wire is soldered to the bottom of this a little below e, and shaped in the form of a fork, in order to carry the axle on which the thin sheet-cop- per wheel, f, turns. Immediately below this wheel, there is placed a little trough containing mercury. It is sunk into the wood of the board, a a, and has a channel running into it, terminating in a little cup, which is seen at the side of the board, The mercury in the trough is brought to such a height, that the tips of the wheel just touch it, and the surface is then covered with a weak solution of nitric acid. This being done, a strong horse shoe magnet is brought into the position shown in the figure, the ends being brought near the wheel. The wire at the top of the upright wooden pillar is connected with one end of the battery, and the cup at the side of the board is connected with the other, electro-magnetic action commences, and the wheel turns round with great velocity. If the contact with the battery be changed, ELECTROMETER—ELEG Y. or the magnet be inverted, the direction of the wheel's motion will be changed. \ In Fig. 18, there is shown a contrivance for exhi- biting the rotation of a galvanic wire and magnet, an invention which is due to Mr Faraday, b b is a cup supported on the stand, a a, and filled with mercury, partially immersed, on which is a magnet loaded at the bottom, e, with platina, in order to keep it ver- tical. This magnet is connected with a wire, c c, having a cup of mercury, d, as the vertex, and the lower extremities immersed in the mercury in the cup, b b. The ends of the wire are connected with the magnet by means of thin pasteboard. The mer- cury in the cup, b b, is made to communicate with the mercury in the cup, f, by means of a connecting wire, and one end of the battery being brought into con- tact with the one cup, and the other end with the other, the wire e c, with the magnet, will revolve with great rapidity. A series of wires will do the same, having all the same axis of motion, and a cylinder made of thin sheet copper, which may be con- sidered as a series of wires, will also revolve. But a galvanic wire may be made to rotate with- out the action of the battery, as may be shown by the elegant contrivance of Mr Marsh. a, fig. 19, is a thin copper sheet cylinder, about 2% inches in dia- meter and the same in height. It envelopes another of smaller diameter, and of the same material which is soldered to it at the bottom. Between these two cylinders, is a third one, of zinc, reaching nearly to the bottom, and suspended by the wires c, c, which have a steel point at the top resting on an agate centre, so that the zinc cylinder has a free motion round its axis. The inner copper cylinder is suspended in a like manner, from a centre a little below the former, so that the two copper cylinders have also free motion round their axes. They are supported by a strong cylindrical magnet, b, which passes up through the interior copper cylinder. If now diluted nitric acid, be poured between the cylinders, they will immed- iately begin to revolve, the copper ones in one direc tion, and the zinc one in another. Farther particulars regarding this interesting branch of physical science, will be given in our arti- cles Galvanism and Magnetism. ELECTROMETER. See Electricity. ELECTROPHORUS. See Electricity. ELECTRO-STATICS; the science which treats of electricity in equilibrio, as distinguished from elec- tro-dynamics, which relates to the effects of elec- tricity in motion through a continued system of conductors. For the principal facts belonging to electro-statics, see Electricity. ELECTRUM, (Lat. ; #xezzgow, Greek), according to Ovid, was that resinous substance now called amber (q.v.); also, according to Pliny (lib. 30, cap. 4), a mixture of gold and silver, of which the fifth part was silver: he observes that it was more brilliant than pure gold. According to other ancient writers, three varieties of substances called electrum were used in the arts; namely, glass, a compound metal, and succinum. In the Homeric poems, electrum is often mentioned, which seems to have been suc- cinum, the yellow or white amber. According to Eustathius, the ancients used sometimes to call gold by this name, probably from its brilliancy, the word #Aázzog, signifying the Sun. Pliny thinks that the compound metal or alloy mentioned above is the same that Homer mentions in the fourth book of the Odyssey, in describing the palace of Mene- laus, which he says was ornamented with gold, (#As2Taoy), silver and ivory. But there is reason to believe, says Millin, that if the electrum of Homer was a metallic alloy or compound metal, Homer would not have omitted it in his description of the 837 shield of Achilles. It is more probable that electrum was yellow amber, which has a resplendent, sunny brilliancy, according with its Greek name; and Herodotus mentions that succinum or amber was known to the ancients.—Pliny’s account of the compound metal of gold with a fifth part of silver, which he calls electrum, is corroborated by Isidorus, except in respect to the quantities; the latter giving two parts of gold to one of silver to his electrum. There are many ancient coins of this rich alloy, the principal of which are some of the kings of Bospho- rus, some small ones of Syracuse, and many Celtic and of ancient Gaul. Gold alloyed with silver was called electrum ; with copper, aurichaleum or chai- colibanos. ELEEMOSYNARY CORPORATION. An eleemosynary corporation is a charity constituted for the perpetual distribution of the alms and bounty of the founder. In this class are ranked hospitals for the relief of poor, sick, and impotent persons, and colleges and academies established for the promotion of learning and piety, and endowed with property by public or private donations. They are either public or private. Thus an hospital created and endowed by the government, for its own purposes, and exclu- sively owned by the government, is a public corpo- ration, but an hospital founded by a private bene- factor, is, in point of law, a private corpora- tion, though dedicated by its charter to general charity. A college founded and endowed in the same manner is a private charity; though, from its general objects, it may acquire the character of a public institution. A mere act of incorporation will not change a charity from a private to a public one. To make a public charity, it is essential that the express object of its creation be of a public charac- ter. A charity may be public, though administered by a private corporation, Thus a devise for the benefit of the poor of a parish, is a public charity. The charity of almost every hospital and college is public, while the corporations are private. ELEGY; commonly a mournful and plaintive poem, as is implied by the signification of the Greek name. It signifies to cry alas ! alas ! (El E J Aftysty). But the Greeks and Romans had elegies, which were so called only from the measure of the verse, and were on various subjects. The elegiac measure of the ancients was the distich (q. v.), consisting of the manly hexameter, alternating with the deli- cate pentameter. In this verse, not only Sorrow breathes soft lamentations, but joy and love pour themselves forth in its flowing numbers. Even the war-songs of Tyrtaeus and Callinus were in elegiac verse, as were also the didactic and heroic poems and moral maxims of the ancients. A historical ex- amination will best show how plaintive melancholy came to be the characteristic of this sort of verse. We must first go back to the origin of the pentame- ter. In the first volume of Wieland's Attic Mus- aeum, it is proved by Bottiger, that the pentameter verse arose from the use of the military Lydian flute. The oldest poets, who composed in this measure, confined it to warlike songs. The second period of the pentameter begins with Mimmermus of Colophon, who, in the spirit of his effeminate age, breathed soft feelings into his flute and his pentameters, and sung love elegies to Nammo. He was, therefore, re- garded by antiquity as the founder of the tender and complaining elegy. With Simonides begins the third period; as the distich was his favourite mea- sure for epitaphs and inscriptions on tombs, a little poem of this sort was called an elegy. The distich, however, was never used exclusively for mournful poems, and hence it is well to distinguish poems in elegiac verse from elegy itself. Among the modern 838 European languages, it is well known, none but the German have a rigid, established prosody; hence this language alone can produce elegies, in the ancient sense of the word. Goethe and Voss, like the ancients, have happily applied this measure to joyful subjects. In the other modern languages, elegy always signifies a mournful poem. The characteris- tie of true elegy is a calm and meditative contem- plation of grief, not the wild agony of suffering. Jacobi says of it—“If I were to give a sensible image of Elegy, I should not paint her as many have done, in long robes of sorrow, with dishevelled hair and a veiled brow, weeping over a coffin. I would rather represent her as a nymph seated placidly, with her head upon her hand, full of feeling and con- templation. On her neglected locks should hang a torn garland, and in her lap should lie a wreath of faded flowers. A tomb should appear in the distance, half concealed by a dark grove of cypress. Behind should rise a hill, full of budding roses, and illum- ined with the rays of the rising sun.” ELEMENT ; a term applied in chemistry to a body which has not yet been decomposed. The ele- ments of the ancients were bodies which they sup- posed to be absolutely simple, and capable of form- ing all other bodies by their mutual combination ; whereas the elements of the moderns are regarded as simple, merely in respect to the present state of the art of analyzing bodies. The progress of chemical Science, for several centuries past, has mainly con- sisted in carrying still farther the analysis of bodies, and in proving those to be compound, which had before been thought elementary. See Chemistry. ELEPHANT. This well known and sagacious animal belongs to the order of pachydermata, or thick-skimmed animals. Desmarest recognises two recent species, the Asiatic (E. Indicus), and the African, (E. Africanus); of which the former is the largest, most readily domesticated, and best known. There are also several extinct species, whose remains are met with in almost every part of the world. Few quadrupeds have attracted more attention from man- kind than the elephant. Formed as it were for the Service of man in warm climates, it possesses every attribute that can render it useful. It is strong, active, and persevering, and so docile and sagacious as to be trained to almost any service. It is not easy to convey in words a distinct idea of the form of any animal. Words, it is true, may assist the imagination in recalling forms with which it is already familiar ; but no description, however clear and pre- cise, can give the mind that strong and distinct impression of a new image, which is made by the reality, or even by a representation. This difficulty is peculiarly felt in attempting to describe the ele- phant. His eyes are extremely small, his ears very large and pendulous. The whole form is awkward, the head being large, the body thick, and the back much arched; the legs are very clumsy and shape. less, the feet slightly divided into, or, more properly, edged with, five rounded hoofs; the tail is some- what like that of a hog, and fringed at the extremity by a few very thick, long, black hairs. The skin is generally of a deep ash-brown, approaching to black, though it is sometimes white or cream-coloured; skin of this last sort are highly prized, being one of the attributes of royalty in Siam, one of the titles of whose king is, lord of the white elephant. The tusks are not visible in young animals, but in a more ad- vanced stage of growth, they are eminently conspi- cuous, and in a state of maturity they project, in Some instances, seven or eight feet. The largest tusk on record was sold at Amsterdam, which weighed 350 lbs. Several tusks measured by Eden, were nine feet in length ; and Hartenfels measured ELEMENT—ELEPHANT. one which exceeded fourteen feet. Elephants some- times attain the height of fifteen feet, but their gen- eral height is about nine or ten. Their weight is Sometimes enormous, being from four to nine thou. sand pounds. The female is gravid twenty months, and seldom produces more than one at a birth : this, when first born, is about three feet high, and con- tinues to grow till it is sixteen or eighteen years of age. It is said they live to the age of one hundred years and upwards. They feed on vegetables, the young shoots of trees, grain, and fruit. The most singular part of the structure of the elephant is his trunk, which is peculiar to this animal, though the long and flexible snout of the tapir bears some resemblance to it. It appears to be an extension of the canals of the nose; it is cartilaginous, and com- posed of numerous rings, divided through its whole length by a septum, and terminates in a kind of movable finger. It is of such strength as to be capable of breaking off large branches from trees, whilst, at the same time, it is endowed with such exquisite Sensibility, that it can grasp the Smallest object. The disposition of the elephant is gentle, and his manners social ; hence they are seldom seen except in troops. The wild elephants of Ceylon, which are much esteemed, live in small troops or families. In wandering from place to place, the males, who are furnished with the largest tusks, put themselves at the head, and are the first to face every danger. In Swimming over any large river, they lead the van, and seek a proper landing place: next follow the young elephants, clinging to each other by means of their trunks, whilst the remainder of the full grown bring up the rear. These animals have, in all ages, been eagerly hunted. Some of the arts which have been employed to kill them or take them merit atten- tion. The Hottentots in South Africa shoot them with tin balls: this chase is attended with considerable dan- ger; for, with every precaution that can be used, the Sagacity of the elephant often detects the ap- proach of the hunter, who, in this case, will, in all probability, fall a victim to the rage of the animal, unless he can instantly disable him. Sparman. In the island of Sumatra, the inhabitants split sugar canes, of which food the elephant is very fond, and impregnate them with poison. Marsden. In Abyssinia, they are pursued by hunters on horseback, in the following manner: Two men, per- fectly Iraked, mount the same horse, the hindermost is armed with a broadsword, the lower part of which is covered with cord, and the remainder is exceed- ingly sharp. In this manner they pursue the ele- phants, and, having singled out one, they irritate him to attack them, when they ride up close to him, and the armed man slips from the horse on the off side, and, whilst the elephant's attention is engaged with the horse, he divides the tendons of his foot with a single blow, and thus disables him, when he is despatched by lances. Bruce. They are also taken alive in pitfalls, or are driven into enclosures ; in either case they are fed scantily, though regularly, for a few days, when tame ele- phants are employed to engage their attention till they can be tied fast to a tree; after they have be- come somewhat dispirited, they are led away between two tame ones, and put under the care of keepers, who gradually bring them into subjection, more, however, by caresses and soothing than by coercion. When tamed, they become the most gentle and obedient of all domestic animals, and, in most cases, are exceedingly fond of their keepers, and soon learn to distinguish the various tones of the human voice, as expressive of anger, approbation, or command. The domesticated elephant performs more work than six horses, but at the Same time requires much care, ELEPHANTA—ELEPHANTINA. and a plentiful supply of food. He is #. fed with rice, either raw or boiled, and mixed with water. To keep him in full vigour, a hundred pounds of this food is said to be required daily, besides fresh herbage to cool him, and he must be led to the water twice or thrice a-day to bathe. His daily consumption of water as drink is about forty gallons. Desmarest states that he daily requires about 202 pounds of ali- ment of all sorts. To enumerate all the services of these useful ani- mals would be incompatible with the design of this work. They are employed in carrying burdens on their bodies, necks, and even in their mouths, by means of a rope, the end of which they hold fast with their teeth; they load a boat with amazing dex- terity, carefully keeping all the articles dry, and dis- posing them where they ought to be placed. In pro- pelling wheel carriages heavily laden upon a decli- vity, they push them forward with their forehead, and support them with their knees. In dragging beams of wood along the ground, they remove obstacles or elevate the ends of the beams so as to clear them. |Before the invention of fire-arms, they were used in war by many nations of antiquity; they are stillem- ployed in the East in dragging artillery over moun- tains. During the rutting season, this animal is often seized with a madness which deprives him of all tractability, and renders him so dangerous, that it is often necessary to kill him. In many parts of India, elephants are made the executioners of justice; for they will with their trunks either break the limbs of a criminal, trample him to death, or pierce him with their tusks, as they may be directed. In the island of Ceylon, the general value of an elephant is between fifty and sixty pounds; but if there is any blemish, as a want of tail, &c., very considerable de- ductions are made. They are taken at certain stated periods, and generally a great number are sold together by auction. The structure of the elephant's ear has been investigated with great accuracy by Sir Everard Home. The drum, and every other part of the organ, is much larger in proportion than in other quadrupeds, or in man; and there is a remarkable difference in the arrangement of the muscular fibres of the drum of its ear, when compared with some quadrupeds and the human species. In the human ear, those fibres are radia of a circle; and in the horse, the hare, and the cat, they are of an uniform length; but in the elephant's ear these fibres are so placed that some are more than double the length of others. Sir E. Home argues, from this remarkable construc- tion, that the elephant has not a musical ear; but that it has a peculiar compensating power in this length of fibre, as its slower vibrations enable it to hear sounds at a great distance. The tusks of the elephant have long been applied, under the denomination of ivory, to a variety of important uses in the arts. From the fossil remains which have been discovered, it is ap- parent that they must have been abundantly distributed over the earth; and some of them appear to have been adapted to a much more northern climate than is now inhabited by the elephant. The specimen which was, Some years since, found imbedded in ice in Si- beria, was covered with a long and coarse hair, and with a finer and woolly covering, which was short, and closely applied to the surface, thus protecting it against the Severe cold of those latitudes. The ac- counts of the manners and intelligence of the elephant as given by writers, although in many cases evidently exaggerated, still afford proof of a surprising degree of Sagacity, and fully entitle him to the rank of “The wisest of brutes, with gentle might endowed; Though powerful, not destructive.” ELEPHANTA, or ELEPHANTISLE ; called by the natives Gharipoor; an island between Bombay 839 and the west coast of Hindostan, 5 miles in circuit, with about 100 inhabitants; 5 miles E. Bombay. It was named Elephanta by the Portuguese, from a colossal statue of an elephant formed out of a black rock, which stands in the open plain opposite to the landing place. The island owes its celebrity to its wonderful cave and mythological inscriptions. This cave is nearly sixty feet square, and eighteen high, supported by pillars cut out of the rock; and in the sides there are numerous compartments, containing various representations of Hindoo deities. ELEPHANTIASIS (from ixipas, an elephant); a disease so called from the legs of people affected with it growing scaly, rough, and wonderfully large, at an advanced period, like the legs of an elephant. The disease attacks the whole body, but mostly affects the feet, which appear somewhat like those of the elephant. It is known by the skin being thick, rough, Wrinkly, unctuous, and void of hair, and mostly with- out the sense of feeling. It is said to be contagious. Cullen makes it a genus of disease in the class cacheria, and order impetigines. Elephantiasis has generally been supposed to arise in consequence of Some slight attack of fever, on the cessation of which the morbid matter falls on the leg, and occasions a distension and tumefaction of the limb, which is after- wards overspread with uneven lumps, and deep fis- Sures. By some authors it has been considered as a species of leprosy; but it often subsists for many years without being accompanied with any of the symptoms which characterize that disease. It sometimes comes on gradually, without much previous indisposition; but more generally, the person is seized with a cold- ness and Shivering, pains in the head, back, and loins, and some degree of nausea. A slight fever then ensues, and a severe pain is felt in one of the inguinal glands, which, after a short time, becomes hard, Swelled, and inflamed. No suppuration, however, ensues; but a red streak may be observed running down the thigh from the swelled gland to the leg. As the inflammation increases in all the parts, the fever gradually abates, and, perhaps, after two or three days continuance, goes off. It, however, returns again at uncertain periods, leaving the leg greatly swelled with varicose, turgid veins, the skin rough and rugged, and a thickened membrana cellulosa. Scales appear also on the surface, which do not fall off, but are enlarged by the increasing thickness of the membranes; uneven lumps, with deep fissures, are formed, and the leg and foot become at last of an enormous size. A person may labour under this dis- ease many years without finding much alteration in his general health, except during the continuance of the attacks; and perhaps the chief inconvenience he will experience is the enormous bulky leg which he drags about with him. The incumbrance has, in- deed, induced many who have laboured under this disease to submit to an amputation; but the operation seldom proves a radical cure, as the other leg fre- quently becomes affected. Hilary observes, that he never saw both legs swelled at the same time. Instan- ces where they have alike acquired a frightful and pro- digious size, have, however, frequently fallen under the observation of other physicians. ELEPHANT'S RIVER, in Africa, rises in the country of the Hottentots, and runs into the Atlantic, lat. 31° S. ELEPHANTINA, or EL SAG; a small island on the Nile, opposite to Syene ; remarkable for the ruins with which it is covered. The northern part is low, the southern elevated and rocky. The Nile, for nearly a mile above, is interrupted by numerous small rocks of that fine red granite, which character- izes this island, and which produced so many portals, columns, and obelisks, to adorn the chief cities of 840 antiquity. The island is covered with ruins, piled upon each other—Egyptian, Roman, Saracen, and Arabic. Of these the Egyptian, though the most ancient, are in the best state of preservation. It is supposed that there was once a great temple here, dedicated to the god Cnuphis, all traces of which are now obliterated; but there remains a pyramidal por- tal of red granite, supposed to have formed the entrance. which is believed by Denon to belong to the earliest ages of Egypt. It is covered within and without with hieroglyphics, executed in a style of peculiar excellence. On the eastern side of “the island are remains of a high wall, of which the masonry is ad- mirable. ELEUSIS (now Lepsina, a village), next to Athens, was the principal city of Attica. The mys- teries of Ceres and Proserpine were celebrated there, and were thence called Eleusinia. Neither the founder of these mysteries nor the time of their origin is known; they were the oldest and most venerable in Greece; originally they were only a public festi- val, a harvest-home, to express the gratitude of men to Ceres for her bounties; to recall their former con- dition, and enjoy their present blessings; to banish unkind feelings, and perhaps, also, to form new laws and project new enterprises. We have no informa- tion of the manner in which the proper mysteries arose from these rude games and festivities. They were celebrated at the temple of Ceres at Eleusis, in a court surrounded by walls. Behind the temple was an elevation in the rock upon which it stood, eight or nine feet high, 270 feet long, and in some places forty-four feet broad ; on the northern end of this rock the ruins of a chapel are still visible. The persons who presided at the Eleusinian mys- teries were:—1. The Hierophant (q. v.). He was the type of the Creator of the world, and appeared with emblems of Omnipotence. 