A SYSTEM FOR THE EDUCATION OF THE YOUNG, Applied to all the Faculties; FOUNDED ON IMMENSE EXPERIENCE ON MANY THOUSANDS OF CHILDREN, IN MOST PARTS OF THE THREE KINGDOMS. WITH AN APPENDIX AND PLATES. BY SAMUEL WILDERSPIN, INVENTOR OF THE SYSTEM OF INFANT TRAINING. LONDON: JAMES S. HODSON, AT THE DEPOT FOR AMERICAN LITERATURE. 112, FLEET STREET. 1940. * Printed by J. S. Hodson, 15, Cross Street, Hatton Garden, London. LB 1507 W67 LL ་ ་--。 - 1 $ 3 M PREFACE. THE Author is afraid that something like egotism may appear in some parts of the work; should such be the case his plea is that many have borrowed largely from him, without due acknowledgment, with one exception only that he is aware of, the Messrs. Chambers, of Edinburgh, who, although they do not give a correct account as to the origin of the Infant System, yet have done him ample justice in every other respect, they have given Mr. Owen the credit of originating the Infant System, which statement is proved in the last edition of "Early Discipline," to be not correct. The reader may require some information, why the Explanation of the Plates did not come in that part of the work where they are placed; the reason is, the ex- planations could not be written without the drawing or the proof, which were in the hands of the engraver; it was, therefore, thought better not to delay the work on that account. Trafalgar Place, Warrington, Lancashire. May, 1840. 204197 CONTENTS. Page Description of the Plates CHAPTER I. GENERAL REMARKS. Education essential for all classes ..Objections answered……. Advan- tages of general education...Necessity of commencing education in infancy...Neglect of heart and moral education...Inefficacy of national, parish, and Sunday schools, as they now exist... Reasons given...Early display of feelings in children...Necessity of infant education explained...Neglect of physical and moral education...Infant system misunderstood... Its leading objects explained... Its peculiar necessity for the children of the labour- ing classes...Objections answered...Neglect of the legislature on the subject of infant training...Objections answered...Deficiency of teachers...Advantages of properly conducted infant schools ...Advice to teachers... Susceptibility of the infant mind…….Ad- vice to parents... Advantages of kindness to infants...Anecdote ...The infant system, to be effective, must be understood... En- quiries of children for knowledge too frequently repulsed…..In- fluence of the state of the atmosphere, weather, and time, on infants...Importance of ventilation...Efficacy of the play-ground in developing the propensities...Cleanliness, its importance.. Manner of reviving the energies of children... Advice to teachers ...Moral training hitherto neglected... Importance of the play- ground...Good effects of early moral training...Example of trial by jury... Beneficial results of play-ground discipline... Various devices for conveying instruction...Development of the reflec- tive powers...Picture of a child on first entering an infant school...How corrected...Every infant school must have a play- ground...Opinion of an Edinburgh publication on the infant system....... L I vi CONTENTS. .. OUTLINE OF A SYSTEM OF NATIONAL EDUCATION. CHAPTER II. Page 37 INFANT SCHOOLS. Rules and regulations...Observations... Illustrative lessons... Bo- tany...Natural history... Specimens of Scripture lessons for lit- tle children... How to establish Infant schools where none exist ...Rules for committee...... CHAPTER III. FEMALE EDUCATION. Advantages of kindness in female education...Neglect of female culture... Greater severity of the laws against females than males... Injustice of this...Evils attending the neglect of female education...Necessity of improvement in their knowledge of the duties of the domestic circle...What branches of mental educa- tion are proper for poor girls... Arguments for the necessity of botany, geography, and natural history...Miserable state of fe- male schools in the manufacturing districts...Ignorance of female teachers illustrated...Attention to and neglect of moral culture contrasted...Common errors in female education...Practical knowledge required...Geometry for girls... Its utility argued for ...Children delighted with natural objects...Naturally instructed by them...Elements of geometry applicable to many useful pur- poses...Music argued for...Methods of teaching geography in the gallery, class-room, and play-ground, by maps, chalk lines, and water tight trays... Lessons on Geography; England, Scot- land, Ireland, Europe, Asia, Africa, North and South America ...Botany...Specimens of lessons...Natural history lessons on the camel... The hen and chickens... The tame goose... The cow and the goat...Object lessons... Geometry...Music... Grammar ..Lessons on grammar...... CHAPTER IV. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION FOR GIRLS. Importance of religious instruction for girls... How it should be given... What constitutes religious education...Deplorable igno- 39 96 CONTENTS. vii Page rance on the subject...Observations respecting the Liverpool Corporation Schools...In what parts of the country the mixed system may succeed...No system of education can succeed if the Bible is excluded...Essential difference between the Liverpool Corporation Schools and those under the Irish Board of Educa- tion...Failure of the mixed system under this Board...Their manner of doing business... Recent attempts to separate intel- lectual, moral, and religious instruction... The folly of such at- tempts argued against... The infant mind led upward to the Deity through natural objects... Duties of the school-master explained... He should give religious instruction... Mode of training masters pursued by the Irish Board...Consequences of the system...Gratitude for instruction... Harsh measures not necessary in instructing girls... Importance of Normal schools for mistresses...Mental bondage in Ireland...Its consequences ...Scripture lessons... Specimens... The story of Ruth...Mary Magdalene anoints Jesus... Solomon's wise judgment... The Bible the only text book...Importance of religious instruction for girls drawn from it, argued for...Effects of rational and Christian treatment on neglected girls... Scheme of religious instruction adopted in the Liverpool Corporation Schools... Rules for teachers who come to be trained in these institutions ...Importance of keeping the girls' and infants' system separate 216 CHAPTER V. PLAY-GROUND MANAGEMENT FOR girls. Importance of this department not sufficiently appreciated... Visit of her Majesty's ministers to the Irish model schools in Dublin ...An account of what they were shewn...Ignorance on the subject of moral training... The play-ground the only place for developing the character... Responsibility of teachers...Import- ance of giving them proper instruction...Systems in theory easily formed...Difficulty of getting to men work them... Play- ground exercises... The play-ground not the fit place for sing- ing hymns... Hints to mistresses... Exercise essential for the bo- dily frame... The old system will not do... Girls should not be chosen for school-mistresses... Garden monitors... External ap- viii CONTENTS. • pearances no criterion for respect...The school-mistress respon- sible at all times for the conduct of their pupils. True charity defined...Better to pay school-mistresses well than female turn- keys...No school should be built without provision for moral training…..The old and new system contrasted,. Importance of object-lessons...Moral training cannot be begun too early... Children as anxious to feed their mental as bodily appetite... Concluding observations... I CHAPTER VI. BOYS' DEPARTMENT. • Preliminary remarks. What number of boys should be placed under one master. The monitorial system unpopular... Fro- posed government plan of education... Its errors pointed out... Choice of children for bringing up as teachers.. Every child cannot be made one. Other errors in the government scheme. Absurdity of bringing children of all ages and both sexes toge ther... What branches of knowledge are necessary for poor boys? The question answered... Reason for not teaching political eco- nomy to boys of the poorer classes. .Want of punctuality……. Fluctuations in the attendance of children in the manufacturing districts. Difficulties to be contended with... Infant schools the only ones where attendance can be regular, Teaching by the clergy... ...The influence of a holy man over his flock.. Where the clergyman should give the children religious instruction,.. Rules and Regulations... Monitorial arrangements... Great advantage of a judicious selection of monitors.... CHAPTER VII. READING, WRITING, AND ARITHMETIC. Reading arrangements...Writing arrangements. Arithmetical ar- Page 253 268 rangements. - • 283 CHAPTER VIII. GALLERY LESSONS. Great importance of the gallery... What should be taught therein CONTENTS. ix Page ..Objects...Natural history... Geometry... Geography...Astro- nomy... Grammar...Spelling...Derivations...Observations...... 293 CHAPTER IX. PLAY-GROUND ARRANGEMENTS FOR BOYS. Importance of this part of education... The exercise of a mature judgment required in legislating for it... Rules for the manage- ment of the swing... Amusements of a quarrelsome nature to be repressed... Regulations for moral training... Development of character in the play-ground... Foolish objections to education for the poor...Moral training a new feature...Fallacy of the old system...General remarks.. 300 CHAPTER X. RELIGIOUS OR BIBLE EDUCATION FOR BOYS. Utility of pictorial illustrations of Scriptural subjects... Who should give religious instruction... Consequence of the neglect of reli- gious culture...Mr. Owen's "Social System"...“The Revi- vals"...Evils arising from violent party feelings...We should receive the national education offered... The Bible should not be prostituted to a task book...Beautiful theories not always work- able...What is religion?... The mind must be prepared to re- ceive it...Ignorance of some teachers on this subject...Dreadful effects of evil example... Children must be taught not alone to say to say but to do what is right... School-masters should not be violent political partizans... The public mind will no longer be deceived by externals... The clergy must not be excluded from the schools...The school-master should not be indepen- dent of the clergyman... No scheme of education can be perfect at first...Mr. Wyse, M. P....Professed Christians do not act up to their profession...Folly of cramming children with doc- trinal creeds...A more rational system wanted...Specimens of Scripture lessons... Daniel in the lion's den... The story of Ana- nias and Sapphira... Incidental discourse and hymn... Con- cluding observations... Letter of Lord Brougham on national education 307 X CONTENTS, APPENDIX Page Astronomy 352 Botany. 367 · Zoology 410 Gcometry. 471 .. Lord John Russell's speech on the subject of national education, with remarks thereon 472 ¦ DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. PLATE I. INFANT SCHOOL PLAY-GROUND. THIS plate represents a well regulated play-ground, with all the necessary apparatus. It will be seen that there are two rotatory swings, one for the boys, the other for the girls. The girls are re- presented vaulting over a rope, which they sometimes do, as also do the boys. The boys are represented swinging in the usual way, without the vaulting rope. It will be seen that some of the children are represented as engaged in erecting their various buildings; some are building solid oblong pillars, others are busy erecting squares, others pentagons, others hexagons, and so on, as they may feel in- clined. The play-ground is flagged, and a little cart is represented, to enable the children to take the wood bricks away, and place them in their proper places, as on no account are they to be left out, when the children are done with them. The fruit trees are re- presented round the wall; and above all, it should be observed, that the teachers are both represented as being with the children in the play-ground. This is absolutely essential, to prevent accidents, to attend to the moral and physical training, and, above all, to see that the children acquire habits of honesty and kindness to each other. It will also be seen that there is not a single child in the plate repre- sented as being idle; they are all either doing, or watching others doing, which is invariably the case, unless he is indisposed or asleep. The pupils being supplied with the necessary articles for amusement, the teacher must not fail to remember that the choice is always left to the children. If they play at what they choose they are free beings, and manifest their characters; but if they are forced to play at what they do not wish, they do not manifest their characters, but are cramped and are slaves, and hence their faculties are not developed. xii DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. It must also be remembered, that the children are to be taught to swing both ways. In the plate the children are represented as going with the right hand upwards; but to strengthen the left side of the body, the left hand should be above, and the children's faces turned the oppo- site way from that represented in the picture. PLATE II. CHILDREN AT SPELLING AND READING LESSONS. This exhibits the children at their spelling and reading lessons, with single seats round the sides of the school-room, and a row of children up each side of the gallery and along the top, which thus allows the same room as if the gallery were not erected. Double seats round the sides are found not to answer, as it creates disorder, and the children on the upper seat dirt the children on the lower. The little girls are on one side of the room; the little boys on the other. The girls are represented at their lessons, superintended by the mistress; the others sit quietly at the side until it comes to their turn. The boys are re- presented coming up to the reading lessons three at a time, each three children escorted by the monitor. The monitors' little stools are represented by the sides of the lesson-posts. The little girls are seated on theirs, teaching the children. By reference to the boys' side, it will be seen that segments of circles are represented, which consist of flattened brass or iron let into the floor, and screwed down, and so placed that the children all see the lesson. The segment of a circle is so placed that it will allow standing room for five children, and all can see well, which is the number that come at a time to each post when going through the object lessons; but in the alphabetical, spelling, and reading lessons, which are a drier study, they never should come up more than three at a time. The lesson-posts are represented as being fixed into the floor by sockets, which is a far better plan than having feet to them, as they are always perpendicular, and in their proper place, and are not subject to be knocked down. They are not how- ever fixtures, but can be removed when done with, a small plate of iron falling over the hole, and they are hung up opposite, to be again used when wanted, which leaves the area of the room vacant. entire school is divided into classes, and each monitor knows the The PLATE II. xiii number of children in his or her class, and takes them up three at a time, until they have all said their lessons, then march the pupils back to their seats in the same order as they are represented in the plate coming to their lessons. The monitor who has finished his class first, places his stool in front of the post, and seats himself upon it, that he may watch his pupils, and when the monitors are all so seated the teachers then know that every pupil in the school have said their les- sons. They are then ready for other lessons, as described in the body of the work. By the sides of, and underneath the gallery, are pegs for the hats, bonnets, and cloaks, which have an awkward appearance if they hang up in the school. Between the windows are represented large maps, which are used to teach the pupils the elements of geo- graphy: lower down the pictorial reading lessons are represented, which are used in rotation as they are wanted. The fire must be un- derstood to be opposite the gallery, at one end of the oblong room; and it is here to be remarked, that stoves never answer, a common fire- place, with a guard round it, being the best: the table with drawers in it is in lieu of a desk, to keep the cash book, day book, and visitor's book; in front of the table there may be seen represented a horizontal line, to which the children are brought up five at a time, when they say the object lessons. Over the gallery is a large map of the world, which is used once a week. It will be observed in the plate, that there are no pillars to intercept the view of the children, or ob- struct them at their lessons, as the area of the school-room should be always quite clear, and on no account should there be any thing to ob- struct the view of the gallery. The width of the gallery, at the greatest extent, should be never more than twenty-two feet. If it is wider, the teacher cannot keep up the attention of the children, or keep them in order. Its height may be according to the number of children pro- posed to be educated: a gallery of twenty-two feet wide will take twenty-two children on each seat, so that if 100 children are pro- posed to be educated, five seats will be sufficient; and if 200 children are to be legislated for, which is the greatest number that should ever be assembled in an infants' school, then ten seats will be required. The school-room should be swept once or twice a day, and washed out regularly every Saturday, which for this, and other reasons, should be a holiday. The top seat of the gallery should be only five inches wide, all the xiv DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. " rest should be eighteen inches, the top seats may be nine inches high the three bottom ones, about six inches. When the children are receiving any other lessons except gallery lessons, they should never sit in any other position than that reprc sented; if they sit on any of the other seats of the gallery except the top and sides, the monitors cannot get regularly to them, to take them to their lessons. PLATE III. CHILDREN IN GALLERY. This exhibits the children in the gallery, receiving a gallery lesson on geography. There is a large map before them, which is swung on two poles, and drawn up by pulleys to any height required; the poles are slight, and fixed in sockets in the ground, and when done with, they can be taken out and laid aside. A pupil is represented as pointing out certain places on the map, and to prevent confusion, any child who thinks he can answer, is to stand up and hold out the arm, and the plate represents several pupils in the act of doing so. Every child, however, must be encouraged to use its faculties, other- wise the information will be confined to a few of the elder scholars, who will answer all the questions; and this I have found to be the case in very many infant schools that I have visited. To prevent this, it is better to begin with the bottom row of children in the gallery, and allow no child to answer, except it sets in that row, and so on successively, until the children in every row have had a chance. this plan be universally adopted, the children will know it as well as the teacher, and there will be no difficulty whatever in keeping up the attention of all. In many schools a certain number of children have learnt a certain number of set questions by heart, and certain other pupils have learnt by rote the answers to such questions, and the casual visitor who does not understand the principles of the sys- tem, will see a child rice in his place, and ask a most important question, when another will rise with equal alacrity, and answer it off hand, to the astonishinent of the beholder, who, perhaps, is not aware, that the whole of this is a system of parrot work, which is as contrary to the genuine principles of the infant system, as light is from dark. The true principle of the infant system is, to get the If PLATE III. XV children's ideas on any subject without dictation, and also their answers, by the same rule. And, moreover, that every child from the least to the greatest should take a deep interest in the lesson: if these things are neglected, the essence of the system is lost. It will be seen that the master is represented as a medium between the monitor pupil, and the scholars in the gallery. He is occupied in giving them oral information and drawing out their faculties, whilst the monitor pupil is engaged in merely pointing to the objects on which they are to be instructed. This plan is adopted with all lessons on objects, the arithmetical lessons, with the frame and balls, tablet and brass figures, and every kind of lesson which is visible to the faculties of observation. It will be seen that a piano is represented at one side of the gallery. In a Normal infant school, all the children should be taught to sing to music, and it also assists the teachers greatly, who come to learn the system. The teachers of a Normal infant school should be first rate people, and the mistress should be able to play, and also sing correctly; when the children march, they should also march to a tune, and keep the step correctly. All this is done in the school from whence this engraving was taken. It is astonishing the number of tunes the children may be taught to sing. I can produce infants under seven years of age, who can sing the Te Deum, and all the chaunts used in the parish church, together with the following Anthems: 1. "Therefore with angels," from the communion service. 2. " "O O Domine Deus," the prayer of Mary Queen of Scots, written the night before her execution. 3. "Oh Lord our governor" (Psalm viii. 1, 2). 4. "How long wilt thou forget me, O Lord" (Psalm xiii. 1, 3, 5). 5. "The song of the angels," for Christmas (St. Luke ii. 13, 14). 6. "Hosanna" (St. Matthew xxiv. 9) for Palm Sunday. 8. "Gloria Patri,” chorus. The above are sacred songs by the Rev. Robert Bradley, of Swinton, Lancashire. The music is published by D'Almaine and Co., London. I myself heard the infants sing the above, accompanied by the organ in the church; and I believe that no human being could hear the like, who has proper christian feelings, without being deeply affected, and ultimately becoming an an advocate for early training in all its branches. xvi DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES PLATE 1V. BOYS IN CLASS-ROOM. This represents the class room of a boys' school, and a class receiv- ing oral instruction on geography from the master. The monitorial sys- tem being found by experience not sufficient thoroughly to educate a boy (as an aid it is excellent); but every pupil to be properly taught, should be instructed by the master at least once a weck. If he take a class every day into the class room he will accomplish this object during the week. The instruction given by him will depend upon the proficiency of his class, and he should be able to tell the relative proficiency of every pupil in his school. In the plate he is repre sented as describing the course of a vessel, and illustrating his obser- vations and proving the rotundity of the earth, by one of the globes before hin The pupils are carefully looking over the map, and tracing the various places spoken of by the master, behind him is a case of books on geography, natural history, &c., which he refers to in case he is at a loss for information to instruct his pupils. Various Inodels of machines and instruments illustrating the mechanical powers are seen in the forc round of the picture to which the inas- ter refers when instructing his pupils on these subjects. And if he understands the art of teaching he will invariably find, that he will always be tired with giving information before his pupils are tired of receiving it. This is a fact of which I have had ample experience. Where practicable, there should always be an under-master to leave in charge of the school, while the head-master is occupied as above. GROUND PLAN. The ground plan, which is for a Normal School containing the boys' school, a girls' school, and an infant school, which I have said before should be entirely separate, will explain itself. It has been designed from practical experience and possesses all the arrangements I would require as a public teacher. . INFANT EDUCATION. CHAPTER I. GENERAL REMARKS. Education essential for all classes-Objections answered-Advantages of general education-Necessity of commencing education in in- fancy-Neglect of heart and moral education-Inefficacy of na- tional, parish, and Sunday schools, as they now exist-Reasons given-Early display of feelings in children-Necessity of infant education explained-Neglect of physical and moral education. Infant system misunderstood-Its leading objects explained Its peculiar necessity for the children of the labouring classes-Objec- tions answered-Neglect of the legislature on the subject of infant training-Objections answered-Deficiency of teachers-Advan- tages of properly conducted infant schools-Advice to teachers- Susceptibility of the infant mind-Advice to parents-Advantages of kindness to infants-Anecdote-The infant system, to be effective, must be understood-Enquiries of children for knowledge too frequently repulsed-Influence of the state of the atmosphere, wea- ther, and time, on infants-Importance of ventilation-Efficacy of the play-ground in developing the propensities-Cleanliness, its importance-Manner of reviving the energies of children-Advice to teachers-Moral training hitherto neglected-Importance of the play-ground-Good effects of early moral training-Example of trial by jury-Beneficial results of play-ground discipline-Various devices for conveying instruction-Development of the reflective powers-Picture of a child on first entering an infant school-How corrected-Every infant school must have a play-ground-Opinion of an Edinburgh publication on the infant system. THIS is an age of novelties. The whole ingenuity of man seems to be at work to produce something new; hence we are offered new light on phrenology-on the functions of the human brain; next geology, which goes much B 2 EDUCATION ESSENTIAL FOR ALL CLASSES. further than some think prudent or proper; and last, though not least, Infant Education. Education, it is ad- mitted by all, is requisite for those whom the bounty of Providence has placed in the higher stations of society; it is requisite for them, in many instances, to enable them to discharge the duties of those posts of honour and authority which their rank entitles and demands them to fill; it is requisite as a means of employing pleasantly and profitably that time, which an exemption from the penalty of earning their bread by the sweat of their brow, leaves at their disposal; and education is likewise requisite, as conferring upon them that dignified superiority in the eyes of their inferiors, which alone can claim respect and obedience But these reasons cannot be urged in behalf of the education of those destined to fill stations of ser- vitude, whose lives are to be passed in laborious-occupa tion; and many have imagined, therefore, that education is useless, or worse than useless, to the working classes; that it has a tendency to make them discontented with their condition, and neglectful of its duties. These are certainly weighty charges against education, and deserve the sc rious consideration of every reflecting man, before he lends his aid to its promotion; nor will we deny that, at first sight, these objections appear plausible It does not sccin improbable that various conditions of mind should be requisite to the varied condition and stations of society. I will even confess myself to have bccn at first startled by that very specious term, over-education. It arose in the path of my duty and labours with a very formidable ap- pcarance. 1 procccded to examine it more closely by the light of truth and reason, aided by experience, and the phantom opponent vanished into thin air. It should not be forgotten, that the very same apprehensions have bccn raised, and the same cry set up, at every former step of knowledge. When the art of Printing was first introduced into this OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 3 country, a period which may be regarded as the appear- ance of the intellectual sun above the horizon, to illu- minate the world which had before enjoyed but a dim and twilight perception of its glory,-when, I say, this inestimable art was introduced, a cry was raised that it was a species of Necromancy, invented by the evil one, for a purpose which it could not ultimately fail to answer, -the total subversion of all order and good government. These fears, however, have not been realized; yet it cannot be denied that the press has been made too fre- quently the instrument for diffusing notions which have such a tendency. What then? Are we to regard the press as an evil? Surely not; for it has disseminated that knowledge which not only neutralizes all the pernicious doctrines, to the spread of which bad men have made it subservient, but it cherishes and promotes those principles of virtue and order which are alike favourable to indivi- dual and social happiness. I have dwelt thus long on the fears entertained from the diffusion of knowledge through the medium of the art of printing, and the very different effects which, in spite of its occasional perversion, have resulted to the working classes, because there is something peculiarly analogous in the apprehensions of many as to the effects of educa- tion, and those which experience has already demon- strated as likely to result from its progress, rightly ap- plied, even amongst little children. What evil has not in former days been prophesied would accrue to society from even putting the Scriptures into the hands of the laity in the mother tongue, and especially the lower orders? What dreadful consequences have there not been anti- cipated from such proceedings? It has been stated that it would lead to infidelity, rebellion, and bloodshed. I would not add another syllable in refutation of, or com- ment on, such a sentiment, nor will I bring forward in- stances for consideration of parallel cases, but at once B 2 4 OBJECTIONS ANSWERED proceed to the subject now specifically engaging our al- tention, namely, the propriety of educating and training the children of the poor from the carliest possible period This may be demonstrated, first, as productive of the im provement and happiness of its immediate objects; and, secondly, in rendering them more disposed in after ycars, and better fitted, to discharge the duties of their respective stations, and, therefore, as being likely to incrcase the comforts and happiness of their superiors. It is a notion as derogatory to the justice of God, as it is unjust and un- philosophical, to suppose that He ever crcated faculties in the mind of any human being, which Ile never intended should be cultivated, or that happiness or intellectual pleasures are to be confined to any particular rank or con- dition of life That mutual dependence on each other, which is the basis on which the beautiful fabric of social- order is reared, was not laid at the expense of the happi- ness of those who were to occupy the lower stations of the building There is a more equal distribution of the rcal blessings of life than many suppose; I say of the real blessings of life; for there are many things esteemed to be blessings which are in reality quite the reverse poor man is not excluded from the enjoyment of those delights which the wonders and beauties of physical nature afford; nor is he deprived of those inexhaustible sources of pleasure which the affections of the heart originate As a husband, he enjoys the love and kind- ness of the partner of his toil, the more welcome as his feelings are humanized, and as crowning the labours of the day. As a father, he fccls all those kindly emotions which are known only to the bosom of the parent; "For him the housewife stirs the ev'ning fire; The lisping children clamber on his knee." The As a servant, he not is less happy in the possession of his employer's approbation, than that employer in the pos- session of a faithful and intelligent servant. Born in a OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 5 highly distinguished and highly favoured land, he may, and ought, to participate in the glory of his country, as proudly in his cottage, as a noble in his hall. As a Chris- tian, he kneels as thankfully and as acceptably before the altar of his God, as though a star were at his breast, or a coronet on his head. But why, it may be asked, am I drawing this picture? It is rather, some will say, what a poor man ought to be, or might be, than what he is. I admit the truth of this; it is the picture of a man whom education has taught to enjoy the blessings of his own sta- tion, without envying that of his wealthier neighbour; it is the description of a condition to which a rightly-directed education has a tendency to bring the whole of the labour- ing classes. But hitherto we have been treating children too frequently as parrots; they have been taught good things by rote; much head-knowledge has been given, but the heart and affections have been entirely neglected. Who are the most discontented with their situations? Those who see in them the least to enjoy. Who are the murmurers against all law and order? The intellectual cottager by his fire-side? No;-the ignorant pot-house politician, who deserts his own fire-side, his home, and his children, to grumble and find fault with all around him; and who thinks that the happiness of his wealthier neighbours con- sists in the grandeur they display, the ease which they enjoy, and who, therefore, repining at his own humble lot, bends his neck unwillingly to the yoke of industry. Who are the most discontented with their stations?-the most neglectful of their duty? The police reports inform us, that they are the most ignorant and most vicious, who know no enjoyments but such as brutalize themselves and impoverish their families. These are the characters who are discontented with their lot and neglectful of their duty; and, alas! who too frequently put the country to an ex- pense to enforce them to obey the laws, or ultimately to transport them out of it. And yet the educated, and com- B 3 6 OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. paratively intellectual, poor man, he does not scc so much to pine at in his fate; he feels that it offers many and higher enjoyments; he does not behold so much to envy in the wealthier condition of his neighbour; he perceives that mutual dependence is the result of the different grades existing in society, and that society itself could no more exist in a state of order without these grades, than the hu- man body could exist and perform its functions without its subordinate members; and, therefore, he chccrfully acqui- esces in what he believes to be the all-wise dispensation of Providence and the will of God. An improved taste, that can fccl pleasure in the hour of relaxation, without sccking for it in drunkenness or debauchery; an expanded hcart that will feel interested and cager to promote the welfare of others; a contented mind, a godly and righteous life . these are the beneficial effects of which a proper cultiva tion of the young faculties is productive, individually, to the poor. We now take a view of its effects in regard to society at large Ridiculous as the supposition is, there are not want- ing persons who seem to imagine, that if the progress of knowledge be universally encouraged, it will eventually prove fatal to the useful arts; that we shall at last to have to wander barefoot and houseless, whilst our bricklayers are engaged, perhaps, in chemical analization, and our shoc makers busy writing odes and sonnets; whilst our ladies'-maids, house-maids, and other description of female servants, will be so fully occupied in reading the same, as to neglect the duties which they were engaged to perform. I would fain speak comfortably and soothingly to those who have such hypochondriacal apprehensions, and shew them the folly of such notions A Burns, a Bloomfield, a Gifford, a Carey, may, as splendid rarities, sometimes arise amongst the sons of labour, discovering talents no less to the honour of their country than their class: but there is rcally no reason to fear that such characters will ever be- ADVANTAGES OF GENERAL EDUCATION. 7 come inconveniently numerous. Let us admit that educa- tion excites a desire in men to better their condition in so- ciety; does it not, at the same time, assure them that this object can only be obtained by pursuing unremittingly the honourable path of industry? A laudable ambition thus directed instead of being inimical, would be highly favour- able and beneficial to the community at large. When honest emulation is excited in the breasts of the poor of both sexes, it will not suffer them to be lazy and meanly dependent. When they have learnt to consider as indis- pensable, not only decent apparel and a comfortable home for themselves and families, but some degree of education likewise, the beer-shops will be deserted, and pauperism will sink from its present monstrous bulk into comparative insignificance; vice will be greatly diminished, improvi- dent marriages will decrease, a stronger and better race of children will be produced, and domestic misery among the Under a pro- poorer classes become proportionably rare. per system of development, as servants, it will tend to make them sober, honest, industrious, thinking beings, and more grateful for every kindnesss hewn, every privilege allowed them. It will teach them to be obedient and respectful; it will make them at once more willing and able to discharge their various duties as members of society; it will render them more peaceable and social as immortal and responsi- ble beings; it will teach them the importance of a virtuous and religious conduct, not only as necessary to their welfare here, but to their eternal felicity hereafter. We will proceed now to consider the necessity of com- mencing the education of the poor in the period of infancy. I need resort to no other argument for the establishment of this necessity, than the melancholy fact, that the means of education already adopted are insufficient for effectuating the object desired. In proof of this insufficiency, we ap- peal to the present state of the poor classes; to the pre- valence of ignorance and vice and juvenile delinquency . - J B 4 8 NECESSITY OF COMMENCING EDUCATION IN INFANCY. amongst them There cannot be a inore fatal error than to suppose a child is ever too young to learn; its will must and ought to be trained soon after its birth, if your end be to lay the foundation for heart-instruction. The Scripturcs have called our attention to this matter for ages past. So- lomon, the wisest man, tells us that if we train up a child in the way he should go that he will not depart from it; and it would be well for every parent, and every teacher, and every person who has the care of children, to put this question to their own consciences, Have they trained up their children, both in example and precept, in the way they should go ? Conscience alone must decide the point. Jesus himself no- ticed little children, and was displeased with the disciples who rebuked the people that brought them; he told them at that time, as he tells us now, that the infant state is the only receptive state, the only state of humility, and the best state to receive good impressions; and he also tells the adult portion of the community that they themselves must become as little children before they can enjoy the glories, bcati- tudes, and delights of his kingdom. If we look into the systems of education, we shall find in schools, from the highest to the lowest, that both heart and moral education have bccn entirely neglected; the head has been operated upon, the memory has been fully em- ployed, but the heart has been untouched and disregarded Let us not wonder, then, that education, such as it is, has not produced the results expected by its friends; we must have education of a different kind, and use different mcans, and study more intensely the nature of the young mind, and operate upon it more rationally, more agrccably to the laws of nature, and more in agreement with a sound phi. losophy, and the designs of the Creator; before the ex- pected results will appear. We have bccn ornamenting the outside of the building, and neglecting the foundation; we have been giving children sentiments and opinions all cut and dried ready for use, but have forgotten to begin at INEFFICIENCY OF PRESENT SCHOOLS. 9 the beginning. The beneficial tendency of national schools and of parish schools, both in Scotland and in this country, and also of Sunday schools, few, who know anything of the workings of them, will be disposed to doubt or deny; they have contributed greatly to ameliorate the evils result- ing from early wrong impressions and bad examples. These latter, however, are degenerating, especially in the manu- facturing districts; the number of children collected toge- ther are much too large; the teachers, in too many in- stances, but too ill-informed themselves; and thus, in con- sequence of the children not having been previously pre- pared for them in the infant schools, the most serious evils have arisen, which can only be known to those persons who make a habit of inspecting and examining the subject. It is, therefore, unfortunate that their aid comes too late to be invariably efficient; the examples and the impres- sions made in the first six or seven years of life, are of more importance than has hitherto been conceived, and when children are taken into the schools above alluded to, it is frequently the case, that the heart has been so firmly taken hold of by evil, the affections so misdirected, and the will so perverted, that the endeavours of friends and teachers to counteract those evils are altogether in vain; nor is it fair to expect that the evil influences of six days can be wholly counteracted by a few hours' instruction on the seventh. The young mind must be in a high state in- deed, if this were the case. The work of education, then, it is evident, should be commenced at an earlier period; we must commence our exertion with the first dawning of reason in the mind and affections in the infant heart. It should always be inculcated in the minds of children, that the grace of God can only flow into the minds of those who are willing to co-operate with Him and help themselves. The man in the fable was ordered to put his shoulder to the wheel and use his own exertions, in order to obtain the requisite assistance. 10 EARLY DISPLAY OF FEELINGS IN CHILDREN. The most casual observer must have noticed in children of the tenderest years, continual displays of every fccling that can actuate the maturity of manhood; they have their likings and dislikings, their prepossessions, and, very soon, their prejudices. We scc them envious of the possession of a toy they have not; jealous of the little playmate who receives more attention than themselves; ambitious of dis- tinctions, and proud of displaying their infantine fineries, even in all these things as men are; and can we wonder at it, when they scc so much of it? It would be wonderful if it were otherwise, since experience proves that a child is very much the creature of imitation. In infancy, then, the work of moral education should commence, for expc rience teaches us, that it is not a logical perception of its evil nature that will conquer a failing which has grown with our growth, and strengthened with our strength. Few, we fcar, but may find, in their own character, a proof of the fact, that if once an evil principle has bccn. suffered to take possession even of the heart of an infant, it is very difficult to dispossess it by the moral axiom of the head If we would prevent the dominion of evil, we must pre-occupy the heart with goodness, or at any rate we must check the appearances of evil; nip them in the bud, root them out, ere they have attained that gigantic form, which they afterwards arrive at in the congenial at- mosphere of the world, and through the influence of the evil principle by which they are surrounded, fostered, and encouraged. One grand advantage offered in the infantine period, for the purposes of moral development, is the absence of that art which enables them, in maturer life, to throw a cloak over their vices, and conccal the motives of their action. In my whole experience with more than twenty-five thousand infants, of different counties and nations, I have never yet found a hypocrite among infants under six years of age, that I could not trace had bccn made so, either by example or improper treatment. Let NECESSITY OF INFANT EDUCATION EXPLAINED. 11 this fact go forth to the world; I leave theologians and philosophers to quarrel over the matter as they please; I state it as a fact, the result of long experience, and find the infant mind as capable of receiving good seed, as it is of receiving bad; and happy will it be for the present ge- neration of infants, if those who have the charge of them understand more of their nature and state of receptivity; then they will co-operate with their divine Creator, instead of thwarting, as they have hitherto done, his wise and be- neficent intentions. In this respect, then, infants certainly merit the appellation which the poet Goldsmith has be- stowed on them of— Honest little men and women. Let us, then, exert ourselves, whilst the nature of the dis- ease is discoverable, and whilst the cure may be effected. If the moral disease be not checked at its commencement in infancy, we can have no reliance on our curative endeavours when it has approximated to its crisis in the mature wick- edness of after years. Another reason of the insufficiency of the present means of education adopted for the im- provement of the children of the poor, may be found in the defects of the system applied to that purpose; it is one which seeks to approach the heart, either not at all, or by the medium of the head; it is calculated to make them theoretically good, instead of being practically so. They are taught enough of good rules, but no endeavours, or, at least, no rightly directed endeavours, are made for the ex- citement and development of those feelings which can alone make good rules serviceable. The education of the heart, the guidance of the infant's will, the direction and cultivation of its affections, through the period of the in- fant state, was, and is, the primary object of the infant sys- tem, and which has been, under the blessing of God, badly as it has been understood, and still more partially and erroneously applied, the means of saving many a child from being burnt or scalded to death, or from some other : 12 INFANT SYSTEM MISUNDERSTOOD. drcadful calamity, which the every day newspapers furnish us with ample proof they are subject to That the phy- sical and moral department has been too much neglected, the existing infant schools will, unfortunately, give ample proof; children have bccn crammed into rooms, to the number of two hundred and upwards; no playground has been attached to the premises, no mcans taken for the phy- sical education of the children, which is so essential to health, a healthy brain, and even to life itself; no garden, nor flowers, nor fruit, to teach them respect to private pro- perty; no teacher to watch then when they manifest their various propensities, dispositions, and characters. All of this, which is the most important, has been lost sight of; but instead of it, the infant's brains have been addled by the efforts of injudicious teachers, in cramming them with words which they cannot understand, forcing them to re pcal passages from Scripture above their comprehension, and creeds from books, equally or more so, under the plcasing but erroneous idea that those were the best mcans of giving sound religious instruction; whilst the true milk of the Word, which is fit for babes, and suited to the re- flective powers of their infantine minds, and which so much abounds throughout the Bible, have been heedlessly forgotten and disregarded. In addition to this, the children have been kept squalling for hours, under the name of singing, and taught ridiculous antics, to keep up their spirits: under this unnatural treatment, stimulants have bccn used to produce an effect which has injured the young brain, and will, if not timely prevented, produce as great evils upon the infant mind, as ardent spirits do upon the body. That which was intended by me to be only blended with the drier, uninteresting, yet necessary, stu- dies for infants, has been made supreme; the shell has bccn retained, but the kernel nearly lost. No wonder, then, that medical men, such as Dr Brigham, of America, and others, also the late Mr. Cobbett, should oppose what ITS LEADING OBJECTS EXPLAINED. 13 is ushered into the world, and dignified by the name of the Infant System. The development and cultivation of the intellectual powers, are but of secondary importance to the ennobling of the heart and disposition; and are, and have ever been considered such, in the system which I have for so many years advocated and promoted. Our first object is to make the thing which is good, appear beautiful to the children, and every thing which is evil, odious; to win their affections, and secure the controul of their hearts, by enforcing on them the golden rule of their Saviour, of doing to others as they would others should do unto them; of inculcating the heavenly prin- ciple of love and charity to all; of leading their minds through natural objects, such as a twig, a flower, an apple, a plumb, a fly, a wasp, and such like; for it is im- possible, if you give them correct information upon any of these subjects, but that you must lead the young mind up to the great Creator, and the amazement which they dis- play on hearing God's book of nature explained, is truly encouraging and delightful. And had these means been adopted before, we should have had more sound religion in the world; more of the spirit and practice, and less of the theory; and should never have found it necessary to whip children to school. It will, no doubt, sound a novel, and I am afraid, to some, it may, a vain or needless species of educa- tion; but surely, if experience testifies that it has been tried, and found to answer every expectation; the educa- tion of the infant heart will not merit the appellation of either a vain or useless attempt. We all know the effect of example, the sympathetical influence which the conduct of one person may exert over another, or of many, I have proved, over and over again, that good communications may correct evil manners; that the sympathy of goodness is no less infectious than that of evil; and upon this ground we have proceeded,-upon this basis we have built our in- fant system; love is the grand agent we employ; it is the 14 ITS PECULIAR NECESSITY FOR THE CHILDREN life of our system. Anger, fcar, and every other evil principle, have been employed as auxiliaries in the work of education, and they have betrayed their employers, rc tarded the progress of the mind in that which is good, and, what is far worse, they have vitiated the inclinations, and perverted the will. The agency of those bad servants ought to be unknown in an infant school; it is by love the tcacher operates on the minds of his infant scholars, and mutual love becomes the reigning influence of the place. It may be well, however, to point out a few instances where infant education is peculiarly necessary for the children of the poor. It is well known that many mothers among the labouring classes, are obliged to assist the ex- ertions of their husbands for the support of their families, by labouring themselves. Owing to this, their infants are unavoidably neglected; exposed, not only to the risk of bodily accidents, but, as soon as they can associate with children in the streets, to the contamination of maturer vice and immorality. They only who have made it their busi- ness to obtain experience in this matter, can know how soon and how effectually this may take place; the lisped blasphemy, the infantile acts of dishonesty, which I have witnessed in my examination by actual observation into this matter, would almost excccd the powers of belief. I have frequently witnessed a depth of deceit, a degree of hardihood, which had convinced me that no little pains had been taken by some old offender to instruct the chil- dren in the different arts, which, I had found by experience, they were able to attain to; yes, and this in children of five or six years of age. The records of juvenile delinquency will, indeed, bear me out in my assertion, and plead with me the immediate necessity of adopting a proper system of education; but there are parents who are not less unable than unwilling, to do their duty, who think that they fully discharge such duty if they get their children food and clothing, and who OF THE LABOURING CLASSES. 15 are wholly indifferent as to their moral state. Some, in- deed, have advanced this as an objection to infant schools; they say that by taking the children from their mothers, and educating them, we are only giving them time for gos- siping, and saving their pence, which they will spend in gin. This statement, however, allowing it to be true, so far from proving infant schools unnecessary, proves exactly the reverse; the mother will say that what is good for the goose is good for the gosling; if she thinks that gin does her good, she saves a drop at the bottom of the glass for her infant, and thus trains it up from infancy to be a lover of ardent spirits. It is, however, quite certain, that if a mother chooses to indulge in this propensity, her young children cannot prevent her; it is, therefore, better for them that they do not see or know of her taking it. If, however, the present generation of poor parents be the selfish and immoral characters described, should we not endeavour to prevent the rising generation from becoming such? Are such parents fit to bring up their children? and, if left to their tuition, what can we expect, but that the dominion of evil will be protracted, and probably in- creased. Surely it is the height of folly and injustice, to argue that, because the parents are culpably negligent of their duty, the children have no claims to our com- miseration and protection. It is the duty of a wise and parental government to legislate for the prevention of crime, not to allow children to take the poisonous draught through their neglect, and then make laws to punish them for taking it. It is a lamentable fact, which, in after ages, will scarcely be believed, that in both houses of parliament, scarcely a session has past without long debates as to the best method of protecting hares, pheasants, and part- ridges; but no legislation has yet appeared as to the best method of protecting, training, and educating little chil- dren. To legislate for punishment seems to be the order of the day, whilst the expence to the country in legislating 16 NEGLECT OF THE LEGISLATURE : for this ill-omened purpose, costs as much or more than would pay for the training and educating of every poor child in the three kingdoms. In cases where there is not so great and wilful a neglect of duty on the part of the mother, we find, that the child becoming a burden, an hindrance to her in her labours, affection is interrupted by peevishness and anger toward the innocent cause of such inconvenience, and the like bad passions are thus carly excited and encouraged in the heart of the child Shall we forget, too, the immoral language, the improper senti- ments, the domestic discord, which the child frequently hcars or sccs at home? Shocking it is to think that the breath of a mother or of a father, should be the first to contaminate the minds of their children; yet such is the mournful truth, and it becomes our duty as politicians, as philanthropists, but, above all, as Christians, to endcavour if possible, to counteract the effects of their unnatural con- duct. It has been urged that in such cases we are labour- ing in vain, that the good acquired at school is wholly de- stroyed by the pernicious influence of the immorality and wickedness with which it comes into contact on its return home This, however, is not the fact; although it has oc- curred in some instances, there is a vast majority of cases wherein it has been quite the reverse, and in the instances where it has occurred, I have generally traced it to the consequence of the child's not having had every one of its faculties operated upon, and fed in the school. When this is the case, the child having had all its faculties attended to at the time when they most need attention, it cats its meals on its arrival home with that zest of appetite which children always shew when healthy; nature then informs it that it needs slccp, and it neither sccs, hcars, or attends to much that is going on at home. In addition to this, I could fill a volume with facts which would prove that hun- dreds of mothers, drunken and flinty-hearted fathers, and, indccd, whole families, had been turned from the error of DEFICIENCY OF TEACHERS. 17 their ways by the simple, infantile, yet important observa- tions made by the rightly instructed child of an infant school.* It will, however, be difficult to find a sufficient reason or justification, for not doing all in our power to decide the child in favour of goodness, and I find from experience, and many years practice with little children, that there is no reason to despair, under the divine blessing, of being able to do so. At home, where vice predominates, it meets with anger, with unkindness; at school where good- ness is presented to its view, it experiences nothing but love and affection from the children, and teacher too, if he is a fit and proper one; though it must be admitted that there is a most lamentable deficiency in the existing in- fant schools of such characters. This, in many instances, arises in consequence of their not having sufficient salaries, and not meeting with sufficient encouragement in such an irksome, laborious, and important situation; if the infant schools throughout the three kingdoms were visited, it would be proved that many of the teachers were like the school master mentioned in the life of Oberlin, who did not teach the children anything; and when asked the rea- son, very naturally replied, that it was because he knew nothing himself, and further observed, that as the parish had given up feeding pigs, which he formerly attended to, they had put him in the situation of schoolmaster. It will be seen by the evidence of Mr. Dunn, and others, before a committee of the House of Commons, that many of the masters in London had recommended other teachers from very inferior motives; this I know to be a fact, and in this particular, can bear him out in his evidence. This arises from the masters themselves knowing very little of the system, or of the essentials requisite in a teacher; of a * Those who wish for further proof on this subject, I refer to my two works, 66 Wilderspin's Infant System," and "Early Discipline Illustrated." C - 18 DEFICIENCY OF TEACHERS- .. little, therefore, they can give but little to those who have less than themselves; and the most egregious errors and blunders, to the detriment of the children, and the sys- tem, are the natural consequences, and I despair of its ever being otherwise in this country, unless the govern- ment itself will erect a good model school, and placc it under the superintendence of those fit for the task. There is a silly and ridiculous notion abroad, that it requires more talent to educate children after they are seven years of age, than it does to develope, and afterwards train the moral and intellectual faculties of children under that age; this, how- ever, is a fatal error, which has done a great deal of harm, and I fear will do more. A colt badly broke, and cruelly trcated, seldom becomes a safe or useful horse, and an in- fant badly managed, its temper soured, and its intellectual faculties injured by being overstrained, will seldom or ever make a deep and original thinker, or a good moral, reli- gious, and useful man. Besides, a man may be very fit to teach little children that which he does know, and which may be very suitable to them, yet of all others he may be the most unfit to instruct other masters; this requires a thorough knowledge of the system, as well as much ge neral information on men and things, and especially a knowledge of the faculties connected with the human mind. If, however, the system remains under the controul of those who are so totally unfit for the work, yet by no means wanting in self-importance, who fancy they are playing the organ, when they are only blowing the bel- lows, little, to what might be expected, will be accom- plished. With respect to the child, if it be properly dealt with, it is not unlikely that its heart, its will, and affections, will be won to prefer the school to an uncom- fortable and noisy home, where quarrelling, and too often The well-conducted fighting, comes under its notice. infant school, then, is a refuge from contamination within doors and without, under the care and direction of a kind दै ADVICE TO TEACHERS. 19 7 and judicious instructor, (effectually taught himself, and properly paid for his labour); and, in company with children of his own age, the child is led on delighted to the acquirement of useful knowledge, whilst his heart is im- bued by the sympathetical influence of love with princi- ples equally conducive to its own happiness, and to that of others; and thus, not only during its infancy, but through the whole of its future life, every thing is contrived for the bodily comfort, and the mental advancement and the moral elevation of the children. Amusement, instruction, and affection are found, in properly conducted infant schools, co-operating together with that effect, which those only can conceive, who have personally witnessed it. Children soon learn how much more numerous the class of sayers are than the class of doers; how much they have of good theory, and, comparatively, how little of good practice. In more advanced age they write, Honesty is the best policy;" "Evil communications corrupt good manners;" "Love your enemies ;" "Virtue alone is hap- piness below;" one or other of these may be indelibly fixed on the child's memory, by the sound caning it got, or raps on the knuckles, for blotting its copy. Here then lies the error; the principles have entered by the head, and stopped there; on the other hand, if they had entered by the heart, they would have soon found their way to the head, and would then have soon produced good works, as it is they produce nothing but good words. It is this grand and fundamental error, which it has been the object of our infant-school system to avoid. We endeavour to approach the head by the heart; the understanding by the will and affections. It is worthy of observation, that whilst virtue has a code of written laws, vice has specifically hewn out none, and yet we find that the former are neglected, and the latter obeyed, and it is a somewhat anomolous, though not uncom- mon sight, to see men arrayed beneath the banners of the c 2 V 20 ADVICE TO TEACHERS- one, yet combating in favour of the other. Such being the case, how is the evil to be remedied, how the error to be avoided? Begin at the beginning begin at the right point; take possession of the infant heart; having gained the citadel, you will soon possess every other part, and be sure to retain possession; but, on the other hand, neglect to do this let the power of the evil once take possession before you, the evil sccds will be nourished in a soil but too genial for their fructification, and when they have pro- duced sccds, some ten, some fifty, or a hundred fold, ac- cording to the quality of the soil, or the disposition of the pupil, let us be careful not to charge the Author of our ex- istence as being the cause of this effect; the fault is ours, and, at the last day of account, we shall find it but too true. If you strive to gain the heart of a man, you will find it a difficult, at least, if not an impossible, task; an old pos- sessor will not casily give up his long confirmed notions or preconceived opinions, his vile language or bad habits; he probably laughs at all your vain endeavours to shake, what he calls, his foundation; you will find that he has fortified himself in what he believes to be his stronghold. It is clear, then, that we must turn to the heart of the child; there we may succccd. It is but to enter and take possession with the smile of love; this is the first principle, and the first practice, of our infant-school system, for love begets love, as every thing has a tendency to produce its like; we, therefore, take possession of the heart, and, hav- ing done so, we endeavour to effect our purpose, and make use of the advantage we have gained, first, by exciting in the heart love towards God, which will produce the love of a lower degrcc, which is love towards man.. It is because we de not love God as the chief and governing principle, that we are so cruel and unkind to our own species I will not stop to get over the obstacles which some would here place in our way the different religious opi- nions of men; no, I will keep it out of the way, and boldly SUSCEPTIBILITY OF THE HUMAN MIND. 21 say that those differences have nothing to do with love to the Creator, and as little with love to man. Let the first sounds of heavenly truth which salute the ears of infancy, be that herald cry which astonished and enraptured the wakeful shepherds,—“Peace on earth, good-will towards men." Surely the first breathings of religious truth to in- fant ears, has nothing to do with the strife of polemical controversy; let us endeavour to teach them love to God; not to love him with their affections in a state of inactivity, but shew them his power and his goodness in all they see, hear, feel, and enjoy; the parents who support them, the food they eat, the clothes they wear; the teacher who instructs them, and gains their affections, and they reqnire but little teaching to convince them that they ought for these things to love God, who produced them all; thus in- tuitively taught, the impulse of conscience teaches them, and a feeling of love springs up in their infant hearts to- wards their heavenly Father; nor will that feeling of love, if firmly rooted, fail to be unboundedly increased, when to their maturer understandings the goodness of God in giving his Son to die for their sakes, and for their sins, is ex- plained. This should be the ground of all piety,—a sense of grateful love, of filial affection for his goodness, a sense of adoration for his power. Children are,—we find them to be so, as capable of understanding religion, viewed in this light, as the wisest philosopher, perhaps I might say more so, for the infant heart is in more immediate contact with the influences from the Divine Being than many suppose, because the grandest truths, as coming from the Author of all truth, will, if rightly presented to the infant mind, be received and understood. The impressions of his goodness and power on their susceptible minds are, possibly, deeper than on those of the wiser adults, and surely it will not be objected, that children do not so well comprehend the nature of our omniscient and beneficent Father, who is in heaven. How much nearer have we advanced to a com- : c 3 ❤ . 5. 1 22 ADVICE TO PARENTS. prehension of this nature? Let us ascend the proudest and highest pinnacle of knowledge, with all the aid of human acquirement, with the greatest refinement of intel- lect, and how much ncarer are we to the attainment of a clcarer knowledge of the nature of God? How far have we been able to penetrate into the clouds of inscrutable mys- tery, with which he has veiled himself from the gaze of presumptuous man? Truly, I think, we might confess, that we saw less of his nature there, than ere we ascended that elevation of vanity, and should find it better for us to descend from our lofty station, to the state of humble ado- ration, which is found in the bosom of infancy. Infants view Him through his works, in the evidences of his goodness and his wisdom; and here I would seriously put it to every parent, whether it is proper, whether it is de sirable, nay, whether it is wise, to allow little children to stand up and repcat long catechisms and creeds, which even men do not understand, (and about which they are at perpetual variance,) and allow the children to say that they believe this, and believe that, when a moment's rc flection will convince us that it is impossible, from the nature of the infant mind, that they can understand what they are made to say they believe. We allow a child to say he believes in that which we must know he cannot understand, and thus pave the way for his initiation into falsehood, and then we afterwards complain of him if we detect him in error; this is just as rational as if we gave a child food which we knew it could not digest, and then find fault with the child if he complained to us that it gave him pain. The religion we teach, then, to such young children in our schools, is the love of God in the heart; the tcacher, by his kindness, his parental love towards them all, sets the first example, or rather, he thus directs the will and the affections; they scc in him no stern peda gogue to terrify them into religion, no frowning countc nance, no uplifted hand to flog them into good rules and ANECDOTE. 23 religious principles; they are not long, therefore, before they feel and appreciate the delights of mutual kindness towards their teacher, and their teacher towards them. Nor where, under the influence of a judicious teacher, the moral sympathy has been fully developed, will they soon, or on a trifling occasion, break the bond of love which is established amongst them; they are made to feel the ad- vantages and delights of giving and partaking kindness, not taught merely by words that it should be so; hence it is that we have so much harmony, and so little occasion for any sort of coercion in schools, consisting of from one to two hundred infants, all of them of an age, that would at one time have been thought wholly unmanageable. Their duty towards their neighbour, then, arises, like their duty towards God, from the heart-felt impulse of love. There are in these schools continual displays of kind- ness towards each other, of forgiveness of injuries, ac- knowledgment and contrition for error; in short, such a refined moral perception and liveliness of conscience, that they are truly admirable and astonishing. Occasional breaches of propriety there certainly are, it would be un- reasonable in the extreme to expect such should not some- times occur; but they are always turned to advantage, and made the means of producing, by public trials in the school, the master stating the case, and the whole of the children forming the jury, some beneficial results. One instance out of many I will here mention; a child who had, in a fit of passion, struck his little school-fellow, was brought out by the teacher, and placed on a stool before all the assembled infants. His crime was told them,-that he had been beating his little school-fellow; silence ensued; an expression of mingled pity and astonishment appeared on every counte- "What must I do to him ?” "Should I let so naughty a boy go unpunished?" Several voices answered, "No, Sir." The little offender, who was of a very proud disposition, stood in sullen silence; again the teacher put nance. c4 24 THE INFANT SYSTEM MUST BE UNDERSTOOD. : 66 the question, "What shall I do with him?" A little trc mulous voice replied, Forgive him this once, if you please, Sir." It was the injured little boy! I was de lighted beyond expression, and my delight was still more incrcased, when, on turning to the obdurate offender, whom the prospect of punishment could not move, I found him in tears; the power of love had melted his fcclings, and awoke a sense of wrong and confession of it, which ended in the offender being again scated by the side of his generous and forgiving school-fellow. What could have been more noble more dignified than this behaviour of a child, not more than six years of age? And here I beg to remark, that I have frequently witnessed such admi- rable conduct, such nobleness of soul, such forgiveness, and such truly magnanimous behaviour in little children, as would put thousands of the adult population, if they were made public, to the blush. Examples of similar fcclings are continually occurring in our schools, though elicited by different circumstances; such, then, is the religious and moral development of our infant-school system, which, if thoroughly understood in all its ramifications, and properly applied, will prove one of the most powerful moral levers, which this or any other country has ever possessed; but on the contrary, if improperly applied, will prove one of the greatest curses that could ever befal the infant popula- tion, for in the hands of ignorant, passionate, enthusiastic, though well-mcaning persons, it will injure the brain, enervate the mind, and render the child a mere autom-. aton. With regard to the mental improvement of the de- velopment of the intellectual faculties, the great principle here, is to induce the child to scck knowledge through some object; not compel it to scck it, nor cram it, nor force it upon his mind. This purpose we effect by combining it with amusement, by exciting a spirit of acquisitivness, which receives information as a favour, instead of acquiring it as a task. There is no inactive healthy child, either in mind. ** INFLUENCE OF ATMOSPHERE AND TIME ON INFANTS. 25 or body, in the world; it is always seeking information, and anxious for it, but when it applies to those whose duty and whose business it is to give it, how frequently is it sent away with scowling looks, and rash observations, and de- sired to leave the room for being so "troublesome.” Methinks that infants sometimes propound questions, which parents and teachers too, find it rather difficult to answer; the fault, however, is always upon the child, he is invariably desired to hold his tongue, and told that "little children should be seen and not heard; — speak only when they are spoken to, and come when they are called;" and not ask ridiculous questions; though a few days afterwards, or even the same day, he may be sent into a room by himself, and scolded, if not beaten, for not learn- ing what those set over him chose to call his task. It is, however, the assumption of so unamiable a character, on the part of those who should know better, that does so much harm to both teachers and scholars, in our seminaries for children of a more advanced age-it mars the endeavours of the one, and impedes the progress of the other. We all know with what a different spirit we apply ourselves, to that to which we apply ourselves willingly, and to a thing with regard to which we have no alternative, what alacrity and perseverance we find in the one instance, what a list- lessness in the other. With the knowledge of this fact in our mind, it has been the endeavour to make the busi- ness of the school an amusement to the children; to young children indeed this was peculiarly necessary; we find it impossible to regulate the infant mind by the clock. The weather, the atmosphere, the season, has a mighty influence on the mind; on a dull day and thick hazy weather, they are never in a state for mental development; at these times physical education must be attended to, to which may be added moral education in the play ground; and even in clear fine weather, the morning is the proper time to operate on the mental powers of little children;-in the afternoon : 26 IMPORTANCE OF VENTILATION. they are in a very different state, and require to be acted on accordingly, and who does not, or will not, or cannot watch for these times and scasons, will never succccd in the way that could be desired as an infant instructor; he must never forget that to meet with complete success, he must act in accordance with the organic laws of nature, for it is only by attention to these, that health, and strength to the bodily frame, and vigour and activity to the mind can be secured. The rooms of a properly conduc- ted infant school, should have the means of a frce ven- tilation, to which the master and mistress will, if they know their duty, scrupulously attend. The infants should never draw one inspiration of that poisonous air, which injures both body and mind in crowded school rooms this immense advantage, must be secured without sacrificing the comforts of warmth in cold weather, for this is as impor- tant to the health of the young, as any other point in which we have spoken. Ventilation within doors, must, however, at all times, when practicable, yield to the free breeze with- out, and therefore, let it be remembered, that half the child's time during school hours, ought to be spent in a dry, airy, well furnished, play ground; and, moreover, the teacher is to remember that it is here that the chil- dren require his most active, anxious, scrupulous, and un- divided attention, if they are not watched here, ninc tenths of the moral education is lost and the means which would have enabled the teacher to have legislated for each and all of his pupils, at the most important time that could be named; before the formation of character has been given to the evil one. The infant school playground is the world in miniature, each inhabitant of which lives in harmony or otherwise, with his associates; it is here that he will shew what his propensities are, if he is selfish he shews it here; if he is pettish or quarrelsome, it can only be manifested in the play ground; if he is dominccring and re- vengeful, or mild and merciful, it is here that he is sure CLEANLINESS, ITS IMPORTANCE. 27 to manifest the principles; in short, it is here alone, he will shew you really what he is, and thus enable you, under the divine blessing, to crush those bad propensities. Care must be taken, however, that the playground does not lose its attractions by their being kept in it too long, there must never be an approach to fatigue on the one hand, or ennui on the other. When the rotatory swing is not go- ing, and the wood bricks are not being used to build castles, with that alacrity which children are wont to exercise, it is certain that the children have been in the playground long enough; then ring your bell, but take care always, never to ring it too long, or it will lose its effect, and you will find your children return to the school-room with the same alacrity as they left it, and such will be the universal feel- ing, that the doorways will not be wide enough for the anxious pupils to re-enter. Still keeping in view the or- ganic laws, cleanliness must not only not be neglected, but actual cleanliness enforced, and cleanly and delicate habits must be inculcated and practised. It is possible, and has been proved by the writer of this article, in all the chief towns of the three kingdoms, that the little, dirty, neglected children of the poor may be brought up with as fine, as de- licate, and cleanly habits as any nobleman's child, and their playground and their little conveniences may be kept as clean and as proper as the most fastidious person could de- sire. It should be inculcated in the minds of the children that cleanliness is a part of Christianity, and that the world generally forms but a poor opinion of a dirty or indelicate character. In the school-room, then, it must never be for- gotten that one object of study is never to be dwelt upon too long. The children's countenances will decide when you are to stop; fresh interest must be roused by a change, and, if so, listlessness and inattention will be rare, and even if they do occur, as they occasionally will, for reasons before stated, the teacher, if he be a proper one, will have a hundred devices to keep up the spirits and vivacity of his little pu- 28 MEANS OF REVIVING THE ENERGIES. pils. Some of these devices may have too much of appa- rent babyism in them, so as to draw a sneer from the unre- flecting and wise and prudent in their own eyes, but dccper thinkers will encourage him in his work, because they will perceive them to be essentially philosophical. The young brain may get a little torpid, a change of objects may fail to attract, drowsiness will shew itself here and there, and heads will be bowing in due form; but by a good round clapping of hands, the sawyers must be imitated, and the children be ordered to put their arms up and down, and make the corresponding noise with the mouth to imitate the cutting of the wood; this will pump the lungs, please the children, and again bring them into a teachable state On this subject, however, we must be brief, for it is impos- sible to do it ample justice in less than a volume; but should all means of reviving fail, it is the best proof that the school-room is no longer the place for the existing state of either body or mind, and every minute that they are kept in it, unless the weather prevents their being sent out, will be fatal to the bodily health, as well as to the moral and mental progress of the pupils. Much of the time of the lit- tle pupils should be devoted to the constant examination and scrutiny of material things, and the investigation of their qualities; an oak lcaf, an ash Icaf, an aspen lcaf, a hazel leaf, a beech leaf, or the oak bark, the bark of the ash, or any other trcc, will afford opportunities to the tcacher, of cultivating their faculties, and giving them im- portant information. The judicions teacher will at once perceive what a fcast is here for all the faculties which take cognizance of material things; and these faculties, it must be kept in mind, are never more active than in infancy, when every object is new, and examined with avidity. Forms, sizes, weights, colours, properties, and even sounds, are all objects of delightful contemplation to the infant; letters and reading nccd not be forgotten; there will be plenty of time for these things while the elements of writing or engraved MORAL TRAINING HITHERTO NEGLECTED. 29 slates may likewise be insinuated by legislating for the hand; but his chief attention must be directed to the state of mind of his pupils, and thus bring these things in at the proper time and place. The grand novelty is to impart moral improvement to the pupils, and the exercises for the hand and for the head are only accessory, and must be made to bend towards that end. Moral training cannot be begun too early, and in many cases it is next to impossible, at least with the poorer classes after six years of age, for in the manufacturing districts they go to work soon after that age, and by being associated together in large numbers, without any previous training, the effects are dreadful to contemplate; it is, therefore, self evident that such schools are, and must be, schools for moral training. This is a new view, which it is the most difficult to impress upon the pub- lic; a positive institution for moral training is a new idea to them; with them, education of the humbler classes never meant more than reading, writing, and accounting, and mak- ing a bow, for boys; and reading, spelling, with sewing and sampler work, and making a courtesy, for the girls; and really it is perfectly ludicrous, in visiting some schools, to see the boys bob their heads down in due form, and the girls make their courtesies in the very best style, whilst the heart and feelings of the children are as much opposed to the ex- ternal act as can well be conceived. During all these pro- cesses it has never been doubted that moral improvement went on in proportion; lessons of morality have been read and spelled, and maxims and proverbs have been written in the copy book, and thus the education has been finished. Example, too, with all its sympathies, is a powerful instrument in the teacher's hands. In himself and his mistress, even an approach to bad temper, violence, or un- kindness, must never be manifested, and justice must never be sacrificed in one iota, to any temporary advantage. Benevolence must be positively and practically manifested in love and kindness. The main spring of the Institution is 30 IMPORTANCE OF THE PLAY-GROUND. LOVE, not fear, and all the ways in which love may be mani- fested, ought to be studied by the instructor. The children are then ready for the practical part of their moral exercise. In the play-ground they form a world in miniature, and it is there, if they are naturally unkind, coarse, insolent, cruel, and unjust; or benevolent, humble, humane, and conscien- tious, that they will show themselves. There, however, they are scrupulously watched by the teacher's eye, which, it is a vital principle of the system, is never for an instant to lose sight of what is passing in the play-ground; he is carefully, but not too obviously, observing every occurrence where justice and generosity may be encouraged, and selfishness repressed, where obligingness, and even po- liteness, may be called forth, and coarseness and rudeness _discountenanced. the No instance, however trifling, is too insignificant for en- quiry. A quarrel between two infants is not got quit of by dismissing both; in most cases great injustice may and will be done by this. The matter is probed to the foundation, and this is done in the presence of the whole of the pupils, who sit as a jury upon it, and rarely fail to take the just view of the occurrence. Their award has a much more powerful practical effect than the master's would have; mere publicity of the trial is, in some cases, sufficient pun- ishment to the offending party, and concession and reconci- liation are recommended with an unanimous voice. If any thing beyond is voted, it is a trifling pat of the hand, very temperately given, rather to mark that punishment was in- curred, or merited, than inflicted. Respect for property is practically inculcated. The most insignificant deviation or slip in this particular, is seriously investigated Instead of removing the temptation, it is in some degrec rather put in the way; for it is but a negative honesty which abstains from taking what is put beyond reach. The child is accustomed to see every thing belonging to the school, and to its com- panions, unguarded and unconcealed, and amidst temptation, GOOD EFFECTS OF EARLY MORAL TRAINING. 31 and with every opportunity, is habituated to keep its hands from touching, and even its heart from coveting, what is not its own. No part of the training is more truly grati- fying than this. The children of some of the lowest classes in London, in numbers of two and three hundred, have come, as a matter of course, to that degree of respect for others' property, that I have seen not only the new-brought dinner placed fearlessly on the shelf for its appointed hour, but the crusts in the little basket become hard, if uncon- sumed by the owner; none of the others even dreaming of putting a hand to the remnants, however ill-supplied they might be themselves. This practical exercise of conscien- tiousness, when compared with the juvenile depredations, in which, in the hands of older offenders, such infants are too often engaged, is itself sufficient to recommend the system to every friend of humanity, it is not pretended that among such numbers as two or three hundred, there may not be occasional manifestations of the lower propensities in tem- porary predominence over the higher feelings; and I can relate some instructive examples of these. It may happen that little John has built a structure with the wooden bricks, which constitute the chief play- thing of the establishment; the finished operation is es- pied by Peter, and, it may be, envied; the spirit of mis- chief being upon him, he approaches, and, by a slight touch of the foot, overthrows the building. John, perhaps, is patient, and with a gentle reproach merely, sits himself to re-build the house; or he is a fiery child, and gives Peter a blow on the face. The teacher has seen the whole trans- action. The most guilty, as he always finds to be true, complains first, and clamorously: thus does Peter, loudly lamenting his slap on the face, but carefully concealing his intromission with the brick-building. The bell is rung for a jury-trial. Peter emboldened, repeats his charge, and the jury agree that it was very wrong in John to slap Peter on the nose. But it is stated by the master, that all 32 EXAMPLE OF A TRIAL BY JURY. such questions have two sides should not John be heard? The justness of this is unanimously allowed, and John, for the first time, lets out the fact, that Peter kicked over his octagon. An instantaneous rc action takes place in his fa vour, and Peter, when asked if he kicked over John's octa- gon, unwillingly admits the fact, but pleads that he only gave it one kick, to which he receives the reply, that he only got one knock on the nose. The verdict is now against Peter; but, as it is the general opinion that he has already bccn punished, the children of the jury themselves propose that the parties shall kiss each other, and return to the play-ground with their arms round cach other's neck. Many such instances occur, and it is the soul of the system, that none of them are passed over without investigation and adjustment. The too common nursery practice is, to pre- sume faults on both sides in all differences, knock the heads of the parties together, and there end. But we hold that, in the majority of cases, gross injustice is done by this method to one party, and, moreover, the impression re- mains with the children themselves, that although there may be moral distinctions, nobody cares for them. In the play-ground, spontaneous kindness is encouraged, and the children shewn how it can casily be manifested: if a child falls, another will run to help it up, and comfort it; the boys, are accustomed to treat the girls gently and cour- teously, and all are habituated to acts of kindness, pre- ference of others, respectfulness, and politeness; so that not in name or shew, but in reality, the little community, of which many of the individuals sleep at night in homes. made comfortless with selfishness, coarseness, and often with vice, spend the day in a moral atmosphere, which even more elevated stations of society do not yet brcathe, and which will invigorate the moral constitution, insinuate its influence into their yet unpurified abodes, and transmit a degree of moral health to the next generations, which there exists not yet the means of extinguishing. 1 ་ VARIOUS DEVICES FOR CONVEYING INSTRUCTION. 33 In legislating for the faculties of observation, we have adopted various devices of an interesting and amusing na- ture; particularly pictures, illustrative of various facts in Scripture, and for teaching them the elements of natural his- tory. A frame and balls, for imparting the first rudiments of arithmetic; a gonograph, for exhibiting to them the va- rious geometrical figures; and likewise brass letters, for mak- ing them acquainted with the alphabetical characters; and brass figures for furthering the plan of teaching arithmetic. Singing, as being at once amusing and natural, and likely to fix their attention, is much used, not only as a medium for offering praises to God in simple strains of devotion, but also for the repeating of lessons on various subjects; and it is impressively delightful to listen to the correct, though artless, style, in which the infant vocalists sing the differ- ent tunes that are taught. It will be evident, that that great charm to children, variety, by such means is easily attainable. Their attention never flags, because it is not permitted to dwell for too long a period on one object of instruction. Before quitting the subject of mental development, I would observe that it is our wish and endeavour to culti- vate the higher intellectual faculties primarily; to call forth into activity the understanding, and to exercise the judg- ment, rather than to burden the memory. We wish to make them think, to reflect, and decide themselves on things. Re- flection is to the mind, what digestion is to the body: it mat- ters not how much food we take, if the digestive organs are impaired or inactive; neither is it of any use if we acquire a vast mass of knowledge or of information, if we never reflect upon it. It is reflection which converts the crude mass into the nutritious principle of wisdom. For the pur- pose of encouraging reflection, the judicious teacher enters into conversations with the children, which are likely to in- duce reflection,—to set them thinking, and the effective- ness of the method can only be rightly known when we have a thorough model school that the public may visit and D - 34 PICTURE OF A CHILD ON ENTERING THE INFANT SCHOOL. examine those who have been the objects, for any time, of such a system of cultivation; they will be found to possess a power of cogitation too frequently wanting in those who have acquired much verbal knowledge. I have only further to remark, in regard to the system, that whilst moral and mental cultivation are thus attended to, bodily health and suitable exercises are no less assi- duously studied. In order, however, to exercise the moral faculties effectually, human beings must be assembled; for the moral faculties of benevolence and conscientiousness have reference to our fellow-creatures. It is in community too that the selfish fcclings must be restrained, and the so- cial brought into active exertion. This is done by encou- raging actions under their impulse. When a child comes to an infant school, he most likely brings with him his full share of that engrossing selfishness which characterizes childhood, and which, in the lower ranks, has never been attempted to be counteracted or regulated; he will gratify every impulse of the moment, however it may incommode or annoy his neighbours, and, if thwarted, or even opposed, he will manifest his temper in acts of wilfulness and vio- lence, and, to the amount of his little power, will revenge himself. He will, of course, seize by violence, if he is a bold child, and appropriate the toys and catables of his companions, or, if he is timid but cunning, he will steal and secrete them. In the play-ground, it may suit his destruc- tive humour to throw down his play-fellows, or their little buildings; a box-wood edging, which keeps the rest of the children off the flower-border, is no barrier to him, and he hastens to make his foot-marks on the dressed mould. The flowers are irresistible, and, if permitted, he revels among them and plucks to destroy them while the cherries and currants on the walls are rifled and devoured. Now, this is the character which would have remained with the individual from youth to man- hood, its external manifestations might be restrained by ; HOW CORRECTED. 