2. The torch-bearer. He was the type of the sum. His business was to purify those who were to be initiated, and, on the fifth night, when the wanderings of Ceres on AEtna were represented, to lead the other torch-bearers. 3. The sacred herald, who enjoined silence upon those who were to be initiated, and commanded the pro- fame to withdraw. 4. He who served at the altar, and bore the emblem of the moon. Besides these persons, the archon or basileus attended to the pre- servation of order, offered prayers and sacrifices, and obliged the uninitiated and the criminal to retire. He judged and punished any who disturbed the so- lemnities. Ancient authors also mention priestesses, but we have not been informed of their office. The mysteries were commonly distinguished into the greater and less. Most authors give the following account of them. Hercules, being at Athens, de- sired to be initiated into the mysteries; but, by the laws, no stranger could be admitted: that they might not offend the hero whom they respected and feared, nor yet violate the ancient laws, the Athenians in- stituted the lesser mysteries, to the celebration of which he was admitted. These were afterwards preparatory to the greater; for which the candidate was obliged to fit himself by religious ceremonies, Symbolical rites, and various acts of devotion, the design of which was to withdraw his attention, at least for a time, from business and pleasure, to keep him pure, chaste, and unpolluted, and to excite his curiosity in relation to the expected revelations. The period of purification continued a year; and no one could be admitted to the mysteries without puri- fication, on pain of death. The ceremony of admis- Sion was performed by night: the candidates, crowned with myrtle, were obliged to wash their hands at the Sacred threshold with holy water : public pro- There are two small temples, one of ELEUSIS-FLGIN. clamation was also made, that the mysteries should be approached only with pure hands and pure hearts. Pure Greek only was to be spoken. The celebration of the mysteries commenced on the fifteenth day of the month Boedromion, and continued nine days. It consisted principally of representa- tions of the history of Ceres and Proserpine, the tor- tures of Tartarus, and the joys of Elysium, which were exhibited in the most striking manner. The chief design was, by sensible means, to spread among the people a conviction of the immortality of the Soul, and of a future state of rewards and punish- ments. The initiated were under the peculiar pro- tection of the gods, and they alone were certain of the joys of immortality. Very different from these lesser were the greater mysteries, which contained the secret doctrines that were the chief object of the institution, and were Communicated only to a few (the Epoptae), in the recesses of the sanctuary. Secresy was enjoined under the most dreadful penal- ties. Divine vengeance and death were the punish- ment of those who disclosed them. These doctrines probably aimed at the explanation of the popular Superstition and mythology, and the interpretation of their true meaning. The mysteries inculcated the doctrine of one God, and the dignity and destiny of the soul of man: they instructed the people in the knowledge of nature and of the universe, and pointed out the traces of the Deity in the beauty and majesty the splendour and regularity, of the visible world. See Potter's Antiquities, ii. 20. ELEUTHERA, or ALABASTER ISLAND ; one of the Bahama islands. The climate is healthy, and the soil is fertile. It has a fort and small garrison. The largest settlement is at Harbour island, at the northern extremity, containing, in 1803, 890 inhabi- tants; and the settlement of Wreck sound, on the west side, contained about 400. Lon. 76° 31' W. ; lat. 250 14' N. ELEVATION OF A PLACE. See Altitude. ELEVATION, in the ceremony of the mass, is the raising, first of the host and then of the cup, to re- ceive the homage of the people, as the body and the blood of Jesus Christ: the priest himself previously performs the act of adoration by a deep genuflection. This ceremony was introduced into the Latin church in the beginning of the twelfth century, in conse- quence of the heresy of Berengarius, in order to render the profession of the belief in the real pre- sence and the transubstantiation as decided and striking as possible. In the Greek Catholic church, the elevation of the host does not take place immedi- ately after the consecration, as in the Roman church, but before the communion, when the priest says sancta sanctis (the holy for the holy). ELF, in the ancient northern mythology; certain beings, sometimes visible, at other times invisible; either bright, beautiful, and good (Liosalfar), dwell- ing in heaven (Alfheim), or black, ugly, and malicious (Schwartalfar), living under the ground. “The for- mer,” says the Edda, “ are brighter than the sun; the latter, blacker than pitch.” To the latter belongs the nightmare (in German Alp). The fairies, mixies, brownies, robin-good-fellows, &c., all belong to this family. The elf-knots are known to every body. How delightfully Shakspeare has availed himself of these shadowy creations of a playful imagination, we all remember. ELGIN, an ancient royal burgh of Scotland, the capital of Moray, or Elginshire, is situated on the banks of the river Lossie, 197 miles N. of Edinburgh, and 63 N. W. of Aberdeen. The town consists of one spacious well-built street, upwards of a mile long, and Several of Smaller extent. At the eastern extremity stand the ruins of its old Cathedral; a noble remain of ELGIN MARIELES-ELIO. the style of architecture prevalent in the fourteenth century, when it was rebuilt. It was first founded early in the thirteenth century, on the seat of the diocese of Moray, being translated hither from Spynie, by bishop Andrew; but in 1390 it was burned down, with the whole city, by an earl of Buchan, termed the Wolf of Badenoch. About the year 1414 it was rebuilt in a style of great magnifi- cence, and from what of it still remains, it must have been a large and splendid edifice in the Gothic style, 264 feet in length and thirty-five in breadth, exclusive of the two side aisles, which were each eighteen feet wide. It had five towers, one at each corner of the church, and another in the centre, 198 feet high. The great west door is twenty-four feet high and the same width: the window above this door is twenty- seven feet high and nineteen broad. In the east gable was a row of five windows, each ten feet high and two broad; above these were five more, each seven feet high ; and over the whole a circular window ten feet diameter. the cathedral is still entire, a most beautiful apart- ment, being an octagon with seven windows, thirty- four feet high in the roof, supported by a single pillar of exquisite workmanship : the diagonal breadth is thirty-seven feet, and fifteen each side, within walls. The whole, when entire, must have formed one of the most superb structures in the kingdom. Elgin possesses an excellent academy, at which above 300 scholars attend ; it has also a well-con- ducted hospital for patients, founded by a Mr Grey, and an institution for the education of youth and support of old age, founded by a Mr Anderson, a native of the place, who, a few years ago, bequeathed about £70,000 for that purpose. The parish of Elgin extends ten miles in length, by six in breadth, with a fertile soil, and a flattish surface, rising gradually into the Black Hills. On Lady Hill, not far from the town, are the ruins of a royal fortress, which is known to have existed in the reign of William the Lion. Alexander II., in 1234, founded a Dominican priory here, and John Innes, in 1479, another for Observantines. Population of town and parish in 1831, 6,130. ELGIN MARBLES, the name given to a splendid collection of basso relievos and fragments of statuary, which were brought from the Parthenon of Athens to England, by Lord Elgin, in 1814. They were afterwards purchased by the British parliament for zę35,000, and are now to be seen in the British Museum. The Elgin marbles are some of the finest remains of ancient art, and offer the richest field for study. In the Vatican are casts in plaster of these superb relics. Casts have been made, also, for Wurtemberg, Russia, and other states. The largest part of them (ninety-two pieces) are from the Parthenon of Athens, and were, perhaps, executed from designs by Phidias. Such an important collec- tion of antiques has, of course, drawn forth numerous publications. The learned Visconti wrote a work on the Elgin marbles (London, 1816), and an official report was drawn up from the notes of this accom- plished scholar, which contains the opinions of most of the first sculptors and painters of our age, res- pecting these statues, expressed in the strongest terms of admiration. ELGINSHIRE. See Moray. EL-HARIB ; a territory in the north-west of Africa, to the south of Morocco, to which it is tribu- tary, important as the stopping-place of Caravans passing from Timbuctoo, through the desert, to the north-west of Africa. El-Harib is two days’ journey west from the territory of El-Drah, and one to the east of the tribe of the Trajacants, and is situated between two chains of mountains, which extend from The chapter-house of 841 east to west, and separate it, towards the north, from the empire of Morocco. The principal wealth of the inhabitants consists in the great quantity of camels which they breed, and which, in the wet season, produce abundance of milk for their susten- ance. The Moors of El-Harib carry goods for the merchants of Tafilet, El-Drah, &c., on their camels, to Timbuctoo and other places. They return with gold and slaves, which they sell in Morocco. The inhabitants of El-Harib consist of eleven tribes of Mohammedans, filthy to excess, and are much oppressed and despised by the wandering Berbers and their other neighbours. ELIANUS. See AfElianus. ELIAS. See Elijah. ELIJAH; a prophet, who lived in the reign of Ahab, king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, king of Judah. The prophet rebuked both these kings for their idolatry, and at last succeeded, by his miracles, in abolishing it. Instead of dying in the common way, he ascended to heaven in a fiery chariot. His successor was Elisha. His history is related in the First and Second Books of Kings. According to some passages of the Scriptures, the Jews expected Elijah to appear before the Messiah, and Christians have maintained that he will appear on earth before the end of the world. Many legends are related of this prophet by Christians and Mohammedans. The curious will find specimens of these in Bayle. ELIO, FRANCIsco XAVIER, a Spanish soldier, who, having distinguished himself in the Spanish war against Napoleon, was appointed by the regency to be captain-general of the provinces of Rio de la Plata, during the early part of the revolution in South America. He had to contend with Liniers and Artigas particularly; and was attacked and besieged by the latter in Monte Video. The siege being prosecuted by Rondo with every prospect of success, Elio implored the assistance of the Brazilian government. An auxiliary force of 4000 Portu- guese was preparing to relieve him, when the fear of their approach induced the patriots to close with the propositions for peace made by Elio. This was in 1811; but Elio was again besieged the next year. Meanwhile he was succeeded by don Gaspar Vigodet, and returned to Europe. Upon the return of Ferdi- mand VII., Elio was one of the first to declare in favour of absolute monarchy, and contributed effica- ciously to the revolution which overthrew the regency and the cortes of Cadiz. He was rewarded with the appointment of captain-general of the kingdom of Valencia, which he governed with all the extremity of fanatical rigour. A disturbance in the city of Valencia gave him occasion to inflict upon the friends of liberal institutions, indiscriminately, a series of cruelties shocking to humanity. His career of atrocity lasted upwards of a year, when it was cut short by the revival of the constitution of Cadiz, in March, 1820. Elio proclaimed the new order of things, and prepared to submit to it, yet would have been killed by the populace, but for the intercession of the count of Almodavar. He was imprisoned in the citadel, where he remained until May, 1822, without a conclusion of his trial. At that time, he was implicated in a movement of part of the garrison in favour of absolutism. He was immediately brought to trial before a military commission, for this new crime, and unanimously sentenced to the punish- ment of death, which was inflicted September 3, 1822. When the invasion of the French restored Ferdinand to absolute power, the greatest honours were paid to the memory of general Elio. His eldest son received the title of marquis of Fidelity, and his full pay as general was continued to his widow and children. The judges, also, who condemned him to death, were 842 among the exceptions from the decree of amnesty of 1824. ELIOT, John, styled the apostle to the Indians, was born in England, in 1604, and educated at the university of Cambridge. After pursuing the occu- pation of a teacher in England, he emigrated, in ió31, to Massachusetts. . He became minister of the church in Roxbury, and soon conceived a strong passion for Christianizing and improving the condi- tion of the Indians, of whom there were nearly twenty tribes within the limits of the British planta- tions. He acquired their language, and published a grammar and a translation of the Bible in it. The merit is claimed for him of having been the first Protestant clergyman who preached the gospel to the North American savages. His evangelical labours, and personal sufferings, his influence among them, his zeal, courage, and exposure in protecting them from wrong and violence, are celebrated in a number of the publications on New England history and biography. This indefatigable missionary died May 20, 1690, aged about eighty-six years. He left four sons, whom he had educated at Harvard college, and who were classed with “the best preachers of their generation.” His extreme antipa- thy to wigs and the use of tobacco is specially noticed by all his biographers. He was eccentric, besides, in his ascetic habits, and in several of his main theo- logical opinions. His printed works are voluminous. In 1660, he issued a tract, in which he attempted to prove that the Indians are descendants of the Jews. His political theories were fully democratic. Hut- chinson relates, in his History of Massachusetts, that, in 1660, the governor and council of Massa- chusetts pronounced the Christian Commonwealth, of which Eliot was the author, to be “full of sedi- tious principles and notions, in relation to all estab- lished governments in the Christian world, especially against the government established in their native country.” Upon consultation with the elders, their formal censure was deferred, in order to afford the heretical republican an opportunity of making a public recantation. He did this in a paper, which he delivered to the general court, at its next session, and which was posted up, by its order, in the prin- cipal towns of the colony. He acknowledges that “such expressions as do manifestly scandalize the government of England, by king, lords, and com- mons, are antichristian, and that all form of civil government, deduced from Scripture, is of God, and to be subjected to, for conscience’ sake; and whatso- ever is in the whole epistle or book inconsistent here- with he does, at once, most cordially disown.” ELIOTT, or ELLIOT, GEORGE AUGUSTUs (lord Heathfield); a distinguished British general, was born in Roxburghshire, in 1718, of an ancient family. He was educated at home, by a private tutor, and afterward sent to the university of Leyden. He studied military science at the French military school at La Fere, travelled through several parts of the continent, and served in the Prussian army as a volunteer. In 1733, he joined the engineer corps at Woolwich, where he continued till he was made ad- jutant of the second corps of horse grenadiers. He accompanied George II. to Germany in May, 1743, when that monarch assisted Maria Theresa against France, and was wounded in the battle of Dettingen, and rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In the Seven years' war, he fought under the command of the duke of Cumberland, prince Ferdinand, and the crown prince of Brunswick, from 1757, as commander- in-chief of a regiment of light cavalry, which he had himself raised. He was called from the continent to be made second in command at Havanna. In 1775, He was made commander-in-chief of the forces in ELIOT-ELIOTT. Ireland, and, in the same year, received the gover- morship of Gibraltar. Spain, in connexion with France, took part, in 1779, in the war between Britain and America, and, even before the declaration of war, laid siege to Gibraltar, by sea and by land. In the course of three years, all the preparations had been made for a siege, which is one of the most extraordinary in history. In June, 1782, the duke of Crillon, com- mander-in-chief of the Spanish army, who had re- cently taken the island of Minorca from the British, arrived at Gibraltar, with a reinforcement. All the French princes royal were in the camp. An army of 30,000 Frenchmen and Spaniards were at the foot of the hill. Floating batteries were constructed to attack the fortifications, with two roofs, so carefully and strongly built, that neither balls nor bombs could injure them. There were ten of them, which, together, had 397 cannons, each cannon being served by thirty- six men. Sept. 13, 1782, they drew near to the for- tress, and the crews (consisting of criminals, to whom, if they did their duty, a pension of 200 livres per an- num had been promised) commenced the attack. El- iott wished to assail the batteries with red-hot shot, but knew no means of preparing them insufficient quantity. A German Smith, however, named Schwan Rendiek, constructed an oven for the purpose, and more than 4000 hot shot were now showered on the batteries. The same afternoon, Smoke was seen to rise from the principal battery and two others. The enemy in vain attempted to subdue the flames and close the holes; at one o'clock at night, three of the batteries were completely in flames, and some of the others were beginning to burn. The crews in vain made signals to the Spanish fleet of their condition; they could do nothing for the batteries, and only attempted to rescue the crews; but twelve gunboats, which left the fortress, commanded by captain Curtis, prevented the boats of the besiegers from approaching, and, at the same time, continued to fire on the floating for- tresses. At break of day, the crews were seen on the burning batteries crying for help. The besieged now hastened to assist them, dangerous as it was, on account of the balls from the heated cannons and the pieces of wood from the bursting structures, which flew against them. Curtis, at the risk of his own life and those of his people, saved thirteen officers and 344 soldiers. An attack by land was also frus- trated by Eliott, and, at the same time, a tem- pest greatly injuring the Spanish fleet, the siege, from the middle of November, 1782, was changed into a close blockade, to which the peace, concluded at Versailles, Jan. 20, 1783, put an end. The king of Britain sent Eliott the order of the Bath, which was presented to him on the spot on which he had most exposed himself to the fire of the enemy. Eliott himself, with the consent of the king, ordered medals to be struck, one of which was presented to every soldier engaged in the defence. After the conclusion of peace, he went to England, and was created lord Heathfield. In 1790, he was obliged to visit the baths of Aix-la-Chapelle for his health. In Kalkofen, a place near that city, and his favourite residence, he died of an apoplexy, July 6, the same year. His corpse was carried to England, and the king himself prepared the plan of a monu- ment erected in honour of him at Gibraltar. One of the most famous pictures of Copley, representing the siege and relief of Gibraltar, and full of portraits, is placed in the council-chamber of Guildhall, Lon- don, having been painted for the city. General Eliott was one of the most abstemious men of his age. His diet consisted of vegetables and water. He slept only four hours at a time, and inured himself to habits of order and watchfulness. * ELIS-ELIZABETH OF ENGLAND. ELIS ; a country in the west of the Pelopennesus, where Olympia was situated. (See Olympic Games.) It was bounded on the east by Arcadia, on the south by Messenia, and ran along the coast, watered by the river Alpheus. Elis was the capital of the coun- try. Eleus, one of its kings in early times, is said to have given origin to the name of the country. ELIXIR (from the Arabic al ecsir, a chemical me- dicine, or from &xão, I help, or #xxo, I draw out, or from eligere, to choose, or rather from elivare, to boil.) It is the name of several medicines, consisting of wine, or spirits of wine, and various resinous, bitter, vegetable substances. The word, however, is almost gone out of use, and its place supplied by tincture. Elixirs, indeed, differ from tinctures, by having a thicker and more opaque consistence, and by con- taining less spirit. The stomach elixirs of Frederic Hoffmann and Stoughton are well known. The for- mer (elia. viscerale, Fr. Hoffmanni) is prepared by dissolving in Malaga or Hungary wine the extract of card. ben., cent. min., cort. aurant., cort. Chinae., myrrh.. aq., and adding to the solution a little tinct. Caryophyll. aromat. and tinct. croci. Stoughton's elixir consists of absynth., gentian. rubr., rhubarb, Cascarilla and cort. aurant., steeped inspirits of wine. ELIZABETH, St., of Thuringia, distinguished for her piety and virtue, the daughter of Andrew II., king of Hungary, was born at Presburg, 1207, and, in 1211, was married to Louis, landgrave of Thurin- gia, who was then eleven years old, and was edu- cated at Wartburg, in all the elegance of the court of Hermann, the abode of music and the arts. Louis began to govern in 1215, and the marriage was com- pleted in 1221. While the husband devoted him- self to knightly exploits, the wife was distinguished by the mild virtues of her sex. When Germany, and especially Thuringia, was oppressed with famine and pestilence, she caused many hospitals to be erected, fed a multitude of the poor from her own table, and supplied their wants with money and clothing. She wandered about, in an humble dress, relieving the Sorrows of the wretched. Louis died on a crusade, and her own life terminated, November 19, 1231, in an hospital which she had herself esta- blished. She was regarded as a saint by her admir- ing contemporaries, and, four years after her death, this canonization was approved by pope Gregory IX. A beautiful church and a costly monument were erected over her tomb. The latter is now one of the most splendid remains of Gothic architecture in Germany. ELIZABETH, queen of England, and one of its most celebrated sovereigns, was the daughter of Henry VIII., by his queen, Anne Boleyn. She was born in 1533, and educated in the principles of the Reformation, and also in those classical studies into which it had then become customary to initiate females of distinction in England. In her father's tes- tament, she was placed the third in the order of suc- Cession ; but the duke of Northumberland induced her brother, Edward VI., to set her aside, as well as her sister Mary, to make room for Jane Grey. In the reign of Mary, she was placed under circum- stances of great difficulty, from her known attach- ment to Protestantism ; and, notwithstanding her great prudence, but for the politic interference of her brother-in-law, Philip of Spain, she might have been in great personal danger. On the death of Mary, in 1558, she was immediately proclaimed • queen, and received in the metropolis with the loud- est acclamations. She consigned to oblivion all the affronts she had received during the late reign, and prudently assumed the gracious demeanour of the common Sovereign of all her subjects. Philip of Spain soon made her proposals of marriage, but she 843 knew the aversion borne him by the nation too well to think of accepting them. She proceeded with considerable prudence and moderation to the arduous task of settling religion, which was, in a great de- gree, effected by the first parliament she summoned. It was not long before Elizabeth began that inter- ference in the affairs of Scotland, which produced some of the most singular events of her reign. Mary, the young queen of Scots, was not only the next heir in blood to the English crown, but was regarded by the Romanists, who deemed Elizabeth illegitimate, as the true sovereign of England. By the marriage of that princess with the dauphin, and her relation- ship with the Guises, Scotland was also drawn into a closer union with France than ever. Thus great political causes of enmity abounded, in addition to the female rivalry, which was the most conspicuous foible of Elizabeth. The first step she took in Scot- tish affairs was to send a fleet and an army to aid the party which supported the Reformation ; and this interference, in 1560, effected a treaty, by which the French were obliged to quit Scotland. On the re. turn of Mary from France, after the death of her hus band, attempts were made to procure Elizabeth's recognition of her title as presumptive successor to the crown of England; but, although unattended to, and very disagreeable to the latter, the two queens lived for some time in apparent amity. In the mean time, Elizabeth acquired great repu- tation by her vigorous conduct and political sagacity, and had many suitors among the princes of Europe, whom, consistent with her early resolution to live single, she constantly refused. Being regarded as the head of the Protestant party in Europe, she made a treaty of alliance with the French Huguenots in that capacity, and gave them aids in men and money. Her government at home also gradually grew more rigorous against the Catholics, one of the mischievous consequences of the incessant intrigue of the popish party, both at home and abroad, to overthrow her government. She did all in her power to thwart the attempts to unite Mary in a second marriage, and, besides a weak jealousy of the personal charms of the queen of Scotland, she discovered another weak- mess in a propensity to adopt court favourites, with a view to exterior accomplishments rather than to merit, as in the well known instance of Dudley, earl of Leicester. The political dissensions in Scotland, which gave Mary so much disquiet, were fomented by Elizabeth and her ministers, but it was her own misconduct that threw her into the hands of her rival. The man- ner in which Elizabeth detained the unhappy queen in captivity, the secret negotiations of the latter with the duke of Norfolk, the rebellions in the north, and the treasonable engagements made by the earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland with the duke of Orleans, in the Low Countries, are affairs rather of history than biography. In the midst of these events, the Puritanical party gave much uneasiness to the queen, who was warmly attached to the ceremonials of religion, and to the hierarchy of which she had become the head. In- heriting, too, all the maxims of royal authority main. tained by her father, the spirit of civil liberty, by which the Puritans became early distinguished, was very offensive to her. Elizabeth, however, understood the art of making practical concessions, while she maintained her dignity in language; and such were the general prudence and frugality of her administra- tion, that she retained the affections even of those whom she governed with a rigorous hand. Almost the only cause of complaint, in regard to pecuniary matters, in this reign, arose from the injurious grai'. of monopolies, which formed a frequent subject of * 844 ELIZABETH parliamentary complaint, and were often, in conse- quence, revoked. The assistance given by Elizabeth to the Protest- ants of the Low Countries induced Spain, in 1572, to promote a conspiracy, which was chiefly conducted by a Florentine merchant and the bishop of Ross, the Scottish resident in England. The Duke of Norfolk, allowing himself to be drawn into a participation of this plot, on its discovery, was tried and executed. The massacre of St Bartholomew, in the same year, alarmed all Protestant rulers, and especially Elizabeth, who put herself and court into mourning on the occa- sion, and received in silence the French ambassador sent over to apologize for that execrable deed. She, however, maintained external amity with the French court, and even suffered negotiations to be commenced for her marriage with the duke of Alengon, the king's brother, which brought that prince to England. An expectation that the union would take place now be- came general. In 1575, she received the offer of the sovereignty of the revolted Dutch provinces ; but, from prudential reasons, she declined to accept it; and it was not until 1578 that she signed with them a treaty of alliance. In 1585, Elizabeth ventured openly to defy the hostility of Spain, by entering into a treaty with the revolted provinces, by which she bound herself to assist them with a considerable force, the command of which she intrusted to Leicester, who did little honour to her choice. She also sent an armament, under Drake, against the Spanish set- thements in the West Indies, and made a league of mutual defence with James, king of Scotland, whose friendship she courted, while she detained his mother in prison. In 1586, that conspiracy took place, the object of which was her assassination by Anthony Babington. As Elizabeth's principal counsellors were of opinion that the safety of the state demanded the life of Mary, whatever may be thought of the injustice of her treatment, it was clearly the result of strong political circumstances. Elizabeth, however, conscious of the invidious light in which the execution of a queen and relation would appear to Europe, practised all the arts of dissimulation to remove as much of the odium from herself as possible. She even wished Mary to be taken off privately ; and it was only on the refu- sal of Sir Amias Paulet and Sir Drue Drury, her keepers, to be concerned in so odious an affair, that the curious transaction of furthering the warrant by Secretary Davison took place, the consequence of which was the execution of Mary on Feb. 8, 1587. The dissembled grief of Elizabeth, when informed of this catastrophe, deceived no one, although the impu- ted mistake of Davison, and the sacrifice of him to her assumed resentment, afforded the king of Scotland a pretext for resuming an amicable correspondence with the English court. The year 1588 was rendered memorable by the defeat of the Spanish armada, on which meditated invasion Elizabeth displayed all the confidence and energy of her character. Soon after this event, Elizabeth became the ally of Henry IV. of France, in order to windicate his title to that throne; and, for some years, English auxiliaries served in France, and naval expeditions were undertaken, in which none more distinguished themselves than the celebrated earl of Essex, who, on the death of Leicester, succeeded to his place in the queen's favour. In 1601, she held a conference with the marquis de Rosni (afterwards the celebrated Sully), who came over, on the part of Henry IV., to concert, in concurrence with England, a new balance of European power, to control the preponderance of the house of Austria. Elizabeth readily gave in to the project, and the minister quitted England in admiration of the solidity and enlargement CHARLOTTE. of her political views. Having suppressed an Insur- rection in Ireland, and obliged all the Spanish troops, sent to aid in it, to quit the island, she turned her thoughts towards relieving the burdens of her sub- jects, and gained much additional popularity by Sup- pressing a great number of unpopular monopolies. The execution of the earl of Essex (see Devereuw, Robert), however, gave a fatal blow to her happiness; and, on learning from the dying countess of Notting- ham, that he had really transmitted the ring, which implied his request of pardon, she became furious with rage, and, when her anger subsided, fell into an incurable melancholy. At length nature began to sink, and, as her end manifestly approached, she was urged by her council to declare her successor. She answered, “Who but her kinsman, the king of Scots P” and soon after, sinking into a lethargy, she expired, without further struggle or convulsion, on March 24, 1602, in the 70th year of her age, and 45th of her reign. Estimating the character and conduct of Elizabeth from the events of her reign, she will justly rank high among sovereigns. Under her auspices, the Protest- ant religion, as opposed to popery, was firmly esta- blished. Factions were restrained, government strengthened, the vast power of Spain nobly opposed, oppressed neighbours supported, a navy created, commerce rendered flourishing, and the nationai character aggrandized. She did not merely lend a name to a conspicuous period of history; her own prudence, judgment, fortitude, firmness, vigour, and industry materially contributed to the prosperity of her administration. She was frugal to the borders of avarice; but, being as economical of the people's money as of her own, her prudent attention to national expenditure contributed materially to the public good. The severity of Elizabeth to Catholic emissa- ries, Jesuits, and others, whether native or foreign, has latterly been deemed scarcely defensible, nor, on a religious ground, is it so ; but it is never to be for- gotten, that most of those who suffered really sought the overthrow of the state, and, in addition, acted under the direction of a foreign influence of the most baleful description. The treatment of the queen of Scots can never be defended, but will always remain one of those cases which neither policy, nor even personal danger, can sufficiently justify. Her princi- pal defects were violence and haughtiness of temper, impatience of contradiction, and insatiable fondness for admiration and flattery. It is to be remarked, however, that, capricious as she was in her affections, and petty in her feminine jealousies, she always made even her favourites feel that she was their sovereign, when they were disposed to forget it. Although fond of literature, and substantially learned, she was no very munificent patroness, and made very poor returns for the excess of ingense so lavishly be- stowed upon her. She was skilled in the Greek, and spoke the Latin language with consider- able fluency. She translated from the former into Latin a dialogue of Xenophon, two orations of Iso- crates, and a play of Euripides, and also wrote a commentary on Plato. From the Latin she translated Boethius's Consolations of Philosophy, Sallust's Ju- gurthime War, and a part of Horace's Art of Poetry. In the Royal and Noble Authors of lord Orford, may also be found a catalogue of translations from the French, prayers, meditations, speeches in parliament, letters, &c. ELIZABETH CHARLOTTE, duchess of Orleans, only daughter of the elector Charles Louis, of the Palatinate, was born at Heidelberg, in 1652. She was a princess of distinguished talents and character, and lived half a century in the court of Louis XIV. without changing her German habits for French maſk- ELIZABETH PETROWNA–ELIZABETH. ners. She was educated with the greatest care, at the court of her aunt, afterwards the electoress Sophia of Hanover, and, at the age of 19, she married duke Philip of Orleans, from reasons of state policy. She was without personal charms, but her understanding was strong, and her character unaffected, and she was characterized by liveliness and wit. It is to be regretted, that she exercised no more influence on the education of her children. Her second son was afterwards known as regent. Madame de Mainte- mon was her implacable enemy, but Louis XIV. was attracted by her integrity and frankness, her vivacity and wit. She often attended him to the chase. She preserved the highest respect for the literary men of Germany, particularly for Leibnitz, whose corre- spondence with the French literati she promoted. She died at St Cloud, in 1722. She has described herself and her situation with a natural humour, perfectly Original, in her German letters, which form an inte- resting addition to the accounts of the court of Louis XIV. The most valuable of her letters are contained in the Life and Character of the Duchess Elizabeth Charlotte of Orleans, by professor Schutz, Leipsic, T820. ELIZABETH PETROWNA, empress of Russia, daughter of Peter the Great and Catharine I., was born in 1709, at the time of her father's greatest prosperity and glory. After her accession to the throne, in 1741, it was asserted that Catharine I. had, by her will, appointed her eldest daughter, Anne (wife of the duke of Holstein), successor of Peter 1.I., and, after Anne, her younger sister, Elizabeth; but this is not proved, and it is not probable that prince Menzikoff would have permitted such a will. The nobles and the senate, after the death of Peter II., chose Anne, duchess dowager of Courland, daughter of Ivan, and niece of Peter I. She settled the suc- Cession to the throne in favour of the young prince ivan, Son of her niece, Anne, who was married to Antony Ulrich, duke of Brunswick, and who, after the death of the empress, caused herself to be pro- claimed regent during the minority of her son. Elizabeth, naturally inactive, and more prome to pleasure than ambition, appeared alike indifferent to all political projects. She endeavoured, however, to conciliate the guards, and chose her favourites among their officers. Neither the regent nor her husband, who had the command of the troops, took measures against a revolution. A party was, therefore, formed for Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, to whose name so many glorious recollections were attached. The princess did not oppose the attempt made to place her on the throne, and submitted to the advice of Lestocq, a surgeon, who was eager to distinguish himself. The marquis of Chétardie, the French am- bassador, whose person and manners had prepossessed Elizabeth in his favour, saw in the proposed revolu- tion only an opportunity of securing to France an ally. Sweden, dissatisfied with the cabinet of Peters- burg, was persuaded to declare war against Russia. The conspiracy, however, might easily have been discovered. Lestocq was incautious. The regent was warned of the plot; but the natural goodness of her disposition gave admission to no suspicion. Eliza- beth easily succeeded in quieting her with protesta- tions and tears. The conspirators, however, were not without anxiety, and Lestocq urged the imme- diate execution of the project. Observing a card on Elizabeth's table, he drew upon it a wheel and a Crown, Saying to the princess, “This or that, madame; One for you, or the other for me !” This decided Elizabeth; the conspirators were immediately inform- ed of it, and in a few hours the conspiracy was ready to break out. The husband of the regent, being informed of the danger, urged her to take measures 845 for their safety; but Anne would not credit the re- ports. They were both seized while asleep, Decem- ber 6, 1741, and, with their son, were carried to the palace of Elizabeth ; at the same time, Munich, father and son, Ostermann, Golofkin, and others were thrown into prison. Anne and the prince Antony Ulrich were afterwards transferred to an island in the Dwina, near the White sea, and Ivan to the castle of Schlusselburg. Elizabeth caused herself to be pro- claimed empress. Munich, Ostermann, and others were condemned to death ; but Elizabeth made a display of her clemency, by commuting their punish- ment for exile to Siberia. Lestocq was made first physician of the court, and president of the medical college, with the title of privy councillor ; but he afterwards fell under her displeasure. Bestuscheff, who had been minister under Anne, and whom Les- tocq had caused to be appointed chancellor, enjoyed great influence. Peace was concluded with Sweden, at Abo, in 1743, by the interposition of France. In 1748, Elizabeth sent aid to Maria. Theresa, in Ger- many, by which she hastened the conclusion of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. In the mean time, a conspiracy was formed against her, in which, among others, Lapoukin and his wife (distinguished for her wit and beauty) were engaged; but the plot was discovered, and the wife of Lapoukin, in whom the empress saw a dangerous rival, with her husband and son, and the wife of Bestuscheff, receiv- ed the punishment of the knout ; the ends of their tongues were cut off, and they themselves were exiled to Siberia. Elizabeth took part in the seven years' war, on account of some raillery of Frederick the Great respecting her person. The grand prince Peter, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, nephew of the empress, and her acknowledged successor, was, on the other hand, much attached to Frederic. The war was not, therefore, prosecuted with much vigour by the Rus- sian generals, who desired to secure the favour of the heir to the throne. But this was soon perceived; the general, Apraxin, was removed, and his place sup- plied by Fermor, and the chancellor Bestuscheff was exiled to Siberia. The Russians now advanced into Germany. Soltikoff afterwards succeeded Fermor, and defeated Frederic at Kummersdorf. Berlin and Colberg were taken ; but, notwithstanding this, no decisive result followed. - After languishing for several years, Elizabeth died, December 29, 1761, at the age of 52, after a reign of twenty years. She founded the university at Moscow, and the academy of fine arts at Petersburg. She also paid much attention to the completion of a code of laws, which was begun under Peter I. It was not, however, finished. She had promised to abolish ca- pital punishments under her reign ; but punishments more cruel than death were, nevertheless, allowed to be inflicted. She shed tears at the miseries of war, yet, during her reign, the fields of battle were drenched with the blood of her subjects. Mild, gentle, sometimes generous, she was too indolent to prevent the arbitrary conduct of her ministers. Her ruling passion was love ; and she used to say to her confidants, “I am only happy when I am in love.” She wished to be considered the greatest beauty in the empire, and this vanity, like that of Elizabeth of England, often produced terrible consequences. Her licentious indulgences were sometimes disturbed by superstitious fears, which she endeavoured to quiet by devotional practices. By the field-marshal Razu- mofsky, she became the mother of two sons and a daughter (the princess Tarakanofi). See Leclerc's Histoire de la Russie moderne. ELIZABETH, CHRISTINA, wife of Frederick II. of Prussia, princess of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel. 846 She was born in 1715, at Brunswick, married in 1733, and died in 1797. Being compelled to the marriage, Frederic lived separate from her till his father's death, in 1740. After ascending the throne, however, he gave her proofs of his esteem, and, on his death, ordered her annual revenue of 40,000 crowns to be increased to 50,000; “for,” said he, “ during my whole reign, she has never given me the slightest cause of dissatisfaction, and her inflexible virtue deserves respect and love.” Half of her annual income she appropriated to benevolent purposes. She partook of Frederic's taste for literature, and was herself an author. She translated several Ger- man works into French, and wrote in French La sage Révolution ; Méditation à l'Occasion du Renowvelle- ment de l’Année sur les Soins que la Providence a pour les Humains, &c.; Réflewions pour tous les Jours de (a Semaine; Réflewions sur l’Etat des Affaires pub- liques en 1778, addressés awa, Personnes craintives. ELIZABETH (PHILIPPINE MARIE HELENE, of France, Madame), sister of Louis XVI., was born at Versailles, May 23, 1764, and perished by the guil- lotine, May 10, 1794. Her life is an image of the tenderest affection, the loveliest virtues, gentleness, and feminine dignity. She was the youngest child of the dauphin Louis, and his second wife, Josephine of Saxony, who died while Elizabeth was but three years old. She was attached to her brother with the Warmest affection. She received an excellent educa– tion from the countess of Mackau, under-governess of the children of France, and her acquirements were considerable, particularly in history and mathema- tics. Her proposed union with the duke of Aosta, infant of Spain, second son of the king of the Two Sicilies, was not concluded. When Louis XVI. caused himself to be inoculated for the small-pox, Elizabeth did the same ; she also caused sixty poor girls to be inoculated at the same time, and to receive the same care as herself. When her private esta- blishment was fixed, 25,000 francs annually were assigned her for the purchase of diamonds; but she requested that this sum should be paid, during six years, to a young favourite, whose poverty prevented her marriage. On an estate, which the king had purchased for her, Elizabeth spent the happiest hours of her life, engaged in rural occupations, in benevo- lent offices, and the enjoyment of the beauties of nature. The revolution destroyed her happiness. The as- Sembly of the states-general filled her with terror; from that moment she was devoted to her unhappy brother. She inspired him with firmness. When he fled from Paris, she accompanied him ; and she was brought back with him from Warennes. It was she who was taken for the queen, June 20, 1792; and when the cry was raised, “The Austrian down with her l’’ and an officer of the guard hastened to correct the mistake, she exclaimed, “Why undeceive them? You might have spared them a greater crime.” August 10, nothing, not even the king's earnest re- quest, could induce her to leave him. She followed him into the assembly. There she heard her bro- ther's abdication of the throne, and for two days lis- tened to the debates relative to the safest place of confinement for the royal family, with which she was carried into the Temple. Here she totally forgot herself, and seemed to live only for others. All modesty and goodness at court, she was here all patience and submission. May 9, 1794, at seven o’clock in the evening, Elizabeth was led from the Temple to the Conciergerie, because it had been discovered that she had corresponded with the princes, her brothers. She was tried with closed doors. The next morning, she was carried before the revolutionary tribunal, and, when asked her ELIZABETH-ELLENBOROUGH. name and rank, she replied with dignity, “I am Elizabeth of France, and the aunt of your king.” This bold answer filled the judges with astonishment, and interrupted the trial. Twenty-four othervictims were sentenced with her; but she was reduced to the horrible necessity of witnessing the execution of all her companions. She met death with calmness and submission; not a complaint escaped her against her judges and executioners. Without being hand- some, Elizabeth was pleasing and lively. Her hair was of a chestnut colour; her blue eye had a trace of melancholy in it ; her mouth was delicate, her teeth beautiful, and her complexion of a dazzling whiteness; she was modest, and almost timid, in the midst of splendour and greatness, courageous in ad- versity, pious and virtuous, and her character was spotless. ELIZABETH ISLANDS ; small islands near the coast of Massachusetts, between Martha’s Vineyard and the continent, included within the township of Chilmark; lon. 700 38' to 70° 56' W.; lat. 41° 24! to 41° 32' N. They are about sixteen in number; the principal of which are, Nashawn, Pasqui, Nash- awenua, Pinequese, and Chatahunk. ELIZABETHTOWN; a borough and post-town of New Jersey, situated in a very fertile tract of country, and having a considerable trade, and some manufactures. It is the oldest town in New Jersey : the ground was purchased of the Indians in 1664, and settled, soon after, by emigrants from Long Island. Population in 1820, 3,515. ELK. See Deer. - ELL ; a measure which obtains, under different denominations, in most countries, whereby cloths, stuffs, limens, silks, &c., are usually measured. The ell English is 5 quarters, or 45 inches; the ell Fle- mish, 3 quarters, or 27 inches. In Scotland, an ell contains 37 2-10 inches English. ELLENBOROUGH, EDwARD LAw, lord chief justice of the king's bench, was born in 1748, at Great Salkeld, in Cumberland. His father, doctor Edmund Law, bishop of Carlisle, placed him at the charter house, London. He afterwards entered the university at Cambridge, where, in 1771, he obtained a prize medal, given by the chancellor, and, in 1773, a prize. He studied law at Lincoln's Inn, and soon became distinguished in his profession, in which he began his career at the same time with Eldon and Erskine. By the patronage of Sir Francis Buller, One of the judges of the king’s bench, he early ob- tained a silk gown. On the trial of Warren Hast- ings, in 1785, Erskine having refused to undertake the defence, Law served as leading counsel. It re- quired no little courage to encounter such opponents as Burke, Fox, Sheridan, and other eminent men of the time, who conducted the impeachment. Law was assisted by Plomer and Dallas, and, as is well known, obtained the victory. (See Hastings.) The defence did not come on until the fifth year of the trial. To the brilliant eloquence of his adversaries, Law opposed simple, logical, and clear statements. After eight years, in which the trial had occupied 148 days, at an expense of £71,080, Hastings was acquitted. Law's success was now certain. In 1801, he was made attorney-general, and, in 1802, on the death of lord Kenyon, he became lord chief justice of the king's bench, and was created baron. He adopted the title Ellenborough from a small fishing village of that name, where his ancestors had lived for a long time. Under lord Grenville's administra- tion, he became a member of the privy Council (1806), which, by many, is considered as unconstitutional. In parliament, he was opposed to the emancipation of the Catholics. He held the office of chief justice | for fifteen years, when his health sank under the ELLIOT-ELM. duties of the office. The bookseller Home, having published three well known parodies on the Chris- tian religion, was tried on the indictment for the first before Abbot, for the two others before Ellen- borough. Both judges, in their charges to the jury, declared the publications to be libels; yet the jury returned a verdict of not guilty, and the specta- tors manifested their satisfaction by applause. This event had an unfavourable effect on lord Ellenbo- rough's already feeble health, and, after a long sick- mess, he resigned his office in 1818. He died De- cember 13th of the same year, at the age of seventy years. Lord Ellenborough enjoys a high reputation for legal ability. ELLIOT. See Eliott. ELLIPSIS; 1. in grammar and rhetoric; the Omission of one or more words, which may be easily Supplied by the imagination. It is used to express passion, or for the sake of conciseness. The latter is particularly the case in familiar phrases. 