35 he laws of the land, or by a prudential regard to charac- ter, but the whole inward man will be selfish and anti- social, without the consciousness of any thing like moral or religious sentiment, either to regulate the feelings or guide the actions. The little barbarian is well watched by the teacher, and, by management, is made to reap some degree of suffering directly from each of his acts of selfishness, in- justice, fraud, violence, or cruelty. He feels himself, for one thing, the object of the general disapprobation of his play-fellows, a predicament which will sorely afflict even an infant, in whom the faculty of the love of approbation is often more active than in after life. This feeling alone, in the majority of cases, will bring him into harness, and qua- lify him for further application of the moral system. The process is shorter the younger the child is at his introduc- tion. A child who has passed four years, or reached five, is not so easily led right by the already tamed subjects, and requires a little of the strong hand proportioned to his own manifestation of violence and obstinacy. To every Infant School-house, then, there must be, as a necessary appendage, a play-ground attached, in which, as before observed, at stated periods they are allowed to amuse themselves, but always under the inspection and influence of the teacher. Swings and various other methods are pro- vided for their amusement, and they present an appearance of happiness which is no less gratifying than surprising. There cannot be in the world a scene more delightful to the reflective observer than a well-regulated infant-school; as a philosopher, he may there contemplate the capabilities of the infant mind under a proper system of development; as a philanthropist, he may there mark the pleasing ascen- dency of kind and noble feelings, over those of malignancy and selfishness in the infant heart; and above all, as a Christian, he will there find reason to rejoice in the efficacy of a plan rightly understood, properly applied, and judici- ciously managed, calculated to make them wise unto salva- D 2 36 OPINIONS OF AN EDINBURGH PUBLICATION. tion, to preserve them from the evil and temptations of this life, and prepare them for an eternal inheritance of glory and happiness hereafter. Surely these are ends worthy of attainment, worthy of the attention of our legislators, and also of our time, our talents, and our money. That the subject is gaining the attention of the public mind is evi- dent, for in a recent popular publication, edited in Edin- burgh, after reviewing the Infant System, they thus con- clude: "We have now completed our analysis of this beautiful system, and we have found every part of it to stand the severest test of science; we have not detected a defect, not a single aberation from nature; but, on the con- trary, we find Mr. Wilderspin, with a precision which he alone has attained, and which, considering his opportuni- ties, looks like a special gift of God to an individual for a great end, calling into exercise, and thereby giving delight to, we may say, the whole of the faculties, moral and intel- lectual, of the human mind; and thereby dispensing to the young a sum of substantial happiness which it forms the main object of our own labours to demonstrate may be en- joyed, on the same terms, by all ages and conditions of hu- man beings, to the incalculable improvement of the lot of humanity." 37 OUTLINE OF A SYSTEM OF NATIONAL EDUCATION. BEFORE Commencing this chapter, it may be necessary to state the advantage of having three schools near together, or if possible, on the same premises, that is to say, an Infant School in one building, of which dimensions shall be given in another place; Girls' School in another build- ing; and Boys' Schools in another; to each of these there should be separate play-grounds, totally distinct from each other, fenced off, so that the children cannot, if possible, see each other; there should be separate entrances into each school, and by no means should the entrance be through the play-ground, as this is almost, if I may be al- lowed the expression, sacred ground. Brothers and sisters, who come for the children, and I am sorry to say, even parents, will steal the fruit and flowers, and if this is seen by the children, it does more injury than can be eradicated for many months. I have also known, and I grieve to say it, even visitors too have been guilty of the same offences; and I have known a respectable person pluck the flowers, and give them to her children. Nurse-maids are con- stantly in the habit of doing the same thing, without, for a moment, considering the impropriety of the act, and when it has been pointed out to them, their answer, has been, “Dear me! I thought it no harm!" but the trained infant pupils have thought very differently on the subject; they have run into the teacher with the greatest consterna- tion, saying, "Please, teacher, there has been a lady steal- ing the fruit, or a nurse-maid stealing the flowers; and - . .. D 3 38 INTRODUCTORY. plcase, sir, do you know she gave them to some little children that were with her, which will teach them to do the same thing." It is also of the highest importance, that separate places of convenience be erected, and that the pupils in such places may not have to go through the rain in wet weather, to get to them. At Windsor, there are three schools fitted up as I have been describing, with separate play-grounds connected with each school, and fruit trees planted all round the walls of each play-ground, and a dressed border four fect wide; and I am happy to say, that the master of the boys' school, and also the mistress of the girls' and infants' schools take the greatest pains to give their pupils moral education, and their efforts are in the highest degree satisfactory to all who know them. The Corporation Schools in Liverpool are fitted up with similar appendages, as arc also the medcl schools connected with the Board of Education in Dublin. All these things, however, will be useless to inexperienced teachers, who think no teaching can be useful, unless it is crammed into the heads of the children in the school-room, and who consider it is enough for the children to learn to write from the copy book, that "Honesty is the best policy." u Chố toGirls School Class Room HALT. to Girls School Koom, Statre Boys Classho 82 Desk 70 Gallery: Des Desk Desk Boys Sch´´l R. m Boys Play Ground Desk Desk 20 Desk 39 2 CHAPTER II. INFANT SCHOOLS. Rules and Regulations-Observations-Illustrative Lessons-Botany -Natural History-Specimens of Scripture Lessons for Little Children-How to Establish Infant Schools where none exist-- Rules for Committees. THE following rules have been adopted by various com- mittees, in different parts of the three countries, and they have been found, after many years trial, to succeed. 1. That the principle of Infant Education, as developed. in the seventh edition of Mr. Wilderspin's work, entitled, "The Infant System," be followed out as far as prac- ticable, which includes the time to commence and close school, and contains arrangements for a whole week's work, both on the floor of the room, and in the gallery. 2. That the master take the intellectual and laborious part in the management of the children, and that, in all respects, he act the paternal part, similar to the father of a family, which consists in enforcing order and regularity, and, seeing that the monitors do their duty; and, in fact, that the whole school works according to the principles of mental, moral, and physical development, intended by the inventor of the system. 3. That the mistress take the maternal part, and act the part of a mother, in following up the rules insisted upon, and enforced by the master; in all things co-operating with him to bring the scholars under the same affectionate controul, as would be found in a well regulated family, where the father and mother act in unison, and at the same time, understand each other, so that one should not undo what the other does. # D 4 40 RULES AND REGULATIONS 4. To prevent misunderstanding between the teachers in any school, it must be understood that where there is a master he must always take the lcad, and be answerable for the order of the school; and in fact, that his efforts be di- rected to the understandings of the children, so as to make them original and dccp thinkers, whilst the efforts of the mistress must be directed to the hearts, or wills, of the chil- dren, so as in after life to make them amiable, mild, gentle, cleanly, delicate, and kind in all their actions; the master imparting a degree of energy of character to the pupils, the mistress a degree of mildness and amiability. 5. That as the playground is the place where the child shews its qualities and manifests its tempers and disposi- tions, it is requisite that both teachers constantly watch the children therein, for it is here where the character must be formed, and the child taught to bear and forbear with its neighbours, and to curb its selfish principles, and learn to think of the happiness of others as well as its own; it will learn the advantages of sociability, and be taught to fccl that happiness cannot exist among numbers without mutual kindness on both sides; and being taught this in infancy, its future life must, in some mcasure, be affected thereby. The little boys, in all instances, must be encouraged in acts of kindness and attention towards the little girls, and this will be sure, from the nature of the female mind, to mcct with a suitable and proper return, for kindness begets kind- ness, and love begets love. 6 That especial care be taken to allow the children in the play ground as much freedom as possible, and never to in- terfere unless the actions of the children are decidedly mis- chievous or wrong in themselves, for if kept under too much controul, their characters will not develope themselves, and the teachers will be thereby prevented from encouraging the good ones, and effecting a cure for those that are bad. All innocent amusements may be allowed, and the children also permitted to create them for themselves; when, how- RULES AND REGULATIONS. 41 ever, the swings are going, they must then be subject to the following rules, except those who do not wish to swing; for it must never be lost sight of, that a teacher is never to force a child to swing against its inclination, Nature itself will increase the timid child's courage, as it perceives the suc- cessful efforts and feats of the more courageous pupils; it will then wish to try of its own accord, but would be much injured and retarded by being forced before it was prepared. 7. Rule I. That a circle be made of chalk, round the poles, of such a diameter as the master shall think fit, and that no child be permitted to go within that circle, except the four children that are swinging; and when the four children that are swinging have had their turn, they must be outside the circle before the others are allowed to come in, and not again allowed to swing, so long as there are others who have not had their turn. The mistress to attend to the girls' pole, and the master to attend to the boys', and both to be conducted on the same principles; the mistress taking especial care to teach her girls to swing in a proper manner, and not to allow them to get into the habit of swinging in an indelicate manner, and make any kind of posture that would offend the eye, and on no account to al- low the children to tie the ropes together for the purpose of sitting to swing, nor on any occasion to push each other round. If this is attended to, accidents cannot occur. Rule II. That for the purpose of combining physical ex- ercise with the mental improvement of those children who are looking on outside the circle, they be desired to say the pence table, time table, or some portion of either the addi- tion, subtraction, or multiplication tables, at the discretion of the teacher, during the time the four children are swing- ing, and when the portion of either table is finished which the teacher has desired, then the children who are swinging must be out, and four others allowed to take their places, according to the rules before mentioned; the counters moving their hands altogether, or their feet altogether, as 42 RULES AND REGULATIONS. directed by the teacher. This will secure exercise and amusement to the lookers on, as well as to those that are swinging, which will tend to order, regularity, and justice, all of which are indispensable; but when the children have their wood bricks, to be taught the principles of brick build- ing, the swings are not to used. The children to be taught to build triangular pillars, oblong pillars, pentagons, hexagons, septagons, octagons, nonagons, and decagons; they may also build circular and elliptical pillars, the teachers at first superintending the work, until some of the elder children can be entrusted to do it for them; fronts of houses, and other buildings, may also be imitated, so as to combine amusement with instruc- tion, all of which may be of great use, to the boys espe- cially, in after life; and should they emigrate, as many at this time do, its uses to such are evident; besides, it keeps them out of mischief, and prevents idleness, the product of much evil and misery. Care must be taken not to let the children throw the bricks about, which at first they are sure to do, if not prevented. They must never be allowed to take them into the privies, which they are apt to do, if not repeatedly told to the contrary. All orders should be given when the entire of the chil- dren are in the gallery, or when they are so situated as that they can all hear, and little children can scarcely ever be told the rules too often. The prophet's advice must be rc membered, "line upon line, precept upon precept." A place must be made to put the bricks away when done with, and the children must always be taught to put them up pro- perly; "to have a place for every thing, and every thing in its place." To poor children this will be of lasting benefit; to girls as well as boys Half the complaints against ser- vants of both sexes arise from want of attention to those things. Rule IV. At stated times, and as opportunities occur, the tcachers will tell the children the names of the flowers and RULES AND REGULATIONS. 43 shrubs, cautioning them, at the same time, not to injure them, for their own sakes, because they will not look so pretty, and then they cannot be gratified by seeing them every day; to tell them as much about the flowers as they can, what class they belong to, which is the stem, root, and other parts, to point out how they are nourished, and, when injury is done to any plant, notice must always be taken of the fact, in the presence of all the children. The teachers must never forget that they are to legislate for all, and to let all have the benefit of their advice; it is folly to expect children to obey laws which are not frequently explained to them. Little faults must never be overlooked, then great ones will be rarely committed. Never correct a child in anger; ascertain the temper of the child, and the quality of the fault it has committed, before you correct it at all. Some will need no other correction but the expression of your dis- pleasure, others must be treated differently, each according to character, which must be well studied by all teachers, who would excel in their noble occupation, and who wish success and the blessing from heaven to crown their labours. Whatever the world may think, infant teachers must bear in mind that their occupation is inferior to none, and that the day is fast approaching, when the infant teacher will be thought equal to any of his brethren, and that his office and its responsibility are greater and more important than the teaching at any other period. He is to lay the foundation, and if that is defective, however beautiful the superstruc- ture may be, the building is unsafe, and cannot stand. Let teachers be careful in correcting their scholars, be sure they know all the rules before they are corrected for violating them, let them have opportunities of knowing you, and feel- ing confidence in you, dependence upon you, and, above all, love for you; this last will produce all its subordinates, and will save you much trouble, and your pupils some pain. Do not be always threatening, nor often promising, but if there - • 1 2 11 RULES AND REGULATIONS. is necessity for either, perform what you say; if you do not, your words will be valueless; do not kccp the infants too long in the school, or on the gallery; remember you have to form the character, and renovate the constitution; do not in- jure it by too much eonfinement; spend a large portion of time in the play-ground; strong bodies are fit for strong minds, though not always found together: fccd the chil- dren's minds by little and little, do not cram them one day and neglect them another, but watch when they are hungry, and then feed them, always keeping in mind that children can, on fine days, be instructed out of doors, as well as within. Watch the state of the weather; it has mighty influence on the minds of children; on dull days give them something lively and animating, on fine days give them the drier and more uninteresting lessons; you will, if you think, find proper time for all of every kind and degrce If you are dull yourself, let the other teacher take them in hand; if you are both out of tune, let the children alone, until you are in another mood; if the weather permits, send them out, and in half an hour you will find a difference in your- self and the pupils. Do not be always slapping the pupils and cuffing them about; correct properly, and as seldom as you can; remember firmness is always requisite in the management of children, cruelty never. It is an important fact, that I never saw an orderly school in any part of the three kingdoms, where these points were unattended to. Remember you cannot do a child a greater service, in any rank of life, than to teach it to use the faculties which God has blessed it with, at the earliest possible period; let it never be led to expect others to do for it, what it can do for itself; those that have not been taught to help themselves, if reduced to a state of poverty, are the most wretched beings upon the face of the carth. The time is approaching, when distinctions will be made between the useful and the useless persons in the world; the country which possesses CHILDREN LOVE ONE ANOTHER RULES AND REGULATIONS. 45 a majority of the former, always increases in power, wealth, and prosperity; but as soon as the latter become a majority, its gradual decline is always certain. When teachers come to be instructed in the system, point out these things to them, as opportunities occur; make them do something, and not look on; make them attend regularly, or not at all; make them at first take a monitor's place, then to manage the children at reading and spelling-lessons, then object-lessons, then gallery, then class-room, and they must not be pronounced fit for em- ploy until they can perform them all; point out the im- portance of play-ground management, and be sure to try them at it. No child to be allowed to impose on another, to spar or to fight, nor any kind of play to be permitted which can call up the angry feelings, or encourage cruelty, bloodshed, or war. A few live animals should be kept amongst the children, and kindness to them should be en- couraged, and unkindness repressed; also a few statues should be procured, such as are carried about the streets by the Italians. Encourage the older children to protect and help the younger and weaker ones, and also to tell them a little of their knowledge. I have seen some truly noble and magnanimous conduct in these matters displayed amongst well attended infants, and the very reverse amongst those ill attended and neglected. Let all the lessons and pictures be taken in turn, sometimes one set, sometimes another; do not let them get dusty for the want of use, and as an excuse for yourself tell those who procured them for you that a very few would suffice for little children. They can always learn if you can teach. Your superior judgment is required to ascertain when to teach and what to be taught. The pupils when awake can always learn something. Children like variety, especially of pictures : always remember they are only to hang against the wall, or to be put into the cupboard out of school hours; in school hours they are for the instruction of the children; " 46 RULES AND REGULATIONS. if it is the representation of an animal, tell the children the difference between the representation of a thing and the thing itself; tell them if a biped or quadruped, and shew them the distinguishing marks of each. Never ask in- fants to tell you what you are first to tell them: you are the teacher, they the learners. I have seen a teacher punish a child for not knowing what he forgot to teach him, and often thought that the punishment ought to have been on the other side Little children know nothing until they are taught: they come to infant schools to learn, not to be punished for their ignorance. Infant teachers will do well to keep this in mind. That the teachers be allowed ten shillings cach for every person instructed in the system, for the extra trouble given them, and as an encouragement to them to take great pains with the parties; the money to be paid by the persons instructed, or the committee who send them. If the persons come to be instructed in the infant system, they must remain in the infant school, and not be per- mitted to go either to the boys' or girls' school, nor to run about from one school to another. To be allowed to remain until the master or superintendent (should there be one) can conscientiously give a certificate of the person's fitness for the office, and this to be done without favour to any person; the master always remembering that the interests of hundreds of children are not to be sacrificed to serve one individual, nor the individual to be tortured by being placed in a situation which nature never designed him or her to fill. It is one thing to possess knowledge one's self, but quite another to be able to communicate that knowledge in a pleasing and proper manner to infants Infant teachers ought to know that children are never too young to learn, but that the teachers are often too old to teach. That the infants be taught at the earliest possi ble period the advantages of punctuality and regularity, RULES AND REGULATIONS. 47 and that the teachers endeavour to impress it on the parents minds, that their children must attend regularly and in time, and that unless they do so they will not be permitted to enjoy the advantages of the institution. That the teachers take especial care to keep up their own respectability, and not to be on too familiar terms with the parents of the children. Good sense will mark the line of conduct indispensable on this subject, and shew the necessity of not getting into the opposite extreme. No parent must be allowed to come to the schools unless they come on business respecting the children, and they must be told to come at 9 o'clock, and not interrupt the business of the school by coming at all hours. If it be on private business, they must go to the dwelling of the teacher wanted. It is earnestly and seriously recommended to the teachers not to allow gossiping in the schools; it is im- proper, and highly detrimental to themselves, and also to the institutions, and cannot be permitted. If an examination takes place, and the parents are in- vited, it is a different affair, but even then the more that is done with the children, and the less talk with the parents the better, unless it be after business is over. In the mis- tress of an infant school, a ladylike conduct and deport- ment is desirable, as the children are correct copyists, and copy bad habits sooner than good ones. In a model school it becomes more necessary; because persons of various kinds and degrees, will come to be instructed, some who have seen better days, and all will notice, and afterwards animadvert on, the deportment of the parties who have instructed them, and will not fail to mark faults where they become apparent. The same observations will, of course, apply to the master, and be equally worthy his attention. Visitors must be respectfully requested not to take off the attention of the teachers by talking to them, especially when a gallery lesson is going on, nor yet to talk to each other, because the most scientific teacher can- 48 RULES AND REGULATIONS. - .. not keep up the attention under such circumstances, and it is always better to stop until the visitors have done talking. One of the teachers must be on the premises at half past eight o'clock in the morning, to receive the children, and to take it by turns, unless they reside on the premises which is most desirable.* That when a pupil or a class are about to leave the model school, for one of the upper schools, the master * It should be remembered that in England, schools for the poor, generally commence the business of teaching at 9 o'clock in the morn- ing, and the children remain until 12 at noon, they then go home, and return again at 2 o'clock, and remain until 4 in the evening in winter, and 5 o'clock in summer. In Ireland, however, it is totally different: the usual time to commence the business of teaching is 10 o'clock in the morning, and the pupils remain till 3 o'clock in the afternoon, when the business of the school is over for that day. It will thus be sccn, that the pupils in the schools in Ireland generally have no meal between the hours stated above. In the infant schools however they usually give them a piece of bread at 1 o'clock. Nothing, however, in my mind, is so essential to teach the Irish chil- dren as punctuality; I have known children come at 11 o'clock at noon, at 12, and even so late as between 1 and 2 o'clock, and there is the greatest difficulty to teach both parents and children the value of time. At what are called the model schools connected with the Board of Education in Dublin, this desirable object is secured, as no child either of the infant, girls', or boys' schools, is admitted even five minutes after 10 o'clock, In every school in Ireland, therefore, the teacher should be at the school house ready to receive the children at 9 o'clock, which will allow the pupils a full hour to assemble. In most schools in Scotland the hours of attendance are as follows: during November, December, and January, 10 to 1, and 2 to 4 o'clock; in October and February, 10 to 1, and 2 to half-past 4; and during the other months 10 to 1, and 3 to 5. Doors open every morning during the year at half-past 9 o'clock, and all children must be present before 10. In November, December, and January, though the lessons be finished before half-past 3 o'clock, yet the children shall not be required to leave the play-ground before 4; in October and February, though the lessons may be finished before 4 o'clock, the children shall not be required to leave the play-ground before 5; in other nonths, though the lessons may be over before 5, yet the children can continue in the play-ground till 6 o'clock; one of the teachers always being in the way to superintend the play-ground RULES AND REGULATIONS. 49 train them in the mechanical parts of the plan adopted therein, so that the pupils may feel at home when they get there, and be put in their proper places and have jus- tice done to them; this is quite practicable, and earnestly recommended to the serious attention of all infant teachers, and also to every teacher on a normal establishment, as unity of purpose will be highly advantageous to the pupils. That the teachers never send too many of the forward children away at the same time, as they are the main spring of the school; and on no account to allow the parents to be in a hurry to get them into the upper schools before they are fit or of age, as the parents are generally incompetent judges on the subject. A good understanding must always be kept up amongst the teachers on the esta- blishment, to prevent the parents making a play-thing of the institution by taking the child from one school without notice and putting it to another, which they are apt to do. Lastly, that it be considered that the infant teachers are equal in all respects to the other teachers, and that their office is fully as respectable, and requires even a greater diversity of talent than the others; and that the respon- sibilities are equally apparent and independent also. That the infants be taught to make letters on the engraved slates in the afternoon, so as to be able to know and form all the letters in the alphabet, both capitals and text, before they leave the infant schools; and that this department be superintended by both the teachers, and performed in an orderly and proper manner. That the classes be called over every day, so as to know who are the absentees, and to be marked on the slate provided for that purpose; and that the teachers who come from time to time to be in- structed in the system, be especially directed on this sub- ject, which is neglected in almost all the infant schools. Nothing is of greater importance to secure their regular attendance in other schools than attention to this when they are quite young. It is a lamentable fact, that little E 50 RULES AND REGULATIONS children in manufacturing districts, soon learn to play at truant, and unless the greatest attention be paid to it, on the part of the teachers, the moral education is much in- jured; I have known as many as ten children in a neg- lected infant school, play at truant on the same day. That which a child learns in infancy makes an impression that is hardly to be afterwards erased, great care must be taken that all its impressions, as far as the teachers are con- cerned, are good ones: in pursuance of this object all harsh words must be avoided on the part of the teachers; no snapping or irritable expressions should be made to them or in their presence. Love should be the mainspring of action amongst them. When the infants scc their tutors can command their own tempers, it will have a mighty influence upon them; such an influence that there exists not at present the means of ascertaining Generations yet unborn will be benefitted by it, in being treated by their parents in a more natural and Christian-like manner, and the effects on the whole community will go further to in- crcase love and affection amongst the human species, and do more to decrcase crime amongst us, than all the coer- cive laws which are to be found in the statute book. It is true that in such places as London, Liverpool, Manchester, Dublin, Glasgow, Edinburgh, and other large towns, where strangers are so much in the habit of sojourning, it appears there will be always a great num- ber of children whom school education can never reach, and these will be subject to strect contaminations; but this ought not to prevent us from doing all we can for those who are differently circumstanced, and who are fortunate enough to be placed under our care, and in a more favourable position. Education will be worthless, unless it has a tendency to decrease crime, to elevate our nature, improve our morals, and promote love and cha rity, and incrcase true religion amongst us Let OBSERVATIONS. .. 51 mothers and teachers understand, that no child can be properly trained by himself, so as to be made a valuable and useful member of society, and also a good moral and religious character. Man being a social being, must be well trained in community; it is evidently a law of the Creator that it should be so; all those children brought up with brothers and sisters are less petulant, and more so- ciable, than those brought up alone, and more fit to asso- ciate with others, and have less of the selfish principle. than the latter. Neither is an adult fit society for an infant, no, not even the mother; for parents are very apt to think that if they indulge their children to the utmost of their power, and give them every thing they wish for, they are treating them with the utmost possible kindness; this, I am sorry to say, is a common but a very dangerous error. The following are facts in support of what I have now ad- vanced, which were witnessed by myself, so that I can with justice testify to their truth. A mother, for some time past, has been in the habit of indulging her child, aged two years and six months, with pieces of cigars, in order to keep him quiet; and he has become so initiated into this practice, that every day after dinner he calls for his usual allowance, and will not take a denial. When he gets one, it must be lighted, if not he will stamp with his feet, and raise such a disturbance in the house that the poor mother is obliged to comply, and he actually consumes the greater part of it before he leaves off. The method taken is different from that usually practised, for instead of inhaling the smoke, he blows it from him. Thus we perceive, that if allowed to follow the same track for some time, the practice will grow with his growth and strengthen with his strength, and the proper training of the youth will be subverted by one who ought rather to watch that which will in future form his moral character. 3 -- E 2 52 OBSERVATIONS. • . The second is an instance of a child about the same age, who is in fact complete master over his mother; he even strikes her, says he won't obey, and, in order to gain his object, will stamp and roar until he has obtained it. This child has been three or four times in the infant school; his character when there, exhibited quite a different ten- dency, and I was perfectly surprised to perceive the pro- gress he made in so short a time; but the mother is un- willing to allow him to remain, her mind being impressed with the idea that he is better at home with her until he is a little older. A further instance of a girl aged three years, who acts in a similar manner with her mother, but when at school her character is quite different; shewing the benefits arising from the training in school and neglect at home, which we know arises from the mother's fondness in wishing to do all in her power to gratify her child, and thus by giving it too much of its own way, doing it more harm than good. In addition to these facts there are others of an opposite character. The first is of a boy aged six years, who has attended an infant school that I organized, for some time; having been sent for a quantity of coals, May 17, 1837, immediately after the opening of the morning school, and previous to the time for prayer, during his absence those in the school room were engaged in offering up their de votions to their Maker; he came to the door, and finding it locked, looked through the window which forms the upper part of the door; but, sccing his young schoolmates engaged at their religious duties, was unwilling to disturb them by knocking, and at the same time not willing to lose the benefits they were enjoying, laid down the shovel and coals on the step at the entrance, knelt over them with his hands in an uplifted position, and joined his young com- panions in their fervent duties. From these examples we are able to judge whether in- : ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS. 53 fants can be trained better at home, or at school,—whether their moral characters can be better formed at home with the mother, or in school, along with those of like age with themselves. My opinion is, that man being a social being, he must be trained with his fellows. The most judicious parent cannot train a child properly by itself; there is no world in miniature to try its temper. Under the guidance of a good teacher, who understands something of the phi- losophy of education, and also of the nature of the young mind, the advantages of the pupil are manifold; but should the pupils be improperly managed, and moral edu- cation be neglected, it is a truth that cannot be too ge- nerally known, that bringing large numbers of children. together is highly injurious, and of the two evils, it is better that the child should be educated at home. I have seen some schools that I would not send a child of mine to on any account whatever; but this has always arisen from a want of knowledge, both in the governors and the teachers, for it has been proved to me a thousand times, that children are never so happy as when they are in the company of their fellows: they also get a vast amount of knowledge from each other, which no adult could give them, nor could the opportunities occur for the develop- ment of the kindly feelings, unless children frequently met in society. Many of the infant faculties cannot be brought into play by any other means than by a union with its fellows. Before, however, finally concluding this chapter, we will give a few specimens of the way lessons should be given, on the subjects treated of. Suppose, for example, a twig, connected with the plumb tree, should be accidentally broken off, the children will immediately bring it to the teacher, with the full particulars of how it was done,- whether the wind blew it off, or whether a child acci- dentally fell against it. The teacher will listen attentively to what they have to say, and when they are all assembled E 3 54 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS · (C in the gallery, he will produce the object; and as the children sit in the proper position according to the arrange ments, they can scc distinctly every part of it. He may then commence with the following question: "Children, what is this?" The answer is sure to be from some of the children, “It is a branch from the plumb trec." "What is this part ?" pointing to the bark. The answer will be, "The bark." "What is the use of the bark ?" Answer: "To protect the trcc, as our skin protects our body." "Has it any other use?" Answer: "Yes! it helps to draw up the sap that comes out of the ground, and keeps the trcc, as well as the leaves of the tree, alive." Here the teacher will ask the children how they know that, and it is most likely that some of them will say, "They saw a goat, or some animal, gnaw the bark off a young tree, and they saw the tree dead soon afterwards." Another child, perhaps, will give another illustration, such as, Plcase, Sir, I pulled a piece of bark off a stick the other day, and I found it quite wet between the white part and the bark." The teacher may then ask, "Is the bark of every trcc alike? Answer: "No; the bark of every trcc is different, and judges can distinguish the description of each trec by its bark." He may then tell the children that the bark of the oak is used for tanning leather, and that the bark of the bccch, and some other trccs, is used for the same purpose; but that the oak bark is the strongest and the best. Should the accident occur carly in spring, he may point to the buds, and teach the children to distin. guish the bearing wood from that which produces leaves only; describe to the children how the sap comes through the stalk of cach leaf and cach blossom, to keep it alive, and how the Icaves fall off, the blossoms, and the little knob that remains, as the children call it, becomes a plumb; how this is supplied, by the juice coming continually through the stalk, which causes it to become larger, and finally, if it remain on the trcc, ripe. Jlow the Divine ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS. 55 Being arranges that every part of the tree should be sup- plied with nourishment, and how different the branch will appear from the rest of the tree, when it has been disen- gaged from it but a few days. He may here take the op- portunity to give a short illustration of what Christ means when he says, "I am the vine, ye are the branches;" and that if we are disconnected with him, we suffer in a similar manner to what they witnessed in the decayed branch. He may then shew them the difference between the leaf of a plumb tree, and the leaf of any other tree in the garden, and explain to them, in simple language, the superlative wisdom of the Deity, in creating such immense varieties, all for the sake or use of man. This treatment will have more effect upon the infant mind, if rightly ma- naged, than many persons are at all disposed to believe. People are too apt to call out for books, even for young in- fants, but nature's book contains most splendid lessons, which children delight to learn, when they are fortunate enough to meet with an adult who knows some little of the art of teaching. The next lesson may arise from an apple having been blown, in summer, from one of the trees; in a well-ma- naged school it is sure to be brought in by some of the pu- pils; but in an ill-managed school, where there are careless teachers, it will be put into the pocket, and then the poor children will be blamed for what I have a thousand times proved experimentally is not their fault. Whatever the generality of the world may think on the matter, I am mo- rally certain that most of the crimes committed by infants arise from the neglect of moral cultivation. As well might we expect the ground to produce splendid crops of grain, without ploughing, manuring, and harrowing, as to expect the human mind to produce good moral principles, without moral development and cultivation. We will, howeyer, suppose we are speaking of a well-managed school, and that the apple is brought in. The judicious teacher will : TA E 4 56 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS. 1 immediately seize the opportunity to give the children a lesson from it; he will commence with, What is this? A simultaneous shout will convince him that the children know it for an apple, His next enquiry will be, What colour is it? and he is sure to get a correct answer from some one of the pupils, which the very little ones well remember. He may then ask, What is the use of it? and the unanimous opinion will be, It is good to eat. He may then say, Which of you like an apple? and the young party will all simultaneously answer in the affirmative He now has the opinion that all love apples; he may, therefore, test their honesty by asking, If you all love apples, how came you to bring this to me? and the answer will be, Please, Sir, because it is not ours. He may then add, So you must not eat any thing, if it does not belong to you; although you may like it; and the general answer will be, No, Sir, it is thieving. Others will convince you they abstain from higher motives, with, Please, Sir, it is a sin against God; and others again will say, Plcase, Sir, because it breaks one of the commandments, which says, "Thou shall not steal." At this stage of the pro- cccdings, the judicious teacher will explain the various mo- tives which induce some people to be honest; such as the fear of punishment, or the loss of character in the school; and so on; and will never fail to acquaint the pupils that the highest motive to abstain from crime is, that it is a sin against God He may now ask the children the shape of the apple, and they will tell him; then, What it was before it was an apple? and they will answer, a blossom. He may then ask, how it became an apple? and having obtained their infantile opinions, to be sure to inform them that it be- came so by a similar process to that of the plumb; and, above all, that it could not have become what they saw it, but for the wisdom and power of God. He may then open it, shew them the rind, the pulp, and the beautiful ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS. 57 5 little cases which contain the pip, in order that it may produce its kind: if the pips are white, it is a proof the apple is not ripe; if brown, it proves that it is, and fit to be eaten. He may further develop their faculties by asking, If it is useful for any other purpose than merely to eat? Some will say, it is good to make puddings; others will answer, it is useful to make tarts; and some clever little girl may raise her voice to inform you thus:— "Please, Sir, my mother made apple sauce to eat with a goose we had on Sunday for dinner;" and should the occurrence take place in Herefordshire or Devonshire, the teacher is sure to be told that they make cider of apples. He may then inform his pupils how the apples are crushed in a mill, how the pulp is afterwards put between hair cloths, and the juice squeezed out in a press; and how it is taken up in the buckets, afterwards put in hogsheads, and ultimately sold for cider. If the children listen atten- tively he may proceed to give them further information on the use of the apple, but if they are listless or inattentive, it is a sure sign the lesson must be cut short. But he must never finally conclude without leading the young mind to be thankful to the great Author of our existence for his o'erteeming goodness in creating so many things for his disobedient creature, man. If mothers only knew how much good they might do, by seizing the proper opportunity to give their young charge instruction from the objects of nature, and with what delight and avidity such instruction is received, it would not be treated with the neglect which, in the present day, is but too unfortunately the case. 58 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS. C BOTANY. Calyx or Cup. Corolla. hog Petal. 6 Stamens. Pistil. Pericarpium and Seed. First Question. How many parts are there to a flower? A. There are seven parts to a perfect flower. Q. What are their names? A. 1st. The calyx or cup; 2nd, the corolla, the petals (or the corolla divided); 3rd, the stamen; 4th, the pistil; 5th, the seed vessel, BOTANY. 59 which is called the pericarpium; 6th, the receptacle, and the seed. Q. What is the use of the calyx? A. To hold the flower. Q. Is there a calyx to every flower? A. No. Q. Which do you call the corolla? A. The corolla is found inside or above the calyx. Q. When the corolla is divided, what are the parts called? A. They are called petals. Q. When there is only one row of petals, what do you call the flower? A. A single flower, and when there are more rows than one, a double flower. Q. Where do the stamens grow? A: Inside the corolla. Q. What are they like? A. They are like slender threads with little knobs on their points. Q. Where do the pistils grow? A. In the centre of the stamens; there is sometimes one, and sometimes more. Q. Which is the receptacle? A. The receptacle is that part in which all the other parts are united. Q. In what class does a flower belong that has only one stamen? A. The class monandria; and those with two, diandria; with three, triandria; with four, tetrandria; with five, pentandria; with six, hexandria; with seven, hep- tandria; with eight, octandria; with nine, enneandria; with ten, decandria; with twelve, dodecandria; with twenty, icosandria; with many stamens, polyandria. Q. You have told me the classes, now tell me the orders. Do you find to what order a flower belongs by the number of stamens ? A. No; by the number of pistils. Q. Of what order are those flowers with only one pistil? A. The order monogynia; those with two, digynia, &c. &c. 60 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS. LESSON ON POLYANTHUS. Q. What flower is this? A. A polyanthus. Q. Are these called leaves that surround the flower at top? A. No; they are called petals. Q. Then are there no leaves to a polyanthus? A. Yes; those that grow around the stalk are called leaves. Q. Of what colour are they? A. Green. Q. What must we do to find the class and order of the flower? A. We must see how many stamens it has for the class, and how many pistils for the order. Q. Yes; and to count them, we must dissect the flower. What is the meaning of the word dissect? A. To dissect means to divide. Q. Very well; divide this polyanthus, and count the stamens, how many are there? A. One, two, three, four, five. NATURAL HISTORY. 61 Q. Then to what class does it belong? A. To the class pentandria. Q. What does the word pentandria mean? A. The word pentandria means five stamens, pent meaning five, and andria meaning stamens. Q. As we have found to what class the Polyanthus be- longs, we must now find the order; how many pistils has it? A. Only one. Q. Of what order is a flower with one pistil? A. The order monogynia; because mono, means one. So the Polyanthus is of the class pentandria, and the order monogynia. THE TULIP. Q. To what class does the Tulip belong? A. To the class hexandria. Q. How do you know? A. By counting its stamens. Q. How many stamens are there? A. Six stamens and one pistil. Q. Then if it has one pistil, to what order does it belong? A. To the order monogynia. THE COMMON PASSION FLOWER. Q. Do you know the class and order of this flower? A. It belongs to the class pentandria, and order trigynia. Q. How do you know that it is of the order trigynia? A. By its having three pistils. Q. And how can you tell the class? A. By the number of stamens. Q. How many stamens has the passion flower? A. Five. Q. Can you tell me why it is called a "passion flower"? A. Because it is said to resemble the passion of Christ. Q. In what manner does it resemble our Saviour's pas- sion? A. The three pistils are said to resemble the three nails with which he was nailed to the cross; the five sta- mens, the five wounds; and the radiant purple colour, the DA 62 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS. 60 Passi flora tileaflora. rays that were supposed to surround his head when ex- piring on the cross. Those persons who think these subjects too high for the understandings of children between five and six years old, will, of course, dispense with this part of the system. It is, however, the principle that I contend for; but I leave the application of it to the judicious management of others. NATURAL HISTORY. 0 THE REINDEER. The reindeer is an animal only found in cold countries, that is, in the northern parts of America, Europe, and NATURAL HISTORY. 63 Asia; but principally in Lapland. In these countries many of the useful animals, such as the horse, the cow, and the sheep, will not live; and the reindeer, in a great measure, supplies the place of all these animals. They are used by the Laplanders for the purpose of conveying them over the deep snows, and places that would other- wise be impassable; they also yield milk; their skins serve for clothing; their sinews are used instead of thread; and their flesh serves for food. When they are used to convey the Laplanders to different parts, a collar of leather is placed round their necks, to which is fastened a long leather strap; and to this strap is fastened the carriage or sledge in which the Laplander sits. These sledges are very light, and have no wheels; they are covered at the bottom with a reindeer's skin. In these the Laplanders can travel thirty or forty miles in a day. In the summer the Laplander drives the deer up to the mountains, and in the morning and evening, brings them down to their cottages to be milked. The quantity of milk afforded in a day by one reindeer, is about a pint. The food of the reindeer is a peculiar kind of moss, for which the animals are obliged to dig with their feet and horns under the snow. The height of the reindeer is about four feet and a half; they have long slender branching horns. Questions and Answers. Q. Does the reindeer live in warm or cold countries? A. In cold countries. Q. Where are they principally found? A. In Lapland. Q. In what part of the world is Lapland? A. In Europe. Q. Are there any horses or cows in Lapland? A. No; the reindeer supplies the place of both. Q. Does the reindeer give milk? A. Yes. 64 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS. A. In sledges drawn Q. How do the Laplanders travel? by reindeer. Q. What do they use the skins of the reindeer for? A. For clothing. Q. Of what use are the sinews? A The Laplanders use the sinews instead of thread Q. Is the flesh of the reindccr good to cat? A Yes. Q How do the Laplanders fasten the reindeer to the sledges ? A. They have a long leathern strap attached to the sledge and then fastened to a leathern collar round the neck of the reindecr. Q. How far can they travel in a day? A. About thirty or forty miles * Q What is a sledge? A. A carriage without wheels Q. Where do the Laplanders drive the reindeer in sum- mer? A. They drive them to the mountains, and fetch them down to be milked, morning and evening. Q. How much milk does one of them afford in a day? A. About a pint. Q. What does the reindeer eat? A. A peculiar kind of moss, which they dig out of the ground with their fcct and horns. Q What is the height of a reindeer? A. About four feet and a half. Q. Are their horns very thick? A. No; they are slender and branching. Q. What does branching mean? A. It means that one part grows out of another like the branches of a trec, * The reader then will understand that the children in other lessons are instructed what is a mile, and various other measured distances. NATURAL HISTORY. 65 THE BEAVER. The beaver lives in the midst of the deserts of Europe, Asia, and America. Sometimes more than 200 assemble together on the bank of some river, to build their houses, to collect their food, and to provide for their young ones. Their houses are always placed near to each other, and are six or eight feet high, round at the top, and are made of sticks, dirt, and stones. When they are going to build them on the side of a small river, they build a dam across the stream, that they may always have plenty of water. This dam is made by several large sticks, which the bea- vers drive into the ground, in several rows, across the stream; these they interweave with the branches of trees, and the spaces they fill up with stones and clay; this makes it like a hard, firm wall. The beavers feed on the bark and young branches of trees. In the autumn, they lay up a large quantity for their winter provision. They are hunted for the sake of their skins; their hair is fine, 66 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS smooth, and glossy, and of a dark brown, or blackish colour, and is used for making hats Questions and Answers. Q. Where does the beaver live? A. The beaver lives in the midst of the deserts of Europe, Asia, and America. Q Are they a solitary animal; which means that they keep alone? A No; they assemble together in great num- bers, the same as a flock of shccp. Q. Where do they assemble? A Generally on the banks of some river, to make their houses Q. What else? A To collect their food, and provide for their young ones Q. Are their houses placed a great way apart? A. No; they are always placed near to cach other. Q. How high do they generally build them? A. Some- times they build them six or eight feet high. Q. What shape are they? A They are round at the top, and something like the shape of a bcc hive. Q. What do they make their houses of? A. Of sticks, dirt, and stones, Q. What do they first do, when they are going to build them on the side of a small river? A. They form a dam across the stream Q. What for? A, That they may always have plenty of water. Q. How do they make this dam? A. By gnawing down trccs, and then making them swim down the river, and stop at the place where they want to make the dam. Q. How do they form the dam? A. By making holes in the bottom of the river, and fixing the stakes upright in se- veral rows; they interweave branches of the trees between the spaces Q. What else? A They fill them up with stones and clay, and this inakes it as hard and firm as a wall. When finished it looks like a mill dam. * NATURAL HISTORY. 67 Q. What do beavers feed on? A. The bark and the young branches of trees. Q. What methods do they take in the autumn? A. They lay up a large stock of food for their winter provision. Q. Are they hunted by men for any purpose? A. Yes; for the sake of their skins. Q. What kind of hair is on their skins? A. It is fine, smooth, and glossy, of a dark brown or blackish colour. Q. What is it used for? A. The furriers use it for many purposes; and the hatters use it for making hats. Q. What do furriers mean? A. People that sell skins of animals, which are called furs; they make ladies' tippets, muffs, and other things. Q. What does a hatter mean? A, A person that makes or sells hats. THE DUCK. The Duck can swim in the water, but does not eat grass like the goose. They are of various colours, but the drake is always the prettiest. They eat frogs and snails, little fish, and almost any thing but grass and hay. Little ducks can swim the same day they come out of the eggs, and their own mother can take care of them. It is wrong to let hens bring up young ducks, because the young ducks go into the water, which hurts the poor hen, who is not able to swim F 2 68 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS after them. The Almighty, who made every thing that has life, took care that every animal should know how to bring up its own young ones. The little ducks like to swim on the water with their mother, and the old one teachcs them how to find worms and insects at the bottom of the pond, which the hen cannot do; besides, the hen makes a noise which the little ducks cannot understand, for when she calls, she goes "cluck, cluck," but the old duck gocs "quack, quack," and the little ducks look up, and if any person is coming, they run with their mother into the pond, and get out of the way. A female duck sits on the eggs twenty cight days, and then, if they are good eggs, the little ducks come out of them. Questions and Answers. Q. Can the duck swim in the water? A. Yes, Q. Does it eat grass like the goose? A. No. Q. What colour is it? A. Ducks are of different colours Q. Which is the prettiest bird, the duck or the drake? A. The drake. Q. Is the drake the male or female? A. The male. Q. And the duck is? A. The female. Q. What do they eat. A. Frogs, snails, little fish, and almost any thing they can get. Q. What do they not eat? A. Grass and hay. Q. How long after they have come out of the egg do the little ducks go to swim in the water? A. The same day. Q. Is it right to let hens bring up young ducks, as you may have often sccn done when the duck's eggs are put under a hen to hatch them? A No; for the poor hen is sorry to scc the young ducks run into the water, where she cannot follow thein Q. Does the Almighty make every animal able to provide for, and to take care of, their young? A. He does- NATURAL HISTORY. 69 Q. What does the old duck do for her young ones? A. She swims with them in the water. Q. What more does she do? A. She teaches them to find worms and insects, both at the top and bottom of the pond. Q. Could the hen do all this for them? A. She could not. Q. What noise does the hen make when she wishes to call the young ducks she has brought up? A. She goes cluck, cluck. di hulg Q. Do the little ducks understand this? A. No..or yo Q. What does the old duck do when she calls the young ducks? A. She goes quack, quack. goes quack, quack. Joid pid Q. Do the young ducks know this call? A. They do. Q. And what do they do when they hear it? A. They look up. Q. What else? A. If any one is coming they run with their mother to the pond, and get out of the way. Q. How long does the female duck sit on her eggs, be- fore the little ducks come out? A. Twenty-eight days. THE BULL. W p The bull is larger and stronger than the cow; his neck and head are thicker, and he has very strong, thick horns. Some men drive bulls from place to place, till they become quite wild, and then they are so fierce that they will gore and toss any thing that comes in their way. In Spain, which is a country in Europe, the people take great delight in seeing men on horseback with long spears in their hands, fight bulls, and kill them in a very cruel manner. In our F3 70 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS, : own country, not very long ago, it was quite common to tie a poor bull with a strong rope to an iron ring made fast in the ground, and then let a number of fierce dogs loose at him. Sometimes he would kill more than half the dogs, by tossing them with his horns into the air, before they suc- cccded in conquering him, and it very often happened that the bull, being dreadfully enraged at the cruelty that was practised on him, used to break the rope, and run with fury amongst the people, killing and wounding many of them. We should be very glad that this cruel custom is now put a stop to. If men would treat them kindly, and not hurt or abuse them, I do not think they would be so wild or fierce The bull's hide, which means his skin, is made into leather for making shoes and boots; and the glue that carpenters use in making tables and chairs, is made of bits of the skin of the hoofs that come off his fect. The bulls that are bred in this country are the best bulls in the world; but those of Tartary and Denmark are the largest. You must recollect that the largest, and those things that are pretty, are not always the best. Questions and Answers. Q. Which is the larger and stronger; the bull of the Cow? A. The bull is larger and stronger than the cow. Q. What other difference is there between them? His neck and head are thicker, and he has very strong, thick horns A Q. Are men always kind to bulls? A. No; they drive them from place to place very often, till they become quite fierce Q. Are they dangerous then? A. Yes; they will gore and toss anything that comes in their way. Q. Do they use bulls better in Spain? A. No; the peo- ple take great delight in sccing men on horseback, with long spears, fight with them, in a place enclosed for the purpose, the shape of which is that of a ring. NATURAL HISTORY. 71 Q. Where is Spain? A. It is a country in Europe. Q. What was it very common to do to them in our coun- try a short time ago? A. They were tied to an iron ring with a strong rope, and dogs let loose at them. Q. Used the bull to hurt the dogs? A. Yes; he used to kill them, toss them in the air, and trample them with his feet. Q. What used sometimes to happen? A. The bull would often break loose, and run amongst the crowd, killing and goring many of them. Q. If bulls were better used by man, do you would be so fierce? A. No. think they Q. What is done with the hide or skin of the bull? A. Made into leather for boots and shoes. Q. What is made of the bits of skin off his hoofs? A. The glue which carpenters use in making tables and chairs is made of it. Q. Are the bulls that are bred in this country good ones? A. They are the best in the world. Q. Are they the largest? A. No; the bulls of Tartary and Denmark are larger. Q. Where is Tartary? A. In Asia. Q. Where is Denmark? A. In Europe. Q. Are those things that are pretty or the largest, always the best? A. No; for the English bulls are the best in the world, though those of Tartary and Denmark are the largest. F4 72 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS. boit or THE Ass. The Ass is very useful to poor people; he is strong, and is able to carry very heavy loads. The poor people use him to bring sand, coals, peas, and beans to market. When he is used kindly he will work very hard, and do all he can to please them; but when they treat him in a cruel manner, beat him, or throw stones at him, he is very stubborn, and will not work at all. The ass will eat al- most any vegetable, even the thistles that grow by the road side; he will drink nothing but the cleanest water, and he never puts his nose into the stream when he drinks; he does not like to wet his feet, and always picks the cleanest part of the road to walk in. I hope the little children who read this lesson will never throw stones at a poor ass, or any other animal, nor at one another. We should always do to others, as we would wish they should do to us, and I am sure nobody likes to be struck with a stone. The ass is mentioned in scripture; our Saviour rode upon one when he entered Jerusalem. Although he was the Son of God, he was so meek and humble as to ride upon an ass. If you look at the picture I think you will see a black mark along his back, and there is another passing over his shoulders, NATURAL HISTORY. 73 which forms a cross, something like the one on which Jesus Christ died. The ass is very often used by invalids, who drink its milk also for some complaints. Questions and Answers. Q. Of what use is the ass? A. To carry loads for poor people. Q. Does he not sometimes draw very heavy loads, in- stead of carrying them? A. Yes; they very often draw a small cart full of vegetables to market. Q. How do they carry the loads when there is no cart? A. They have two baskets fastened together by a strap and slung across their back. Q. What are these baskets called? A. They are called panniers. Q. Is the ass only useful to poor people? A. They are very often used by the rich; but they are more useful to the poor, because they cannot afford to buy horses. Q. What is the meaning of the word stubborn? A. It means to be very obstinate and not to do what their mas- ter bid them. Q. Are asses always stubborn? A. No; not when they are treated kindly. Q. What does the ass eat? A. They will eat almost any vegetable, so that it costs very little to feed them. Q. That is why they are so useful to poor people, is it not? A. Yes. Q. Is he very particular about drinking? A. Yes; he will drink none but the cleanest water. Q. Does he put his nose into the water when he drinks ? A. No; and he always picks the cleanest part of the road to walk in ? Q. Why? A. Because he does not wish to wet his feet. Q. Is the ass mentioned in scripture? A. Yes; Jesus Christ entered Jerusalem riding upon an ass. Q. It says in the lesson that they are often used by in- 74 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS. valids. What is the meaning of the word invalid? A. It mcans a sick person. Q. Do the inyalids ride upon the ass, or drive it in a carriage? A. They sometimes ride upon them, and some- times drive them in a little low carriage only large enough to hold two persons Q. Is the ass of any further use to sick persons? A. Yes; in some complaints the doctors order its milk to be drank by the sick persons THE PIG, This is the picture of the pig. He likes to roll in the mire (that means dirt), and then turn it up with his nose. Boys and girls should like to be clean and ncat; it is a sad thing to be like a dirty pig. The flesh of the pig is called pork, and when it is salted and dried it is bacon. The hair that grows on his back makes hair brooms, and he is kept in a sty; you will scc a representation of it in the picture He has cloven fcct like the cow; they sccm to be split up the middle The pig has forty two teeth; and the noise he makes is called grunting. He will eat corn, flesh, grass, grains, roots, and almost anything that grows and has life. The male is called a boar, the female a sow. When they are kept clean they look much better, and the little young ones look very pretty. Children should never give a pig anything out of their hands, for the pig will bite them. le cats out of a trough, and makes a grcat noise with his mouth. Little children must not make a noise when they cat, for it is not pretty. Look at the picture, and you will sce a broom on the ground, some careless person has been sweeping, who forgot to put it away. I hope you will al- ways put every thing in its place, when you have done with it. Questions and Answers. Q. What is the flesh of the pig called when he is killed? NATURAL HISTORY. 75 A. Pork; but when it is salted and dried it is called bacon. Q. Of what use is the hair of a pig? A. It is used for making brooms. Q. What sort of feet has he? A. Cloven feet. Q. What does the word cloven mean? A. It means split up the middle. Q. How many teeth has a pig? A. Forty-two. Q. What do you call the noise that a pig makes? A. Grunting. Q. What do pigs eat? A. They will eat corn, flesh, grass, grains, weeds, roots, and potatoes, and almost any thing that grows. Q. What do they eat out of? A. A trough. Q. Can you see the broom in the picture? A. Yes. Q. Is it resting against the wall? A. No; it is down on the ground. Q. Is that the place for it? A. No; it will make it dirty. Q. What are the troughs generally made of? A. They sometimes are made of wood, sometimes of stone. Q. What is the one in the picture made of? A. I think it is made of stone. Q, What is the roof of the sty covered with? A. With straw. Q. What do you call it when covered with straw. A. It is said to be thatched. 76 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS. THE COCK. 7.9 This is the picture of the Cock; and now we shall read something about him. He will fight, and take care of the hens; and always crows early in the morning. Those are spurs behind his legs, and are quite hard. The red piece on his head is called his comb; the underneath is, called his gills. He cannot swim like the duck; but he can sleep on a piece of stick, which he grasps tight with his feet. His flesh is good to eat; and people buy them to pick up the wheat and the oats which would be lost were it not for them. Good children don't drive them or throw stones at them; but bad boys sometimes do. The cock is men- tioned in the New Testament; when Peter denied his Lord and Saviour three times, then the cock crew; and when Peter heard it he went out and cried, Jesus Christ told him that it would be so, but Peter thought it would never happen that he should deny his master, and he said, "though all men should deny thee I will not." Questions and Answers. Q. Is the cock a brave bird? A. Yes; he is the bravest bird we have. Q. Will he crow early in the morning? A. Yes; he crows very early, when the daylight is beginning to appear. NATURAL HISTORY. 77 Q. What do you call the hard claw which he has behind his leg? A. His spur. Q. Does he use this spur for any purpose? A. Yes; when fighting he will strike very strong blows with it, and cut his enemy very severely. Q. Do cocks fight with one another? A. Yes; they seldom meet without a battle. Q. Can the cock swim? A. No; but he can sleep on a piece of stick, which he grasps tight with his feet. Q. Is his flesh good to eat? A. Yes; and people buy them to pick up the wheat and oats that would be lost but for them. Q. Is the cock mentioned in the New Testament? A. Yes; when Peter denied his Lord and Saviour three times, then the cock crew. Q. When Peter heard it, what did he do? A. He went out and wept bitterly. Q. What do you mean by weeping bitterly? A. Crying very much. Q. Why did Peter cry very much? A. Because Jesus Christ told him, that before the cock crew he would deny him thrice. Q. Did Peter think this would ever happen? A. No; he said, "though all men should deny thee, I will not.” SCRIPTURE LESSONS. CHILDREN BROUGHT TO CHRIST. 'And they brought young children to him, that he should touch them: and his disciples rebuked those that brought them. But when Jesus saw it, he was much dis- pleased, and said unto them, Suffer the little children to come unto me, and forbid them not: for of such is the king- dom of God. Verily I say unto you, Whosoever shall not .. ! .. 80 SPECIMENS OF SCRIPTURE LESSONS dead? A He lifted up his eyes; or looked towards hea ven. Q. And what did he say? A. He said, "Father, I thank thee that thou hast heard me.” Q. Did Jesus say any thing else? A Yes; he said, "I know that thou hearest me always." Q. What made him say this? which stood by. A Because of the people Q. Is there any other reason given in the lesson why he said it? A. Yes; that the people night believe that he had been sent of his Father. Q. And when he had thus spoken, what happened? A "Jesus cried with a loud voice, Lazarus, come forth.” Q Did Lazarus come forth? A. Yes. Q What state was he in? A. He was bound hand and foot. Q, With what? A. With grave clothes Q. What was bound about his face? A A napkin. Q What did Jesus say? A. "Loose him, and let him go." Q The lesson says, many of the Jews came to the sister of Lazarus; was it the same sister who told Jesus her bro- ther had been dead four days? A. No; it was Mary. Q. When the Jews had seen what Jesus did, what hap- pened? A Some of them believed on him. Q Did they not all believe? A, No; some of them went their ways to the Pharisees. A. Men that were very Q. Who were the Pharisees? proud of their own goodness, and thought badly of every one else; they did not believe in Jesus, but were his great- est enemies. Q What did the Jews tell the Pharisccs, when they came to them? A. They told them what things Jesus had done. ► NATURAL HISTORY. 77 Q. What do you call the hard claw which he has behind his leg? A. His spur. Q. Does he use this spur for any purpose? A. Yes; when fighting he will strike very strong blows with it, and cut his enemy very severely. Q. Do cocks fight with one another? A. Yes; they seldom meet without a battle. Q. Can the cock swim? A. No; but he can sleep on a piece of stick, which he grasps tight with his feet. Q. Is his flesh good to eat? A. Yes; and people buy them to pick up the wheat and oats that would be lost but for them. Q. Is the cock mentioned in the New Testament? A. Yes; when Peter denied his Lord and Saviour three times, then the cock crew. Q. When Peter heard it, what did he do? A. He went out and wept bitterly. Q. What do you mean by weeping bitterly? A. Crying very much. Q. Why did Peter cry very much? A. Because Jesus Christ told him, that before the cock crew he would deny him thrice. Q. Did Peter think this would ever happen? A. No; he said, "though all men should deny thee, I will not.” SCRIPTURE LESSONS. CHILDREN BROUGHT TO CHRIST. And they brought young children to him, that he should touch them: and his disciples rebuked those that brought them. But when Jesus saw it, he was much dis- pleased, and said unto them, Suffer the little children to come unto me, and forbid them not: for of such is the king- dom of God. Verily I say unto you, Whosoever shall not 78 SPECIMENS OF SCRIPTURE LESSONS : receive the kingdom of God as a little child, he shall not enter therein. And he took them up in his arms, put Mark x. his hands upon them, and blessed them," 13 16. Q. What did they bring the children to Jesus for? A That he should touch them Q. And what did the disciples do? A. They rebuked those that brought them. Q. When Jesus saw it, he was what? A. Displeased. Q What did he say? A. Suffer the little children to come unto me. : `Q. And what else? A And forbid them not. Q For of such is the what? A Kingdom of God Q. How are we to receive the kingdom of God? A, As a little child. Q. What does Jesus Christ say of him who does not so receive it? That he shall not enter therein. Q What did Jesus do to these children? A He took them up in his arms Q. And what more? A. And blessed them. CHRIST RAISETH LAZARUS TO LIFE- "Jesus therefore again groaning in himself, cometh to the grave It was a cave, and a stone lay upon it. Jesus said, Take ye away the stone Martha, the sister of him that was dead, saith unto him, Lord, by this time he stink- eth: for he hath been dead four days, Jesus saith unto her, Said I not unto thcc, that, if thou wouldest believe, thou shouldest scc the glory of God? Then they took away the stone from the place where the dead was laid. And Jesus lift up his eyes, and said, Father, I thank thee that thou hast heard me And I knew that thou hearest me always: but because of the people which stand by I said it, that they may believe that thou hast sent me. And when he had thus spoken, he cried with a loud voice, Lazarus, come forth. And he that was dead came forth, bound hand and foot FOR YOUNG CHILDREN. 79 with grave clothes: and his face was bound about with a napkin. Jesus saith unto them, Loose him, and let him go. Then many of the Jews which came to Mary, and had seen the things which Jesus did, believed on him. But some of them went their ways to the Pharisees, and told them what things Jesus had done.”—John xi. 38—46. Q. What is Jesus described as doing in the first six words of this lesson? A. He groaned in himself. Q. What does groaning mean? A. A loud noise, such as persons make when in pain. Q. When Jesus had groaned in himself, where did he go? A. He went to the grave. Q. What kind of grave does it say it was, in the lesson? A. A cave. Q. What is a cave? A. A deep hole in a rock, or hill, or under the ground, which persons can get into. Some caves have been found, large enough to hold many hundred men. Q. What lay by the cave? A. A large stone lay upon it. Q. What did Jesus say about the stone? A. He asked the people who stood by to move it out of the way. Q. What did Martha, the sister of him that was dead, say unto Jesus? A. She said unto him, Lord, by this time he stinketh, for he hath been dead four days. Q. What was the name of the sister of Lazarus who said he had been dead four days? A. Martha. Q. What did Jesus say unto her, in reply to this observa- tion? A. He said unto her, "Said I not unto thee, that if thou wouldest believe thou shouldest see the glory of God." Q. What does the lesson say after that? A. It says, Then they took away the stone from the place where the dead was laid. Q. What kind of a place was it where the dead was laid? A. A cave. Q. Who was it that was dead. A. Lazarus. Q. What did Jesus do before he raised Lazarus from the 80 SPECIMENS OF SCRIPTURE LESSONS .. dead? A. He lifted up his eyes; or looked towards hea ven. Q. And what did he say? A. He said, thee that thou hast heard me." Father, I thank Q. Did Jesus say any thing else? A. Yes; he said, "I know that thou hearest me always " Q. What made him say this? A. Because of the people which stood by. QIs there any other reason given in the lesson why he said it? A. Yes; that the people might believe that he had been sent of his Father. Q. And when he had thus spoken, what happened? A “Jesus cried with a loud voice, Lazarus, come forth.” Q Did Lazarus come forth? A. Yes. Q. What state was he in? A. He was bound hand and foot. Q, With what? A With grave clothes Q. What was bound about his face? A. A napkin. Q. What did Jesus say? A. "Loose him, and let him go." Q The lesson says, many of the Jews came to the sister of Lazarus; was it the same sister who told Jesus her bro- ther had been dead four days? A. No; it was Mary. Q. When the Jews had seen what Jesus did, what hap- pened? A Some of them believed on him. Q. Did they not all believe? A No; some of them went their ways to the Pharisees. Q. Who were the Pharisees? A. Men that were very proud of their own goodness, and thought badly of every one else; they did not believe in Jesus, but were his great- est enemies. Q What did the Jews tell the Pharisees, when they came to them? A. They told them what things Jesus had done. FOR LITTLE CHILDREN. 81 JESUS BROUGHT FORTH BY PILATE. "When Pilate therefore heard that saying, he brought Jesus forth, and sat down in the judgment seat in a place that is called the Pavement, but in the Hebrew, Gabbatha. And it was the preparation of the passover, and about the sixth hour: and he saith unto the Jews, Behold your King! But they cried out, Away with him, away with him, crucify him. Pilate saith unto them, Shall I crucify your King? The chief priests answered, We have no king but Cæsar. Then delivered he him therefore unto them to be crucified. And they took Jesus, and led him away. his cross went forth into a place called the And he bearing place of a skull, which is called in the Hebrew Golgotha: Where they cru- cified him, and two other with him, on either side one, and Jesus in the midst.-John xix. 13-18. Questions and Answers. Q. Who is first spoken of in this lesson? A. Pilate. Q. Who was Pilate? A. The Governor of the Jews. Q. What did Pilate do first? A. Brought Jesus forth. Q. And then what did he do? A. Sat down. Q. Where? A. In the judgment seat. Q. What is the judgment seat? A. A grand chair, such as kings sit on. Q. Where was the judgment seat? A. In a place called the pavement. Q. Was the place known by any other name? A. Yes; in the Hebrew language it was called Gabbatha. Q. What was the Hebrew language? A. The language which the Jews spoke when our Saviour was with them, and also the language which the Bible was written in. Q. About what time did Pilate sit in the judgment-seat?. A. At the preparation of the passover. Q. What is meant by the passover? A. A great feast of the Jews, at the time of the year which we call Easter. G 82 SPECIMENS OF SCRIPTURE LESSONS Q. Was it in memory of any particular time? A. Yes; when the Jews were in Egypt, the Lord God sent the angel of death to kill the first-born of the Egyptians. Q. How did he save the Israclites or Jews? A. He desired them to kill a lamb, with the blood of which they marked their doors, which the angel of death sccing, he passed over without killing them; and this is the reason the feast was called the passover. Q. What time of the day was it when Pilate brought forth Jesus ? A About the sixth hour. Q. Did the sixth hour mean what we call six o'clock ? A No; it mcant twelve o'clock, Q. Can you tell me why it meant twelve o'clock ? Α Because the Jews counted their hours from six o'clock in the morning. Q. Did Pilate say any thing? A. Yes; "Behold your king." Q. Who did Pilate speak to? A. To the Jews, Q. Who did he mean by their king? A Jesus Q. Did they make any answer to Pilate. A Yes; they cried out, "Away with him; away with him; crucify him." Q. What was meant by, crucify him? A. To put him to death. Q. In what way? A, By nailing his hands and feet to a cross like this, made of wood. Q. Did Pilate say any more? A Yes; he asked, “Shall I crucify your king ?” Q. Who answered Pilate this question? A The chief priests Q. Who were the chief priests? A. The persons that used to preach to the people in a place called the templc FOR LITTLE CHILDREN. 83 the same as our clergymen preach to the people in this country in churches and chapels. Q. What answer did they give to Pilate? A. We have no king but Cæsar. Q. Who was Cæsar? A. The Roman king. Q. If he was the Roman king, why did the chief priests say he was the king of the Jews? A. Because Cæsar's soldiers had conquered the Jews. Q. After this, what became of Jesus? A. Pilate deli- vered him to be crucified. Q. Who led him away? A. The Jews. Q. Did he carry any thing with him? A. Yes; his cross. Q. Where did they take him? A. To a place called the place of a skull. Q. Is that place known by any other name? Yes; in the Hebrew it is called Golgotha. Q. What is the Hebrew ? A. The language of the Jews. Q. What did they do with Jesus? A. They crucified him. Q. Did they crucify any one else? A. Yes; two others. Q. In what situation did they place Jesus? A. Between the two. THE GOOD SAMARITAN. "And Jesus answering said, A certain man went down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell among thieves, which stripped him of his raiment, and wounded him, and de- parted, leaving him half dead. And by chance there came down a certain priest that way: and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. And likewise a Levite, when he was at the place, came and looked on him, and passed on the other side. But a certain Samaritan, as he journeyed, came where he was: and when he saw him, he had com- passion on him. And went to him, and bound up his G 2 84 SPECIMENS OF SCRIPTURE LESSONS : wounds, pouring in oil and wine, and set him on his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him. Which now of these thrcc, thinkest thou, was neighbour unto him that fell among thieves? And he said, He that shewed mercy on him. Then said Jesus unto him, Go, and do thou likewise." Luke x. 30 34, 36, 37. Questions and Answers. Q. Where did the man go down from? A. From Jeru- salem. Q. To where? A. To Jericho. Q. What part of the world were Jerusalem and Jericho in? A In a part of the world called Asia, which you may scc marked on the big map, and because Jesus was born and died there, it is now called the Holy Land, Q. What happened to him? A. He fell amongst thieves. Q. Of what did the thieves strip him? A. Of his rai- ment. Q. What do you mean by raiment? A. Clothes to wear. Q. What else did the thieves do? A. They wounded him. Q. And departed leaving him, how? A Half dead Q. Who first came by? A. A certain priest. Q. When he saw the wounded man, what did he do? A, He passed by on the other side. Q. What did the Levite do after he came and looked on him? A. He also passed by on the other side. Q. What was a Levite? A. A person belonging to a certain part of the Jews, called the tribe of Levi. Q. Who was it had compassion on the wounded inan? A. A certain Samaritan. Q. What was a Samaritan? A. A person belonging to a sort of men, some of whom were Jews, and some hca- thens. Q. What is a heathen? A. One who does not believe in the True God, FOR LITTLE CHILDREN. 85 Q. What did the Samaritan do? A. He went up to him and bound his wounds. Q. What did he pour into them? A. Oil and wine. Q. What did he set him on? A. His own beast. Q. And where did he bring him to? A. To an inn. Q. Did he do any thing more? A. Yes, he took care of him. Q. After Jesus had finished this parable, what question did he ask? A. "Which now of these three thinkest thou was neighbour to him that fell among thieves ?” Q. And what did the man answer to this question? A. "He that shewed mercy on him.” Q. What, then, did Jesus say? A. "Go, thou, and do likewise." Q. What kind of story is this of the good Samaritan. A. A parable. Q. What do you mean by a parable? A. A story which, although it may not be true, is told for the purpose of shewing us something good, which we are to copy, or something bad, which we are to avoid. A. That we should relieving those who Q. What does the lesson shew us? copy the good Samaritan by always are in want and pain, and avoid the conduct of the priest and the Levite, who pass oy without giving the poor wounded man any assistance. JUDAS BETRAYETH CHRIST. "And immediately, while he yet spake, cometh Judas, one of the twelve, and with him a great multitude with swords and staves, from the chief priests and the scribes and the elders. And he that betrayed him had given them a token, saying, Whomsoever I shall kiss, the same is he? take him, and lead him away safely. And as soon as he was come, he goeth straightway to him, and saith, Master, master; and kissed him. And they laid their hands on him, and took him. And one of them that stood by drew a G 3 86 SPECIMENS OF SCRIPTURE LESSONS sword, and smote a servant of the high priest, and cut off his car. And Jesus answered and said unto them, Are ye come out, as against a thief, with swords and with staves to take me? I was daily with you in the temple tcaching, and ye took me not: but the scriptures must be fulfilled. And they all forsook him, and fled. And there followed him a certain young man, having a linen cloth cast about his naked body; and the young men laid hold on him: And he left the linen cloth, and fled from them naked." Mark xiv. 43 59 Questions and Answers. Q. As soon as Jesus had spoken, who came? A. Judas, Q. Who was Judas? A. One of the twelve apostles. Q. Who came with Judas? Q. What is a multitude A. A great multitude. A A large crowd of persons. Q. What had they with them? A. Swords and staves Q. What are staves? A Large sticks. Q. Who did they come from? A. From the Chief Priests, Scribes, and Elders. Q. Who were the Scribes and Elders? A. The Scribes taught the people the laws, and the Elders were those per- sons who made the laws. Q. Who betrayed Christ? A Judas. Q. How did Judas make him known to the multitude? A. By giving them a token. Q. What is a token? A. A sign. Q. What was the sign Judas was to give them? A He was to kiss Jesus. Q. When Judas came to Christ, what did he say to him? A. "Master, Master !" Q. And what did Judas then do? A. He kissed him. Q. What did the multitude do? A They laid their hands on Jesus and took him. Q. Did any of the friends of Jesus interfere? A Yes; one of them drew his sword. FOR LITTLE CHILDREN. 87 Q. Did he strike any one with it? A. Yes; he smote a servant of the High Priest. Q. What do you mean by he smote ? A. He struck. Q. Did he hurt him? A. Yes; he cut off his ear. Q. Did Jesus say or do anything? A. He said, “Are ye come out as against a thief, with swords and staves to take me ?" Q. What more did he say? A. "I was daily with you in the temple, teaching, and ye took me not; but the scrip- tures must be fulfilled." Q. What became of his disciples? A. They all forsook him and fled. Q. What do you mean by filed? A. They went away with speed. Q. Did any one follow him? A. Yes; a young man. Q. How was he dressed? A. With a linen cloth. Q. Did any person touch him? A. Yes; the young men laid hold of him. Q. Did they keep him? A. No; he fled from them. Q. What become of the linen cloth? A. He left it in their hands, and went away naked. PETER DENIETH CHRIST. "Now Peter sat without in the palace: and a damsel came unto him, saying, thou also wast with Jesus of Galilee. But he denied before them all, saying, I know not what thou sayest. And when he was gone out into the porch, another maid saw him, and said unto them that were there, This fellow was also with Jesus of Nazareth. And again he denied with an oath, I do not know the man. And after a while came unto him they that stood by, and said to Peter, surely thou also art one of them; for thy speech be- wrayeth thee. Then began he to curse and to swear, say- ing, I know not the man. And immediately the cock crew. And Peter remembered the word of Jesus, which said unto him, before the cock crow, thou shalt deny me thrice. And he went out, and wept bitterly."-Matt. xxvi. 69–75. G 4 88 SPECIMENS OF SCRIPTURE LESSONS : Questions and Answers. Q. Who sat without in the palace? A. Peter. Q. What is a palace? A. A large gentleman's house, called a palace if a king or quccn, or a bishop, reside in it. Q. And who came to him? A A damsel. Q. What did she say unto him? A "Thou also wast Jesus of Galilcc." Q. When Peter denied before them all, what did he say? A. "I know not what thou sayest." Q. When he was gone out into the porch, what hap- pened? A. Another damsel saw him. Q. What does a damsel mean? A. A young woman. Q. What did the second damsel say unto him? A. She spoke to them that were there. Q. Who were there? A. Some men, warming them- selves. Q. What did she say to them? A. "This fellow was also with Jesus." Q. Did Peter hear her? A. Yes; he said with an oath, I do not know him." Q. When they that stood by came to him and said, Surely, thou art one of them, what did they judge by? A. They said his speech betrayed him. Q. Did Peter acknowledge it then? A. No; he "began to curse and swcar, saying, I know not the man.” Q. What happened then? A. The cock crew. Q. What did this make Peter remember? words that Jesus had spoken to him. A The Q. What were they? A "Before the cock crow, thou shalt deny me thrice." Q. How many times are thrice? A. Three times. Q. Did Peter stay and warm himself after he heard the cock crow? A. No; he went out and wept bitterly. Q. What does that mean? much. A. It means he cried very FOR LITTLE CHILDREN. 