2. In mathematics; one of the comic sections. (See Cone.) Kepler discovered that the planets describe such a curve in revolving about the sum. It presents to the eye at once variety and regularity, and is, there- fore, preferred by painters to the circle for the out- line of their pictures. Two points in the longest diameter have this peculiarity: the sum of two straight limes drawn from them to any point in the circumference is always the same, to whatever point they are drawn. On this is founded the usual method of describing an ellipse. At a given distance on the plane on which the ellipse is to be described, fix two pins, A and B, and pass a string, A,B,C, round them. C (; L Keep the string stretched z7 by a pencil C, and move the pencil along, keeping eſ f; BRH-jF the string at the same ten- \ sion, then the ellipse E C G. L. F H will be de- H scribed. A and B are the foci, D the centre, E F the major axis, and G. H. the minor axis, D A or D B is the eccentricity of the ellipse. If from any point L in the curve, a line L. K be drawn parallel to a tangent drawn to the end of the axis E F, then will L K be ordinate to the axis E F, corresponding to the point L ; and the por- tions E K, K F, into which L K divides the major axis, are said to be the abscissa to the ordinate L K. ELLIPTICITY OF THE TERRESTRIAL SPHEROID. See Degree, Measurement of. ELLIS, GEORGE, an ingenious writer, was a native of London, and educated at Westminster school and Trinity college, Cambridge. He obtained an office *Inder government during the administration of Mr Pitt, and was secretary to lord Malmesbury, in his embassy to Lisle, in 1797. He was one of the junta of wits concerned in the well known political satire, The Rolliad, and wrote a preface, notes, and appen- dix to Way's translation from the French of Le Grand's Fahliaua, ; besides which, he published Spe- cimens of the early English Poets, with an Historical Sketch of the Rise and Progress of English Poetry and Language, 3 volumes 8vo; and Specimens of early English Metrical Romances, 3 vols. 8vo. The two latter works have passed through several edi- tions ; and they display much ingenuity, and a gene- ral, though not a profound acquaintance with English literature. Mr Ellis, who was a fellow of the royal Society, and the society of antiquaries, died in 1815, aged seventy. ELLIS, JoHN, a celebrated maturalist, and one of the first who suggested the idea that the South Sea Islands were constructed and raised from the bottom of the ocean by means of zoophytes, or the polypi, inhabiting different species of coral. was a native of 847 London, and died in 1776, aged about sixty-five. He was for some time agent for the colony of West Flo- rida and the island of Dominica. Among his works is a posthumous one, entitled The Naturai History of many curious and enormous Zoophytes, London, 1786. He was author of an interesting essay on Bri- tish and Irish corallines, and also of many valuable papers in the Philosophical Transactions. ELLORA. See Elora. ELLWOOD, THOMAs, an early writer among the Quakers, was born in 1639, at Crowell, near Thame, in Oxfordshire, where he received such an education as the humble circumstances of his parents would afford. In his 21st year, he was induced to join the society of Friends, by the preaching of one Edward Burroughs, and he soon after published his first piece, entitled An Alarm to the Priests, or a Message from Heaven to warn them. He subse- quently became reader to Milton, with whom he improved himself in the learned languages, but was soon obliged to quit London on account of his health. In the year 1665, he procured a lodging for Milton at Chalfont, Bucks, and was the occasion of his writing Paradise Regained, by the following obser- vation made on the return of the Paradise Lost, which the poet had lent him to read in manuscript: “Thou hast said much of paradise lost, but what hast thou to say of paradise found?” In 1705, he published the first part of Sacred History, or the Historical Parts of the Old Testament, and, in 1709, Sacred History, &c., of the New Testament ; which production was well received, and is still held in Some estimation. His other works are numerous; among them, Davideis, the Life of David, King of Israel, a poem, which is more distinguished for piety than poetry. He died in 1713, aged seventy-four. His life, written by himself, affords many interesting particulars of the history of his sect. ELM. The species of elm (ulmus) are trees or shrubs, with alternate rough and simple leaves, and fascicles of small, inconspicuous flowers, which appear before the foliage. About twenty species are known, all inhabiting the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere. The American or white elm is found from the forty- ninth to the thirtieth parallel of latitude, is abundant in the Western States, and extends beyond the Missis- sippi, but attains its loftiest stature between lat. 42° and 469; here it reaches the height of 100 feet, with a trunk four or five feet in diameter, rising sometimes sixty or seventy feet, when it separates into a few primary limbs, which are at first approximate, or cross each other, but gradually diverge, diffusing on all sides long, arched, pendulous branches, which float in the air. It has been pronounced by Michaux “the most magnificent vegetable of the temperate Zone.” Its wood is not much esteemed. The red or slippery elm is found over a great extent of country in Canada, Missouri, and as far south as latitude 31°; it attains the height of fifty or sixty feet, with a trunk fifteen or twenty inches in diameter; the wood is stronger and of a better quality than that of the white elm, is employed in constructing houses, and is good for blocks. The leaves and bark yield an abundant mucilage, to which it owes its name, and which is a valuable remedy ir, coughs, and especially in dysentery and other bowel Complaints. The wahoo inhabits from lat. 37° to Florida, Louisiana, and Arkansas, and is a Small tree, some. times thirty feet high, remarkable from the branches being furnished, on two opposite sides, with wings of cork, two or three lines wide; the wood is fine- grained, compact and heavy, and has been used for the naves of coach wheels. The wood of the U. 848 campestris of Europe is superior to that of either of the American species, and, indeed, is one of the most useful in the mechanic arts, being employed for gun- carriages, blocks of ships, gunwales, &c., and is preferred by wheelwrights for the naves and felloes of wheels. In England elm is chiefly used in the manufacture of coffins, casks, pumps, &c., because of its great durability in water. ELMINA, or LA MINA, or ODDENA, or ST GEORGE DEL MINA ; a town in Africa, on the Gold coast, situated in a low, flat peninsula, near the two forts St George d’Elmina and Conradsburg; lon. 19 50 W. ; lat. 5° 10' N. ; population about 15,000. It is the capital of the Dutch settlements in Western Africa, and the most respectable fortress on the Gold coast. The town is large, and remark- ably dirty; some of the houses are built of stone, but they are huddled together in a confused manner. The country around is for the most part open and flat, the soil generally light. The inhabitants of the town are traders, fishermen, and persons employed as servants to traders. The citadel of Elmina, stand- ing in the centre of the Gold coast, is very commo- diously situated for the purposes of trade, and the protection and security of the trader. Its situation is upon a rock, bounded on one side by the ocean, and also defended by strong bastions. ELMO’S FIRE, ST ; an appearance caused by fiery meteors in the atmosphere. It is often seen playing about the masts and rigging of ships. If two flames are visible (Castor and Pollux), the sailors consider it a good omen; if only one, which they call Helene, they regard it as a bad one. ELMSLEY, PETER, D. D., an eminent scholar and philologist, was born in 1773, and educated at Oxford. Having inherited a fortune from his uncle, he devoted the remainder of his life to literature. In 1802, being then resident in Edinburgh, he became one of the original contributors to the Edinburgh Review, in which the articles on Heyne's Homer, Schweighauser's Athenaeus, Bloomfield’s Prometheus, and Porson's Hecuba, are from his pen. He also wrote occasionally, at a subsequent period, in the Quarterly Review. In the pursuit of his philological studies, Mr Elmsley afterwards visited most of the principal libraries on the continent, and spent the whole of the winter of 1818 in the Laurentian Library at Florence. The year following, he accepted a commission from the government to superintend, in conjunction with Sir Humphrey Davy, the unroll- ing of the Herculanean papyri; in which the selec- tion of the manuscripts was left to his judgment. On his return to England, he settled at Oxford, and, having taken the degree of doctor of divinity, obtained soon after the headship of Alban hall, and the Camden professorship in 1823. He died in 1825. He published an edition of the following tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides ; Acarnanes, in 1809; GEdipus Tyrannus, 1811; Heraclidae, 1815; Medea, 1818; Bacchae, 1821; and CEdipus Coloneus, 1823. ELONGATION, in astronomy, the angle under which we see a planet from the sun, when reduced to the ecliptic; or it is the angle formed by two lines drawn from the earth to the sun and planet, when reduced as above. ELOPEMENT is when a married woman, of her own accord, departs from her husband, and dwells with an adulterer; for which, without voluntary reconciliation to the husband, she shall lose her dower. By eloping and living apart from the hus- band, he is discharged of the future debts, and no longer liable to support her. ELORA ; a town in Hindostam, in the province of Dowlatabad ; lon. 75° 23' E.; lat. 19° 58' N.; about eighteen miles N. E. of Aurungabad, 260 ELMINA–ELYSIUM. miles from Bombay, 650 from Madras, and more than 1000 from Calcutta; inhabited by Bramins only. About a mile west of the place is a chain of mountains, of reddish granite, out of which the famous temples of Elora are excavated. These temples must be counted among the most stupendous works ever executed by man. The circuit of the ex- cavations is about two leagues. The temples are 100 feet high, 145 feet long, and 62 feet wide. They con- tain thousands of figures, appearing, from the style of their sculpture, to be of ancient Hindoo origin. Everything about them, in fact, indicates the most persevering industry in executing one of the boldest plans. Their origin is prior to the period of his- tory. A tradition says that Visvacarma was the architect of the chief temple, and that Vishnoo and the Santhones were his assistants. The chief temple still bears the name of Visvacarma. (See Plate VI. Architecture.) The vault is supported by several rows of columns, which form three galleries, one above the other. Twenty-four colossal mono- lithes, representing Indian gods, are placed in separ- ate divisions, the sculpture of which, though, on the whole, it may be called rude, shows, in some parts, an advanced period of art, and a certain develop. ment of taste. On each side of the colonades of the great temple are hewn out sphinxes, quite in the Egyptian style. These remarkable works, which will probably perish from exposure to air and mois- ture, if nothing is done for their preservation, were first described by Captain T. B. Seely, in his Won- ders of Elora (London, 1824). Seely relates the following remarkable circumstance: that Indian soldiers, in the British army in Egypt, in 1799, ex- claimed, while gazing at several of the Egyptian images with astonishment, that Hindoos must have inhabited Egypt ELSINORE, ELSINEUR, or HELSINGOER ; a seaport of Denmark, on the east coast of the island of Zealand, 22 miles N. Copenhagen; lon. 12° 38' E.; lat. 56° 2' N.; population, 7000. It is well built, and stands on the west side of the Sound, nearly opposite to Helsinberg, in Sweden, at the narrowest place of the sound, which is here less than four miles wide. It has no harbour, but an excellent roadstead, generally crowded with ves- sels going up or down the Baltic, and anchoring here, either to pay toll, or take in stores, the supply of which forms the chief business of the place. The aggregate number of vessels of all nations passing the Sound is nearly 10,000. The toll paid for Bri- tish, French, Dutch, and Swedish vessels is 1 per cent. on the value of their cargoes, and 14 per cent. for vessels of other nations. The annual amount of toll varies from £120,000 to £150,000 sterling. The fortress of Cronberg, situated near Elsinore on the edge of a promontory, is provided with powerful batteries, and all vessels, on passing it, are obliged to salute it, by lowering their sails for the space of five minutes, otherwise they must expect to be com- pelled, by cannon shot, to the same, and to be fined for contumacy. In stormy weather or contrary winds, the castle hoists its colours, indicating that no salute is required. - ELYSIUM, ELYSIAN FIELDS; the name of certain regions, which the ancients supposed to be the residence of the blessed after death. They are described sometimes as delightful meadows, some. times as islands situated on the western confines of the earth. But they gradually receded as this por- tion of the earth was explored. The happiness of the blessed consisted in a life of tranquil enjoyment. The images by which the happiness of a residence there is described, were taken partly from Olympus, and partly from descriptions of the golden age. The ELZEVIR—EMBALMING. 349 most beautiful meadows alternated with pleasant groves; a serene and cloudless sky was spread over them, and a soft, celestial light shed a magical brilliancy over every object; the heroes there re- newed their favourite sports; they exercised them- selves in wrestling and other contests, danced to the sound of the lyre from which Orpheus drew the most enchanting tones, or wandered through odori- ferous laurel groves, on the smiling banks of the Eridanus, in delightful vales, or in meadows watered by limpid fountains, amid the warbling of birds, Sometimes alone and sometimes in company; a per- petual spring reigned there; the earth teemed three times a-year; and all cares, pains, and infirmities were banished from those happy seats. (For the origin of the fable, see Cemetery.) The voluptuous description of the gardens of Armida, in Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, is an imitation of the ancient ideas of the Elysian fields.-The Parisians have cal- led one of their favourite gardens and principal places of amusement Champs-Elisées. - ELZEVIR, or ELZVIER. This family of prin- ters, residing at Amsterdam and Leyden, is cele- brated for beautiful editions, principally published from 1595 to 1680. The best known are Louis, Matthew, Isaac (associated with Buonaventura), John and Daniel, at Amsterdam and Leyden. Be- sides these was Peter Elzevir, at Utrecht, who has done less for the art. Louis was the first printer who made a distinction between the consonant v and the vowel w, Abraham and Buonaventura prepared the Small editions of the classics, in 12mo and 16mo, which are still valued for their beauty, and Correctness. this family. Although the Elzevirs were surpassed in learning, and in Greek and Hebrew editions, by the Stephenses (Etiennes, printers and booksellers at Paris), they were unequalled in their choice of works, and in the elegance of their typography. Their editions of Virgil, Terence, the new Testa- nient, the Psalter, &c., executed with red letters, are masterpieces of typography, both for correctness *nd beauty. Several catalogues of their editions have been published: the last is by Daniel (1674, 12mo), in seven parts, much increased by the ad- mission of foreign works. See Brunet's Notice de la Collect. d’Auteurs, etc. p. les Elzev. in the 4th vol. of the Manuel du Libraire. EMANATION, EFFLUX (from the Latin ema- fare, to issue, to flow out, to emanate). Philoso- phical systems, which, like most of the ancient, do not adopt a spontaneous creation of the universe by a Supreme Being, frequently explain the universe by an eternal emanation from the Supreme Being. This doctrine came from the East. Traces of it are found in the Indian mythology, and in the old Persian or Bactro-Median doctrine of Zoroaster. It had a powerful influence on the ancient Greek philosophy, as may be seen in Pythagoras.-In theology, the doctrine of emanation is the doctrine of the Trinity, which regards the Son and Holy Ghost, &c., as effluxes from the Deity himself. EMANCIPATION. See Catholic Emancipation. EMANUEL THE GREAT, king of Portugal, ascended the throne in 1495. During his reign were performed the voyages of discovery of Vasco da Gama (1497), of Cabral (1500), of Americus Vespucius (1501 and 1503), and the heroic exploits of Albuquerque, by whose exertions a passage was found to the East Indies (for which the way was pre- pared by the discovery of the cape of Good Hope, in 1486, by Bartholomew Diaz), the Portuguese domi. nion in Goa was established, the Brazils, the Moluc- cas, &c., were discovered. The commerce of Por- tugal, under Emanuel, was more prosperous than at Daniel was one of the most active of any former period. The treasures of America flowed into Lisbon, and the reign of Emanuel was justly called “the golden age of Portugal.” He died December, 13, 1521, aged fifty-two, deeply la- mented by his subjects, but hated by the Moors, whom he had expelled, and by the Jews, whom he had compelled to submit to baptism. As a monu- ment of his discoveries, Emanuel built the monastery at Belem, where he was buried. He was a friend to the sciences, and to learned men. He left Me- moirs on the Indies. EMBALMING ; to embalm, to fill and surround with aromatic and desiccative substances any bodies, particularly corpses, in order to preserve them from corruption. The ancient Egyptians were the inven- tors of this art. Other people, for example, the Assyrians, Scythians, and Persians, followed them, but by no means equalled them in it. The art was degen- erated very much from the high degree of perfection at which it stood among the ancients; perhaps because the change in religious opinions and customs has made the embalming of the dead less frequent. In modern times, only distinguished persons are occasionally em- balmed; but this process does not prevent corruption. The intestines are taken out of the body, and the brains out of the head, and the cavities filled up with a mixture of balsamic herbs, myrrh, and others of the same kind; the large blood-vessels and other vessels are injected with balsams dissolved in spirits of wine; the body is rubbed hard with spirits of the same kind, &c. (See Mummies.) The ancient Egyptians removed the viscera from the large cavi- ties, and replaced them with aromatic, saline, and bituminous substances, and also enveloped the outside of the body in cloths impregnated with similar ma- terials. These were useful in preventing decompo- sition and excluding insects until perfect dryness took place. In later times, bodies have been preserved a long time by embalming, especially when they have remained at a low and uniform temperature, and have been protected from the air. The body of Edward I. was buried in Westminster abbey, in 1307, and in 1770 was found entire. Canute died in 1036; his body was found very fresh in 1776, in Winchester cathedral. The bodies of William the Conqueror and of Matilda his wife were found entire at Caen, in the sixteenth century. Similar cases are not un- frequent. In many instances, bodies not embalmed have been preserved from decay merely by the exclusion of the air, and the lowness of the temperature. Impreg- nation of the animal body with corrosive sublimate appears to be the most effectual means of preserving it, excepting immersion in spirits. The impreg- nation is performed by the injection of a strong solu- tion, consisting of about four ounces of bichloride of mercury to a pint of alcohol, into the blood-ves- sels, and, after the viscera are removed, the body is immersed, for three months, in the same solution, after which it dries easily, and is almost imperish- able. /Wet preparations, or those immersed in alco- hol or oil of turpentine, last for an indefinite time. Messrs. Caprou and Boniface, two celebrated chemists of Chaillot in France, have recently made an important discovery, by which they can preserve the human figure in a manner superior to any hi- therto practised. By a process which they keep secret, and to which they have given the name of “Momification;” they have succeeded, after expe- rimenting for many years, in so modifying and per- fecting the known process of preserving bodies, as to reduce them to mummies, leaving all the forms unaltered. All the elements of disorganization which show themselves in the human body So Soon HI 3 H 850 after death, are completely destroyed, and not only the external body, but all the viscera, the lungs, the heart, the liver, and even the brain, are perfectly pre- served. The operation requires but a very few days, after which the dead bodies may be kept in a room, or a vault, or interred in the ordinary way, without being accessible to worms. They may be exposed to all the varieties of air, either in a standing or sitting posture, without undergoing any alteration. At a late meeting of the “ Academie dés Sciences,” a human body, and two hearts, preserved in this man- ner, were exhibited, and the process appeared perfect. EMBARGO, in commerce ; an arrest on ships or merchandise, by public authority; or a prohibition of state, commonly on foreign ships, in time of war, to prevent their going out of port; sometimes to prevent their coming in ; and sometimes both, for a limited time. - EMBAYED ; the situation of a ship when she is enclosed between two capes or promontories. It is particularly applied when the wind, by blowing strong into any bay or gulf, makes it extremely difficult, and perhaps impracticable, for the vessel thus enclosed to draw off from the shore, so as to weather the capes and gain the offing. EMBER WEEKS or DAYS, in the Catholic church, are certain seasons of the year set apart for the imploring God's blessing, by prayer and fasting, upon the ordinations performed in the church at such times. The ember weeks were formerly observed in different churches with some variety, but were at last settled as they are now observed, by the council at Placentia, in 1095. EMBEZZLEMENT is the appropriation, by a person, to himself, of money r property put into his hands in trust. An embezzlement is both a theft and breach of trust ; yet, by tie general law, it is only a ground for an action for the value of the property. But there are many special provisions in relation to particular embezzlements and breaches of trust. By the law of England, a clerk guilty of embezzlement is liable to transportation not exceeding fourteen years; and a public servant or agent committing the like offence is declared guilty of a misdemeanour, and punishable at the discretion of the court. Still more Severe provisions are made in the case of embezzle- ment by the officers and clerks of banks. EMBLEM (Gr. #23Ango, from #2042 xa, to cast in, to insert); properly, inlay; inlayed or mosaic work; Something inserted in the body of another ; that sort of figure of thought by which we make corporeal objects stand for moral properties; a painted enigma, or a figure representing Some well-known historical event, instructing us in Some moral truth; a typical designation : thus a balance is an emblem of justice; a crown, an emblem of royalty. EMBONPOINT ; a moderate and agreeable ful- ness of figure. See Corpulency. EMBOSSING, or IMBOSSING, in architecture and Sculpture; the forming or fashioning works in relievo, whether cut with a chisel or otherwise. EMBRACERY; an attempt to corrupt or influ- ence a jury, or any way incline them to be more favourable to the one side than the other, by money, promises, letters, threats, or persuasions, whether the jury give a verdict or not, or whether the verdict given be true or false; which is punished by fine and imprisonment. EMBROCATION ; a lotion, or combination of medicinal liquids, with which any diseased part is rubbed, or washed. - EMBROIDERY; figured work in gold, or silver, or silk thread, wrought by the needle, upon cloths, Stuffs, or muslins. In embroidering stuffs, a kind of EMBARGO-EMERALD. loom is used, because the more the piece is stretched, the easier is it worked. Muslin is spread upon a pattern, ready designed, and sometimes, before it is stretched upon the pattern, it is starched to make it more easy to handle. The art of embroidery was invented in the East, probably by the Phrygians. In Moses’ time, Aholiab, of the tribe of Dam, was noted for skill in embroidery, and the women of Sidon, before the Trojan war, excelled in the same art. Though the Greeks attributed the invention of the art to Minerva, yet it is certain that it came through the Persians to Greece, The king of Pergamus (Attalus), in the year of Rome 621, invented the mode of embroidering with gold thread. In modern times, the art has been much extended. In 1782, three German ladies, in Hanover, named Wyllich, invented a mode of embroidering with human hair. Beads, &c., also have been used. EMBRYO ; the first rudiments of the animal in , the womb, before the several members are distinctly formed, after which it is called the foetus. The time necessary to produce this is different in different species. The human embryo is visible in three weeks: at the end of four, a pulsation is perceptible, which is known to be the beating of the heart. It is now about the size of an ant or fly, and retains its transparency, which, however, gradually diminishes, and, at the end of two months, disappears : the eyes, nose, mouth; ears, and all the members, are distin- guishable : it is as large as a bee. In three months, every thing becomes more distinct; the sex becomes evident, and the foetus grows until it is ushered into the world as a child. - EMDEN ; a city at the mouth of the river Ems, in the principality of East Friesland, the first commer- cial city of Hanover, with 11,000 inhabitants, a Latin School, a learned society, &c. It is a free port. It has much trade in herrings. It is expected that its commerce will be much benefited by the junction of the Ems and the Rhine EMERALD is a well-known gem of pure green colour, somewhat harder than quartz. Its natural form is either rounded or that of a short six-sided prism. By the ancients the emerald was in great request, particularly for engraving upon. They are said to have procured it from Ethiopia and Egypt. The most intensely coloured and valuable emeralds that we are acquainted with are brought from Peru. They are found in clefts and veins of granite, and other primitive rocks, and oftentimes grouped with the crystals of quartz, felspar, and mica. The emerald is one of the softest of the precious stones, and is almost exclusively indebted for its value to its charm- ing colour. In value it is rated next to the ruby, and, when of good colour, is set without foil, and upon a black ground, like brilliant diamonds. Eme- ralds of inferior lustre are generally set upon a green gold foil. These gems are considered to appear to greatest advantage when table-cut and surrounded by brilliants, the lustre of which forms an agreeable contrast with the quiet hue of the emerald. They are sometimes formed into pearl-shaped ear-drops; but the most valuable stones are generally set in rings. A favourite mode of setting emeralds, among the opulent inhabitants of South America, is to make them up into clusters of artificial flowers on gold stems. The largest emerald that has been mentioned, is one said to have been possessed by the inhabitants of the Valley of Manta, in Peru, at the time when the Spaniards first arrived there. It is recorded to have been as big as an ostrich's egg, and to have been worshipped by the Peruvians, under the name of the goddess or mother of emeralds. They brought smaller ones as offerings to it, which the priests dis- tinguished by the appellation of daughters. Many EMERSON.—EMIGRA’ſ ION. fine emeralds are stated to have formerly been be- queathed to different monasteries on the continent ; but the greatest part of them are said to have been sold by the monks, and to have had their place sup- plied with coloured glass imitations. These stones are seldom seen of large size, and at the same time entirely free from flaws. The emerald, if heated to a certain degree, assumes a blue colour, but it recovers its own proper tint when cold. When the heat is carried much beyond this, it melts into an opaque, coloured mass. The Oriental emerald is a variety of the ruby, of a green colour, and is an extremely rare gem. See Beryl. EMERSON, WILLIAM, an eminent English mathe- mafician, was born at Hurworth, near Darlington, in the year 1701. Having derived from his parents a moderate competence, he devoted himself to a life of studious retirement. From the strength of his mind and the closeness of his application, he acquired a deep knowledge of mathematics and physics, upon all parts of which he wrote sound treatises, although with few pretensions to originality of invention, and in a rough and unpolished style. He died in 1782, in his eighty-first year. - *- EMERY, JoHN, an actor of eminence, was born at Sunderland, in the palatinate of Durham, December 22, 1777, and educated at Ecclesfield in Yorkshire, where he acquired that knowledge of the provincial dialect which afterwards contributed so much to his celebrity. In the unsophisticated rustic or the stupid dolt, he was excellent ; while in some parts, written purposely for him, such as Tyke in the School of Reform, and Giles in the Miller's Maid, his acting was truly terrific and appalling. The portraying of rough nature, fine simplicity, and strong passion, was his forte ; and in the latter, especially, he ever excited the approbation of the best critics. In private life, he was much esteemed. He died in January, 1822. EMERY, a very hard mineral, of blackish or blu- ish-grey colour, is chiefly found in shapeless masses, and mixed with other minerals. It contains about 80 parts in 100 of alumina, and a small portion of iron, is usually opaque, and about four times as heavy as water. The best emery is brought from the Le- vant, and chiefly from Naxos, and other islands of the Grecian archipelago. It is also found in Some parts of Spain, and is obtained from a few of the iron mines in Great Britain. In hardness, it is nearly equal to adamantine spar, and this property has ren- dered it an object of great request in various arts. It is employed by lapidaries in the cutting and polishing of precious stones; by opticians, in smoothing the surface of the finer kinds, preparatory to their being polished ; by cutlers and other manufacturers of iron and steel instruments; by masons in the polishing of marble ; and, in their respective businesses, by lock- Smiths, glaziers, and numerous other artisans. For all these purposes, it is pulverized in large iron mor- tars, or in steel mills, and the powder, which is rough and sharp, is carefully washed, and sorted into five or six different degrees of fineness, according to the de- Scription of work in which it is to be employed. See Corundum. EMETIC (emeticus; from *aša, to vomit); that which is capable of exciting vomiting, independently of any effect arising from the mere quantity of matter introduced into the stomach, or of any nauseous taste or flavour. The susceptibility of vomiting is very different in different individuals, and is often consi– derably varied by disease. Emetics are employed in many diseases. When any morbid affection depends upon, Or is connected with over-distension of the sto- mach, or the presence of acrid, indigestible matters, vomiting gives speedy relief. Hence its utility in impaired appetite, acidity in the stomach, in intoxi. 85] cation, and where poisons have been Swallowed. In the different varieties of febrile affections, much ad- vantage is derived from exciting vomiting, especially in the very commencement of the disease. In high inflammatory fever, it is considered as dangerous, and in the advanced stage of typhus, it is prejudicial. Emetics, given in such doses as only to excite nausea, have been found useful in restraining hamorrhage Different species of dropsy have been cured by vo- miting, from its having excited absorption. To the Same effect, perhaps, is owing the dispersion of va- rious swellings, which has occasionally resulted from this operation. The operation of vomiting is danger- ous or hurtful in the following cases: where there is determination of the blood to the head, especially in plethoric habits; in visceral inflammation; in the advanced stage of pregnancy; in hernia and prolap- sus uteri; and wherever there exists extreme general debility. The frequent use of emetics weakens the tone of the stomach, and should never be resorted to but in cases of extreme urgency. An emetic should always be administered in the fluid form. Its opera- tion may be promoted by drinking any tepid diluent or bitter infusion. EMETINE is a peculiar vegetable principle, ob- tained from the ipecacuan root, of whose emetic pro- perties it is conceived to be the sole cause. It is obtained by digesting the root first in ether and then in alcohol. The alcoholic infusion is evaporated to dryness; and to the residuum, re-dissolved in water, acetate of lead is added, which produces a precipi- tate. The precipitate is washed, diffused in water, and decomposed by a current of sulphureted hydro- gen gas. Sulphuret of lead falls to the bottom, and the emetime remains in solution. By evaporating the Supernatant fluid, this substance is obtained pure. It forms transparent, brownish-red scales : it is desti- tute of Smell, but has a bitter, acrid taste. At a heat somewhat above that of boiling water, it is resolved into carbonic acid, oil, and vinegar. In a dose of half a grain, it acts as a powerful emetic, followed by sleep : six grains produce violent vo- miting, stupor, and death. EMEU, or NEW HOLLAND UASSOWARY. See Cassowary. EMIGRATION ; removal from one country to another, for the purpose of permanent residence. Every man born free, or who had obtained his free- dom, formerly had the right of emigrating. But as capital and power were lost to a state by the removal of its inhabitants, it was considered, that emigration ought to be forbidden, and the people only allowed to remove from one place to another within the limits of the state. Experience, however, proved that such prohibitions were fruitless, and the only way to guard against emigrations was by the fullest protection of property; by granting freedom of conscience, and the undisturbed exercise of religion; and by not banishing subjects from their country on account of their religious opinions, as was once done (e.g., in France and Saltzburg); by allowing them, under the protection of judicious laws, with the assurance of freedom in trade and commerce, the undisturbed en- joyment of the fruits of their industry; by not ex- posing them to the oppression of magistrates; and by delivering them from the feap of unreasonable or arbitrary taxes. When we consider how much resolution is required to abandon for ever the home to which man is bound by the strongest ties of recollection, language, and habit, to seek an uncertain fortune in a land of stran- gers, there is no reason to believe, that large masses will ever emigrate without the most urgent motives, Wherever emigration is common, it is not an evil it. self, but only the consequence and symptom of an 3 H 2 852 evil arising from the dissatisfaction of the people with their condition. If things have come to such a state, that men think they cannot obey the laws of their country without violence to their consciences, they ought to be at liberty to seek in other countries reli- gious and political freedom. Besides, in the abstract, emigration is a right inherent in man. Every person does as much as can be required of him, if he obeys the laws of that country in which he chooses to reside, and only very peculiar circumstances can justify the checking of emigration. The most cruel tyranny was exercised by Louis XIV., when he deprived the Protestants of their religious privileges, and endeav- oured to prevent their emigration. The end of go- vernment is the welfare of the citizens, and they are at liberty to retire from the state when their welfare is no longer provided for by the state. It is one of the fundamental privileges of the Bri- tish nation, to leave the country without special per- mission, which is limited only in regard to those who stand in some particular relations to the state, such as magistrates or soldiers ; and, in certain cases, it may be taken away by the writ neea eat regno, under the great or privy seal. Acts of parliament have often been passed, by the British government, to prevent its citizens from engaging in foreign military service; for instance, in that of the South American insurgents, in 1819; but these were not directed against emigration. The emigration of manufactur- ers of wool, silk, iron, &c., has been forbidden by separate laws (by those of 1719, 5 Geo. I., cap. 27; 1740, 23 Geo. II., cap. 13; and 1782, 22 Geo. III., cap. 60). The only punishment, however, for emi- grants of this class, declining to return on receiving a summons to that effect, is the loss of citizenship. Those who instigate them to quit the country are liable to fine and imprisonment. The French code also, at least since 1789, has permitted unlimited emigration ; and the laws since made against emigrants were only owing to the hos- tile spirit of most of those who emigrated; for the emigrants were unwilling to give up their right of citi- Zenship in France, and attacked the new government in. the ranks of its foreign invaders. By the act of the German confederation, article 13, the right of emigra- tion is allowed to all the members of the confederacy. Well founded information in regard to the dangers that threaten emigrants in foreign countries, mea- sures for increasing the means of labour, the removal of the artificial restraints, by which the great mass of wealth is kept in a few hands, freedom of trade,- these are the means by which a spirit of emigration may be checked, and the love of home revived. Prohibitions of emigration are unjust, as well as im- politic, and always prove, that a government which allows them has an incorrect idea of its rights. If a dense population is the cause of emigration, let the government establish colonies. The British govern- ment have taken means for aiding the settlement of emigrants in Canada, the cape of Good Hope, and New Holland. Still more was done in Russia, for the support of those who had emigrated thither, after disease and want had carried off a multitude of those unhappy men in the unhealthy steppes of Odessa. Emigrants to the United States of America have often been . in their expectations, have fallen, on their arriväl, into the hands of sharpers, or have wasted the little resources which they brought with them, for want of information respecting the best way to proceed. To remedy these inconveni- ences, by giving information and advice to newly arrived emigrants, a society in New York established the free emigrant's office, a very useful institution, and worthy of imitation. From England, Scotland, and Ireland, a large EMIGRATION.—EMIGRES, emigration takes place, to the United States, to Canada, New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, &c.; from Wurtemberg and Prussia, to Russia and Poland, which, however, has been less extensive of late ; from the Eastern and Northern States of America, to the Western States; of coloured persons from the United States to Liberia in Africa, and to Hayti (very few, however, in number, particularly to the latter country.) From official returns, ordered to be printed by the house of commons, we learn, that the whole number of passengers, which embarked from the year 1812 to 1821, both years inclusive, for the United States, from Ireland, was 30,653; from England, 33,608; from Scotland, 4727; whole number, 68,988: for the British dominions in North America, from Ire- land, 47,223; from England, 23,783, and from Scotland, 19,971; total, 90,972. Thus the whole number of emigrants from the United Kingdom for North America, from the year 1812 to the year 1821, both years included, was 159,960. But the number of emigrants from Ireland has since very much increased. In the beginning of July, 1830, it was calculated, that about 12,300 Irish emigrants had arrived at Quebec during the season. In 1832, the number of persons who emigrated from the Unit- ed Kingdom to British North America, was 66,339, to the United States 32,890; to the Cape of Good Hope 202; and to Australia 3,792. A late Quebec newspaper states, that the accession of population which the British North American provinces and the United States have received from Europe since 1816, cannot be less, on an average, than 35,000 a-year, or 490,000. It may, indeed, fairly be estimated at 500,000. Allowing each family of five persons, to have brought out money, clothes, and other property, valued at twenty sovereigns, they would have added a capital of £2,000,000 sterling. Supposing their labour worth twenty sovereigns a year, their pro- ductive industry will now be worth, at a very low estimate, 262,000,000 annually. The emigrants from Germany, Alsace, and Swit- zerland are very numerous, and are among the most valuable additions to the American population, as the great body of them are sober, industrious, and orderly people, and good farmers. . A singular cir- cumstance, to which the history of no other nation affords a parallel, is the emigration of the Ameri- cans from the east constantly westward. It would almost seem that they had no pleasure in the fruits of their labour, but that the labour itself was their enjoyment. After partially clearing up the wilder- mess, and surrounding himself with the comforts of civilized life, the enterprizing pioneer of civilization often moves still farther into the depths of the forest, and his place is supplied by the less restless emigrant from Europe. Among these, the German is not un- frequent, who is delighted with the prospect of becoming an owner of land in fee simple, and of being able to save something which he can truly call his own. He converts his land into a fine productive farm. But his ignorance of the language of the people about him prevents him from partaking fully in their advantages, and confines him to a compara- tively limited sphere of action ; he, therefore, re-. mains far behind his American brethren in all that regards moral and intellectual education, as, for in- stance, in schools, instruction, &c. This, at least, is the case where the German settlers are SO numerous as not to be obliged to mingle much with Americans, as in some counties in Pennsylvania. For the French émigrés, see the following article. EMIGRES (emigrants). We meet in history with many instances of large bodies of men being obliged to leave their country on account of religious EMILIUS—EMMET. persecutions, as did the Huguenots, for instance, in the seventeenth century, or for some other causes. (See Emigration and Refugees.) The appellation of &migrés (the French for emigrants), however, is now applied to those persons particularly, who left France at the commencement of the French revolution. These persons, some from enmity to the new order of things, others to escape political persecution, removed into the neighbouring countries, some with a little property, which they had found means to carry off, others entirely destitute. They were from all ranks, and of all ages and conditions; men and women, children and old men, priests and nobles. Most of them hoped to see the restoration of the old order, by which they might be enabled to return to their country, and therefore remained at first on the frontiers. Among them were seen examples of the basest profligacy and the most heroic self-denial. Persons who had been accustomed to all the luxuries of life, and the refinements of rank, earned a scanty subsistence in petty employments, and bore their privations with dignity and resignation. Several counts are said to have been employed as boot- blacks. It would be unjust to call all those who left their country to its fate in the time of its greatest peril, weak and timid; for where anarchy rules, the innocent is not secure. The emigration, however, of the royal princes, particularly the count of Pro- vence, afterwards Louis XVIII., can hardly be justi- fied. Their presence was of great importance to the state, and their example contributed not a little to the extensive emigration which followed, and the injurious consequences which attended it. Many of the émigrés, however, were persons of loose, idle, and profligate habits, whose conduct brought a re- proach upon the whole body. This, but more par- ticularly the fear of provoking the vengeance of the French government, was the cause of their being re- fused a refuge in Solue couillries, and of their being received under certain restrictions in others. At the head of the emigrants stood the royal princes of Condé, Provence, and Artois, the first of whom col- lected a part of the fugitives to co-operate with the allied armies in Germany for the restoration of the monarchy. At Coblentz, a particular court of jus- tice was established to settle causes relating to the French émigrés. As a body, they are described by contemporary authors as haughty in their deportment towards foreigners, and acting as if they constituted the French nation, and as if the rest of Europe did nothing more than its duty in assisting them to recover their estates and feudal rights. But the in- vasion of the Netherlands by Dumouriez drove them from these provinces in mid-winter, in a deplorable condition, while their number was daily increased by the system of violence and terror carried on in France; e. g. by the bloody tragedies of Lyons and Toulon. The corps of Condé was finally taken into the Russian Service, and was disbanded in the Russian-Austrian campaign of 1799. When Napoleon became emperor, it was one of his first acts of grace to grant permission to all but a few of the emigrants to return to their country. Many, however, who by this time had settled in foreign places, did not choose to avail themselves of the in- dulgence. EMILIUS. See AEmiliozs. EMINENCE (from the Latin eminentia); an hon- orary title, like earcellency, and given to cardinals. They were formally called illustrissimi and reveren- dissimi; but pope Urban VIII. (of the Barberini family), in 1630, established the above as their title of honour. Popes John VIII. and Gregory VII. gave this title to the kings of France. The emperors have bºrne it. It has gradually sunk, as titles always do. 853 EMIR (i. e. noble, princely); a title of honour, given in Turkey to those who claim descent from Mohammed and his daughter Fatima. These emirs are found 1. In Arabia, where they are the chieftains of the wandering tribes, or Bedouins. (q.v.) Their origin, however, is doubtful. 2. In Turkey itself they form a kind of hereditary mobility, and wear as a badge a green turban, as Mohammed is said to have done. They have certain privileges, but otherwise no higher claims to civil offices than other Mussulmen, and live for the most part in great indigence, as they are idle and extravagant. The word emir is also applied to certain offices and employments e. g., emir hadschi, conductor of the pilgrims in Cara VallS. EMLYN, THOMAS, an English dissenting divine, was born at Stamford, in Lincolnshire, 1663; and after studying at the university of Cambridge, he finished his education at an academy in London. In 1683, he became chaplaim to the countess of Done- gal. He left this situation in 1688, and went to Lon- don, and, the following year, became pastor of a con- gregation at Lowestoff, in Suffolk. In 1691, he ac- cepted an invitation to become assistant to the re- werend Joseph Boyse, at Dublin. Mr Emlyn had adopted sentiments approaching to Arianism, and, the circumstance being suspected, an inquisitorial ex- amination was set on foot by his brethren, the dissenting ministers of Dublin, who, as he would not disavow what he conceived to be the truth, restricted him from continuing his pastoral duties. Finding him- self the object .