89 CHRIST'S RESURRECTION. "In the end of the sabbath, as it began to dawn toward the first day of the week, came Mary Magdalene and the other Mary to see the sepulchre. And, behold, there was a great earthquake: for the angel of the Lord descended from heaven, and came and rolled back the stone from the door, and sat upon it. His countenance was like lightning, and his raiment white as snow: and for fear of him the keepers did shake, and became as dead men. And the an- gel answered and said unto the women, Fear not ye: for I know that ye seek Jesus, which was crucified. He is not here for he is risen, as he said. Come, see the place where the Lord lay. And go quickly, and tell his disciples that he is risen from the dead; and, behold, he goeth be- fore you into Galilee; there shall ye see him: lo, I have told you. And they departed quickly from the sepulchre with fear and great joy; and did run to bring his disciples word."-Matthew xxviii. 1-8. : Questions and Answers. Q. What time did Mary Magdalene come? A. The end of the Sabbath. Q. What does the Sabbath mean? A. A day of rest, when people go to church. Q. Was it quite dark when she came ? A. No; it began to dawn. Q. What does dawn mean? A. When it begins to be light. Q. What did the two Marys come to see? A. The se- pulchre. Q. What is a sepulchre? A. A place where they put dead bodies. Q. What happened when they came to the sepulchre? A. There was a great earthquake. Q. What does that mean? A. It means that the earth shook and opened. 90 SPECIMENS OF SCRIPTURE LESSONS. Q. Who came and rolled back the stone? A. An angel of the Lord, Q. Where froin? A From the door of the sepulchre Q. And how did the angel of the Lord come? A He descended from heaven. Q. What does descend incan? A. To come down. Q. And after the angel of the Lord rolled away the stone, what did he do next? A. Sat on it. Q. What was his countenance like? A Like lightning. Q. What does countenance mean? A. The appcarance of the face. Q. What colour was his raiment? A. As white as snow. Q. What does raiment mcan? A. Clothes. Q. Who was it that shook for fcar of him? A The keepers. Q. What do keepers mean? A. People who take care of any thing. Q. Did the keepers run away? A. No; they became as dead men. Q. What did the angel say to the women? A. Fear not ye, for I know that ye scck Jesus, that was crucified. Q. Did he say any thing else? A. Yes; he said, "he is not here, for he is risen, as he said." Q. Did the angel go away then? A. No; he said, "Come, sce the place where the Lord lay." Q. After he had told the women to go quickly and tell his disciples that he was risen from the dead, did he pro- mise them any thing? A. Yes; he said, "Behold, Jesus goes before you into Galilee.” Q. What does Galilec mean? A. A province of Judca, in Asia Q. What was to happen when they got there? A, They were to see Jesus. Q. When they departed with fear and great joy, did they go slowly? A. No; they ran to bring his disciples word. TO ESTABLISH INFANT SCHOOLS. 91 Q. What does disciples mean? A. Twelve men who were followers of Christ. The teacher in these lessons must recollect that many more questions may be asked. HOW TO ESTABLISH INFANT SCHOOLS WHERE NONE EXIST. The first thing to do in any neighbourhood, where there are two or three friends to the cause, is to try to establish a committee, purchase two or three books on the subject, and lend them to different friends, or get some person well- acquainted with the system, to develope its leading princi- ples orally, by lectures. I have never known this plan to fail. Should the lectures, however, be impracticable, I have known two or three ladies do wonders, by calling upon persons who are friendly to education, and inducing them to form a committee. When this committee is formed, the following circular, or something near it, may be dis- tributed in the neighbourhood; viz. “ Education is a subject in which all, of every class, are most deeply interested, and to which the attention of all is demanded by a concurrence of motives the most powerful. Not only do the precepts of our holy religion enjoin a re- gard to the welfare of our fellow-creatures, as a sacred duty; but the soundest principles of political science teach us, that as the springs of national prosperity must derive their source from the character of the people, an attention to the formation of that character is no less required by every enlightened view of our own personal interest, than by a regard to theirs. We may, it is true, forget we are commanded to love our neighbour as ourselves; we may strive to wrap ourselves up in our own selfish pursuits and sordid interests, and shut our eyes, and close our hearts to the misery and degradation of others; but sooner or later we shall assuredly discover that the same Divine 92 TO ESTABLISH INFANT SCHOOLS Will, which decrced, that the duty of every man should connect him with the whole human family, has chained his interests to theirs, by links which cannot be broken. If we suffer the lower classes amongst us to become morally degraded, the consequences must, in the end, inevitably recoil upon ourselves. Vicious habits cannot fail to pro- duce poverty, anarchy, and distress, and the wide extension of these evils amongst the poor, must end in the final wreck of individual wealth, and the ultimate ruin of national greatness. Surely, then, no institutions have a stronger claim to our support than those seminaries of infant in- struction, which influence the character of the labouring classes at the earliest and most susceptible period of life, and promote the formation of habits calculated alike to en- sure the welfare of the individual, and to uphold the most important pillars of the social edifice. “Infant schools are intended for the reception of chil- dren from the age of two, till that of six years, with the view of imbuing their opening minds with the know- ledge of religious truth; of training them up in habits of obedience and good order; and of giving them such ele- mentary instruction, as may prepare them for entering with advantage into parochial and other schools "The object of the support a school in this society is to establish and conducted upon such > principles; to use every endeavour to recommend the sys- tem for general adoption; to afford facilities to those who may be disposed to institute infant schools, by giving every information in regard to the best mode of erecting and conducting them, and by affording such assistance as may be in their power. "The affairs of the society shall be under the direction of a president, vice-president, two secretaries, a treasurer, and two committees, one of ladies, and the other of gen- tlemen. Each committee to consist of members, who shall be elected at the annual mccting of the society. RULES FOR COMMITTEES. 93 "The active management of the institution shall be under a committee of twelve gentlemen, elected annually from the general committee; the secretaries add treasurer being ex officio members; and four to form a quorum. Stated meeting of the committee of management to be held quar- terly." Having spoken of the formation of a Committee, I trust may take the liberty of giving some hints as to their du- ties. First, it is to see that the subscriptions are regularly collected; secondly, to see that the institution does not flag, for the want of suitable agitation on the subject, in the neighbourhood, by having, at least yearly, if not half-yearly, examinations of the pupils, to see that the fundamental principles of the system are acted upon, and that the chil- dren are not intoxicated, by continually having all the amusing part, without the essence; to see that the young pupils' minds are stored with religious truths, suited to their infant state; and to take care that the teachers do not over- do these things, which will be sure to end in an undoing; to see that the teachers are not content with a repetition of mere passages of Scripture, and the creeds or cate- chisms, but that what little they do should be done well, and thoroughly understood. In such case, a basis will be laid, on which a superstructure of genuine religion may be erected, that shall defy all infidel power. A Committee having once engaged a teacher, the very term implies that it is his or her duty to teach. The great- est person in the whole establishment must be, in the eyes of the pupils, their regular teacher. If a Committee inter- fere, unnecessarily, in the practical department, the conse- quences will be fatal to the ultimate success of the school. I have known some of the best schools in the country ruined by unnecessary interference in these matters. If your teachers are fit for their office, use them kindly, and keep them. If they are not fit for their office, discharge them, and get others that are. Never reprove, or find fault .. 94 RULES FOR COMMITTEES with a teacher, in the presence of his pupils. If individual members of the Committce have any suggestion to make, let them be always made in private, and, to prevent confu- sion, make a rule that all important orders to the teachers come through the secretary. These hints, I trust, are not given in the spirit of arrogance, but with a firm desire to support the sacred cause of the education of the people.. Having said thus much on the infant system, and given what I conceive useful hints to Committees, it may not be unimportant to state that we have usually forty scripture plates and lessons, similar to the specimens given, and also upwards of fifty lessons on natural history, besides object lessons, lessons on form, and such other subjects as are glanced at in the first chapter. I should hope that any moderate person would consider these quite sufficient for infants under six years of age. But Mr. Stowe, of Glasgow, and others, have not, in this respect, done me justice; for he says, that they found it necessary to introduce more scripture lessons. But let any considerate person reflect whether forty scripture lessons, such as I have given spe- cimens of, are not quite sufficient to burden a little child's memory with, without going into opposite extremes The distinguishing features of the infant system were to lay the foundation of a religious moral, intellectual, and physical education; and it was a sine qui non with me, first to take care that what the children did learn, they learnt well, in order that a superstructure of a proper kind might be made I may challenge Mr. Stowe, or any of those persons who may think so highly of his book, to prove that there is one single idca, in what he chooses to call his training system, that I did not exhibit myself in the schools which I opened in Glasgow, and in the lectures which I gave on the sub- ject; and lastly, in the examinations and exhibitions of the children in various parts of Scotland When the infant system was in its infancy, I was allowed to have the undi- vided honour of all the buffetings and sncers of uninformed * RULES FOR COMMITTEES. 95 persons upon the subject, but as soon as the thing began to establish itself, then we have disciples of Pestalozzi, disci- ples of Mr. Owen, Frenchmen, Germans, and even nurse- maids, laying claim to the system. One wishes to say it first commenced in Paris, and another says so early as 1802 there was an infant school in Saxony; but I beg to say we had infant schools in England at least a century ago; so that we find it is no new thing for infants to be collected together-but this does not constitute a school conducted upon the infant system. No; for the old dames of England are, in my opinion, entitled to the undivided honour of having established schools for infants. But as I hate hypocrisy and sham modesty, I beg leave explicitly to state, and I defy proof to the contrary, that I was not only the first person to invent and develope the system, but I was the first practically to shew to a disbelieving public the possibility of one man and woman managing two hundred and forty infants, for many years together, without any as- sistance whatever. Nothing can be more painful to a pro- perly regulated mind, than to have to speak of one's self; but when I have lived to see a studied combination, amongst many persons who chose to call themselves religious, both to keep my name and my doings in the back ground, self- respect and duty prompts me to let the public know the real state of the case. . 96 CHAPTER HII. FEMALE EDUCATION. ― Advantages of kindness in female education Neglect of female cul- ture Greater severity of the laws against females than males Injustice of this Evils attending the nc,lect of female education Necessity of improvement in their knowledge of the duties of the domestic circle What branches of mental education are proper for poor girls Arguments for the necessity of botany, geography, and natural history Miserable state of female schools in the manufacturing districts Ignorance of female teachers illustrated Attention to and neglect of moral culture contrasted Cominon Practical knowledge required errors in female cducation Geometry for girls Its utility argued for Children delighted Elements with natural objects Naturally instructed by them of geometry applicable to many useful purposes Music argued for Methods of teaching geography in the gallery, class room, and play ground, by maps, chalk lines, and water tight trays Lessons on Geography England Scotland Ireland Europe Asia, Africa, North and South America Botany Specimens of lessons Natural history lessons on the camel The hen and chickens The tame goosc The COW and the goat Object lessons Geometry Music Grammar Lessons on grammar. Ir is a fact which I have proved in my own experience, that the affections of the female mind are stronger than those of the male; all persons who have had similar ex- perience with myself, will, I doubt not, come to the same conclusion. Many of the plans, therefore, adopted with the infants will be useful, proper, and even desirable, with girls of a more advanced age. Kindness, mildness, and firmness in the treatment of them, will do more to accom- plish their education than harshness, threatening, and fear. Fcar acts on them like the chilling blasts of winter, some- times closes, and not unfrequently kills, the tender flower; but the genial warmth of love and kindness will cause the ADVANTAGES OF KINDNESS IN FEMALE EDUCATION. 97 female mind to expand, and induce it to send out its frag- rance in cheerful blossoms, and afterwards yield forth its fruit in abundance. Education truly deserving that name, has done little enough for the poorer classes of males, but it has done less for females in all parts of the world, Scot- land and Prussia not excepted; and yet these are destined by an all-wise and unerring providence to be entrusted with the care and nurture of the golden period of childhood. The awful fruits of the neglect of female education is but too apparent and appalling; it meets us in every town and county in the three kingdoms; there seems a backward- ness and disinclination to develop, draw out, and cultivate the female faculties, yet the very laws of society are more severe against them than the other sex. They are ex- pected to resist temptation without being prepared for it; all the virtue is expected on the one side; the weaker ves- sel by nature is expected to be the strongest; moral educa- tion for females has not been thought necessary. Here is the source of unnumbered ills, and human woes, and never will an alteration take place on a large scale, till we turn our attention to female education. It is from them that we must expect life and vigour to be imparted to any system of education we may adopt; they must be the prime agents, and never can be successful until their own states are improved. A mother among the inferior animals, is blindly impelled to bestow upon her offspring the treat- ment most conducive to their welfare, whilst the human mother is under the necessity of studying the constitution and laws of action of the bodily frame, and the influence of external agents upon it, before she can bring up her child in a manner fully consistent with its health. The evils which arise from ignorance of such topics are manifold and extensive, nor can an alteration take place, until more attention be paid and more pains taken in the cultivation and development of the female faculties. As the secular occupations of women must commence with the duties of H 98 EVILS ATTENDING THE NEGLECT OF FEMALE CULTURE, the domestic circle, it is evident these should in some mca sure be taught to girls at school. It is highly important that when mothers, they should know the means of preserving health, and also be able to communicate to their children sound principles, and cor- rect habits of thought; how can they do this without being put in the way of it by education? To gain these objects we must begin by physical education; strong women will be likely to produce strong children. After- wards comes reading, writing, the first rules of arithmetic, and sewing. Household work and nursing, they should, and usually do, learn at home, and it is delightful to scc the kindness of well-trained girls at school to little children at home; the contrast between the well-trained girl and the girl of cultivated mind, with the untrained girl and the girl of uncultivated mind, is striking in the extreme. It is re- quisite they should be taught, in addition to reading, writ- ing, arithmetic, sewing, and knitting, the elements of geo- graphy, botany, natural history, geometry, lessons on objects, grammar, and spelling; with singing and the notes in music. All these things are proper for poor girls I would add the elements of anatomy so far as to acquaint them with the form and structure of the bones and mus- eles, &c. &c. &c.; plates are published for this purpose and have been used by me with success and with the best effects. But to give lessons on this, in the present state of public fccling, might tend to defeat my own object, and I would rather wait until I perceive how the opinion is received. The knowledge of these things prevents un- necessary squccmishness, nervousness, and fright; it can- not do harm accompanied by suitable observations, and will do much good, especially in the hands of a judicious mistress or mother. The gross ignorance amongst the poor as to their own structure, is lamentable, and is the cause of much pain to their offspring. We will argue for the necessity of cach of these briefly, BRANCHES OF MENTAL EDUCATION FOR POOR GIRLS. 99 and then proceed to shew how they are to be taught. Re- ligious and moral education shall be noticed each in its proper place. Reading, writing, and arithmetic may be taught as at present, taking the plan which I shall here- after lay down for the boys as a guide. First, a knowledge of the elements of geography will be useful to a mother, to enable her to give her children instruction with which they are much delighted. Secondly, it will enable her to under- stand books of travels, voyages, history, and also the parts of the earth where the principal events recorded in Scrip- ture occurred; this will create stronger desires in the fe- male mind to make themselves acquainted with facts, and the books which record them, and, in proportion, weaken the desire, at present too prevalent, for works of fiction, novels, and light reading, which very often lead their vo- taries into error which might have been avoided, and light up and strengthen feelings which it is the business of edu- cation to weaken, if not entirely to repress. A knowledge of the elements of botany will have a sof- tening and beneficial influence on the female mind; as they walk in the lanes and the fields, they can read nature's book; and if nursemaids, instruct their young charge; it keeps their own thoughts from wandering to less useful subjects, for "Satan finds mischief" for idle minds to do, as well as "idle hands." Whenever we see a neat gar- den before or behind a peasant's cottage, it is a good sign. When we see the garden pots smeared over with red lead, put out on the window-sill, it may be taken for granted, that the minds of the inmates, however poor, are some- what refined and less brutalized than the generality of their drunken neighbours, and we may be sure that we are in- debted to the mother or the wife for these little outward signs. The more we can refine the views of the female poor, the more likely will the other sex be to benefit by its influence, and to treat them with the respect and kindness they deserve; and I may add, that no country can be truly Vor M H 2 100 MISERABLE STATE OF FEMALE EDUCATION • : . grcat, or truly virtuous, where female education is neglected the history of all nations proves this fact.* In domestic life, it will make a wonderful difference in the character and feelings of the children. Powerful arguments might be introduced to prove the advantages of a knowledge of objects of various kinds, in conjunction with the outlines of natural history; the wise and beautiful arrangements made by the Deity to preserve cach species of animals from entire destruction, and from over production, ought to strike every mother with admiration; and when she perceives the care, trouble, anxiety, and the inexhaustible perseverance dis- played by the female part of the brute crcation, in the pro- tection and education of their young until they can manage for themselves, it must remind her of the tenfold import- ance of her own duties towards her offspring, and must strikingly shew her the advantages she possesses, in having mind and education, as well as instinct, to guide her. The miserable state of the schools for the education of the female poor in manufacturing districts is truly lament- able, and must be seen to be believed: the girls are as utterly ignorant of most of these things as the mere babe ; little provision, if any, is made to remedy these defects; and I am quite prepared to prove every iota of what is here advanced, as regards poor girls, unless an alteration has recently taken place. It is not only the case in the manu- facturing districts, but it is almost universal. I know a mistress of the present time, a woman of good education, of lady-like manners and deportment, and, as far as the old mill-tract system goes, an excellent teacher. She has charge of a large model school under the Government, to which is attached every convenience for carrying out the before-mentioned views, but she thought it little less than an insult to be asked to attend her girls in the play-ground; no greater violence could be offered to her dignity, and she declared most emphatically, that no gentleman would ask * Scc Child's History of Women, Mou + IN MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS. 101 her to do such a thing-that her business began and ended within the walls of the school; and she was utterly horrified that the window of the superintendent's office overlooked the play-ground. Nothing in her mind could be more im- modest. Yet this same individual had made no complaint, when upwards of fifty men, between the ages of seventeen and thirty, had been regularly brought through the girl's play-ground to the very room in question, to be trained as school-masters; nor when work-people, and workmen of various degrees, used the places of convenience which were used by females from seven years old up to seventeen. In these things the lady in question could see no indelicacy, but that the father of a family who happened to have daughters nearly as old as herself, should pry into these things, and try to improve them, was such a shock to her modesty as to be worthy of a complaint to the principal persons of the institution. I regret to say that in my tra- vels I have found too many school-mistresses of this de- scription, who "strain at a gnat and swallow a camel.” The consequences of this want of attention, without the walls of the school, were, that the girls run over the dressed borders, injured the flowers, broke the wall-fruit trees, and frequently might be seen at the summit of large hawthorn trees, which were planted in their play-ground, in a most indelicate and improper situation. These are the fruits of want of know- ledge on the subject, and they are difficulties not easily overcome, and, I fear, not likely to be so, until we have a new race of female teachers, brought up under different cir- cumstances, and impressed with different views. In the infant play-ground, which was the next to the girls, the direct opposite conduct might be witnessed; there the fruit might be seen hanging in clusters without being taken by the pupils; there might the flowers be seen in all their luxuriance, highly respected by the infants; and, on the dressed borders, not a single foot-mark was dis- cernible. These facts speak plainly enough-the infants . .. H3 102 COMMON ERRORS IN FEMALE EDUCATION. had good moral education, the fruits of which appeared in their conduct; the girls had a portion of intellectual cul- ture with an entire neglect of moral and physical. In this same school might be sccn girls with platted hair, carrings, and other external finery, at the same time their stockings might be sccn in holes, and their under garments any thing but clean and decent, with a tolerable portion of self-conceit; and who are exceedingly proud of shewing their orna- mental nccdlc work, but who have never been taught that the brightest gems in the female character are delicate de- portment, cleanly habits, respect to property, and a modest demeanour. It is a fatal and fundamental error to suppose, that the sum total of female education consists in reading, writing, sewing, and knitting; they are necessary parts of it, certainly; but in this age something more must be added, ignorance must be combatted with, and removed. I would ask, what is the use of ornamental nccdle-work to the wife of a labourer, or an industrious mechanic? The time wasted in such nonsense may be much better em- ployed in mending their own garments and those of their little brothers and sisters. The want of management in those respects amongst the poor is clearly to be sccn, and unless they are pointed out at school, we nccd not expect a remedy. It is no disgrace to be poor, but it is a great dis- grace for a female to be untidy in what she has. It may be very pleasing to a mistress to bring out a pattern-book to shew to visitors, but persons who know the subject, will look to the state of the children, and not to books of patterns But alas! it is not the teachers alone who are to blame, but also men who are placed in power, and who must be obeyed; they, too, must be enlightened upon this subject before we can expect any great and final results. The Government may appoint boards of education, and commissioners of edu- cation; but unless they possess practical knowledge, it will be of little avail. It is practical knowledge that is wanted, and practical men should be sought for, as such, and such PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE WANTED. 103 only, are able to carry out a comprehensive system of na- tional education. Recently, a board of education has been formed in Lon- don, composed of no less personages than some of her Ma- jesty's ministers: this looks well, and the country is deeply indebted to them for taking up the subject; whether they will develop and act upon sounder views remains to be seen. The reader is referred to the appendix for Lord John Russell's speech on the subject, with my animadver- sions thereon. The idea of teaching girls the elements of geometry will, I know very well, be laughed at and opposed by those who have not thought sufficiently on the subject, or given it the deep consideration which it deserves; but this ought not to deter us from following out a plan founded in nature ;—and that it is founded in nature, we hope the following remarks will prove. The first lesson an infant seeks to learn of itself, is a knowledge of form, and the properties of bodies. Watch it crawling on the carpet or floor, at a period when many would deny that it was possessed of any faculty of reason, but you will see it seize hold of the first object with which it comes in contact, squat itself down, turn it round and round before its eyes, to ascertain some of its proper- ties, as well as its form. It now seeks to operate upon an- other sense: its sense of feeling and seeing have been gra- tified, it knocks it on the floor, and by this ascertains if it is hard or soft; if the former, its ears are delighted with the sound, and it will knock away in good earnest, until it is perfectly satisfied with the sensation produced: it may perchance happen it has tried the sense of taste first; if not, it will be sure to do so before it puts the object away. If there are other objects in view, it will seek to obtain them, probably retaining the first; and should they both be hard, they will be knocked together for the purpose of experiment: if the fingers are nipt between, it has taught itself another lesson, with the advantage of experience; if ·· H 4 104 GEOMETRY FOR GIRLS ITS UTILITY. : E: it has bought it at the price of pain, crying will be the con- sequence. A little soothing on the part of the mother may set all to rights again, unless she foolishly says, "Naughty thing, to hurt the child's fingers!" If she does, the child will associate pain with the sight of the object, and an in- jury is done In following the path of nature, therefore, we cannot err; a knowledge of form, it is evident, is nc cessary for a girl to know; in the first place, it is the very essence of cutting out garments. I have known a man sncer at his wife because she could not cut out, as well as make, like Dick So-and-So's wife. The children's things have been put out to make, because the mother could not cut out and the wise in those matters would not cut out, unless they made the garments also. If a poor woman un- derstands a little of geometry, her house and garden, if she have one, will give evidence of the fact; if she is a house- maid, the order in which she places the furniture will be slovenly or otherwise, according to her knowledge of form and symmetry. If she is a nurse, it will be perceived by the state of the nursery, the order in which the children are kept, and how they are taught to put away their play- things, &c., &c. If, as a cook, she has been taught the elements of geometry, she will have a correct eye; and I am sure I could tell by the state in which I found the kitchen, and also the way the vegetables were placed in the vessels that contained them; even the joints and other things brought to the table will give evidence on the point. Nothing has been snccred at more by those who have not sufficiently studied the nature of the young mind, than the idea of teaching poor children, and especially infants and girls, the elements of geometry; yet I can truly say, that not one thing (if we except music) has been more success- ful in all parts of the three kingdoms, or more pleasing to the young than I have found a knowledge of the elements of geometry to be. As it respects music and singing, which I contend should be taught in schools: when this is adopted, • H MUSIC-ARGUMENTS IN ITS FAVOR. 105 there will be no necessity of paying hired servants to sing the praises of the Almighty in our places of worship; the way in which this part of our church service is but too fre- quently conducted in the present day,calls aloud for improve- ment, and is an indelible disgrace to what is called a Chris- tian country. Singing and music soften the feelings, and, if united to suitable words, elevate the soul: it is no argu- ment against it, because we find it abused; the abuse of a thing does not prove it unnecessary. The best nurses in the world are musical; the savage mother adopts it to soothe her infant to sleep; no nation was ever formed who had not some portion of it, and who were not pleased with it; hence we must conclude it is founded in nature, and ought to be used in the education of the young. The argument that it will lead girls into bad company is hardly worthy of notice. It has no such effect in Germany, nor in other places. Here it will enable all to join in the simple praises of their Maker, and not mock him, as we do now, by leaving this part of our public worship to a hired choir, whose piety is not always in unison with outward appearance. I have seen some young females connected with the Methodists and other dissenting bodies who had made not a little progress in vocal music, and from perso- nal inquiry on the spot, I have found both their moral cha- racters and piety unexceptionable. I trust that the leading members of the Established Church will pay more attention to this subject; for in some country churches that I have been in, there has been room for very great improvement. GEOGRAPHY. We will now proceed to state how the outlines of those things are to be taught. First; geography may be taught on the gallery, in classes, and in the class room, by the aid of maps, water-tight trays, and by chalk lines; and, on a fine day, in the play-ground. The map should be so placed, 106 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 2. that all the pupils may scc it; the teacher must vary the in- struction by telling the pupils interesting tales about the habits of the various animals in the different countries, and the habits of some of the fishes found in the various scas; the manners and customs of the Europeans contrasted with the habits of natives of other countries; anecdotes rc specting them, especially their chief men, and those who have rendered themselves worthy of notice by their noble deeds; slightly glancing at those of an opposite character, to guard the pupils from the like errors; not to make the lessons too long, so as to stupify the children, but to give them little and often; to teach in a lively manner; not to stand like a statue; to sit sometimes, to move about some- times, at others to stand still; but always to have a plea- sant countenance; to tell the children first, and get it back from them; to infuse, interrogate, and develop. The water-tight trays should be studded with cork, to repre- sent the different islands, and filled with water; a little boat or model of a ship to sail in it up the different straits, double the capes, &c. Several carved dolls to imitate the natives, may be put on the cork which represents the islands, and the girls will be delighted to make the dresses for those dolls as worn by the natives of different countries. Figures of some of the animals may be put on, to give correct ideas to the pupils There is time for all this, and the pupils will be instructed and delighted, and get correct ideas. This must be done in the class room, and the pupils taken in, a class at a time, the teachers giv- ing oral information upon all occasions, with animation, and in a lively pleasing manner. Sometimes a rough sketch may be chalked in the play-ground of Scotland, Ireland, England, &c. &c. The pupils may stand against the wall, and be called out one at a time to go to such a coun- try; if unsuccessful, let another try, until one is right; let the successful pupil take the place of the other if desirable, and so on in succession, changing the lessons, and making METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 107 them more difficult as the pupils advance. Sometimes they may sing the capitals, and name them, and also the principal rivers, and name them. These methods will leave pleasurable sensations, make lasting impressions, and cause knowledge to be desired by the children. Great Britain and Ireland are called the British Isles. The north part of Great Britain is called Scotland, and the south part England. The British Isles are bounded on the north by the North Sea, which is sometimes called the German Ocean; on the south by the English Channel, which separates England from France; on the west by the Atlantic Ocean; and on the east by the German Ocean. Scotland is separated from Ireland by the North Chan- nel. It is divided into thirty-two parts, called counties or shires. Chief Towns. Counties. ·· Fife Bute Renfrew Chief Towns. St. Andrew's Rothsay .Renfrew {Glasgow and Lanark Linlithgow ..Linlithgow Haddington ......Dunbar Counties. Caithness Wick Sutherland Ross Dornoch .Tain Cromartie Cromartie · Lanark Nairn ....Nairn Elgin, or Moray ...Elgin Banff.... ...Banff Aberdeen.. ..Aberdeen Peebles .... Inverness ..Inverness Berwick.. Perth......... ...Perth Ayr .. Kincardine Argyle...... Stirling Kinross .Bervie Inverary .....Peebles .Berwick Forfar or Angus ...Forfar Dumbarton......... Dumbarton Stirling Clackmannan ......Clackmannan ...Kinross Wigton ....... .Ayr Wigton Kirkcudbright ...Kirkcudbright Dumfries .........Dumfries Selkirk... Roxburgh Edinburgh... Selkirk ...Jedburgh ...Edinburgh The chief rivers in Scotland are the Tay, the Forth, the Clyde, and the Tweed; there are several beautiful lakes and high mountains. The islands round Scotland are the Orkney, Shetland, and the Hebrides or Western Isles, Skye, Mull, Ila, Jura, Cantire, Arran, and Bute. The chief mountains are the Grampian and the Cheviots. 108 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY, England is separated from Ireland by the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel; it is divided into fifty counties or shires, namely: Northumberland ...Newcastle Counties. Chief Towns. Counties. Chief Towns. Oxfordshire .... Oxford Durham I .Durham Buckinghamshire ... Buckingham Cumberland ....Carlisle Hertfordshire Hertford Westmoreland ....... .Appleby Bedfordshire Bedford .... Yorkshire Lancashire 102 York ....Lancaster Huntingdonshire ...Huntingdon Cambridgeshire Cambridge Cheshire Derbyshire · Nottinghamshire ....Chester Derby Nottingham Lincolnshire .......Lincoln Northamptonshire. Northampton Surrey Sussex Norfolk ...Norwich Suffolk......……………. .Ipswich Essex ....Chelmsford Middlesex...... ,LONDON Rutlandshire .....Oakham 11.1 Leicestershire ......Leicester Staffordshire..... ..Stafford Hampshire - .... Shropshire ...Shrewsbury Berkshire Wiltshire... Kent ....Maidstone Guildford Chichester Winchester Herefordshire ...Hereford .. Monmouthshire ...Monmouth Worcestershire ......Worcester Warwickshire ..Warwick Gloucestershire.. . .Gloucester 4 Readin Salisbury Dorsetshire ......Dorchester Somersetshire ..Wells Devonshire ..Exeter Cornwall.... The principal rivers are the Tyne, ....Launceston the Trent, the Thames, the Medway, and the Severn. There are some hills in England, but they are not so large as the moun- tains in other parts of Europe, Asia, and America. Wales is divided into twelve counties, six north and six south. Counties. Flintshire .. Chief T'owns. ....Flint Denbighshire.........Denbigh Caernarvonshire ...Caernarvon Anglesea , Beaumaris Merionethshire ......Harlech Montgomeryshire Montgomery Counties. Cardiganshire Chief Towns. Cardigan Radnorshire... ...Radnor Pembrokshire ...... Pembroke Caermarthenshire... Caermarthen Brecknockshire .. Brecknock Glamorganshire Cardiff The islands round England and Wales are the Isle of Man, the Isle of Anglesea, the Isle of Wight, and the Isle of Sheppy. Ireland is divided into four large provinccs; Ulster to METHOD OE TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 109 the north, Leinster to the east, Munster to the south, and Connaught to the West. The province of Ulster contains nine counties. Counties. Chief Towns. Counties. Chief Towns. Down ...Downpatrick Londonderry Londonderry ......Derry Armagh ....Armagh Tyrone....... Omagh Monaghan ...Monaghan Termanagh Enniskillen Cavan ..Cavan Donegal ...Lifford Antrim Carrickfergus The province of Leinster, contains twelve counties. Counties. Dublin Louth Wicklow Wexford Longford Eastmeath Chief Towns ..DUBLIN Drogheda Wicklow Counties. Westmeath Chief Towns. Mullingar King's County......Philipstown Queen's County ...Maryborough Wexford Kilkenny ...Longford Carlow...... S Trim and Kildare...... Navan .Kilkenny Carlow S Naas and Athy The province of Munster contains six counties. Counties. Clare Cork Kerry Chief Towns. .Ennis ....Cork Tralee Countigs. Limerick Tipperary.. Waterford Chief Towns. .Limerick .Clonmel The province of Connaught contains five counties. Counties. Letrim Roscommon Mayo Chief Towns, Counties. Letrim Sligo Roscommon Galway .Newport Waterford Chief Towns. .....Sligo .Galway The names of the rivers are the Shannon, the Barron, the Suire, the Nore, and the Boyne. There are many beau- tiful lakes; that called Loughneagh, is the largest in Great Britain. There are also many high mountains. Great Britain and Ireland are very pleasant countries to live in. There are no wild animals, such as the lion and tiger, but only a few gentle deer in the woods of Scot- land and Ireland, and such small animals as the rabbit, fox, badger, &c. There are a good many different kinds of mines in the British isles. Mines are large holes or pits dug in the ground, from which many useful substances are procured. These mines have generally a narrow opening, + 110 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. like a well, but they are much wider at the bottom. Coal is dug out of mines, and the places where it is found are called collieries It is found in Glasgow, in Scotland, in Birmingham, Newcastle, Whitehaven, and other parts of England; in Cardiff, and other places in Wales; and in Kilkenny, Tipperary, and other parts of Ireland. Salt is also dug from mines There are several salt mines in Cheshire. Metals are also dug from the earth. Metals are hard substances, something like stones, Stones can be broken and ground, but cannot be melted in a fire. Now metals can be melted in a very large hot fire, and can be made so soft that men are able to stretch them out, or hammer them into any shape they like. Iron is a metal; and the blacksmith can bend the iron into the shape of a horse's shoe or a nail, by first making it soft in his hot forge, There are iron mines in full work in Stirlingshire, in Scotland, and in Colebrook Dale, in England, and par- ticularly near Birmingham. In passing through the neigh- bourhood of Birmingham at night, the flames of hundreds of furnaces may be sccn. There are iron mines also in Wales. The names of the most useful metals are iron, copper, lead, tin, silver, and gold; all those metals are found in Great Britain, but very little gold and silver. Copper is found in Cornwall, Staffordshire, and the Isle of Anglesea; also in Wicklow, Waterford. and other counties of Ireland; brass is made of copper, mixed with a metal called zinc; lead is found in the counties of Flint and Den- bighshire; tin is found under the ground in Cornwall in cracks of the rock. There are a great many useful articles made of these metals at Birmingham, Sheffield, and other places of Great Britain. There are a great many manu- factories in Great Britain and Ireland. Manufactories mean places where different things are made in large quan- tities; a cotton manufactory mcans a place where cotton is spun into thread and wove into calicoes or muslin; most of them are at Derby, Manchester, and Glasgow; there METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 111 are also many of silk and woollen cloth in different parts of England. Great Britain and Ireland possess many useful animals, such as the horse and ass for draught; the cow and goat to give milk, from which are made butter and cheese; and the sheep to give wool, which is manufactured into cloth, and when killed the cow and sheep make beef and mutton, and the pig pork and bacon. No country in the world is possessed of more numerous blessings, and we who are born therein should be very thankful for them, Questions and Answers. Q. What are Great Britain and Ireland called? A. The British Isles. Q. What is the north part of Great Britain called? A. Scotland. Q. And the South is called? A. England. Q. How are the British Isles bounded on the north? A. By the North Sea. Q. What is the North Sea sometimes called? A. The German Ocean. Q. How are they bounded on the South? A. By the English Channel. Q. From what country is England separated by the English Channel? A. From France. Q. How are they bounded on the west? A. By the Atlantic Ocean. Q. How on the south? A. By the German Ocean. QBy what is Scotland separated from Ireland? A. By the North Channel. Q. How is Scotland divided? A. Into thirty-two coun- ties or shires. Q. Name them. A. Caithness, one; Sutherland, two; Ross, three; Cromartie, four Nairn, five; Elgin, or • - 112 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPIIY. Moray, six; Banff, seven; Aberdeen, eight; Inverness, nine; Perth, ten; Forfar, or Angus, eleven; Kincardine, twelve; Argyle, thirtcen; Dumbarton, fourteen; Stirling, fifteen; Clackmannan, sixteen; Kinross, seventeen; Fife, eighteen; Bute, ninetcen; Renfrew, twenty; Lanark, twenty-one; Linlithgow, twenty-two; Haddington, twen- ty-three; Pccbles, twenty-four; Berwick, twenty-five; Ayr, twenty-six; Wigton, twenty-seven; Kirkcudbright, twenty- eight; Dumfries, twenty-nine; Selkirk, thirty; Roxburgh, thirty-one; Edinburgh, thirty-two. Q. What is the capital town of the county of Caithness ? A Wick. Q. Of Sutherland? A Dornoch. Q. Of Ross? A. Tain. Q. Of Cromartie? A Cromartie. Q. Of Nairn? A. Nairn. Q. Of Elgin or Moray? A Elgin. Q. Of Banff? A. Banff. Q. Of Aberdeen? Q. Of Inverness? A Aberdeen. A. Inverness Q. Of Perth? A. Perth. Q. Of Forfar or Angus? A. Forfar. Q. Of Kincardine? A Bervie. Q. Of Argyle? A. Inverary. Q. Of Dumbarton? A. Dumbarton. Q. Of Stirling? A. Stirling. Q. Of Clackmanuan. A. Clackmannan. Q Of Kinross? A. Kinross. Q. Of Fife? A. St. Andrew's Q Of Bute? A Rothsay. A. Renfrew. Q. Of Renfrew? Q. Of Lanark ? A Glasgow and Lanark. Q. Of Linlithgow? A Tinlithgow. Q. Of Haddington? A Dunbar. Q. Of Peebles A Peebles Q. Of Berwick. A Berwick, METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 113 Q. Of Ayr? A. Ayr. Q. Of Wigtown? A. Wigtown. Q. Of Kirkcudbright? A. Kirkcudbright. Q. Of Dumfries? A. Dumfries. Q. Of Selkirk? A. Selkirk. Q. Of Roxburgh? A. Jedburgh. Q. Of Edinburgh? A. Edinburgh. Q. What is the chief town or capital of all Scotland? A. Edinburgh. Q. What are the chief rivers in Scotland? A. The Tay, the Forth, the Clyde, and the Tweed. Q. Are there any mountains and lakes in Scotland? A. Yes; several high mountains, and many beautiful lakes. Q. What are the names of the islands that are round Scotland? A. The Orkneys, Shetland, and the Hebrides or Western Isles, Skye, Mull, Ila, Jura, Cantire, Arran, and Bute. Q. What are the chief mountains? A. The chief moun- tains are the Grampian, and Ben Lomond, and the Cheviots. Q. By what is England separated from Scotland? A. By the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel. Q. Into how many counties or shires is England divided ? A. Forty. Q. Name them. A. Northumberland, one; Durham, two; Cumberland, three; Westmorland, four; Yorkshire, five; Lancashire, six; Cheshire, seven; Derbyshire, eight; Nottinghamshire, nine; Lincolnshire, ten; Rutlandshire, eleven; Northamptonshire, twelve; Leicestershire, thir- teen; Staffordshire, fourteen; Shropshire, fifteen; Here- fordshire, sixteen; Monmouthshire, seventeen; Worces- tershire, eighteen; Warwickshire, nineteen; Gloucester- shire, twenty; Oxfordshire, twenty-one; Buckinghamshire, twenty-two; Hertfordshire, twenty-three; Bedfordshire, twenty-four; Huntingdonshire, twenty-five; Cambridgeshire, twenty-six; Norfolk, twenty-seven; Suffolk, twenty-eight; I 114 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Essex, twenty-nine; Middlesex, thirty; Kent, thirty-one, Surrey, thirty-two: Sussex, thirty-three; Hampshire, thirty-four; Berkshire, thirty-five; Wiltshire, thirty-six ; Dorsetshire, thirty-seven; Somersetshire, thirty-eight; Devonshire, thirty-nine; Cornwall, forty. Q. What is the capital town of Northumberland? A. Newcastle Q. Of Durham? A. Durham. Q. Of Cumberland? A. Carlisle Q. Of Westmorland? A. Appleby. Q. Of Yorkshire? A. York. Q. Of Lancashire? A. Lancaster. Q. Of Cheshire? A. Chester. Q. Of Derbyshire? A. Derby. Q. Of Nottinghamshire? A Nottinghain. Q. Of Lincolnshire? A. Lincoln. Q. Of Rutlandshire? A Oakham. Q. Of Northamptonshire? A, Northampton. Q. Of Leicestershire? A. Leicester. Q. Of Staffordshire? A. Stafford. Q. Of Shropshire? A Shrewsbury. Q. Of Herefordshire? A, Hereford. Q. Of Monmouthshire? A Monmouth. Q. Of Worcestershire? A. Worcester. Q. Of Warwickshire? A. Warwick. Q. Of Gloucestershire? A. Gloucester. Q. Of Oxfordshire? A. Oxford. Q. Of Buckinghamshire? A. Buckingham. Q. Of Hertfordshire? A. Hertford Q. Of Bedfordshire? A Bedford. Q. Of Huntingdonshire? A. Huntingdon. Q. Of Cambridgeshire? A. Cambridge. Q. Of Norfolk? A, Norwich. Q. Of Suffolk? A. Ipswich. Q. Of Essex? A, Chelmsford. Q. Of Middlesex? A. LONDON. METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 115 Q. Of Kent? A. Maidstone. Q. Of Surrey? A. Guildford. Q. Of Sussex? A. Chichester. Q. Of Hampshire? A. Winchester. Q. Of Berkshire? A. Reading. Q. Of Wiltshire? A. Salisbury. Q. Of Dorsetshire? A. Dorchester. Q. Of Somersetshire? A. Wells. Q. Of Devonshire? A. Exeter. Q. Of Cornwall? A. Launceston. Q. What is the chief town of all England? A. LONDON. Q. What are the principal rivers of England? A. The Tyne, the Trent, the Thames, the Medway, and the Severn. Q. Are the hills of England very high? A. No; not so high as those of other parts of Europe, Asia, and America. Q. Into how many counties is Wales divided? A. Into twelve counties. Q. How many North? A. Six. Q. How many South? A. Six. Q. Name them. A. Flintshire, one; Denbighshire, two; Caernarvonshire, three; Anglesea, four; Merionethshire, five; Montgomeryshire, six; Cardiganshire, seven; Rad- norshire, eight; Pembrokeshire, nine; Caermathenshire, ten; Brecknockshire, eleven; Glamorganshire, twelve. Q. What is the chief town of Flintshire? Q. Of Denbighshire? A. Denbigh. Q. Of Caernarvonshire? A. Caernarvon. Q. Of Anglesea? A. Beaumaris. A. Flint. Q. Of Merionethshire? A. Harlech. Q. Of Montgomeryshire? A. Montgomery. Q. Of Cardiganshire? A. Cardigan. Q. Of Radnorshire? A. Radnor. Q. Of Pembrokshire? A. Pembroke. Q. Of Caermarthenshire? A. Caermarthen. Q. Of Brecknockshire? A. Brecknock. { I 2 116 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Q. Of Glamorganshire? A Cardir Q. What are the islands round England and Wales named? A. The Isle of Man, the Isle of Anglesea, the Isle of Wight, and the Isle of Sheppy. Q. How is Ireland divided? A, Into four large pro- vinces. Q. Which is to the North? A. Ulster. Q. Which is to the East? A. Leinster. Q. Which to the South? A. Munster. Q. And which to the West? A. Connaught. Q. How many counties does the province of Ulster con- tain? A. Nine. Q. Name them. A. Down, one; Armagh, two ; Mona ghan, thrcc; Cavan, four; Antrim, five; Londonderry, six; Tyrone, seven; Fermanagh, eight; Donegal, nine. Q. What is the name of the chief town of the county of Down? A Downpatrick. Q. Of Armagh? A. Armagh. Q. Of Monaghan? A. Monaghan. Q. Of Cavan? A. Cavan. Q. Of Antrim ? A. Carrickfergus. Q. Of Londonderry? A. Derry. Q Of Tyrone? A. Omagh. Q. Of Fermanagh? A. Enniskillen. Q. Of Donegal? A Lifford. Q. How many counties does the province of Leinster contain? A. Twelve, Q. Name them. A. Dublin, one; Louth, two; Wick- low, three; Wexford, four; Longford, five; East Meath, six; West Meath, seven; King's county, eight; Queen's county, nine; Kilkenny, ten; Carlow, eleven; Kildare, twelve. Q. What is the chief town of the county of Dublin? A. Dublin. Q. Of Louth? A. Drogheda Q. Of Wicklow? A Wicklow. METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 117 Q. Of Wexford? A. Wexford. Q. Of Longford? A. Longford. Q. Of East Meath? A. Trim and Navan. Q. Of Westmeath? A. Mullingar. Q. Of King's county? A. Philipstown. Q. Of Queen's county? A. Maryborough. Q. Of Kilkenny? A. Kilkenny. Q. Of Carlow? A. Carlow. Q. Of Kildare? A. Naas and Athy. Q. How many counties does the province of Munster contain? A. Six. Q. Name them. A. Clare, one; Cork, two; Kerry, three; Limerick, four; Tipperary, five; and Water- ford, six. Q. What is the chief town of the county of Clare? A. Ennis. Q. Of Cork? A. Cork. Q. Of Kerry? A. Tralee. Q. Of Limerick? A. Limerick. Q. Of Tipperary? A. Clonmel. Q. Of Waterford? A. Waterford. Q. How many counties does the province of Connaught contain? A. Five. Q. Name them. A. Leitrim, one; Roscommon, two; Mayo, three; Sligo, four; Galway, five. Q. What is the name of the chief town of Leitrim? A. Leitrim. Q. Of Roscommon? A. Roscommon. Q. Of Mayo? A. Newport. Q. Of Sligo? A. Sligo. Q. And of Galway? A. Galway. Q. What are the names of the principal rivers in Ireland? A. The Shannon, the Barron, the Sure, the Nore, and the Boyne. Q. Are there many lakes? A. Yes; and that called Lough Neigh is the largest in Great Britain. 1 3 118 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Q Are there many mountains ? high ones. A Yes; some very Q. What kind of countries are Great Britain and Ireland? A. Very pleasant to live in. Q. Are there any savage animals in them, such as the Lion and Tiger? A. No; the only wild animals are a few gentle dccr in the mountains of Scotland and Ireland, and such sinall ones as the rabbit, fox, badger, &c. Q. Are there many different kinds of mines in the British Isles? A. Yes; a good many. Q. What are mines? A Mines are large holes or pits dug in the ground to procure many useful substances Q. How are they formed? A They are narrow at the top, but they are much wider at the bottom, Q. Where is coal got? A It is dug out of mincs Q. What are the places where it is found called? A. Collieries. Q. Is it found in Scotland? A. Yes; in Glasgow. Q. Is it found in England? A. Yes; in Birmingham, Newcastle, Whitehaven, and many other parts of Eng- land, Q. Is it found in Wales? A. Yes; in Cardiff and other parts, Q. Is it found in Ireland? A. Yes; in the counties of Kilkenny, Tipperary, and other places Q. Where is salt got? A. It is dug out of mines. Q. Where are there salt mines in England? A. In Cheshire, Q. Where are metals got? A. They are also dug from the carth. Q. What are metals? A They are hard substances something like stones. Stones can be broken and ground but cannot be melted in the fire. Now metals can be melted in a very large strong fire. Q. What more ean be done with them? A They are METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 119 made so soft by fire, that men are able to stretch them out or hammer them into any shape they like. Q. Is iron a metal? A. Yes. Q. Did you ever see the blacksmith make a horseshoe of iron? A. Yes; he first made it soft in his hot forge, and then bent it into the proper shape. Q. What more have you seen made with iron? A. A nail. Q. Where are the principal iron mines? lingshire. Q. Where is Stirling? A. In Scotland. Q. What is its chief town? A. Stirling. A. In Stir- Q. What are the names of the most useful metals? A. Iron, copper, lead, tin, silver, and gold. Q. Are any of those metals found in the British Isles beside iron? A. Yes; they are all found in them, but very little silver or gold. Q. Where is copper found in England? A. In Corn- wall and Staffordshire. Q. Is it found in Wales? A. Yes; in the island of Anglesea, and at Neath near Swansea. Q. Where is it found in Ireland? A. In the counties of Wicklow and Waterford. Q. What is brass made of? A. Of copper mixed with a metal called zinc. Q. Where is lead found? A. In the counties of Flint and Denbigh. Q. What part of the British Isles are they in? A. In Wales. Q. What are their chief towns? A. The chief town of Flintshire is Flint, and the chief town of Denbighshire is Denbigh. Q. How is tin found? A. Under the ground in cracks of the rock. Q. Where? A. In Cornwall. Q. What are made of all those metals? A. A variety of useful articles. N 14 120 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Q. Where are the principal manufactories? A. At Bir- mingham, Sheffield, and other places in Great Britain. Q What is a manufactory? A Manufactories are places where different articles are made, in large quan- tities. Q What does a cotton manufactory mcan? A, A place where cotton is spun into thread, and wove into calicoes or muslin. Q. Where are most of them situated? A. At Derby, Manchester, and Glasgow. Q. Are there many of other descriptions? A. Yes; of silk, and woollen cloth, in different parts of England. Q. What do Great Britain and Ireland possess, beside their mines and manufactories? A. Many useful animals. Q. What animals are chiefly employed for draught? A. The horse and ass, Q. What for food? A. The cow, sheep, and pig. Q. What is the flesh of the cow called? A, A. Beef. Q. Of the sheep? A. Mutton. Q. Of the pig? A Pork and bacon. Q. When is the flesh of the pig called pork? A. When it is fresh and newly killed. Q. When is it called bacon? A. When it is dried and salted, Q. What is the cow useful for besides her flesh? A She gives milk, which is used to drink, and of which butter and cheese is made. Q. What does the sheep give us beside mutton? A. Wool, of which all woollen cloths are made. Q. What other animal gives us milk beside the cow? A. The goat. Q Are there many goals in England? A. No; they are principally kept in Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. Q. Is Great Britain possessed of as many blessings as other countries? A. Yes; there is no country which pos- sesses more. ง METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 121 Q. Should we not be very thankful for all those blessings? A. We should, and that we are born in so happy a country. The large continent of America is divided into two parts, called North and South America, which are joined together by the isthmus of Darien. The inhabitants of Europe, Asia, and Africa did not know that there was such a coun- try, until 300 years ago when a Spaniard named Colum- bus was sailing in the Atlantic Ocean, and discovered first the West Indies, and afterwards America. NORTH AMERICA. North America is bounded on the north by the Arctic or Frozen Sea; on the south and west, by the Pacific Ocean; and on the east, by the North Atlantic Ocean, which sepa- rates it from Europe. There are very large rivers in North America: the principal are, the Misouri, the Mississippi, and the St. Lawrence, which runs into several very large lakes; the names of those lakes are, Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior, which last is 1000 miles across. Between lake Ontario and lake Erie there is a waterfall, called the falls of Niagara, which is the largest in the world; the other lakes in North America are called Lake Winnipeg, Athabasca lakes, and the Slave lake. The mountains are the Stoney and the Apalachian mountains, which are in the United States. North America is separated from Asia by Bhering's straits. North America is divided into seve- ral countries: Greenland, Labrador, Canada, the United States, and Mexico. Greenland: this country is extremely cold; almost all the year round the ground is covered with snow, and the rivers are frozen. Great numbers of whales are caught round the coast of Greenland, and in Baffin's Bay. Labrador is a very barren and dreary country-inhabi- tated by a set of people called Indians and Esquimaux, who are engaged in hunting the rein deer, beavers, bears, and 122 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. other animals, for the sake of their skins, which are called furs, and which they sell to Europeans Canada is situated between New Britain and the United States, and is divided into Upper and Lower Canada; it is remarkable for its immense lakes and rivers, A great number of animals are found in Canada. The chief town is Quebec The United States are bounded, on the north, by the river St. Lawrence; on the south, by Florida; on the cast, by the Atlantic Ocean; and on the west, by a large country, inhabited by Indians The chief towns are, Washington and Philadelphia Louisiana belongs to the United States. The cotton plant grows in many parts of America, and a great quantity is brought from the United States The cotton is found in small quantities round the seeds of the plant, after the flower is withered. When the cotton is picked and cleaned, it is packed in bags and brought to England, where it is spun and wove into calico, muslin, and stockings Tobacco is also brought from America, and is the dried leaf of a plant. Snuff is made from the same Icaf, finely powdered, and some scent added to make it agrccable. Mexico is a country in the south of North America; the chief town is Mexico. There are many silver mines, and a good deal of wood called mahogany is found in that part of the country called the Bay of Honduras. The northern and western parts of North America are mostly inhabited by Indians, who do not live in large towns, but several fa- milies build huts close together, which they live in; they go for many days together to hunt in the woods, for the different animals that supply them with food and clothing. The islands round North America are, Iceland, Newfound- land, Bermudas, the West Indies, and the Carribbec Isles Newfoundland is an island on the east of the Gulph of St, Law- To this island a great number of ships go every year from England to fish for cod, which is found in great rence. METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY, 123 quantities round the Great Bank, which is near the island, and which is supposed to be a large mountain, and are brought to England to be sold. The West Indies and Carribbee Islands are, Cuba, Ja. maica, St. Domingo, Porto Rico, Antigua, Guadaloupe, Martinico, St. Lucea, Barbadoes, Tobago, and Trinidad. In these islands grow the sugar-cane, cotton plant, coffee and cocoa trees, palm trees, different kinds of spices and fruits. The gulfs of North America are the gulfs of Mexico, California, and St. Lawrence. The bays are, Baffin's and Hudson's Bay. The Carribbean Sea is that part of the sea between the West Indies and South America. Questions and Answers. Q. How is the large continent of America divided? A. It is divided into two parts, called North and South Ame- ric a. Q. How are they joined together? A. By the Isthmus of Darien. Q. Did the inhabitants of Europe, Asia, and Africa, always know that there was such a country as America? A. No, they did not, until about 300 years ago. Q. How was it then known? A. A Spaniard named Columbus was sailing in the Atlantic Ocean, and discovered first the West Indies, and afterwards America. Q. How is North America bounded on the north? A. By the Arctic or Frozen Ocean. Q. How on the south and west? A. By the Pacific Ocean. Q. And how on the east? A. By the North Atlantic Ocean, which separates it from Europe. Q. Are the rivers in America very large? A. They are. Q. What are the names of the principal? A. The Mis- souri, the Mississipi, and the St. Lawrence, which runs into several very large lakes. 124 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Q. What are the names of those lakes? A. Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior. Q. How many miles is Lake Superior across? A. 1000 miles. Q. What remarkable object is there between the lakes Ontario and Frie? A. The waterfall of Niagara. Q. Is it very large? A. The largest fall of water in the world Q. What are the names of the other North American lakes? A Winnipeg and Slave Lake. Q. What are the principal mountains? A The Stoney and the Apalachian mountains. Q. Where are the Apalachians? A. In the United States Q. What separates- North America from Asia? A. Bhering's Straits Q. Into what countries is North America divided? A. Into Greenland, Labrador, Canada, United States, and Mexico. Q. Is Greenland a warm country? A No; extremely cold. Q. How long is it cold? A. Almost all the year round the rivers are frozen, and the ground covered with snow. Q. What animals are caught in great numbers round the coast of Greenland? A. Whales, Q. Where are they also taken ? A. In Ballin's Bay. Q. Is the whale a fish? A. No; it is a beast, and be- longs to the class mammalia, because it brcathes air by its lungs, has warm blood, produces its young alive, and nourishes them with its own milk. Q. Why does this prove it not to be a fish? A. Because a fish possesses none of those qualities Q. Of what use is the whale when caught? A. It produces oil and whalebone Q. What description of country is Labrador? A, It is a very barren and dreary country, inhabited only by In- dians and Esquimaux, METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY, 125 A. In hunting. Q. How do they employ their time? Q. What animals do they catch? A. The rein-deer, bears, beavers, and other animals. Q. Of what use are they to them? A. To get their skins. Q. What do they do with the skins? A. Sell them to Europeans. Q. What are the skins called? A. Furs. Q. How is Canada situated? A. Between New Britain and the United States. Q. How is it divided? A. Into Upper and Lower Ca- nada. Q. What is it remarkable for? A. For its immense lakes and rivers. Q. What is its chief town? A. Quebec. Q. How are the United States bounded? A. They are bounded, on the north, by the River St. Lawrence, which separates them from Canada; on the south, by Florida; on the east, by the Atlantic Ocean; and on the west, by a large country, inhabited by Indians. Q. What are the chief towns? A. The chief towns are, Washington and Philadelphia. Q. To whom does Louisiana belong? A. To the United States. Q. What useful plant grows in many parts of America? A. The cotton plant. Q. From what place is an immensity brought? A. From the United States. Q. How is the cotton found? A. In small quantities round the seeds of the plant, after the flower is withered. Q. What is first done with it? A. It is picked and cleaned. Q. What next? A. Packed in bags, and brought to England. Q. What is done with it when it arrives there? A. Spun and wove into calico, muslin, and stockings. 4 . . 126 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. . Q What other article is brought from America? A Tobacco. Q. What is tobacco? A The dried leaf of a plant. Q What is made from the same leaf? A. Snuff; the lcaf is first dried, and then powdered, and a little scent added to make it agrccable. Q In what part of North America is Mexico situated? A In the South. Q. What sort of mines are in Mexico? A, Silver mines. Q. What sort of wood comes from Mexico? A, Ma- hogany. Q. In what part of Mexico is the mahogany found? A, In the bay of Honduras, Q. What is made of mahogany? A. Every description of household furniture. Q. By whom are the northern and western parts of North America mostly inhabited? A. By Indians Q. Do they live in large towns? A, No; but several families build their huts close together, which they live in. Q. Do they always remain in those huts? A No; they go for several days together to hunt in the woods for differ- ent animals. Q. What use do they make of the animals they catch? A For food, clothing, and merchandize. Q. What are the islands round North America named? A. Iceland, Newfoundland, Bermudas, the West Indies, and the Carribbec isles Q. Where is the island of Newfoundland situated? A, At the cast of the Gulph of St. Lawrence. Q. What is this island remarkable for? A For its ex- tensive cod fishery. Q. Where do the ships come from that carry on this fishery? A From England. Q. Where are the cod in great numbers found? A. Round the Great Bank, which is near the island METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY, 127 Q. What is this bank supposed to be? A. A large mountain under water. Q. When the fish are taken, what is done with them? A. They are salted, and packed in casks. Q. Where are they brought? A. To England. Q. For what purpose? A. To be sold. Q. What are the names of the islands which are called the West Indies and Carribbee isles? A. Cuba, Jamaica, St. Domingo, Porto Rico, Antigua, Guadaloupe, Martinico, St. Lucea, Barbadoes, Tobago, and Trinidad. Q. What do these islands produce? A. The sugar-cane, cotton plant, coffee, and cocoa trees, palm trees, different kinds of spices, and fruits. Q. What are the gulfs of North America? A. The gulfs of Mexico, California, and St. Lawrence. Q. What are the bays named? A. Baffin's and Hudson's Bay. Q. Where is the Carribbee Sea? A. That part of the sea between the West Indies and South America. Q. What is a gulf? A. A part of the sea which runs a considerable way into the land. Q. What is a lake? A. A sheet of water surrounded by land. Q. What is an island? A. A portion of land surrounded by water. Q. What is an isthmus? A. A narrow piece of land, which joins two large portions together. Q. What is a strait? A. A narrow part of the sea, which forms a passage from one large part of the ocean to another. SOUTH AMERICA. South America is joined to North America by the isthmus of Darien; it is bounded on the north by the Carribbee Sea; on the south, by the Southern Ocean; on the west, by the Pacific Ocean. South America includes the im- 128 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. mense countries of New Granada, Caraccas, Guiana, Peru, Brazil, La Plata, Chile, and Patagonia. The principal towns of New Granada are, Quito and Santa Fe de Bagota; of Caraccas, Camana and Caraccas; of Guiana, Cayenne; of Peru, Lima; of Brazil, Rio Janeiro; and St. Salvador, of La Plata, Buenos Ayres; of Chili, Santiago. The mountains of South America are some of the loftiest on the whole face of the globe; and there are amongst them volcanoes of grcat size and terrific appcarance. The mountains called the Andes extend from north to south, four thousand six hundred miles; the highest are four miles high, and they are always covered with snow. South America has no grcat inland scas, like those of North America; but its rivers are celebrated as being the largest in the world; the names of the principal are, the Orinoco, the river Amazon, and the river La Plata, The two last rise in the Andes, and in their course wind many thousand miles Gold abounds in South America, particularly in the sands of the rivers in Brazil; the negroes obtain it by collecting it with the dirt and sand in sieves, and in washing it, the gold being heaviest, sinks to the bottom. Gold is also found in the mines of Peru and Chili. Silver is found in Peru. This metal is, as well as gold, coined into money, and made into various utensils, such as spoons, cups, and dishes. In Chili it never rains; the sky is seldom cloudy, but the dews of night supply the want of rain. In the forests of Brazil are found great varieties of usc ful woods; some are used for building ships, some for dyeing different colours, and some are made into furniture. In those forests likewise dwell great numbers of birds of the most beautiful plumage. In Benguela there are seve ral mines of excellent salt, and the Carraccas abound with the cotton plant, sugar, and tobacco. In Chili, corn and METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 129 various fruits, such as pears, apples, oranges, and peaches, grow in the open fields. The trees in Guiana grow to a very large size; many of them are 100 feet in height, and the leaves of some are twenty feet long, and three feet wide; with these the in- habitants cover the roofs of their houses, which they pro- tect from violent rains, and last for many years. India- rubber is the dried juice of a large tree that grows in Guiana; the Indians make a small hole in the stem of the tree, and the juice runs out into pans placed beneath; this, when dried in the sun, forms Indian-rubber. The southern extremity of South America is Patagonia, a desolate coun- try, inhabited by savage Indians, some of whom are six and seven feet in height. The wild animals that inhabit America are neither as large, or as handsome as those of Asia and Africa; they have no elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, lions, or tigers; nor had they horses or asses until they were in- troduced from Europe, from whence also many other use- ful animals were first brought. The principal islands round South America are the Falk- land Islands, the Islands of Georgia, the Galapagos Is- lands, the Island of Terra del Fuego, which is divided from the continent by the Straits of Magellan, and the Island of Juan Fernandez. In this island a man named Alexander Selkirk lived for four years alone. When he first went there he was very uncomfortable, and had no house to live in, but with his hatchet he cut down some of the smaller trees, and built himself a hut; and as he had neither bricks nor tiles, he covered the sides and the roof with the broad leaves of trees. There were a great many goats in the island: those he used to catch for his food; and with their skins he made himself clothes and boots. This poor man wished very much to come back to England. One day he saw a large ship at a distance; he was afraid they would pass by without coming to the island, so he made a large K 130 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. bonfire on the top of a hill, and when the men in the ship saw it, they sent some people in a boat to sec what it was, and they found Selkirk standing by the fire. He soon jumped into the boat, and came in the ship with them safe back to England. Did any of you ever read the story of Robinson Crusoe? Well, that story is not true, for there was never such a person, but the man who wrote the story of Robin- son Crusoe, had heard of Alexander Selkirk, and he thought that a long story about a man living by himself on a lonely island would be very pretty, and so wrote the book called Robinson Crusoe. The island of Terra del Fuego has a great many burning mountains on it, and is a very dreary barren place. Questions and Answers. Q. How are North and South America joined together? A. By the Isthmus of Darien. Q. What is an Isthmus? A. A narrow neck of land, which joins two large places together. Q. What is the Isthmus of Darien sometimes called? A. Panama Q. How is South America bounded on the north? A By the Carribbean sca. Q. How on the south? Q. How on the east? A. By the Southern Ocean. A. By the Atlantic Ocean. Q. How on the west? A. By the Pacific Ocean. Q. What does the Carribbean Sea divide South America from? A. From part of North America. Q. In what sea was Columbus sailing, when he dis- covered America? A. In the Atlantic Ocean. Q. Where was he sailing from? A. From Spain. Q. What did he discover before America? A The West Indies Q. Did he ever suppose that such a place existed as America? A. He suspected that there was a large con- METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 131 tinent in the place where he found America, and he got the ships he was sailing in from the king of Spain to look for it. Q. What are the names of the countries of South Ame- rica? A. New Granada, Caraccas, Guiana, Peru, Brazil, La Plata, Chili, and Patagonia. Q. What are the principal towns of New Granada? A. Quito, and Santa Fé de Bagotá, Q. What of Caraccas? A. Camana and Carace. Q. Of Guiana? A. Cayenne. Q. Of Peru? A. Lima. Q. Of Brazil? A. Rio Janerio, and St. Salvador. Q. Of La Plata? A. Buenos Ayres. Q. Of Chili? A. Santiago. Q. Are the mountains of South America very high? A. They are amongst some of the highest in the world. Q. What is the name of the principal chain or line of mountains? A. The Andes. Q. What length do they extend? A. Four thousand six hundred miles. Q. What height are some of them? A. Four miles. Q What else does the lesson say about them? A. That they are always covered with snow. Q. Are there any volcanoes amongst them? A. Yes; many very large ones. Q. What is a volcano? A. A burning mountain. Q. Do you know of one in Europe? A. Yes; Mount Vesuvius. Q. Do you know of one in the Island of Sicily? A. Yes; Mount Etna. Q. Do you remember the name of one in Iceland? A. Mount Hecla. Q. Are they very dangerous? A. Yes; a sudden erup- tion, or breaking out of the lava, has destroyed the whole country, and buried large towns under it. Q. What is the lava? A. A burning substance some- K 2 132 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. thing like melted lead, that runs in a river from the crater, or hole through which the fire rises, down the sides of the mountain. Q. Are there any volcanoes in Great Britain ? A. No; and we should be very thankful that there are not Q. Has South America any great inland seas or lakes like those of North America? A No; but its rivers are celebrated as being the largest in the world. Q. What are the principal rivers called? A, The Ori- noco, the Amazon, and the river La Plata Q. Where do the two last rise? A. In the Andes. Q. Do they flow very far? A. Their course is many thousand miles long. Q. What valuable metal is found in South America in greater quantities than in any other country? A. Gold, Q. Tell me where is it found particularly? A In the rivers of Brazil. Q. In what manner do the negroes obtain it? A, By collecting it with the dirt and sand in sieves, and in washing it, the gold being heaviest sinks to the bottom? Q. Where is gold found also? A In the Mines of Peru and Chili? Q. What other metal is also found in South America? A. Silver. Q. Where? A. In Peru. Q. What is the use of silver? A. It is coined into money, as gold is also, and made into various utensils, such as spoons, cups, and dishes. Q. What is very remarkable in the weather of Chili? A. It never rains, and the sky is seldom cloudy. Q. What then do the plants and flowers do for the nou- rishment which rain gives them? A. The dews of the evening answer the purpose of rain. Q. What very useful commodity do the forests of Brazil afford? A Great varieties of useful woods. Q. Tell some of their uses? A, To build ships, for dyc METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 133 ing different colours, and for making furniture of various kinds for our houses. Q. What dwell in those forests? A. Great numbers of birds of the most beautiful plumage. Q. Where are there many mines of excellent salt? A. In Vineguela. Q. What is produced in Caraccas? A. Cotton, sugar, and tobacco. Q. In Chili, what grows in the open fields? A. Pears, apples, oranges, and peaches. Q. Are the trees of Guiana remarkable for anything? A. Yes; for their great height; some of them reach a hundred feet. Q. Are their leaves of a size in proportion? A. Yes; some of them are twenty feet long and three feet wide. Q. Of what use do the inhabitants make those leaves? A. To cover their dwellings. Q. What useful substance is the produce of a large tree that grows in Guiana? A. Indian-rubber. Q. How is it procured? A. The Indians make a small hole in the stem of the tree, and the juice runs out into pans placed beneath; it is at first white and like milk, but when dried in the sun forms Indian-rubber. Q. Of what use is it? A. To rub out lead pencil marks, to make various articles of dress waterproof, that is, that water will not get through them, and to put into playing balls to make them hop well. Q. What is the name of the country that forms the Southern extremity of South America? A. Patagonia. Q. What sort of country is it? A. A desolate country. Q. By whom is it inhabited? A. By a savage race of Indians. Q. Are they remarkable for any thing? A. Yes; for their great height. Q. To what height do they often attain? A. To six or seven feet. к 3 134 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Q. Are the wild animals that inhabit America as large or as fierce as those of Asia and Africa? A No; they are not. Q. Name some animals which do not exist in America A. The elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the lion, the tiger, and many others. Q. Had America horses or asses when it was discovered? A. No; they were introduced from Europe, as were also many useful animals. Q. Name the principal islands round America. A The Falkland Isles, the Islands of Georgia, the Galapagos Islands, the Island of Terra del Fuego, and the Island of Juan Fernandez. Q. What is the last named island celebrated for? A. For its being the residence of a man named Alexander Selkirk. Q. How long did Selkirk remain upon it? A. For four years Q. Had he any other persons there with him? he was alone. A, No; Q. Of what did he make his hut? A Of trccs and leaves. Q. Of what did he make his clothes and boots? A. Of the skins of goats? Q. What supplied him with food? A. Their flesh. Q. How did he get off this island? A. In a ship that passed Q. How did he attract the attention of those in the ship? A. By lighting a fire on a hill. Q. Did he arrive safely in England? A. He did Q. What story has been written, which is founded on this circumstance? A. The story of Robinson Crusoe. Q. Is the story of Robinson Crusoe true? A No; it was the true story of Alexander Selkirk that caused it to be written? Q. Who wrote the story of Robinson Crusoe? A. A man named De Foe, METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 135 Q. What sort of a place is the island of Terra del Fuego? A. A very dreary place; and has many volcanoes. Q. What separates it from South America? A. The straits of Magellan. Q. From what part of South America is it separated? A. From Patagonia. Q. Which is Patagonia, north or south? A. It is the most southern extremity of the great continent of America. AFRICA. The continent of Africa is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, which separates it from Europe; on the south, by the Southern Ocean; on the east, by the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Gulf, or Red Sea, which divides it from Arabia; on the west, by the North and South Atlantic Oceans. The inhabitants of Africa are much less civilised than those of Europe, Asia, and America; and the country is less known, as there are fewer travellers who have visited it. It is divided into several different countries; Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, Bornou, Beghermé, Bergoo, Darfur, Asben, Fezzan, Houssa, Timbuctoo. The northern states of Morocco, Fez, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, are called Barbary. On the west, is Zwenziga, the countries of the Jaloffs, the Foulahs, and the Coast of Guiana, which is di- vided into the Grain Coast, the Gold Coast, and the Ivory Coast; Dahomey, Benin, Biafara, Loango, Congo, Angola, Benguela, Cimbebes, Namaguas. The most southern is the land of the Hottentots and Caffraria; on the east, Natal, Sabia, Mozambique, Zanquebar, Ajan, and the kingdom of Adel. The principal islands about Africa are, to the west, the Azores, or Western Islands, which produce good oranges; Madeira Isles, famous for fine grapes, of which wine is made; the Canary Isles, where canary birds come from, and which also produce grape and wine; the Cape Verd Isles, Ascension Isles, St. Helena, and St. Thomas K 4 136 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Isle ; on the cast, the island of Tocotra, the Comora Isles, and the island of Madagascar, which is one of the largest in the world. The principal rivers are the Niger and the Nile; the latter is of particular benefit to the inhabitants of Egypt (through which country it runs). They seldom have any rain in Egypt; but the river Nile overflows its banks every year, in consequence of heavy rains in other countries through which it passes, and covers the land with water to a great extent. When the waters go back, they leave black mud on the land; this serves as manure, and makes the corn and vegetables grow very quickly. The principal mountains are, the Atlas Mountains, near Morocco; the mountains of the Moon, which cross the middle of Africa, and the Tupata mountains, ncar Mozam- bique. The most remarkable things in Africa are, its grcat de serts, in which nothing will grow, because the ground is always covered with sand made burning hot by the sun's heat, and which are inhabited by ferocious wild beasts Water is very scarce in those deserts; and but for the ca- mel, which is so useful in conveying travellers and mer- chandize across them, they would not be passable. The camel can bear the heat patiently, and will do very long without drinking water; but when it gets it, it drinks a good deal; and it has a place in its body where it can kccp a large quantity, which prevents it from being again thirsty for some days. The name of the largest of those deserts is Zahara. Africa is remarkable for producing more wild beasts, and grcat serpents and birds, than any of the other divisions of the world. Lions, tigers, leopards, rhinoceros, hippopo- tamis, crocodiles, cameleopards, serpents, and ostrich, are found in it in great numbers. The Western Cost of Africa is inhabited by people called negroes; their skin is black, and their hair like METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 137 black wool. Those poor people have no nice schools to make their children clever; so that when they grow up to be men and women, they know very little, cannot read, and do not know how to protect themselves. Some cruel peo- ple in Europe fit out ships, and go to this part of Africa, and take away those poor negroes against their will, and force them on board their ships, and carry them to the West Indies, where they sell them to the sugar-makers to be slaves. A slave is a man that does not receive wages for his work, and that cannot leave his master when he wishes. The sugar-makers oblige the poor negroes to work in their fields to cultivate the sugar-cane, and very often use them very cruelly. In the picture of the sugar cane, you will see a negro represented, with the hoe in his hand, with which he turns up the ground. Questions and Answers. Q. How is the continent of Africa bounded on the north? A. By the Mediterranean Sea. Q. From what is it separated by the Mediterranean Sea ? A. From Europe. Q. How is it bounded on the south? A. By the Sou- thern Ocean. Q. How on the east? A. By the Indian Ocean. Q. How on the west? By the North and South At- lantic Ocean. Q. Is Africa a civilized country? A. No; it is less ci- vilized than either Europe, Asia, or America. Q. What do you mean by a civilized country? A. A country where the people know how to make roads and canals, and build good houses, and where they can print books, and where nearly every person can read and write. Q. Is Africa well known? A. No; the centre parts are scarcely known at all, in consequence of the great danger to travellers exploring them, not only from wild beasts, but from the savage tribes who inhabit them. 138 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Q Name the countries into which the northern parts of Africa are divided? A, Barbary, which is divided into Mo- rocco, Fez, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli; Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, Bornou, Behermé, Bergoo, Darfur, Asben, Fez- zan, and Iloussa, Timbuctoo. Q. What countries are along the Western Coast? Zwenziga, the Jaloffs, and Foulahs countries, and the coast of Guinca, which is divided into the Grain Coast, the Gold Coast, and the Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Benin, Biafara, Lo- ango, Congo, Angola, Benguela, Cimbebes, and Namaguas. Q What countries are the most southern of Africa? A, The land of the Hottentots and Caffraria. Q. What remarkable place is in the land of the Hotten- tots? A. The Cape of Good Hope. Q. What sort of port is the Cape of Good Hope in time of peace? A. A free port for all nations Q. What is a port? A A harbour, where ships may take shelter from a storm, or go to discharge their cargoes. Q. Name the countries on the east coast of Africa? A, Natal, Sabia, Mozambique, Zanguebar, Ajan, and the kingdom of Adel. Q. What are the names of the principal islands round Africa? A. To the west are the Azores, or Western Isles, the Madeira Isles, the Canary Isles, the Cape Verd Isles, Ascension Isle, St. Helena, and St. Thomas's Isle. Q. For what fruit are the Azores, or Western Isles, re- markable? A. Their excellent oranges Q. What is Madeira celebrated for? A. Grapes and wine. Q. What are brought from the Canary Isles? A Ca- nary birds Q. What colour is a Canary bird? A. Yellow. Q. Are they wild in any place but the Canary Isles? A. There are a few wild in Italy, but the Canary Islands is the place where they all first came from. Q. What islands lie to the east of Africa? A. Zocotra, the Comora Islands, and the island of Madagascar, METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. : 139 Q. Is Madagascar a small island? A. No; it is one of the largest in the world. Q. What ocean is Madagascar in? A. The Indian Ocean. Q. What is the sea called between the east coast of Africa and the island of Madagascar? A. The Mozam- bique Channel. Q. What is the sea called that runs between Egypt in Africa, and Arabia in Asia? A. The Arabian Gulf or Red Sea. Q. Is Africa entirely separated from Asia by the sea? A. No; they are connected together by a narrow neck of land. Q. What is it called? A. The Isthmus of Suez. Q. What are the principal rivers of Africa called? A. The Niger and the Nile. Q. Of what very great use is the Nile to the people of Egypt? A. It supplies the place of rain, which but sel- dom falls in their country. Q. How does it do so? A. When the heavy rains, which take place every year in the countries from whence the Nile runs, have commenced, the Nile is swelled by them, and in Egypt flows over its banks, and not only gives moisture to the land in the place of rain, but also manures it by the rich mud which it leaves behind it. Q. Does the Niger overflow its banks? A. Yes; in ex- actly the same way. Q. What great victory, obtained by Lord Nelson, takes its name from one of those rivers? A. The battle of the Nile. Q. Was this fought far up the river.? A. No; at its mouth. Q. Was Lord Nelson killed there? A. No. Q. Where was he killed? A. At the battle of Trafalgar, Q. What countryman was he? A. An Englishman, 140 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Q. Whose flccts did he command? A. The King of England's, Q. What is a fleet? A. A great number of ships Q. What are the principal mountains of Africa? A. The Atlas Mountains, the Mountains of the Moon, and the Tu- pata Mountains Q. Where are the Atlas Mountains? A. Near Morocco. Q. Where are the Mountains of the Moon? A. They cross the middle of Africa. Q. And where are the Lupata Mountains? A. Near Mozambique. Q. What is Africa remarkable for? deserts A. For its great Q. What sort of places are they? A Great sandy plains, thousands of miles across, on which nothing will grow, and which are covered with burning sands. Q. What animal is very useful in those dreadful deserts? A. The camel. Q. Why is he particularly useful? A. Because he is very patient, and very strong, and can carry large burdens, and bear with thirst a long while. Q. How does the camel manage to bear so long without water? A. He has a place inside his body which contains enough for some days. Q. What do the Arabs often call the camel. A. The ship of the desert. Q. Why do they call him so? A. Because he is as usc ful in the desert as a ship on the sea. Q. What is the name of the largest of those deserts ? A. Zahara Q. Are there many wild bcasts in Africa? A. Yes; it is remarkable for the number it contains. Q. What are the names of those we are best acquainted with? A. The lion, the tiger, the leopard, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the cameleopard or giraffe. METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 141 Q. What are the most remarkable reptiles of Africa? A. The crocodile, and various large serpents. Q. What very large bird is found in Africa? A. The ostrich. Q. What is the name of the people who live on the west- ern coast of Africa? A. The negroes. Q. Are they a civilized people? A. No; on the con- trary, they cannot read or protect themselves. Q. Do you think you can tell the reason of this? Is it because they are inferior people to us? A. No; but be- cause they have not got nice schools, as we have, to teach them to read and write, and to be good men and women. Q. Do the people of certain parts of Europe ever treat them cruelly? A. Yes; they fit out ships, and force them on board of them, and take them to the West Indies, where they are sold, just like oxen and horses at a fair, and are made slaves of. Q. What is a slave? A. A man who is made to work without receiving wages, and who cannot leave his master when he likes, and cannot do anything to punish his master if he is used by him ever so cruelly. Q. What are the poor negroes made generally to work at? A. Cultivating the sugar cane. EUROPE. The continent of Europe is smaller than either of the other continents of Asia, Africa, or America, yet it is by far the most civilized, that is, Europeans are more clever, and know many more useful things than most of the other people in the world. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean; on the south by the Mediterranean Sea, which separates it from Africa; on the east by Asia; and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, which divides it from America. It is divided into a great many countries, called Norway, Sweden, Lapland, Finland, Russia, Prussia, Ha- nover, Denmark, Netherlands, Austrian Dominions, Swit- 142 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. zerland, Italy, Turkey, France, Spain, Portugal, and Great Britain Norway. The chief town of this country is Christiana; it is famous for its high mountains. Those called the Dofrefield divide it from Sweden. There are many beau- tiful waterfalls in Norway, and a trcc called the fir-trcc grows on the sides of the mountains. When this tree is cut down and sawed into planks, it is called deal, that is the wood which is used for the floors of houses. Sweden is divided from Norway by the Dofrefield moun- tains, and is bounded on the east by the Gulf of Bothnia, and the Baltic Sea. The chief town is Stockholm. There are the same sort of animals in Sweden as in England. Lapland. Most of this country is very cold. The fur, or hair, of the animals, in this, as well as every other cold country, is very thick, and often turns white in the winter. The reindeer is the most valuable animal that the Tap- lander possesses. Russia is the largest country in Europe; it contains two principal towns, Petersburgh and Moscow. There are three very large rivers, the Volga, the Don, and the Dnieper. The Ural Mountains separate part of Russia from Asia. Lakes Ladoga and Onega are situated ncar Petersburgh. A great part of Russia is excccdingly cold. Prussia. The chief town is Berlin, and the largest river the Elbe. Prussia is bounded on the north by the Baltic Sca. Poland belongs to Russia; the principal town is Warsaw. Hanover. The principal town of this country is Ham- burgh. Denmark consists of several islands; Copenhagen is the chief town. The Netherlands. The north part of this country is called Holland, and the people Dutchmen and women. There is a great deal of water in this country, and when the rivers are frozen over in winter, the Dutch people METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 143 amuse themselves by skating. The little children hold each other by the coat. Some of them take hold of their father's and mother's hand, and they are very merry as they skate so quickly over the ice. Austrian dominions.-The word dominions means coun- tries or lands that belong to the king of any country. The chief town is Vienna, which is built by the side of a large river called the Danube. The Carpathean mountains are situated to the north of this country. Switzerland.-This country is so very beautiful that a great many people go from all parts of Europe to see it. It has many high mountains, beautiful lakes, and water- falls. The chief town is Berne. Italy is another beautiful country, where the air is very warm. A long range of mountains extend from the north of Italy to the south, called the Appenines. There is a burning mountain, or volcano, in the south of Italy near the sea, called Mount Vesuvius; the part of Italy it is in is called Naples; the chief towns of Italy are Rome and Venice. The river Po, which is the chief river of Italy, flows into the Gulf of Venice. Turkey in Europe is divided from Turkey in Asia by the Sea of Marmora and the Black Sea. The chief town is Constantinople. The southern part of Turkey is called Greece, and it is now governed by its own king. France. This country is divided from England by the Straits of Dover, and from Spain by the Pyrenees Moun- tains. The Bay of Biscay is on the west. The chief town is Paris. The principal rivers are the Loire, the Seine, and the Rhone; the large river Rhine flows through the Netherlands and between France and the Austrian domi- nions. Spain. This country is separated from Africa by the Straits of Gibraltar. It is a warm and pleasant country to live in. Most of the oranges come from Spain. The 144 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. chief town is Madrid. The principal rivers are the Ebro and the Tagus, Portugal. The chief town is Lisbon. Orange and lemon trees grow in Portugal. Islands of Europe. The largest is Great Britain, the northern part of which is called Scotland, and the southern England. The capital of Scotland is Edinburgh, and of England, London. Ireland, the capital of which is Dublin. Iceland, and the Ferro Islands. These are all in the Atlantic Ocean. Iceland is celebrated for its burning mountain, called Mount Hecla, and for having large springs of boiling water, yet the country is very cold, and full of ice and snow. The islands Minorca, Majorca, Ivica, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Candia, and Cyprus, are situated in the Mediterranean Sca. In Sicily, which is separated from Italy by the Straits of Messina, there is a very large volcano, called Mount Etna. All the small islands between Turkey in Europe and Turkey in Asia are called the Grecian Archipelago, archipelago meaning a number of islands near one another. From some of these islands are brought currants and plums, Questions and Answers. Q. Is Europe smaller than either Africa, Asia, or Ame rica? A. Itis. Q. Which is it, more or less civilized? A. It is more civilized than any of the other three Q. How is it bounded on the north? A By the Arctic Sca. Q. How on the south? A. By the Mediterranean Sea. Q. From what does the Mediterranean Sea divide it? A. From Africa. 1 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 145 Q. How is it bounded on the east. A. By Asia. Q. How on the west? A. By the Atlantic Ocean. Q. From what does the Atlantic Ocean divide it? A. From America. Q. Can you name the countries into which Europe is divided? A. Norway, Sweden, Lapland, Finland, Russia, Prussia, Hanover, Denmark, Netherlands, Austrian Do- minions, Switzerland, Italy, Turkey, France, Spain, Por- tugal, and Great Britain. Q. What is the chief town of Norway? A. Christiana. Q. What is Norway famous for? A. For its high mountains. Q. What is the name of those that divide it from Swe- den? A. The Dofrefield. Q. What very useful tree grows in Norway? A. The fir tree. Q. What are its uses? A. When cut down and sawed into planks, it is used for the floors of houses, and for a variety of other purposes. Q. How is Sweden divided from Norway? A. By the Dofrefield mountains. Q. How is it bounded on the east? A. By the gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea. Q. What is the chief town? A. Stockholm. Q. What sort of a country is Lapland? A. Very cold. Q.. What kind of fur or hair have the animals? A. Very thick, like that of most animals in cold countries. Q. What colour does it often turn in the winter? A. White. Q. What is the most useful animal that the Laplander possesses? A. The rein-deer. Q. Is Russia a small country? A. No; it is the largest in Europe. Q. What are its two principal towns? A. Petersburgh and Moscow. L 146 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Q. What are its principal rivers? A. The Volga, the Don, and the Dnieper. Q. What mountains separate part of Russia from Asia? A The Ural. Q. Where are the two large lakes called Lake Ladoga and Onega situated. A. Near Petersburgh. Q. Is Russia a warm country? A. No; and parts are very cold. Q. What is the chief town of Prussia? A. Berlin, Q. What is the largest river in Prussia? A. The Elbe Q. How is it bounded on the north? A By the Baltic Sca. Q. To what country does Poland belong? A To Russia. Q. What is its chief town? A. Warsaw. Q. What is the chief town of Hanover? A. Hamburgh. Q. Of what does Denmark consist? A. Of several is- lands. Q. What is its chief town? A. Copenhagen. Q. What is the north part of the Netherlands called? A Holland. Q. What are the men and women of Holland called? A Dutch. Q. What are the Dutch very fond of? A. Skating on the sea. Q. What are they celebrated for? A. Cleanliness. Q. What is the chief town of the Austrian Dominions? A. Vienna Q. What do you mean by dominions? A Countries or lands that belong to a king. Q. Where is Vienna built? A By the side of a large river, called the Danube. Q. What mountains are situated to the north of the Aus- trian Dominions? A The Carpathian Mountains. Q. What kind of country is Switzerland? A. Very beautiful. METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY, 147 Q. Is it famous for its beauty? A. Yes; people from all parts of Europe go to see it. Q. What is the name of its highest mountain? A. Mont Blanc. Q. What of its largest lakes? A. Constance and Geneva. Q. What is the chief town called? A. Bern. Q. Is Italy a handsome country? A. It is; the air is very warm too. Q. What is the name of the long range of mountains that extend from the north of Italy to the south? A. The Appenines. Q. Is Italy celebrated for any thing particular? A. Yes; for a burning mountain, called Mount Vesuvius. Q. What are the chief towns of Italy? A. Rome and Venice. Q. What river flows into the Gulf of Venice? A. The Po. Q. By what is Turkey in Europe divided from Turkey in Asia? A. By the sea of Marmora, and the Black Sea. Q. What is the chief town? A. Constantinople. Q. Where is Greece? A. To the south of Turkey. Q. By what is France divided from England? A. By the British Channel and the straits of Dover. Q. How is it divided from Spain? A. By the Pyrenees Mountains. Q. What famous bay is to the west of France? A. The Bay of Biscay. Q. What is the chief town? A. Paris. Q. What are the principal rivers? A. The Loire, the Seine, and the Rhone. Q. Where does the large river Rhine flow? A. Through the Netherlands and between France and the Austrian Dominions. Q. How is Spain separated from Africa? A. By the Straits of Gibraltar. Q. Between what two seas are those straits? A. The Atlantic Ocean, and the Mediterranean Sea. L2 148 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. - Q. What fruit comes chiefly from Spain? A. Oranges. Q. What is the chief town? A. Madrid Q. What its principal rivers? A The Ebro and the Tagus. Q. What is the chief town of Portugal? A. Lisbon. Q. What trees grow in Portugal? A. Orange and lemon trees. Q. What is the largest island of Europe? A. Great Bri- tain. Q. What is the northern part of it called? A. Scotland. Q. What the southern? A England, Q. What is the capital of Scotland? A. Edinburgh. Q. And of England? A. London. Q. What other islands are there? A. Ireland, the capi- tal Dublin; Iceland, and the Ferro Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean. Q. What is Iceland remarkable for? A. For its burning mountain, and its boiling springs. Q. Is it a warm country? A. No; very cold. Q. What is the burning mountain named? A. Mount Hecla. Q. Name the islands situated in the Mediterrancan sca. A. Minorca, Majorca, Ivica, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Candia, and Cyprus. Q What are the small islands between Europe and Tur- key in Asia called? A The Grecian Archipelago. Q. What does Archipelago mcan? A. A number of islands ncar one another. Q. What do those islands produce? A. Currants and plums, and some of them wine. Q. What is the island of Sicily divided from Italy by? A. By the straits of Messina Q. What is it famous for? A. A very large volcano called Mount Ætna METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 149 ASIA. Asia is a large continent, much larger than Europe. It is surrounded on three sides by water, and on the other by land: on the north by the Arctic Ocean; on the south by the Indian Ocean; on the east by the North Pacific Ocean, which separates Asia from America; and on the west by Europe. Asia is joined to Africa by the Isthmus of Suez. This large continent is divided into ten countries; Siberia, one; Turkey in Asia, two; Persia, three; Arabia, four; Hindoostan, five; Birman Empire, six; Thibet, seven; China, eight; Tartary, nine; and Chinese Tartary, ten. Siberia, or Asiatic Russia.-This is a very large country, and the greater part of it is very cold. The principal towns are called Tobolsk, Irkutsk, and Astrakan. The names of the rivers are the Obi and the Lena. There are many high mountains. Those called Caucasus divide part of Si- beria from Persia; one of the mountains is named Mount Ararat. It is believed by many, that it was on this moun- tain the ark rested after the deluge. Siberia extends from that part of the North Pacific Ocean called the Sea of Kam- schatka, to the Black Sea. It is the largest country in Asia. It produces abundance of furs and skins, and in the southern parts there is plenty of fruits and wine. Turkey in Asia.-This country is much warmer than England, but not so much so as to make it unpleasant. It is very often visited by the plague, which is a dreadful sick- ness, from which scarcely any person who is seized with it recovers. We never have the plague in Great Britain now, but in the reign of Charles the Second, when the streets of London were very narrow, so that the air could not pass well through them, and they were not kept nicely clean, a great plague broke out in London, which killed more than half the people in it, and, but that God was good enough to put a stop to it, it is thought that in a short time longer, every person in the town would have died. The reason L L3 150 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Turkey in Asia is so often visited with the plague is, because the inbabitants, who are called Turks, are so lazy and indo- lent that they will not try to prevent it, by kccping their houses and streets, clean and neat, and not as they now are kept full of dirt and filth. The principal towns of this country are Smyrna, Bagdad, Damascus, Aleppo, and Jc rusalem. It was in that part of Turkey in Asia, called the Holy Land, or Palestine, that Jesus Christ did so much good for human beings; where he healed the sick, made the blind to scc, and the lame to walk; in that country he took little children in his arms and taught them to be kind to one another. The rivers are the Euphrates and Tigris; it was in a beautiful place called Eden, between those rivers that Adam and Eve lived. Turkey in Asia is divided from Turkey in Europe by the Black Sea, and part of the Mediterranean Sea called the Sea of Marmora Persia; the chief town is Ispahan. Persia is separated from Arabia by the Persian Gulf. There are many high mountains and large deserts in Persia, but very few rivers, and trees are very uncommon; the one most plentiful is the palmetto; it is a handsome tree with a long slender trunk from which no branches grow except at the top, and each branch has one large leaf. From Persia are brought the most beautiful silks, carpets, leather, and gold and silver lace. Arabia is divided from Africa by the Red Sca; the prin- cipal towns are Mecca, Medina, and Sana. A great num- ber of the Arabs do not live in towns or houses, but wan- der about from one place to another, carrying their tents with them; these wandering Arabs are great robbers, and travellers must go in large numbers together, or there would be no safety in crossing the deserts which they in- habit. Their horses are remarkably beautiful, and the Arabs are so fond of them, that they always lay by the side of them at night, and they are so gentle that they never hurt the little children although they may slccp METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 151 with their heads on their sides. In Arabia is the wilder- ness, or desert, through which the children of Israel were forty years in passing when they left Egypt. You can read all about it in the Bible; you will find it in the book of Exodus, and it was in the Red Sea, which divides Arabia from Africa, that the king of Egypt was drowned with all his army and horses, as you may also read in the same part of the Bible. In Arabia are many camels and ostriches, and it produces many rich spices. Hindoostan. Most part of this country, though so far from England, belongs to the Queen of Great Britain. Hindoostan and the Birman Empire are called India. The chief towns are Calcutta, Delhi, Bombay, and Madras. There are two very large rivers called the Ganges and the Indus. The highest mountains in the world divide Hin- doostan from Thibet, called the Himalayah Mountains 28,000 feet high. In Calcutta is a room, very small and without light or air, called the Black Hole, into which a cruel prince, a native of India, forced 145 poor English- men, and before the next morning, 122 were smothered, the rest escaped. Hindoostan produces rice, sugar, diamonds, cotton, silk, indigo, and saltpetre. The chief This coun- town of the Birman Empire is called Pegu. try is celebrated for its numerous flocks of wild elephants, which are remarkable for their sagacity and beauty. At night the rivers are beautifully lighted up, by a curious insect called the fire-fly, which gives light something like the glowworms but much brighter. China. The chief towns are Pekin, Nankin, and Canton; it is the most civilized country in Asia. The people can print books, make canals, and build nice houses; they also make beautiful linens and silks, and the nicest earthen- ware in the world. They say that China is the most ancient empire in the world. An empire is a country gov- erned by a man who is called the Emperor. China pro- duces tea, which is the dried leaf of a tree. The principal L 4 152 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. rivers are the Kiang and Hoangho. Besides tea, China produces precious metals, such as gold and silver, and plenty of corn, rice, and fruit. It is divided from Chinese Tartary by a very strong high wall, which is 1500 miles long, and wide enough for five men on horseback to ride along side by side Thibet. This country is extremely rocky; the chief town is Lassa, Their food is horse The high mountains Tartary and Chinese Tartary. This immense country is in the centre of Asia, the chief towns are Samarcand and Cashgar. The Tartars chiefly travel about, and at night slccp in the open air, or under tents. Horses are so plen- tiful that most persons possess one. flesh. The chief river is the Amour. to the North of Tartary are called the Altai Mountains, The principal islands round Asia, are the Japan and the Philippine Islands, the Moluccas, Samatra, Java, Borneo, New Guinca, Ceylon, and the very large island called New Holland. The Japan Islands are remarkable for their vol- canoes, which often destroy whole cities. From the Phi- lippine Isles, the Moluccas, Borneo, and the Isles of Sunda, are brought spices, such as nutmegs (which are the ker- nals of a fruit), cinnamon, pepper, ginger, and cloves. These islands are altogether called the East Indies The cocoa trcc, the palm trcc, and the bamboo plant, from which the common walking canes are made, are all found in these islands, and most of the wild animals, such as lions, tigers, elephants, and rhinoceros live in them. A part New Holland is the largest island in the world called New South Wales belongs to Great Britain, and when people behave badly in England, such as stealing from others, and breaking into houses to rob them, they are often sent to a place in New South Wales, called Botany Bay, where they are made to work very hard, which they do not like; for bad people are always idle, and this is called transportation. But all the people in New South Wales did METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 153 not go there for being bad; many go to get land, which is much cheaper there than here, and to live on it, and many poor people go there, particularly from Ireland, because they are much better paid for working than they would be at home. There are no savage animals in New Holland. Questions and Answers. Q. Which is the larger continent, Asia or Europe? A. Asia is much larger than Europe. Q. By what is Asia surrounded on three sides? A. By water. Q. What has it on the other? A. Land. Q. What is the water named that bounds it on the north? A. The Arctic Ocean. Q. What is the water on the south named? A. The In- dian Ocean. Q. What is that on the east named? A. The North Pa- cific Ocean. Q. From what does that divide Asia? A. From Ame- rica. Q. At what point does Asia approach nearest to America? A. At Bhering's straits. Q. What is the land that bounds Asia on the west? A. Europe. Q. Into how many countries is Asia divided? A. Into ten countries. Q. Name them. A. Siberia, Turkey in Asia, Persia, Arabia, Hindoostan, Birman Empire, Thibet, China, Tar- tary, and Chinese Tartary. Q. What is Siberia called? A. Asiatic Russia. Q. Why? A. Because it forms the Russian possessions in Asia. Q. Is it a hot or cold country? A. The greater part of it is very cold. Q. What are the principal towns? A. They are To- bolsk, Iskutsk, and Astrakan. 154 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. · .. Q. What are the principal rivers named? The Obi and the Lena Q. What are the mountains called, which divide part of Siberia from Persia? A. The Caucasus. Q. What is the name of a celebrated mountain in that part of Siberia near Persia? A, Mount Ararat. Q. For what is Mount Ararat celebrated? A. For be- ing the place where, it is said, the ark rested after the deluge. Q. Between what two seas does Siberia extend? A Be- tween that part of the North Pacific Ocean called the Sea of Kamschatka, and the Black Sea. Q. What does it produce? A. The northern parts pro- duce abundance of furs and skins; the southern, fruits and wines. Q. Is Turkey in Asia a warm country? A Yes; but not so much so as to make it unpleasant. Q. What dreadful affliction is it often visited with? A. The plague. Q. What is the plague? A. A dreadful sickness. Q. Is it easily cured? A No; a person being once at- tacked by it, is almost sure to die. Q. When was it last in London? A. In the reign of Charles the Second Q. What is it supposed was a great cause of the rapid- ness with which the people died of it at that time? A. Because the streets of London were then dirty and narrow. Q. What is the great cause of its so frequently attacking the inhabitants of Turkey in Asia? A. Their indolence, which prevents them from keeping their streets and houses clcan Q. What are the inhabitants called? A. Turks. Q. What are the principal towns? A. Smyrna, Bagdad, Damascus, Aleppo, and Jerusalem. Q. In what part of Turkey in Asia did Jesus Christ live? A. In that part called Palestine, or the Holy Land METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 155 Q. What did he do there? A. He healed the sick, made the blind to see, and the lame to walk. Q And what did he teach little children? A. To love one another. Q. What are the principal rivers? A. The Euphrates and Tigris. Q. Who lived in a beautiful place between those rivers ? A. Adam and Eve. Q. What was the place called? A. Eden. Q. What is Turkey in Asia divided from Turkey in Eu- rope by? A. By the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora. Q. What is the chief town of Persia? A. Ispahan. Q. By what is Persia separated from Arabia? A. By the Persian Gulf. Q. What are very plentiful in Persia? A. Mountains and deserts. Q. What are very scarce? A. Rivers and trees. Q. What tree is most seen in Persia? A. The palmetto. Q. Describe it. A. It has a long slender trunk, without branches except at the top, and each branch terminates with one very large leaf. Q. What are brought from Persia? A. The most beau- tiful silks, carpets, leather, and gold and silver lace. Q. How is Arabia divided from Africa? Red Sea. A. By the Q. What are the principal towns of Arabia? A. Mecca, Medina, and Sana. Q. How do a great number of the Arabs live? A. They wander about from place to place, and live in tents, which they carry with them. Q. Are those wandering Arabs very honest? A. No, they are great robbers. Q. How do travellers manage to pass over the deserts which they inhabit? A. They go in large companies called caravans, by which they are enabled to protect them- selves. 156 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY, -- : - .. Q. What sort of horses have the Arabs? A. Very beautiful ones Q. Are they very fond of them? A. Yes, they are so fond of them that they allow them to slccp in their tents with themselves and their children. Q. Are the horses very gentle? A. So gentle that the children often slccp with their heads on their sides Q. What place in Arabia do we read of in the Bible? A. The desert or wilderness through which the children of Israel passed. Q. Who were the children of Israel? A, The Jews. Q. Where can we read of this? A. In the book of Exodus Q. Who was drowned, with all his army and horses, in the Red Sca? A. The king of Egypt. Q. What was his name? A Pharaoh. Q. What useful animal lives in Arabia? A. The camel. Q. What very large bird? A The ostrich. Q. To whom does the greatest part of Hindoostan belong? A To the Qucen of Great Britain. Q. What is Hindoostan and the Birman Empire called? A India. Q. What are the chief towns ? A. Calcutta, Delhi, Bombay, and Madras. Q. Are the mountains which divide Hindoostan from Thibet remarkable for any thing? A They are, for being the highest in the world. Q. What is their height? A 28,000 fcct. Q. What cruel action did an Indian prince commit in Calcutta? A. He shut up 145 poor Englishmen in a small dark room, called the Black Hole, and before morn- ing 122 were dcad from want of air and water. Q. What does Hindoostan produce? A. Rice, sugar, diamonds, cotton, silk, indigo, and salt-petre. Q. What is the chief town of the Birman Empire? A, Pegu METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 157 Q. What is this country celebrated for? A. For its flocks of wild elephants. Q. What are those elephants remarkable for? A. For their sagacity and beauty. Q. What remarkable insect is there in this country? A. The fire-fly. Q. What is it remarkable for? A. It gives a light something like the glow-worm, but much brighter. Q. What are the chief towns of China? A. Pekin, Nankin, and Canton. Q. What sort of country is it? A. The most civilized in Asia. Q. What can the people do? A. They can print books, make canals, build nice houses, and bridges, and ships; they also make beautiful linens and silks, and the nicest earthenware in the world. Q. What is the earthenware they make called? A. China. Q. What do the Chinese say their empire is? A. The most ancient in the world. Q. What are the principal rivers of China? A. The Kiang and the Hoangho. Q. What is China particularly famous for? A. For tea. Q. How is tea made? A. It is the dried leaf of a tree, called the tea tree. Q. What does China produce beside tea? A. Gold and silver, and plenty of corn, rice, and fruit. Q. What is China divided from Chinese Tartary by ? A. By a great wall. Q. How long is this wall? A. 1500 miles in length. Q. How broad? A. Five men on horseback could ride along the top of it side by side. Q. What sort of country is Thibet? A. Very rocky. Q. What is the chief town? A. Lassa. Q. In what part of Asia is the immense country of Tar- tary and Chinese Tartary situated? A. In the centre. • " 158 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Q. What are the chief towns? A. Samarcand and Cash- gar? Q. How do the Tartars chiefly live? A. They travel about. Q. Where do they sleep at night? A. In the open air. Q. What sort of animals are so very plentiful amongst them, that almost every person possesses one? A. Horses. Q. On what do they feed? A. On horseflesh. Q. What is the name of the chief river? A. Amour. Q. What are the high mountains to the north of Tartary called? A. The Altain Mountains. Q. What are the principal islands round Asia? A. The Japan and the Phillipine Isles, the Moluccas, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, New Guinea, Ceylon, and the very large island called New Holland. Q. For what are the Japan Islands remarkable? A. For their volcanoes, which often destroy whole cities. Q. What do the islands, the Philippine Islands, the Mo- luccas, Borneo, and the Isles of Sunda, produce? A Spices; such as nutmegs (which are the kernels of a fruit), cinna- mon, pepper, ginger, and cloves. Q. What are those islands altogether called? A. The West Indies. Q. What description of trees are found in them? A. The cocoa tree, the palm trcc, and the bamboo plant, from which the common walking-cane is made. Q. What animals live in them? A. Almost all the wild ones, such as the tiger, the lion, the elephant, and the rhi- noceros, Q. Is New Holland a large island? A. Yes; the largest in the world. Q. What is the name of the part which belongs to Great Britain ? A, New South Wales, Q. What place in New South Wales are convicts sent to? A. To Botany Bay. Q. What are convicts? A. People whom the laws have LESSONS ON BOTANY. 159 sentenced to be sent away from their native country for behaving badly in it, such as stealing what belongs to other people, and breaking into houses to rob them. Q. What is being sent away from their country for bad conduct called? A. Transportation. Q. Are all the people in New South Wales people who were sent there for bad conduct? A. No; many go there because land is cheap; and working people are better paid. Q. Are there any savage beasts there? A. No. Q. What curious animal is found there? A. The kan- garoo. BOTANY. Means for giving the pupils some knowledge on this sub- ject will exist in the gardens, in the play-ground, and in the plants in pots, which the friends to the institutions will supply; the distinguishing marks of the plants and flowers may be pointed out. By botany we mean a knowledge of plants and flowers; that is, we learn by it the different parts of which they are composed, and the means which God has taken to make them bring forth leaves, and fruit, and flowers. When we walk into the fields in spring or summer, we see many pretty plants, but without knowing something of bot- any, we should not be able to find how their leaves grow, and how their flowers are produced. By reading this les- son attentively, you will be able to understand a good deal about this; but when you have learnt well what this will teach, you may then, if you wish it, find means to learn. much more on the subject. The different parts, or divi- sions, of this science are, vegetable-anatomy-anatomy means the dividing or taking asunder of the different parts of any thing, and so vegetable-anatomy means a knowledge of the different parts of which plants and flowers are com- posed; and this knowledge is acquired by taking those • 160 LESSONS ON BOTANY. parts asunder, without injuring any of them. The next part gives us a knowledge of the growth and functions of plants, and it is called vegetable-physiology. The next part is called vegetable history, which means a know- ledge of the first places in which plants are produced, how long they live, and of what use they are to man. And the next we name particular botany, which means a know- ledge of the names of plants, and of the classes or divisions into which we have formed them. Plants are situated on the surface of the carth, and they have one part which is called the root, which penetrates into the carth, or some- times only holds to it, without penetrating or going in, and another part, which is called the stem, which either rises above the surface or rests upon it. But all plants have not roots and stems; some have no stems, and some do not re- quire to have roots in the ground Plants grow almost over the whole surface of the globe, except in the very cold parts near the poles, the high tops of lofty mountains, which are always so cold that water freezes there, places which are very hot, and at the same time where rain or water never comes, and places where the surface consists of nothing but very small stones. In these countries, how- ever, we have very few places that are not covered with plants, or where plants might not be made to grow; and even in winter we have many shrubs that remain quite green, and mosses and grass, which the coldness of the weather does not injure, Questions and Answers. Q. What is meant by botany? A A knowledge of plants. Q. What do we learn by it? A. The different parts of which they are composed. Q. What more? brought forth. A How the leaves and flowers are Q. Name the principal parts or divisions into which this LESSONS ON BOTANY. 161 ! science is divided? A. Vegetable-anatomy, vegetable-phy- siology, vegetable-history, and particular botany. Q. What is the meaning of vegetable anatomy? A. A knowledge of the different parts of which a plant is com- posed. Q. What do you mean by anatomy? A. The dividing or taking asunder the different parts of any thing. Q. What do you understand by vegetable physiology? A. A knowledge of the growth and functions of plants. Q. What is the meaning of vegetable history? A. A knowledge of the first places in which plants are produced, how long they live, and the uses they may be applied to. Q. What is meant by particular botany? A. A know- ledge of the names of plants, and of the classes or divi- sions into which we have formed them. Q. On what part of the earth are plants situated? A. On the surface. Q. What is that part of a plant called which penetrated into the earth? A. The root. Q. Does the root always penetrate into the earth? A. No; it sometimes only holds to it without penetrating. Q. What is the meaning of penetrate? A. To go in or through. Q. What is that the surface of the stem. part of a plant which either rises above earth or rests upon it, called? A. The Q. Have all plants, roots and stems? A. Most of them have, but some have not. Q. Do plants grow all over the surface of the earth? A. Except in a few places. Q. Where are those? A. The very cold places near the Poles. Q. Where else? A. The cold tops of lofty mountains. Q. Where else? A. Very hot, dry places, and places where the surface consists of nothing but very small stones. M 162 LESSONS ON BOTANY. : Q. Are there many places in these countries which we inhabit, barren. A Very few. Q. What do you mean by barren places? A. Places where no plants can be made to grow. Q. Do you know any very large countries where no plants can be made to grow? A. Yes; the great deserts of Africa and Asia LESSONS ON THE NUMBER, DISTRIBUTION, AND USES OF PLANTS. Plants, as regards their general structure and habits, are divided into those in which the substance of the plant is made up of little cells or cavities with partitions between, and those which are made of tubes, and admit of being di- vided into threads or fibres. The first may be called cellular, and the second vascular. Cellular means a struc- ture or formation in which the juices are contained in little cavities, which have no necessary communication with each other; a vascular structure means one in which the fluids or juices are contained in pipes or canals, in which they may rise or fall. The other distinctions between them are, that the cellular plants are, generally speaking, those in which the flowers or seeds have either not been dis- covered at all, or are so small and obscure as not to be casily sccn. The plants which have this character are the fungi, such as mushrooms and toadstools, the lichens which grow on walls and rocks, and also the greater number of plants which grow in the sea; and the flowers of many of the mosses are so small and conccaled that they are not easily scen. The vascular plants have visible flowers, and differ from the cellular, in being generally made of a greater number of parts, in being more large and conspicuous, and they are also much more useful. There is also a remarkable diyi- sion of the vascular plants, which is, that two portions of them have their general structure very different; those two LESSONS ON BOTANY. 163 divisions are called endogenous and exogenous. Endoge- nous means growing at the centre; plants of that kind in- crease only in length, and have the outer part of the stem oldest. The grasses which form the covering of the earth. are amongst those, in which are included not only all the long and slender leaved plants which are used as pasturage, or for hay, but grain plants,-wheat, barley, oats, and rye. The endogenous plants are, therefore, the most useful and interesting to man, although not the most showy. The exogenous means growing from the outside. The stems of these plants consist of wood and bark, and they increase in thickness by the formation of new matter between the wood and bark; part of which goes to increase the one, and part the other; the part where those join being always the liv- ing part of the plant. This division includes all our forest trees and shrubs. Plants of all kinds are most numerous and grow to the greatest size, in warm countries, provided they have plenty of rain to refresh them. In cold coun- tries, the cellular plants are more numerous than the vascu- lar. As you ascend a mountain, which bears some resem- blance to going to a cold country, you can perceive, if you are able to distinguish them, that the cellular plants increase and the number of vascular grow less. The plants that grow in the water are called aquatic plants; those that grow in the sea, are called marine plants; if they grow near the shore, they are called shore plants, but if in the deep water, they are called deep sea plants; those plants that grow in fresh running water are called river plants; if they grow in marshes, or wet, boggy ground, they are called palustrous plants; and if in springs, or the rills that im- mediately issue from springs, they are called fontinal plants. There are many different kinds of sea or marine plants on the shores of the British seas. Some of them are of use; a few are eaten as salads, some may be boiled into a kind of soup or jelly, and many are burned for the sake of M2 164 LESSONS ON BOTANY. the soda they contain. Soda is used in making glass, and Some of the sea plants They derive their nou- mixed with tallow, it forms soap. make excellent manure for land. rishment from their surface, and not from their root, as the land plants do. Their principal colours are red, brown, or olive green. The fresh water plants are not so numerous as the marine or sea plants; those of them which are con- stantly under water do not flower, but those that reach the surface, often do; the former kind are generally soft, and in the form of threads; many of them are very small; they are produced by grains or secds, which are contained in little pipes or tubes, and after they burst from these, they adhere to stones, posts in the water, and other substances, and become plants. The land plants are divided into six species, as to their general appearance; trees, small trees, shrubs, bushes, under shrubs, and herbs A trec is a plant which has a single, woody stem, and attains the height of at least twenty feet; a small tree is one which never, under any circumstances, attains the height of more than thirty feet; a shrub is one which never attains the height of fif- teen fcct, and has branches near the bottom; a bush is one that has branches from the very surface of the ground; an under shrub is a plant that has no buds, and is not more than two feet high; an herb is a plant with a soft stalk, as soft as the leaves, and which dies every ycar. All the other five have woody stems, but the herb has a soft one. Questions and Answers. Q. How are plants divided as regards their structure (which means the manner they are formed in), and habits (which means the way in which they are supplied with nourishment, and are produced)? A. They are divided into two species Q. What are the names given to them? A Cellular and vascular. : LESSONS ON BOTANY. 165 Q. What do you mean by the term cellular? A. It means that the plant is so made that the juices are con- tained in little cavities or cells. Q. Have those cells or cavities any necessary commu- nication with each other? A. No. Q. What do you mean by vascular? A. It means a plant so formed that the fluids or juices are contained in pipes, or canals, in which they may rise or fall. Q. What are the other distinctions between cellular and vascular plants? A. The cellular plants are those in which the flowers or seeds have either not been discovered at all, or are so small and obscure as not to be easily seen. Q. What plants are of this character? A. The fungi, such as mushrooms and toadstools. Q. What others? A. The lichens which grow on walls and rocks, and also the greater number of plants which grow in the sea. Q. Can the flowers of the mosses be easily seen? A. Many of them are so small that it is very difficult to dis- cover them. Q. What are the vascular plants distinguished by? A. They have visible flowers. Q. In what else do they differ from the cellular? A. In being generally made of a greater number of parts. Q. What more? A. And then being much more large and conspicuous, and more useful. Q. Into what two divisions are the vascular plants formed? A. Endogenous and exogenous. Q. What does endogenous mean? A. Growing at the centre. Q. How do plants of that kind increase? A. Only in length. Q. What part of the stem is oldest? A. The outer part. Q. What are amongst these? A. The grasses that form the covering of the earth. -1 3 4 M 3 166 LESSONS ON BOTANY. .. Q What are included in these grasses? A. Not only all the long and slender leaved plants which are used for pasturage or hay, but grain plants, wheat, barley, oats, and rye. Q. Are the endogenous plants the most useful to man- kind? A. They are, though not the most showy. Q. What do you mean by exogenous plants? A. Grow- ing from the outside. Q. What do the stems of those plants consist of? A. Wood and bark. Q. How do they incrcase? A By the formation of new matter between the wood and bark. Q. What part of the plant contains the vital or living portion? A. That part where the bark and wood meet. Q. What does this division include? A. All our trccs and shrubs Q. In what countries do plants of all kinds grow to the largest size? A In warm countries, provided they get sufficient moisture. Q. Which are the cellular or vascular plants, the more numerous in cold countries? A. The cellular. Q. What gives you a great proof of this? A. That when ascending a mountain, which bears soine resem- blance to going to a cold country, the number of vascular plants grow less Q. What are the plants that grow in the water called? A. Aquatic plants. Q. How are they divided? A. Into those that grow on the sca shore, in the dccp sea, those that grow in running water, those that grow in marshes, and those that grow in springs, Q. Are there many different kinds of marine or sea plants on the shores of the British seas? A Yes, a good many. as Q. Are any of them of use? A. Yes, some are used a salad, others are boiled into a kind of soup or LESSONS ON BOTANY. 167 jelly, and many are burned for the sake of the soda they contain. Q. What are the uses of soda? A. It is used in making glass, and mixed with tallow it makes soap. Q. What other use are the sea plants converted to? A. Some of them form excellent manure. Q. From what do they derive their nourishment? A. From their surface, that is, from their stem and leaves. Q. In what do they differ in this from land plants? A. Land plants draw their nourishment from their base, or roots. Q. What are their principal colours? A. Red, brown, or olive-green. Q. Are the fresh water plants as numerous as those of the sea? A. No; the sea plants contain a much greater variety. Q. Do the fresh water plants put out flowers? A. Those that are continually under water do not; but those that reach the surface do. Q. What is the general description of those that do not flower? A. They are generally soft and in the form of threads; many of them are very small. Q. How are they produced? A. By grains or seeds, which are contained in little pipes or tubes. Q. How do those grains or seeds become plants? A. They burst from the pipes or tubes, and fasten themselves to stones, posts in the water, or other substances, where they grow. Q. Into how many species are the land plants divided? A. Into six. Q. Name them. A. Trees, small trees, shrubs, bushes, under shrubs, and herbs. Q. What is a tree? A. A plant, that has a single woody stem, and attains the height of at least twenty feet. Q. What is a small tree? A. One which, under any M 4 168 . LESSONS ON BOTANY. circumstances, never attains the height of more than thirty fcct. Q. What is a shrub? A. One which never attains the height of fifteen fcct, and has branches ncar the bottom. Q. What is a bush? A. One that has branches from the very surface of the ground. Q. What is an under shrub? A. A plant that has no buds, and is not more than two feet high. Q. What is an herb? A. A plant that has a stalk as soft as the leaves, and which dies every year. Q. What have the first five of those? A. Woody stems. Q. What sort of stem has the herb? A. A soft one THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF PLANTS- As plants vary so much in appearance and character, we must, to describe the different parts, take a particular one; we will, therefore, suppose we are telling the parts of a trcc or shrub. It possesses the root, stem, lcaves, flowers, and fruit; those are the parts by which a tree lives, until it produces other trccs; the root is that part of the plant which, generally speaking, is found in the carth: it serves to keep the plant steady in its place, and puts out fibres, which are small roots like pieces of thrcad, which assist the plant in obtaining nourishment. When trees are planted in a place where they are more exposed on one side than on the other, they always put out their roots in such a way as to secure them from danger; for instance, a trcc which grows on the bank of a precipice, or stccp place, against which the winds beat with violence, puts its roots down the stcep, closely embracing the surface of the rock, and fas- tening its smaller fibres into the holes and cracks. We know that the roots assist the trcc in obtaining nourish- ment, because they have often becn known to go a long way into the carth, in a singular direction, in order to rcach some part of the soil more favourable to the growth of the trce than that in which it had bccn planted; it is also very - LESSONS ON BOTANY. 169 remarkable, that those shrubs which happpen to be planted in the poorest soils, always put forth the greatest number of fibres, in proportion to the size of the root. The roots of the plants are of many different forms, the most remark- able of which are fibrous, creeping, spindle-shaped, abrupt, tuberous, bulbous, and granulated. The fibrous root is one that is made up of small threads, the roots of all plants which draw nourishment from the earth may be accounted fibrous, whether they grow from the hollow of the stem, or from any parts of it under ground; a creeping root is one which runs along under the ground, puts out its fibres, and sends up stalks at different distances. Many of the grasses, especially those that grow in dry sandy soils, are creeping rooted plants. In warm conntries, there are trees called man- groves, that run along the sea-shores, and form thickets in the water. An abrupt root is one in which the part of the stem which is under ground, ends thick and blunt. A tu- berous root is one in which large fleshy knots are found, as in the potatoe, or a bulb growing downwards, as in the tur- nip; those roots have the power of vegetating, or sending out stems, either from the eyes, like those of the potatoe, or from the crown of the root, as in the turnip and carrot. A spindle-shaped root generally means those that are long, thicker at the middle than at either end. A bulbous root is one which has the crown on the lower end, as in the onion or lily. The crown of the plant is that part wherever it may be situated, below which all is root, and above which all is stem, or leaves of some description or other. Bul- bous roots are of different kinds; they are solid, or com- posed of coats, or made up of scales; the crocus has a solid root, the onion has a coated one, and the lily has a scaly one. A granulated root is one which is made up of little knots, each of which may be called a small bulb. Roots are classed according to their duration; there are three of those classes-annual, biennial, and perennial. An annual root is one which does not last through the winter, but bears 170 LESSONS ON BOTANY. ; its flower and fruit the same year that it issues from the sced, and then dies; a biennial root is one which produces Icaves one year, and flowers the next, and lasts part of two suiniers; a perennial root sends up two flowering stems, and has a power of continuing itself, either by new roots, or in itself; therefore roots that last but one ycar must be con- tinued by sowing the sccds again. All woody plants have perennial roots, as well as some herbs. By the stem of a plant is understood that part which runs from the root, and bears leaves, flowers, and fruit; its principal forms are, erect, that is, standing straight up; procumbent, that is, ly- ing down; crccping on the ground; reclining, bent towards the ground; climbing by means of tendrils, as in the com- mon vine and pea, or by means of fibres, as those by which ivy adheres to a rock, a wall, or a trec; twisting, when it coils itself round, like the honeysuckle, or French bean trailing, as in the runners of the strawberry; and branched, as in most trees and shrubs. Those stalks that do not bear both leaves and flowers, and therefore cannot properly be called stems, are named differently. Culm or straw is the name given to the stalks of grasses; peduncle is the name given to those stalks that bear only flowers; if they spring immediately from the root, they are called radical, if from the stem, they are called cauline, and if from a branch, they are called ramose. The stems of woody plants are com- posed of four distinct parts; those stems, when large, are called trunks, or boles; the names of those four parts are, the pith, which is most abundant in young trees, but in old ones is often not to be found; the wood, which generally forins the chief part of the stem, and of which there is usu- ally a ring formed every year; the bark, which covers the wood, and also receives ycarly additions; the epidermis, which covers the whole in young trccs, but is often wanting in old ones. Between the bark and wood is situated the cambium, or changing matter, which is a fluid in the carly part of the season, but changes outwardly to bark, and in- LESSONS ON BOTANY. 171 wardly to wood, by the end of it. The leaf expands from a bud or otherwise, does not bear a flower, answers a tem- porary purpose, and then drops off from the plant. The uses of leaves to the plant they grow on are not very well known, but they absorb, that is, take in, and also give out moisture. They are of other use, however; they serve to feed immense numbers of small animals; they form the principal food of many of our domestic quadrupeds; when decayed, they add to the fertility and richness of the ground, and in some countries, where leaves grow to a very large size, the people use them for covering their houses, and for various household purposes. They are composed of a fibrous net work of matter, more or less woody, which supports a softer, pulpy matter, contained within a skin, which in many leaves may be peeled off, and if a ripe leaf be soaked in water, the pulpy matter may be dissolved, and the net work will remain in great beauty. The forms of leaves are very many and varied, but the most general and obvious are those of simple and compound leaves. A sim- ple leaf has but one lobe or division, whatever may be its form; a compound leaf has a number of lobes, or leaflets, standing on the same footstalk, of which, as well as of the other, there are many varieties. Leaves are also divided into three classes, considered in respect of their duration. First, fugitive, or those that fade soon after they appear; second, deciduous, or shed from the tree in winter, and be- fore the new leaves make their appearance; third, ever- green, or shed after the other leaves make their appear- ance, so that though the leaves are shed after a certain time, there are always green ones on the plant. A flower is that part of a plant which is preparatory to the perfect- ing of seeds. There are a great variety of the parts of a flower; in those which are considered the most perfect are seven, besides the peduncle, on which the flower is sup- ported; these are the calyx, or flower cup, which is an ex- tension of the peduncle in the form of leaves, and not differing much from common leaves in texture; this is 172 LESSONS ON BOTANY. sometimes wanting, sometimes it falls off, sometimes it rc mains on the lower part of the trunk, and sometimes on the upper part, in the form of a little crown. The second part is the corolla, which is found within or above the calyx; it is of a finer texture, and often displays the most beautiful colours; it generally falls off when the preparation for the sccds of the flower is perfected; in some cases the flowers may be said to have the calyx and corolla united together. When the corolla consists of more than one part, those parts are called petals; when there is only one row of them, the flower is said to be single, and when more than one row, it is double. The third part of the flower consists of the stamens, which are like threads, generally bearing little knobs on their points; they are ranged within the co- rolla, and vary in number in different flowers. The fourth part is the pistils, which are organs standing on the rudi- ments of the flowers; sometimes one, and sometimes many on the same flower. They are never wanting on those flowers that are to produce seeds. The fifth part is the pericarpium, or sccd vessel, but sometimes it is want- ing; in which case the plants are said to have naked sccds The sixth part is called the receptacle, or that by which all the other parts are united; and the seventh part is the sccd, to bring which to perfection, so that it may be fit for producing future plants, is the object of all the other parts; and when they have accomplished that, they die. Some flowers have another part, called the nectary, which is situated in the hollow of the corolla, and is provided with glands or organs, that secrete honey. The fruits of plants are the sccds, with the vessels in which they are contained; they are almost as varied in their ap- pearances and character as flowers. One class is the sccds of the cercalia or corn grasses, which are sometimes covered with chaff, and sometimes naked; they are chiefly com- posed of farina or mcal, and are, of all vegetable substances, the best adapted for human food. Another class is com- posed of nuts, in which the sccd is contained within a coat LESSONS ON BOTANY. 173 or shell of various degrees of hardness; they are in general nourishing, but contain a quantity of oil which renders them less easy of digestion than the others. Succulent fruits are those which have the seed or seeds enclosed in a fleshy or pulpy mass; the principal sorts are stone fruits, in which the pulp encloses a single seed or nut, such as the plum, the cherry, and the peach; apples and pears, in which a few seeds are inclosed in a firm fleshy pulp; and berries which are of a smaller size, and have the pulp softer, and the seeds, generally speaking, more nume- rous. Questions and Answers. Q. Could we describe the different parts of every plant, by taking one as a specimen? A. No; plants vary too much in their appearance and character. Q. Let us then take a tree or a shrub. Name its parts? A. The root, stem, leaves, flowers, and fruit. Q. What does the tree benefit by those? A. It lives by them. Q. Where is the root of the tree generally situated? A. In the earth. Q. What does it serve to do? A. To keep the tree steady in its place. Q. What part of the root does it bring nourishment to the tree by ? A. Its fibres. Q. What are they? A. Small roots, like pieces of thread. Q. What is very remarkable in the roots of trees that are more exposed to storms at one side than the other? A. They spread out most at the side from which they may expect danger. Q. How do we know that the small roots or fibres assist the tree in obtaining nourishment? A. Because they will spread a long way to come at good ground if the tree be planted in a bad soil. • 174 LESSONS ON BOTANY. ་ Q. Are the roots of plants all of the same form? A. No, they are of very different shapes. Q. Name the most remarkable. A Fibrous, crceping, spindle shaped, abrupt, tuberous, bulbous, and granulated. Q. Of what are the fibrous roots made up? A. Of small threads, Q. What roots may we account fibrous? A. Those of all plants which derive nourishment from the carth. Q. What is a crccping root? A. One which grows along under the ground, puts out its fibres, and sends out stalks at different distances. Q. What description of plants are crccping rooted? A, Many of the grasses, especially those that grow in dry sandy soils. Q. What remarkable plant is found in warm countries with a creeping root? A. Mangroves; they run along the sca shore, and form thickets in the water. Q. What is an abrupt root? A. One in which the part of the stem that is underground ends thick and blunt. Q. What is a tuberous root? A. One in which large fleshy knots are found. Q. Give me an example. A. The potato. Q. What other description of a tuberous root is there? A. One that has a bulb growing downwards. Q. Give me an example. A. The turnip. Q. What power have those roots? A. Of vegetating or sending out stems either from the eyes, like the potatoe, or from the crown of the root, as in the turnip or carrot. Q. What do you understand by a spindle shaped root? A. One that is long and thicker in the middle than at either end. Q. What is a bulbous root? A. One which has the crown at the lower end, as in the onion or lily. Q. What is the crown of the plant? A. That part, wherever it may be situated, below which all is root, and . LESSONS ON BOTANY. 175 above which all is stem, or leaves of some description or another. Q. Of what different kinds are bulbous roots? A. They are solid, or composed of coats, or made up of scales. Q. Give me an example of a solid bulbous root. A. The crocus. Q. Give me an example of a coated one. A. The onion. Q. Give me an example of a scaly one. A. The lily. Q. Give me an example of a granulated root. A. It is one which is made up of little knobs, each of which may be called a small bulb. Q. How are roots also classed? A. According to their duration. Q. What do you understand by that? A. According to the time they last. Q. How many of this description of classes are there? A. Three. Q. Name them? A. Annual, biennial, and perennial. Q. What is an annual root? A. One which does not last through the winter, but bears its flower and fruit the same year that it issues from the seed, and then dies. Q. What is a biennial root? A. One which produces leaves the one year and flowers the next, and lasts part of two summers. Q. What is a perennial root? A. It sends up two flowering stems, and has a power of continuing itself either by new roots or by itself. Q. How are plants that last but one year continued? A. By sowing the seed again. Q. What description of roots have all woody plants? A. Perennial roots. Q. Have any others the same kind? A. Yes; some herbs. Q. What do you understand by the stem of the plant? A. That part which runs from the root, and bears the leaves, flowers, and fruit. 176 LESSONS ON BOTANY. Q. What are the principal forms of the stem? A Frect, that is standing straight up; procumbient, that is lying down; crccping on the ground; reclining, bent towards the ground; climbing, as the vine and pca; twisting like the honey suckle; trailing like the runner of the strawberry; and branched as in most trees and shrubs Q. What are those stalks called that do not bear both Icaves and flowers, and therefore cannot properly be named stems? A. They have different names. Q. What is the name given to the stalk of grasses? A. Culm or straw. Q What is the name given to those stalks which bear only flowers? A Peduncle Q. What are they called if they spring immediately from the root? A. Radical, Q. What are they called if they spring from the stem? A. Cauline. Q. If from a branch? A. Ramose. Q. Of how many parts are the stems of woody plants composed? A Of four distinct parts. Q. Name those parts? A. The pith, the wood, the bark, and the epidermis. Q. In what trees is the pith most abundant? A In young trccs. Q. Is it ever wanting in any trec? A. Yes; in old trees. Q. What does the wood form generally? A. The chief part of the stem, Q What is usually formed every year on the wood? A. A new ring of it. Q. What do you understand by this? A, That the wood incrcases in size every ycar. Q. What does the bark do? A. It covers the wood Q. What does it also receive? A Yearly additions. Q. What does the epidermus serve for? A. To cover the entire. LESSONS ON BOTANY. 177 Q. On what trees is it most found? A. On young ones, and is often wanting on the old. Q. What is situated between the bark and wood? A. The cambium or changing matter. Q. What is this? A. In the early part of the season it is a fluid. Q. By the end of the season into what does it change? A. Outwardly to bark, and inwardly to wood. Q. From what does the leaf expand? A. From a bud, or otherwise. Q. Does it bear a flower? A. No. Q. Of what use are leaves to the plants they grow on? A. They take in, and give out moisture. Q. What feed upon them? A. Great numbers of small animals, and most of our domestic quadrupeds. Q. What do they add to when decayed? A. The fertility and richness of the earth. Q. In some countries what uses are leaves put to? A. They are of an immense size and are used for covering houses, and for many household purposes. Q. What are leaves composed of?. A. A fibrous net work of matter more or less woody. Q. What does this support? A. A soft pulpy matter. Q. What is this contained within? A. A skin which in many leaves may be peeled off. Q. Are all leaves of the same form? A. No; the forms of leaves are very many and varied. Q. What are the most general distinctions? A. Simple and compound. Q. What is a simple leaf? A. It has but one division, whatever may be its form. Q. What is a compound leaf? A. It has a number of lobes or leaflets standing on the same footstalk. Q. Considering them in respect to their duration, or the time they live, into how many classes are leaves di- vided? A. Into three. N 1/8 LESSONS ON BOTANY. Q. Name them? A. First, fugitive, or those that fade soon after they appear; second, deciduous, or shed from the tree in winter and before the new leaves make their appearance; third, evergreen or shed, after the new leaves make their appearance. Q. What is a flower? A. It is that part of a plant which is preparatory to the perfecting of sced, Q. How many parts in a perfect flower? A. Seven, besides the peduncle on which the flower is supported Q. Name them? A The calyx, the corolla, the sta mens, the pistils, the pericarpium, the receptacle, and the sccd Q. Describe the calyx or flower cup? A. It is an ex- tension of the peduncle, in the form of leaves, and not dif- fering much from common leaves in texture. Q. Is the calyx ever wanting? A. Yes; and it some- times falls off. Sometimes it remains on the lower part of the trunk, and sometimes on the upper part in the form of a little crown. Q. Where is the corolla found? A. Within or above the calyx. Q. Describe it. A. It is of a fine texture, and often dis plays the most beautiful colours, it generally falls off when the preparation for the sccds of the flower is perfected Q. What may be said in some cases? A That a flower has the calyx and corolla united together. Q. When the corolla consists of more than one part, what are those parts called? A. Petals. Q. When there is only one row of them, what is the flower said to be? A. Single. Q. And when more than one row, what is it called? A. Double Q. What are the stamens? A They are like threads generally bearing little knobs on their points. Q. Where are they situated? A. They are ranged within the corolla, LESSONS ON BOTANY. 179 Q. Are their numbers the same in every flower? A. No; they vary. Q. What are the pistils? A. They are organs standing on the rudiments of the flower, sometimes one and some- times many on the same flower. Q. In what flowers are they always found? A. In those which are to produce seeds. Q. What is the pericarpium? A. The seed vessel. Q. Is it ever wanting? A. Yes. Q. What are the plants in which it is wanting said to have? A. Naked seeds. Q. What is the receptacle? A. That part by which all the others are united. Q. What is the seed? A. That part to bring which to perfection, so that it may be fit for producing future plants, is the object of all the other parts. Q. When this object is accomplished, what happens? A. They die. Q. What is the name of another part which is found in some flowers? A. The nectary. Q. Where is this part situated? A. In the hollow of the corolla. Q. What is it provided with? A. Glands or organs. Q. For what purpose? A. To secrete honey. Q. What insect extracts this honey from the nectary of the flower? A. The bee. Q. Does the bee eat it when it gets it? A. No; he keeps it for winter provision. Q. What is the fruit of plants? A. The seed with the vessels in which they are contained. A. Yes; they vary in Q. Are they very numerous? description almost as much as flowers. Q. Name one class. A. The seeds of the corn grasses. Q. What are they sometimes covered with? A. Chaff. Q. What are they chiefly composed of? A. Farina or meal. N 2 180 LESSONS ON BOTANY. Q. Are they useful? A Yes; of all vegetable sub- stances they are the best adapted for human food. Q. Name another class. A. Nuts, in which the sced is contained within a coat or shell of various degrees of hardness Q. Are they good? A. In general they are nourishing, but they contain a quantity of oil, which renders them less easy of digestion than the others. Q. What are the other fruits? A. Those that have the seed or sccds enclosed in a fleshy or pulpy mass. Q. What are the principal descriptions? A. Stone fruit in which the pulp encloses a single sccd or nut. Q. Give an example. A. A plum. Q. What others? A Apples and pears, in which a few seeds are enclosed in a firm fleshy pulp. Q. What more? A. Berries, which are of a smaller size, and the pulp is softer. Q. Are the sccds as numerous in berries as in pears and apples? A. Generally more so. Q. For whose use and benefit are all those things that we have been speaking of made? A. For mankind, Q. By whom were they all contrived and created? A. By God. Q. Did he make any thing that we cannot find useful in some manner? A. No; he crcated nothing without doing it for some wise and good purpose. NATURAL HISTORY. Natural history may be taught, in part, by pictures, both in classes, by monitors, in the gallery, by the master or mistress, and in the class-room by either. It may be taught by the monitors as follows: the picture must be suspended on the lesson-post, before the class suppose it is the pic- ture of the camel. The class will first read the lesson un- derneath the plate alternately, or altogether, according to • .. : . LESSONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. 181 the orders of the teachers; after the lesson has been read, the monitor will proceed,-" What is this?" The answer will most likely be,-"It is a camel." The monitor, if not well instructed, will be satisfied with this answer; but if she is well instructed, will reply,—“No; it is not a ca- mel." The positive pupils will re-assert that it is, for they can see it. If none of them find out of their own accord, she will then say, "How can you call this a camel? if it were a camel, it would not be here, it would be too large.” Some of them will now begin to think, and probably say, "It is a picture of one." She then replies, “Yes, it is the re- presentation of one-the figure of one; but you must always distinguish between the representation of a thing and the thing itself. Spell camel?" The pupils will now spell the word; the monitor may write the word, and also the pupils may do the same on their slates. The next question may be, "What is the difference between the three ?" The pupils may now find out the real fact, and will then say, looking at their slates, "The word is on the slates, the representation is before us; we cannot see the real one here, but we must conceive it in the mind." They must now be told its height and size, by comparing it to some animal they know; and then the monitor will go on,- Is it an herbaceous or car- nivorous animal? What food does it eat? nating animal? Is it gentle ? Is it useful? most used? Where is it most useful? What are its uses? How much will it carry? How is its burden put on? What does it do to enable its driver to put it on? How long can it go without water? What enables it to go so long with- out water? What do they do with the milk of the female? What is done with the hair? How many miles will they travel in a day? How do they travel? What kind of feet have they? Why are their feet so made? What is given to them on a journey? Are they bipeds or quadrupeds? What is the distinction? What class do they belong to? Who wrote most about them, Cuvier or Buffon? Where Is it a rumi- Where is it N 3 182 LESSONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. they Englishmen? Are the camels used in this country? Why not? What are their habits?" In this way the es- sence of the lesson may be taught, with the meaning of the words used; this will prepare the pupils for further information from the cacher? When they are in the class-room, or on the gallery, an anecdote about the animal will please and instruct the pupils, and will not casily be forgotten. The other pictures may be used in the same way, and the pupils instructed by the same means at dif- ferent times, according to circumstances, as the case re- quires, They will get more correct information by the pictures thus used, than by any book in the school, and be more prepared for the books when they are put into their hands. We will, however, that the subject may be under- stood, give a few other lessons of a similar description. THE HEN AND CHICKENS. The hen is very kind to her young ones, and does all she can to keep them from harm; if it is cold or wet she puts them under her wings; if a dog or cat were to try to hurt them she would fly at it. What nice little things the chicks are, and how kind is the hen to them; she takes them to the barn door to pick up the corn, and when she finds any grains of corn or crumbs of bread, she calls them to her, that they may share it; and when they hear her call them, they run to her as fast as they can. Girls might find imitate the little throw stones at the little The hen sits on her eggs chicks break out through it very much to their advantage to chicks, by coming when called as fast as they can, which would make every one love them. No good child who has any sense of fccling would chicks, nor at any thing else twenty-one days, and then the the large end of the egg with their little bills, and run about immediately. The Egyptians have a method of hatching chickens by artificial heat; the heat which the hen's body and feathers give to the eggs is natural heat, but when LESSONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. 183 ; they are hatched in any other way it is said to be done by artificial heat. They put the eggs into stoves or ovens, and those they gradually heat until the eggs are hatched; the little chicks are then taught to pick and drink. Many people in this country have tried the experiment of hatching eggs by artificial heat, and have often succeeded. There are many other kinds of hens beside the common one the Spanish hen is a very pretty bird, black and green, with a red comb and white gills; also the Poland hen, which is brought chiefly from Holland, though called the Poland. Its colour is shining black with white tops on the head; there is also the Bantam hen, and many others. The hen is of the third order of birds, and is called a scratching bird, because it seeks its food by scratching up the earth with its feet. The hen is a biped, that is, an animal with two legs. Questions and Answers. Q. Is the hen kind to her young ones? A. Yes, and does all she can to keep them from harm. Q. If it is cold or wet, how does she cover them? A. She calls them to her, and gathers them under her wings. Q. If a dog or cat comes near, would she let them injure them? A. No; she would fly at them and fight as long as she could. Q. When she finds any corn or bread, does she eat it all herself? A. No; she calls her little chicks that they may share it. Q. Do they come to her as soon as they are called? A. Yes; they run to her as fast as they can. Q. What lesson may little girls learn from this? A. That they should come when they are called. Q. Is it right to throw stones at the little chicks? A. No; it is very cruel and unfeeling to do so. Q. How long does the hen sit on her eggs? A. Twenty- one days, and then the little chicks break out. N 4 181 LESSONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. Q. What end of the egg do they come out at? A The large end of the shell; they break it with their bills. Q. How long after they are hatched do they run about? A. They run about immediately after they leave the shell. Q. Do the natives of any country ever hatch the chicks by means of artificial heat? A. Yes, the natives of Egypt. Q What do you mean by artificial heat? A. Any heat except that which the eggs receive from the hen's warm feathers and body. Q. What do you call that heat A, The natural heat. Q. What is Egypt? A. A very ancient country of Africa, Q. How do the Egyptians hatch out the chicks? A. They put the eggs in stoves or ovens, and the heat hatches them. Q. Name some other description of hens beside the com- A. The Spanish hen, the Polish, and the mon one. Bantam, Q. Is the hen and chickens mentioned any where in the Bible? A Yes; by our Saviour, in the New Testament. Q Do you recollect in what part? A. In St. Luke's Gospel, 13th chapter, 31th verse Q. What does our Saviour say? A Oh Jerusalem, Jerusalem, which killeth the prophets and stonest them thal are sent unto thee, how often would I have gathered thy children together, as a hen doth gather her brood under her wings, and ye would not ? Q. Has the hen and chickens any enemies? A. Yes; polecats, weazels, and ferrets, who will kill the old hen as well as the chickens. Q. Any other? A. The wild cat, and sometimes the domestic cat, that is the cat which lives in our houses, will kill them. Q. Can you name any other kind of enemy? A. Yes; the writer of this lesson had once several killed by a great rat. LESSONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. 185 THE TAME Goose. This is the picture of the tame goose that lives in farm yards, and runs on commons. Some are white, and some grey. The quills that come out of the wings make pens, the short feathers are put in beds. Wild geese live in fens, where there is much water, and they fly very high, in the form of a V; but the tame goose does not fly so high; they are good to eat, and roast goose is very nice. They have webbed feet to swim with, and they eat grass, corn, peas, and beans. They often go a long way from their home, but they come back at night. The male goose is called the gander. Farmers keep geese to eat the waste grass, and poor cottagers, who live near a common, keep geese, and when they are fat they sell them, and the money helps to pay the rent of the cottage. Country children will know what a common means, London children must ask their teacher, and if they have a good teacher they will know the meaning of every word they read. The dung of geese is very good manure for improving grass in meadows that are not very rich. The best geese in England are found in Suffolk, Norfolk, and in Berkshire. Geese sometimes live to a great age; some are said to live to eighty years. Geese are fed in large quantities near London, for the markets, and are said to be the finest and best with which that Metropolis is supplied. Questions and Answers. Q. What is this a representation of? A. Of the tame goose. Q. Where will you generally see tame geese? A. Running on commons, in farm yards, and in the fields. Q. What colour is it? A. Some are white, and some are grey. Q. What do we make of the long feathers which come out of his wings? A. Pens. * - 186 LESSONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. Q. What are those feathers called before they are made into pens? A Quills. Q. What use is made of the short feathers? A. They are put into beds Q. Where do wild gecse live? A. In fens, where there is much water. Q. Can the tame goose fly as high as the wild one? A No. Q. Which is best to eat, the flesh of the tame or wild goose? A. That of the tame goose, it is very good roasted or boiled. Q. Why is not the wild goose as nice? A. Because its flesh has a bad fishy taste. Q. What is the reason that gccse swim so well? A Because they have webbed fcct. Q. What does web-footed mean? A. That the toes are joined together by a thin skin. Q. What four-footed animals are web-footed? A The otter and the beaver. Q. What order of birds does the goose belong to? A. To the sixth, or swimming birds. Q. Is it a biped or a quadruped? A. A biped. Q. Why? A. Because it has but two legs Q. What is a quadruped? legs. A. An animal with four Q. What are the young gccse called? A. Goslings. Q. What enemies has the goose? A, The fox, the pole- cat, the wcazel, and other animals, Q. You told me a quadruped mcant an animal with four legs; can you tell me the mcaning of a nulliped? A. An animal with no legs. Q. Do you know of any animal with no legs? A. Yes; snakes and worms. Q. What is the male goose called? A. The gander. Q. What do gccse fccd on? A. Grass, corn, peas, and beans. LESSONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. 187 Q. Where do poor people very often keep their geese? A. On a common. Q. What is a common? A. A piece of ground which no one in particular owns, and on which all the poor people of the neighbourhood have a right to keep any animals they wish. Q. Are goose eggs large? A. Yes; larger than those of ducks or hens. Q. Are they good to eat? A. Not so good as the eggs of other domestic fowl. Q. What do you mean by domestic fowl? A. Those that are tame, and which we keep for our own use. THE COW. A good cow, if she is quiet also, will stand still while she is being milked. The milk that she gives us is nice to drink, and makes nice butter and cheese. Butter is made of cream, and then they turn the milk into curd, and make cheese of it; they put it into a press until it is quite hard, when it is fit to cut. The milk comes out of the teats. When the cow is killed her flesh is very nice, and is what we call beef; and the flesh of the calf is called veal. In some countries they think the cow a sacred animal, and will not kill her. Her skin we use to make boots and shoes, and her hoofs make the glue which carpenters use in joining boards together; her horns make combs to comb our hair, and handles for knives and forks. The noise she makes is called lowing, and the young cow we call a calf. All little girls should learn to milk the cow, that is, if they live in the country, where they can do so. Little girls that live in London, or other large towns, can- not have the opportunity. Nothing is more useful, and they should also learn to thank God for his goodness in giving us so useful an animal. All little girls may do this, for it is on the cow we depend for a supply of that most precious production, milk, which is so useful in rearing 188 LESSONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. little children, and for every family purpose. Cows fccd almost entirely on grass and clover, but in winter they get hay, lettuces, carrots, and other vegetables. Little girls who live in the country, and whose fathers kccp cows, should learn how to churn, and make butter and chccse; they will find it very pleasant to be so useful, and I am sure the butter and cheese will taste better to their friends and parents, when they think that, instead of being idle, they were usefully employed making it, and they will find themselves happy. How happy all indus- trious and useful people are. Questions and Answers. Q. What is this the picture of? A Of the cow. Q. Will the cow stand still while she is being milked? A. Yes; if she be a quiet and good one Q. Is the milk she gives very nice to drink? A Yes Q. What is made of it? A. Butter and chcese. Q. What is butter made of? A. Cream. Q What is cheese made of? A. Milk that is turned into curd. Q. Where is the best cheese made? A. In England Q. Is the chcese of Scotland as good? A No, much inferior. Q. What kind of cheese is made in Ireland? A. Very bad, scarcely eatable. Q. What part of the cow does the milk come from? A From her teals. Q. When the cow is killed is her flesh of any use? A: Yes; it is good to eat. Q. What is it called? A Beef. Q. What is the flesh of the calf called? A. Vcal. Q. Is there any country where the cow is considered a sacred animal? A. Yes; in parts of India the inhabitants would not kill or injure a cow on any account. LESSONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. 189 Q. What is the skin of the cow used for? A. To make boots and shoes. Q. What is made of her hoofs? A. Glue for carpenters. Q. What use is made of her horns? A. Combs, and handles for knives and forks, are made from them. Q. What do you call the noise made by the cow? A. Lowing. Q. What is the young cow called? A. The calf. Q. What does the cow feed on in summer? and clover. A. Grass Q. What in winter? A. Hay, lettuces, carrots, and other vegetables. Q. Is the cow a biped? A. No; she is a quadruped be- cause she has four legs. THE GOAT. The goat is about the size of the sheep, but he has long upright horns, and his body is covered with long shaggy hair, instead of wool. The goat is so active that he will climb up the steepest mountains, and jump about on the highest rocks, without being in the least afraid. His chief food consists of the tops of boughs, or the tender bark of young trees; he is also fond of grass. The poor people in Wales and Scotland keep a great many goats; they make butter and cheese out of their milk, and use their skins for leather, and their horns for the handles of knives and forks. Many goats are also kept by the poor people in Ireland, but they seldom make butter or cheese of the milk, but keep it to drink. Goat's milk is thought very good for delicate people, and in some places brings a very high price. The young goat is called a kid, and is very pretty and playful. The flesh of the kid is often eaten, but it is not so good as that of the lamb or calf. The goat is often mentioned in scripture; you may remember read- ing in the book of Genesis, about Jacob getting Esau's blessing by the means of the kids of goats. The Israelites 190 LESSONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. estcomed the flesh of the kid a great delicacy. Goats do not cost much to kccp, as they will make out food for themselves almost anywhere Questions and Answers. Q. What animal is the goat about the size of? A. The shccp. Q. What has he got that the sheep has not? A. A long shaggy beard, Q. What sort are his horns? A. Long, and slanting a little back. Q. With what is his body covered instead of wool? A. Long coarse hair. Q. Is he a lazy animal? A. No; he will climb up the stccpest mountains and jump about the highest rocks, Q. What is his chief food? A The tops of boughs, the tender bark of trees and grass Q. Where are there many goats? A. In Scotland and Wales. Q. What is made from their milk? A. Butter and cheese. Q. For what do they use their skins? A. To make Icather. Q. Do they put their horns to any use? A Yes; they make knives and fork handles with them. Q Are there many goats in Ireland? A. Yes; a great many. QIs goat's milk valuable for any particular purpose? A Yes; for delicate people, who are often sent to the places where the goats live that they may drink it. Q. What is the young goat called? A. A kid, Q. Is it good to eat? A. Yes. Q. Who esteemed it a great delicacy? A. The Israelites. Q. Who were they? A. The people who lived in the holy land where Jesus Christ was crucified. Q. Is the goat and kid often mentioned in the Bible? A Yes. LESSONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. 191 Q. Who got his father's blessing by means of making savoury meat of kid's flesh? A. Jacob. Q. Who was the blessing intended for? A. For his brother Esau. Q. How did Jacob deceive his father? A. By putting the skins of kids on his hands and face. Q. Why did this deceive him? A. Because he was blind, and when he felt Jacob's hand and face, he took him for his brother Esau, who was a hairy man. Q. Where was Esau? A. Out hunting to get venison to make the savoury meat, that his father might bless him. Q. Who was it made Jacob deceive his father? A. Re- bekah his mother. OBJECT LESSONS. No. 1.-A PIECE OF LIMESTONE. Qualities.-Dry, hard, smooth, heavy, cold, opaque, of different colours-a mineral. Uses.-When cut out in square blocks, to build churches and houses; broken into small pieces, to lay on roads, which keeps them in repair, and fills up the ruts; when burnt in a furnace, if water is poured on it, it crumbles into powder, and is then called lime; lime mixed with sand and chopped hair is called mortar; mortar is used for joining bricks and stones together in building; pouring water on the burnt lime-stone is called slacking it; it is then used as manure, and is put on land where wheat is to be sown: it warms the ground, and kills slugs and other vermin. Lime is used in the manufacture of sugar, to take away the acid which sugar contains; tanners use it in removing hairs from hides or skins, and cleansing them from hair and grease. Questions and Answers. Q. What is this I hold in my hand? A. A piece of limestone. 1 192 OBJECT LESSONS, Teacher (having written this answer upon the slate or black board, and having presented it to the whole class, as the subject of the lesson). You have all examined this piece of limestone What do you observe? What can you say that it is? A. It is dry. Teacher (having written the word "qualities"), writes under it, "It is dry." Q. Could it not be made wet? A No; except on the surface Q. Fccl it, and then tell me what you perceive in the limestone; is it like the sponge that is tied to your slate? A. No; it is smooth; it is hard. Teacher (having written those two qualities under the first). Hold the sponge in one hand and this piece of lime stone in the other which is heaviest ? A. The limestone Teacher writes, "It is heavy," on the board Q. Fccl it; is it warm? A No; it is cold. This quality being also written, the teacher says, Look through the windows: What do you see? A. The play- ground. Q. If you put this piece of limestone before your eyes, could you see the play-ground through it? A No. Q. What difference do you then perceive between this piece of limestone and the glass of the window. A, We cannot see through the limestone, but we can through the glass, Q. Can you tell me any word which will express this quality of limestone; that is, that it cannot be sccn through ? A. No. Q. I will tell you then. recollect it; it is opaque. stand when I tell you that a you cannot see through it. Teacher. You are right. stances that are opaque? wood, a piece of bone Pay attention that you may Now what shall you under- substance is opaque? A. That Now tell me some other sub- A. A piece of iron, a piece of OBJECT LESSONS. 193 Q. Of what colour is this limestone? A. A very dark blue; almost black. Q. Is all limestone dark blue? A. No; it sometimes is brown, and other colours. These are probably as many qualities as would occur to children at their first attempt. You now proceed to ques- tion them as to the uses. Teacher. We have now found the qualities of this piece of limestone, we will try if we can find its uses. Do you know any use it is put to? A. To build churches and houses. Teacher. You are very right; that is one of its uses. Mention another. A. Broken into small pieces, it is used to mend the roads. Teacher. Right again; we have now two of its uses. Try and recollect more. A. Lime is made of it. Teacher. So it is. But can you tell me how? A. It is burned in a furnace first. Q. What next is done? A. Water is poured on it. Q. What effect has that? A. It swells first, becomes very hot, and then breaks into a fine white powder. Q. What is pouring on the water called. A. Slacking the lime. Teacher. We have found some of the principal uses of limestone, and seen it changed to lime. Now, can you tell me for what lime is used? A. For manure. Teacher. Yes; and particularly where wheat is to be sown. Can you tell me its uses to the ground? A. It warms it, opens it, that the seed may spring up, and de- stroy slugs and other vermin. Q. Do you recollect any other use of lime? A. Yes; mortar is made of it. Q. Have you ever seen men making mortar? A. Yes ; they mix lime with water and sand, and work it with a shovel till it becomes quite like paste. Q. Did you see any thing else put in? A. Yes; hair. O A 194 OBJECT LESSONS. Q. What is the use of mortar ? bricks together in building. A. To stick stones or Q. What use is made of lime in manufacturing sugar? A. It takes away the acid. Q. Do tanners use it? A. Yes; to cleanse the hides or skins of hair and grcase. Taking this lesson for an example, the teacher will be able to give his children a vast fund of information from almost every object which may be about him, as a piece of leather, of loaf-sugar, of wax, of sponge, of sealing-wax, of blotting-paper. No lessons will produce more continued interest, or enlarge the minds of children more. To draw out fully more than one lesson as a specimen would be but filling up the volume with useless repetitions. To the in- telligent teacher this will be sufficient; he may then pro- ceed to another series, where the children may be made to distinguish and name the parts of objects, and in this series they should be exercised upon the qualities already re- marked; but those should now be presented to them in other objects. This repetition combines with the advan- tage of fixing the knowledge acquired, that of enabling them to form the abstract idea of the quality. Having had all their senses brought into action, they may be led to determine the sense by the exercise of which any particular property was observed; thus: "How did you find out that a piece of limestone was opaque ?” "By my eyes." "What can you do with your eyes ?” "Sec." Seeing is called a sense. Can you obtain an idea of a quality except by the sense of sight ?" "Will your sight discover to you that a rose has a delicious perfume?" "How would you ascertain this quality ?" "By what use ?” “By smelling or the sense of smell." They may next proceed to the observation of the organs of sense; thus: "By what natural instrument are you able to sce, hear," &c.? "By eyes, cars," &c. Any natural in- strument by which any thing is performed is called an organ. "What are the eyes?" Organs of what sense?" OBJECT LESSONS. 195 Organs of sight," &c. It will be a useful exercise for the children to classify the various qualities which they have observed in objects, under the heads of different senses: for example, fluid, solid, tough, and the varieties of form, which may be ascertained either by sight or feeling. These should constitute another division. Thus trained to arrange their ideas, children will acquire a great readiness in mak- ing use of their knowledge, A pin has been chosen for the first lesson, because the parts are few, clearly marked, and simple. Parts.-The head, shank, and point. Qualities.—It is hard, opaque, white, bright, solid, use- ful, smooth, cold. The head is round; the point is sharp. The shank is straight and taper. Uses.-To keep together for a time parts of dresses, &c. A cube of wood, an uncut lead pencil, a chair, a book, an egg, a thimble, a penknife, a key, a cup, a coffee berry, a pair of scissors, and many other objects easily obtained, will form the instructive lessons in this series. In a third series, children may be led to the observation of qualities, which cannot be discerned merely by the out- ward senses; thus, by shewing them at the same time wool and woollen cloths, and questioning them as to the differ- ence of the two, they will readily form the ideas of natural and artificial. In this manner they may be led to remark the distinction between foreign and native, exotic and indi- genous, animal, vegetable, mineral, &c. They may now be called on to give an explanation of the terms they use, and, assisted by the teacher, to trace their observations. LESSONS ON A QUILL. Ideas to be developed in this lesson.-Natural, artificial, animal, vegetable, animate, inanimate. A pen should be shewn at the same time with the quill, and the children being questioned what forms the essential o 2 196 OBJECT LESSONS. difference between the two, will understand the difference between the terms natural and artificial. If some fruits or flowers be placed by the quill, their attention may be directed to the difference between animal and vegetable substances. The comparison of the quill with an insect will elicit the ideas of animate and inanimate. Parts. The quill, shaft, ends, feather, lamina, inside, outside, edges, groove, surface, the pith, and the skin. Qualities. It is long, stiff, useful, natural, inanimate, animal production. The barrel is transparent, hard, elastic, bright, yellowish, cylindrical, hollow, light. The shaft is and fcathered, white, stiff, hard, opaque, solid, angular, grooved. Children may be led to remark the difference which fire produces on animal and vegetable substances, both in ap- pearance and smell. A halfpenny. In this lesson the ideas of mineral and metallic may be developed. In a lesson on mustard-sccd, the ideas indigenous and pulverable may be developed; on an apple, glass of a watch, in which we may develope the ideas concave and convex; brown sugar, in which the ideas foreign and imported may be given, and an account of its manufacture and cultivation. Lessons on refined sugar, a cork, glue, pack-thread, honey, butter-cup, lady-bird, an oyster, a fir cone, a laurel lcaf, will all convey information and develope ideas, A fourth series of lessons proposes to exercise the chil- dren in arranging and classifying objects, thus developing a higher faculty than that of simply observing their qua lities. The complex operation of connecting things by their points of resemblance, and at the same time of dis- tinguishing them individually by their points of dissimi- larity, is one of the highest exercises of our reason; yet it may be carried on in children at a much carlier period than is generally imagined, if they are trained to arrange their ideas. With this view the spices are recommended OBJECT LESSONS. 197 The as lessons, as forming a connected series of objects. metals, liquids, different kinds of wood, grain, &c., are good subjects for similar lessons. The lesson on pepper will serve as a specimen. QUALITIES Of Pepper. It is hard, vegetable, foreign; it is a tropical produc- tion; wrinkled, spherical, rough, black, conservative, dry, dull, sapid, pungent, odorous, aromatic, medicinal, whole- some, useful, and stimulating. Q. If it comes from a foreign country, how do we get it? A. It comes in a ship. Teacher. This is called importing, and sending goods out of our own country is called exporting. Q. What do we call this exchange of production? A. Trade or commerce. Q. And what are the people called who carry it on? A. Merchants or traders. The pepper plant is a creeping shrub, much resembling the vine, and is often called the pepper vine; it is generally planted near some thorny bush, amongst the branches of which it entwines itself like ivy; it produces berries in clusters; if the fruit be intended for black pepper, it is not allowed to ripen, but is collected whilst green, and rubbed by the hands or feet, till the seeds, several of which are contained in each berry, are separated; these are exposed on mats to the heat of the sun during the day, and are collected at night in jars to preserve them from the dew. When the berries are intended to be converted into white pepper, they are allowed to ripen, and they then become red. They are rubbed in a basket; the pulp is removed by washing, and the seeds, which are white, are dried. The children should be thoroughly made to understand every part of this lesson, and it should be followed by lessons on nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, ginger, allspice, cloves,-on liquids, describing the qualities of water, the 03 198 OBJECT LESSONS. different kinds of water, the different states of water, and the natural collections of water, with the operations which it is capable of; then oil, bccr, foreign white wine, vinegar, ink, and milk. The lessons which compose the fifth series are intended as a first exercise in composition; the object should be presented to the children, and they should continue as before to make their observations upon it; questions should then be addres: cd to them, calculated to elicit their know- ledge of its natural history, and further particulars should afterwards be communicated by the teacher, to render the information more complete. After having re arranged and repcated the materials so obtained, the teacher should examine the class, and require a written account. Chil- dren from eight to ten years of age have derived great improvement from this exercise in composition; it stimu- lates their attention, furnishes a test of their having well understood the lesson, and leads them to arrange and ex- press their ideas with clearness and facility. Artificial substances should be exhibited both in their raw and ma- nufactured state. Thus in the lesson on flax, the plant itself, the fibres when separated from the stem, the thread when spun, and the articles into which it is manufactured may be brought before the class, and likewise pictures of the machinery employed in the manufacture. From this survey of the method of conveying ideas and instruction through the medium of natural and artificial objects, the system may be learned; if a more full develop- ment is wished, Mayo's Lessons on Objects can be con- sulted, from which work the foregoing remarks and lessons have been principally condensed GEOMETRY. This may be commenced with the gonagraph, as a gal- lery lesson, carried on by the aid of the plates which I OBJECT LESSONS. 199 have recently published*, and by the solids. The black board is exceedingly useful as a means for further illus- tration of this subject. The mere elements of geometry are all that is required for the girls.† MUSIC. This is to be taught on the black board with chalk, thus, lines and spaces distinguished by letters, -D thus, で ​-B A breeve, O twice as long G -E as a minim minim twice as long as a crotchet, crotchet twice as long as a quaver quaver twice as long as a semiquaver and so on by degrees up to an octave, and afterwards to a tune. To train the children's voices in speaking correctly, to speak in the proper key, and in proper time and to avoid a drawling tone in speaking, or reading a gallery lesson orally, is preferable to any way whatever. The teacher may strike at the very root of pronunciation in every school in the country. It is as easy to teach poor chil- dren to speak correctly as to teach the opposite. Speaking is a kind of music; harsh tones are distinguished from mild tones even in a child, and we should be careful in what tone of voice we address the young. Good lessons must be given in mild tones, bad ones will take their cor- responding tones, though they may be cloaked at times by * Which may be had at my residence, and also at the Publisher's, 112, Fleet Street, London. + Specimens of lessons, and how taught, will be found when we are speaking on the same subject with respect to boys. 04 200 MUSIC . hypocrisy. The outward language should manifest the inward state and feeling; language should be an outward sign of inward thought; a pure mind will produce pure thoughts, and pure thoughts will produse pure and mild sounds. For singing, nothing will bring the pupil on so well as the voice of the instructor; if it be musical it will accomplish more than all the instruments in the world; if otherwise, it will do the reverse. The faculty of imitation, so strong in childhood, is manifest in this particular in an extraordinary manner. Girls will learn singing sooner than boys, and with greater delight The gallery is the place to teach it, and when taught they may sing at their classes, or any where else, as the occasion requires I have known more work done of a dull afternoon, in half an hour after a lively tune, than has been done in an hour and a half previously. It is inspiriting, gives them new vigour, and sometimes bring them on with their lessons when most other means fail. Reason must how- ever guide us in this, as in all other things; for if there be too much of it, it defeats its own object, and becomes an evil; and should the children sing out of tune, as is often the case, it becomes then a complete nuisance It will, however, be granted, that a necessity exists for improving the character of church psalmody, or congrega- tional singing. To effect this improvement Sunday school teachers should make music a branch of general education. In infant schools singing has always been taught, but not on scientific principles, which is not necessary for infants; but when we propose to ourselves to extend more generally than at present education to all classes, what is really the object we ought to have in view? Is it not, in fact (as far as the temporal interests of society are concerned), or ought it not to be, civilization; that is, raising the human being from a semi-savage state, to one in which his capa city for enjoyment, and his usefulness to society should be immeasurably incrcased? And what are the means of ci- MUSIC. 201 vilization? Not merely teaching a child to read, for read- ing mis-directed, may be, and too often is, a means of per- verting both the heart and the understanding; not teach- ing a child to write and cast accounts, for these are accom- plishments which may be possessed, and made useful to his objects, by a common rogue and swindler; and these are all compatible with coarseness, rudeness, brutality, cunning, malignity, all the evil passions-vice, in fact, in every form. Education, therefore, to be of any moral use must go far beyond these mere mechanical acquirements; we must cultivate the sympathies of the individual; kindle, strengthen, and keep alive all the just and generous mo- tives of which his nature is susceptible, and identify in his own mind, his own interest, and his own means of social enjoyment, with the interest, the happiness, and the en- joyment of, the community to which he belongs. We must endeavour to set the heart right-right both towards God and man, and amongst other means for accomplishing this purpose, the study of vocal music, judiciously directed, may be made very efficient. The time, we hope, is not far distant, when the study of vocal music will be universally introduced in schools, as one of the means of effecting the objects proposed by a good education. Already in Prussia, and indeed in all the German states, a knowledge of music is a sine qua non among the qualifications required of every candidate for the profession of a school-master. In the humblest village school in Germany, and indeed very generally on the con- tinent, singing is taught; and in the superior schools, the master is further required to teach his pupils to play upon some musical instrument, and to instruct them in the science of harmony or thorough-bass. The happy effect with which singing has been introduced into infant schools in this country, may be taken as a proof of the utility of its introduction (if properly directed), into schools for older children. I am aware that there are many objections 202 MUSIC. • which may be urged, and which are continually urged, against the theory here advanced; it is true that music is sometimes made a ruling passion too strong for human guidance; to prevent such a result we ought not to confine our instructions to music; the more we can multiply the means of enjoyment, the more do we diminish the power of any one passion, which might otherwise gain exclusive possession of the mind, and this is more especially the case with regard to the gratification of sense. For exam- ple, the man who gives way to the vice of intoxication, does so, because in drinking he has one source of enjoy- ment; render him a musician of however humble a grade, and you have given him two sources of enjoyment; better still if you can give three or four others; and what then is more certain, than that just in proportion as you increase his love of intellectual pleasures, do you diminish his fond- ness for that which is merely a vice, productive in the end of certain misery to himself and his connexions The first step in musical education is to teach a child to distinguish, by the ear, one note from another; the second is to express the same sound correctly with the voice, and to sing perfectly in tune. If this is accomplished in childhood (and it can easily be done), the progress made, although it may appear insignificant, is not to be despised, for it is much greater than would be made by any adults, within a similar period of time, if music had been entirely neglected by them in their youth. Although there are many persons who do not begin to learn to sing until they are past the age of twenty-one, and succccd, yet there may almost invariably be discovered a flatness in some of their notes; which proves that the car has not acquired that nice sensitiveness to nice gradations of sound, which is only the result of an carly cultivation. To effect the ob- ject, lively melodies, in which the accents are strongly marked, are better than any others, because the knowledge of the tune, which the ear spccdily acquires, enables chil- MUSIC. 203 dren to discover, more readily than they would do in any other case, when they are singing the wrong note; the sounds which the ear can most easily retain, the voice will the most readily learn to express. Parents, therefore, who wish their children to be musi- cal, should begin to teach them to sing while in the nur- sery, or should send them, if only for that purpose, to a well-conducted infant school; at a very tender age they will quickly learn, provided the hymns or moral songs they may be taught, be adapted to cheerful tunes, and the sing- ing lessons be never made too long. The plan generally adopted in infant schools is, not to confine the singing to any particular hour, but of employing singing as a means of relieving the attention at intervals, throughout all the lessons of the day. No day should be allowed to pass without practising more or less, or the voice will never ac- quire strength, or improve in quality. It is very important to guard against the mistake that slow or serious music is better adapted for the early lessons of children, than music of a cheerful character. Many persons imagine that it must be more easy to teach a child in a slow time, because of its apparent simplicity, containing but a few notes, than an air containing comparatively a greater number of notes rapidly following each other. Experience, which is the best guide, proves the fact to be exactly the reverse; the ear of a child while dwelling upon a long note, is apt to forget the note which preceded it, or which should follow, and, partly for the same reason, the note itself is seldom sustained throughout exactly at its proper pitch, the voice having always a tendency to sink. Indeed, to sing in slow music, every note perfectly true, and in correct time, is one of the last things which even good singers attain. The books published by Mr. Hickson on this subject entitled, "The Singing Master," are excellent manuals for the cul- tivation of the voice; and will give the best instructions for the development of this branch of education, and it is 204 GRAMMAR. but justice to add that many of the above hints, I gathered from a lecture delivered by him, which I find exactly coincided with the principles I had acted upon from the first time the infant system was developed, GRAMMAR. Grammar may be taught in the same way, as will be hereafter explained for the boys. Much may be done by the elliptical method described in my "Infant System," especially in the gallery and class-room teaching. The leaving out words, and getting the children to supply them, sharpens their faculties and induces thought, and also makes them acquainted with sentences and ultimately lan- guage. Another advantage is, that they are pleased and delighted with their own powers; this is just as it should be, if children are pleased with themselves they are sure to learn. If their be any thing which evinces the superiority of oral over written instruction for children, more than another, it is shewn in the imparting of grammatical know- ledge; how generally it is taught by books in schools, and how partially understood, we nccd not say. That rules are necessary to assist the parent or teacher in developing the child's ideas on this subject no one will dispute, at the same time, it is evident that without the aid of oral ex- planation, suited to the child's capacity, rules can be of little use The grand object to be observed in rules for children upon this, or any other subject, is to make them few in number and simple in expression; with this view, in teaching a child grammar, I would, in the first place, exclude the mention of all but the chief matter. With regard to the articles, we would merely state them to be a, an, and the; we would explain their different uses, but dismiss the terms definite and indefinite at first, they are hard words, and children are frightened at hard words, GRAMMAR. 205 Proceeding to the nouns, we would state them as usual to be the names of anything that can be seen, felt, heard, or understood; the latter class of nouns is "the stumbling block" to children. A horse, a man, a house, an apple, they easily recognize as nouns; but when they come to such words as pleasure, virtue, &c. &c., they miss the sub- stantiality of the noun, and are therefore misled. In en- deavouring to get over this difficulty we would select a noun from this class; for instance, happiness; we would ask the children, what is happiness? They will hesitate. Of what colour is happiness? red or blue? of what shape, is it square or round? is it very heavy, or very light? They will be much amused with these questions, will laugh, and tell you that it has none of these qualities; per- haps, that it is something we feel! We would then rejoin, Well, then, happiness is something we can feel; how does it feel, hard or soft? They will endeavour probably to correct your mistake, by telling you it is not with the hands we feel happiness. You have now only to assist them in assigning its proper and allotted seat, the heart, and they will then perceive, that if happiness be not a thing visible or tangible, it nevertheless is something that may be un- derstood, as being felt in the heart. The utility or neces- sity of proceeding in this way may be doubted, by those who never felt the incomprehensibility of the concluding part of the book-definition of nouns; namely, “that they are things of which we can have any notion." For our own part we can well remember the cabalistic effect this had upon our infant mind; and, moreover, in the capacity of instructors we find our impression was neither singular or uncommon. By the method above proposed the child is led into a definition of the nature of abstract things, which it can always apply, and in labouring to correct your supposed erroneous notions, it cannot fail of impressing distinct ones upon its own mind. Nor is the benefit con- fined to grammatical comprehension; it is powerfully UorM 206 GRAMMAR. tending to forward the development of the reflective facul- ties. In proceeding with nouns we would at first dismiss all mention of case and gender; the names nominative, possessive, and objective cases, are very hard, frightful, unmeaning words to children. Make the distinction of simple nouns, and nouns of possession, singular and plural nouns, and nouns which are neither. We would omit likewise all mention of the exceptions to the usual forma- tion of the plural by s. What object is gained, it will naturally be asked, by the dismissal of the grammatical terms usually made use of? Simply this, the terms sub- stituted will express their own meaning, the child will understand the matter, and will no longer be alarmed and discouraged by a host of latin scarecrows. PARTS OF SPEECH. 1. Three little words we often see, Are articles a, an, and the. 2. A noun 's the name of any thing, As school or garden, hoop or swing. 3. Adjectives tell the kind of noun, As great, small, pretty, white or brown. 4. Instead of nouns, the pronouns stand, John's head, his face, my arm, your hand. 5. Verbs tell of something being done, To read, write, count, sing, jump, or run. 6. How things are done the adverbs tell, As slowly, quickly, ill, or well. 7. Conjunctions join the nouns together, As men and children, wind or weather. 8. A preposition stands before A noun, as in or through a door. 9. The interjection shows surprise, As oh! how pretty; ah! how wise. The whole are called nine parts of speech, Which reading, writing, spcaking teach. MwU LESSONS ON GRAMMAR. 207 Questions and Answers. Q. What three words do we call articles? A. A, an, and the. Q. What is a noun? A. The name of any thing that can be seen, felt, heard, or understood. Q. Name some that you know to be nouns? A. A tree, a bird, a crown. Q. Name a noun which you can understand, although you cannot hear or see it? (If the children cannot answer this question the teacher will say, I will tell you one, happiness.) Q. Of what colour is happiness? A. Of no colour, for we cannot see it. Q. Of what shape? A. Of no shape. Q. Is it heavy or light? A. It is neither. Q. But you can feel happiness? A. Yes; we can. Q. Well, how does it feel, hard or soft? A. It is not with our hands we feel it. Q. How do you feel it then? A. In our hearts. Q. You see now that happiness is a noun, because you feel it in your hearts, although you cannot with your hands, and you can understand it; there are many nouns of the same sort, such as pleasure, sorrow, virtue, discon- tent; now tell me what an adjective is? A. A word which tells the kind of noun. Q. Name some adjectives? A. Great, small, pretty, white or brown. Q. Which is the adjective in this sentence, a tall man ? A. Tall. Q. Why? A. Because it shows the kind of man. Q. What is a pronoun? A. A word that stands for a noun. Q. How does a pronoun stand for a noun ? A. When we say, Who steals my money is a thief, we mean the man, woman, or child, who steals it. JorM 208 LESSONS ON GRAMMAR. Q. Which is the pronoun in this sentence? A Who. Q What does a verb do? A. It tells of something being done. Q. Name a verb. A. To read or to write, to jump or to walk Q. What do the adverbs tell? A. How things are done. Q. Give me an example? A. To run swiftly. Q. Which is the adverb in this sentence? A Swiftly. Q What are conjuctions for? A. To join nouns to- gether. Q. Give me an example? A. Men and children, ducks and gccse, friends or foes- Q. Which are the conjunctions here? A. And, or. Q. What is a preposition? A. It stands before a noun, as in or through a door. Q. Which are the prepositions here? A. In and through. Q. What is an interjection? A. A word that shews surprise, sorrow, or fear, as Oh! scc that pretty bird Alas! the poor dog is dead. Hush! we shall be heard. Q. Which are the interjections in these sentences? A Oh, alas, and hush. Q. What are all those words called? A. Parts of spccch. Q. How many are there? A Nine. Q. What do they teach us? A, Reading, writing, and speaking correctly. THE ARTICLES Three little words we hear and scc, In frequent use, a, an, and the: These words, so useful tho' so small, Are those which articles we call : LESSONS ON GRAMMAR. 209. } : The first two, a and an, we use, When speaking of one thing alone; For instance, we might wish to say, An oak, a man, a dog, a bone. An oak, a man, means any oak Or any man of all mankind; A dog, a bone, means any dog, Or any bone a dog may find. The speaks of either one or more, The cow, the cows, the pig, the pigs; The plum, the plums (you like a score), The pear, the pears, the fig, the figs. This article we only use Whenever it may be our wish To speak of some determined thing, As thus: the bird, the ox, the fish. By which we mean not any bird That flying in the air may be, Nor any ox amongst the herd, Nor any fish in stream or sea, But some one certain bird or ox, Or fish (let it be which it may) Of whom we're speaking, or of whom We something mean to write or say. Remember these things when you see The little words, a, an, and the. Questions and Answers. Q. What are the three little words, a, an, and the called? A. Articles. Q. How do we use the first two? A. In speaking of one thing alone. Q. Give me an example. A. An oak, a bone, a man, a dog. Р A ! 210 LESSONS ON GRAMMAR. ད : Q. Does an oak, a man, mean any particular man or oak? A No; it means any oak that grows in the forest, or any man of all mankind Q. What does the article the spcak of? A. Either of one or more. Q. Give me an example. A. The cow, or the cows, the pig, or the pigs. Q. When we say the pigs, or the horses, do we mean any pigs or any horses? A No; we mean some certain pigs or horses of which we intend to speak or write. A NOUN. "A noun is the name of any thing, As school or garden, hoop or swing." Of these two kinds we're all aware Common and proper named they are. Also two numbers known before As singular one, plural more. To nouns three genders there will be, First masculine or male, as he ; Feminine, female, known as she : Last, neuter which applies to all That have not life, such it we call. Three cases next to nouns we give, Nominative, as man may live; Possessive next, as John's new coat; Objective last, as scc the boat.” Questions and Answers. Q. What is a noun ? A The name of any thing we can scc or fccl, as horse, dog; or that we can understand, as happiness, Q. How many kinds of nouns are there? A. Two. Q. What are they called? A Common and proper. Q. What is a noun proper? A. A noun proper is the -1 Magu LESSONS ON GRAMMAR. 211 ! name of any particular person as John; of any certain river as the Thames; or of a city as London. Q. What is a noun common? A. The name of things in general, as a tree, a house, which means not any par- ticular tree or house, but any tree or house in the world. Q. How many numbers are there? A. Two, the sin- gular and the plural. Q. How is the singular number known? A. It speaks of but one, as a girl. Q. How is the plural known? A. It speaks of more than one, as girls. Q. How many genders are there to nouns? A. Three. Q. Name them. A. Masculine, or male; feminine, or female; and neuter which applies to what has not life. Q. What do we call the masculine? A. He. Q. What the feminine? A. She. Q. The neuter? A. It. Q. How many cases are there? A. Three. Q. Name them. A. The nominative, the possessive, and the objective. Q. What is the nominative case? A. The case in which a thing is simply mentioned, or the name itself, as, a boy, William, a girl, Anne, a book. Q. How do you know the nominative case? asking the question who, which, or what. A. By Q. Which is the nominative case in, man may live. A. Man. Q. How do you know this? A. By asking the question, who? as who may live? answer, man. Q. What does the possessive case imply? A. Property or possession. Q. Give me an example. A. John's new coat: that is, the new coat of John. Q. How is the possessive case known? A. By having the word of, before it, as the picture of the king, or by the addition of 's as the king's picture. P 2 212 LESSONS ON GRAMMAR. Q. How is the objective case used? A. After verbs and prepositions; as, to me, for them. ON THE VERB. "Verbs tell of something being done As t' read, write, count, sing, jump, or run. Of verbs we're told, there are three kind You'll active, passive, neuter find. They 've numbers two and persons three, Likewise five moods plain as can be: First, the indicative will stand, Th' imperative next with high command: Then, the potential, power and will: Next, the subjunctive, doubting still, Last, the infinitive we find, All brought by certain signs to mind. Verbs have three tenses too, we're told, Present, past, future, they unfold, Grammarians, however, claim, Six as their number, which I'll name, Present, imperfect, perfect, view, Pluperfect, and two futures too. Questions and Answers. 17 Q. You told me before that a verb told of something being done, as to read, write, count, sing, &c; tell me now how many kinds of verbs there are. A. Three. Q. Which are they? A. Active, passive, and neuter. Q. What does a verb active denote? A. The doing of an action. Q. What two parts has it? A. The agent, or person who acts, and the object acted upon. Q. Give me a specimen of an active verb. A. I esteem the diligent. Q. Which is the agent or person that acts here? A, I. Q. Which is the object? A. The diligent. LESSONS ON GRAMMAR. 213 ... ་ ་ ་ - Q. What is a verb passive? A. A verb passive denotes, or shews, the impressions that persons or things receive. when acted upon. Q. Give me an example. A. I am taught, he is wounded, it is painted. Q. What does a verb passive contain? A. An object upon which the impression is made, and an agent by whom it is made. Q. Give me an example. A. The picture was painted by Rubens. Q. Which is the object in this? A. The picture. Q. And who is the agent or doer? A. Rubens. Q. What is a verb neuter? A. It denotes being or ex- isting. Q. Give me an example. A. I am; and likewise being in a certain position: as, I sit. Q. How many numbers are there in verbs? A. Two, singular and plural. Q. How many persons in a verb? A. Three in each number, singular and plural. Q. How many moods? A. Five. Q. Which is first? A. The indicative. Q. What does it do? A. It declares a thing: as, I read; or asks a question: as, do I read ? Q. What is next? A. The imperative. Q. What does it do? A. It commands, entreats, or per- mits: as, come, go, let us read, let them command. Q. What is next? A. The potential mood. Q. What does it do? A. It signifies power and will: as, I may play, thou canst read. Q. What is next? A. The subjunctive mood. Q. How is it known? A. By its doubting: as, if I go ; or being conditional: as, though he write. Q. What is last? A. The infinitive mood. Q. What is it? A. That part of the verb from which the other parts are taken. P 3 214 LESSONS ON GRAMMAR. Q. How many lenses or times are there? A. Thrce: the present, past, and future. Q. How many do grammarians reckon? A. Six. Q. Name them? A, Present, imperfect, perfect, pluper- fect, and two futures. Q. How is the present tense known? A. By its express ing the time that now is: as, I read, or am reading. Q. How is the imperfect tense known? did and didst. A. By the signs ; Q. Of what time does it spcak? A. Of the past time but shews that something was then doing, but not quite. finished at the time of which we speak. Q. Give me an example A. I read, or did read, or was reading while you were at work. Q. How is the perfect tense known? A. By represent- ing the action as completely finished. Q. Give me an example. A, I have read. Q. How is the preter pluperfect tense known? A. By the signs had or hadst; it represents the action not only as finished, but as finished before a certain time. Q. Give me an example. A. I had read an hour before my father came. Q. How is the future tense known? A By the signs shall and will; it represents the action, as to come Q. Give me an example. A. I shall or will go to school. How is the second future tense expressed? A. By the addition of have: as, I shall have written. ON THE ADJECTIVE Adjectives tell the kind of noun, As grcat, small, pretty, white, or brown;" Of these comparisons we scc, Their number all allow are thrcc: First, the positive stands in view, Which merely states what kind to you: LESSONS ON GRAMMAR. 215 Then the comparative does more, Adds to or lessens that before: The last superlative we call, Which shews the least, or most, of all." Questions and Answers. Q. What is an adjective known by? A. Its telling what kind of noun or thing. Q. How many degrees of comparison have adjectives? A. Three. Q. Name them? A. Positive, comparative, and super- lative. A. Positive, short; Q. Compare the adjective short? comparative, shorter; superlative, shortest. F 4 216 CHAPTER IV. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION FOR GIRLS. Importance of religious instruction for girls How it should be given What constitutes religious education Deplorable ignorance on the subject Observations respecting the Liverpool Corporation Schools In what parts of the country the mixed system may suc- cccd No system of education can succeed if the Bible is excluded Recent Essential difference between the Liverpool Corporation Schools and those under the Irish Board of Education Failure of the mixed system under this Board Their manner of doing business attempts to separate intellectual, moral, and religious instruction The folly of such attempts argued against The infant mind led upward to the Deity through natural objects Duties of the school master explained He should give religious instruction Mode of training masters pursued by the Irish Board Consequences of the system Gratitude for instruction Harsh measures not necessary in instructing girls Importance of Normal schools for inistresses Mental bondage in Ireland Its consequences Scripture lessons Specimens The story of Ruth Mary Magdalene anoints Jesus Solomon's wise judgement The Bible the only text book Im- portance of religious instruction for girls drawn from it, argued for Effects of rational and Christian treatment on neglc-ted girls Scheme of religious instruction adopted in the Liverpool Corpo- ration Schools Rules for teachers who come to be trained in those institutions Importance of keeping the girls, and infant's system separate. THIS is the most important part of all education, and sur- rounded with more difficulties than all the other parts put together. Females are naturally more inclined to devote themselves to religious observances than the other sex, because their fcclings are more casily wrought upon. All our religious meetings, and all our meetings for charitable purposes, are better attended by ladies than by gentlemen; it is, therefore, more important that the views we give them, be founded on genuine and unadulterated truths. IMPORTANCE OF RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION FOR GIRLs. 217 Each sect seizes hold of them, and tries to give them their own peculiar views, taking it for granted that they are the purest and the best. All contain some truth, or they could not exist; some more than others, but each is anxious to infuse its own dogmas into the young mind. The sectarian means by religious education, his own peculiar views; the Presbyterian his; the Baptist his, the Methodist his; the Roman Catholic his; and so on through all. Now the question arises, are schools the proper places for teaching doctrinal religion? Can a system of national education be adopted to teach all? Are there no other places where this can be done more effectually? Should it be done ex- clusively in Sunday schools? Can it be done in the churches and chapels? Ought the parents and clergy to do it at home? Do creeds and catechisms constitute re- ligious instruction? Could not these be taught, if thought necessary, by the clergy and parents, and leave the school- master to teach that on which all agree-practical Chris- tianity? These points must be discussed, and in some measure settled, before we can have a system of national education. The clergy of different denominations coming to the schools to do it will not answer. This I say from having witnessed this plan in Ireland, and also its im- provement in the Liverpool Corporation Schools; there is not time, many do not know how to do it. Teaching chil- dren is different from teaching men, and all are not fit for the work. Besides it very much interferes with the arrangement of the school, and is a great interruption to the regular business. These are the difficulties; to sur- mount them is no easy matter. Nothing can be more de- sirable than to bring children of every creed together. As far as they are concerned, the thing might work well; they know no difference; they make none. In schools that I have organized for children of an advanced age, we have had not a single quarrel amongst them. Will men create, then, these divisions when children do not? |, 218 WHAT CONSTITUTES RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. Will they throw an apple of discord amongst the rising generation, and call it religious instruction? Love to God, and charity to men, may be taught by the teachers, under the divine blessing, to all the children; all will agree in this all may add to it, if they please, but not in school; let this be done somewhere else, and then a dead weight is taken off the teachers, and national education is already commenced. I would not have it understood that I undervalue the well-meant endcavours of those persons who think diſſer- ently, and who advocate the necessity of teaching crccds and catechisms in schools; but do not let it be called re- ligious instruction, for it is no such thing; it is like a body without a soul; it is a lifeless mass, and has a deaden- ing influence. Forms of prayer, forms of praise, forms of worship, and forms of goodness, are well in their places, but must not be confounded with educational religion. The fervent desire, the heartfelt gratitude to God, the re- verential fcclings, the heavenly principle of love toward all mankind, these are the life-giving principles which may be taught to girls with advantage, without troubling them or the mistress with the mere form without the essence- The deplorable ignorance found in schools throughout the country is dreadful, and must be sccn to be believed. On both sides of the channel the general cry has been, the church! the church! the church! and, as it respects the education of children, the God of the church has bccn. forgotten. But let us appeal to facts. In a late publica tion of Sir Arthur Brook Faulkner, we find the following: My first document is supplied by a deputy lord-lieu- tenant of the county of Gloucester, and is in the form of a dialogue, which I copy almost to the letter. It presents the results of an examination of one of the children in his parish who was admitted to the right of confirmation, her qualifications for that distinction having been previously vouched by a certificate from her spiritual pastor. 66 DEPLORABLE IGNORANCE ON THE SUBJECT. 219 "Examiner. My girl, can you tell me who was Jesus Christ? Answer. The devil. E. Come, this is not a sub- ject to be trifled with; think again, and tell me who was Jesus Christ? A. The gospel. E. Well, that is nearer to it, but still not right; guess again. A. Satan. E. You surely do not mean what you say; do you not know that Satan is the devil? A. The synagogue. The cate- chist tired out was at last obliged to give up the at- tempt in despair. Now I beg it to be kept in mind," Sir Arthur goes on to say,. "that this was a confirmed child of the church. In my own parish, the children that I examined were either mute, or gave the most absurd answers. I must beg any one not to fall into the mistake of supposing that these are isolated instances, invidiously picked out; I will be answerable that they are not the exception, but the rule." I have not the least doubt of the truth of this remark, appalling as it may appear. I could fill a pamphlet with similar cases; nay, I blush to own it, but I have had as bad from adults in some of the agricultural districts, and much worse in many parts of Ireland, where I have met with individuals who firmly believed that a human being could change them into a goat, or any other animal. I think the Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer, ought to be taught in every school, without exception, by the master or mistress, and as much Bible teaching as possible; but let the pupils get doctrine at the proper times and places. Schools ought not to be made the mediums for teaching dogmas and sectarianism; nor is the young mind fit to judge of the truth or error of the various and conflicting opinions entertained by each party, and still less should the young mind be stultified with the squabbles of polemical strife. The less girls know of these things the better; let them be taught to act the Christian part, and leave the debateable points for other opportunities. The other day at a public meeting at the Music Hall, Liverpool, 2:20 DEPLORABLE IGNORANCE ON THE SUBJECT. I heard a clergyman read from a report, of an infant four ycars old learning the four first chapters of Genesis, and afterwards repcating them off by heart. Now I would say, however plcasing this might be to the hearers, it was no good to a young child, who could not possibly under- stand what it said Simple passages of Scripture it might be desirable for a young child to commit to memory, but not to the extent here mentioned. If we treated the body of an infant in this manner, by giving it strong food, and in such quantity, we should soon send it out of this world; and the irreparable injury that is done to the young mind, by well-intended, though mistaken, individuals, is dreadful to contemplate; and I am sure that many females, whose imaginations are generally excitcable, may date the loss of their reasoning powers to treatment of this description; I have conversed with several in different lunatic asy- lums, who have had to lament that they are doomed to draw out a miserable existence in such places from a similar cause; and I believe that a great number of suicides are fairly traccable to an over zcal, not guided by prudence, in this important part of female education. It is in vain that medical men, and those that have spent a whole life in studying the subject, and experimenting upon it, raise their voices against it. In too many cases they are met with scorn, and set down as irreligious characters, if not infidels This last weapon is but too much used in the present day by those who ought to know better, and to act differently, and the bigot and the ignoramus, even in theo- logical knowledge, finds this a deadly instrument, and uses it in his unholy warfare against the cause of truth. It is casier said than proved, and some of the greatest men of former times, and even some of the wisest and best and most holy of the present day, have been stigmatized as in- fidels, most cruelly and unjustly, by those who call them- selves Christians, and who wish to be thought such. The Scribes and Pharisccs did so in former times, and they LIVERPOOL CORPORATION SCHOOLS. 221 have had their reward. The minds of the rising genera- tion must be made free; the public voice has declared it; the signs of the times demand it; the Great Creator will raise up instruments to accomplish it; and it is vain for those who are interested in keeping the species in mental bondage, with such weapons to oppose it. Truth is omni- potent, and will shine forth in rays of splendour, so as to captivate the young mind, and to penetrate into its inmost recesses. The rising generation are anxious to receive truth; they grasp at it with avidity, and happy will it be for them if all that is offered to them under that title par- take of its purifying qualities. The books introduced into the Liverpool Corporation Schools, in which I laboured for nearly twelve months, if properly used, contain matters which will enable the teachers to convey much useful information of a religious kind to the pupils; but unless they are more used, and the in- terrogatory system is brought more into play, the results cannot be so encouraging as, under other circumstances, they would be. Once or twice a week is quite often enough for the pupils to say the catechism. When this was written, a portion of the catechism was said every day, which made the pupils disgusted with the work, and defeats its own object. In the infant schools, particularly connected with these institutions, they have no catechisms, and I hope they never will; but sound information is given the infants through the medium of Scripture plates, by questions and answers on the lessons connected with them, and both questions and answers are taken from the context, without note or comment, so that real Bible knowledge is com- municated, suited to the capacity of the young minds for which it is intended, without troubling them with any peculiar doctrine. From the great anxiety manifested by the Education Committee of the Liverpool Corporation Schools, that 222 OBSERVATIONS RESPECTING THE every thing should be taught in the most effective manner, I may venture to assert that the defects alluded to above will not long exist under their management. Much has been said and written with respect to these institutions; and a great portion, I regret to say, has not bccn founded on fact. I have no connection whatever with those schools, and can have no interest in misleading the public mind one way or another; but truth and jus- tice demand that I should state, that the Holy Bible is read by every child that can read it, belonging to them, whe ther he is a Protestant child, or a Roman Catholic. There is, however, this distinction made between them, the Pro- testant child reads the authorized version, the Roman Catholic child reads the Donay version; and it is strictly to be noticed that the Bible is not excluded from the Liver- pool Corporation Schools. I have examined the children myself, I have seen them examined by clergymen of the Established Church, and also by Presbyterian ministers, and other orthodox churchmen and dissenters, and in every case the children proved themselves possessed of sound scriptural knowledge; which shows that the Bible is not only read but taught, and reflects grcat credit on themselves and their teachers, and I may safely say I never met with children in any school, or under any cir- cumstances, who were better taught than the children in these schools. Although it is not my intention to write a history of the schools established by the Liverpool cor- poration, yet a few brief observations concerning them may not be entirely uninteresting to the reader. When the new town council of Liverpool came into office, they found four excellent school rooms, which had been built by their predecessors from the corporation funds, two schools for boys, two for girls, and, subsequently, two for infants, making in all six schools; these had been ex- clusively in the hands of members of the Established Church, and were conducted upon the well-known prin- LIVERPOOL CORPORATION SCHOOLS. 223 ciples of the late Dr. Bell. Many of the town council being magistrates, they had an opportunity of witnessing the class of juvenile delinquents whose education had been most neglected, and it was found that the children of the lower class of Roman Catholics formed a considerable majority. They therefore concluded, that as the schools had been built from the corporation funds, and as the cor- poration funds were derived from the inhabitants of Liver- pool, without distinction of sect, that it was but an act of justice to throw those schools open to the children of all parties, and try if they could not have a system of educa- tion without offering violence to any. They have, to my certain knowledge, succeeded; but then it has been by much tact and talent on the part of the Education Com- mittee, and great personal attention from every member of it; and it should be added, that they spared no pains to get suitable teachers, and, most honourably, to pay them suitable salaries. They deserved success, and they ob- tained it. So far what is called the mixed system has been attended with success, and it may succeed in Manchester, many parts of Lancashire, some parts of Yorkshire, and some districts of London, where the Roman Catholics are numerous but I am certain from what I know of the opinions of the clergy, and others of my countrymen who have thought deeply on this matter, that it never will answer for a system of national education either in England or Scotland. In both these countries we must have the entire unmutilated Bible; no system of education that is not based on this, will, I am sure, in my day at least, ever be received by a majority of the British people, and I for one must say that I entirely am of their opinion. This involves a principle of such mighty importance that it must not be trifled with. Even the Roman Catholic pro- fesses to draw his doctrines from the Holy Scriptures; why then should he object to their being read except by the clergy? This, however, is a matter for the clergy's de- 224 BIBLE NOT TO BE EXCLUDED. cision, not mine. If they do not choose to send their chil- dren to schools where the Bible is rcad, let them kccp them at home, and educate them as they think proper. I would deny no man this right; but if we are to have a system of national education supported by the public funds, and to be a real and lasting benefit to the rising genera- tion, it must be based on the oracles of eternal truth. No other system can succccd; no other system will succeed; no other system is suited to the wants of the British peo- ple; and, what is of more importance, no other system can expect to have the blessing of the Most High upon it. On this subject I feel it my duty to speak boldly; these are not times for men to be silent on such a topic. I have been an eye-witness to various knaves in high places, and various intrigues in that land where the Creator has been most beneficent in his arrangements for the good of the human species; where he has done every thing that a wise and bountiful Creator could do for the happiness of his crcatures, and yet where misery reigns in all its horrid deformity, and where, I think, it still will reign, whilst the sacred Scriptures are withheld from the great body of the people; and whatever may be wise or proper, under exist- ing circunstances for Ireland, a system of national educa tion for England must be totally different. The great difference between the system pursued in the Liverpool Corporation Schools, and the schools under the Irish Board of Education, is simply this; in the former, the bible is received and properly taught; in the latter, it is all together excluded; and I feel it my duty to state, most explicitly, that even in the Normal school in Dublin, on the 18th of April, 1839, when a new protestant clergyman came to examine the protestant children, there was not a single Bible to be found on the whole establishment; at which time, there were upwards of fifty masters being trained, and little less than twelve hundred scholars, of whom, however, less than fifty were protestants. This is FAILURE OF MIXED SYSTEM UNDER IRISH BOARD. 225 a fact of which I defy proof to the contrary. Such then being the state of things in the Normal establishment in the heart of the city of Dublin, it does not require much logic to prove what the state of the schools must be throughout the country; especially when it is added that the training masters are Roman Catholics, as also are all the monitors; and amongst the fifty-three masters before alluded to, fifty of them are Roman Catholics! And be it further known to the reader that the whole average of the masters from the very commencement of the Irish system, is about one Protestant master to eleven Roman Catholics! yet even this average does not suit the Rev. Dr. Mc'Hale. And on December 9, 1838, one of the in- spectors told me, when we were conversing on the subject, that they had received orders from head quarters, not to examine the children in the scripture extracts. I feel assured from what I know of this system, and of the schools connected with it, that it never can either pros- per or give satisfaction. If it was intended to teach the children of the Roman Catholics in what they choose to call education, and for this only, it has succeeded; but as a mixed system of education suited to the wants of both Roman Catholic and Protestant children, it is a most com- plete and decided failure; and I wish the reader to ob- serve that I express myself thus, not from what I have heard, but from what I have myself proved by ocular demonstration, and nearly two years' inspection of nume- rous schools connected with the Irish Board in various parts of the country. I am one of those who think, that the intentions of the government were good, but I am also one of those who know that there is a party in Ireland who can defeat the best intentions of any government. This difficulty is seen by many others as well as by myself, but its remedy requires greater penetration than I am possessed of. very It is from seeing how the plan of national education has Q 226 THEIR MANNER OF DOING BUSINESS. worked in Ireland, that I venture to speak thus positively with regard to England; and any attempt oir the part of any authorities whatever, to hold out the Irish schools and the Irish system as a model for either England or Scotland is preposterous; and if forced upon the country by the powers that be, will create a greater fermentation in the public mind, than has been caused since the days of the glorious reformation. It is also much to be regretted that any system intended by a wise and parental government for the benefit of the rising generation, should partake of the character of a job. Almost every thing that is in- tended to benefit Ireland, whether it be education, whether it be spiritual tcaching, secular teaching, physical training, mental improvement, or employment for the people, is almost sure to end in a system of jobbery. A few interested individuals manage the cash affairs; a few snug berths are the result; but the benefit of the whole of the uncultivated and poorer classes generally ends in moonshine; aud if perchance a man should be determined to do his duty, and also to insist that those placed under him should do the same, he will become excccdingly unpopular, be dubbed with the character of a busy-body, and no means will be left untried which falsehood, double dealing, hypo- crisy, and deceit can accomplish, finally to victimize him. The plan usually adopted is, to talk much and do little, and make a wonderful noise with few results; such a cha- racter, in the eyes of not a few, will be significantly called a GREAT BIG MAN; and even Mr. Grattan, M.P., one of the great friends of the Irish system, declared in his place in the House of Commons, that though the Irish Board of Education had had half a million of the public money raised from the English taxation, still there was not a solitary instance of a good school being formed connected with them. And, let me ask, how can it be otherwise, when men are put in places who are totally unfit for the duties required? who may be very honest men, and very INTELLECTUAL, MORAL, AND RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 227 good men too, yet totally destitute of practical knowledge, and miserably deficient in the necessary tact and talent so requisite to carry out a system of education amongst the people. I may, perhaps, in a separate form, state a num- ber of facts which have come to my own knowledge. I have here only slightly touched upon the matter, because it has been of late so frequently alluded to by the legis- lature. Perhaps there never was a time when theory was more fashionable than it is at present; yet it is clear that many of the theories lately ushered into the world, as far as regards the education of the people, are by no means practicable. A system written down in a book, some- times appears exceedingly plausible, and many persons hail it as a great improvement upon what is called the old system. Thus it is in the recent attempts to separate intellectual, moral, and religious instruction. It appears to me that God has joined these together, and that you cannot give either effectually without bearing upon the whole. What man who knows his business and the nature of the young mind, would ever dream of separating moral from religious instruction? Suppose he is giving a lesson to his young charge on cruelty to animals, for ex- ample; can he do justice to his subject without leading the child's mind up to the Great First Cause? Nay, let him give a lesson from any object in either of the three kingdoms of nature, let it be the animal kingdom, the vegetable kingdom, down to the most insignificant mineral in the mineral kingdom; and he must, if he be a real teacher, lead the wondering mind of his astonished pupil, through this mineral up to the Great First Cause which called it into existence. Moral and religious instruction are so connected, so in- terwoven with each other, that to separate them, or take religious from moral instruction, is like taking the heart and lungs from the human body; for religious instruction is ..་ Q 2 228 THE INFANT MIND LED UPWARD TO THE the very life and soul of moral instruction, as the heart and lungs are to the bodily frame. But suppose we illustrate the fact, by giving a simple lesson on a common pebble, which every child is in the habit of coming in contact with. You tell the child what it is: it is hard; it is opaque, which means that it cannot be seen through; it is brittle, which means it can be broken in many pieces; and so on through all its qualities. Then its uses: it is broken to make roads, and affords employment to the poor; it is used for ballust for ships, and so on. Then comes the moral part of the business, that children are not to throw stones because it does no good; when they do so, they know not where they fall; they may break windows, the glasses of green houses, coach glasses, and other valuable articles of that descrip- tion; it may fall upon the head of a lady or gentleman, or a little child and do it some lasting injury, but no good to the child who throws it. The child is then to be told he is not to throw it at any animal, a dog for example, who is frequently a sufferer from this treatment from boys The child is to be told that every animal has fccling, and that the stone being a hard substance, is sure to hurt them; the more tender the part of the body that the stone happens to fall upon, and the harder the stone, the greater the pain inflicted on the animal. No person acquainted with the nature of teaching, or of the young mind, will say the lesson ought to be left here; he will tell the children that it is smooth; that the smoothness is caused by the action of the waters, and would proceed to describe how the stones. are rolled backwards and forwards on the sea-beach, and also at the bottom of rivers, and wherever the waters have influence It is almost certain that the pupil or pupils will have something to say on the subject, such as, Plcase, sir, I found it in the garden, or on a hill, or in the strcct; and there is no river near it, and the sca is a long way off. These and such like observations will be extremely na- tural for children, and, as a matter of course, afford ample DEITY THROUGH NATURAL OBJECTS. 229 opportunity for a judicious instructer to explain the course of this seeming difficulty, by a number of facts, and thus strengthen the faith of his young pupil. Having worked upon his ductile mind by plain and simple facts drawn from objects in nature, the child is prepared to hear something about the Being who called all these things into existence, and he will listen most attentively to any thing and every thing you have to say about God. Because his master has told him so many things that he did not know, he is stimulated to further inquiry; and whether he picks up a pebble, a blade of grass, a flower, or an insect, to him they are ob- jects of great interest, and he feels a glowing warmth of admiration and adoration to that Being who has been so bountiful as to create so many things for the use, and not the abuse, of man. Having thus made him slightly acquainted with the A. B. C. of nature's book, you prepare his inquiring mind for the A. B. C. of God's revealed will. I know of no written revelation of his revealed will, but the Holy Scrip- tures; and if, as a teacher, I am to be deprived of the necessary aid to be derived from this, you deprive me at least of half my materials; I not only wonder and am lost in a maze myself, but, what is far worse, I lead the minds of my pupils into a similar state, and thus become the means of perpetuating darkness and error and few persons will say, in this age at least, that this is the proper position of an educationist. ز If such lessons can be given from what appears to be a useless pebble, what may not be said on the other mighty wonders found in the mineral kingdom; and if we advance a step higher and get into the vegetable kingdom, how often have I seen the eyes of my pupils sparkle with de- light, when I have been faintly endeavouring to explain some of the beauties and uses of some flower or shrub ; and often has it been my pleasing lot, to have heard the involuntary exclamation simultaneously from my enrap- Q 3 230 SCHOOL-MASTER'S DUTIES EXPLAINED. : tured pupils, "Oh, sir, how good the great God must be to crcate so many wonders for our use." Going higher still to the next step, which is the animal kingdom, how attentively will the pupils listen to a suitable lesson, given in a suitable manner, and in suitable language, (all essen- tial in the art of teaching,) on any animal. The boys will be all delight at hearing something about a horse, his origin, his different uses in different countries, his courage, and so on; while the girls will be equally delighted at a lesson about some domestic poultry, a parrot, or any animal which their nature renders them fond of, and with which they are liable to come in contact. Í fccl assured that I could go on writing a whole volume in attempting to prove the utter absurdity of separating moral from reli- gious instruction; the school-master must teach a portion of all or none. If he is fit to give intellectual and physical instruction, he must be made fit to give moral and religious instruction; and if he is not fit to give these, he is not fit to be a teacher at all. If he has the tact and talent for teach- ing, he can do more for his pupils than any other man, because he is more with them, they know him better, and perchance they love him, which they are sure to do if nature designed him for a teacher. With these advan- lages no man can cope with him in his own school, he is a grcat man, as he ought to be, in the eyes of his pupils, and beside he knows their wants better than a stranger can. If they want to hear the clergyman, they go to church to hear him, and they hear him with greater respect; but if he is to be always harassing them at school with dull and dry details, given in college language, suited to an auditory of collegians or young gentleman just left Eton, then he might just as well speak to them in Greck, for they would pay just as much attention to one as to the other; and this is not the worst of the matter, for having bccn accustomed to be inattentive to his teaching in the school room, and frequently to get drowsy by his very long TRAINING MASTERS UNDER IRISH BOARD. 231 lessons, they pay no attention to him in the house of wor- ship; they are listless and inattentive there, and instead of looking upon him, as they ought to do, with reverence and respect, he is unanimously voted a dull teacher, and the pupils are delighted when the sermon is over; which they will not fail to let you know by leaving the church at rail- road speed. This will not do; a school-master must keep his place, and the spiritual teacher must keep his; they are distinct offices, and afford distinct duties, and the school-master will never be in his right place until he takes his rank next to the clergy. The school-master must be the greatest man in the school-room; the clergy- man the greatest in the church. I have been led into these remarks through witnessing the disagreeable effects and failures of what is called the Irish system. If the teachers are examining their pupils on any subject, they are afraid to launch out; and when I asked the masters of the Normal schools in Dublin, how it was they always put the same questions to the pupils and got the same answers, I received for reply, that they were not allowed to ask any questions but what were written down. So I found that the "parrot system" had been re- vived, which I thought had been consigned to the tomb of the Capulets; and, what is worse, in a place held up to the public as a Normal establishment, where all the igno- ramusses of school-masters belonging to the old school were to be enlightened, and that the immaculate Board itself had forthwith appointed a professor of the art of teaching at 500l. per annum, professor of natural philosophy, professor of mathematics, a German professor of music, and, to crown the whole, a professor of belle lettre; and these pro- fessors, of course, must rigidly adhere, like the masters, to what is written down. But the idea of appointing a pro- fessor of belle lettre to teach Irish school-masters, many of whom only receive eight pounds per annum, and scarcely any above five-and-twenty, is so truly laughable, and affords ་ Q 4 232 GRATITUDE FOR INSTRUCTION. . such ample proof of the fitness of the Irish Board of Educa- tion to carry out the work designed by the government, that if these things took place any where else but in Ire- land, it might be looked upon as a joke So void of the knowledge suited for their occupation are the school-mas- ters, that when I put a question to a batch of them, which would have been answered in almost any infant school in the kingdom, there were unable to reply to it. I simply asked them, if they could tell me if there was any difference between the zebra and the ass They opened their mouths wide, and said that they could not. But the cream of the joke was, that they had only just left the lecturc room, where they had been hearing a long lecture on zoology, delivered with all the grace of a Cicero, but in language as incomprehensible as if Cicero himself had addressed them. I, however, gave the men a lesson in what I thought suit- able language, and I had recourse to representation, as if I was teaching the infants, and I can truly say, that I never addressed a more attentive auditory in my life. I spoke to them for nearly an hour; at the conclusion, every man rose and gave three hearty cheers, with numerous "long lives to your honour's honour." So much for the tcachableness of these men, and their gratitude for being taught; but to addle the poor fellows' brains with the superfine subtilities of the schools, when they ought to be giving them useful and practical instruction, so as to enable them to give use- ful and proper information to the class of pupils that are placed under them, was complete folly. To call such institutions Normal schools, conducted upon the new principle, savours very much of the nonsensical; and must be witnessed to be believed. Indeed, plain edu- cation on plain and useful matters, are what these men want, and, above all, information on moral training; for many of them take the office of a school-mistress as inuch as school-master, in many of the schools in the interior, where both boys and girls are educated together. It is, IMPORTANCE OF NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR MISTRESSES. 233 therefore, essential that these men should be taught some of the things which are proper for girls to know, in order that they may fulfil the office of teacher in the double ca- pacity, with better effect. I am convinced that it requires more knowledge of human nature to educate girls aright, than boys. Harsh measures are scarcely ever necessary with them; in every thing, as far as the feelings are con- cerned, they are more easily managed, and it only requires a knowledge of this fact, to enable the teacher to meet with success; and I earnestly pray God, to put it in the hearts of those who have the power, whether they be mi- nisters of the crown, clergy, or laity, to establish Normal schools for mistresses. Unless this is done, we shall do things by halves; and the doing things by halves, I am prepared to prove, is one of the principal causes of the failure of the Irish scheme. If education is wanted any where, it is wanted in Ireland, and, indeed, wherever the poorer class of the Irish are found. I have had some ex- perience in teaching Irish children, and am happy to say, from this experience, that I have never met with finer specimens of human nature to work upon: they are quick, they are active, they are grateful, and obliging, and always thankful for information which is given in the right way. What a dreadful calamity it is that there should be any body of men, who stand in the way of such a race being taught. I consider that virtue itself proceeds from being taught, and those who prevent the teaching of it, do, as far as lies in their power, assist to root it out of the land. What a consolation it is to know, that one day or other we shall all have to render an account of the deeds done in the body, before that Almighty Being whom we cannot possi- bly deceive; and, oh! what will those men have to answer for, who have been the means of keeping the human mind in bondage, and who themselves have stultified the noble faculties created by the great Jehovah, in order that they might hoodwink and keep their fellow-men in mental sla- 234 MENTAL BONDAGE IN IRELAND. very. If they believe in a future state at all, how must they shudder at the approach of such an event! what ex- cuse can they make in the presence of the angelic Host, for having been the medium of such a foul delinquency. That such persons will meet with their just punishment hereafter, I never had a doubt, and their own consciences must punish them, if they have any, while here; but it re- quires the eagle eye of the statccman, backed by the pene- tration of all the wise and good, to prevent such characters from doing greater mischief than they do. The Scriptures assure us such men will be, in the latter day, very numc rous; they will, by their plausibility and sccming patri- otism, deceive many, yes, and make them mediums, too, for their own vile purposes, and will, if possible, deceive the very elect. There never was a time when more caution should be used on the subject of education than at present; there never was a time when the true Christian had a greater reason to pray in the words of our beautiful church service, "That it may plcase God to endue the lords of the council, and all the nobility, with grace, wisdom, and under- standing, and that it may plcase thee to bless and keep the magistrates, giving them grace to execute justice and to maintain truth." Never was there a time when truth was more trifled with, and never was there a time when the rising generation nccded it more, to enable them to act their parts in the great drama, which, sooner or later, must take place The wisdom of the serpent is now mixed with the harmlessness of the dove, and the young mind must be illuminated, nurtured, and fortified, that it may be enabled to perceive it. Mental revolutions are destined to take the place of physical ones for a time; but unless the rising ge- neration are prepared, they may end more terribly than many minds are prepared to expect. There are some who think that this iron age is to be succccded by the golden one, and much purification may be necessary on the sur- face of the earth, prior to its glorious commencement; it is SCRIPTURE LESSONS. 235 to the young we must look to be the prime actors in these matters, and it is our duty in every point of view, and as far as lies in our power, to fit them for the mighty works which God will make them the mediums to perform. We will now introduce a few specimens of Scripture lessons, which I think may be given to children without interfering with the rights of conscience. THE STORY OF RUTH. Now it came to pass in the days when the Judges ruled, that there was a famine in the land. And a certain man of Bethlehem-judah went to sojourn in the country of Moab, he and his wife, and his two sons. And the name of the man was Elimelech, and the name of his wife Naomi, and the name of his two sons Mahlon and Chilion. And they came into the country of Moab and continued there. And Elimelech, Naomi's husband, died; and she was left with her two sons. And they took them wives of the women of Moab; the name of the one was Orpah, and the name of the other Ruth, and they dwelled there about ten years, and Mahlon and Chilion died also both of them; and the woman was left of her two sons and her husband. Then she arose with her daughters-in-law, that she might return from the land of Moab, for she had heard in the country of Moab how the Lord had visited his people, in giving them bread. And Naomi said unto her two daughters-in-law, Go, return each to her mother's house; the Lord deal kindly with you, as ye have dealt with the dead and with me. And they lifted up their voice and wept again, and Orpah kissed her mother-in-law, but Ruth clave to her. And she said, Behold, thy sister-in-law is gone back to her people, and to her gods, return thou after thy sister-in-law. And Ruth said, Entreat me not to leave thee, or to return from following after thee: for whither thou goest I will go, and where thou lodgest I 236 SCRIPTURE LESSONS. will lodge: thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God: where thou diest will I die, and there will I be buried: the Lord do so to me, and more also, if aught but death part thee and me. So they two went until they came to Bethlehem. And Ruth, the Moabitess, said unto Naomi, Let me now go to the field and glean ears of corn; and she said unto her, Go, my daughter. Questions and Answers. Q. Who is mentioned in the beginning of this lesson as going up to sojourn in the country of Moab? A. A cer- tain man of Bethlehem-judah. Q. What was Bethlehem? A. A city in Judea, a country in Asia. Q. What do you mean by the word sojourn? A. To live or reside any where. Q. What was this man's name? A. Elimelech. Q. Who accompanied him? A. His wife and his two sons. Q. What was his wife's name? A. Naomi. Q. And what were the names of his two sons? A. Mahlon and Chilion. Q. What was the reason of this family coming to the land of Moab? A. Because there was a famine in their own country. Q. What happened after they had continued some time in the land of Moab? A. Elimelech, Naomi's husband, died. Q. What took place after this? A. Her two sons took them wives of the women of Moab. Q. What were their wives named? A. One was Orpah, and the name of the other Ruth. Q. How long did they dwell there? A. About ten years. Q. What happened then? A. Mahlon and Chilion both died. Q. What did Naomi do then? A. She arose with her THE STORY OF RUTH. 237 daughters-in-law that she might return from the land of Moab. Q. What had she heard that determined her on this? A. How that the Lord had visited his people by giving them bread. Q. What did Naomi say to her daughters-in-law? Go, return each to her mother's house. A. Q. What did she say more? A. The Lord deal kindly with you, as you have dealt with the dead and with me. Q. What did Orpah do? A. She kissed her mother- in-law. Q. What did she mean by doing that? A. To take leave of her, and go away. Q. What did Ruth do? A. She clave unto her. Q What did Naomi say to her then? A. Behold, thy sister-in-law is gone back to her people, and her gods, re- turn thou after thy sister-in-law. Q. What did Ruth answer? A. Entreat me not to leave thee, or to return from following thee; for whither thou goest I will go, and where thou lodgest I will lodge: thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God. Q. What more did she say? A. Where thon diest will I die, and there will I be buried; the Lord do so to me, and more also, if aught but death part thee and me. Q. Did Ruth go with her mother-in-law? A. Yes. Q. Where did they come to? A. To Bethlehem. Q. What did Ruth do there to support her mother-in- law? A. She went to the field to glean ears of corn. Q. Which do you think, Ruth or Orpah acted best? A. Ruth did, for she did not forsake her mother-in law, but left her own country, that she might protect and sup- port her. Q. What lesson should little girls learn from this? A. That they should never forsake their parents, but love and cherish them. Q. Why should this lesson teach us this? A. Because 238 SCRIPTURE LESSONS, • ایه if Ruth forsook her country and her people, and came to support her mother-in-law, we should much the more be willing to do it for our own parents. Q. What other reason is there that we should love and honour our parents? A Because God wished it when he gave this commandment to Moses Honour thy father and mother, that thy days may be long in the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee. Q. Was Ruth rewarded for her good conduct? A. Yes; as we shall scc in the next lesson. And Naomi had a kinsman of her husband's, a mighty man of wealth, and his name was Boaz; and Ruth gleaned in a part of the field belonging unto him. And, behold, Boaz came from Bethlehem, and said unto his servant who was set over the reapers, Whose damsel is this? And the servant answered and said, It is the Moabitish damsel that came back with Naomi out of the country of Moab, and she said, I pray you let me glean and gather after the rcapers amongst the sheaves So she came and hath con- tinued even from the morning until now that she tarried a little in the house. Then said Boaz unto Ruth, Hearest thou not, my daughter? go not to glean in another field, but abide here, and when thou art athirst go unto the vessels and drink of that which the young men have drawn; at meal time come thou hither, and eat of the bread, and dip thy morsel in the vinegar. And she sat beside the reapers; and he reached her parched corn, and she did cat and was satisfied and left. And when she was risen up to glean, Boaz commanded his young men, saying, Let her glean even among the shcaves, and reproach her not. So she gleaned in the field until evening, and beat out that she gleaned, and it was about an ephah of barley, and she took it up and went into the city, and her mother- in-law saw what she had gleaned, and she brought forth and gave to her that she had reserved after she was sufficed; THE STORY OF RUTH. 239 and she kept fast by the maidens of Boaz to glean unto the end of the barley harvest, and of wheat harvest, and dwelt with her mother-in-law. And Boaz said unto Ruth, And now my daughter, fear not, for all the city of my people doth know that thou art a virtuous woman. And Boaz took Ruth, and she was his wife. Questions and Answers. Q. What was the name of the wealthy kinsman of Naomi's husband? A. Boaz. Q. Was it in his field that Ruth gleaned? A. It was. Q. Bid Boaz see her? A. Yes. Q. What did he ask of his servant who was placed over the reapers? A. Whose damsel is this? Q. What did his servant answer? A. It is the Moabitish damsel that came back with Naomi out of the country of Moab. Q. Did the servant tell what Ruth had said unto him? A. Yes. Q. What was it? A. I pray you let me glean and gather after the reapers. Q. What did Boaz say unto Ruth? A. Hearest thou not, my daughter? go not to glean in another field but abide here, and when thou art athirst go and drink of that which the young men have drawn. Q. Did Boaz give her food to eat? A. Yes; he reached her parched corn, and she did eat and was sufficed and left. Q. What did he say to his young men ? A. He said let her glean even amongst the sheaves, and reproach her not. Q. Did she continue in the field? A. Yes; she re- mained in the field until evening. Q. When she had beat out the barley she had gleaned, how much had she? A. About an ephah. Q. What is an ephah? A. A measure used formerly in the east. Q. What did Ruth do with the barley? A. She took it up and went into the city. 240 SCRIPTURE LESSONS. • Q. To whom did she give it? A. To her mother- in-law. Q. Did she continue to glean in the fields of Boaz? A. Yes; unto the end of barley harvest, and of wheat harvest. Q. With whom did she dwell? A. With her mother- in-law. Q. What did Boaz then say unto her? A. And now, my daughter, fear not, for all the city of my people doth know that thou art a virtuous woman. Q. What happened afterwards? A. Boaz took Ruth, and she was his wife. Q What do we scc by this lesson? A. That goodness and virtue is rewarded Q. What do we also learn? A. That it is good to be humble. Q. Was Ruth humble? A. Yes; for she ashamed to glean after the reapers. was not Q. What did Boaz call her? A. A virtuous woman. Q. Was it for this he married her? A. It was, Q. What other good quality should little girls imitate Ruth in besides being virtuous and humble? A. In being industrious, for Ruth laboured hard during the time of harvest. Q. Do you know where the story of Ruth is to be found? A. In the Bible Teacher. Yes; and if you entire of it when you go home the book of Ruth. chose you can read the It is called in the Bible, Q. Do we learn anything further from this lesson? A Yes; that gleaning was an ancient custom. Q. What does ancient mean? A That which has ex- isted a very long time. Q What does gleaning incan? A. The gathering up cars of corn which the reapers have left, and which would otherwise be lost. Q. Suppose the reapers are unnecessarily careless and STORY OF RUTH. 241 those that gather the corn waste it carelessly, that their own relatives may have more to pick up; what would you call that? A. Dishonesty, because it wrongs the rightful owner of what is his just due. Q. Suppose the gleaners pull some ears of corn out of the sheaf; what would you call that? A. Stealing, and breaking the commandment of God which says thou shalt not steal. Q. What rule of conduct ought to guide us in our deal- ings with others, whether we happen to be mistresses or servants? A. To do in all things as we would be done by, and take Jesus Christ for our example. Q. Do we get any other important information from this lesson? A. Yes; we learn by this that the poor have rights, and the rich have rights, and that good Christians will respect the rights of both. MARY MAGDALEN ANOINTS JESUS. And one of the Pharisees desired him that he would eat with him. And he went into the Pharisee's house, and sat down to meat. And, behold, a woman in the city, which was a sinner, when she knew that Jesus sat at meat in the Pharisee's house, brought an alabaster box of oint- ment; and stood at his feet behind him weeping, and began to wash his feet with tears, and did wipe them with the hairs of her head, and kissed his feet, and anointed them with the ointment. Now when the Pharisee which had bidden him saw it, he spake within himself, saying, This man, if he were a prophet, would have known who and what manner of woman this is that toucheth him: for she is a sinner. And Jesus answering said unto him, Simon, I have somewhat to say unto thee. And he saith, Master, say on. There was a certain creditor which had two debtors: the one owed five hundred pence, and the other fifty. And when they had nothing to pay, he frankly forgave them both. Tell me, therefore, which of them R 242 SCRIPTURE LESSONS. will love him most? Simon answered and said, I suppose that he to whom he forgave most. And he said unto him, Thou hast rightly judged. And he turned to the woman, and said unto Simon, Sccst thou this woman? I entered into thine house, thou gavest me no water for my fcct: but she hath washed my feet with tears, and wiped them with the hairs of her head. Wherefore I say unto thee, ller sins, which are many, are forgiven; for she loved much but to whom little is forgiven, the same loveth little. And he said unto her, Thy sins are forgiven. (Luke vii. 36 11, 47, 48. Questions and Answers. Q. Who is meant in the beginning of this lesson as having been desired by one of the Pharisccs that he would cat with him? A Jesus Christ. What do you mean by a Phariscc? A A person belonging to a certain class of the Jews who thought them- selves alone holy. Q. Did Jesus go into the Phariscc's house? A. He did Q. What did he do there? A. He sat down to meat. Q. Who came to the Phariscc's house on hearing that Jesus was there? A. A woman in the city which was a sinner. Q. Where did she stand? A. At his fect behind him. Q. If she stood at his fect how could she be behind him? A, Thus, in the latter times of the Jewish nation, they lay or reclined on couches while taking their meals, their head towards the table, and their fect in a contrary direction. Q. What was this woman who stood behind Jesus doing? A. She was wccping. Q. What did she begin to wash his fcct with? A. Her tears. Q. What did she wipe them with? A The hair of her head Q What had this woman brought with her? A. An alabaster box of ointment. MARY MAGDALEN ANOINTS JESUS. 243 Q. What is alabaster? A A beautiful white stone. Q. How did she use this ointment? A. She anointed his feet with it. Q. What did she first do? A. She kissed them. Q. Now when the Pharisee saw this, what did he say within himself? A. This man, if he were a prophet, would have known who and what manner of woman this is that toucheth him, for she is a sinner. Q. Did Jesus know who touched him? A. He did. Q. What did he say to the Pharisee? A. He said, Simon, I have somewhat to say unto thee. Q. What did he answer? A. He saith, Master, say on. Q. What did Jesus then say? A. There was a certain creditor which had two debtors, the one owed five hundred pence, and the other fifty. And when they had nothing to pay he frankly forgave them both; tell me, therefore, which of them will love him most? Q. What answer did Simon give to this? A. He said, I suppose that he to whom he forgave most. Q. What did Jesus say unto him? A. Thou hast judged rightly. Q. When he turned to the woman, what did he say? A. Seest thou this woman? I entered into thy house, thou gavest me no water for my feet, but she hath washed my feet with tears, and wiped them with the hairs of her head. Thou gavest me no kiss, but this woman since the time I came in hath not ceased to kiss my feet. My head with oil thou didst not anoint, but this woman hath anointed my feet with ointment. Q. Was it customary in our Saviour's time to bring water to wash the feet and hands of guests, and to anoint them with oil? A. It was. Q. What more did Jesus say? A. Wherefore I say unto thee, Her sins, which are many, are forgiven, for she loved much; to whom little is forgiven, the same loveth little. R 2 244 SCRIPTURE LESSONS. Q. What did he say to her?. A. Thy sins are forgiven. Q. What may we learn by this? A. The advantage of being humble and sorry when we have committed sin. Q. What may we then expect? A. That our sins will be forgiven. Q. What does it also shew us? A. That we should love Jesus Christ very much. Q. What was the name of this woman who anointed Jesus? A. We are told in the gospel of St. Matthew that her name was Mary Magdalen. SOLOMON'S WISE JUDGMENT. Then came there two women unto the king, and stood before him, and the one woman said, Oh, my Lord, I and this woman dwell in one house, and I was delivered of a child with her in the house, and it came to pass the third day after I was delivered, that this woman was delivered also, and we were together; there was no stranger with us in the house, save we two in the house, and this woman's child died in the night, because she overlaid it, and she arose at midnight and took my son from beside me, and laid it in her bosom, and laid her dead child in my bosom; and when I arose in the morning to give my child suck, behold it was dead; but when I had considered it in the morning, behold it was not my son which I did bear. And the other woman said, Nay, but the living is my sou, and the dead is thy son; and this said, No, but the dead is thy son, and the living is my son. Thus they spake before the king. And the king said, Bring me a sword. And they brought a sword before the king. And the king said, Divide the living child in two, and give half to the one and half to the other. Then spake the woman, whose the living child was, unto the king, for her bowels yearned upon her son, and she said, O my Lord, give her the living child, and in no-wise slay it. But the other said, let it be neither mine or thine, but divide it. Then the king answered and said, SOLOMON'S WISE JUDGMENT. 245 Give her the living child and in no-wise slay it, she is the mother thereof. And all Israel heard of the judgment which the king had judged, and they feared the king, for they saw that the wisdom of God was in him to do judg- ment. Questions and Answers. Q. What does this lesson tell of? A. Solomon's wise judgment. Q. Describe it. A. There came two women and stood before the king. Q. Who was the king? A. Solomon. Q. What place was he king of? A. Of Israel. Q. What country was it? A. The country of the Jews. Q. In what quarter of the globe was it? A. In Asia. Q. Did the women say any thing to the king when they came before him? A. Yes; one woman said, O my Lord, I and this woman dwell in one house, and I had a child there, and this woman had a child also, and this woman's child died in the night. Q. Who did the woman speak to when she said, O my Lord? A. To king Solomon. Q. What did the woman mean when she said, we dwell in one house? A. She meant that they both lived in it. Q. Did the woman say any thing more to the king? A. Yes; she said the other woman rose at midnight and took her son from her. Q. What is meant by midnight? A. We mean twelve o'clock at night. Q. How was the night divided by the Jews? A. Into watches. Q. What is their meaning? A. They are so called be- cause the soldiers kept watch by turns during these divi- sions. Q. Into how many watches was the night divided? A. Into three. R 3 246 SCRIPTURE LESSONS Q Was the day divided in a similar manner? A No; it was divided into hours, Q, At what time did their first hour commence ? A At six o'clock in the morning, Q. What time did their day end? A At our six o'clock in the evening, which was their twelfth hour. Q. What did the other woman say when she was charged with taking the live child? A. She said the live child was hers, and the other said it is mine, thus they spake before the king. Q. When the king heard what the women had to say, what did he do? A. He said bring me a sword, and they brought a sword before the king.. Q. Did the king do any thing with the sword? A. No; he said divide the child in two, and give half to the one, and half to the other. A. One said, O Q. What did the woman say to that? my lord, give her the living child, and in no-wise slay it; but the other said, let it be neither mine or thine, but divide it. Q. What took place next? A. The king answered and said, Give her the living child, and in no-wise slay it, she is the mother thereof. Q. What is meant by slaying? A. To kill any thing. Q. To which woman was the child given? A, To the woman who said do not hurt it. Q. What is the reason that it was called a wise judg- ment? A Because Solomon took a wise method to find out the real mother. Q. Why was the method wise? A. Because he knew very well that the rcal mother would not let her poor child be killed. Q. Did the people all hear of this judgment? A Yes; all Israel heard of it, and they feared the king, for they saw that the wisdom of God was in him to do judgment. SOLOMON'S WISE JUDGMENT. 247 Q. What is meant by all Israel? A. All the people who lived in the kingdom of Israel. Q. Was there any king wiser than Solomon? A. No; he was the wisest king. Q. How did he become so wise? A. He asked God to give him wisdom to govern his kingdom well, and God granted his request. Q. What does the Bible say a man should do if he wants wisdom? A. He should ask it of God, for he giveth to all men liberally and upbraideth not. Q. Does not this advice apply equally to little girls? A. It does. Q. Do you think there is any difference between know- ledge and wisdom? A. Yes; knowledge may be turned to a good or bad account, for many people may know things and act contrary to this knowledge. Q. Do the Scriptures say, With all thy gettings get know- ledge? A. No; it says with all thy gettings get wisdom. Q. What would you suppose to be the difference between knowledge and wisdom? A. Knowledge consists in know- ing, but wisdom in reducing that knowledge to practice. Q. From what source is all wisdom derived? A. From Almighty God. Q. Was not the wisdom of Solomon his own wisdom, then? A. No; he was the instrument in the hands of God, as many other kings have been since his time. These simple specimens, I trust, will not be unacceptable to the reader. The Sacred Scriptures abound with similar materials, suitable for the instruction of the female poor; but what a terrific loss it would be, were one to be deprived of this sacred oracle in any system of national education; as well might we be deprived of the whole book of nature, as to refuse the judicious teacher the privilege of referring to the revelation of God. For my part, I felt chained to the earth in trying to give children education without it; R 4 248 THE BIBLE THE ONLY TEXT BOOK. my mouth was often sealed when endcavouring to illustrate my views for the benefit of my pupils, and I felt, by internal experience, the utter impossibility of carrying out any sys- tem of education, except the mill-tract system, unless it was based on some universally acknowledged code, which men were inclined to venerate and estccm. In this country the Bible is the most universal, and on that ground alone, which is the lowest ground one can take, it ought to be ac- knowledged as the text-book by every pupil whom we wish to bring up in the fear of God, the love of his neighbour, respect to the laws, and those who are appointed to dis- pense them. No system of education would be worth a rush, which does not inculcate the omnipotence of the laws; for if the laws of a country are trifled with, anarchy and confusion necessarily follow. Ireland is a sad example of this in the present day; and, in my humble opinion, will ever remain so whilst there is any book in the country acknowledged superior to the Holy Bible, and any power acknowledged superior to the laws of the land. The Scrip- tures abound with instances of nations, of families, and in- dividuals, undergoing the greatest miseries and privations, who had trampled upon the laws of the Crcator, and vio- lated the laws of the country, which gave them birth. His- tory shews that such ever was, and common sense proves that such must be, the result of all systems not founded upon genuine truth. Religious education, then, in this view, is essential for girls: first, because they are liable to become nurses, and have the first charge of the children of their superiors, on whom the opinions of the nurse have no small influenence in after life; if she has no correct no- tions on spiritual subjects; if she has no foundation to rest upon and to refer to as the bases of her views, how can she give them to her infant charge? how can she satisfy the incessant inquiry made by the infantile prattlers of her nursery? She cannot; and the consequence will be most fatal to the rising prospect of the juvenile portion of the RELIGIOUS EDUCATION FOR GIRLS. 