# public odium, he published his Humble Inquiry into the Scripture Account of Jesus Christ, or a short argument concerning his Deity and Glory according to the Gospel. Immediately after this work appeared, he was arrested on the charge of blasphemy, tried before the chief justice of the queen's bench, and sentenced to a year's imprisonment a fine of £1000, and detention in prison till it should be paid. The fine was reduced to £70, through the interposition of the duke of Ormond, and other humane persons; and, after somewhat more than a year's confinement, Mr Emlyn was set at liberty. He removed to London, where he preached for some time to a small congregation, and occupied himself in writing controversial tracts. He enjoyed the friendship of Dr Samuel Clarke, William Whiston, and other individuals distinguished for their learning and liberality, and was generally respected for the excellence of his character and amiable disposition. He died July 30th, 1743. A collection of his works was published in 1746, 2 volumes 8vo, with an ac- count of his life. EMMET, THoMAs, ADDIs, an eminent Irish patriot and lawyer, was born in the city of Cork, in 1765. His parents were highly respectable inhabitants of that city, in easy circumstances. The son was placed, in his boyhood, at the university of Dublin, and de- signed by his father for the profession of medicine. He was educated accordingly, and pursued his me- dical studies at Edinburgh. The death of his elder brother, a member of the Irish bar, occasioned him to pass from the practice of medicine to the study of the law, at the desire of his parents. He went to London, read two years in the Temple, and attended the courts at Westminster. On his return to Dublin, he commenced practice, and soon obtained distinction and business. The celebrated Curran was one of his circuit and term companions. Being of an ardent character, and enthusiastically Irish, he imbibed deeply the resentment and antipathy of the majority of his countrymen against the British rule and coil- nexion. , - When the societies of united Irishmen were revived in the year 1795, Emmet joined the association, and 854 soon became a leader. Their object was revolution, find an independent government for Ireland. Emmet acted as one of the grand executive committee of the societies, who consisted of at least 500,000 men. March 12, 1798, he was arrested, and committed to prison at Dublin, as a conspirator, by the vice-regal government, along with Oliver Bond, doctor Mac- neven, and other chiefs of the disaffected party. In July, after a severe confinement, an interview took place between Emmet and lord Castlereagh, at Dub. lin castle, and it was agreed, that he and the other state prisoners should be permitted to go to America, as Soon as they had made certain disclosures of their plans of revolution, and the projected alliance be- tween the united Irishmen and France. These dis- closures were made in a memoir, delivered August 4, but without the confession of any names, which were inflexibly refused by the writers. They were, Soon after, examined in person before the secret com- mittees of both houses of the Irish parliament. In- stead, however, of being sent to America, Emmet and nineteen more were, early in 1799, landed in Scotland, and consigned to fort George, a fortress in the county of Nairn. Here they were liberally treated, but their detention lasted three years. At the expiration of that period, the list of par- dons arrived, including the name of every prisoner except Emmet. The governor of the fortress released him notwithstanding, taking all the respon- sibility. Emmet, and his exemplary wife, who had shared unremittingly his imprisonment, both in Ireland and Scotland, were landed at Cuxhaven from a British frigate, spent the winter of the year 1802 in Brussels, and that of 1803 in Paris. In October, 1804, they sailed from Bourdeaux for the United States, and ar- rived in New York on the 11th of the next month. Emmet, then about forty years of age, at first hesi- tated between the professions of the law and medi- cine; but his friends determined him to undertake the former. George Clinton, then governor of the state of New York, induced him to abandon his ori- ginal plan of settling in Ohio, and to remain in the city of New York. He was admitted to the bar at once, by special dispensation, and reached the first ranks of the profession in a short time, by indefati- gable industry and fervid eloquence. In the course of a few years, he rivalled in busi- ness and fame the most eminent of the American lawyers. Occasionally the ardour of his tempera- ment and the vivacity of his recollections betrayed him into party politics; but his general career and character were those of a laborious, able, and most successful pleader, an energetic and florid orator, a sound republican citizen, and a courteous gentleman. In 1812, he was appointed to the office of attorney- general of the state of New York. His death took place in November, 1827. Mr Emmet was a thorough classical scholar, and conversant with the physical sciences. During his detention at the for- tress in Scotland, he wrote part of an Essay towards the History of Ireland, which was printed in New York, in 1807. His private life was irreproachable, his countenance strong and regular, and his frame manly and healthy. EMPECINADO, THE. See Diez. EMPEDOCLES, a Greek philosopher whose doc- trimes, in many respects, resembled those of Pytha- goras, was born 460 B.C. at Agrigentum, in Sicily. His fellow citizens esteemed him so highly, that they wished to make him king; but being an enemy to all oppression, and elevation of a few above the rest, he refused the offer, and prevailed on them to abolish aristocracy, and introduce a democratical form of government. The Agrigentines regarded him with EMPECINADO-EMPEROR. the highest veneration, as the restorer and preserver of their liberty, the public benefactor, the great poet, orator, and physician, the favourite of the gods, the predicter of future events, and the mighty magician who could stop the course of nature, and overrule the power of death itself. He is said to have thrown himself into the crater of mount Etna, in order to make it believed, by his sudden disappearance, that he was of divine origin. According to others, he was a victim to his rash curiosity, when, in order to examine more accurately the nature of the mountain, and of its fiery eruptions, he went too near the edge of the chasm and fell in. But it is probable that this is a fiction, as well as the story of Lucian about him, that his sandals were thrown out from the vol- cano, and thus the manner of his death ascertained, and the people undeceived as to his pretended di- vinity. Others assert, that he was drowned in his old age. Empedocles presented his philosophy in a poetical dress. His verses are marked by bold and glowing imagery, as well as by harmony and soft- ness. Lucretius was his imitator. The iambic poem on the spheres, formerly ascribed to him, is now con- sidered spurious. The poems of his yet extant have been published together, with a treatise on his life and philosophy, by F. W. Sturz (Leipsic, 1806). Empedocles holds the four elements—earth, water, fire, air—as the fundamental and indestructible prin- ciples, from whose union and separation every thing that exists is formed. To these material principles are added the ideal principles of friendship and ha- tred. Domenico Scina has written Memoirs on the Life and Philosophy of Empedocles (Palermo, 1825). fºremon (from the Latin imperator; in Ger- man, Kaiser, from Caesarº); the title of the highest rank of sovereigns. The word imperator, from impe- rare, to command, had very different meanings among the Romans at different periods. In the most gem- eral sense, it signified the commander of an army, as imperium did the command itself. In early times, consuls were called imperatores before they entered on their office. The soldiers afterwards conferred the title on their general, after a victory, by hailing him imperator; the senate also called a victorious general imperator until he had celebrated his triumph. At a still later period, no one was hon- oured with this title, who had not defeated a hostile army of at least 10,000 men. After the overthrow of the republic, imperator became the title of the rulers, or emperors, and indicated the supreme power; the word rea, being too odious to be assumed. Victorious generals were still, however, sometimes Saluted with the title imperator, in its original sense. In the time of the republic, the title was put after the name, as Cicero imperator; when it came to sig- nify emperor, it was put before the name, as im- perator Claudius. With the destruction of the Roman empire, the title was lost; but it was renewed in 800 A. D., when Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the West. For a long time, the title was considered as belonging to the sovereignty of Rome; hence, on the division of the empire among the soils of Louis- le-Débonnaire, Lothaire, king of Italy, received the title. Charles the Bald, and several princes of Italy bore it until Otho I., in 962 A. D., finally united the * Derived from the title of dignity Catsar, which in the last ages of the Roman dominion, denoted only the assis- tants and successors of the actual emperor. The name Caesar, it is well known, was adopted by the successors of Julius Caesar, as a title of honour, as the brothers of Napoleon were called Napoleon, after having ascended thrones, as Joseph Napoleon, Jerome Napoleon. . The Rus- sian Czar, is not derived from Caesar, but is of Sclavonic | origin. EMPEROR-ENAM ELING. imperial crown with that of the German kings. Yet it was for many centuries considered necessary to be crowned at Rome, in order to be formally invested with the title of emperor. For reasons too many to be enumerated here, the idea that the bishop of Rome was the highest spiritual ruler, and the em- peror of the holy Roman empire (or of Germany), the highest temporal Sovereign, was gradually developed. One reason undoubtedly was, that the German or Teutonic tribes were actually in the beginning of the middle ages, the ruling people in most countries of Europe; but many other reasons, particularly a strange confusion of the universal empire of Rome with the universal empire of Christendom, and the idea of a universal church, as an organized society, to be supported, of course, by a temporal power con- tributed much to give this idea currency. The impartial historian cannot doubt, that in the barbarous period of the middle ages, the authority of the pope was beneficial to Europe, and almost the sole support of civilization; but it would be hard to say what advantage Germany derived from taking part, ea officio, in all the quarrels of Europe, and from that unfortunate desire of possessing temporal authority over Italy, which has been one of the chief causes of her inferiority to some other states of Europe, in respect to the developement of her po- litical institutions. As the emperor was considered the highest temporal officer in Christendom, all the other states were regarded as dependent upon him ; some of these, therefore, to show their independence, made claim to the imperial dignity, although they did not assume the title ; as, for instance, the sov- ereigns of Castile, France, and England. The eastern empire having been finally overthrown by the conquest of Constantinople, in 1453, the im- perial dignity in the East became extinct. The sul- tans, who succeeded the emperors, have never re- ceived, in official language, the title of emperor. This title was adopted in Russia by Peter I., in 1721, but the right of the Russian sovereign to its posses- sion was not acknowledged by the German empire until 1747—by France in 1745, and by Spain in 1759. Napoleon adopted the old idea of an empire, as a eneral union of states under the protection, or at east political preponderance, of one powerful state; the political system of a balance of power, had proved insufficient to maintain a general peace, and Henry IV.'s plan of a great European confederacy held out no prospect of permanent tranquillity. Napoleon crowned himself as emperor in 1804. In 1806, the German empire, 1000 years old, became extinct, and the German emperor, Francis II., adopted the title of Francis I., emperor of Austria. The French em- pire was destroyed in 1814, by the peace of Paris. Great Britain is considered as an empire, the crown is imperial, and the parliament is styled the Imperial Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland; but the king himself has never adopted the imperial title, though this measure was proposed in parliament in 1804. The sovereigns of Siam, China, Japan, and of Fez and Morocco, are often, though with little pro- priety called emperors. At the coronation of the German emperors, princes And kings appeared as servants; the emperor pro- mised to do justice, to be an upright sovereign, to consult the good of his subjects, to protect the church, to defend the empire, to be the guardian of widows and orphans; and not until the assembled people had replied to the question, “Will you submit to this sovereign and prince, and obey him P” with shouts of Yes, Yes (Fiat, fiat, fiat), were the unction and coronation (of which Goethe gives a description in his account of his life) performed. Formerly it was only 855 the coronation of the sovereign as German king, that took place at Frankfort, in Germany. This was fol- lowed by the imposition of the crown of Lombardy, an iron circle, made of a mail reputed to be from the Cross of Christ, set in gold ; and finally by the coro- nation as Roman emperor, performed by the pope in Rome. But, from the time of Maximilian I., the German emperors were crowned in Germany only. After the fall of the French empire, a large number of persons in Germany, without organization or set- tled plan, desired the restoration of the German em- pire. The Germans, from a want of practical know ledge, then lost an opportunity of taking one step towards securing personal liberty, by wasting the time in vague declamation. That party, particularly, who wished for the restoration of the empire, talked of a glory, power, and happiness which had never existed ; they were actuated by indistinct historical recollections, and phantoms of their own creation, and not a few by their aristocratical predilections. A Worse model of government, and a more perplexed political system, than the late German empire, can- not be contrived. EMPIRIC, in medical history (from the Greek Word #zºrs.gio, experience); an appellation assumed by a sect of physicians, who contended that all hypo- thetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was useless, and that observation and experience alone were the foundation of the art of medicine. Empiric, in modern medicine, is applied to a person who sells or administers a particular drug, Or compound, as a remedy for a given disorder, with- out any consideration of its different stages, or de- grees of violence, in different constitutions, climates, or seasons. For empiric philosophy, see Eaperimental Philosophy. EMS ; a celebrated watering-place in the duchy of Nassau, on the river Lahn. The environs are beautiful. As early as 1583, it was used as a water- ing-place. The mineral waters at Ems are warm— from 70° to 1180 Fahr.; they are of the saline class, containing large quantities of carbonic acid gas, and are used with much effect in chronic catarrhs, pulmo- nary complaints, diseases of the stomach, arising from phlegm and acidity, gout, and some diseases of the urinary vessels. See Die Heilguellen zu Ems, Coblentz, 1821, by Vogler. Near Ems is a grotto, similar to the grotto del cane, near Naples, the wa- pours from which cause asphyxia. About 50,000 bottles of the water of Ems are sent away annually. EMULSIONS ; a term applied to the imperfect solutions of the fixed vegetable oils in water. They are obtained by rubbing the seeds affording these oils with water to which a little sugar has been added. - ENAMELING (from enamel, formed by a junctica of the inseparable particle en—borrowed by us from the French, who had taken it from the Latin in —and the old English word amel, taken from the émail of the French, both signifying the material used in overlaying the variegated works which we call enameled); the art of variegating with colours laid upon or into another body; also, a mode of painting, with vitrified colours, on gold, silver, Copper, &c., and of melting these at the fire, or of making curious works in them at a lamp. This art is of so great antiquity, as to render it difficult or impossible to trace it to its origin. It was evidently practised by the Egyptians, from the remains that have been ob- served on the ornamented envelopes of mummies. From Egypt it passed into Greece, and afterwards into Rome and its provinces, whence it was probably introduced into Great Britain, as various Roman an- tiquities have been dug up in different parts of the island, particularly in the barrows, in which enamels 856 have formed portions of the ornaments. The gold cup given by king John to the corporation of Lynn, in Norfolk, proves that the art was known among the Normans, as the sides of the cup are embellished with various figures, whose garments are partly com- posed of coloured enamels. Enamels are vitrifiable substances, and are usually arranged into three classes; namely, the transparent, the semitransparent, and opaque. The basis of all kinds of enamel is a perfectly transparent and fusible glass, which is ren- dered either semitransparent or opaque, by the ad- mixture of metallic oxides. The art of colouring glass seems to be of nearly the same antiquity as the invention of making it ; which is proved, not only from written documents, but likewise by the variously coloured glass corals with which several of the Egyp- tian mummies are decorated. White enamels are composed by melting the oxide of tin with glass, and adding a small quantity of manganese, to increase the brilliancy of the colour. The addition of the oxide of lead, or antimony, produces a yellow ena- mel ; but a more beautiful yellow may be obtained from the oxide of silver. Reds are formed by an in- termixture of the oxides of gold and iron, that com- posed of the former being the most beautiful and per- manent. Greens, violets, and blues are formed from the oxides of copper, cobalt, and iron ; and these, when intermixed in different proportions, afford a great variety of intermediate colours. Sometimes the oxides are mixed before they are united to the vitreous bases. All the colours may be produced by the metallic oxides. The principal quality of good enamel, and that which renders it fit for being ap- plied on baked earthenware, or on metals, is the facility with which it acquires lustre by a moderate heat, or cherry-red heat, more or less, according to the nature of the enamel, without entering into com- plete fusion. Enamels applied to earthen-ware and metals possess this quality. Enamels are executed upon the surface of copper and other metals, by a method similar to painting. Enameling on plates of metal, and painting with vitrified colours on glass, are practised with great success in England. ENCAUSTIC PAINTING (encausticus, Lat. ; *y-covartză, Gr.). Painting in encaustic is executed with the operation of fire. Ancient authors often mention this species of painting, which, if it had been described simply by the word encaustic, which signifies evecuted by fire, might be supposed to have been a species of enamel painting. But the expres– Sions encausto pingere, pictura encaustica, ceris pin- gere, picturam inurere, by Pliny and other ancient writers, show that another species of painting is meant. We have no ancient pictures of this de- Scription, and, therefore, the precise manner adopted by the ancients is not completely developed, though many moderms have closely investigated the subject, and described their processes. This species of paint- ing appears to have been practised in the fourth and fifth centuries.* Count Caylus, and M. Bachelier, a painter, were the first of modern times who made experiments in this branch of the art, about the year 1749. Pliny, in a passage relating to encaustic painting, distinguishes three species : 1, that in which the artists used a style, and painted on ivory or polished wood (cestro in ebore), for which purpose they drew the outlines on a piece of the aforesaid wood or ivory, previously soaked or imbued with Some colour; the point of the style or stigma served for this operation, and the broad end to scrape off the Small filaments * Vicenzo Requeno has treated the subject in a very Inasterly and scientific manner, in a work called Saggj sul Ristabilimento dell' antica Arte de' Grecie Roman? Fittºri, published at Parma, 1787. ENCAUSTIC PAINTING—ENCHASING. that arose from the outlines; and they continued form. ing outlines with the point till they were finished.— 2. The next manner appears to have been one in which the wax, previously impregnated with colour, was spread over the surface of the picture with the style, and the colours thus prepared were formed into Small cylinders for use. By the side of the painter was a brasier for keeping the styles continually hot, with the points of which they laid on the colours when the outlines were finished, and spread them smooth with the broad end ; and thus they proceeded till the picture was finished. 3. The third manner of painting was with a pencil, in wax liquefied by fire. By this method the colours acquired a consider- able hardness, and could not be damaged, either by the heat of the sun or the effects of sea-water. In this manner ships were painted, with emblems and other pictures, and therefore it obtained the name of Ship painting. - Few, of late years, have made more experiments in this mode of painting than an English lady, Mrs Hooker, who, for her very successful exertions in this branch of the polite arts, was presented with a gold palette by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. of London. Her account is printed in the 10th volume of the Society’s Transactions, for 1792, when she was Miss Emma Jane Greenland. This subject has also been deeply investigated by the chevalier Lorgna, in a small but valuable tract, called Un Dis- corso sulla Cera Poznica. As the thing chiefly regarded in encaustic painting was the securing of permanence and durability, by the application of fire, the word encaustic has been ap- plied, in a very general sense, to other processes, in which both the material and the mode of applying the heat, are entirely different from the ancient mate- rials and modes. The word has been used, not only of wax-painting on wood, stone, and ivory, but also of painting on earthen vessels, of works in metal, where gold and silver were inlaid, melted, or laid on, and of every thing which was gilt or silvered by fire ; which was called gold or silver encaustic. The moderns have also used the term for painting on por- celain, and work in enamel; and in the same way it was given to the painting on glass of the middle ages, such as is now seen in the windows of some Gothic churches. It is evident, that all these have nothing to do with the wax-painting of the ancients. ENCHASING. Enchasing, or chasing, is the art of enriching and beautifying gold, silver, and other metallic works, by ornamental designs or figures re- presented thereon in low relievo. See Sculpture, Basso-relievo, &c. Chasing is the last operation, or finishing process, performed on all figured works of plate or jewellery. In general, these are all cast in moulds of cuttle-fish-bone, from models made in wax, and pass from the hands of the founder to those of the enchaser. It is performed by a pe- culiar manner of punching, or pressing out the metal to form the finer lines of the figures, by making them stand out more sharply from the plane, or sur- face of the metal. The workman is furnished with a number of fine steel blocks, and puncheons of divers forms and sizes, and the general forms having been already impressed upon the surface of the metal, the blocks are applied inside the casting, directly under the parts to be finished off; while, by striking exter. mally with a punch and a fine steel hammer, the metal is made to yield and receive any form which the workman wishes to communicate. Thus he proceeds, in succession applying his blocks, punches, and ham- mers to the several parts of the design ; and, if he be a good artist, it is surprising how much beauty and delicacy he will be able to impart to his works. In this way snuff-boxes, seals, watch-cases, tankards, ENCHORIAL–ENCYCLOPAEDIA. cups, &c., are finished and covered with beautiful foliage, arabesques, &c. - ENCHORIAL, or ENCHORIC (from the Greek iv, in, and záez, country.) The Egyptians employed different alphabets in writing—hieroglyphic, hieratic, (used by the priests) and enchorial (used for the com: mon purposes of life, and hence called also epistolo- graphic and demotic. Thus, on the Rosetta stone there are three inscriptions, one in the hieroglyphical character, one in what the Greeks called #yzágio 7.6%/02.ro, and one in Greek characters. Doctor Thomas Young, in his Egyptian Antiquities (London, l823, page 9), uses the word enchorial, or enchoric, to designate these popular characters, while M. Champollion calls them demotic. See Demotic, and Hieroglyphics. ENCLAVE ; a term used in German and French, to denote a place or country which is entirely sur- rounded by the territories of another power. Thus Several petty duchies and principalities are enclaves of Prussia. It is easy to conceive how much confu- Sion and difficulty in the administration and in the imposition of duties must be caused by such a local situation. It has always been a source of disputes, which have been finally settled by trea- ties. ENCLOSURE; a fence, wall, or hedge, or other means of protection and security, surrounding land. Countries in general lie open, with nothing but banks and ditches to divide the lands of the husbandmen ; but in Britain each farm is divided from others by hedges and fences, and the farms themselves are broken into small enclosures. In France, Germany, Italy, Spain, &c., the lands still remain unenclosed, in large, open fields. Enclosures pleasantly subdivide the labours of the farmer; and, by restraining the exercise of cattle, they occasion them to get fat much sooner. ENCRATITES ; abstinent, or self-denying. See Gnostics. ENCRINITE. See Organic Remains. ENCYCLOPAEDIA, or CYCLOPAEDIA. This word, formed from the