249 community; indeed, I know of no situation in which a poor girl can be placed, wherein Bible education may not be of immense advantage; as a domestic servant, she must come in contact with children, and when she becomes married, and is a mother, she will have to infuse correct re- ligious notions to the opening minds of her own offspring. But, alas! how can she do this, when her own religious education has been neglected; or, if a system of education is introduced into the country, not based upon the Bible, but upon the whims and fancies of a set of political, moral phi- losophers, who would square the human mind by certain rules, and who would scarcely allow that poor females have any mind at all. If ever, however, this country is to become greater than she is, and that greatness is to be accompanied by a greater portion of goodness, it cannot be accomplished without Normal schools for the education of females; espe- cially for school mistresses, who must, from the nature of things, have more to do with the young mind than either school-masters or tutors, and who have generally more pa- tience, and more affection, if rightly instructed, than men possibly can have. It is so; the Creator has wisely ordered it so; and if a system of education is to extend itself for the benefit of the whole species, whose object is to make good citizens, religious characters, and, finally, inhabitants of heaven, it can only be carried out by the united exertions of both sexes; and it is in vain to expect a blessing on any system in which females do not have their just and proper share. In the Liverpool Corporation Schools this has not been lost sight of by the educational committee; they have been anxious to carry on a real system of development for the girls, as well as the boys; and the religious education given is of a very high order. When their schools were first opened upon the new principle, the pupils were the refuse of all the schools in Liverpool, and some of the girls in particular, were ignorant in every thing except vice and ; EFFECTS OF CHRISTIAN TREATMENT ON GIRLS 250 crime The mistresses had the greatest difficulty to keep them in any thing like order, and in the play-ground this was considerably incrcased, so much so that several policemen were thought necessary to prevent thein from overcoming the mistresses entirely. A few short wccks, however, of rational and Christian treatment, softened these creatures down to very different subjects, and they ultimately be came, to my certain knowledge, as orderly and as well be haved as any girls possibly could be. The education com- mittce persevered, as did also the mistresses, and the re- sults were such as to be highly encouraging. I have already given my opinion of the mixed system, and its non-adaptation, without considerable improvements, for either England or Scotland; but should any committee. wish to try it, under circumstances which will render it ad visable, I here subjoin a scheme of religious instruction, as adopted in the Liverpool Corporation Schools, at the time I was connected with them. The hour devoted to the religious instruction is spent by four Protestant and four Catholic classes, in the following manner: Monday. 1st and 2nd Protestant classes. Catechism, and afterwards say lessons learned the previous Sunday; collects, scripture, and hymns. 1st and 2nd Catholic classes. Taught their catechism by the monitors, by a teacher, or by a visitor. 3rd and 4th Protestant, 3rd and 4th Catholic classes, Are taught hymns, which are explained in the gal- lery, and sometimes Scripture prints. Tuesday. 1st Protestant class. Bible, and afterwards are instructed in their duty by questions and answers 2nd Protestant, 1st and 2nd Catholic classes. Cate- chism, Book on the Soul, and join the 1st Protestant class. 3rd and 4th Protestant, 3rd and 4th Catholic classes. Scripture Geography, and stories with reference to Scripture, hymns and catechism. 1 RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN LIVERPOOL SCHOOLS. 251 Wednesday. 1st and 2nd Protestant classes. Bible, and Scripture Zoology, Manners of the Israelites, or some other book elucidating Scripture. 3rd and 4th Protestant classes. Hymns and catechism in classes. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Catholic classes. Taught cate- chism or hymns by the monitor or priest. Thursday. 1st Protestant class. Bible. 2nd Protestant, 1st and 2nd Catholic classes. Book on the Soul, and Scripture Geography. 3rd and 4th Protestant, 3rd and 4th Catholic classes. Scripture Geography, other books, and Stranger's Offering. Friday. 1st and 2nd Prostestant classes. Bible, collects explained. 3rd and 4th Protestant classes. Stories from the Old Testament, questions on the prints. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Catholic classes. Bible in the gallery with the minister, or lessons from Scripture Extracts, or Scripture plates. When any mistress wishes to be instructed in the above system, she must bring a letter, addressed to some of the committee of the corporation schools, who will lay the same before his colleagues in office, when they will decide whether she is to be received as a pupil, or not. If she is received, she must attend regularly at school hours, and be subject to the orders of the head mistress, so that she may be able to manage each division of the school in turn, both on the floor of the school, in the play-ground, and at the gallery lessons; and not to be pronounced fit to take a school until she can manage all the departments. Her certificate to be then signed first by the chief mistress, and then the others, and, if necessary, by the chairman of the committee. No person to be permitted to come to the schools for instruction without an order from the committee officially signed, and not even then unless they will agree 252 GIRLS' AND INFANTS' SCHOOLS KEPT SEPARATE, to attend regularly. No person to be allowed to go from one school to another; but to complete their education at the school they first commenced with. No teacher who comes to learn, to be allowed to correct the children, with- out the express permission of the regular teachers. That the regular teachers at all times endeavour to im- press on the minds of those who come to be instructed, the new and distinguishing features that will be found in the institution; viz, physical and moral education, and of the necessity there is for especial attention to those depart- ments That the learners attend the play-ground at least once a day, and not to talk, but to attend to all the duties con- nected therewith; especially to see that no injury be done to the flowers or shrubs, and anxiously to watch for the manifestations of character in all the pupils, so that the duty may become habitual to them when they get to their own schools. To instruct teachers properly, they must in all cases be brought into active operation; the looking-on system will never do. If a teacher cannot manage a school wherein the children are properly trained, how can they manage a school wherein the children are not trained at all? It might be well for a mistress to learn a little of the infant system, as in small towns, the ages of the children who at- tend school vary a considerable degrcc, otherwise I should set my face against it; for if a mistress is to conduct a school according to the principles hinted at above, she will find enough to do to attend to the workings of the system in the girls' department, and to that alone; the infant system being only intended for very young children, and requires a teacher to be exclusively trained for their management, as very often the inixture of the two systems spoils both. 253 PLAY-GROUND CHAPTER V. MANAGEMENT FOR GIRLS. Importance of this department not sufficiently appreciated-Visit of Her Majesty's Ministers to the Irish model schools in Dublin—An account of what they were shewn-Ignorance on the subject of moral training-The play-ground the only place for developing the character-Responsibility of teachers-Importance of giving them proper instruction-Systems in theory easily formed-Difficulty of getting men to work them-Play-ground exercises-The play- ground not the fit place for singing hymns-Hints to mistresses Exercise essential for the bodily frame-The old system will not do-Girls should not be chosen for school-mistresses-Garden monitors-External appearances no criterion for respect-The school-mistress responsible at all times for the conduct of her pupils True charity defined-Better to pay school-mistresses well than female turnkeys-No school should be built without provision for moral training-The old and new system contrasted-Importance of object-lessons-Moral training cannot be begun too early--Chil- dren as anxious to feed the mental as the bodily appetite-Conclud- ing observations. FROM the observations made in a former part of this work, it will be seen that great stress is laid upon play-ground teaching. Its being a novel feature in education is no argu- ment against its use, and if we are ever to have a suitable system of national education, play-ground management must have due consideration. There seems an idea in the public mind, that no education can be useful unless it is given in a school-room; and men in authority, who profess to be advocates for education, and for the development of the human faculties, seem to imagine that every thing must be done within doors. A more fatal error can hardly be committed, and I fear it will require some greater powers of eloquence than I possess, to convince those who have the power, to alter their course. In illustration * 254 VISIT OF HER MAJESTY'S MINISTERS TO of these remarks I may mention the fact, that in the latter part of the year 1838, the most noble the Marquis of Lans- down, the Right Hon, Lord John Russell, Lord Stanley, and other distinguished persons, visited what are called the model schools in Marlborough Street, Dublin; con- nected as my readers may be aware with the Board of Edu- cation in Ireland. Being present myself upon that occa- sion, I may state, that when those great personages first visited the infant school, no notice had been sent to the masters, and it happened that the visit was made just at the time that 230 poor little crcatures were eating their meal. There could not, therefore, be a worse time for the poor man to develop the faculties of his infants Never- theless, being loath to let such high personages depart without sccing something, after they had once entered, the children were ordered to put by their bread, and proceed to business of a mental kind. The consequence was, the poor little things were not in the mood for intellectual de- velopment, and, under such circumstances, the merits of the system could not be sccn. I shrewedly suspect, how- ever, that this just suited the views of certain parties; it was exactly what was desired; a system of development was not wanted in Ireland, it could not be tolerated, and I am inclined to believe that an unfavourable impression was made, which I fccl assured, under other circumstances, would have been the reverse. Subsequently the other schools were visited by the same party, and as these were conducted on the rotatory plan, the usual routine was gone through; that is to say, the chief class of boys were called forward, and examined in mathematics, algebra, arithmetic, history, and I know not what; they all answered as pat as possible I could tell the reason why, but nced not trouble the reader with it here In the girls' schools we found the children all sitting at their desks like so many automatons; no questions were asked, to my knowledge, by any of the examiners. The IRISH MODEL SCHOOLS IN DUBLIN. 255 lady of the viceroy examined the specimens of the orna- mental needle work, &c. &c., and the whole concluded by seven picked children, singing three times in three parts, which had been taught them by a German, specially re- tained for the purpose, in the short space of one year!!! and, be it observed, that these were the only children out of about 1400, who could perform this miracle. The very essence of a system of education, that is to say, religious, moral, and physical instruction, was never examined into at all. Although there had been arrangements made for excellent play-grounds, with dressed flower borders and fruit trees, gymnastic poles for strengthening the muscles; these things were never even looked at, I suppose for the plainest of all reasons, because they were thought unworthy of notice. Whilst such lamentable ignorance remains upon the subject of moral training, and such apathy is manifested in high quarters on the subject, we ought not, for sometime, to expect that practical men will set down and develop a system with so little chance of success. If my opinion, however, is of any avail, I would say, that more real good may be done in the right formation of cha- racter in the play-ground in one hour, by a judicious teacher, who understands his business, and seizes the pro- per opportunities for the development of character, than can be done in a school-room in a whole month; and I earnestly pray that Almighty God will cause the real friends of education to see the matter in its proper light; for on this depends the success or failure of any system of education intended for the improvement of the people. And I will take the liberty of adding in this place, that if any of the pupils tread upon the dressed borders, injure the trees, break the flowers, or steal the fruit, the fault is not theirs, but in those who are placed over them. Having been engaged in education from boyhood up to the present time, I can assert this without the least fear of contra- diction. If, however, the teacher himself or herself has - 256 IGNORANCE ON MORAL TRAINING. not had these things pointed out to them, in the school at which they were trained, a great allowance is to be made. Boards of Education and Societies of Education, yes, and governors of Normal schools to, may be as ignorant of these things as the teachers themselves, and if they are, it re- quires no Solomon to fortel what will be the result. The great anxiety I fccl on these subjects, will, I hope, plead my excuse, for pressing it upon the attention of my readers; deep rooted prejudices are only to be overcome by extraordinary means, and time and circumstances must be allowed to have their influence before we can expect an alteration for the better. Few imagine that the play- ground is the microcosm, or little world, and that children will develop more of their real character under unre strained freedom, than they can possibly whilst sitting on- benches or poring over books. It is in vain you plead that the time is not lost which is so spent, for most parents and teachers think that children cannot be made to learn anything, unless whilst they are poring over tasks within the walls of a school, and should it even happen that the Boards of Direction should have a right view of the sub- ject, there is the greatest difficulty to make the teachers do their duty in this department. At the present time, we hear a great deal of Normal schools, and for a beginning it is thought that the wisest and best thing to do, is, to open a Normal school in London for the introduction of masters; it is taken for granted that there will be no difficulty in finding suitable persons to instruct these masters; this scems to follow as a matter of course, just as if our former system of education had been founded on a proper basis, and was the most satisfactory system that could be; that it merely wanted extension and centralization, and that then every thing would work beautifully. I wish, with all my heart, it may ; but why should a board, composed of laymen, not one of whom had perhaps an hours' practice in his life in the art of teaching, be more competent to NEVER TO SING HYMNS WHILE AT PLAY. 257 send forth rules on the subject of national education; and why should they possess more knowledge to enable them to select suitable and proper persons to bring those views into practice, than the whole body of the clergy, who are teachers by office, and hundreds of whom, for the want of a better salary, are obliged to be school-masters also. It is the easiest part of the business to put a national system on paper, and also to put a fine theory about Normal schools, but I say the men that are to work the thing, are by no means numerous, and, as a layman, I assert, that if we are to find the majority of them anywhere it is amongst the clergy. With these general remarks we will now proceed to shew, for the advantage of teachers, the outlines of what girls are to do in the play-ground. They are sometimes to march and keep the step properly, and to listen to the sound of the feet; at other times, sing some of the tables, such as time table, pence table, apothecaries' weight, avoirdupoise weight, long measure, four seasons of the year, four sea- sons of human life, wine measure, corn measure, and other useful, moral, and intellectual lessons, as found in Wilder- spin's Infant System, seventh edition*, but never to sing hymns when at play; this comes under religious instruc- tion, and should always be performed with seriousness, decorum, and at the proper time. It should be impressed on the minds of the girls, that every act of praise and prayer addressed to their Creator, should be performed with the utmost reverence, and with undivided attention. The benefit thus conferred will not stop with them, all within their influence will be operated upon and benefitted thereby, especially little children, with whom they have most to do, and in whose company they spend a large portion of their time, either as sisters, * The Infant System may be had at the publisher's, 112, Flect Street, London, and of all booksellers, and is dedicated by permission to her most gracious Majesty the Queen Dowager. S 958 HINTS TO MISTRESSES. nurses, or mothers. All the instructive lessons will be conveyed by them to distant parts of the world; the tables will be learnt by those who have no other school but a filthy home and what the streets afford, and will be sung in the streets, alleys, and lanes of large towns, as also in the fields and by the side of the hedges; and so far much good will be done; but hymns, or any religious service, will, in the present day, if performed in the strccts, be scoffed at, ridiculed, and profaned, and become by-words amongst the younger part of the population, which is a great evil, and calls for remedy. The Divine names must not be used in play; "there is a time for all things," and "over-doing ends in undoing;" the too frequent singing of hymnns, or the too frequent mention of the names of the Deity, is an evil found in almost all schools, and cannot be too soon repressed. These things are done with the best intentions, but I have witnessed that they produce the worst effects. The singing hymns must be performed in the school-room, when the girls are in the proper state for it, and not in the play-ground, where there is enough to do of another kind. Teach them to swing at the rotatory swings with elegance and decorum, which can be easily done if understood and attended to. Mistresses should not find fault with the swings if they do not choose to take the trouble to attend to them. They should remember girls were not created always to be sitting down at needle-work; they require exercise even more than boys, because when they leave school their occupations are generally more confining and sedentary; and when they come to school, an opportunity may be lost that will never occur again. Never mind prejudice; the parents may complain; they may think a girl should be always poring over a book, or at her nccdle; it is the way they have been treated; they know no better, but must be taught. Exercise for the bodily frame to strengthen the MISTRESS RESPONSIBLE FOR PUPILS' CONDUCT. 259 muscles, and improve the health and strength of girls, is essential, and will be approved of by the wise and good amongst us. Medical men have long laboured to enforce it, but with little success, unless the school-mistress will co-operate with them. Do, then, let me entreat, that the pupils have exercise; its benefits will be greater than can be at present perceived, and inferior to no part of the edu- cation which all are anxious to give. Care must be taken to watch the pupils when in private, for if their minds have been poisoned or polluted by scenes at home, or in the street, it will manifest itself in those places of convenience. These matters are too important not to be noticed; it is a prominent feature in moral education, and enters largely into the formation of character; the evils spread among all the pupils, and the injuries done are irretrievable; one vulgar, bad, neglected, immoral, or immodest girl, will ruin half the pupils in a school; and too many mistresses suppose their duties to be confined to the school-room alone. Nothing can be a more fatal delusion; hundreds of females have reason to lament the day they went to public schools, who were neglected in this particular*, and where moral education was sacrificed to allow time to the pupils to sew a sampler, and time to some poor old woman to attend to it. The old jog-trot system will not do for the present age, it cannot do,—it must not do. Intelligent women, who are employed in the work of education, tell me it shall not do; and I agree with them, and will render my feeble help to the utmost of my power to remedy the defect, and induce others to see the matter in its proper light. "The knowledge of a disease is half its cure.' * It is a lamentable fact, that in my visits to numerous schools under the Board of Education, the children of both sexes and various ages mix indiscriminately in the places of convenience, to the utter de. struction of moral habits and delicacy, and in a great many, I regret to say, there are no places of convenience at all, and the children of both sexes are reduced to a necessity which need not be explained, but which nevertheless is fatal to moral training. $ 2 260 GIRLS NOT SUITED FOR MISTRESSES. If I could convince mistresses of the advantage of the play-ground to form character and to correct bad habits, it would be a source of pleasure; and could I convince the country of the necessity of good pay for good work, it would please me more. This I do know, that a more im- portant office cannot be assigned to man or woman in this lower world than the honour, the privilege, the respon- sibility, and the immense advantage of being entrusted with some two or three hundred immortals, at a time when you have no preconceived opinion, or long con- firmed habit, to contend with. From what I have said it will be seen I do not approve of a mere girl being chosen as a school-mistress; this sad practice is but too prevalent. A woman of some expe- rience should, if possible, be-selected for this office,-a mother, if possible. Many respectable widows may be found with a large share of information, who would fill the office with credit; and if the nation take up the subject, the remuneration ought to be worthy of their acceptance. The girls when they are standing round the swing-pole may be practised, on Monday on one table, Tuesday on another, Wednesday another, and so on each day of the week, so as to enable the pupils to learn them all at differ- ent times, and at the discretion of the different teachers to give the names of different flowers and shrubs, to teach them not to injure them, to point out the distinguishing marks of each, to take care that those girls who have a taste for flowers and gardening have the care of them, to water them, take off the dead leaves, &c. &c. &c., and to be called " garden monitors.” Those girls who have shoes which do not fit them, and whose stockings are full of holes, or which do not fit them, had better swing when practicable alone, so as not to be seen, except by one of the mistresses. No girl to be allowed to sneer at another on account of dress, nor to think herself better on that account; conduct at all times to be considered the crite- EXTERNAL APPEARANCE NO CRITERION OF RESPECT. 261 rion of respect and not dress. The well dressed girls who behave ill to be considered unfit to manage others. If a girl proves herself worthy to be a monitor, let her be made one, and respected accordingly, though she be the worst dressed girl in the school. Let quality be held up for admiration, instead of appearance. Girls cannot be taught this too early; they are apt to be carried away by outside appearance: they love ornament, it is natural; the very best ornaments which can adorn a female are modesty, propriety, and virtue, and the girls who possess these must be held up as models to the other pupils, though they may be most miserably clad. Let the mistress watch every action in the play-ground, and try to find the motives of the actors. She will see some noble and disinterested actions as well as the opposite; the former she can approve, the latter endeavour to remedy; no place will give such´ opportunities as the play-ground for the manifestation of character. In the old school the teachers always said, in answer to complaints, “I have nothing to do with the conduct of the pupils out of school;" in the new system it must be different, the girls must be taught how to act every where, and under all circumstances. The play- 66 ground is the world; each scholar finds her level; and, what is more, she shews the bias of her own inclinations, which she cannot do in the schools. When the nature of the plant is known, we can tell how to manage it. It must not be considered a sin for a lively girl to laugh in the play- ground; mirth and laughter are necessary for the very health and life of some beings: the mistress will not bawl out on seeing those manifestations of character, are you not ashamed? How can you be so rude? I am quite shocked," &c. &c. This conduct will make the girl a hypocrite; she will be demure in your presence, and as wild as a colt when not under your controul, and when there is no kind soul near to guide and direct her. If the mistress is advanced in life, let her remember that she is .. s 3 262 TRUE CHARITY DEFINED. " not training persons like herself, but young creatures whom nature designed to be lively and active. She must not forget the proverb prevalent amongst the poor, "We cannot put old heads upon young shoulders." What is perfectly correct in a girl, may be quite the reverse in a woman, and vice versu. Too many teachers forget this, which appears to me to be a capital error. It is astonishing what may be accomplished with the young, under a truly wise and philosophical treatment. Never forget, girls are always more easily wrought upon than boys, and if you are weaker than the master, you have more pliable materials to work upon, and a race of pupils for whom education at present has done next to nothing. Reading, writing, needlework, and arithmetic are good; the first educates the mouth, the next two the hand, and the last has reference- to the head, but the heart and feelings must be attended to, if you would form the good moral character or the Christian. Don't be perpetually saying, Do this, and do that, and don't do that, and don't do the other; tell them what to do, and how to do it, and what they are not to do, and how to avoid it. Encourage them to copy all the good they can from their neighbours, and to tell of it, but to avoid all the evil they do, and forget it; prove to them what true cha- rity is, and how it is its nature to think the best. True charity thinks well of all, And pities others when they fall; But will not speak their faults around; In such vile work she's never found. Reproach and scorn she can sustain, But can't return reproach again; Tho' friends or foes may use her ill, She prays for all, and loves them still. Children, to be well taught, must see more good actions 263 done, and less talk about them; of talking Christianity they will hear enough; the business of teachers is to inculcate the doing. The play-ground will afford ample scope for the latter; in the school they may write the theory, but it is in the play-ground the practice must be learnt. The time is approaching when the community will understand better what education ought to be, and be willing to pay teachers better who may prove themselves fit for the work. No work can be harder, when well followed up; no work can make greater inroads on the constitution than this does; and no work is more important, or deserving of better pay. A person who proves herself incompetent to manage almost every business, will not be chosen for this as heretofore; the country begins to see it is too serious a matter to be trifled with, that it will be better to pay school-mistresses who are efficient, than be obliged to pay female turnkeys who will be well remunerated, and have a good house to live in; they know the country must pay for it, and they will have good accommodation; every "labourer is worthy of his hire;" we must not grudge them, only take all the care we can that our pupils give them no trouble. Much more might be said on the advantages of play-grounds, did space allow, but what has been said may, and I hope will, do good. It may be said in conclusion, that the mistress who does not see the value of moral education, and the oppor- tunities the play-ground affords to give it, will not be the first teacher chosen by many; she may be chosen by some, but the majority will know how to choose better, and pay her as she deserves. All schools should possess the advan- tage of good play-grounds and good gardens. Political opposition will never go so far as to disapprove of our teaching children to respect private property; many will, I hope, approve of this, and adopt our plans. If what we are teaching be good, it will extend; prejudice will not always close her eyes against what is good; nor will she always be so strong as she is now; that which is good SCHOOL MISTRESS SHOULD BE WELL PAID. s 4 264 IMPORTANCE OF PROVISION FOR MORAL TRAINING. comes from the Author of all good, and will last for ever. No school ought to be built without making provision for moral education, which cannot be taught effectually without. a play-ground and garden; ground is scarce and valuable in towns, and whilst selfishness bears rule as it does, will not always be to be got, but when national education is viewed in the light it ought to be, the public will be willing to unite their efforts to accomplish this work. Ground for race courses, and for similar purposes, can be got, and so will ground for moral training, when its advantages are seen and felt. If no other faculty be called into action under the old plan, the memory is fully employed; the girl has, certainly, not much trouble to think, because her mistress has never once thought that thinking is necessary; she gives her scholars what she received from her parents or mistress,- sundry thoughts, sentiments, and opinions, all cut and dried, ready for use. It would not be candid to say that moral culture is wholly neglected at this stage, for although it has not come to the heart's turn yet to be well attended to, some worthy mistresses reckon a little morality very useful, and, in accordance of these views, she gives the girl a copy, and desires her to write it down, that "evil communications corrupt good manners;" and after that she is to write the copy, "Forgive your enemies;" one or other of which may be indelibly fixed on her memory by the punishment inflicted upon her for blotting her copy, as we said in a former chapter. In addition to this, perhaps, at some annual scholastic exhibition of elocutionary acquire- ment, she tells an assembled company of admiring friends, that "Vice is a monster of such hateful mein, That to be hated needs but to be seen ;' Or shews in beautiful needle-work on her sampler, that, "Virtue alone is happiness below." If desirous of ascertaining what effect has been produced OLD AND NEW SYSTEM CONTRASTED. 265 on the mind of the young scholar, by the sentiments she has learned, you have but to follow her to her seat, and ask her a few questions, which will convince you that an increase of vanity has been the result; and should you bestow admiration on the needle-work, you will find it will produce exactly the same effect. The degree of moral deformity and intellectual weakness consequent upon this separate and improper treatment of the physical, moral, and mental faculties of girls, entirely depends upon the circumstances through which the individual has to pass, and the characters with whom she has to come in contact, but deformed in character and weak in intellect, as, in some degree, all must be whose powers are neglected in the first stages of expansion, whose hearts and minds are not made the subject of as early, and as earnest preventive, supporting and directing care, which is so requisite, and for which such useful opportunities are afforded in the play-ground. There are parents and teachers who have not been content to teach by rote, and who have pro- ceeded in the spirit of the system we would recommend, who have, in short, seen and acted upon the necessity of the mutual development of the physical, moral, and intel- lectual faculties. There are, consequently, many persons found, in whom morality is not a collection of maxims, nor religion, of mere outward forms; but there are more to whom our preceding remarks, severe as they may be, will apply. We trust that on concluding the perusal of these observations, though some too idle in mind to think upon the subject, and too indifferent in heart to care about it, may exclaim, "We cannot understand this, our children are quite wise and good enough;" yet, that others will anxiously enquire, "what should be done?" to such en- quirers our former remarks are especially addressed. A great portion of the time of these pupils should be de- voted to constant minute examination and scrutiny of ma- terial things, and investigation of their qualities; a large 266 IMPORTANCE OF OBJECT-LESSONS. .. ་་་་ . :: : provision of real objects must be made, and always should be increasing, and whenever it can be had, the article or object must be preferred to a drawing or model of it. The judicious mind will see at once what a feast is here for all the faculties which take cognizance of the material world, and these faculties, it must be kept in mind, are never more active or appetized than when every object is new and ex- amined with avidity. Forms, sizes, weights, colours, sounds, are all objects of delightful contemplation to the young female; verbal memory must not be forgotten, but kept in its proper place, and rendered a source of pleasure, in combined activity with the other faculties, and never fatigued with that undue, and almost exclusive exercise to which it is doomed in other schools. Under the faculties named come the first rudiments of arithmetic, geometry, and geography, for which there will be contrivances which call the whole of those faculties into activity, and produce the anticipated results; our end and object must be to impart moral improvement to the pupils, and that intellectual exercises themselves which are only accessary, all tend towards that end. Moral training can- not be begun too early, and in many cases is next to im- possible, at least, with the lower classes, after twelve years of age; it is therefore self-evident that such schools are, and must be schools for moral training. This is the view-- the new view, which it is the most difficult to impress upon. the public. A positive institution for moral training is a new idea to them; with them the education of the poorer classes means no more than reading, writing, and account- ing; during which process moral improvement was sup- posed to creep on incidentally. If these few loose hints are attended to, I feel assured that great good will be the result; no denomination of Chris- tians can say such a system can do harm, but there is the fairest ground to hope that children treated in the way I humbly, though firmly, recommend, may find the school a CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 267 place of real pleasure, as it ought to be. It is a fatal error to suppose that children do not love to learn; they are as anxious to feed the appetites of the mind, as they are to gratify those of the body. Many persons may doubt this, but I assert it as a fact, and I leave philosophers and theo- logians to debate the matter amongst themselves. It is sufficient to know that the thing is so, to find the cause of this effect may afford employment for other minds who have more time and inclination than I possess to enter into physical enquiries. 268 : CHAPTER VI. BOYS' DEPARTMENT. Preliminary remarks-What number of boys should be placed under one master-The monitorial system unpopular-Froposed govern- ment plan of education-Its errors pointed out-Choice of children for bringing up as teachers-Every child cannot be made one- Other errors in the government scheme-Absurdity of bringing children of all ages and both sexes together-What branches of knowledge are necessary for poor boys?-The question answered -Reason for not teaching political economy to boys of the poorer classes-Want of punctuality-Fluctuations in the attendance of children in the manufacturing districts-Difficulties to be contended with-Infant schools the only ones where attendance can be regular -Teaching by the clergy-The influence of a holy man over his flock-Where the clergyman should give the children religious in- struction-Rules and regulations-Monitorial arrangements-Great advantage of a judicious selection of monitors. IT will be seen from our former remarks in the second chapter of this work, that, where it is practicable, I deem it necessary to have those schools attached, or near each other; that is to say, a boys' school, to contain from two to four hundred boys; a girls' school, for the like number of girls; and an infant school for about two hundred infants. As to one man being capable of educating a thousand boys as they ought to be educated, it is proved by all practical men to be impossible. The Liverpool Corporation wisely and properly have three masters to each of their boys'. schools, and three mistresses to each of their girls' schools, and a master and mistress to each of their infant schools. Four hundred boys are as many as ought to be collected together under any one roof; children collected in larger numbers are a great evil. Whenever a great body of human beings are collected together, it always requires MONITORIAL SYSTEM UNPOPULAR. 269 some extraordinary means to keep them from being con. taminated. It is universally conceded that "mob law" is the worst of law; it is very rare to see an orderly mob, and it is equally rare to meet with an orderly school where there are very large numbers of children; with a few ex- ceptions only, such as a Normal school, where there are plenty of teachers at command, as the national Normal school at Westminster, connected with the church of Eng- land (formerly in Baldwin's Gardens, Holborn,) and the British and Foreign School, in the Borough Road, com- menced by Joseph Lancaster. These are exceptions to the general rule, but I think that four hundred boys are quite sufficient for any Normal school in Europe, and that a greater number collected together is an evil, independent of the difficulty of working them. Beside there is a great disinclination on the part of parents to have their children taught by other children, and many will not send them to school unless they are instructed by the master him- self. The inspectors of the Irish schools throughout the country, report universally, that the monitorial system. is excessively unpopular among the people; and this I know to be the fact. It is equally unpopular amongst the poor in England, and the same objections hold good with regard to Scotland, whose schools I am tolerably well ac- quainted with, as well as most of the leading schools in England and Ireland. My observations, therefore, are de- rived from personal inspection, and I trust will have their full weight with the readers. I have elsewhere mentioned the time that the Scottish and Irish schools commence and close, which I think is much more rational than our own plan. We keep our children too long in the school, to the injury of their health, and the ruin of the constitutions of the teachers. There cannot be a more useful class of beings in existence than the teachers of the rising genera- tion; they cannot meet with too much encouragement, and to overwork them is a fatal and fundamental error. It is 270 ERRORS OF PROPOSED GOVERNMENT a very common thing in Scotland to meet with children studying their books in the open fields; a plan which I highly approve of, and which is productive of excellent results; and I should be glad to see our English children encouraged to get their lessons in the same manner. In all cases the open air is far preferable to cooping the chil- dren up for too many hours within the walls of the school room; this is a subject I trust will not be lost sight of by the legislature in their plans for educating the people. The intended government plan of education, it scems, was to provide accommodation in the model school for at least four hundred and fifty children, who should lodge in the household, one hundred and twenty infants, two hundred boys and girls, receiving ordinary instruction; fifty boys and fifty girls receiving superior instruction, thirty children- probably absent from sickness or other causes; to esta- blish a day school of one hundred and fifty or two hundred children of all ages and both sexes, in which the candidate teachers may realize the applications of the best methods of instruction, under the limitations and obstructions which must arise in a small village or town day school. By this it will be perceived that the new board had not fallen into the error of collecting too many children together, and so far the plan was good; but the slightest glance at the whole thing would at once convince any man who under- stood the subject, that in this plan there is a thorough want of practical knowledge displayed. To lodge the children in the household is a fatal and fundamental error, besides adding grievously to the expence, and placing every one of the pupils in an artificial situation. A Normal school would be precisely on the same principles that the other schools are throughout the country; if the pupils remain a sufficient time at school, say five years, that would be quite ample to teach the elder pupils all that was requisite ; but if the parents of the infants could be induced to let them stay on the establishment, until they were of PLAN OF EDUCATION POINted out. 271 any age to commence teaching as monitors, every thing might be taught them which was at all necessary. The boarding and lodging the infants on the establishment was worse still, and I venture to say there is not one mother in a hundred who is worthy of the name, who would ever let her children, at that early age, be entirely away from her. In addition to this, it strikes at the very root of the parental ties; by taking the child away so young, you wean the af- fection of the child from the parent, and sever one of the finest cords which God has created on the social system. I am quite certain that I could manage a Normal school in any part of the world, and with suitable assistance do all that need be done, and indeed all that the government con- templated, without severing the parental tie, and without of these artificial aids. When children arrive at a cer- tain age indeed, there might be forty or fifty or even more reside on the establishment, but then they should be such children only who have exhibited, during their education, a talent and tact for teaching. A few such children may be found in every school, and these are children whom the God of nature designed for teachers. Such as these there- fore should be carefully educated for the work, and if judi- ciously selected, would amply repay any care and pains that had been taken with them. Out of the number mentioned in the government plan there might not be more than twenty of either sex, who would ever make efficient school- masters or mistresses; the pains taken with the rest there- fore would be time thrown away, and worse than useless, and would not only be an injury to themselves, but would be a lasting injury to the unfortunate pupils, who might be placed under their care. You cannot make every man a mathematician, nor can you make every man a thorough musician, nor could any teacher make every man a good painter, and all the teachers in the world would never make a man a good poet if nature had not given him the faculty. Nor could the most ingenious director of a Nor- 2/2 CHOICE OF CHILDREN FOR TEACHERS. mal establishment, though he had been occupied as a teacher for fifty years, and we will grant that he thoroughly understood the nature of the human mind, which is grant- ing a great deal. Still with all this knowledge he could not make every pupil, either a good schoolmaster or school- mistress; there are peculiar faculties necessary to fit an in- dividual for this employ, and these faculties develop them- selves carly in life, and in a Normal school they would soon be seen by a practical eye; and I can state from ex- perience that they would form a very small number. These might be retained, if the parents approved of it, and trained as teachers, and the greater portion of them might leave school as soon as their labour became valuable to their pa- rents, and thus fill up the places of the various cogs of the wheel of society for which nature designed them. Therc is no necessity whatever for the infants to lodge on the premises; they might be taught every thing that was re quisite, in the hours usually devoted to infant schools in various parts of the country, and might go home to their parents every night as they ought, who are their natural guardians, and therefore the most proper persons to board and lodge them. It is not my intention to analyse the whole scheme here, but, as I said before, it bears upon it the stamp of want of information; for example, out of four hundred and fifty children, they have taken an average of thirty, who would be absent from sickness or other causes; there would be seldom less than that number absent from the infants alone, who are subject to the measles, hooping- cough, croop, and other diseases which children are liable to at that early age. The establishment of a day-school for children of all ages and both sexes is another false step, and a fundamental one too; for to let infants associate with children who are older, would do them an irreparable in- jury; and, besides, the observations that would be proper for the older children, would be unintelligible to the younger, and the teaching that would be fit and proper for the babes BRANCHES OF KNOWLEDGE NECESSARY FOR POOR BOYS. 273 would be ridiculous for the older children, and vice versa; such a proposition could only be made by a man who was otally unacquainted with the subject. Such a melée as two hundred children of all ages and both sexes would ex- hibit, in a Normal school too, would be worth seeing. Please God, if I live to see this plan at work, I'll have a peep at them, and witness the teaching of the clever fellow who could instruct such pupils with advantage, and in a way in which they ought to be taught in a Normal esta- blishment, under the sanction of no lower personages than the ministers of her Majesty's government. I have offered these remarks because I think they are not out of place; and I will now resume my subject of the instruction of boys in a Normal school. Boys should un- doubtedly be taught reading, writing, and arithmetic, as a matter of course, which is what has been considered by too many as the sum total of education for the poor; and so far we are not a single step beyond the old plan. I would, therefore, add the elements of drawing, mathematics, chemistry, botany, natural history, geography, astronomy, and vocal music; with some knowledge of the structure of their own bodies and the organic laws, by which they are or ought to be governed. This I should think would be as much as any schoolmaster would find time or opportunity to teach poor children, before they arrive at that age when they are necessarily obliged to earn their own bread, and all this may be comprehended under the term "head know- ledge;" which is finding sails for the vessel; we are now to look out for the ballast, and this will be found to consist in moral, religious, and physical training, which may be con- sidered new features, or rather additional steps from the old plan; for in that moral education consisted in writing good rules in the copy book; the physical consisted in telling pupils they should have plenty of exercise, without making provision for it; and the religious consisted too frequently in teaching the mere form, without the essence. T 274 REASONS FOR NOT TEACHING POLITICAL ECONOMY. We contend, therefore, that real moral, religious, and physical education should be added and this is the most weighty ballast we can invent for steadying the vessel, and the reader will sce that provision has been made for these matters, as far as the education of infants and girls is con- cerned Details shall be found in their proper place. I have said nothing about political economy, because I have found every ignoramus 1 have met with in the mud cabins and whiskey shops in Ireland; in the porter cellars and si- milar places in Scotland; to which we may add the new beer shops and other places in England, where the poorer classes are accustomed to spend their time, all fancy themselves politicians Their domestic and family du- ties are neglected for politics; the business of their em- ployers is neglected for politics, and above all their religious. duties are neglected for politics; politics sccm to engross the whole attention in proportion to the ignorance of the professors, and to which I can trace a very great portion of the crime and discontent which at present disgrace our land; and for these reasons I disapprove of teaching what is called political science, this being the work of the qucen bcc, who, I believe, is generally looked up to by the workers in the hive. Political science may be taught to those who have time to study it, and whose rank and situ- ation in life will enable them to follow it out for the benefit of their species; but to the bulk of the community it is useless; and hence, I would not teach it to every poor boy. These things, with the above exception, should be taught to boys, if practicable; but it should be recollected, that in the manufacturing districts the labour of children is va- luable; and in many cases they seldom stay in the schools longer than a year or two; it would be impossible, therc fore, to teach them even the elements of the things men- tioned in that time. Another difficulty is, the very irregular attendance of the children of the poor; sometimes they } WANT OF PUNCTUALITY. 275 will be away two days a week, at other times a whole week together, and the lower class of Irish are especially negli- gent in these matters; they seem to have no idea of the value of time; and it is almost impossible to induce them to send their children in any reasonable time, and with any degree of constancy. The very irregular attendance of the children, and the immense fluctuation which takes place in almost all the schools in the manufacturing districts, is a dreadful draw-back upon any system of education that can be devised; and, in fact, is the chief difficulty that a school-master has to contend with. Hence the necessity of doing little, and doing that little well. The same objection applies to the attendance of girls; for their services are so valuable to the mother in nursing the child, and performing other domes- tic services, that it is next to impossible to get them to attend regularly; indeed, the only fair chance we have of the pupils after all, is in the infant schools, and, unfor- tunately, this appears to be quite a secondary matter in the government plan, and, indeed, in most plans that I have seen for the education of the people. For this reason I have always been desirous for a boys' school and girls' and infants' school to be near each other; in such case, they can be drafted from the infant school to the other schools, when at least some of the results anticipated by the real friends of education may be accomplished. In the agri- cultural districts the attendance is generally more regular and longer, except in harvest time, which is easily legis- lated for. In agricultural districts, however, it is difficult to get girls to attend school after a certain age, for the rea- sons before stated; but the attendance of boys is some- what better. Their capacities, however, as I have found by experience, are somewhat duller than the children of the manufacturing districts; but fortunately, to counteract this, they have not so much of acquired evil, especially in a dis- trict where there happens to reside one or two excellent clergymen. It is astonishing the difference that may be T 2 276 INFLUENCE OF A HOLY MAN OVER HIS FLOCK, found where this is the case; and clearly proves the im- mense importance of at least giving the clergy a fair and wholesome controul over the schools in their neighbour- hood; if this is not done, I would not give a fig for any system of national education. In all my peregrinations through three countries, I never yet visited a parish where there happened to be an acknowledged good and holy man, whose office it was to give the people spiritual instruction, and whose inclination led him to do his duty, and whose abilities and knowledge of human nature qua- lified him for it, that its effects might not be scen through- out the whole neighbourhood in which he resided. Its effects might be sccn on every day in the weck, but on the sabbath it was still more manifest, in the clcanly appear- ance of the people, their orderly behaviour out of doors, and in the numerous groups which might be sccn advancing to their several places of worship. If such a man as I have described was a clergyman of the church of England, you would find his church literally crammed with attentive hearers, with not a few scarlet cloaks and bonnets gracing the scene. If there should be a dissenting place of wor- ship, and the minister be one of the same stamp, you would find his place equally crowded; and I have recognised many faces that I had seen at the parish church in the morning and afternoon, at the dissenting chapel in the evening. From these scenes I have been sometimes tempted to believe, that man is naturally a religious animal, and that if he is fortunate enough to get the proper kind of spiritual food, he is always anxious to receive it. A rightly- directed and proper system of education will, no doubt, tend very much to strengthen this fccling; and I think it is a lovely sight to witness the clergyman examine his chil- dren from the altar, not in the school-room, which I think is the proper place for the school-master. We will now give a few hints as to rules and regula- tions, which may be of use to those persons who may RULES AND REGULATIONS. 277 wish to establish schools upon the principles I have been endeavouring to explain. That no pupil be admitted into the school under six years of age. Those above seven to have the preference. Applications for admission to be entered by the head master in the admission book. The parents to attend to have such admission confirmed by the committee at the time appointed. Morning school to commence at nine o'clock, and end at twelve, throughout the year; afternoon school to com- mence at two, and end at five, from the first Monday in April to the first Monday in October, and from that date to April again at half-past one to half-past four. The play-ground to be opened for the admission of pupils at half-past eight, and to be locked from nine until the close of the school; again to be opened at half-past twelve until the time to commence school in the afternoon. After the first period of general instruction has tran- spired, when the classes are about changing their opera- tions, the class rolls shall be called over, and the absen- tees recorded. A note of inquiry to be sent at twelve o'clock to the parents of each absentee. A register to be kept of the attendance and payments of pupils, and given to the committee monthly. On the admission of new pupils into the school, they shall be particularly examined by the masters as to the state of their attainments in reading, writing, and arith- metic, before they are appointed to classes. In the last class of learning, the new comer must pass through a short course of tests, beginning at the simple elements of arithmetic, and his position be determined by the particular test beyond which he is unable to proceed; care must be taken not to place any boy above the grade of attainment to which he has arrived. In conducting and superintending the school, the two т 3 278 MONITORIAL ARRANGEMENTS. most eligible pupils for such purpose shall be selected and recognized by the titles, one of monitor-general, and the other deputy monitor-general; whose office shall be to de- liver the general orders for changing the duties at the proper time; to check disorder and irregularity in the school; to superintend and correct the attendance report; to see that the notices be sent to the parents of absentccs, and in the school or play-ground to be regarded as having official authority to direct and give orders. That for facilitating all business requiring much writing, there shall be four secretaries selected from the pupils, who should be the best in integrity and attainment that can be procured; they must write the daily attendance report; the notices respecting absence; and any other hints, laws, or copies, which may tend to the perfection of the institution. That there shall be two appointments from the most trustworthy and industrious pupils, who shall superintend the stock, and supply the wants of the classes, in pencils, pens, ink, and scc that their necessary materials are pro- perly arranged and in good condition; report any abuse or waste that may occur; lock and unlock at the proper periods the stock chests, and also the entrance doors; and must supply written reports periodically of the classes, stocks, wants, supplies, and who shall be entitled storc kccpers. That if practicable there shall be appointed for each class two sets of monitors, caeh set of whom shall be occupied in the business of instruction as arranged by the masters; when they shall change and alternate so as to allow a reasonable amount of time to be devoted to their own personal improvement. That the monitors be appointed with special attention to their characters and attainments, so that in the various operations (viz. in reading, writing, and arithmetic), cach class shall be under the guidance and conduct of such MONITORIAL ARRANGEMENTS. 279 superintendents as shall be calculated to secure improve- ment. That the general duties of monitors be as follows; viz., they must, on days of duty, station themselves at the heads of their respective classes, when forming in the play-ground before going into school; inspect each mem- ber of their class, and ascertain whether they be clean, and require any who may be dirty or needlessly untidy, to step out of the rank for the observation of the master. To see that each boy has his cap slung over his shoulder, stand upright, and in a line with his fellows; see that prompt obedience be rendered to the various orders given, and be themselves a pattern of discipline to their class. When marching into school, to keep the step properly, and the body upright; to be careful not to tread on any boy's heels, and if the boy has no shoes, to keep at some distance from him. Any boy going out of his place, or the place he happens to be in, when in the play-ground, and pursuing another boy, to be punished for doing so; no boy to put his hands on another boy when marching, but to keep them by his side, and listen to the step, and be silent; to fall out of the ranks properly when forming into classes, and always march round the school the same way, that new scholars may have the method sooner. When in school, to observe and require immediate and silent attention and obedience to every general order issued; they must not leave their class, but by their assistant report any circumstance which may require the immediate atten- tion of the masters. On no occasion to attempt to drag any member of their class out of his place, or administer any correction further than mild reproof, and removal to a lower station in the class; to record or cause to be recorded on slates, any misconduct in their classes, to be submitted to the masters on their approach, and in doing so to beware of any injustice in their charges. T4 2,80 MONITORIAL ARRANGEMENTS. After new pupils have bccn examined by the masters, the parents should be sent for, and the actual state of the pupils pointed out, because many parents say the attain- ments of their children are much greater than they prove to be, and then after much pains had been taken with their children on the part of the teachers, have, on being rc monstrated with for irregular attendance, asserted that the children knew more when they first came to the school. I have found many schools throughout the country where boys have been in the habit of doing the writing and arith- metic for others, whose writing and whose powers of calculation were by no means in agreement with the books they took home to their parents and passed off as their own. I could name masters who have encouraged this, in order to get a large attendance, and to make a parent be lieve they were wonderfully clever. The immorality of this mode of proceeding is self cvident, the boys were taught to deceive their parents by palming before them specimens not their own, and thus bringing them up in deception in lieu of moral training. It is with great pain I make the statement, that in a large number of schools I find this system prevalent, and I could mention instances where whole committces have been deceived, and also most excellent clergymen, who have taken every pains to improve their schools, and have bccn deceived for years together by this mode of procccdure. It is on these grounds I have deemed it my duty to go so much into detail re- specting the choice of officers amongst the children. No monitor to accept a bribe from any boy in the class, without the permission of the master, nor to exchange any article with any of the boys, without his consent; and above all, not to threaten a pupil that if he does not give him something he will complain to the master of him. To prevent injustice and monitorial oppression, the master will frequently address the pupils on the subject MONITORIAL ARRANGEMENTS. 281 when in the gallery, for unless this is done, written rules will be of little avail. The working of any thing well will always depend on the superior intelligence of an active tutor, whose eye must be frequently upon every pupil, and about all parts of the establishment. Children are very apt to make false charges, and a master cannot be too cautious in listening to them, or in punishing pupils on account of them. Injustice on the part of the master will be injurious to the character of the pupil; what he sees himself he will have less difficulty in legislating for, but what he gets second-hand must be well sifted before punishment follows. All wrong punishments defeat their own object; the end of punishment is the prevention of crime, but punishing wrongfully will increase it, and long punishments harden the offender. The most energetic and best monitors will, at times, strike the pupils; of course a judicious tutor will not tolerate the practice, and very great care will be required to prevent it. That the monitors do as much by motions as possible, and speak to the pupils but seldom, except when actually giving a lesson; to try and study the temper of the boys in the class, and act accordingly. Some boys cannot get on well with some lessons if they are spoken harshly to, whilst others require to be spoken to in a firm tone, to induce them to persevere with what they are doing. Boys who have been long in the schools, and who are the chief monitors, will make great progress in the knowledge of character, especially if the masters acted upon the same principles, and take some pains to instruct the boys in the art, and the class will respect them accordingly. I have seen boys act most judiciously when they have been properly trained themselves, and I have always traced that the credit is fairly due to the master. He has had wisdom enough to see that no writer could give more than the mere outlines of the system of education, and that he himself must take up the various ramifications, and - 282 ADVANTAGES OF JUDICIOUS SELECTION OF MONITORS, work them out according to circumstances, and the tools he may have to work with. There are few schools that will not supply him with sufficient tools, provided he has the sagacity to choose the proper material. If he chooses brass for iron, he fails, the qualities being different; and if he chooses a monitor for teaching that nature designed to be a monitor of order, he fails also. I have sccn boys chosen for monitors every way incompetent; the result has been the boy has been unhappy, the class has made no progress, the school has been in complete disorder, and the whole has been fairly traceable to want of knowledge in the master, in not selecting proper boys to work out his own plans; forgetting that a good engine will not work unless the fire is continually charged, and every thing kept in proper order. No-system of education will work well, without a good master to superintend it; no rational writer on education will ever expect it, and for this reason he will never fail to hold out every encouragement to a wise and judicious teacher. No salary can be too much for such a man; because there exists not the power of esti- mating the good that may result from his labours. 283 CHAPTER VII. READING, WRITING, AND ARITHMETIC. Reading arrangements-Writing arrangements-Arithmetical arrange- ments. READING ARRANGEMENTS. EACH class shall have one trained monitor, with an assistant monitor appointed out of the class he is teaching; who shall occupy such post during the period of the monitor's engagement, unless misconduct require his removal. The monitors are requested attentively to read such les- sons as are to be taught, and are to apply to the master for such objects, or pictorial illustrations, as may be required to elucidate them to the pupils in their class. When reading, the pupils are required to stand upright, hold their books in the same manner, viz. by lying flat upon the left hand; to speak distinctly and sufficiently loud for the monitor and each individual in the class to hear. Every lesson comprehending any branch of instruction taught in the school, must be fully understood by the pupils prior to their being engaged on any subsequent section of a book. To excite laudable emulation, and promote advancement, all fair corrections shall entitle the pupil making them to the place of the individual committing the mistake, and the removal must be made in front of the boys quietly and quickly. No boy to be chosen for a reading monitor who has any impediment in his speech, or who speaks with a provincial dialect. To dissipate listlessness and arouse to vigorous exer- tion, the lesson, or part of the lesson, shall occasionally be 284 READING ARRANGEMENTS. . read by single words, cach successive pupil reading cach successive word; on other occasions the pupil only to read to a point, whether comma, colon, or any other stop; like in spelling, sometimes it must be done by each successive pupil uttering a letter only, and also by spelling entire words; this will be ordered by the master. The interrogatory system must be frequently resorted to, in connection with this branch of instruction. Such classes as are in the first book, before proceeding further in the book than the first section, are to learn to read casily the words when pointed out; second section, to read the words easily, and spell them off; third section, the same. Second book, section first. To read the section easily, spell off the words at the head of each lesson, answer the questions as to the contents of each of the lessons, 4, 5, and 9, and repeat perfectly lesson 12 Section second. Read and spell as before, answer the questions as to contents, and point out nouns, pronouns, and verbs. Section third. Answer questions as to contents, read lesson 16, with propriety, and point out adjectives and adverbs. Section fourth. To be acquainted with the contents, and to read it with propriety. The final examination of this book must be such as to sa- tisfy the master that the pupils are so fully acquainted with what was required in the previous examinations, as to be fit to commence with advantage the reading of the next book, In reading, it is recommended that the master sometimes adopts the elliptical plan when the pupils are on the gal- lery; this will quicken their apprehensions, force them to think, and assist both in grammar and composition. That the monitor sometimes adopt the elliptical plan with the pupils, he rcading part, and they filling up the rest to make sense of it. This is an excellent plan to induce thought, and will relieve the pupils from the tedium of poring frequently over the same lessons in the same way. READING ARRANGEMENTS. 285 Q. It will also relieve the monitor, and enable him to teach with more vigour, and the pupil to learn with more plea- sure and profit. In reading about animals, the representa- tion of the animal to be put on the lesson-post, before the whole class, and after the lesson is read, and the words used are explained, the pupils must be sometimes ques- tioned, as follows: suppose the subject is the eagle. What kind of bird is the eagle? A. Bird of prey. Q. What does prey mean? A. To kill and eat. Q. Is he a weak bird? A. No; very strong. Q. Can he fly high? A. Yes; very high? Q. Can he take his prey with him? A. Yes; he can take a hare, a rabbit, a lamb, or any animal of that size. Q. How does he take it? A. He strikes his claws into it, and as they are curved they hold fast. Q. What kind of bill has he? A. A hooked bill. Q. Have all birds of prey a hooked bill? A. All that prey upon large animals have. Q. Why? A. Because it enables them to tear the flesh of the animals they catch, that they may eat it, or feed their young with it. Q. Where do they build their nests? A. At the side of a high mountain, or high rock. Q. Are there many in England in a wild state? A. No; none of the kind represented in the picture, unless they are brought from other countries. Q. Are they in a wild state? A. No; they are kept confined, merely for pleasure, or for persons to see them. Q. Are there any in Wales? A. Yes; a few in the wild and mountainous parts. Q. Are there any in Scotland? A. Yes; in the highlands, where the people are few. Q. Are there many? A. No; they are frightened of man, and do not like to stay where he dwells. Q. Why are they frightened by man? A. Be- cause they know his power. Q. Who gave man dominion over the fowls of the air? A. The Almighty. Q. What is the eagle's body covered with? A. Feathers. Q. What do they call it beside feathers? A. Plumage. Q. What is the colour of his plumage? A. Dark brown. Q. By what name is this one in the picture called to distinguish it from 286 WRITING ARRANGEMENTS .. others? A. The golden eagle Q. Are there any other kinds of eagles A. Yes; the black eagle, the sca cagle, the bald cagle, and other kinds. Under the head Natural History many other lessons of this description will be given. WRITING ARRANGEMENTS. The pupils shall first learn to write on slates, straight strokes, afterwards the same with a curve at the top, then a straight stroke with a curve at the bottom. When cor- rect in the formation of these, they shall proceed to write the letters M and O. Afterwards through all the gradual variations from these letters, to all the letters in the alphabet. Occasional instructions by examples and illustrations on the black-board (to be practised by the masters) during this gradation, will be necessary. The pupils having attained tolerable proficiency in the formation of these letters, shall be occasionally practised. in writing capital letters. Practice upon paper shall not be allowed until they have acquired neatness and uniformity in their slate writing, and are habituated to holding their pencils correctly. On paper, the above process beginning at strokes shall be entirely passed through by the pupils, prior to writing round hand and small hand The progress of each class to be specially examined at fixed periods, and the varying merits of their attainments expressed and recorded by characteristic signs according to the following arrangement, viz., Days of Examination. 1st and 2nd Classes. Senior. Junior. Friday Morning 3rd ditto. ditto. ditto. Wednesday do. 4th ditto. ditto. ditto. Thursday do. 5th and 6th ditto. ditto. ditto. Tuesday do. 7th and 8th ditto. ditto. ditto. Incidentally. WRITING ARRANGEMENTS. 287 Signs with their Explanations. The highest degree of merit denoted by 3, second ditto, ditto, by 2. Third ditto, ditto, by 1. Bad writers by X, and mark of disgrace by O. Specimen books to exhibit the progress of pupils, and to be written in once per fortnight, to be awarded to such pupils as evince attention and improvement. Each boy when writing, to set upright, with his left side inclined a little towards the desk. The book or slate must be kept square with the edge of the desk and opposite the right arm. The pen or pencil to be held between the two fore-fingers and the thumb of the right hand, in such a position as to allow the joints of those fingers to move freely. The top of the pen or pencil to be always pointing di- rectly to the right shoulder, and the right elbow to be kept. close to the body. Each stroke to be continued without raising the pen from the paper until it arrives at a positive termination. Each stroke to be at an equal distance from the preceding one, and all to have the same parallel. The tops and bottoms of the letters are to be round and not angular, and curves must not be made to extend above or below the lines. The capital letters, and all others (except t and p) ex- tending above the line, are to be exactly double the length of those within the line. t and p, are to be two thirds of their length from the lower line. The monitors are frequently to compare the structure of the pupils' letters with those of the copy, and to permit no deviation from their form. When the writing is done, the pupils are to cover the ink, and wipe their pens clean. The monitors are to observe that the utmost cleanliness, neatness, and care, is taken by the pupils in their_charge 288 ARITHMETICAL ARRANGEMENTS- in using the books, pens, and ink, and other materials; should they find any boy neglectful or disobedient in this respect they are requested immediately to acquaint the master. That when the boys can write small hand tolerably, they copy some of the lessons from the reading books, to help them in composition. The junior boys from the first books, and the more advanced from the more difficult lessons, sometimes to copy the lessons from under the pic- tures of the diſſerent animals; this will impress the subject and matter more upon the memory, and be much more pleasing and useful to the boys than mere copy writing. Sometimes the boys should write out receipts, bills of parcels, and also copy letters from some good letter writer, and then to write from their own dictation, to the master, father, or mother, &c. The master may sometimes signify that he will not listen to verbal complaints, this will tend greatly to im- prove the boys in composition by forcing them to make every complaint in writing- ARITHMETICAL ARRANGEMENTS. To remedy the evil which has almost been the constant attendant of this department of tuition in most schools, viz that of their passing through the simple elements of arith- metic, without a competent knowledge either of the theory or practice, the following order of working should be pur- sued. The classes when standing shall be taught all ta- bles, mental arithmetic, combinations of numbers, and by a process of practical and dictating arithmetic, shall be taught the principle and working of the rule of that par- ticular branch of arithmetic on which he is engaged. When sitting there shall be given to cach boy, for the purpose of emulation, and to prevent the evils already rc fered to, first, a course of sums to which the monitors shall have only the answer, and for the working of which the ARITHMETICAL ARRANGEMENTS. 289 monitor shall give to each pupil credit, to the amount he has executed. Having completed this course, the pupil shall be trans- ferred by certificate to the master, and pass through ano- ther series under the same rule, the answers to which shall only be known to the masters; facility and correctness, in operating upon which in connection with ability, and fully to explain the theory of the rule, shall be the test of his fitness for proceeding to the next rule. In this branch of instruction periodical examinations take place by the master, and should be recorded. Order of instructions. Learn to form the nine digits, by appropriating one portion of time to making 1, 4, 7, another to 2, 3, 5, and another to 6, 8, 9. Alternately with the above, mental arithmetic from the Irish tablets, commenc- ing at No. 1, and proceeding onwards, until all the simple rules are understood. In this stage of progress, that the nature and especial use of arithmetical calculations may be impressed by tangible objects, the arithmeticon, described in "The Infant System," shall be frequently used. The very first thing to be done in teaching arithmetic, is to begin by teaching through the eye; no better medium can be found than this for beginners. The frame and balls may be used to great advantage by the monitors, and the pupils will learn more by this method than by any other: no person can persuade them out of their views when they see the result before them. The monitors must be taught how to use the frame, and when taught it will be equally amusing to them as to their class, and it will be more in agreement with the infant system, in giving demonstration to the pupils, so that they take as little as possible on trust: it will also combine amusement with instruction, things not to be lost sight of in teaching the young. When neatness in the formation of figures is visible, nu- meration and notation shall be taught and practised, until the learners are capable of recording any number up to U 290 ARITHMETICAL ARRANGEMENTS. thousands of millions: the monitors shall frequently facili- tate this acquisition by illustrations on the black board. Addition shall be commenced by one simple perpendicu- lar line of figures, which must be varied and gradually aug- mented in number and difficulty; afterwards two, three, and more lines, &c. That the nature of adding up, and more especially, the nature, reason, and manner of carrying from units up to tens, tens of hundreds, &c., may be under- stood, the monitors should be required to give special at- tention to, and frequently explain, the subject, and illustrate it by familiar examples, until the learner is able to give a perfect explanation in his own words. These instructions distinctly applying to the other simple rules, it needs only to be added, that the pupil will be re- quired to be master of one rule prior to procceding to the next, and that a knowledge of the tables required in any branch of this department, must be acquired before enter- ing upon it. The monitors to the standing classes when teaching practical arithmetic, must dictate the sum, slowly, audibly, and distinctly when there is inequality in the length of the lines, by commencing at the units, announcing cach digit up to the highest place in each line; on all other occasions by numeration. When the entire sum is given out, and each boy has ceased to write it, exclaim," shew slates," and examine; any boy found incorrect must be sent to the lowest station in the class, and the uppermost boy must give out the sum to such as are wrong. After your examination, let such as are right be required to go on, by your calling, "proceed.” When any have finished the operation, they must hold up their hands Examine the slate of him whose hand is up first, and if more than one put up time, give preference to the highest. hands at the same Let the boy whose sum is right, first assist you in examining the class, and let ARITHMETICAL ARRANGEMENTS. 291 the first boy whose sum he finds right, take his place, and perform his duties, whilst he proceeds to the head of the class. Examine the slate of each boy after he has been passed by the assistant. Send every boy whose sum is wrong af ter holding up his hands, to the bottom of the class. Before permitting a boy to go to the head of the class, see that he rubs off the answer. When half the class have finished, dictate another sum, during which time let the other half be under the tuition of him who has done best. Let the head arithmetician of the class attend to such boys as display a backwardness likely to obstruct the ad- vancement of the other boys, and instruct him to explain the nature of the rule and the method of working it. If you suspect any boy of having copied the answer, question him how he worked it, and let him shew you the means by which he obtained the answer. To enliven the pupils and sharpen the memory, and really to make them think, it may be proper to question them sometimes out of the usual routine; as thus: How many are 6 times 6, and nothing over? How many are 5 times 2, and the half of 6? How many are 3 times 1, and twice 5? How many are 9 times 1, and the half of 9? How many are 6 times 3, and 3 times 6? How many are 5 times 10, and the half of 10? How many are 8 times 1, and 8 times 2? How many are 6 times 3, and the half of 18? How many are 5 times 4, and 4 times 5? How many are 7 times 3, and 9 over ? How many are 7 times 1, and 7 times 2, added together? How many apples will Mrs. Wiggins get for sixpence at 10 for a penny? How many at 9 a penny? How many at 8 a penny? How many at 6 a penny ? &c., &c,, &c. U 2 292 ARITHMETICAL ARRANGEMENTS .. How many eggs will Mrs. Nowlan get for a shilling at 5 for twopence? How many at 2 for three halfpence? When the shells are broken, and it is found there are 9 bad ones, how many good ones did she have? If cach egg weighed 3 ounces, how many pounds avoir- dupois would she have, reckoning good and bad together? How much would the good by themselves weigh? How much would the bad weigh? How much is the fourth of 8, the ninth of 9, and the ninth of 18? How much is the tenth of 20, and the fifth of 50? How much is the eighth of 80, the fourth of 12, and the half of 9 ? How much is the third of 6, the fourth of 8, and the six- teenth of 32 ? How much is the tenth of 100, the fifth of 50, and the eighth of 80? How much is the fifth of 100, the fourth of 40, and the twentieth of 40? In this way simple questions may be put to the junior classes in great variety, with good effect, so far as to in- duce the pupils to think, which is not always attended too in every school. Questions of similar import might be carried out to a great extent, so as to fill many pages with questions suitable to the junior classes, without legislating for the older children, but the teacher must conceive for himself, and having given birth to simple questions of this kind, and being perfectly sure they are simple questions, and fit for children, let him put them to the pupils, and his success will exceed his most sanguine expectations The teacher will at once scc that the principles contended for here may be carried out to any extent, and of course ought to be left to his own ingenuity. 293 CHAPTER VIII. GALLERY LESSONS. Great importance of the gallery-What should be taught therein- Objects-Natural history-Geometry-Geography-Astronomy- Grammar-Spelling-Derivations-Observations. THE gallery is an indispensable part of the apparatus of the school; in it the moral and intellectual training of the pupils are strongly concentrated, the children are brought together, and lessons are taught them on different interest- ing subjects. Their attention is gained, and an impression of what has been read, narrated, explained, or shewn, is made upon their young minds more effectually than in classes; and, finally, it is here, the development of their youthful mind begins to make its appearance. The subjects for gallery lessons, are first, lessons on objects as arranged in this book; second, natural history; third, geometry; fourth, arithmetic; fifth, geography and elements of astronomy; sixth, grammar; seventh, spelling by dictation and derivation. FIRST.-OBJECTS. The object to be presented to the pupils' senses for obser- vation, and its qualities asked; which, when answered, to be correctly written on the black board, by the master, in front of the pupils, so that the name be more firmly im- pressed on their minds; and thus by a succession of these objects, they become acquainted with a variety of qualities. When the quality cannot be observed, chemical analysis may be resorted to, in order to shew it, and thus they are taught the composition of bodies and the phenomena U 3 294 OBJECT LESSONS. NATURAL HISTORY. arising from their mutual action. Much benefit arises from varying the mode of instruction; for this purpose, the name of the quality ought always to be written according to the rules of orthoepy, rather than orthography, be- cause by this means they are taught not only to observe, but to correct errors in spelling, and thus are very soon. enabled to gain a knowledge of the orthography of their own language. After the names of all the qualities are written on the black board, the master may call upon one, or the whole of the boys upon the gallery to read them, after which they are rubbed off, and one boy is called upon to repcat the names of the qualities of the objects presented to him. Every object that can be sccn with the eye, is a fit object for a gallery lesson; as flowers, different kinds of wood, different kinds of leaves, different kinds of bark, and every object that can be obtained, as all possess some mark by which they may be known, and which will afford ample opportunities for giving the pupils suitable instruction, and assist greatly in following up a genuine system of develop- ment; with the additional advantage that the lessons are given by the master. There are two good mediums given us by the Creator for our instruction, his revealed will the Bible, and the book of nature Catechisms and creeds will not give us a knowledge of the former, but natural objects may and will give some knowledge of the latter. Nature's book has been too much neglected in schools for the education of both rich and poor, but a favourable opportunity is now possessed by mcans of the gallery to remedy, in some mca- sure, this defect. SECOND. NATURAL HISTORY. This department not to be confined to animals alone, but to comprehend a general view of what is connected with the air, carth, and water, such as earthquakes, volcanoes, GEOMETRY-ARITHMETIC-GEOGRAPHY. 295 glaciers, snow, thunder, lightning, winds, water- spouts, &c. &c. The animals to be shewn by representations from plates of natural history; and the other phenomena, as far as possible, by diagrams and explanations; to have some in- teresting facts connected with them, in order to attract attention; for a knowledge of this science forms the ground work of their physical investigations in after life. THIRD.-GEOMETRY. The method of instruction to be given, first by diagrams on the black board, during which operation the names of the different lines and angles to be written, and the rea- sons explained why they are so called; secondly, by fre- quent lessons on the gonograph; third, by a set of geo- metrical figures published by Mr. Wilderspin; fourth, by a cabinet of solids, which he will also supply; care to be taken not to allow the pupil to pass over the figure until perfectly understood. FOURTH.-ARITHMETIC. In commencing this department of science, the first principle is to be given with the arithmeticon, by which the pupils are taught lessons on the four fundamental rules; after this the black board comes next into use, by which the pupils can have a sensible idea of the compa- rative signs of weights and measures, by means of sketches drawn to represent them; they are also taught in the same manner the process by which they can elucidate superficial and solid measure, and also several other calculations in arithmetic. FIFTH.-GEOGRAPHY. This branch of knowledge has formerly been conducted in a manner quite contrary to the rules of nature; instead of U 4 296 GEOGRAPHY. being a pleasure, it has been imposed as a task to the memory. Lists of towns, cities, countries, rivers, bays, and gulphs, have been rehearsed over without any corre- sponding ideas. Physical geography has been almost entirely omitted, and all that was learned made very little impression upon the memory, because there were not lcad- ing facts to establish it, being only committed to memory by rote, and thus much time was spent and little rcal knowledge acquired In commencing this department of knowledge, the chil- dren are to be first taught the form, size, and general ar- rangements of the earth, before a map be placed before them; and this should be done in regular succession, from the map of the school-room to the town or country they live in, thus bringing them by regular gradation to form an idea of the use of what is to be laid before them. In stating that the earth is round like a ball, you must prove the reason why it is so, by illustration; which can be easily shewn by a diagram drawn on the black board. Let them also prove it to satisfy themselves, by telling them to go to the side of a river, and, kccping their eye close to the water's edge, look to the opposite shore, which will be in- tercepted by the elevation of the water in the centre of the river. Such a simple illustration as this will impress the fact on their mind and corroborate the statement made by the master. When the map is placed before them, first point out the oceans and continents, at the same time writ- ing their names on the black board. State also the di- visions of each, pointing them out as you go on, after which commence the regular course of the five maps, con- taining the divisions of our globe; taking Europe first, and all the others in succession, only pointing out to them the countries contained in each; naming also the chief towns Having finished this general outline, take an ex- amination of the whole, so as to be satisfied that they have not forgotten what they formerly learned; if found perfect, ASTRONOMY. 297 commence a second course, in which the countries con- tained in each of the subdivisions should be gone into, and more minute explanations given, care being taken to im- press upon their minds, not only their situation, but the principal cities and towns contained therein; also to pay particular attention to the moral, political, and physical appearances of each country. FIFTH. ASTRONOMY. Closely connected with geography is the science of astronomy. By it the pupils are taught of objects far surpassing those which they behold on this terrestrial globe, and are led to contemplate the omnipotence of the Deity. In communicating to the pupils instruction on this science, instead of harassing their minds with technical terms connected with it, they are to be taught to observe with their own eyes the motions and general appearances of the heavens. Diagrams and figures to be drawn on the black board, by which you can more easily prove to them the truth of what you assert, than by all the explanations words can afford. The first thing to be done is to draw a representation of the solar system, and point out to them the situation of the planets belonging to it; also point out the comparati each, their distances, and times. his part care must be taken of rotation fo to familiarize the pupís motions of our connected, and a earth, with which they are so close practical illustration of the causes of eclipses; being another proof of the earth's rotundity. Passing from this, their attention next to be directed to illustrating the causes of the increase and decrease of the moon's phases, her mo- tion and distance from the earth, which can easily be shewn by a chalk diagram. After this, attention to be paid to the causes of the seasons, and, finally, to the principal stars 298 SPELLING. GRAMMAR and constellations. After this general view is finished, take a retrospective glance at the whole. SIXTH. GRAMMAR. The mode of teaching this branch of science which has formerly been practiced, is capable of much improvement. Little benefit was gained and much time lost; the pupils were employed in committing to memory long definitions, and difficult rules, which only appeared to them a collec- tion of unmcaning words, having never been practised on them when learned The younger part of the school to be exercised chiefly on the classification of words, and sen- tences to be written on the black board, in order that they may point out the different parts of spccch, and thus bend them by an casy method to construct, and also point out errors in composition, making it a pleasure rather than a toil. The senior department of the school having finished the former courses, to commence and take the remaining parts, viz orthography, orthoepy, etymology, syntax, and prosody, in the same manner as formerly, until finished; when they are to be supplied with books to recommence, and go through a regular systematic course, thus impress- ing it more securely on their memories. SEVENTH. SPELLING, In order to supply the defect in the ordinary mode of spelling, which was chiefly by rote, the pupils in the higher classes to be collected on the gallery, each supplied with a pencil and slate; the words to be dictated by the master, and written by them. Sometimes also they are exercised in writing sentences, thus practising the science where it is to be used. When they have finished their exercises, each boy changes with his neighbour, in order that they may detect one another's errors; after which they are returned; and if any boy thinks his critic has com- DERIVATIONS. 299 mitted a mistake by correcting what he considers right, he complains to the master, who is umpire. The boy who has the smallest number of errors, takes the top of the class he belongs to, and retains that place the next time he comes to the gallery on a similar occasion. The master also to write words and sentences on the black board, com- mitting frequent mistakes, in order that they may point out where they are. These exercises, combined with oral spelling, have been found to be a great improvement. DERIVATIONS. In commencing this part of instruction, the boys to be made acquainted with the nature of the three parts of the word-prefix, root, and affix; examples of each to be given separate from the word, and afterwards in connexion. These exercises to be confined to the higher classes in the school; thus impressing more securely on their minds the two parts of grammar-orthography and etymology. The hints given above are already in practice in some of the schools at Liverpool, with which I had something to do in the arrangements. The greater part of this chapter on gallery lessons was written by Mr. Buchanan, a most judicious and efficient teacher of one of the schools, who submitted them to my inspection and for my opinion. They came up so exactly to what I could have wished, that I felt no necessity to write the chapter myself, and though this was very near being claimed by others who had something to do with the school, I felt it right to publish it, and to give Mr. Buchanan the credit due to him. - 300 CHAPTER IX. PLAY-GROUND ARRANGEMENTS FOR BOYS. Importance of this part of education-The exercise of a mature judg- ment required in legislating for it-Rules for the management of the swing-Amusements of a quarrelsome nature to be repressed— Regulations for moral training--Development of character in the play-ground-Foolish objections to education for the poor-Moral training a new feature-Fallacy of the old system-General remarks. THE gallery being the theatre upon which it is expected the intellectual stimulus will be given and maintained, will, nevertheless, be defective in its tendencies on the moral condition of the pupils, unless the genial influence of a kindly and affectionate controul be extended to the play- ground. The moral habits and tendencies of the pupils are there unfettered by the discipline and order of the school-room; it is there that the tangible exhibitions of either their virtuous or vicious propensities will take place; consequently, there, principally, that the discrepancies of the heart can be discovered and operated upon. No complete system of rules can be devised entirely to embrace and re- gulate this important part of education; the exercise of mature wisdom, and a sensitive heart, will be required here to deal usefully with the numerous circumstances of varying moral complexions. If an honest man is the noblest work of the Creator; it is there we must expect that the germ of such character must be formed; it is in this part of educa- tion that my predecessors have failed. For the general comfort, good order, and convenience of the pupils in the play-ground, and that they may be habitually impressed with a correct sense of the rights which they owe to them- RULES FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE SWING. 301 selves and others, the following arrangements should be adopted. The first boy who arrives at the play-ground shall be en- titled to the first amusement on the swing; all those who are disposed to enjoy that pleasure, shall, on their arrival, take the lowest station on the circle, and wait their turn. A chalk circle is made round the poles, into which no boy is permitted to enter till the swing stops. The first boys whose names are on the list of monitors, shall take charge of the swings, and give place to those appointed to that charge on their arrival. During the swinging, the boys on the circle shall repeat the addition, or the multiplication tables; the first on Tuesday and Thursday mornings; the other on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday mornings. With the addition, the turn of the boys on the swing shall last during the addition of ten numbers; with the other, during the multiplication of twelve numbers; both the tables to be proceeded with regularly from the beginning to their completion; viz., in addition, from 1 and 1, 2 and 1, 3 and 1, up to 10 and 10; and the multiplication to 12 times 12. The four boys at the top of the circle, and who are next upon turn for the swing, must keep the repetition of the tables going on, or otherwise go to the bottom; and the whole to be directed by the hands and voices of the boys in charge. Any boy who leaves his place in the circle, must go to the bottom, if he wishes to swing again. Any boy entering the circle when the swing is going on, shall be excluded the swing for the time then appropriated to it. Any boy pushing another when swinging, shall be ex- cluded the swing for a week from the time; and if dis- covered on the swing during that time, to be expelled from all the amusements of the play-ground for that week. 2 302 RULES FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE SWING. The string for leaping at the swing shall only be used when the floor of the play-ground is dry, and then only two days per wcck, except by the master's permission. Every boy must use good manners, fair play, kindness, and uprightness, in all his amusements with his school- fellows. No monitor, either in the boys' or girls' schools, to be allowed to swing whilst the others are marching in the play-ground, as the example is decidedly bad; and the monitors should, in all things, be the first to obey rules and regulations If, however, the monitors have not had their fair portion of amusement, there can be no harm in their being allowed to swing alone, when the pupils are in the schools, provided they can be spared, and the master thinks proper to allow it; but in no case must they be allowed to deviate from any known rule in the presence of the other pupils, nor would it be wise for the master to allow it, or order it to be done, in consequence of the imitative facul- ties being so strong in children. In all things children should be managed according to the strictest principles of justice. Monitors require recreation and physical education, as well as the rest of the pupils; and this can be accom- plished without the violation of any rule that would tempt the rest to expect or act upon the same plan. No amusement of a quarrelsome tendency, such as spar- ring and boxing, should be allowed; violent and threat- ening language should be, likewise, strictly forbidden; any boy or boys known to encourage the practice of fight- ing in others, or fighting themselves, to be excluded from the play-ground for a weck; if a monitor, to be dc graded. Every boy at the swing is expected to render strict obe- dience to the director of the swing, or be excluded from its amusements for the remainder of the day. Every boy must instantly abandon his amusement at the REGULATIONS FOR MORAL TRAINING. 303 sound of the whistle, and immediately proceed to the dis- charge of those duties to which it calls him. When the classes go into the yard during school-hours for their recreation, every boy wishing to use any of the offices, is immediately to obey that duty before engaging in any amusement. One boy only to be allowed in an office at a time; to have the door shut whilst there; not to stand upon the seat, or remain there if he finds any filth, but immediately report it to the monitor of order, who must acquaint the master. The chief part of moral education goes on in the play. ground, as also the formation of character; these truths cannot be too often repeated. No boy or girl in the schools to be allowed to chalk the walls or doors with words of any description. That it be considered a high crime to break this rule; and that the greatest attention be paid by every teacher on the establish- ment to secure attention to it; that frequent opportunities be taken by the teachers to point out the impropriety and vulgarity of any of the pupils doing this in the streets, or on the doors and shutters, out of school. They must be told it defaces the property of others, even if the words they write are proper; but if improper, the crime is very great, and a gross violation of propriety, decorum, public decency, and an insult to all the wise and good who may see it. Frequent lessons must be given to the boys to warn them from treading on the borders, or injuring the flowers. If boys wish to retire prior to going home, they must re- tire into the play-ground, and not be allowed to perform the offices of nature in the streets; such being improper, and a nuisance to the neigbourhood of the schools; which is easily prevented if noticed in time. These things enter into the formation of character, and are intimately con- nected with delicacy of conduct and moral training. 304 DEVELOPMENT OF CHARACTER IN THE PLAY-Ground. Of all the subjects next to religious education, the play- ground management of boys is the most important. The strictest watch must be set upon them in their private haunts; their language and demcanour in the play-ground must be watched with the strictest scrutiny; it is here the vulgar boy will shew his habits and contaminate the rest; it is here the artful and cunning boy will shew his propen- sity to enveigle and cheat his school-fellow out of his property; it is here the tyrant in miniature will shew his ruling love, and attempt to tyranize over his play-mates; it is here the hypocrite will develop his double character of being a saint in the school, and a hardened sinner in the play-ground; it is here, in short, that every faculty and principle in the character will develop itself; and it is here that the pupils should seldom or never be left alone. If the master lcaves them for a time, he should place him- self in some situation where he can still behold what is going on; note it down with the names of the delinquents, and afterwards give lessons upon it in the gallery, taking care to pourtray the events as they actually occurred, and bringing the good or bad actions of the various actors under discussion; getting the pupils to give their opinions upon each. The boys whose conduct has been noble, will have the satisfaction of hearing that conduct approved by a majority of their school-fellows, whilst the boys whose conduct has been opposite, will perceive their delinquency has been brought to light, and the opinion of the majority of their school-fellows will go against them. This will rein them up, and do more good than twenty canings; in the latter case the moral feeling lasts no longer than the pain lasts and the thoughts of it, but in the former he finds that the opinion of the society in which he moves is against him, and this is more than he can bear; the one acts upon the The rcader will judge soul, the other only upon the body. which is most likely to prove efficient. The great difficulty is to induce tcachers to view this subject in its proper light, FALLACY OF THE OLD SYSTEM. 305 they cannot see the propriety of attending the children in the play-ground; some will not see it; others are too full of conceit to listen to it; and others, again, are too lazy to give it the least consideration. It is in vain, however, to expect that we can improve the species, and qualify them for the various stations they will be obliged to occupy, unless this subject receives more attention from the public as well as from teachers. Some object to educating the poor at all, because crime has not diminished in the same proportion as schools have been opened, forgetting that the quality of the education hitherto given is a satisfactory answer to the objection. While moral education is neglected, intellectual alone will do harm: you will have conceit, arrogance, and impudence, just in proportion to the smattering of head knowledge which the pupils may have obtained. Unless the will is affected, in conjunction with the understanding, a system of education for the people will be worth nothing; the National Society, and the British and Foreign School Society, must attend to moral training and play-ground teaching, without delay; and if they take the subject up as they ought to do, I, for one, will answer for their suc- cess in this department. What I have said with regard to flowers and fruit being placed in the play-ground for infants and girls, will apply to boys. When I went to school, robbing gardens was but too common; our school was a nuisance in the neighbourhood: the neighbours could not keep their fruit: our thieving exploits were subjects of merriment and jocularity amongst ourselves; the idea of its being im moral, or a sin against God, or even degrading to our character as respectable youths, never entered into our heads; and why was all this? Simply because we had never been taught better; these things had never been made the subjects of lessons by our tutors; it never entered into their heads to give us such lessons. Doubtless they X 306 REMARKS. thought Greck and Latin made up for the deficiency, and by reading of the vices of the ancients, we were more likely to become virtuous amongst the modems: a fatal error this, which I, for one, have had bitter rcason to lament. 307 CHAPTER X. RELIGIOUS OR BIBLE EDUCATION FOR BOYS. Utility of pictorial illustrations of Scriptural subjects-Who should give religious instruction-Consequences of the neglect of religious culture-Mr. Owen's "Social System"-" The Revivals"-Evils arising from violent party feelings-We should receive the national education offered-The Bible should not be prostituted to a task book-Beautiful theories not always workable-What is religion?— The mind inust be prepared to receive it-Ignorance of some teachers on this subject-Dreadful effects of evil example-Children must be taught not alone to say but to do what is right-School- masters should not be violent political partizans-The public mind will no longer be deceived by externals-The clergy must not be excluded from the schools-The school-master should not be inde- pendent of the clergyman-No scheme of education can be perfect at first-Mr. Wyse, M. P.-Professed Christians do not act up to their profession-Folly of cramming children with doctrinal creeds- A more rational system wanted-Specimens of Scripture lessons- Daniel in the lion's den-The story of Ananias and Sapphira- Incidental discourse and hymn-Concluding observations-Letter of Lord Brougham on national education. Ir will be seen by what I have said on the subject of re- ligious education for girls, that I consider the Bible as a sine qua non in every school for children of either sexes, who are above seven years of age; and that even in infant schools for the youngest children, I consider pictorial re- presentations on certain subjects, judiciously chosen from the Sacred Volume, equally or more important. The Scrip- tures abound with suitable subjects, and God grant that some able, clever, and judicious artist may turn his atten- tion to this matter, and produce a set of plates, so that nothing should be represented but what is strictly true, and no false representation be given, so as to lead the young mind astray. All the plates I have yet seen are defective, x 2 308 UTILITY OF PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS those that I published myself being amongst the number. But these imperfections I did not sec until they were brought into practical use before the children: these little critics soon convinced me, by the questions they put, that they judged more accurately of representative objects than I myself had done, for they were sure to ask the why and the wherefore such a thing was represented. Hundreds of questions were put to me which I had not scen mooted in books; for example, they would ask, "Please sir, do angels always have wings?" and when I confessed my ignorance on the subject, they would, with the greatest artlessness, rejoin, "Then, please sir, if you are not sure its true, why is it put on the picture ?" Again, in shewing them the picture of Abraham offering up his son Isaac, they would say, "Please sir, is it a good thing for a father to kill his son ?" I should say, "No, my dears; but Abra- ham did this to shew his faith and dependence on God;" and I remember some of them answered, "But plcase sir, was not the poor little boy very much frightened, did he know that ?" and I soon found that they got me into innumerable difficulties. I hence threw that plate aside, as not being the best adapted for the end in view; for to ex- plain the minutia of faith to children so young satisfac- torily, I found, with all my theological reading, was utterly impossible. Again, when exhibiting to them the plate of David and Goliah, they would get me into the same diffi- culties, by asking me "if it was right for a little man to kill a big one;" and numerous other questions, that soon convinced me that this was another subject injudiciously chosen for the instruction of children at that carly age in Scriptural knowledge, and soon found that at least half the things I had suggested, and thought most highly of, were obliged to be thrown aside. I can mention a number, how- ever, that have succeeded, such as "Christ fccding five thousand," "Little children being brought to Christ," “Moses being found in the bulrushes," "Peter denying OF SCRIPTURAL SUBJECTS. 309 Christ," "The good Samaritan," "Lazarus raised from the dead," "Christ raising the widow's son at Nain," and a great many others, which I have found not open to the same objections with regard to the subject, but only with regard to their execution; and this is the reason that I pray that some clever artist may turn his attention to the matter for the good of the rising generation. I am of opinion that pictorial representations of Scriptural sub- jects, judiciously chosen, are useful in every school, be- cause it appeals to one of the great inlets of the mind. I am sure missionaries would find them equally useful as auxiliaries to assist them in their labours to give correct notions to the heathen; but nothing should be represented but what is strictly true and correct, and the fancy of the artist should never be carried away from the simple sub- ject referred to in the text. When such a set of plates are published, with suitable lessons attached to them, it will be a great boon to the religious public; and I would wil- lingly help, and indeed have it in contemplation, to do something of the sort. The only difficulty I have to con- tend with is, the means; for not being supported by any society, and never having called upon the public for any assistance, I find it not always easy to carry out my own views. From these remarks it will be seen that I view Bible education as of the greatest moment, and that in any sys- tem for the universal education of the people, it must not and cannot be dispensed with. For boys, therefore, whose minds are somewhat stronger than mere infants, subjects might be introduced which would be objectionable for the latter; and the same will hold good with regard to girls, which a judicious and deeply read Bible teacher would readily perceive. It is perfectly clear in my mind that re- ligious education cannot be given from any other source than the Holy Bible. It may be assisted by every object in nature, but it can only be completed by the aid of the x 3 310 WHO SHOULD GIVE RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. Bible itself. If I had my will, I should like the Bible divided into three parts, for the use of schools: giving the most simple and easy matter in the first stages of religious education; the second, as the children grew older and more advanced; and the third, or last part, at the fit and proper opportunity. This would be more economical than giving the whole Bible, and would be casier and lighter for the child to hold in his hand, and, on that account alone, would be worth consideration. I do not ask for any thing to be left out, or any thing to be added to the Holy Word; I am willing to take it as it is, being quite sure, from grcat ex- perience, it is the best book that we can draw instruction from, and that a good school-master is as competent to tcach from it as he is from any other book; and if he is not, he is not fit for a school-master. If he has been pro- perly taught himself, he can also teach the children, in all that appertains to a school education. I do not want him to do the duties of the clergyman, they are quite distinct; the one may give Bible education and Bible training, the other will teach doctrine, and finish the superstructure, school-master must lay the foundation, the clergy must ornament and finish the building. If the school-master is cut off from giving his portion of religious instruction, the foundation will be rotten; for when "the winds blow and the floods come," such a building will not be able to with- stand the shock. the No age has ever produced stronger evidence of the truth of this remark than the present. Thousands are carried away by mere phantasies, for the want of having had a proper basis laid in childhood. The most unphilosophical, the most irrational, the most ignorant, and the most bigoted men, will gain a hearing from the multitude, just in proportion as they go into opposite extremes. If such men as Mr. Owen address them under the specious pretext of making them all happy, by merely uniting them toge ther, like a flock of sheep, to eat and drink together, to MR. OWEN'S "SOCIAL SYSTEM." 311 sleep together, if they think fit, and to enjoy all the pro- pensities of the natural man just as mere animals would do, they will listen to him, set him down as a wonderful philosopher, and collect money to build what they call 46 a Hall of Science," in such a thickly populated place as Manchester, look upon him as little less than a god, and give him credit for things which he himself would never claim; and, in short, go so far as to say that all men are irrational, and never did know how to live, nor ever will know how to live, until they can swallow all down as gos- pel which he chooses to assert. We are to have the most wonderful changes in the shortest time; the population of whole towns are to be changed in a few months; the greatest wonders are to be accomplished by the mighty genius and unwearied philanthropy of this individual and his followers, and woe be to those who dare stand up and call any of these nostrums in question; they settle the matter at once by calling him an ignorant fool. According to the system advocated by these people, all the social ties are destroyed, the family compact is broken up, and the ideas that I have heard mooted in Manchester, Stockport, and other places, on the subject of marriage, are so shocking, so utterly at variance with all history, both ancient and modern, and, above all, so contrary to the views laid down on that subject in the sacred Scriptures, and by Christ himself, that I will not insult my readers by repeating them; suffice it to say, that, as an individual, I view such sentiments with the utmost abhorrence; I think they are calculated to do immeasurable injury to the youth of our country; and I hold it a most solemn duty to protest against them in the strongest manner. I have no uncharitable feelings towards the men, I do not venture even to impugn their motives, for they can be known only to the Deity himself: my religion teaches me to protest against what I conceive to be error, but still to have cha- ritable feelings towards those who think they do right, by X 4 312 REVIVALS. .. propagating such sentiments. When we add to all this, that these parties disbelieve in revcaled religion, deny the immortality of the soul, and leave every thing to blind chance, it is a subject of deep lamentation; but when to this is added their building schools to educate dear little children in these principles, and fit them for what they please to call a new state of society, it becomes a subject of the highest importance to all those persons who think differently, and should act as a stimulas to us to re-double our efforts to produce a suitable system of education for the children of the poor. As we turn from such sentiments as I have described, we find, in what is called this enlightened age, the very oppo- site extreme under the name of "revivals.” Here we find the young are terrified by the rhaposodies of hot- headed and enthusiastic men, who mistake the mild and beautiful system of religion promulgated by Christ himself, and developed in the Sacred Scriptures, for a system as opposite as light is from darkness. Take the following specimens, which only occurred a few wecks since, and which have appeared in most of the public papers: "A respectable woman, who was formerly my servant, and is now housekeeper to a clergyman at some distance from Edinburgh, went to visit some relations at Kilsyth, on Saturday last, and was desired to bring back some account of the revival sacrament held there on Sunday. She at- tended preachings in the fields on Sunday and Monday, during the day, from eleven a.m. till about six p.m., and on Sunday night, in the church, from eight in the evening till three next morning. There had been preaching every day for some wrcks, and it was said that fifty clergymen had tendered their assistance. From 10,000 to 12,000 per- sons were said to be present on Sunday last. I had asked her to visit me on her return, in order to give me also some account of what might take place. I was surprised and shocked at what I heard, and thought it right to take REVIVALS. 313 down in writing part of what she said: The most con- spicuous preacher was a Mr. Burns, junior, whose man- ner was much the same as that of some methodists. There was not much regular connected discourse, but a mixture of Scripture quotations, and remarks, anecdotes, and ejacu- lations; such as, "Ye are rotten-hearted sinners! -"I see the devil looking out of your eye-balls!" The torments. of hell were much dwelt on. Many took hysterics, and appeared to faint. Their cries seemed infectious, and be- came very general. Those who were most affected were chiefly children under twelve years of age. I saw one girl, who was certainly under twelve, who, after she had been carried out in a faint, was brought back. She crawled in, and lay looking with a wild stare at the preacher. The ministers called these affections the work of God. I saw one grown-up woman lying apparently dead in the session- room, and a young man, who seemed to be a clergyman, lecturing over her to the effect that it was the hand of God. She afterwards revived, and was carried away to her friends, but had had relapses, and was said to be in a bad way.' Surely the pure and rational religion of Christ has no connection with these faintings and convulsions. Who can believe that the first step to render men and women Christians, is to disturb or stupify their senses, and unsettle their understandings? Is it not evident that a faith planted in this way has its root in the nerves, and not in the rational faculties? I am not surprised that ignorant weakly men, and hysterical women, worn out by fasting, terrified by pictures of future judgment, and excited by the presence of a dense multitude, shall have their feelings overpowered, and mistake temporary delirium for a miraculous change in their minds; but that educated clergymen, who ought to have studied human nature, and should know from his- tory the thousand extravagant and monstrous things which religious phrenzy has produced in past times, to the dis. honour of Christianity, should become the prime movers 314 REVIVALS. . of such disgraceful proceedings, is no less humiliating than melancholy. It is mortifying to scc how little men profit by experience, and how ready one generation is to repeat the follies and absurdities of another. The question has been asked, whether mcctings of males and females through the night are not disorderly in a legal point of view; and whether the terrifying human beings into fits by rhapsodical appeals to the imagination, intended to pro- duce that very effect, are not offences against the peace and security of society which could justify the interference of the sheriffs of counties? These are questions which 1 do not pretend to answer." CC Glasgow, Sept. 27. I was at Kilsyth last night, or rather this morning, for it was nearly two o'clock before we got out, and heard such a rhapsody from young Mr. Burns, the great organ in the Kilsyth revivals, as I never listened to before his sermon being a mere compound of enthusiasm, weakness, and trifling not to mention the approaches to blasphemy which characterized some of his statements. Think only of such expressions as these: 'This is Christ's shooting season,' and then asking the audience, Have you been shot? Have you felt his arrows within you?' Again, in his concluding remarks, he pressed upon all present not to leave the place, nor to go out at the door, without taking Christ in their arms 'Take an armful of Christ, and carry him home with you.'' “Most extraordinary scenes have been enacted at Kilsyth since Sunday morning last. It appears to have been un- derstood among the revivalists throughout the whole of Scotland that there was to be on Sunday a great mani- festation of the power of the Lord' at Kilsyth, and, in con- sequence, there were assembled in the village on that day people from the most distant quarters from the farthest north to the English borders. Beds had been bespoken for wecks previous: we have heard of one party of twenty REVIVALS. 315 females from Greenock having engaged beds at least a fortnight before. But the accommodation to be afforded in such a place as Kilsyth was quite inadequate for the multitudes that poured in, and thus hundreds had to bivouac in the open air, or travel to the neighbouring village of Kirkintilloch. Every kind of conveyance from Glasgow was soon taken up, and fares were inordinately raised. The greater number of the clergymen present belonged to the established church of Scotland, but there were also dis- senters of different denominations,-of baptists, methodists, &c. The services began in the parish church at ten o'clock in the morning, and in an open field soon after, where they were persevered in till six o'clock on Monday morning. They were resumed on Monday at ten, and were continued through the whole day and ensuing night. Much excitement has prevailed, and scenes of a most de- plorable nature have been exhibited. On one hand was to be seen the baptismal rite administered to great numbers, by immersion in the mill-dam; and on another, women throwing themselves on the ground, and crying out for mercy. Nor was the language of the preachers calculated to calm the storm. One reverend gentleman told a portion of his audience that he saw the devil looking out of their eyes,' on which several women fell down insensible, and were taken off to the sessions-house. At another time, the preacher, in speaking of Jacob's ladder as a type of the Saviour, called on his hearers to come to it, and to make use of it; but, finding the impression he produced not so strong as he wished, he cried out that there was rottenness at the foot, and they must come quickly; and, suiting the action to the word, he sprang up in the pulpit, as if to catch hold of the ladder by a high spar, ere it was snatched away from him. Altogether, the scene has been one of a most melancholy and humiliating nature." "The Scottish Guardian states that the ministers who assisted on this occasion were Mr. Brown, of Edinburgh; 316 REVIVALS : : Dr. Malan, of Geneva; Mr. Macnaughten, of Paisley; Mr. Middleton, of Strathmiglo; Mr. Burns, of Dundçc; Mr. Sommerville, of Anderston; Mr. Martin, of Bathgate; Mr. Dempster, of Denny; Mr. Duncan, of Kirkintilloch; Mr. Rose, of Glasgow; and Mr. Dewar, of Aberdeen. The same paper also states that about 1,300 persons com- municated, and that upwards of eighty new communi- éants had been admitted, their ages varying from thirteen to seventy." 66 Glasgow. The inhabitants of the western parts of the city have resolved not to be behind their Kilsyth neigh- bours in religious zeal. They have had several revival mcctings of late; but all went off without any remarkable manifestation till Wednesday evening last, when a poor female became troubled with a spirit, and, after giving vent to a number of exclamations during the prayer, she was carried out of the church in an hysteric fit. The noise and confusion were at this time so great, that some respectable individuals left the mccting, though the hour was still carly; the services were prolonged, however, till one o'clock next morning. Last night a congregation again assembled in a chapel in Clyde Strcct, Anderston; but the minister had scarcely taken his place in the pulpit, when a cry was raised for an adjournment, as the place was too crowded, while hundreds were without, clinging by the railings. On this, another clergyman drew off a portion of the multitude to a church in Hope Strcct, where he and others held forth till two in the morning. One of the preachers appeared much excited; his gestures, while de livering his message,' were most whimsical. The be haviour of both audiences was highly decorous, although the story of the imps of hell looking out of the eyes of some present, which so frightened the poor woman of Kilsyth, was again told by a reverend preacher." “Kirkintilloch. The inhabitants of this quiet village have been infected with the revival mania in a similar way REVIVALS. 317 as their neighours in Kilsyth. On Tuesday evening a preacher, in connection with the Methodist body, held forth under a lamp at the Townhead, for upwards of two hours, to a promiscuous audience. The reverend gentle- man, in his anxiety to let all hear what he had to say, vociferated in such a tone that he was quite inaudible even to those in his immediate neighhourhood. On Wednesday forenoon, the Rev. Mr. Burns, jun., preached in the Rev. Mr. Duncan's new extensive church, to a house filled to suffocation. He held forth for nearly three hours, in the revival strain. In the evening the Methodist again gave a discourse in the school-room, and continued preaching from eight till ten o'clock. A great number of young men and boys, whose parents are in the poorest circumstances, are traversing the village and neighbourhood in all direc tions, praying and singing, neglecting their work. This excitement is expected to have an end shortly." When we add to this, that similar occurrences have taken place in other parts of this country, and also in America, it reminds one of the days when Christ himself was upon earth; and something similar was manifested in the time of Cromwell. In addition to all this, we live in days when violent political partizans volunteer discussions on polemics, and plainly tell us that the protestant reli- gion must be supplanted; it behoves us then to be on our guard, for the time may come when we may have bitter cause to lament that we have neglected the rising gene- ration so long, and still more so that we have forgotten to give them a genuine religious education. I deem it unnecessary to make any further comments, upon the above specimens, being sure that the persons into whose hands this book may fall will feel humiliated that such scenes should exist in the present day. No greater proof can be given of the want of true and genuine reli- gious education than such facts supply; and deeply do I lament that I have witnessed with my own eyes the most 318 violent conduct by ministers of the gospel. In Liver- pool, I have attended mcctings where the Deity has been mocked and insulted by their being opened by solemn prayer, to stamp them with the character of truly religious mcctings; when they have turned out to be purely poli- tical, and really the most noisy, disorderly, and most un- charitable meetings I ever attended. Observations have bccn made the most irritating, sentiments have bccn pro- mulgated the most violent, and as contrary to Christian fecling, and Christian practices, and Christian truth, as heaven is from the bottomless pit, or as truth is from error. Yet these men would put themselves forward as patterns of Christian meekness, and attempt to lord it over their clerical brethren, who are not willing to go such lengths, and who are satisfied that a holy warfare needs no such- weapons. Pure truth may and should always be defended by firmness, but never by impudence and impertinence; such weapons never did or never will help her; she comes from a pure fountain, which is God alone, and needs no such violence from hot-headed men, to open the minds of God's creatures, that they may be benefitted by its purify- ing effects EVILS ARISING FROM VIOLENT PARTY FEELINGS Such measures as we have hinted at, are but ill calcu- lated to promote the all-important object of religious edu- cation. It should be presented to the minds of children in the most lively and beautiful colours; it should be repre- sented to them what it truly is, the most beautiful system in the universe, and the only system, if not abused, to make them happy here, and eternally happy hereafter. But how is this to be done? Is it to be done by theo- rising? Is it to be done by objecting to all education in the complex? Is it to be done by opposing every system, merely because it does not emanate from ourselves? Is it rational to object to the whole, when we might safely re- ceive a part of what is offered to us? Is it wise, because we cannot have all we would, that we should refuse to THE BIBLE SHOULD NOT BE A TASK BOOK. 319 accept any? Must party feeling for ever blight the pros- pects of the young? when a government is found willing to entertain the subject? Oh, most holy God! grant that this may not be the case; grant that men of all parties may think upon this matter with proper feelings, and lay aside the prejudices of party and every feeling which militates against the subject, that they may be able to dis- cuss the matter with temperance, discretion, and propriety, and there can be no doubt that suitable fruits will follow. I would not have the minds of children stultified by ex- tremes of any kind, but steer the middle course, and leave the effects to Providence alone, who, I know by experience, often brings good out of evil. These extremes may impart a degree of life and vigour in the minds of some who have shewn too much apathy, and who have been too inattentive to these things; and this, in my opinion, is one of the causes of the disagreeable effects, which most of us lament and deplore. I would not have the Bible prostituted to the purpose of teaching children to read, and thereby rendering it disgusting. I view it as a sacred book; it abounds with all the various beauties of the Greek and Roman classics,— some of its writers shine unrivalled as poets, orators, and historians; but I view it in a higher light than even this, I view it as a spiritual book, fitted to convey spiritual in- struction, but its readers must be spiritually-minded before they are able to receive it; this is clear from the Lord's own words, “My words are spirit and life.” The Lord Jesus Christ inculcated this principle, when he said unto his disciples, “I have yet many things to say unto you, but ye cannot bear them now;" and I am sure there are thousands in the same state. Therefore spiritual truth will, for the present, be hidden from such wise and prudent persons, and revealed unto babes; which, I think, means those persons who are humble, and who are in child-like simplicity and humility; for these are the persons who appear to me to be susceptible of the pure truth as it ema- • .. 320 nates immediately from God. As long as teachers will not dispense simple truth to children, so long will they be dis- appointed in their object; we may call out for the Bible in the schools, but that will not produce the result without suitable teaching, and suitable teaching cannot be given without proper study on the part of the teachers, and to that study should be brought as few pre-conceived nations as possible The Bible must not be twisted to confirm our notions, but our notions must be brought to it, and formed according to its entire teaching. "The deportment there fore of a teacher of religion under a wiser system of educa tion is obvious, and it is the highest as well as the holiest behest of mortal man.” BEAUTIFUL THEORIES NOT ALWAYS WORKABLE Again, I repeat, Bible education must and ought to be given by the school-master, doctrinal education to com- pletion is the province of the clergy, and even this must be commenced, if it is to be effectual, with the school-master. The new-fangled doctrines ushered into the world on this subject, I have tried, and I find them neither workable nor practical; yet they appeared so beautiful and reasonable in theory, that I was quite surprised that I should have failed But when I thought decply on the subject, which circumstances forced me to do, I soon found that the cause might be traced to its proper source, namely, that I had not learnt sufficiently the art and mystery of teaching, and that theoretical knowledge, unless it was aided by practical experience, was like a body without a soul, or like an empty egg shell, which contained the form of the egg, but the essence was gone. The religious education we have bccn giving to children, and which I myself got at school, was exactly of the same description; they gave us the form without the essence, and it was not until I became a man that I could scc the great distinction between theoretical and practical religion, and it is not until we alter our coursc in giving religious education to the young, that we shall gather the glorious fruits, which a sound religious WHAT IS RELIGION? 321 education is calculated to yield. How often have I been asked by little children, What is religion? and have always. answered in the best manner I was able, according to the words of the Saviour himself, that it was to love God, to love truth, and to love goodness, for these were all qualities found in him; and if these were loved and cherished by us it would be likely to produce the love of each other, and then we should like to do to others as we would be done unto. "What is religion? 'tis to love Our God with all our heart ; In charity with all men prove, And good to them impart." This much of doctrine can be comprehended by children; the Scriptures abound with similar sentiments; children are delighted with them because they can understand them; as they advance they may be informed of the more difficult subjects, and so on by degrees, until they possess a love for the sacred volume. When children love to read, they are in a state to receive truth, and what the school-master cannot do, the Holy Spirit will. If he can assist in preparing the mind, it is a great thing; no ground will produce a proper crop, unless it is prepared; this is a law well understood by agricul- turists; and no mind will produce the fruits of religion. unless that mind is cultivated and prepared. The cultiva- tion and preparation, in part, is the work of the school- master, but the seed itself comes from God Almighty, and cannot take root in stony ground; if it does, it is sure to be injured by the circumstances that surround the child; for truth in the minds of the young is liable to as many dan- gers as the seed is, as described in the Scriptures, that fell by the wayside. If children are told that all these things refer to the mind, and to man himself, and that they are designed to convey instruction to us through the natural language which is used, they will learn to possess a vene- Y ► 322 THE MIND MUST BE PREPARED TO RECEIVE IT. ration for the Scriptures; and, finding they can understand some things in them, they will not reject those things. which they cannot understand, and will have that faith implanted in them that, as they grow older and wiser, they will be able to learn more and more, and will not be in- clined to reject every thing merely because they cannot square it to their own narrow conceptions Having bccn taught by the lessons on natural history, and perceiving how little they can understand even of things which are tangible, they will have less of that doubting spirit; as per- ceiving that all they do understand is most true, they will be inclined to hope that what they yet do not understand may be true also. I am quite sure that the majority of my readers cannot be at all aware, of the deplorable ignorance manifested on religious subjects in many of our national schools through- out the country. Many excellent clergymen are thoroughly aware of it, and are applying their utmost energies to pro- duce an amendment. I could name several in the manu- facturing districts, and point out their schools as being greatly improved; but as such men always shun notoriety, I cannot mention them by name without their permission. It is, however, a pleasing fact, and gives ground for hope, that another and a better state of things is not far distant. I have visited the schools of others who have lately made a great noise, and who have itinerated about from one town to another for the protection of Protestantism, and more especially the subject of sound religious education; but I have generally found the schools under their manage- ment quite as defective, if not more so, than others. They will not receive hints from any person, unless he is quite as violent as themselves; they invariably say they want no help, though such help may be proffered I have found the masters also, with a pretty fair stock of pedantry, com- bined with a tolerable portion of conceit and bigotry, and wanting in all the essentials of a truly religious and pious DREADFUL EFFECTS OF EVIL EXAMPLE. 323 teacher. They always speak in the positive degree, which is usually the case with ignorant men, whose religion con- sists in party-feeling instead of a knowledge of divine truth. The effects of this on their pupils are dreadful; they will fight and beat the children who go to other schools, merely because they are not conducted like their own. I have heard them swear and use the vilest language, at the same time priding themselves in my hearing that they had gone to a Bible school. At one time in Liverpool, when party feeling ran extremely high, a great number of children waylaid those who came from the Corporation Schools, and beat them most unmercifully: the little girls even did not escape. They bid defiance also to the police, who absolutely followed some of the delinquents to their own school, which had been left open in the evening for their reception, though it was after school hours. This I saw with my own eyes: I could substantiate it upon oath, if necessary. What other fruits can we expect if the heads and leaders show such unchristian violence? Can we be surprised that ignorant school-masters and imitative pupils, should follow their example? → I turn from this painful subject with disgust; it is one of the causes of the extremes we have before noticed; it is the prolific source of irreligion and bigotry, on the one hand, or a total denial of all religion on the other. It would be uncandid, however, if I did not say that I have lately seen an alteration for the better; and my hearty prayer is, that they may still go on and improve. I belong to no political party; I write for the sake of truth, as far as I understand it; and though it may not bring me the loaves and fishes, it will acquit my conscience, which is of far greater importance. If ever a system of education is to be developed for the benefit of the community, it will not be done by violent party men; for party feeling blinds the eyes, perverts the intellect, and, carried to extremes, changes the truth of God into a lie. I would, on every y 2 .. 324 CHILDREN MUST BE TAUGHT TO DO WHAT IS RIGHT. consideration; keep all such feelings from the view of the children. The first sounds that should salute their ears, when in school, should be that herald cry which astonished and enraptured the wakeful shepherds, "Peace on earth, good will towards men." Religious instruction must be combined with charity; if not, it is like "the sounding of brass, and the tinkling of cymbals." They should be taught that religion is a living principle, which must influence the life and conduct; that they must not only believe, but obey; receive truth, and live the life of truth; because their divine Master is "the Way, the Truth, and the Life." It is true, he re- proved error wherever he found it, but always did it in a proper manner, and always returned good for evil, and not vice versa. It is in vain that children read the Bible, unless they are taught to follow out its life-giving principles. Chapter after chapter may be read, yea, and committed to the memory too, but this is not religious education, unless it shine forth in their lives and conduct. Teachers must ever remember that education means training; the pupils are not only to say but to do good things. I say from ex- perience this can be accomplished; it has been accom- plished; and children will become obedient to your will, provided you govern them upon true Christian principles, and do your duty to them as a man and a Christian. It is impossible to portray in language the delightful effects produced upon the young mind when a wise and judicious course is adopted to gain so glorious an object. Should there be a school in the neighbourhood, where it is known the Bible is not read, let the pupils be taught to treat the children who may attend such school with love and affec- tion; let their superior conduct shine forth to convince the other pupils, who have not such great advantages, that their school is a superior school, and hence it developes superior conduct. This is a much more likely method to draw these poor children to a better school, than to beat SCHOOL-MASTERS NOT TO BE POLITICAL PARTIZANS. 325 them and use them ill. Boys will have no high opinion of any school if the children belonging to it beat others who happen to go to another. Boys are not devoid of sagacity, and they often make very pertinent remarks, but are generally wise enough not to make them in the master's hearing; if they did, if he had any sense of shame, it would often smite his conscience, and not un- frequently cause a blush upon his cheeks. Church of England teachers, and sectarian teachers, may form sepa- rate clubs, and hold nightly meetings at taverns, to vitu- perate against each other, but this will not be the best means to promote religious education amongst the people; it will retard the progress of true Christian principles, weaken the cause they appear so anxious to promote, and serve the cause of the evil one, instead of that of the most high God. I could tell a tale on this subject, and say not a little, of the doings of certain teachers in several large manufacturing towns, no great distance from Lancashire; but I do not know that it would be productive of any good; and my only object in mentioning it is, that should it reach the eyes of the individuals alluded to, they will in future be more cautious of their doings, if not for their own sakes, at least for the sake of their pupils; and last, though not least, for the sake of the Divine Master they profess to follow, and whose precepts they vainly profess to teach. The office of school-master is a most honourable pro- fession; I have done the utmost in my power to induce the public to think so; but if men will act indiscreetly, and will do all they can to degrade the profession, they must abide by the consequences, which, in the end, will be very serious to themselves. The calling a school a Bible school will not satisfy the public mind; the figure of a stone Bible over the door of the school may all be very well; there may also be the motto, "Train up a child in the way he should go," written up even in gold letters over the master's desk, and on each side there may be "fear God Y 3 326 THE PUBLIC MIND WILL NO : and honour the king;" all this will not satisfy the public mind it might have done at one time, it will not do now. The quality of the education given within doors will be scrutinized; the character and conduct of the children will also be scrutinized; the parents themselves will not be satisfied with the mere form without the essence; and I say that the time is coming, and that very soon, when schools will be deserted, where vital religion is neglected, and the mere form only retained. Good men will see this, and not be angry with me for apprising them of it in time Wherever true religion is taught, such a school will be a blessing to the neighbourhood where it is situated. Boys will go home, and even by their good conduct be the mcans of improving their poor neglected parents, who had not an equal chance with them. There as yet exists no means of estimating the good that is likely to accrue to the com- munity, by a sound and well digested system of religious education for children; but should any such system be made a political engine, the effects will be most awful. Education must be left frec and unshackled; if not, it will be destroyed. I, for one, would not deprive the clergy of a fair and just share in its management and guidance. If they cannot manage and guide it aright who reside upon the spot, how can it be managed by a Board who may sit comfortably in their splendid offices fitted up in London, and receive paper reports, which may be as incorrect and as far from the truth as it is possible to conceive. These paper reports might be produced to Parliament, and some splendid orations might be made upon them, the members and public flattering themselves that education was going on upon the true and correct principles; and yet after all this, the schools might be worse than uselsss. They might degenerate into sinks of iniquity, because the resident gentry might not feel an interest in them, and the clergy- man might be deprived of his proper power and influence to cheer the master with his presence and advice, and thus LONGER BE DECEIVED BY EXTERNALS. 327 impart a degree of life and vigour to the whole. I could tell a tale about educational boards, but not at the expense of honour. At present I think it more prudent to be silent, hoping that the intentions of the government may be to improve, and to avoid the errors of which they cannot be ignorant. To talk about religious education, and to make the teachers mere nonentities in the school, is an absurdity; to shut out the clergy from the school at any time, is a still greater absurdity; and to make the teachers independent of the clergy, is, in my mind, more monstrous still. Who is a school-master to look up to in the parish, but to his spi- ritual adviser? A man may come down as an inspector from a government office, thoroughly ignorant upon the subject; any clever school-master could make a school up for him, unless he was a thorough practical man, and even then he would not have a tenth part of the chance that the clergyman would, who always resides on the spot. Yet it is possible that even a judicious clergyman, with these ad- vantages, may be deceived; and I know several instances of the kind at this present moment; one is in the town in which I now reside, and which, I believe, I have referred to in the last edition of the " Infant System." I know it is the easiest thing imaginable to find fault; at the same time, if it is done in a proper spirit, it may be productive of good. National education in this country is a new feature. We have not the necessary experience to enable us to come at a correct system at first; and on these grounds it may be allowable, to analyze the theory of any professional man, in order that, at its commencement, it may be as free as possible from error. I have seen a vast number of schools in all three countries, and am thoroughly acquainted with the workings of the Irish system. Iknow the model schools, and have visited the leading schools throughout the country. I know the inspectors personally, and their method of doing business; and I know several . Y 4 328 NO SCHEME OF EDUCATION hundred of the masters; and, therefore, fcel myself in a position to hazard an opinion. I have, then, no hesitation in saying that that system may be very greatly improved, and is by no means a fit model for a system of national education in England. As I am not writing a history of the progress and workings of the Irish system, there can be no necessity to enlarge here. We ought not to expect any thing perfect at first; it requires time; and the efforts of men who have their hearts and souls in the work, and who do not aim at political power, or any other power, except the power of doing good; and even such may never have the opportunity. A body of men cannot always act to- gether, some must give way, according to circumstances, and make an effort to carry out their views, when a proper opportunity occurs I have met with very few persons who did not conceive that a religious education was ne- cessary; we only differ as to the means of carrying it out. I think, as I have before asserted, we cannot do it without the Bible; this, in my mind, must be the standard, and any system of education which does not make it the basis of all religious instruction, is unworthy the notice of the British people. Mr. Thomas Wyse, M. P., in a speech of his, delivered at Manchester, acknowledges himself, that "he knows not how to separate education from religion; it is a part of that holy faith which he professes, to enlighten the ignorant, and in doing so, he will do that which most benefits his kind. The friend of education extends its influence to future generations, and if the present is passing away from him, he at least makes sure of those that are coming after it." "Of all spectacles which the world exhibits," says the Rev. Baptist Noel, "not one would be more sublime and beautiful than the church of Christ, if it was what He in- tended it to be; rescued, at an incalculable cost, from ruin, by Divine Love. Christians are meant to represent, in the CAN BE PERFECT AT FIRST. 329 1 midst of the prevailing selfishness of the world, the love of Christ. By this shall all men know that ye are my disci- ples, if ye have love to one another.' Millions of persons, with every conceivable variety of opinions, tempers, habits, and interests, attached to every class of society, filling all sorts of situations, speaking different languages, and in- habiting widely separated countries, all united in brotherly love, living to promote the glory of God in doing the greatest possible good to each other and to the world- that is what the church should be, not what it is?" Professed Christians are denying each other's right to the Christian name, labouring to extort from the most scanty, or rather the most unfavourable, evidence, proof that Christians are no Christians; they are contending about money; they are attributing to each other the basest motives, where the motives are not apparent; they are widening those differences which have already, for gloomy and disgraceful centuries, made an impassable gulf between them. Oh! what a blessed thing it would be if Christians would unite in the glorious cause of elevating the unfortunate out- casts of society, to the privileges which they ought to en- joy. Why should our trivial distinction hinder this labour of love? Are we more anxious to unite converts to our own peculiar views, than to the universal church of Christ? and surely we ought not to refuse communion with serious men of any body, who are willing to make the Bible their rule of life, and the standard of their faith. We may be assured we cannot develop religious feelings in any boy, by pressing on him the truth of this and that creed; if we go back to our own boyish days, we shall remember how we hung with delight over the simple tales of the Bible, given to us by a dear mother or grandmother, or some other relative, though our ideas at that time, had they been known, might not have been considered very orthodox. I do not ask what we were taught to say we believed, nor ་་ . : 330 what our nominal creed was; we had no creed, but inde- finite notions, recurring at certain intervals, of a Being powerful and high and good. We had high notions of Christ, because we found he loved little children, did good to the poor and the sick, and the lame and the blind; to him who hungered and thirsted, and had not where to lay his head, and whom wicked men beat, betrayed, and cru- cified. This was the religion of our childhood; and was it not a religion good and true? Would it not, had it been allowed to develop itself naturally, have shed a kind and beneficent influence over our whole life? But our parents would bore us with catechisms, the summary of their forms and creeds, which were all matters unintelligible to us; they would force us to listen to religious services, over which we fell asleep, if we dared; and they insisted on our perform ing, under the name of duties, what we considered purpose- less and burdensome ceremonics And what was the natu- ral consequence of this treatment? That we got a super- stitious respect for the externals and trappings of religion, but were never able to penetrate to the soul. If we would have a different state of things, different methods must be taken to produce it; the state of mankind at this moment gives us ample proof that we were wrong; it is high time that we should alter our course, and no longer give the evil one the best chance. I have no notion that our conversion of adults will be very extensive and lasting. I would de- vote my whole energies to the instruction of the young, because the truth implanted in their tender minds would grow with their growth, and strengthen with their strength; and the divine influence will operate much more strongly upon their ductile minds, than it will on the mind of the self-righteous and much more stubborn adult. I know right well that religion may be taught in schools; but then it must be done in a much more rational and simple man- ner than has hitherto been usual; it is impossible to be too simple with children; we must lower our minds to their FOLLY OF CRAMMING CHILDREN WITH CREEDS, SPECIMENS OF SCRIPTURE LESSONS. 331 capacity, and give them Bible truth in the most simple lan- guage. Let us do this, and we shall always be tired before the children. Every practical teacher can bear me out in these assertions. The subject itself, however, is so prolific that I fear I may extend these observations to too great a length; and as it will be seen that I have given specimens of simple Bible lessons, in the first part of this work, for infants and others, as lessons to be used in girls' schools, it is now my intention to give further specimens of lessons from the Holy Book, which, I consider, useful and proper for boys, and which might be fairly trusted to the hands of the master; keeping in mind that the spiritual master is to have at all times opportunities to assist the teacher with his advice, and to encourage and cheer him with his presence, and to bring the entire to maturity. How I shall succeed in this it is impossible to say; I am well aware of the im- portance and great difficulty of the subject, and should I fail, I can conscientiously assert, that I meant to do what was right, and that I had no selfish views in the matter. The reader must imagine that there is a well executed plate exhibited to the boys, representing Daniel in the Lion's den; and, further, that the teacher has a class of boys assembled in the class room, all placed in such a position that he has them completely under his command, and that he can see the face of every boy, and that every boy can see his countenance; and the picture is so placed that every pupil can perceive it. The teacher will then sit down on his chair before the children. We will also suppose that the under-master is carrying on the mechanical business in the large school room; he has left orders that he is not to be interrupted. If he finds the boys in a state he could wish, he may detain them somewhere about an hour, never more; sometimes half-an-hour will be suffi- cient, which he can only tell by the state he finds the chil- dren in, and the delight they manifest in paying attention to his observations and instruction. He will then com- 332 DANIEL IN THE LIONS' DEN. mence reading, clearly and distinctly; suppose the sixth chapter of Daniel, taking care, in the first instance, to make as few observations himself as possible. Sometimes he may allow the boys to repeat it after him, at other times it may be necessary that they should not do so. Having proceeded thus far, he may ask the boys, "How many princes did Darius set over the kingdom?" Some of them will be sure to reply, "One hundred and twenty." The next question will be, "And how many presidents did he put over those hundred and twenty princes?" the answer will be, three. Q. Who was the first of these three presi- dents? A. "Daniel." Q. "Why was Daniel put the first ?" A "Because the king preferred him." Q. Q. "What effect did this have upon the other two presidents and the princes?" Here some will say, "They were jealous of him;" others, "they sought occasion to find fault with him ;" and others, "they did not like him." Each boy is to be encouraged to give his real sentiments, and the master must never think the time spent in endeavouring to get them, time lost; as very much of the future success will depend upon this. Having gone through the whole chap- ter in this simple manner, he will more especially draw the attention of the boys to that part of the chapter which refers to the picture, and to the causes for which Daniel was put into the den of lions; and the master should al- ways bear in mind, that he is not to wander from one sub- ject to another, but keep to the chapter in question, for that time; which will afford him the amplest scope for giving lessons for one sitting. If he wanders from one chapter to another, which is a most fatal error, the boys will never be able to arrange their ideas, but if he keeps to that subject, and that alone, he will soon be delighted with the beautiful answers he receives from the boys, be- cause he has not distracted them by attempting to do too much at a time. If he finds himself at a loss, it will be well to desire the boys to ask him a few questions, which DANIEL IN THE LIONS' DEN. 333 will soon afford him ample scope for further illustration and instruction. I have frequently found the whole hour slips away before either myself or pupils were at all aware of it, and we have left the room mutually delighted and instructed. "The cramming system," upon all occasions, must be carefully avoided; there is no human being that will pro- perly digest a Scriptural subject, if his mind is not in a state for it. Sometimes he may find one or two inattentive boys in the class, but more frequently he will find them all attention. No boy must be called a fool, when he gives his answer, however ridiculous that answer may seem to be; and on no account is he to be sneered at or ridiculed, for this will choke the avenue to his mind on this subject at once. If he is wrong he is mildly and gently to be put right by the teacher; there is to be no place-takings on any account whatever; if there is, it will have a very injurious effect indeed. Every boy in the end will say something that will please himself and his fellow pupils; some are naturally taciturn, and receive all in at school, and do not let it out till they get home. If the master is sure that they have all paid attention, he must be satisfied for the present; for no boy can listen to such things, and breathe such an atmosphere, without being benefitted by it. The teacher is to be careful not to call a boy a good boy," merely because he gives a clever answer; for a boy may be clever, and yet not good; and these two qualities are too often confounded together, to the great injury of a school, and every pupil in it. He may say, "John so and so, appears to pay the greatest attention; but William so and so does not." William may be aroused by this obser- vation, and soon convince you that he has paid more atten- tion than you imagine; on which occasion the teacher should never forget to express his agreeable surprise. This mode of treatment will encourage the boys, and stimulate them to further exertion. At the conclusion, the .. 334 THE STORY OF ANANIAS AND SAPPHIRA. master should never fail to draw a useful lesson from the subject he has been instructing the boys in; and to shew them how the power of God may bring any individual through the greatest difficulties and trials, if they have a firm faith and reliance in him; that his influence could even operate upon the lions so as to save the life of his faithful follower; that the same influence which supported Daniel in his difficulties, will support every human being through theirs, provided they are as firm in obeying the commands of God, as Daniel was; and though the boys themselves may not even see the utility of the master's commands, yet, as he intends them for their good, it will be prudent and proper for them to obey, and then the Al- mighty will bless his instruction to their good, and shed his divine influence over both master and pupil. The boys can then be marched out into the school amongst their fellows, and a similar method may be adopted with another class, on that or some other subject: say for example; the story of Ananias and Sapphira, Having made the arrangements before described, the teacher will read to his pupils the following verses: “But a certain man named Ananias, with Sapphira his wife, sold a possession, and kept back part of the price, his wife also being privy to it, and brought a certain part and laid it at the apostle's feet. But Peter said, Ananias, why hath satan filled thine heart to lie to the Holy Ghost, and to keep back part of the price of the land? While it rc mained, was it not thine own? and after it was sold, was it not in thine own power? Why hast thou conceived this thing in thy heart? Thou hast not lied unto men, but unto God. And Ananias hearing these words fell down, and gave up the ghost: and great fear came upon all them that heard these things, and the young men arose, bound him up, and carried him out, and buried him. And it was about the space of three hours after, when his wife, not knowing what was done, came in. And Peter answered • . THE STORY OF ANANIAS AND SAPPHIRA. 335 unto her, Tell me whether ye sold the land for so much? And she said, Yea, for so much. Then Peter said unto her, How is it that ye have agreed together to tempt the spirit of the Lord? Behold, the feet of them which have buried thy husband are at the door, and shall carry thee out. Then fell she down straightway at his feet, and yielded up the ghost, and the young men came in, and found her dead, and carrying her forth, buried her by her husband. And great fear came upon all the church, and upon as many as heard these things."—Acts v. 1—11. Having read this important lesson, in a solemn and pro- per manner, the master will ask his pupils. Q. What did a certain man, named Ananias with Sapphira his wife, do? The probable answer will be the correct one; they sold a possession. Q. What do you think this means? A. They sold some property, and received for it a certain sum of money. Q. For what purpose did they do this? A. To give it to the apostles. Q. For what purpose did the apos- tles want this money? A. To distribute amongst those that were in want. Q. Did Ananias give all the price of his possession. A. No; he kept back part. Q. Did he want to make the apostles think he gave all? A. Yes. Q. Was any other person privy to his deceit? A. His wife was privy to it. Q. Did the apostle Peter know of it? A. Yes. Q. Who gave him power to find out the lie ? A. Almighty God. Q. What did Peter say to Ananias? A. He said, Ananias, why hath satan filled thy heart to lie against the Holy Ghost, and to keep back part of the price of the land? Q. Did he say any more? A. Yes; he said, While it remained, was it not thine own? And after it was sold, was it not in thine own power? Why hast thou conceived this thing in thy heart? Thou hast not lied unto men, but unto God. Q. When Ananias had heard these words, what happened? Q. He fell down and gave up the ghost? Q. What do you mean by giving up the ghost? A. Dying. Q. Had these awful 336 THE STORY OF ANANIAS AND SAPPHIRA. -- words and event, any effect on those that heard them? A. Yes; great fear came upon them all. Q. What did the young men do? A. They arose, bound up Ananias, and carried him out, and buried him, Q. What happened in about thrce hours afterwards? A. His wife came in. Q. Did she know what had happened? A. She did not. Q. What did Peter say unto her? A. Tell me whether ye sold the land for so much? Q. Did she join in the same lie with her husband? A. Yes; she said, Yea, for so much. Q. What did Peter say unto her? A. He said, How is it that ye have agreed together to tempt the spirit of the Lord? behold the fcct of them which have buried thy husband, are at the door, and shall carry thee out. Q. What then happened? A. Then fell she down straight- way at his feet, and yielded up the ghost. Q. When the young men came in, what did they find? A. They found Sapphira lying dead? Q. What did they do? A, They carried her forth and buried her by her husband. Q. What effect had this on the church, and upon as many as heard these things? A. Great fear came upon them. Q. What do you understand by the church? A. Those people whom the apostles had converted to the religion of Jesus Christ. Q. What does this lesson teach us? A. The dreadful consequences of lying Q. Can liars be ever trusted? A. No; even when they speak the truth they will not be believed Q. Does Almighty God abhor a lie? A, Yes; we see he does by the story we have just hcard read. Q. Who does God delight in? A Those who always tell truth. Q. What is the portion of a liar ? A. Eternal death and misery. The teacher may then say; yes, my dear boys, miserable indeed will be the existence in another world of that per- son who has had a deceitful and lying heart in this; above all things we should guard against ever speaking an un- truth, for one lie always brings another, in our attempt to conceal the first; and the liar is sure to be sooner or later INCIDENTAL DISCOURSE AND HYMN. 337 : detected, and he is then for ever after doubted in whatever he may say; so that you see that even here, liars have their punishment. Therefore when any of you have com- mitted any fault, and feel the evil one tempting you to con- ceal it by a lie, do not let him tempt you; if you ask Al- mighty God to assist you he will, and think of Ananias and Sapphira, tell the truth at once, as a brave and good boy always will; and though you may be blamed for the fault which you would not tell a lie to conceal, yet depend on it the pain that will give you, will be but slight and trifling, compared to the guilty conscience of a liar. The teacher may then desire the boys, if they have previously learnt it, to sing the following hymn. AGAINST Lying, O'tis a lovely thing for youth To walk betimes in wisdom's way; To fear a lie, to speak the truth, That we may trust to all they say. But liars we can never trust, Though they should speak the thing that's true; And he that does one fault at first And lies to hide it, makes it two. Have we not known, nor heard, nor read, How God abhors deceit and wrong? How Ananias was struck dead, Caught with a lie upon his tongue ? So did his wife, Sapphira, die, When she came in, and grew so bold As to confirm the wicked lie That just before her husband told. The Lord delights in them that speak The words of truth; but every liar Must have his portion in the lake, That burns with brimstone and with fire. Z 338 CONCLUDING OKSERVATIONS. Then, let me always watch my lips, Lest I be struck to death, and hell; Since God a book of reckoning kccps For every lie that children tell. There are a number of other lessons, such as Samuel and Eli, Joseph and his brethren, and other subjects from the Old Testament, and an equal number from the New Testa- ment, which I think may be made available for the use of boys' schools; but as I hope to publish these in a separate form, accompanied with suitable illustrations and instruc- tions, I deem the specimens given above quite sufficient. We have even found the lesson which we have been in the habit of supplying to infant schools, very useful both to the junior classes of boys and girls; in the Liverpool Corporation Schools, they found them very serviceable, and in various others throughout the country; but, as I said before, better things might be published. I have now given an outline of what I conceive to be essential for physical, mental, moral, and religious educa- tion. I have not professed to give a manual, but only the mere outlines of a system of national education, as far as I know. I have legislated or suggested hints for applying education to all the faculties, I have not aimed at fine writ- ing, but plain writing; and I think I cannot conclude better than by adopting the words of a recent pamphlet from the pen of Lord Brougham, in the sentiments of which I most conscientiously coincide; kccping in view that I think the church entitled to a preference, not only on the ground of expediency, but of right. It is entitled, A Letter on National Education to the Duke of Bed- ford, K. G. "I have now rehearsed the circumstances which dis- tinguish the present moment from all former periods in the history of our cause They are of a mixed nature; of very various hue; some calculated to inspire us with hope, some to damp our expectations, none, I fondly LORD BROUGHAM'S LETTER ON NATIONAL EDUCATION. 339 trust, to fill us with despondency,-certainly all, without exception, fitted to rouse our best exertions, and make us deliberate calmly, though anxiously, upon the course which it now behoves us to hold in a somewhat new pos- ture of affairs. For the first time we have had the atten. tion of parliament fully directed to the subject of educa tion; attracted, no doubt, by other motives than the mere zeal for popular improvement,-led by sectarian animosity, -whetted by factious rage,-yet still pointed, for what- ever reason, to this great question, which, as it never before obtained any share of parliamentary favour, so, I presume to think, never henceforth can, with its prodigious in- trinsic merits, cease to occupy the legislature, for its own sake, until it is finally and satisfactorily disposed of by some great national measure becoming the law of the land. It is thus that the wisdom of an overruling providence, bringing general good out of partial evil, orders so as some superficial irritation, some flying ache, shall excite our attention to the deep-seated mischief that is preying upon our vitals, lead us to probe its hidden source, and enable us to apply the needful remedy, long after the superficial feeling that first gave us the warning shall have passed away and been forgotten. The ignorance of the people, the origin of all the worst ills that prey upon our social system, has become at length the object of legis- lative regard; and I defy the constituted authorities of this free country to delay much longer in applying the ap- propriate cure, by eradicating a disease, as easily cured as it is fatal if neglected. But the temper of the government was as encouraging as the disposition of parliament, to the extent at least of entertaining the question, and shewing a great interest in its fate. Not only did Lord Landsdowne, upon the Arch- bishop's motion, deliver a speech replete with the soundest views of the general subject, and indicating that he had well considered its details, but the government plan con- : . z 2 340 LORD BROUGHAM'S LETTER tained the germ of more extensive operations, shewed the disposition to make great exertions, and was fitted for adapting itself to a more systematic arrangement. Some- thing like a department of public instruction was, for the first time, if not established, certainly contemplated; and this formed the main object of my bill, which completely provided for such a branch of the public service—a branch of which even the Egyptian government, in its compara- tive darkness, can descry the advantages. The legislature is at length, no matter how, roused to the subject of popular education. The existing govern- ment is perfectly friendly to our cause; nay, adopts our views not only regarding the necessity of a great exertion to teach the people, but regarding the manner in which the efforts of the state should be directed. The time, therefore, is arrived when the comparatively feeble labours of individuals should give place to the work which stronger hands can better do. You and I had better stand aside and let the government bring forward the measure as their own, with all the weight which a government is sure to have, and the support which no individual can com- mand." 'By transferring the education bill to the hands of the ministers, I relieve it from a considerable pressure of hostility, give it a large accession of valuable support, do not withdraw from it one single defender, and enable my- self to further its progress, if my days be spared, with in- creased assiduity. "But let us now look at the other side of the picture, observe what risks of discomfiture we are to be prepared for, and consider how our conduct should be shaped, so as to meet these with the best prospect of success. "The lords have declared by a majority of one hundred and twelve against any plan of education in which the established church shall not be consulted, that is to say, shall not have some deference paid to its claims beyond ON NATIONAL EDUCATION. 341 those of the different sects-some superiority assigned to it above the level on which all sects are to be kept. This, and certainly more than this, is the amount of that very important decision. All intolerance, all compulsion upon the dissenters, all claim of the church to exclude them di- rectly or indirectly from the benefits of whatever education shall be patronized by the state, all desire to force upon them any observances contrary to their consciences, was most explicitly, and, I believe, most sincerely disavowed by every speaker, lay or spiritual, who bore a part in that celebrated debate. But some recognition of the establish- ment was regarded as its right; and he must have been a bad observer of the debate who did not draw two conclu- sions from its temper as well as its result, the speeches as well as the vote; first, that some such acknowledgment the church and the lords are fixed in their determination to have; and, secondly, that both will be satisfied with a very moderate one. 'Then let us be well assured that no government in this country ever can carry a plan of national education in which a perfect absolute equality between all sects of religious professors shall be established, according to your principles and mine—according to what I humbly presume to think the only sound and just principles. So far we must make up our minds, looking our position steadily in the face, to admit that we are completely defeated, and defeated with- out any hope of a favourable reverse of fortune another time. A controversy of thirty years, with all the reason and almost all the skill, and, until very lately, all the zeal on our side, has ended in an overthrow somewhat more complete than we should in all probability have sustained at the commencement of our long and well-fought cam- paign. Such is the force and effect of an establishment, the growth of ages pushing its roots into the hearts of the people, entwining its branches with all our other institu- tions,-let us in justice add, adorned with eminent gifts; z3 342 LORD BROUGHAM'S LETTER : let us in candour confess, bearing but seldom the harsher fruits of intolerance; for assuredly if the church of En- gland be a nursing mother to her own children, she is also, generally speaking, a quiet neighbour to those of other fa- milies. : "The dissenters are a numerous and most respectable body of men. But they are a minority in the community at large; they are besides not equally distributed over the surface of the country; they have much to say in some of the large towns, especially those of recent growth in the counties, their numbers and influence are extremely small; and they are divided among themselves, in so much, that some sects greatly more lean towards the church than to- wards any combination against her. Even on a question affecting their pockets, the church rates, it was clear that all their union could not gain a majority sufficient to carry the bill through even the House of Commons. Upon the education question, they are exceedingly divided; and one great class, the Methodists, are decidedly and pretty unani- mously with the lords and the church. All these indica- cations show how little chance there is of making head against the influence of the establishment on any point which is deemed essential to its interests, as long as it lasts; and the continuance of that establishment, even if its destruction were a thing to be desired, which neither you nor I could ever for a moment allow, seems just as cer- tain as that of any other branch of our mixed constitution. "But suppose I am wrong in my predictions, and that there were any reasonable prospect of bringing over the publie opinion to our side upon the church's right to inter- fere with national education, every one must at once admit, that this change can only be the work of time, aye, of a very long time. For it must be an almost universal change of opinion that can so far sway the lords as to make them re- scind their late resolution; so that we are to go on for this long course of years, suffering the people to be uneducated, ON NATIONAL EDUCATION. 343 and vice with ignorance to stalk through the land as over their own appointed and exclusive province. Are we pre- pared to embrace this alternative? Are we willing that not only you and I, but our children, and our children's chil- dren, shall flourish and fade, rising up and going down to the grave, while the plague of darkness still wraps the land in clouds, only broken occasionally by the glare of civil broils? "But above all, shall we delay, dare we delay, so very long as it would take to bring round either the church to the views of the dissenters, or the dissenters to the views of the church, upon the point which is alone in controversy between them, namely, how far there shall be clerical inter- ference with the process of instruction. "It is certain, that as things now stand, the two great parties into which the community is unhappily split upon this mighty question, are resolved that we shall have no system of education at all,-no national plan for training teachers, and thereby making the schools that stud the country all over, deserve the name they bear,—no national plan for training young children to virtuous habits, and thereby rooting out crimes from the land. And this in- terdict, under which both parties join in laying their coun- try, is by each pronounced to be necessary for the sacred interests of religion. Of religion! Oh, gracious God! Was ever the name of thy holy ordinances so impiously profaned before? Was ever before, thy best gift to man, his reason, so bewildered by blind bigotry, or savage intolerance, or wild fanaticism bewildered so as to curse the very light thou hast caused to shine before his steps bewildered so as not to perceive that any and every religion must flourish best in the tutored mind, and that by whomsoever instructed in secular things, thy Word can better be sown in a soil prepared, than in one abandoned through neglect to the execrable influence of the evil spirits? 1 z 4 344 LORD BROUGHAM'S LETTER * "Do we really and honestly desire to see the people uni- versally taught? That is the question. If we do, then we shall shew it not by crying, "Teach! teach!' but by sup- porting whatever plan for teaching is attainable in the cir cumstances of our present situation, provided no violence is done to any of those great principles which we have no right to abandon. But if, with the words of wisdom and benevolence on our lips, we refuse a scheme of general education merely because it sins against our preconceived opinions upon some matter not essential; if we reject it merely because it gives a rival sect the preference; if we turn away from it merely because its adoption would be a defeat of our own party,-then we plainly shew that vic- tory, not beneficence, is our object, and that though we may be well enough disposed to teach the poor, we are much more anxious to defeat an adversary or outstrip a rival. "But it will be said, why should not the established church listen to all this doctrine, and shew her zeal for education by waving her claims?-No one feels the force. of the appeal more strongly than I do; none has more con- stantly urged it than myself, and none pressed it more ear- nestly than myself upon the late discussion. But I have maintained this doctrine in vain; and we plainly see that the church and the legislature are firmly resolved to reject it. Then I turn to the friends of education among the dis- senters; and to them I now, through you, a liberal church- man, and the dissenter's tried friend, make this my last appeal. "First of all, we are to conclude that the question is de- cided against us, and that the only alternative which re- mains is a church school bill, or no national education at all. Being thoroughly convinced, both by private commu- nications, and by the whole turn of the debate, that no one will ever dream of proposing any clerical interference which can violate the sacred rights of conscience, but that what- ON NATIONAL EDUCATION. 345 ever schools are planted, must be open to all classes of the community, without the exaction of any religious observ- ances, a compulsory attendance at any religious tuition con- trary to the principles of the parents, I am not prepared to embrace the alternative of refusing national education, ra- ther than allow some preference, some interference to the church, where I perceive such preference, such interfer- ence to be harmless. 