Greek, but not a native com- pound of that language (which uses instead, #yzúxxios zziºsia, ºrziºſa iyº wiſzag, also byzúzato, 22%22rº), originally denoted the whole circle of the various branches of knowledge which were comprehended by the ancients in a liberal education (the artes liberales of the Romans; see Arts.) The distinction between the Words Encyclopedia and Cyclopedia is almost too mice to be comprehended. Mr Bowyer, the learned printer, however, says, that the proposition en makes the meaning of the term more precise; for Cyclopedia may denote “the instruction of a circle,” whereas in Encyclopedia, the proposition determines the word to be from the dative of cyclus, “instruction in a circle.” At a later period, the word was applied to every Systematic view, either of the whole extent of human knowledge (universal encyclopædia), or of particular departments of it (particular or partial encyclopædia). The Want of such general surveys was early felt; and, as knowledge increased, they became still more desirable, partly for the purpose of having a syste- matic arrangement of the sciences, in their mutual relations, partly for the readier finding of particular subjects ; and, for these two reasons, such works were sometimes philosophically, sometimes alphabeti- cally arranged. The spirit of compiling, which pre- vailed in the Alexandrian school, soon led to attempts remotely allied to this, and Varro and Pliny the elder, among the Romans, composed works of a similar kind the former in the lost works, entitled Rerum humana- *ºm et divinarum Antiquitates, and Disciplinarum Libri IX., the latter in his Historia naturalis). To these may be added the later collections of Stóbalus, and 857 Suidas, and especially of Marcianus Capella. These, however, were only preparatory labours. The honour of undertaking encyclopædias on a regular plan, belongs to the middle ages, which, with iron industry, produced not only a large num- ber of cyclopædias of particular sciences, called Summa, or Specula (e. g. the Summa Theologiae of Thomas Aquinas), but also a Universal Encyclopædia, such as had never been seen before. The indefati- gable Dominican, Vincent of Beauvais (Bellovacen- sis), about the middle of the 13th century, exhibited the whole sum of the knowledge of the middle ages, in a work of considerable size (Speculum historiale, naturale, doctrinale, to which an anonymous author added, some years later, a Speculum morale, in a similar form), in extracts from the works of the writers of the time ;-a real treasure to the inquirer into the literary history of the middle ages, and not without value in itself in many respects (e.g. for the light which it throws on profane criticism). The latest edition was published at Douay, in 4 vols. folio. In the 17th century, the works, by no means with- out value, of Matthias Martinius, professor and rec- tor in the gymnasium at Bremen (Idea methodica, et brevis Encyclopaediae sive adumbratio Universitatis, Herborn, 1606), and of John Henry Alstead (Ency- clopædia vii Tomis distincta, Herborn, 1620, 2 vols. fol.) were followed by those of the illustrious Bacon. In these works, not, indeed, very voluminous, but rich in deep and acute thinking (his Novum Organum Scientiarum, first published, London, 1620, fol. ; and De Augmentis Secinţiarum, English, London, 1605, 4to, Latin, London, 1638, fol.), he laid the founda- tion of a cyclopaedia full of the most profound inqui- ries, and the boldest anticipations, which his own age was not capable of understanding. Since his time, a multitude of encyclopædias have appeared, but none of them have the purely scientific design of Bacon, and all relate either to the instruc- tion of the young and uninformed (Chevigny, La Science des Personnes de la Cour, de l’Epée, et de la Robe, 5th edition, by H. P. de Limiers, Amsterdam, 1717, 4 vols.; J. E. Wagenseil, Pera Librorum juvenilium, Altorf, 1695, 5 vols.), or are intended as books of reference for the learned. Among the greatest works of earlier date would have been reckoned the Galeria de Minerva of Cornelli, had it been completed according to the original plan. It was to have appeared in 45 folio volumes, of which only seven were published (Venice, 1696). See Keyssler's Travels, vol. i. 1136. More successful, at least in being brought to a completion, was the Grosse vollstandige Universallevicon aller PPissenschaf. ten und Kunste (Grand Universal Lexicon of all the Arts and Sciences), commonly called Zedler’s, from the person who conducted it (Halle and Leipsic, 1732–50, 64 vols; Supplement, 1751–1754, 4 vols. fol.); but it has, on the whole, little merit, and is successful only in some particular branches, as, for instance, in genealogy. Of the English works of this kind, which deserve notice, are 1. Chambers’ Cyclopædia, or a Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences—a work which has passed through several editions. 2. Encyclopædia Britannica. Of this there have been seven editions, all published in Edinburgh. The first edition came out in 1788, in 10 vols. 4to ; the 4th in 1810; the 5th in 1815; the 6th in 1823, in 20 vols. ; and the 7th, with supplement incorporated, commenced pub- lishing in 1830, under the editorship of Mr Macvey Napier. 3. Rees' Cyclopædia, 39 vols., 4to, in 79 parts, with 6 supplementary parts, and numerous engravings, London, 1802–20. In the technical department, particularly, this is the most complete work of the kind which we have. 4. Edinburgh 858 Encyclopædia, 1810—1830, 18 vols. 4to. This work, devoted particularly to natural science and techno- logy, was conducted by Dr Brewster. 5. Encyclo- paedia Londinensis, published by John Wilkes, begun in 1796. 6. Encyclopædia Edinensis, edited by Dr J. Millar, 1816–27, 6 vols., 4to. 7. Encyclopaedia Me- tropolitana, London, 4to, begun in 1815, to consist of 25 vols. 4to. 8. Nicholson's British Encyclopædia, in 12 vols. 1809 et seq. 9. Gregory's Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, 3 vols., 4to. Besides these larger works, a multitude of smaller cyclopædias have been ºned by Watson, Willich, Enfield, Kendal, and OtherS. The Italians nave G. P. Pivati’s Dizionario scien- tifico e curioso, sacro-profano, Venice, 1746–51, 10 vols. fol. Of the French cyclopædias, the most fa- mous is the great Dictionaire Encyclopédique, by Diderot and D'Alembert, (see next article.) This was followed by the more extensive one of Félice. Still more comprehensive is the Encyclopédie métho- dique, ou par Ordre de Matières, which has been pub- lishing at Paris since 1782, and is now extended to 1484to vols. text, and 52 vols. copper-plates. The French have also the Encyclopédie Moderne, begun in 1824, finished in 1832, 24 vols. 8vo; and the Encyclopédie des Gens du Monde, begun in 1833. Several works of this kind have also been published in Germany, independently of the Conversations- Lexicon. Krunitz's Encyclopædia is the most cele- brated. The Deutsche Encyclopadie oder allgem. //orterbuch aller Kunste und /Wissenschaften, begun by Koster, in 1778, and continued by J. F. Roos, to the 23d volume, 1804, remains unfinished. Among the latest encyclopædian journals are Jullien’s Revue Encyclopédique, and Férussac's Bulletin uni- versel des Sciences et de l'Industrie, the latter of which is published monthly, arranged in eight sections. The rapid advancement of the sciences and arts, and the proportionally rapid communication between all civilized nations, have made a general acquain- tance with many different branches of knowledge more desirable, and often more necessary, than ever before. This is one of the chief causes which have produced in our time so many encyclopædias of various kinds, some very learned, and others more adapted for the general reader; some embracing all the sciences and arts, others only single branches; of the latter sort are Loudon's Encyclopædias of Gardening, of Agriculture, &c. To the same class belong the numerous dictionaries intended to impart information in certain branches of knowledge, such as Macculloch's Dictionary of Commerce. Among the encyclopædian works particularly intended for general readers, are the Library of Useful Know- ledge, published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, doctor Lardner's Cabinet Cyclo- padia, the Family Library, &c. As every thing can be abused, so encyclopædias, which may contribute to propagate widely useful knowledge, may also tend to produce a disposition to be satisfied with superficial information, as in the case of the lady who spoke very learnedly, a whole evening, on a variety of subjects, the names of which all began with ca. It afterwards appeared, that she had just received the second vol- ume of a new encyclopædia. ENCYCLOPEDIE, THE FRENCH. The term encyclopaedists is used, particularly in French litera- ture, to signify those who were engaged in the great alphabetical encyclopædia, embracing all arts and sciences, which was projected by Diderot; and is applied, also, to those who joined themselves to their party in philosophy and criticism, as Helvetius, for instance. Bouterwek says of this undertaking : “As Diderot took a lively interest in every thing worth knowing, he could not confine his literary la- |- ENCYCLOPAED1A—ENDEAVOUR STRAITS. bours to a single department. Mathematics, physics, philosophy, and belles-lettres in turn attracted him. None but a mind of his excursive, encyclopædian turn, would have conceived the plan of preparing a summary of all human knowledge, up to the middle of the eighteenth century, in the form of a universal dictionary.” And none but a man of Diderot's enthusiasm could have persevered in the execution of this work, in spite of all difficulties, and overlooking, in the zealous prosecution of his plan, the injury that such a work might do, by encouragiug superfi- cial and partial views. The work was undertaken at a time when every existing opinion and institution was eagerly brought before the tribunal of inquiry and criticism. This inquiring and criticising spirit naturally followed an age in which authority was supreme; and thus the Encyclopédie was the conse- quence, as well as the cause, of a new epoch. , That many false and superficial views should be mingled with it, is not strange; the golden mean of truth is seldom discovered at once. - In the philosophical and critical articles, the pe- culiar sentiments of the writers of the Encyclopédie were received by the French public as the oracles of truth ; and it became easy for the encyclopædists to give currency to what they called philosophy. They had, also, a great influence on the literary taste, not only of the French, but of other nations. Polished correctness, elegance of style, with an imitation of nature, and a moral design, were the highest excel- lences which they saw in art, and the great objects of attainment. As they made the understanding the sole judge of poetry, which was, therefore, to be the cool product of reflection, their views, by means of the authority which they had acquired, tended ex- tremely to cramp the genius of the French in respect to works of imagination, and to destroy all boldness and freedom. They gained a still greater authority by their philosophy, just suited as it was to the pre- vailing spirit of the French people. Indeed, there is j; an instance to be found in which the literati of a nation have obtained so extensive and powerful an influence on political sentiment as the French literati, and particularly the French encyclopædists. Their philosophy, too, was a fashionable philosophy, a philosophy for common life, favourable to wit and gayety. Instead of proceeding with steady steps to the goal of truth, they hurried to and fro, with daring leaps, and imagined that they had reached the mark, if they could maintain an opin- ion which contained something new and paradoxical. This mixture of philosophy with elegant literature became still more interesting on account of the opin- ions which men like Mably, Condillac, Mercier, Raymal, Buffon, Helvetius, Diderot, and D’Alembert advanced on the subjects of religion and civil go- vernment, for which a prohibition was laid on the further progress of the work. But the printers only, and not the authors, were punished, and the government was soon after obliged to permit the work to proceed, as it was too weak to prevent it. To the encyclopædists, who were connected with the highest circles of that time, is justly attributed a very important influence on the French revolution. —Encyclop., ow. Diction. raisonné des Sciences, des Arts et des Métiers, par une Societé de Gens de Let- tres, mis en Ordre par Diderot, et quant d la Partie mathémat, par d'Alembert (Paris, 1741–72, 28 vols. fol.) Supplem. (Amsterdam, Paris, 1776–77, 5 vols. fol.), Table des Matières (Paris, 1780, 2 vols. fol.), in all 35 volumes; also, at Geneva, 39 vols. 4to ; Tables to it; Lyons, 1780, 6 vols. 4to; Lausanne and Berne, 1778–81, 36 vols. 3 4to vols. en- gravings. EN 5EAvour STRAITS ; a channel which se ENDEMIC–ENFILADE, parates the island of New Guinea from New Hol- land; about thirty miles in extent from N. E. to S., W., and about fifteen broad, except at the en- trance, where it is less than a league, being mar- rowed by the islands. A bank runs across it from north to south, about half a mile, where the depth of water, at three-quarters ebb, was found to be three fathoms. ENDEMIC (from #, and 3720s, prevailing among the people). This name is often applied to diseases which attack the inhabitants of a particular district or country, and have their origin in some local cause, as the physical character of the place, where they prevail, or in the employments, habits, and mode of living of the people. Every part of the world, every climate, and every country, has its peculiar endemics. Thus the tropical and warm climates are subject to peculiar cutaneous disorders, eruptions of various kinds, because the constant heat keeps up a strong action of the skin, and draws the humours to the surface of the body. In northern climates, erup- tions of the skin occur, but they are of a different kind. Thus in all the north polar countries, espe- cially in Norway, a kind of leprosy, the radesyge, is prevalent, arising from the coldness and humidity of the climate, which dispose the skin to such disorders. Hot and moist countries generate the most violent typhus and putrid fevers; the West Indies and Some of the American seaports, for instance, produce the yellow fever. Places in a more dry and elevated situation, northern countries particularly, are peculi- arly subject to inflammatory disorders. In coun- tries and districts very much exposed to currents of wind, especially in mountainous places, we find at all seasons of the year, rheumatisms, catarrhs, and the whole train of complaints which have their origin in a sudden stoppage of the functions of the skin. In large and populous towns, we meet with the most numerous instances of pulmonary consumption. In places that are damp, and at the same time not warm, e. g., on marshes and large rivers, intermit- tent fevers are prevalent. In cold and damp coun- tries, like England, Sweden, and Holland, the most frequent cases of croup occur. Diseases which are endemic in one country, may also appear in others, and become epidemical, if the weather and other physical influences resemble those which are the causes of the endemic in the former place; the climate being for a time trans- ferred, as it were, from one to the other. Thus, for instance, we find the croup sometimes, during wet and cold weather, appearing in high situations; intermittent fevers sometimes in places where they occur rarely for years, and then again attack great numbers; putrid and malignant typhus fevers rage in all countries occasionally, and so of the rest. Endemic disorders, in some circumstances, be- come contagious, and thereby spread to other per- sons, and may be transplanted to other places, the situation and circumstances of which predispose them to receive these disorders. This is known by the sad experience of the migrations of diseases, the spreading of the leprosy from the Oriental countries to Europe, &c. It is useful to inquire into the en- demical circumstances of countries, districts, and even cities and towns; some precautions may be thereby suggested to escape the sickness, or to obviate the unwholesomeness of the situation of the place in question. As, for instance, the physician of pope Clement XI., Lancini, procured the draining and drying of the marshes about Pesaro; and the diseases which had arisen from the exhalations of these marshes immediately ceased. It is also very favour- able to the cure of obstimate disorders, for the inva- lid to remove to a climate opposed to his particular 859 complaint. Thus, it is customary in this country for people attacked with pulmonary complaints to travel to the South of France, and especially to the neigh- bourhood of Nice, the climate of which is incompar- able. So it is of advantage to the consumptive to exchange the unwholesome city air, full of dust and fine particles of sand, for the pure atmosphere of the country. And so of other disorders. ENDIVE. The wild succory (cichorium ºntybus), is perennial, branching, and about two feet high, the leaves oblong lanceolate and runcinate, a little hairy on the nervures; the flowers, axillary, gemi- mate and nearly sessile, of a blue colour, and resem- bling in size and form those of the dandelion : it likewise belongs to the same natural family, compo- sitae. The wild succory contains a milky juice, and has been frequently employed by physicians as a tonic and aperient : when blanched, its bitterness is very much diminished, and in this state it is eaten in Soups or as a salad, particularly in France, as it was formerly by the ancient Romans: it is also ex- tensively cultivated in Italy for fodder, and the root When roasted, has been used as a substitute for coffee. The endive (C. endivia), is perhaps only a cultivated variety of the former plant, from which it differs in being annual, more elevated, and hav- ing smooth, entire, or dentated leaves, rarely lobed, and in its flowers being some of them sessile, and others upon long peduncles: it is considered in France one of the best esculents, and is eaten in Salads, ragouts, as a pickle, &c. ENDYMION; according to some, a huntsman, according to others, a shepherd, and according to a third account, a king of Elis. He is said to have asked of Jupiter, whom many have called his father, eternal youth and immortality. His beauty excited passion even in the cold Diana, and hence he has served in all ages as an ideal of loveliness, and TXiana's love to him as that of the tenderest affec- tion. He is most generally conceived as sleeping in the wood, where the mild rays of the moon kiss his slumbering eyes. See Diana. ENEAS. See Affºneas. ENEID. See Pârgil. ENESIDEMU.S. See AFnesidemus. ENFIELD, WILLIAM, LL.D., a dissenting di- vine, of great learning, and amiable character, was born at Sudbury, in 1741. He was educated for the dissenting ministry, at Daventry, and, in 1763, was chosen pastor to a congregation at Liverpool, where he published two volumes of Sermons, in 12mo, and a collection of Hymns and Family Prayers, which were well received. In 1770, he became resident tutor and lecturer on belles-lettres, at the academy at Warrington, where he remained for several years," and published several works, including his well- known Speaker. Here he also drew up Institutes of Natural Philosophy, theoretical and experimental. After the dissolution of the academy, he accepted an invitation to preside over a congregation at Nor- wich. In 1791, he published his Abridgment of Bruckers's History of Philosophy, 2 vols. 4to, a clear and able performance; and subsequently joined with doctor Aikin and others in the General Biography, 10 vols. 4to. He died in 1797, in his fifty-seventh year. ENFILADE (from the French enfiler), in the military art, is used in speaking of trenches or posi- tions, which may be scoured by the enemy's shot along the whole length. In conducting the approaches at a siege care must be taken that the trenches be not enfiladed from any work of the place. In the famous battle of Zorndorf, a shot from a Prussian battery, enfilading a Russian square, killed or disabled thirty IłłęIl. 860 ENGADINA, or ENGADINE; a beautiful val- ley in Switzerland, in the Grisons, on the banks of the Inn, bordering on the Tyrol, about thirty-five . miles long, but in some parts very narrow, divided into Upper and Lower. Upper Engadina contains 3000 inhabitants; Lower Engadina, 4647. They speak the Romish language. ENG ANO ISLE ; an island about thirty miles in circumference, lying off the south-west coast of Sumatra, in lat. 5° 20' S.; lon. 102° 20' E. The male inhabitants go maked, and are fairer and taller than the Malays. Their arms are a long spear and a knife. The women and men wear several savage ornaments; among other things, they wear a large ring of cocoa-nut or leaves in large holes made in their ears. Their religion is unknown. In 1771, the English made an expedition to Engano, which was not more successful than that of the Dutch in 1643. g ENGEL, JoHN JAMEs, one of the most eminent prose writers of Germany, whose works should be among the first read by every learner of the German language, was born at Parchim, in 1741, and received the rudiments of his education from his father, the clergyman of that place. After studying at several German universities, he accepted the office of profes- sor in a gymnasium at Berlin, where he was soon made a member of the royal academy of Sciences, and wrote the greatest part of his works. . He after- wards went to Schwerin. On the accession of the present king of Prussia, whose tutor he had been, he was invited by his former pupil to Berlin, where he made himself exceedingly useful in the academy of sciences by his excellent and instructive writings, and enjoyed the esteem and the Society of the most eminent men. His unremitted labours, in spite of sickness and hypochondria, hastened his end. He died at the place of his birth in 1802. Among his philosophical works may be mentioned his Philosoph. fur die Melt, distinguished for acute observations on men and manners, enlivened by elegant illustrations. Of a similar character is his Mirror for Princes (Fur- stenspiegel). His Ideen zu einer Mimik, full of taste, acuteness, and knowledge of human nature, may be regarded as a kind of manual for players. He also wrote some plays—Der dankbare Sohn, Edelknaben, &c. His Lorenz Stark, a novel, is a masterly picture of life and manners. A complete edition of his works appeared at Berlin, 1801–1806, in twelve vols. ENGHIEN, or ENGUIEN; a town in the Netherlands, in Hainaut; eight miles E. N. E. of Ath, 30 N. N. E. Valenciennes; population, 3045. Here is a superb castle with a park and gardens. This place gave the title of duke to a prince of the house of Bourbon Condé, in memory of a victory of the great Condé, obtained here. The last that bore the title was executed March, 1804. See Enghien, duke of. ENGHIEN, Louis ANToINE HENRI DE BOURBON, duke of, was born at Chantilly, August 2, 1772, and was the son of Louis Henry Joseph Condé, duke of Bourbon (see the three articles of Condé), a descendant of the great Condé. He became the pupil of the cele: brated Millot. In 1789, he emigrated, travelled through various parts of Europe, and went, in 1792, to Flanders, to join the troops of his grandfather, the prince of Condé, in the campaign against France. From 1796 to 1799, he commanded, with distinguish- ed merit, the vanguard of Condé's army, which was disbanded at the peace of Luneville. He was then, in 1804, led, by his love of the princess Charlotte de Rohan Rochefort, to Ettenheim, in Baden, where he resided as a private citizen, and where he married this lady, In the same year he was tried and exe- ENGAT) INA-ENGHIEN. cuted, under circumstances which weighed heavily on the character of Napoleon Bonaparte. The cause and manner of his death have excited so much discussion, that we shall here take up the subject at greater length, than we usually allow to our biographical notices. At the period in question, the newly established peace of France, and of all Europe, was threat- ened, in the person of Bonaparte, then first con- sul of France. Some of those enemies, who had not been able to subdue him in the field of battle, at- tempted his assassination. Many alarming symp- toms were observed. In the middle of January, 1804, bets were made at London that the first consul would not live to see the next April. A new edition of the old pamphlet of Col. Titus against Cromwell, entitled Killing no Murder, was dedicated to Bonaparte. One of the principal commercial houses in Vienna wrote to a banker at Paris, “Here, as well as in Paris, the winter is mild ; but the end of February is dreaded. Well-informed persons as- Sert that you will have an earthquake. If you intend to make any speculations, regard this information as Certain. I am not at liberty to say more.” See Buchholz, Geschichte Napoleon Bonaparte's, Berlin, 1829, vol. iii. p. 273—a work by no means partial towards Napoleon. These indications were soon actually followed by a conspiracy in Paris against the life of the first consul, fifty persons at Paris, some of distinction,were engaged in the conspiracy, before it was discovered by the po- lice: among them were Armand and Julius Polignac (the late prime minister of France), sons of the duke of Polignac, who had played so conspicuous a part at Louis XVIth’s court. Under the articles Pichegru and Georges Cadoudal, we shall speak more respecting this conspiracy. Suffice it here to say, that the detec- tion of these conspiracies had shown that English money had been used, and that it was known that the English ministers at Munich and Stuttgard, were aiding the emigrants in their attempts against France, and perhaps also plotting against the French govern- ment. England was, as it were, taken in flagrante delicto. The first consul found himself in the great- est danger. At the frontier on the Rhine, corps of emigrants were again collected. Georges had been arrested some time previously ; and those who had been employed by him stated, that, at intervals of ten or twelve days, a person came to visit him, to whom he and Rivière and Polignac showed great respect. The police believed this person to be one of the Bourbon family, and, after several conjectures, the duke of Enghien, who for some time had been lost sight of at Ettenheim, was fixed upon as the probable person. The distance between Ettenheim and Paris was such, that the duke might have reached the city in a few days. An officer of the gendarmerie, being sent to observe him, was informed at Strasburg thai the prince sometimes visited the theatre of that city, which was not true, but it was commonly believed that the prince was often absent from Ettenheim, hunt- ing for Some days, and that Dumouriez lived with him. In short, the French government became im- pressed with the idea that the duke was at the head of the conspirators, considering it, probably, unlikely that the prince would reside so near the frontier if he had no political designs, and, probably, no one at present doubts that the duke would have acted the part of a Bourbon prince, if any revolution had taken place in the heart of France. Even Sir Walter Scott acknowledges this. The first consul, according to the account given by Las Cases, vol. vii. of his Mémorial, was taken by surprise in this affair. One day after dinner, the | discovery of some new plots was announced to him ENGHIEN. and such urgent representations were made to him, that a special council of state was convened for in- vestigating this subject, where the chief justice, Regnier, acting minister of police, read a report on the state of º within the country, and Talley- rand, minister of foreign affairs, another report, on the state of things without the country, connected with the conspiracy. Fouché attended by particular invitation, not being a member, but having displayed superior talent as well as zeal in tracing the con- spiracy: Talleyrand's report closed with a proposi- tion to seize the duke of Enghien at Ettenheim, and bring him by force into France, for examination. The object was to confront him with the two fol- lowers of Georges, and ascertain whether he was the mysterious personage in the habit of calling on him, as before mentioned. At this time, Pichegru's presence in France was unknown ; he was supposed to be in London, where he had been. The proposi- tion to violate the neutral territory of Baden, and forcibly carry off the object of suspicion, was warmly contested by Cambaceres, then second consul, but, being put to vote, was adopted by the council of state. Bonaparte, who did not know the duke of Enghien, either by name or character, and was far from being inclined to groundless suspicions, left the whole management of this affair to those to whose department it belonged. Such was his practice on all occasions. For instance, Bourienne says he would declare in council, where the discussions were perfectly free, “Gentlemen, I am here under your tuition: take care to set me right, as I shall act on your information and impulse. Woe be to him that misleads me.” The order for the arrest of the prince was issued to general Ordener; he was also ordered to arrest Dumouriez, who was supposed to be with the prince, a mistake arising from the German pronun- ciation of the name of Thumery, a companion of the prince. General Ordener, who was sent to Strasburg, transferred the duty of seizing the duke and all his suite to a major of the gendarmerie. This officer having, by means of his soldiers, ascer- tained the situation of the house which the prince inhabited, surrounded it on the night of March 17, 1804, with from 3 to 400 soldiers and gendarmes. The duke at first wished to defend himself; but the force was too great to be opposed, and thus the duke and Thumery, who had been taken for Dumouriez, a colonel Grundstein, lieutenant Schmidt, an abbé named Weinbrunn, and five domestics, were seized and carried prisoners to Strasburg. This was done with such celerity, that the prisoners were not even allowed time to dress themselves. * Early upon the eighteenth, the escort set off with the duke for Paris, and as they arrived, towards evening, upon the twentieth, at the gates of the capital, they received an order to conduct their prisoner to Vincennes, where he arrived exhausted by hunger and fatigue and just as he had dropped asleep, he was awaked, at eleven o'clock at night, to undergo his trial. The troops, which were marched to Vincennes on this occasion, Were Com- manded by Savary. He found a court-martial, con- sisting of general Hullin, the president, together with five colonels, and a captain, who was secretary. He was accused of having borne arms against France; of having offered his services to England, received agents of that country, and supplied them with means of maintaining connexions in the interior of France; of having put himself at the head of a band of insurgents and other persons, Collected from Baden and Freyburg, and paid by England; of having had communications with the fortress of Strasburg, to excite insurrection in the neighbouring 861 departments; and of having aided in the plots against the life of the first consul. To these charges the duke answered that he had always commanded the vanguard of his grandfather, the prince of Condé, that he had a pension of 125 guineas a month from England, his only means of living : that he never knew Pichegru, and was glad that he did not, if what was said of him was true. The charge of having had any part in the conspiracies against the life of the first consul he repelled with indignation. At the end of the minutes of his answer, he placed a note in his own hand-writing, at the suggestion of the cap- tain-reporter (the official accuser), requesting an interview with the first consul: “My name,” he Wrote, “my rank, my way of thinking, and the horrors of my situation, induce me to hope that he will not refuse my request.” Though nothing was proved against the prince, no witnesses being brought against him, he was executed the next morning at six o'clock, in the fosse of the Castle. The prince met death with the greatest com- posure. Several circumstances have been related respecting his execution, as that a lantern was tied to his breast to direct the aim of the soldiers; that he gave a lock of his hair to one of the soldiers to carry to the princess de Rohan, and that an officer snatched it away with the words, “No one shall receive the Commissions of a traitor,” and many other particulars, Some of which have been proved false, and some are not authenticated. Very different accounts have been given of the con- duct of Bonaparte in this affair. Thus it has been Said that Josephine and Hortense entreated him to Spare the life of the prince; that Cambaceres and Berthier represented to him, in the most pressing manner, the uselessness of this bloody measure, and that he seemed disposed to yield to them when the news of the prince's death arrived; according to others, he would not listen to the entreaties and representations of his wife and of his friends. On the other hand, it is known to every impartial inves- tigator, that Napoleon was far from being of a cruel disposition, that he was never deaf to prayers for mercy, if the great interests of France allowed him to listen to them. He pardoned most of the persons implicated in the conspiracy of Georges; he pardon- ed the prince of Hatzfeld; he offered pardon even to Staps, the young assassin at Schonbrunn; in short, proofs enough exist to show that his disposition was the opposite of cruel. The narratives of several persons concerned in the duke's death, tend also to exculpate Bonaparte. Savary, duke of Rovigo, informs us in his Mémoires, that the consul heard, through him, of the execution of the prince with amazement, and greatly regretted it. The count Réal, counsellor of state, then prefect of Paris, and therefore charged with the police of that city, declares the same. He has asserted in the United States, where he has lived a long time,” that Napoleon did not know of the execution of the duke until after it had taken place, and that he learned it with amazement from Savary’s mouth, and that the consul had intended to set the prince at liberty. This agrees with the following statement, which we have from the most authentic source. Joseph, the brother of the consul, found him, after this catastrophe, much affected, and highly indignant at those persons whom he accused of having occasioned this catastrophe. He regretted much that he had lost so fine an opportunity of doing an act of mercy. Even long after, in conversation with his brother, he frequently alluded to this sad event, and, with his * I'm presence of Joseph Bonaparte, count de Survilliers, Mr Duponceau, general Lallemand, captain Sary, and others. 862 usual vivacity, observed, “it would have been noble to pardon a prince, who, in plotting against me, avait fait son métier.” “He was young,” continued Napoléon, “my favours would have attached him to me; he would have become better acquainted with the state of France, and would have ended by enter- ing my service; it would have been gratifying to have had the descendant of the great Condé for my aid-de-camp.” This view is corroborated by Na- poleon's own assertions, in Las Cases' Memorial, vol. vii. p. 437. - The declarations of Napoleon himself, in his will, however, are at variance with this view of the sub- ject. He there says, “I ordered the duke of Enghien to be arrested and executed, because it was necessary for the Safety, the welfare, and the honour of the French nation. Under the same circumstances, I should act in the same way; the death of the duke of Enghien is to be imputed to those who plotted in London against the life of the first consul, and who intended to bring the duke of Berri by Beville, and the duke of Enghien by Strasburg, into France.” Savary, who was himself a witness of the regrets of Bonaparte on account of the death of the duke, gives the following explanation of this inconsistency:—that Napoleon, even on his death-bed, preferred to take the charge of the duke's death upon himself, rather than to allow his power to be doubted ; and that he acted thus from regard to the dignity of a sovereign, who, if he enjoys the credit of the good which is done in his name, would act unworthily in throwing the blame of the evil done in his name upon others. He Says, when the emperor uses the words Le due d'Enghien est mort parceque je l'ai voulu, his meaning amounts only to this : “When I reigned, no one dared conceive the thought of disposing of the life or liberty of any one. It might have been possible to impose upon me, but never for a moment to encroach upon my power.” Las Cases, vol. vii. p. 418, gives a long passage, as containing the words of Napoleon himself on this subject. In this he says that France was infested With conspirators sent from London, that his life was in Constant danger (a well known fact), and that he acted as in war, to put a stop to these outrages. He there goes only on the ground of justice, thinking it due to his honour to defend himself personally. It is Certain, that in the critical situation in which he found himself, walking upon volcanoes, still active, and ever ready for eruption, he could not have suf. fered it to be believed that such an act could be com- mitted without his consent. A belief in his power was of the utmost importance to the peace and order of France. The welfare of France required that he should take upon himself the responsibility of every act dome in his name. Another account of this catastrophe is given in Bignon's Histoire de France depuis le 18 Brumaire (November, 1799,) jusqu’à la Paia de Tilsit, (Juillet, 1807), Paris, 1829, with the motto, Je l'engage à écrire l'histoire de la diplomatic Française de 1792 & 1815. Testament de Napoléon. (See Bignon.) He says, among other things, such was the character of the first consul, that none of his acts can be taken from him—Le mal, comme le bien qu'il a fait, lui appartient et m'appartient qu'à lui-anassertion much toogeneral, because the greatest man can build only with the materials which the time affords him. Napoleon him- self often repeated—“I am no God; I do not do what I wish, but what I can.” Bignon says that, in a note written by Napoleon himself, there is the fol- lowing passage respecting the duke d'Enghien: “If guilty, the commission was right to sentence him to death ; if innocent, they ought to have acquitted him, because no order whatever can justify a judge ENGHIEN. in violating his conscience.” He says, also, that at this time (before the execution), people who were near the first consul saw him internally struggling (livré awa, angoisses les plus pénibles) between what he thought a fatal necessity, and what his own dispo- sition dictated; but that no friend advised mercy. He then continues : “None of the statements given of the arrest and sentence of the duke of Enghien explain why there was no communication between the court-martial and the superior authority, between Vincennes and Malmaison.” And the question forces itself on our minds. Was every thing so preconcerted, was the sentence of death so certain, that it was not even sent to the first consul for consideration ? Here we may add, at the same time, Why was the duke's request for an inter. view with the chief consul not reported to the latter, neither the petition which he presented to the court- martial, nor the letter which he wrote, some say from Strasburg, others from Vincennes 2 The answer is this : count Réal declared before the same persons whom we have mentioned in a previous note, that, on the fatal night, a gendarme delivered a letter, not knowing the import of it. Réal was asleep, and the letter was put on his mantel-piece. In the morning, when he opened the letter, he hastened to the first consul, but it was too late.* The fatal sentence had been executed. But who sends despatches of such a nature without orders to deliver them immediately and personally P. In the whole of the process, there was an odious haste. Napoleon says, that when he was first spoken to of Enghien, all the orders for his arrest, &c. were already drawn up ; and here is an unpardonable delay. Who is guilty of both 2 To whom is to be ascribed the irregularities in the whole process, which M. Dupin, in his publication on this catastrophe, proves to have existed, and which the duke of Rovigo acknowledges, and even imputes to certain individuals P We are far from pretending to be able to clear up * So we are informed, by good authority, count Real declared himself in America. Another account is given in an article, Napoleon and Bowrienne, in the American Quarterly Review, September, 1830 : “We have it, says the Review, in our power, from high authority (that of a person not now in this country), to state, what the duke of Royigo was not aware of, the reason why the duke d'Enghien suffered death without the sanction or knowledge of the first consul. The prisoner, in extremity, asked to see the first consul, which was not per- mitted; but the judge-advocate, Dantancourt, humanely sug. gested to him to write a letter; which was dome, and the let- ter sent to Real. During that eventful night, the first consul had been called up five times, on the arrival of as many mes- sengers, with insignificant despatches. So often disturbed, he gave orders not to be called again, unless for a very serious occasion. M. Real sent the duke d'Enghien's letter to Mal- maison by a private horseman of the gendarmerie, who unin- formed of its contents, gave no intimation that it required immediate attention. It was laid on a table, where it remained unnoticed tili after the first consul had deliberately risen, and made his toilet as usual, without the least notion of its con- tents. In the meanwhile, indeed before he got out of bed, the ill-starred writer of that neglected letter was shot. The inter- view between the first consul and Real, which immediately followed that between the first consul and Savary, disclosed the deplorable cause, as Savary’s prior tidings had revealed the catastrophe. Real’s reception was that of a man who had been guilty of unpardonable negligence. He will, no doubt, at some proper time, submit his account to the world. But he knows that the duke d'Enghien was not sacrificed to a tyrant’s pas- sions, policy, or fears; that the general agitation, and very natural misunderstanding which his family and friends had occasioned throughout the capital and the council, the over- zealous, perhaps treacherous advice of some, the over-active, precipitate despatch of others, and one of those misadventures, which are so common in the affairs of this world, are the causes to which this disaster was owing. Once done, how- ever, mulla vestigia retrorswºm, never to recant, or apologize or recede, was one of Bonaparte’s imperious maxims. He felt the full force of the French proverb, that whoever excuses, accuses himself; and nothing would induce him to disown a deed done under his orders, though they were violated to his infinite injury and mortification in almost every stage of the proceeding.” Perhaps both accounts are correct; at all events, both exculpate Napoleon from the haste of the pro- CéSS, ENGHIEN–ENIGMA. *: this mystery. Individuals have accused each other; but (according to the words of Louis Bonaparte, count de St Leu, in his Réponse) cette affaire est loin d'étre éclaircie. Count Hullin accuses Savary of the haste, and himself of the irregularity of the pro- cess, pleading ignorance respecting the forms of courts-martial. Savary accuses Talleyrand, most positively, of the whole crime, and, it cannot be denied, makes it plausible. His motive is said to have been to precipitate the first consul into an act which should stain him with Bourbon blood (with which Talleyrand and many others were themselves stained), so as to prevent him from becoming a second Monk, and restoring the Bourbons, which, of course, would have ruined Talleyrand. Talleyrand, on the other hand, defended himself in a letter to Louis XVIII., on this subject, with which the king was fully satisfied. History, we trust, will eventually fix the guilt on the name to which it belongs. As for Napoleon, we cannot but believe that he actually considered the duke of Enghien guilty of hav- ing plotted against France (he could not imagine him So insane as to live on the frontier of France without an object); probably, also, of having been concerned in, or at least acquainted with, the conspiracies of Georges, &c. at Paris; that he therefore believed the dukemight be sentenced to death by the court-martial; but, at all events, intended to pardon him, (for such a pardon would not only have accorded with Napo- leon's disposition, but have been serviceable to his politics : he wanted peace); that, however, others, either from a criminal desire to please the first con- sul, and acting under the supposition that he wished the duke's death, or from some other motive, hast- ened the execution ; that Bonaparte, justly, was then unwilling to have it supposed that such an act could be committed against his will, as he was just forming a government, and establishing order in its different departments, and the belief in his power was indispensable ; and that he finally thought it beneath his dignity to accuse his servants, on his death-bed, preferring to take the odium upon himself, pleading in excuse the emergency of the times, rather than to throw it upon others, who could not plead this excuse, and who, probably, would find means to exculpate themselves after his death ; particularly, as the chief accusation would probably have been against Talleyrand, who had just betrayed him, so that a charge then preferred might have looked like an act of revenge. As to the illegality of arresting a person on the territory of another and friendly power, the first consul must have thought himself sufficiently excused by the plots constantly detected against his life, and the immense danger in which he himself and the peace of France were placed. “This was a matter,” says Napoleon at St Helena, ‘‘ between the French government and that of Baden.”* * A singular example of an arrest, attended with circum- stances of the same illegality which marked that of the duke, some time since took place in Germany. During the prosecutions against the liberals in that country, the Prus- sian government wished to secure the person of M. Cousin, the distinguished French metaphysician then in Saxony (1824), and Prussian officers were sent into Saxony to arrest him. This was in a time of profound peace, when the government and its chief were in no danger. 863 We will only observe, in conclusion, that the per- son who was supposed to be the duke of Enghien, and to visit Georges at Paris, was Pichegru. The consequences of the death of the young prince were not favourable for Napoleon, except, perhaps, that it struck the conspirators with fear, and may thus have prevented some new conspiracies. But in France, where the prince was respected for bravery, all classes were afflicted, and the friends of the first con- sul not the least ; for he had arrived at, and thus far maintained, his high station without shedding blood, So that people had begun to feel secure, and now, all the former apprehensions were awakened. Foreign courts generally showed great reserve on this occa- sion, except those of Russia, and Britain ; but the higher classes, who were essentially opposed to a revolution, the chief trait of which was opposition to the feudal system, exclaimed loudly against it. The court of St Petersburg went into mourning, and made the duke's death a point of diplomatic discussion. The execution of the duke of Enghien was a fruitful Source of libels and falsehoods against Napoleon, repeated so often, that the opinion of many is still influenced by them ; and we have given so much space to the consideration of the subject, from its important bearing on the history of Napoleon. After the restoration of the Bourbons, a monument was erected to the memory of the unfortunate prince in the chapel of Vincennes, by the king of France and the chambers. The works which afford the most information respecting this event, are the Memoirs of the duke of Rovigo ; Examina- tion of the Proceedings of the Court-martial instituted to try the duke of Enghien ; a justificatory Memorial published by the duke de Vicenza (Caulaincourt), who was charged to co-operate in the arrest of the duke, and to deliver an expla- nation respecting the violation of the territory of the elector of Baden after the arrest; some Letters published by the duke of Dalberg, minister from the court of Baden to the French government, in the year XII. (1804); Minutes made on the Exhumation of the duke of Enghien in 1816; A Deposition of Sieur Amfort, brigadier of gendarmerie at Vincennes; A Note from baron de Massias, then French minister at the court of Baden ; the Memoirs of Las Cases and O’Meara. Cambaceres's memoirs will probably contain important information on this point, as Rovigo says he charged him to give an account of it. Sir Walter Scott's account of this subject in his Life of Napo- leon Bonaparte, is a web of facts and unfounded rumours. In the beginning of 1830, the baron de Matthias, who was French minister at Carlsruhe when the death of the duke of Enghien took place, addressed a letter to M. de Bourienne (author of the Memoires of Napoleon, which, in several instances, have been proved to deviate much from truth). In this letter, M. de Matthias, who was acquainted with many details of the duke's arrest, &c., asserts positively, that Napoleon was deceived respecting the duke's alleged crime, Dumouriez's stay at Ettenheim, &c. ENGIA ; an island near the coast of the Morea, in a gulf to which it gives name ; anciently called Ægina (q.v.), £none and Myrmidonia ; about 30 miles in circumference, but rendered by rocks nearly inaccessible, except on the N. W. It has no harbours, and but one town, which contains about 800 inhabi- tants. In it are seen the remains of a temple dedi- cated to Venus, and another dedicated to Jupiter, 25 miles S. S. W. Athens • lon. 23° 35' E. ; lat. 379 42' N. ENGIA, GULF of (anciently Saronic Gulf); a gulf on S. E. coast of European Turkey, so called from the island situated in it ; about sixty miles in length from N. W. to S. E., and twenty-five in breadth, at the mouth. ENIGMA. See Afºnigma. ENIX OF WOLUME SECOND. 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