'But next,-I conceive that a reason why we should give up our principles of perfect religious equality, sound as they are, and why the dissenters should join the surrender, is to be plainly drawn from the fact of the church being in possession: she is established by law; she refuses to adopt our scheme, if the question is who shall yield to the other, it seems no dishonour for us to yield, the other party being already master of the field. "C Again,—I have no great fear of this increasing the in- fluence of the church, I mean, any undue influence at which she may be supposed to aim. Assuredly, if she is wrong in her doctrines-if she affects a power she is not justly entitled to-the better the people are taught, the more chance there is of them both emancipating themselves from the trammels of false doctrine, and shaking off the weight of undue political influence. Let the people be taught, say I. I care little, in comparison, who is to teach them. Let the grand machine of national education be framed and set to work, and I should even view without alarm the ten- dency of its first movements towards giving help to the power of the clergy. "Let the priests of the sect I most widely differ from,- let the Romish zealots,-let the Jesuits themselves,—but teach secular learning on a large, as they once did on a small, scale,—and I will defy them for any length of time to bow down the human intellect, either to the glaring ab- surdities of their faith, or to the slavish submission, which in temporal matters they too often would inculcate. You 346 LORD BROUGHAM'S LETTER can no more nourish the mind with the food that is con- venient for it,' and stunt its power of self-liberation, than you can feed the body and prevent it from waxing strong. "So thought my late revered friend Dr. Lindsay, a man whose life was spent in the honourable office of a teacher. So thought and still thinks my learned and able friend Dr. Shepherd, who long exercised the same most useful pro- fession. Both conscientiously dissenting from the church ; both jealous to the extreme of all clerical influence; both regarding prelacy as only less to be reprobated than popery; yet both held in the controversy of 1821, that the power given by the education bill, and which so many of their brethren would not admit, was harmless, and might well be offered as the price of so great a boon to mankind. I attended the conference with the three denominations in the Red Cross-street library, when Dr. Lindsay made the memorable declaration to the dissenting brethren, the last words he uttered on any public matter, for within four-and- twenty hours he was suddenly taken to his great reward, by the master whom, in all singleness of heart, and in all purity of living, he had so faithfully served: "I am apresbyterian, as you all well know, and no man more abhors the errors of Romanism; but such is my faith in knowledge, and such my fear of ignorance, that rather than men should not be educated, I would pray to have them taught by the Pope of Rome.' I too say-as a friend of the people I say-as an enemy to superstition, an advocate of the protestant re- ligion, a firm supporter of the right of private judgment on all matters spiritual and secular, I say-as a sworn anta- gonist to the worst craft of the priest, his temporal power built upon the abuse of his sacred office, I say, and devoutly from the bottom of my heart I say,-amen to that en- lightened and pious prayer ! "But I hear of some worthy and high-spirited dissen- ters objecting to any victory which they think the church might apparently gain, and objecting upon the point of ON NATIONAL EDUCATION. 347 honour. On such a matter I know how feeble all argu- ments must ever prove, because it is one on which men will only feel and never reason. Else I should say, that the di- vision on the Archbishop's motion was the final defeat of our extreme doctrine, and that after fighting so stoutly as we have done for so many long years, we can never be dis- graced, or even discredited, by submitting to the inevitable necessity. But I should also remind the same objectors of the occasions on which they have suffered infinitely worse things to be done against their principles, and never uttered a whisper of opposition before the event, nay, nor of dis- content afterwards. Which of the dissenting bodies ever raised its voice against the grant of near a million out of the money repaid by Austria, to build new churches by not one of which any one dissenter could benefit,-by every one of which doctrines were to be inculcated, and discipline enforced, contrary to the conscientious belief of every one dissenter in the empire? Here, then, was a million of money, and raised from the people by taxes,-all paid as well by dissenters as by churchmen,-not one farthing of which went to benefit any dissenter, or to spread any dis- senting opinion in any manner of way,-every one farthing of which went to propagate religious opinions which all dis- senters, with one voice, condemn. Assuredly the great ne- glect of the dissenters upon that memorable occasion,- thein rot insisting upon a portion of the money being di- rected to support, if not their churches, at least their schools -is much to be lamented, and forms no kind of reason for their again submitting to gross and manifest injustice. But there is now no question raised, of any such submission. No one dreams of such a church-school plan as will exclude dis- senting children, or force a discipline upon unwilling pupils, or give the establishment of any new powers of enlarging her bounds at the expense of the sects; and the admission into the scheme which may be propounded, of some clerical su- perintendence under strict controul,-some provision for 348 LORD BROUGHAM'S LETTER educating such as choose to be taught in the principles of the church, without any kind of compulsion on others,— and with ample and equal provision for the secular instruc- tion of all sects,-can never militate against liberty of con- science, and can never be consistently rejected by the real friends of education, least of all by those dissenters who suffered the building of the new churches at their own ex- pense, and suffered it in profound and unbroken silence. "Once more let us view our present position, without shrinking from the sight. The question is, and the only question, I repeat it again and again,-shall we have a system of national education, or shall we not? Shall we meet our clerical adversaries half-way, that some plan of public instruction adequate to the wants of the commu- nity may be carried into execution? Or shall we churlishly stand on our own ground, and leave the people to thirst after knowledge, and to thirst in vain? Do we really wish for the improvement of our species, as our first object, or do we only desire the general good of our fellow-creatures, so far as the pursuit of it may afford the means of obtaining a victory for our sect? In a word, is contention, and tri- umph, and the humbling of our adversaries, our real pur- pose-our primary occupation; and the extirpation of vice, the diffusion of happiness, the promotion of true religion, only a secondary object; conveniently talked of―little cared for—the cover and cloak of our spiritual pride, our worldly contentiousness, not the end and aim of our endeavours- or at least a thing which we are willing enough to seek if we can gain it for nothing, but a thing for which we will make no sacrifice that wounds our vanity, or clashes with our self-seeking, or galls our self-importance? That is the real question on which it now behoves all friends of educa- tion anxiously to search their hearts, and to answer as they will hereafter make answer before Him from whose eyes the innermost recesses of those hearts, now hidden, cannot for one instant lie veiled! ON NATIONAL EDUCATION. 349 "The infant school languishes; but Newgate flourishes -Newgate, with her thousand cells to corrupt their youth- ful inmates; seducing the guiltless, confirming the depraved. The infant school is closed, but the Penitentiary day and night yawns to engulph the victims of our stepmother sys- tem, the Penitentiary, where repentance and penance should rather be performed by the real authors of their fall. The infant school receives no innocents whom it might train or might hold fast to natural virtue; but the utterly execrable, the altogether abominable hulk, lies moored in the face of the day which it darkens, within sight of the land which it insults, riding on the waters which it stains with every unnatural excess of infernal pol- lution, triumphant over all morals!-And shall civilized, shall free, shall Christian rulers, any longer pause, any more hesitate, before they amend their ways, and attempt, though late, yet seriously, to discharge the first of their duties ?- or shall we, calling ourselves the friends of human improve- ment balance any longer, upon some party interest, some sectarian punctilio, or even some refined scruple, when the means are within our reach to redeem the time and do that which is most blessed in the sight of God, most beneficial to man?—or shall it be said, that between the claims of contending factions in the church or in state, the legislature stands paralyzed, and puts not forth its hand to save the people placed by Providence under its care, lest offence be given to some of the knots of theologians who bewilder its ears with their noise, as they have bewildered their own brains with their controversies ?-Lawgivers of England! I charge ye, have a care! Be well assured, that the con- tempt lavished for centuries upon the cabals of Constanti- nople, where the council disputed on a text, while the enemy, the derider of all their texts, was thundering at the gate, will be as a token of respect compared with the loud shout of universal scorn which all mankind in all ages will send up against you, if you stand still and suffer a far 350 LORD BROUGHAM'S LETTER ON NATIONAL EDUCATION. deadlier foe than the Turcoman,-suffer the parent of all evil, all falsehood, all hypocrisy, all discharity, all self- seeking-him who covers over with pretexts of conscience the pitfalls that he digs for the souls on which he preys,—to stalk about the fold and lay waste its inmates-stand still and make no head against him, upon the vain pretext, to soothe your indolence, that your action is obstructed by religious cabals—upon the far more guilty speculation that by play- ing a party game, you can turn the hatred of conflicting professors to your selfish purposes ! "Let us hope for better things. Let us hope it through His might and under His blessing who commanded the little children to be brought unto Him, and that none of any family of mankind should be forbidden; of Him who has promised the choicest gifts of his Father's kingdom to those who in good earnest love their neighbours as them- selves." APPENDIX. We will now proceed to give an outline of what we consider proper lessons for boys, in the different branches of instruction which we have recommended for them in the body of the work. For Geography we refer to the girls' department, where we think the subject has been sufficiently carried out to apply to the boys also, as also are the Object Lessons. The specimens of Botany given for the instruction of girls, the boys should first be made acquainted with, and afterwards advanced further in the study by continuing the subject as carried out in this department of the work. We have also given, in as simple a manner as possible, the outlines of Astronomy, which we think it very necessary should be taught even to poor boys; and as much of Natural History as we consider they may learn with pleasure and advantage. We would not, however, be understood to say that we think this a perfect manual; we only give these outlines as examples from which the judicious and intelligent teacher may form a more com- plete system of instruction. Every branch of Natural Philosophy might be taught boys with advantage; it would not make them worse men, in whatever sphere of life they might afterwards move. Botany, including vegetable physiology; zoology, including a classification of the lower animals, with the habits of those given as specimens, we have endeavoured to legislate for; chemistry, mineralogy, anatomy, and animal physiology would, if we gave the outlines, swell this book to a size which we did not contemplate. The judicious teacher will judge how much of each poor boys should learn. A knowledge of the political history of their own country, from the earliest periods, would be of much service in giving them correct notions of many things which they now receive only as vague and incorrect traditions, which serve them merely as vehicles by which to display a greater portion of ignorance than should fall to the share of any citizen of these coun- tries in the present enlightened age. ↓ 352 APPENDIX. To give in this book an outline of what history they should learn, would be also out of the question; we would only say, that if the boys be natives of England, the historical facts connected with their country should be taught, with a distinct outline of the sister countries, and the other nations of Europe. If of Scotland, the history of Scotland; if Ireland, the history of that country; especial care being used to divest this branch of instruction from every thing which would encourage national prejudices, or inflame party feelings, point- ing out to the pupils, at every opportunity, the evils of warfare, the disasters arising from rebellion, and the bloodshed and misery spring- ing from religious differences and party influences; shewing them the absurdity of the unchristian-like prejudices we have for various na- tions, and always endeavouring to impress on their minds that all mankind belong to one common family; and point out to them that if selfishness was at an end, the world would be really happy, and misery, and vice, and unhappiness would be no more. Nothing is capable of more improvement than our method of giving instruction on this subject. Boys were allowed to read through the whole history of mankind, without a single moral lessson having ever been drawn from any part of it; they were allowed to form their opinions and prejudices, without a single effort to direct them in a proper manner; while to teach boys of the poorer classes one single event in the history of their country, would have been considered ridiculous and absurd, or perhaps highly improper. But they did learn something of their own country's history in defiance of those opinions; and what they did learn, from ignorance and prejudice, became a source of evil, instead of what it would have been if given in a judicious and proper manner. We, therefore, think a knowledge of this branch of education given with judicious care highly important. ASTRONOMY.* In attempting to give some general notions on astronomy, we will select, as a beginning, the portion most interesting to us-the Earth; and when we have formed a distinct idea of the part which it performs in the general system, we shall be able to form some notion of the gran- deur and immensity of the universe. Let us suppose the earth, at its creation, to have been projected forwards. We know, from the laws The black board is indispensable for illustrating this branch of science. ASTRONOMY. 353 of motion, that if no obstacle impeded its course, it would proceed for ever, in the same direction and with the same velocity. 3 42 E II Let A represent the earth, and S the sun. We shall suppose the earth arrived at the point in which it is represented in the figure, having a velocity which would carry it on to B in the space of one month; whilst the sun's attraction would bring it to C in the same space of time. Reasoning upon the laws of uniform motion, we might hastily conclude, that the earth would move in the diagonal, A D, of the parallelogram, A B C D, as a ball struck by two forces will do; but the force of attraction is continually acting upon our terrestrial ball, and producing a continual deviation from a course in a straight line, and thus converts it into a course in a curve line. Let us detain the earth a moment at the point D, and consider how it will be affected by the combined action of the two forces in its new situation. It still retains its tendency to fly off in a straight line, but a straight line would now carry it away to F; whilst the sun would attract it to the direction D S. In order to know ex- actly what course the earth will follow, another parallelogram must be drawn in the same manner as the first; the line, D F, describing the force of projection, and the line, DS, that of attraction; and it will be found that the earth will proceed in a curve line, D G, drawn in the parallelogram, D F GE; and if we go on throughout the whole of the circle, drawing a line from the earth to the sun, to represent the force of attraction, and another at a right angle to it, to describe that of projection, we shall find that the earth will proceed in a curve line, passing through similar parallelograms, till it has completed the A 354 APPENDIX. : whole of the circle. The attraction of the sun is the centripetal force which confines the earth to a centre, and the impulse of projection, or the force which impels the earth to fly off, and quit the sun, is the centrifugal force. We have described the earth as moving in a circle, merely to ren- der the explanation more simple; for, in reality, the centripetal and centrifugal forces are not so proportioned as to produce circular mo- tion; and the earth's orbit, or path, round the sun, is not circular, but elliptical, or oval. H B D F E Let us suppose that when the earth is at A, its projectile force does not give it a velocity sufficient to counterbalance that of gravity, so as to enable those powers conjointly to carry it round the sun in a circle; the earth, instead of describing the line A C, as in the former figures, will approach nearer the sun in the line A B. Under these circum- stances it will be asked, what is to prevent us from approaching nearer and nearer the sun, until we fall into it, for its attraction increases as we advance towards it? There also seems to be another danger: as the earth approaches the sun, the direction of its motion is no longer perpendicular to that of attraction, but inclines more nearly to it. When the earth reaches that part of its orbit at B, the force of pro- jection would carry it to D, which brings it nearer the sun, instead of bearing it away from it; so that being driven by one power, and drawn by the other towards this centre of destruction, it would seem impossible for us to escape. But `with God, nothing is impossible. The earth continues approaching the sun with an accelerated motion, ASTRONOMY. 355 till it reaches the point E, when the projectile force impels it in the direction E F. There, then, the two forces act perpendicularly to each other, and the earth is situated as in the preceding figure; yet it will not revolve round the sun, for the following reasons: the centri- fugal force increases with the velocity of the body, or in other words, the quicker it moves the stronger its tendency is to fly off in a direct line. When the earth arrives at E, its accelerated motion will have so far increased its velocity, and, consequently, its centrifugal force, that the latter will prevail over the force of attraction, and drag the earth away from the sun, till it reaches G. It is thus that we escape from the dangerous vicinity of the sun; and as we recede from it, both the force of its attraction and the velocity of the earth's motion diminish. From G, the direction of projection is towards H, that of attraction towards S, and the earth proceeds between them with a retarded mo- tion, till it has completed its revolution. Thus the earth travels round the sun, not in a circle, but in an ellipsis, of which the sun occupies one of the foci, and in its course the earth alternately approaches and recedes from it, so that what at first appeared a dangerous irregularity, is the means by which the most perfect harmony and order are produced. The earth then travels on at a very unequal rate; its velocity being accelerated as it approaches the sun, and retarded as it recedes from it. That part of the e's orbit nearest the sun is called its perihelion, that part most distant from the sun its aphelion. The earth is about three millions of miles nearer the sun at its perihelion than at its aphe- lion. Some are surprised to learn that during the height of our sum- mer, the earth is in that part of its orbit which is most distant from the sun, and that it is during the severity of winter we are nearest to it. The difference, however, of the earth's distance from the sun in summer and winter, when compared with its total distance from the sun, is but inconsiderable; for three millions of miles sink into insig- nificance in comparison of ninety-five millions of miles, which is our mean distance from the sun. The change of temperature arising from this difference, would, in itself, scarcely be sensible, and it is completely overpowered by other causes, which produce the variations of the sea- sons; but the explanation of these must be deferred, till we have made some further observations on the heavenly bodies. Incidental Conversation. Q. When the earth at its creation was projected forward, would not . 356 APPENDIX. .. i the laws of motion lead us to suppose, that, if the obstacle impeded its course, it would continue to proceed for ever in the same direction? A. Yes. Q. What do we see by the lesson we have just read? A. That the combined action of two forces prevents this. Q. What are these forces called? A. The attraction of the sun is the centripetal force which confines the earth to a centre, and the other is called the centrifugal force, which impels the earth to quit the sun and fly off. Q. How does the earth move round the sun? A. In an oval or elliptical course. Q. What is this called? A. The earth's orbit. Q. What is that part of the earth's orbit nearest the sun called? A. Its perihelion. Q. What is that part most distant from the sun called? A. Its aphelion. Q. In that part of the year called summer is the earth nearer the sun than in winter? A. No; it is more distant. Q. How long does the earth take to perform its revolution round the sun? A. One year. motion called? A. Its annual motion. real motion of the earth first discovered? Q. What is this Q. By whom was the A. By Sir Isaac New- ton. Q. What simple cause led to some of his greatest discoveries? A. Seeing an apple fall from a tree. Q. Was there any thing very wonderful in an apple falling from a tree? A. No; but Sir Isaac began to think why the apple fell. Q. Was it not because the stalk gave way, and there was nothing to support it? A. Yes; but he wanted to know why the apple fell when the stalk gave way. Q. What did he think strange in its doing so? Q. He thought that as an apple is an inanimate thing, it could not move of itself. Q. What did this lead him to think? A. That some force, out of itself, must act upon it, otherwise it would remain for ever in its place, although it was not attached to the tree. Q. Do you think it would but for something acting upon it? A. Certainly; for there are but two ways in which it could be moved. Q. What are they? A. By its own power of motion, or the power of something else moving it. Q. Which power acted upon the apple? A. It having no power of its own, undoubtedly some other power must act upon it-what that power is was the subject of the philosopher's inquiry. Q. But every thing falls on the ground as well as an apple, when there is nothing to keep it up? A. Therefore there must be a universal cause of this tendency to fall. Q. And what is it? A. If things out of the earth cannot move themselves to it, there can be no other cause of their coming together than that the earth pulls them. Q. But as the earth is no more ani- mate than they, how can it pull? A. This brings us to the point: ASTRONOMY. 357 Q. A. Yes; for Sir Isaac Newton, after deep meditation, discovered the cause. What was it? A. That there was a law in nature called attraction, by virtue of which every particle of matter, that is every thing of which the world is composed, draws towards it every other particle of matter, with a force proportioned to its size and distance. Q. Give me an example. A. If you lay two marbles on a table, they have a tendency to come together. Q. Why do they not? A. They would do so, if there were nothing else in the world, but they are also attracted by the table, by the ground, and by every thing else in the room; and these different attractions pull against each other. Q. Why does the globe draw every thing towards it? A. Because it is a mighty mass of matter, to which nothing near it can bear any comparison. Q. What, then, do you perceive is the cause of every thing falling? A. The mighty force or attraction of the globe. Q. What is this called? A. The gravitation of bodies, or what gives them weight. Q. Do you act contrary to this when you lift up anything? which reason it seems heavy to me; and the heavier, the more matter it contaius, since that increases the attraction of the earth for it. Q. Is not the attraction of the earth pulling us at this moment? A. It is. Q. Why do we not stick to the ground, then? A. Be- cause we are animate beings, and have a power of self-motion, which can, in a certain degree, overcome the attraction of the earth. What is the reason you cannot jump a mile as well as a foot high? A. This attraction, which brings me down again when the force of the jump is spent. Q. What does all this explain which might before have been a difficult thing to understand? A. It explains, in the first place, the reason why our antipodes, or those people who live on the side of the globe opposite to us, who have their feet turned towards ours, and their heads in the air, are kept on the earth. Q. What have they over their heads? A. The sky, of course. Q. Does not this seem strange? A. Yes; but it is easily explained: the earth is a vast ball hung in the air, and continually spinning round, and that is the cause why the sun and stars seem to rise and set. At noon, we have the sun over our heads, when the antipodes have the stars over theirs, and at midnight the stars are over their heads, and the sun over To the stars So whither should they fall to more than we? A. What is up, ours. Q. or the sun? Q. But we are up and they are down. but from the earth, and toward the sky? Their feet touch the earth and point toward the sky as well as ours, so that if a hole could be A A 3 358 APPENDIX. : A. dug quite through the earth we should see the sky through it. Q. What supports the earth in the air? The sun is a great many times larger than the earth, why does it not draw the earth into it? Because there is another power which acts upon the earth. Q. What is that called? A. The centrifugal motion, by which a body con- tinually endeavours to fly off from the centre round which it moves. Q. Give me an illustration of the two motions. A. A ball tied to the end of a string, when you twirl it round, if the cord snaps it will fly off. Q. That is the centrifugal motion, and the string which holds it, what is that? A. The centripetal motion. PLANETS. The planets are heavenly bodies, which perform their circuit round the sun on the same principle as our earth; they are divided into primary and secondary. Those which revolve immediately round the sun are called primary; many of these are attended in their course by lesser planets, which revolve round them; these are called secon- dary planets, satellites, or moons. Our moon is one; it attends our earth, and accompanies it in its course round the sun. The sun is the common centre of attraction to our system of planets; but the satellites revolve round the primary planets, on account of their greater proximity. The force of attraction is not only proportionable to the quantity of matter, but to the degree of proximity or nearness of the body attracting. The power of attraction becomes less as the distance increases between the body attracting and attracted; so that a planet situated at twice our distance from the sun, would gravitate four times less than we do. The more distant planets, therefore, move slower in their orbits, for their projectile force must be proportionate to that of attraction. This diminution of attraction by the increase of distance, also accounts for the motion of the secondary round the primary planets, in preference to the sun; for the vicinity of the primary planets renders their attraction stronger than that of the sun. But since attraction between bodies is mutual, the primary planets are also attracted by their satellites. The moon attracts the earth as well as the earth the moon; but as the latter is the smallest body, her at- traction is proportionably less; the result is, that the earth does not revolve round the moon, nor the moon round the earth, but they both revolve round a point which is their common centre of gravity, and which is much nearer the earth's than the moon's centre of gravity. ASTRONOMY. 359 The earth has three different motions, its annual motion round the sun, its motion round its own axis, and it revolves round the point towards which the moon attracts it; and this is the case with every planet which is attended by satellites. The planets act on the sun in the same manner as they are themselves acted upon by their satellites; but the gravity of the planets (even when taken all together), is so trifling compared with that of the sun, that they do not cause it to move as much as one half of its diameter. The planets, therefore, do not revolve round the centre of the sun, but round a point at some distance from its centre, about which the sun also revolves the sun likewise revolves on its axis. This motion we can ascertain by observing certain spots on the sun, which disappear and reappear re- gularly at stated times. his orbit is therefore con- close to the sun, we can Mercury is the planet nearest to the sun: tained within ours; but being situated so but seldom see him, as he is nearly lost in the brilliancy of the sun's rays, which prevents very accurate observations being made upon him. He performs his revolution round the sun in about eighty-seven days, which is consequently the length of his year. The time of his rota- tion on his axis is not accurately known; his distance from the sun is computed to be 37 millions of miles, and his diameter 3,224 miles. Venus, the next in the order of the planets, is 68 millions of miles from the sun; she revolves about her axis in 23 hours and 21 minutes, The diameter of and goes round the sun in 224 days, 17 hours. Venus is 7,687 miles. The orbit of Venus is within ours. During nearly one-half of her course we see her before sun-rise, and she is then called the morning star; in the corresponding part of her orbit on the other side she rises later than the sun; we cannot then see her rising, as she rises in the day-time, but she also sets later, so that we see her approaching the horizon after sun-set. She is then called Hes- perus, or the Evening Star. The Earth comes next. Mars is next. We are 95 millions of miles distant from the sun. We perform our annual revolution round it in 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes, and are attended in our course by a single moon. He can never be between us and the sun, like Mer- cury and Venus. His distance from the sun is 144 millions of miles; he turns on his axis in 24 hours and 39 minutes; and he performs his annual revolution in about 689 of our days. His diameter is 4,189 miles. A ▲ 4 360 APPENDIX. Next follow four very sinall planets, Juno, Ceres, Pallas, and Vesta, which have been recently discovered; but whose dimensions and dis- tances from the sun have not been very accurately ascertained. Jupiter is next in order. This is the largest of all the planets. He is about 490 millions of miles distant from the sun, and completes his annual revolution in nearly twelve of our years. He revolves on his axis in about ten hours. He is about 1,400 times as large as our earth, his diameter being 89,170 miles. He is attended by four moons. Saturn comes next in order. This planet is distant from the sun about 900 millions of miles. His diurnal rotation is performed in ten hours and a quarter; his annual revolution in nearly thirty of our years. His diameter is 79,000 miles. This planet is surrounded by a luminous ring, the nature of which astronomers are much at a loss to conjecture. He has seven moons. It is the most dis- Georgium Sidus, or Uranus, or Herschel, for all these names have been given to this planet, is the last. It was discovered by Dr. Herschel in 1791. It is attended by six moons. tant planet from the sun that has yet been discovered, being at a dis- tance of no less than 1800 millions of miles from that luminary. Its diameter is about 35,000 miles: it takes about 83 years and a half to complete its revolution round the sun. Comets are supposed to be planets. The reappearance of some of them at stated times proves that they revolve round the sun, but in orbits so eccentric, and running to such a distance from the sun, that they disappear for a great number of years. They are easily distin- guished from the other celestial bodies by their ruddy appearance, and by a long train of light called the tail. The length of these tails is often many millions of miles. Some comets have been ascertained to move in long narrow ellipses, or ovals, round the sun, from which it has been thought that they all do the same; but there is no certain proof of this. The number of comets which have been seen at differ- ent times within the limits of our system is about 500, of which the paths of ninety-eight have been calculated. All these form that assemblage of worlds which is called the Solar System. Incidental Conversation. Q. What are the planets? A. Heavenly bodies which perform their circuit round the sun on the same principle as our earth. Q. Into what are they divided? A. Into primary and secondary planets. ASTRONOMY. 361 Q. Which are the primary? A. Those which revolve immediately round the sun. Q. Which are the secondary? A. Those which revolve round another planet, as our moon. Q. What other names have the secondary planets? A. Satellites or moons. Q. Which is the common centre of attraction? A. The sun. Q. What is the reason that the satellites revolve round the primary planets? A. On account of their greater proximity. Q. Does the force of attraction become less as the distance increases between the body attracted and attracting? A. It does. Q. Do the more distant planets un this account move slower in their orbits than the nearer ones? A. They do. Q. What does this account for? A. The motion of the secondary planets round the primary ones, in preference to the sun. Q. How is this shewn? A. The vicinity of the primary planets render their attraction stronger than that of the sun; but since attrac- tion between bodies is mutual, the primary planets are also attracted by their satellites. Q. Does the moon attract the earth as well as the earth does the moon? A. She does. Q. Is her attraction greater or less than that of the earth? A. She being the smaller body, it is of course proportionally less. Q. What is the result? A. That the earth does not revolve round the moon, nor the moon round the earth, but they both revolve round a point which is their common centre of gravity, and which is much nearer the earth's than the moon's centre of gravity? Q. How many different motions has the earth? A. Three. Q. What are they? A. Its motion round the sun, its mo- tion round its own axis, and its motion round the point towards which the moon attracts it. Q. Is this the case with every planet which is attended with satellites? A. It is. Q. Do the planets act on the sun in the same manner as they are themselves acted upon by their satellites ? A. They do. Q. How much do they cause the sun to move? A. Not as much as one half of its diameter. Q. What is the cause of their having such a small effect? A. Because the gra- vity of the planets, even when taken together, is trifling compared with that of the sun. Q. What do we learn from this? A. That the planets do not revolve round the centre of the sun, but round a point at some distance from its centre. Q. Does the sun also revolve round this point? A. It does. Q. Does it revolve round its axis? A. Yes. Q. How can we ascertain this motion? A. By observing certain spots on the sun, which disappear and reappear regularly at stated times. Q. Which is the planet nearest the sun? A. Mer- 362 APPENDIX. Q. How far are we cury. Q. Is his orbit therefore contained within ours. A. It is. Q. What is the reason that the planet Mercury is so seldom visible? A. He is nearly lost in the brilliancy of the sun's rays. Q. What does this prevent? A. Any very accurate observations being made on him. Q. In what length of time does he perform his revolution round the sun? A. In about eighty-seven days, which is conse- quently the length of his year. Q. Is the time of his rotation on his axis known? A. Not accurately. A. Not accurately. Q. What is his distance from the sun computed to be? A. 37 millions of miles. Q. And what is his diameter ? A. 3,224 miles. Q. What is next in the order of planets? A. Venus. Q. How many miles is she from the sun? A. 68 millions of miles Q. In what length of time does she revolve round her axis? A. In 23 hours and 21 minutes. Q. How long does she take in her revolution round the sun? A. 224 days and 17 hours. Q. What is her diameter ? A. 7,687 miles. Q. Is her orbit within ours? A. Yes. Q. When we see Venus before sunrise what is she called? A. The Morning Star. Q. When she is visible after sunrise what do we name her? A. The Evening Star. Q. What other name has she when the evening star? A. Hesperus. Q. What planet comes next? A. The Earth. from the sun? A. 95 millions of miles. Q. In what time do we perform our annual revolution? A. In 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes. Q. What are we attended by in our course? A. By a single moon. Q. What planet is next? A. Mars. Q. Can he ever be between us and the sun like Mercury and Venus? A. No. What is his distance from the sun ? A. 144 millions of miles. Q. In what length of time does he turn on his axis? A. In 24 hours and 39 minutes. Q. In what time does he perform his annual re- volution? A. In about 617 of our days. Q. What is his diameter ? A. 4,189 miles. Q. What follow next? A. Four very small planets, Juno, Ceres, Pallas, and Vesta, which have been recently dis- covered. Q. Have their distances from the sun and dimensions been accurately ascertained? A. No. Q. What planet is next in order? A. Jupiter. Q. Is he a small one? A. No, he is the largest of all the planets. Q. How far is he distant from the sun? A. About 490 millions of miles. Q. In what time does he complete his annual re- volution? A. In nearly twelve of our years. Q. In what time does he revolve round his own axis? A. In about ten hours. Q. How many times larger is he than our earth? A. About 1,400 times. Q. ASTRONOMY. 363 A. Q. What is his diameter?, A. 89,170 miles. Q. By how many moons is he attended. A. By four. Q. What planet follows next? A. Saturn. Q. What is Saturn's distance from the sun? A. About 900 millions of miles. Q. In what time is his diurnal rotation per- formed? A. In ten hours and a quarter. Q. How long does he take to perform his annual revolution ? A. Nearly thirty of our years. Q. What is his diameter? A. 79 thousand miles. Q. By what is this planet surrounded? A. By a luminous ring, the nature of which astronomers are much at a loss to conjecture. Q. How many moons has Saturn? A. Seven. Q. What is the last planet called? The Georgium Sidus. Q. What other names has it? A. Uranus and Herschel. Q. By whom was it discovered? A. By Dr. Hers- chel in 1791. Q. By how many moons is it attended? A. By six. Q. What distance is it from the sun? A. No less than 1800 millions of miles from that luminary. Q. What is its diameter ? A. About 35,000 miles. Q. How long does it take to complete its revolutions round the sun? A. About 83 years and a half. Q. Are comets supposed to be planets? A. They are. Q. What does the reappearance of some of them at stated times prove? A. That they revolve round the sun. Q. Do they revolve in regular orbits? A. No, their course is so eccentric, and they run to so great a distance, that they disappear for a great number of years. what are they easily distinguished from the other celestial bodies? A. By their ruddy appearance, and by a long train of light called the tail. Q. What length are those tails often of? A. Many millions of miles. Q. How have some comets been ascertained to move? A. In long narrow ellipses or ovals round the sun. Q. What has been thought from this? A. That they all do the same. Q. Is there any certain proof of this? A. No. Q. What is the number of comets that have been seen at different times within the limits of our system? A. About 500. Q. How many of the paths of those have been calculated? A. 98. Q. What do those planets form? A. That assemblage of worlds which is called the Solar System. FIXED STARS. Q. By The ancients, that is, the inhabitants of this globe many hundred years ago, in order to recognise the fixed stars, formed them into groups, to which they gave particular names. The twelve constella- tions called the signs of the zodiac, are those which are so situated, ނ 2. 4 + 364 APPENDIX. that the earth, in its annual revolution, passes directly between them and the sun. They occupy a complete circle, or broad belt, in the heavens. Thus a right line drawn from the earth, and passing through the sun, would reach one of these constellations; and the sun is said to be in that constellation in which such a line would ter- minate. The circle in which the sun appears to move, and which passes through the middle of the zodiac, is called the elliptic. We cannot ascertain the distance of the fixed stars, because we have no means of doing so; consequently, when they are said to be in the zodiac, it is merely implied, that they are situated in that direction, and that they shine upon us through that portion of the heaven which we call the zodiac. Whether the apparent difference of the size and brilliancy of the stars, proceeds from various degrees of remoteness or of dimension, is a point which astronomers are not able to ascertain. Considering them as suns, we cannot see any reason why they should not vary in size, as well as the planets belonging to them. Were we to trust to the evidence of our senses, we might, perhaps, doubt the truth of this system of the universe; because it seems to our senses, that the earth is motionless, and that the sun and stars revolve round it. But sometimes our senses deceive us; when sailing on the water with a very steady breeze, the houses, trees, and every object appear to move whilst we cannot feel the motion of the vessel in which we sail. It is only when our motion is impeded by some obstacle, that we are conscious of moving; and were a person to close their eyes, while sailing with a steady wind on calm water, they would not be sensible of any motion, and could see it only by observing the change of place by the objects on shore, when they had again opened their eyes. It is ex- actly similar with the motion of the earth; every thing upon its sur- face, and the atmosphere by which it is surrounded accompanies it in its revolution; it meets with no resistance: we are, therefore, insensi- ble of motion. The apparent motion of the sun and stars affords us exactly similar proof of the earth's motion, that the crew of a vessel have of their motion, by the apparent motion of objects on shore. Let us suppose the earth to be moving round its axis, and successively pass- ing by every star, which we suppose to be moving, like the objects on land, instead of ourselves. Persons who have made balloon ascents, inform us, that the earth appears to sink beneath the balloon, instead of the balloon rising above the earth. What an immense circuit the sun and stars would make daily, were there apparent motions real ! ASTRONOMY. 365 Why should those enormous globes traverse such an immensity of space, merely to prevent the necessity of our earth revolving on its axis? In ancient times, the earth was supposed to occupy the centre of the universe, and the sun, moon, and stars to revolve round it; but since the beginning of the sixteenth century, that system has been found untrue, and the solar system, such as we have been reading of, was established in its place. But the theory of gravitation, the discovery of the source from whence this beautiful and harmonious arrangement springs, we owe to the genius of Sir Isaac Newton, who lived at a much later period. Incidental Conversation. Q. Into what did the ancients divide the fixed stars in order to re- Q. cognise them? A. Into groups, to which they gave particular names. Q. What are the twelve constellations called the twelve signs of the zodiac? A. They are those which are so situated that the earth, in its annual revolution, passes directly between them and the sun. Q. What do they occupy in the heavens? A. A complete circle or broad belt. Q. If a right line were drawn from the earth, passing through the sun, what would it reach? A. One of these constellations. Where is the sun said to be? A. In that constellation in which such a line would terminate. Q. What is the circle called in which the sun appears to move, and which passes through the middle of the zodiac? A. The elliptic. Q. Have we any means of ascertaining the distance of the fixed stars? A. No. Q. When, therefore, they are said to be in the zodiac, what is implied? A. Merely that they are situated in that direction, and that they shine upon us, through that portion of the heavens which we call the zodiac. Q. Has it been ascertained whether the apparent difference in the size and brilliancy of the stars proceeds from various degrees of remoteness or dimensions? A. No; that is a point on which astronomers are doubtful. Q. What may, perhaps, he objected to the system of the universe that we have been explaining? A. That it is directly in opposition to the evi- dence of our senses. Q. What would appear very plain to us? A. That the earth is motionless, and that the sun and stars revolve round it. Q. Do our senses deceive us, when it appears to them that the earth is motionless, and that the sun and stars move round it? A. They do. Q. Name some fact which proves this? A. When sailing on the water, with a very steady brecze, the houses, trees, and - 366 APPENDIX. every object appear to move, whilst we are insensible to the motion of the vessel in which we sail. Q. When only are we sensible of mo- tion? A. When some object impedes our moving. Q. Were you to close your eyes, while sailing on calm water with a steady wind, would you be sensible of motion? A. No, you could not feel it. Q. In what manner could you alone ascertain the progress you had made? A. By the objects on shore. Q. Is it so with the motion of the earth? A. Yes, every thing on its surface, and the air which surrounds it, accompanies it in its revolution. Q. Does it meet with any resist- Q. ance? A. No. Q. What is the consequence? A. We are insensible to motion. What does the apparent motion of the sun and stars afford us? A. The same proof of the earth's motion that the crew of a vessel have of theirs, by the apparent movement of objects upon shore. Q. What do persons tell us who have ascended in balloons? A. That the earth appears to sink beneath the balloon, instead of the balloon rising above the earth. Q. Would not the sun and stars have to make an immense circuit daily if their apparent motion was real ? A. Yes, and there can be no reason why these enormous globes should traverse such an immensity of space merely to prevent the necessity of the earth revolving on its axis. Q. What was the supposition in ancient times? A. The earth was supposed to occupy the centre of the universe, and the sun, moon, and stars to move round it. Q. Whose system was this? A. The system of Ptolemy. Q. Since what time has this system been discarded. A. Since the beginning of the sixteenth century. Q. What system took its place? A. The Solar system, which we have been reading about. Q. By whom was it established? A. By the celebrated astronomer Copernicus and his followers. Q. What is it hence called? A. The Copernican sys- tem. Q. Who was it discovered the theory of gravitation, the source from which this beautiful and harmonious arrangement flows? A. We owe that to the genius of Sir Isaac Newton, who lived in a much later period. We have given the above astronomical lessons not as all that boys should learn, but as specimens of what we consider the proper method of giving the instruction. The teacher should in the same manner give lessons on the terrestrial globe, the seasons, explaining the causes of their variation, the difference of the length of days and nights, &c., on the moon and eclipses, and on the tides. These may perhaps be sufficient; having first, by the assistance of the black board, and a } BOTANY. 367 a piece of chalk, illustrated and made the subject under consideration plain, the teacher should then draw back the information from the boys, in a familiar conversation, by which what they have heard will be indelibly fixed on their memory. It is a very great truth that "a little learning is a dangerous thing," and our error has been always to give too little. What can be better calculated to bring the mind into a proper state, than giving children some idea of the vast wisdom of the Almighty, as displayed in the ma- nagement of the heavenly bodies? And what is so likely to induce them to adore and venerate his holy name, as their being trained to look for his power through the mighty wonders of his own creation? I will not condescend to argue the point, that the outline of these things should not be taught to the working classes; those who would with- hold the small amount of education that I contend for, from any human being, cannot be Christian in heart, however proud they may be of the name. My idea of a Christian, is a follower of Jesus Christ; and the Scriptures inform us that he dispensed his bounties to all; that some would not receive him was no fault of his; he has left nothing on re- cord to prove that we should not instruct, to a certain degree, the whole human race; and what has been called education, has only been the mere SHELL; 'tis time now we should have the kernel. The state of mankind and the state of the country require it, and those who stand up against it only prove their own selfishness, and how incompetent they are to legislate upon the subject. The more we know, the more we see there is to know; and to talk about over-education, when the wisest of us knows so little, appears to me truly ridiculous, and can only be accounted for by a want of an universal and general attention to the subject. Thank God! the public attention has been drawn to it; some good will arise out of it, I have no doubt; and I have thought it my duty to give my own unbiassed views, and throw my mite into the treasury, that it may assist in producing an universal system of national education worthy of our name and our country. BOTANY. We have mentioned before, that the following lessons were not to be read until the boys were thoroughly acquainted with the lessons on the same subject, given in the girls' department. We again mention this, fearing the teacher should fall into error. 368 APPENDIX. CLASSIFICATION AND NAMES OF PLANTS. By the classification of plants, we mean forming them into classes, which are the largest divisions; dividing these into orders, subdividing these orders into genera, the genera into species, and the species into varieties, when that is necessary. All the plants that are formed into one class must have at least one property, or character, in common; that is, they must be like each other in one thing at least, and in that particular point they must also differ from plants of any other class. To belong to the same order, they must have two properties in common ; and to belong to the same genus they must have at least three. to belong to the same species they must have all of what may be consi- dered their constant qualities alike. Those in which differences appear to be merely accidental, form varieties of a species. By accidental dif- ferences, we mean those which are not natural to the plant, but which appear to be produced by difference of situation, climate, soil, or culture, and which would be changed by changing these. The greatest number But of varieties are found amongst those plants most extensively cultivated by man; but the difference of species is a natural difference; and one species cannot be changed to another by any human art. There may be changes of varieties, and art often produces many new ones; but there can be no change of species; no art of man can produce a new species of plant. We, therefore, see that the knowledge of species is the most important part of botanical knowledge, and the higher classifi- cation is a matter of mere arrangement, but is not useless; for instance, the books in a library may be considered as species, as it is from them only that the student can get information; but he can get the book he wants much sooner if the whole are classed, all the history in the same case, and all the works of the same historian on the same shelf. The different editions of the same book are varieties, but, as they are artificial things altogether, the term species does not properly apply to them. The species of plants are very numerous, at least twenty thou- sand, or perhaps thirty thousand; and in those which are not very well known, species and varieties are apt to be confounded with each other. The species which are nature's classification, are always the same; and the varieties are real also, although liable to change. Genera should be, also, always natural divisions; but this is not possible in all cases. The systems of arrangement that apply to the other parts of classi- fication are either natural or artificial; a natural system is one in BOTANY. 369 which plants are arranged according to their general appearance and qualities, so that from any one plant of this class, some idea at least may be formed of all the plants in it; an artificial system is one in which the characters of plants are taken from some single quality or part, the knowledge of which is not always a key to the general habits, appearances, and qualities of the plant. The best names given to classes and orders, are the names of the characters on which they are founded; these are not the names of single plants but common names, The names of the genera are a sort of proper names,-family names as it were; and neither they nor the names of species, or individuals, are descriptive, but must be followed by a descriptive character. The proper names are the generic name from the genus, the specific name from the species, and the trivial name from the variety; and the cha- racters are the same; a generic character, a specific character, and a trivial character. The best names of the plants are those which either express or suggest their characters; the worst are those which have no meaning, as is too often the case. What system of plants is the best? The artificial system formed by Linnæus is the best for beginners, be- cause it is the most simple. Questions and Answers. Q. What is meant by the classification of plants? A. Forming them into classes, which are the largest divisions. Q. What more? A. Dividing those into orders, sub-dividing those orders into genera, the genera into species, and species into varieties, when that is necessary. Q. What must a class contain? A. All the plants that are formed into one class must have at least one property or character in common, which does not belong to plants of any other class. Q. What plants may belong to the same order? A. They must have two common pro- perties. Q. Which to the same genus ? A. They must have at least three common properties. Q. Which to the same species? A. Those which have all of what may be considered as their constant qualities alike. Q. What form varieties of a species? A. Those in which the differences appear to be merely accidental. Q. What do you mean by accidental dif- ferences? A. Those which are not natural to the plant, but which are produced by difference of situation, climate, soil, or culture, and which would be changed by changing those. Q. Among which plants are there the greatest number of varieties? A. Amongst those which are most extensively cultivated by man. Q. Can one species be changed to another B B - 370 APPENDIX. the same, by human art? A. No, there may be changes of varieties, but not of species. Q. Is the knowledge of species important? A. It is the most important part of botanical knowledge. Q. Is classification important? A. It is. Q. What does it enable us to do? A. To find out a particular A· plant easily. Q. Is the knowledge of species easily obtained? Not easily, the species are very many. Q. How many species are there thought to be? A. Twenty, or, perhaps, thirty thousand. Q. In plants not well known, what are we apt to confound with each other? A. Species and varieties. Q. Are there more kinds of classification than one? A. The species that are nature's classification, are always and the varieties are real also, although liable to change. Q. Are not the genera natural divisions? A. They ought always to be so, but this is not possible in all cases. Q. Then what are the systems of arrangement that apply to the other parts of the classification ? They are either natural or artificial. Q. What is a natural system? A. One in which plants are arranged according to their general ap- pearance and qualities. Q. How may we have by a natural system some idea of all the plants in a class? A. By one plant belonging to such class. Q. What is an artificial system? A. One in which the characters of plants are taken from some single part or quality. Q. Is the knowledge of this always a key to the general habits, appearance, and qualities of the plant? A. No. Q. What names are given to classes and orders? A. The best ones are the names of the characters on which they are founded. Are these the names of single plants? Q. What are the names of genera ? J A. Q. Q. A. No, they are common names. A. They are a sort of proper names- -family names, as it were. Are they descriptive? A. No. Q. Are those of species or indivi- duals descriptive? A. No-but they must all be followed by a des- criptive character. Q. What are the proper names? A. The ge- neric name for the genus, the specific name for the species, and the tri- vial name for the variety. Q. And what are the characters? A. They are the same, a generic character, a specific character, and a trivial character. Q. When are the names of plants best? A. When they either express or suggest the characters. Q. When are they worst? A. When they have no meaning. Q. Why is the artificial system formed by Linnæus best for beginners in botany? A. Because it is the most simple. BOTANY. 371 1 LESSONS ON BOTANY.-THE LINNEAN SYSTEM. The artificial system of Linnæus is founded on flowers solely; to those who search for new plants, this is a disadvantage, as plants are not always in flower, and they may not be able to wait until they are. But still it is the most simple; it does not convey information, for no artificial system can; but it is a very convenient arrangement of the information otherwise obtained. The system is founded on the essential parts of flowers, that is, the stamens and pistils. The stamen consists of the filament or thread, and the anther, which is a little knob on the top of the filament that bursts, and discharges a fine powder called the pollen; this powder, falling on the stigma, fertilizes the embryo or rudiment of the seed. In the Linnæan system there are twenty-four classes; their names are derived from the Greek language, the first twelve are made up of the names of numbers, and the word andria which means fertilizers, or the stamens; and the other twelve are named from the arrangement of the stamens. The classes are thus named. 1. Monandria 2. Diandria 3. Triandria... 1 Stamen. 2 Stamens. 3 Stamens. 4. Tetrandria 4 Stamens. 5. Pentandria 5 Stamens. 6. Hexandria 6 Stamens. 7. Heptandria 77 Stamens. 8. Octandria……….. 8 Stamens. 9. Enneandria 9 Stamens. 10. Decandria 10 Stamens. 11. Dodecandria.. 12 Stamens. 12. Icosandria 20 Stamens. 13. Polyandria 14. Didynamia 15. Tetradynamia 16. Mondelphia 17. Diadelphia 18. Polyadelphia 19. Syngenesia 20. Gynandria ... { Many Stamens. 4 Stamens, two longer. 6 Stamens, four longer. Filaments united at bottom, but separated at top. Filaments in two sets. Filaments in many sets. Stamens united by antheræ Stamens and pistils together. B B 2 372 APPENDIX. 21. Monacia. 22. Diæcia………………………. 23. Polygamia 24. Cryptogamia Stamens and pistils in separate flowers, upon the same plant. Stamens and pistils distinct upon different plants. Variously situated. Flowers invisible. Questions and Answers. Q. On what part of the plants is the artificial system of Linnæus founded? A. On the flowers solely. Q. Is not this a disadvantage to those who search for new plants, as plants are not always in flower? A. It is. Q. What then is the reason this system is used? A. From its being the most simple. Q. Does it convey information? A. No, an artificial system cannot convey information. Q. What then does it serve for? A. It is a very convenient arrangement of the informa- tion otherwise obtained. Q. On what parts of the flower is the system. founded? A. On the essential parts. Q. What are those parts called? A. The stamens and pistils. Q. Of what does the stamen Q. What more? A. The A. A little knob on the top of the A. It bursts and discharges a fine consist? A. Of the filament, or thread. anther. Q. What is the anther? filament. Q. What does it do? powder. Q. What is this powder called? A. The pollen. Q. What is its use? A. Falling on the stigma fertilizes the embryo, or rudiment of the seed. Q. How many classes are there in the Linnæan system? A. Their names are A Twenty-four. Q. How are they formed? derived from the Greek language. Q. What are the first twelve made up of? A. The names of the numbers, and the word andria. Q. What does andria mean? A. Fertilizers, or stamens. Q. Why are the stamens called fertilizers? A. Because the powder contained in the anther fertilizes the young seed? Q. What do you mean by the word fertilize? A. To make fruitful or productive. Q. What are the other twelve classes named from? A. The arrangement of the stamens. Q. What is the first class called? A. Monandria. Q. How Q. Name the second class? many stamens has this class? A. One. A. Diandria. Q. How many stamens? A. Two. Q. The third class? A. Triandria, three stamens. Q. Fourth? A. Tetandria, four stamens. Q. Fifth? A. Pentandria, five stamens. Q. Sixth? A. Hexandria, six stamens. Q. Q. Seventh? A. Heptandria, seven stamens. Q. Eight? A. Octandria, eight stamens. Q. Ninth? : BOTANY. 373 A. Enneandria, nine stamens. Q. Tenth? A. Decandria, ten sta- mens. Q. Eleventh? A. Dodecandria, twelve stamens. Q. Twelfth? A. Icosandria, twenty stamens. Q. What are the names of those twelve first classes made up of. A. The names of numbers and the word andria. Q. Name the thirteenth ? A. Polyandria, many sta- mens. Q. Fourteenth ? A. Didynamia, four stamens, two longer. Q. Fifteenth? A. Tetradynamia, six stamens, four longer. Q. Six- teenth? A. Monadelphia, filaments united at bottom, but separated at top. Q. Seventeenth ? A. Diadelphia filaments in two sets. Q. Eighteenth? A. Polydelphia, filaments in many sets. Q. Nineteenth? A. Syngenesia, stamens united by anthera. Q. Twentieth? A. Gy- nandria, stamens and pistils together. Q. Twenty-first? A. Mo- næcia, stamens and pistils in separate flowers upon the same plant. Q. Twenty second? A. Stamens and pistils distinct upon separate plants. Q. Twenty-third? A. Polygamia, variously situated. Q. Twenty-fourth? A. Cryptogamia, flowers invisible. THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS (Continued). The principles on which the classes are formed are simple, and easily comprehend; but it will be necessary for the beginner in botany to go over them again, and distinguish the properties of each class more particularly, before he proceeds farther in this lesson; therefore, we will shew how the classes are known. All plants which have only one stamen are of the first class; those that have only two are of the second; those that have only three are of the third; and so on, the number of stamens being the same with the number of the class in the first ten classes. The eleventh class, dodecandria, contains all those plants which have from twelve to nine- teen stamens affixed to the receptacle. The twelfth class, icosandria, is known by having twenty or inore stamens fixed to the inside of the calyx. In this class the place of insertion is more to be relied on than the number of the stamens, for these are sometimes less than twenty, and sometimes more. The thirteenth class, polyandria, comprehends those plants that have more than twenty stamens attached to the re- ceptacle. The fourteenth class, didynamia, is known by having four stamens in each flower, of which two are longer than the other. The fifteenth class, tetradynamia, is known by having in the flower six In the six- stamens, four of which are larger than the other two. teenth class, monadelphia, the stamens are united by their filaments BB 3 374 APPENDIX. : into one set, forming a case round the lower part of the pistils, but separating it at the top. The seventeenth class, diodelphia, is dis- tinguished by the corollas being like a butterfly, as the blossom of a pea; the stamens are connected by their filaments, but divided into two sets, one of which is thicker, and forms a case round the pistil ; the other is smaller, and leans towards the pistil. The eighteenth class, polydelphia, has the stamens united by their filaments into more than two sets or parcels. The nineteenth class, syngenesia, may be known by its consisting of compound flowers, as the common daisy or dandelion, and they are called compound, because each single flower consists of a collection of little flowers, or florets, attached to the same broad receptacle, and contained within one calyx. The twentieth class, gynandria, has the stamens attached to the pistil. The twenty- first class may be known by its containing those plants which have flowers of different kinds on the same plant, some bearing pistils, and others stamens only. The twenty-second class, diæcia, may be dis- tinguished by its comprehending those species which have stamens on one plant and pistils on another. The twenty-third class contains those plants which have at least two, and sometimes three kinds of flowers; 1, some with pistils and stamens on the same flowers; 2, others having stamens only; 3, others having pistils only; and the twenty-fourth class, cryptogamia, comprehends all plants in which the flowers are invisible to the naked eye, as mosses, ferns, mushrooms, sea-weeds, &c. Questions and Answers. A. Q. How are the first ten classes known? A. By the number of the stamens being the same as the number of the class to which the flower belongs. Q. How is the eleventh class known? A. It con- tains all those plants which have from twelve to nineteen stamens fixed on the receptacle? Q. How is the twelfth class known? By having twenty or more stamens fixed inside the calyx. Q. Is this an infallible method of knowing this class? A. No, the place where the stamens are inserted is a better way of knowing this class, because the number varies. Q. What plants are comprehended in the thirteenth class? A. Those that have more than twenty stamens attached to the receptacle. Q. What distinguishes the fourteenth class? A. When there are four stamens in a flower, of which two are longer than the others, it belongs to the fourteenth class. Q. How BOTANY. 375 may the fifteenth be known? flower, four of which are longer those of the sixteenth class. A. are united by their filaments in one set, forming a case round the lower part of the pistils, but separating at the top. Q. How may the seventeenth class be distinguished? A. The corollas are of a butterfly shape. Q. Name a plant of this order. A. The pea. A. By their filaments. A. By having six stamens in the than the other two. Q. Describe In the sixteenth class the stamens Q. How are the stamens collected? Q. Into how many sets are they divided? A. Into two, one of which is thicker, and forms a case round the pistil. Q. Describe the other. A. It is smaller, and leans towards the pistil. Q. How is the eighteenth class known? A. By the stamens being united by their filaments into more than two sets or parcels. Q. By what means may the nineteenth class be known? A. It consists of compound flowers. Q. Name some specimens? A. The dandelion and com. A. Be- mon daisy. Q. Why are they called compound flowers? cause each simple flower is made up of a collection of small flowers, or florets, attached to the same broad receptacle, and contained within A. The one calyx. Q. What distinguishes the twentieth class? stamens are attached to the pistil. Q. By what may the twenty-first class be known? A. It contains those plants which have flowers of different kinds on the same plant, some having pistils, and others stamens only. Q. How may the twenty-second class be known? A. It consists of those species which have stamens on one plant, and pistils on another. Q. What kind of plants does the twenty-third class comprehend? A. Those plants which have at least two, and sometimes three kinds of flowers. Q. What are comprehended in the twenty-fourth class? A. This comprehends all plants in which the flowers are invisible to the naked eye. Q. Tell me some of those. A. Mosses, ferns, mushrooms, sea-weeds, &c. THE ORDERS OF PLANts. The construction of the orders is as ingenious and simple as that of the classes. In the thirteen first classes, the orders are fouuded en- tirely on the number of the pistils, so that by joining GYNIA, instead of ANDRIA, to the Greek words signifying the numbers, the names are formed, and they may be remembered easily. Where they are not distinguished by the number of pistils, their names are taken from B B 4 376 APPENDIX. some circumstances relative to the stamens, pistils, or seed. The names of the first thirteen orders: 1. Monogynia 2. Digynia 1 Pistil. 2 Pistils. 3. Trigynia 3 Pistils. 4. Tetragynia 4 Pistils. 5. Pentagynia 5 Pistils. 6. Hexagynia 6 Pistils. 7. Heptagynia 7 Pistils. 8. Octagynia 8 Pistils. 9. Ennegynia 9 Pistils. 10. Decagynia 10 Pistils. 11. Dodecagynia 12 Pistils. 12. Polygynia..... Many Pistils. In the fourteenth there are two orders only, which depend on the presence or absence of the pericarp or seed vessel. 1. Gymnospermia. Naked seeds in the bottom of the calyx, as in mint, dead nettle, and thyme. 2. Angiospermia. Seeds enclosed in a pericarp, as in the fox-glove, eye-bright, wood-flax, and fig-wort. There are two orders of the fifteenth class, which are taken from a difference in the forms of the pericarp. 1. Siliculosa. Seeds enclosed in a pouch or roundish seed vessel, 'consisting of two pieces called valves, and the seeds fixed to both edges, as in shepherd's purses, and cress. 2. Siliquosa. Seeds enclosed in a long seed vessel, as in mustard. The orders of the next four classes are known by the number of stamens. There are six orders in the nineteenth class, which are taken from the structures of the flower: first, polygamia æqualis, having both stamens and pistils in the same floret, as in dandelion, thistle, &c. Second, polygamia superflua, when the flower is com- posed of two parts, a disk or central part, and rays or petals projecting outward, as in the sun-flower, tansy, camomile, &c. The third, po- lygamia frustanea, the florets of the centre perfect or united, those of the margin without either stamens or pistils, as blue bottles. The fourth, polygamia necessaria, where the florets in the disk, though apparently perfect, are not really so, and therefore produce no perfect seed, but the fruitfulness of the pistil bearing florets in the ray com- BOTANY. 377 pensates for the deficiency of those in the centre of the flower, as in the marygold The fifth, polygamia segregata, when each of the florets has a calyx, besides the common or general calyx of the flower. The sixth, monogamia, when the flower is not compound, but single, and the anther united. In the next three classes the orders are formed from the number, and other peculiarities of the stamens. Monandria Diandria, &c. Polyandria Monadelphia 1 Stamen. 2 Stamens, and 7 Stamens. Polyandelphia Gynandria .... Stamens united into one set. Stamens united into different sets. Stamens upon the pistil. The twenty-third class comprises three orders; namely, monæcia, diæcia, and niæcia. The last class has four orders, ferns, mosses, sea- weeds, and fungi or mushrooms. Questions and Answers. Q. On what are orders founded? A. In the first thirteen classes the orders are founded entirely on the number of the pistils. Q. How are the names formed? A. By adding gynia instead of andria to the Greek words, signifying the numbers. Q. Where they are not dis- tinguished by the number of the pistils, how are they known? A. Their names are taken from some circumstance relative to the stamens, pistils, or seed. Q. Name the first thirteen orders. A. Monogynia. One pistil, &c. Q. How many orders are there of the fourteenth class. A. Only two orders. Q. How are they known? A. They depend on the presence or absence of the pericarp. Q. What is the pericarp? A. The seed vessel. Q. What is the first of those two orders named ? A. Gymnospermia. Q. How is it known? A. By having naked seeds in the bottom of the calyx. Q. Give me an example. A. Mint, dead-nettle, and thyme. Q. Name the second order. A. Angiospermia. Q. How is it distinguished? A. The seeds are enclosed in a pericarp. Q. Give me an example. A. The fox-glove, eye bright, wood flax, and fig wort. Q. What orders are there of the fifteenth class. A. Two. Q. What are they taken from? A. A difference in the form of the pericarp. A. Siliculosa. Q. Describe it. A. Seeds Q. Name the first? enclosed in a roundish pouch or seed vessel, consisting of two pieces like valves, and the seeds fixed to both edges. Q. Give me exam- i 378 APPENDIX. : : A. Polygamia ples. A. As in shepherds' purses and cress. Q. How are the orders of the next four classes known? A. They are distinguished by the number of stamens. Q. How many orders are there in the nine- teenth class? A. Six, which are taken from the structure of the flower. Q. Which is the first? A. Polygamia æqualis. Q. De- scribe it. A. It has both stamens and pistils in the same floret. Q. Give me some example? A. The dandelion, the thistle, &c. Q. Which is the second order? A. Polygamia superflua. Q. De- scribe it. A. When the flower is composed of two parts, a disk or central part, and rays or petals projecting outward. Q. Give me examples. A. The sunflower, tansy, camomile, &c. Q. Which is the third? A. Polygamia frustanea, the florets of the centre per- fect or united without either stamen or pistils. Q. Give me an example. A. Bluebottles. Q. Name the fourth. A. Polygamia necessaria. Q. Describe this order. A. Where the florets in the disk, though apparently perfect, are not really so, and therefore pro- duce no perfect seed. Q. What compensates for this? A. The fruitfulness of the pistil bearing florets in the ray, make up for the deficiency of those in the centre of the flower. Q. Give me a speci- men. A. The marigold. Q. The fifth ? A. Polygamia segregata, when each of the florets has a calyx besides the common or general calyx of the flower. Q. Which is the sixth. A. Monogamia, when the flower is not compound, but single, and the anther united. Q. From what are the orders formed in the next three classes. A. From the number and other peculiarities of the stamens. many orders are comprised in the twenty third class? prises three orders. Q. What are they named? A. Monæcia, diæ- cia, and triæcia. Q. How many orders has the last class? A. Four; ferns, mosses, sea weeds, and fungi. Q. How A. It com- Before proceeding to the more minute details of the different classes and orders, it may be well to observe, that the introductory lessons on botany in the girls' department, should be taught the boys also, before they commence the lessons we give here. It will of course depend on the judgment of the teacher whether the girls also follow up the entire series of botanical lessons or not. Many, doubtless, will consider the introductory lessons as sufficient for poor girls, as they give a general idea of what botany is, but if it be practicable to give a better knowledge to them on the subject, it will be found one calculated to purify and refine the female mind. But it should be BOTANY. 379 remembered that unless the teacher exerts himself, or herself, and en- deavours to explain every thing clearly to the pupils, he might as well, indeed he had better, not attempt the thing at all. In every case where it is practicable the pupils should be shewn specimens of the different classes and orders; not by plates, however well executed, but by the real objects themselves. The flowers should be dissected in their presence, and the different parts clearly and accurately ex- plained, that the otherwise incomprehensible names may be the better impressed on their minds. Unless this be done the science will seem to them, dry and unintelligible; but if pains be taken to make them understand it, there is nothing that will give them more delight. And when we reflect how forcibly the great and wonderful power and goodness of God, may be impressed on the minds of children by a close inspection of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, we shall see, that natural history deserves more consideration than it has yet received. CLASS FIRST-MONANDRIA (ONE STAMEN). This class has three orders, monogynia, digynia, and polygynia. Most of the plants belonging to this class are natives of India, such as ginger, cardamoms, arrowroot, and tumeric; and they are remark- able for their spicy qualities. The Indian arrowroot is used as food, and is good for delicate persons. Two of the first order, and one of the second are natives of Britain; of the first, is the plant called mares' tail, which grows in our muddy pools and ditches, and as it is easily procured, will serve for an example of the order. The hippuris or mares' tail, has neither calyx nor carolla; a sin- gle pistil denotes its order, and it has only one stamen, which grows upon the receptacle, terminated by an anther slightly divided, behind which is the pistil with an awl-shaped stigma tapering to a point. The stem is straight and jointed, and the leaves grow round the joints. At the base of each leaf is a flower, and it is seen in bloom in the month of May. The other British plant of the first order, is glasswort, which grows abundantly on some of the shores of Kent; and is useful in the manufactory of glass and soap. The water- starwort belongs to the second order of this class; it takes its name from its upper leaves taking a star-like appearance; it is to be met with in ditches and standing water, and may be seen in blossom at any 1 380 APPENDIX. :. time between April and October. class are found only in New Holland. Plants of the third order of this Questions and Answers. A. Monandria, or one stamen. A. Three. Q. What ex- A. Ginger, cardamoms, Q. Where does it Q. Describe it. Q. How is the first class called? Q. How many orders has this class? amples can you give me of this class? arrowroot, and tumeric. Q. Where are those plants natives of? A. India. Q. What are the plants of this class remarkable for? A. For their spicy qualities. Q. Are any of them used for foed? A. Yes; the Indian arrowroot. Q. Are any plants of this class natives of Britain? A. Yes; two of the first order, and one of the second. Q. Give me the name of one of the plants belonging to the first order. A. The hippuris or mares' tail. generally grow? A. In muddy pools and ditches. A. It has neither calyx nor corolla, a single pistil denotes its order, and it has only one stamen, which grows upon the receptacle. Q. What is behind this? A. The pistil. Q. What more? A. An awl-shaped stigma tapering to a point. Q. Describe the stem. A. It is straight and jointed, and the leaves grow round the joints. Q. Where is the flower? A. At the base of each leaf. Q. At what time of the year is it seen in bloom? A. In the month of May. Q. Which is the other British plant of the first order? A. Glass- wort. Q. Where does it grow? A. Very abundantly on the shores of Kent. Q. Is it of any use? A. Yes; in making soap and glass. Q. Describe some plant of this class belonging to order second. A. The water star-wort. Q. From what does this plant take its name? A. From its upper leaves making a star-shaped appearance. Q. Where is it to be met with? A. In ditches and standing water. Q. When may it be seen in blossom? A. Any time between April and October. Q. Where are plants of the third order found ? Only in New Holland. CLASS SECOND.-DIANDRIA (TWO STAMENS). Three Orders. A. The privet being a shrub very common in our hedges and gardens, will serve as a good specimen to exemplify this class. The privet bears a white blossom, and generally flowers in June. It BOTANY. 331 has a very small tubulated calyx of one leaf; its rim divided into four parts; the blossom is also of one petal, and funnel-shaped, with an ex- panded border, cut into four egg-shaped segments. The privet bears berries; the seed vessel is a black berry containing but one cell, which encloses four seeds. These berries are useful to the dyers, as they give a durable green colour to silk or wool, by the addition of alum. The common jasmine, which is a most fragrant ornamental shrub, belongs to the class diandria; it is a native of India, but has long been cultivated in Europe; it is chiefly raised against walls, and is interesting not only from the elegance of its foliage, but also from the number of beautiful white flowers with which it is adorned, which exhale a sweet odour, particularly after rain, and in the night. That useful foreign spice, called pepper, also belongs to this class. There are upwards of sixty different species of pepper, and they are nearly all natives of the East and West Indies :-black pepper, which belongs to the third order of this class, is a climbing plant, and grows spontaneously in the East Indies and Cochin China; it is also cultivated at many other places, but in no part of Europe. It was formerly thought, that white pepper was a different species from the black, but it is really nothing more than the ripe berries deprived of their skin, by steeping them for a time in water, and then drying them in the sun. Cayenne pepper is not produced from the same plant, but is obtained in the West Indies, from various species of the genus capsicum. Questions and Answers. Q. How many orders in the class 2, Diandria? A. Three. Q. Give me an example of this class in some plant we are very well ac- quainted with. A. The privet. Teacher. Yes; that will do very well for an example, because it is common in our hedges and gardens. Now give me an account of it. A. The privet bears a white blossom, and generally flowers in June. Q. What sort of calyx has it? A. A very small calyx of one leaf, its rim divided into four parts. Q. Describe the blossom. A. It is also of one petal, and funnel-shaped, with an expanded border, cut into four egg-shaped segments. Q. Does not the privet bear berries? A. Yes; the seed-vessel is a black berry, con- taining but one cell, which encloses four seeds. Q. Do you know of any purpose to which the berries of the privet are applied? A. Yes; they are useful to dyers, as they give a durable green colour to silk and wool, by the addition of alum. Q. Does not the common jasmine belong to 382 APPENDIX. . . .. -- : the class diandria? A. Yes. Q. Describe it. A. It is a most fragrant ornamental shrub; not only interesting from the elegance of its foliage, but also from the number of beautiful white flowers with which it is adorned. Q. What are those flowers remarkable for? A. They give out a very delightful perfume. Q. At what time is this sweetest? A. After rain, and in the night. Q. Of what country is the jasmine originally a native, although now so generally cultivated in England? A. Of India. Q. What useful foreign spice belongs to this class? A. Pepper. Q. How many species of pepper are there? A. Upwards of sixty. Q. Of what countries are nearly all these natives? A. Of the East and West Indies. Q. To what order of this class does black pepper belong? A. To the third. A. To the third. Q: What description of plant is it? A. A climbing one. Q. Where does it grow most plentifully? A. In the East Indies and Cochin China. Q. Is it cultivated in any part of Europe? A. No. Q. Is not white pepper a different species from the black. A. No; it was for- merly thought so, however. Q. What is really the only difference? A. The white pepper is made so, by depriving the ripe berries of their skin, by steeping them in water, and then drying them in the sun. Q. Is Cayenne pepper produced from the same plant? A. No; Cayenne pepper is produced in the West Indies, from various species of the genus capsicum. CLASS THREE-TRIANDRIA (THREE STAMENS). Three Orders. : We will illustrate the class triandria, by giving you an account of some of the various grasses which are comprised in it. Though it may appear surprising, it is no less true, that every single blade of those apparently insignificant plants, bears a distinct flower, perfect in all its parts, and only requires to be nicely viewed to excite our value and estimation. How very wonderful must be the power and great- ness of God! how much beyond all our deserts is his mercy, who has made for our use not only the enormous oak, but also the little useful grasses. There are upwards of three hundred different species of grasses, their general character may be thus described; the leaves furnish pasturage for cattle, the smaller seeds are food for birds, and the larger for man; but some are preferred to others, as fesene for sheep, meadow grass for cows, canary for small birds, oats and beans BOTANY. 383 for horses; rye, wheat, and barley, for man. Nothing can exceed the uses of those grasses to man; without them he could neither have bread, meat, beer, milk, butter, cheese, leather, or wool; or any ad- vantage he derives from cattle. Corn and grasses may be distinguished from other plants by their simple unbranched stalk, hollow and pointed, commonly called a straw, with long narrow tapering leaves placed at each knob or joint of the stalk, and sheathing or enclosing it as by way of support. Their ears, or heads, consist of a husk, generally com- posed of two valves, which form the calyx. within which is the blos- som, being also a husk of two valves. Linnæus has arranged the grasses into four divisions; the first three include those that are pro- duced in panicles, or loose branches, which are distinguished by the number of flowers in each impalement, the first having one flower, the second two, and the third several. The fourth division consists of all those that grow in spikes or heads, such as wheat, rye, or barley. Wheat is the chief support of man; it is cultivated in most civilized countries of the world, and is supposed to have been originally intro- duced into Europe from Asia. It must have been known to the Egyptians in Joseph's, the beloved son of Jacob's time, because we read in the Bible of his interpreting the dream about the ears of corn. There is no grain so valuable to man as wheat, and it is wisely ordained by Providence, that it is capable of sustaining the cold of northern climates, as well as the excessive heat of those under the torrid zone. Wheat constitutes the principal food for all classes of the community in England, Scotland, Wales, (in Ireland the principal food of the poor people is potatoes), and its abundance or scarcity regulates in a great degree the welfare and prosperity of the inhabitants. The whole annual consumption of grain in the three countries mentioned, England, Scotland, and Wales, is said to amount to twenty-five mil- lions of quarters; and in the city of London alone, to more than 1,162,000 quarters; the greater part of which is wheat. Sugar is also the production of a plant of this class-the sugar cane. It is much cultivated in the East and West Indies; has a jointed stem eight or nine feet high, long and flat leaves, of a greenish yellow colour, and flower in bunches. The methods used to extract the sugar from the canes are as follows: when cut down, the leaves are thrown away, and the stems or canes are divided into pieces, each about a yard in length; they are then tied up in bundles, and conveyed to the mill, where they are bruised between three upright wooden rollers covered 384 APPENDIX, .. . ་ 2 with iron; the sweet juice which flows from them is conducted into a large vessel; and the quantity of juice prepared by some of those mills is upwards of ten thousand gallons in a day. The juice is then boiled in large cauldrons, and afterwards carefully drawn off, leaving the scum at the bottom of the pan. After being again boiled with a cer- tain mixture of lime, to draw away the free acid, it is transferred into a large shallow wooden vessel, where, as it cools, it runs into a sort of crystallization, by which it is separated from the molasses or treacle- an impure part of the juice, incapable of being crystallized, but which is used for various useful purposes. The celebrated plant called by the people that lived thousands of years ago, papyrus, belongs to this class, it is of the rush kind, and grows on the borders of the Nile, to the height of ten or twelve feet; the stem is naked, having a bushy head, and a few short leaves at the bottom. Many years ago, before England, Ireland, or Scotland were civilized, that is, made to have the art of doing a great many useful things, the inner rind of this plant was converted into paper by the people of Egypt; and it is from this that our word paper is taken. The principal manufacture was at Alexandria, and this city derived great riches from its exportation. This kind of paper was used until the tenth century, (that is now nearly 1,000 years ago), when paper made of cotton was introduced, and such as we now use, which you surely all know is made from linen, became common in the fourteenth century. You see by this lesson that in the third class of plants we have the greatest number of blessings; and when we have heard of them, we should thank God for them. Questions and Answers. Q. How A. The Q. What is the third class named? A. Triandria. many stamens ? A. Three. Q. How many orders? A. Three. Q. What description of plants does this order comprehend? various grasses. Q. What are you told in the lesson of those grasses, which is very surprising? A. That every simple blade of those ap- parently insignificant plants bears a distinct flower, perfect in all its parts. Q. Will those flowers bear a close examination? A. Yes; the more minutely we examine them, the more wonderful they appear. Q. Are there many different variations of grasses? A. Yes; there are upwards of three hundred species. Q. How may the general BOTANY. 385 A. Fescue. What for small birds? A. Q. What do you mean by tapering? Q. Where are those leaves placed? stalk or straw. Q. What do you character of grasses be described? A. The leaves furnish pasturage for the cattle, the smaller seeds food for birds, and the larger for man. Q What deseription of grasses is best for sheep? Q. What for cows? A. Meadow grass. Q. A. Canary. Q. What for horses? A. Oats and beans. Q. And what for man? A. Rye, wheat, and barley. Q. Should we have bread, meat, beer, milk, cheese, leather, or wool, but for grasses? A. No; for bread and beer are made of corn, and the rest are pro. duced by animals which could not exist without grass. Q. To whom should we be grateful for all those things? A. To God; who created the animals, and makes the grass grow for our use. Q. How may corn and grasses be distinguished from other plants? A. By their simple straight unbranched stalk, Q. What is this stalk commonly called? A. A straw. Q. What description of leaves has it? Long, narrow, and tapering. A. Growing small at the end. A. At each knob or point of the remark the leaves do for the stalk? A. They sheathe and support it. Q. Describe the ear or head? A. It consists of a husk, gene- rally composed of two valves. What do they form? A. The calyx. Q. What is within this? A. The blossom. Q. What is this also? A. A husk of two valves. Q. How are the various grasses divided ? A. Linnæus has arranged them into four divisions. Q. What do the first three include? A. Those that are produced in panicles or loose branches. Q. What are they distinguished by? A. The number of flowers in each impalement. Q. How many flowers has the first? A. One. Q. How many the second? A. Two. Q. And how many the third? A. Several. Q. What does the fourth division consist of? A. All those that grow in spikes or heads, such as wheat, rye, and barley. Q. Describe wheat. A. It is the chief support of man; there is no grain so valuable, and it is wisely ordained by Providence, that it is capable of being cultivated in almost every climate. Q. From whence is it supposed to have been introduced to Europe? A. From Asia. Q. Does it not constitute the principal food of all classes of the community in England, Scot- land, and Wales? A. Yes; and its abundance or scarcity regulates in a great measure, their prosperity and welfare. Q. Is it as generally used for food in Ireland? A. No; the inhabitants of Ireland are in general too poor to be able to eat their own wheat, they are obliged to Q. C C . - + 386 APPENDIX. export almost all to England. Q. How then do they live? A. They cultivate the potatoe in large quantities, and this forms their prin- cipal food? Q. What is the annual consumption of grain in England, Scotland, and Wales, calculated to be? A. Twenty-five millions of quar- ters. Q. What is the quantity consumed in London alone? A. One mil- lion one hundred and sixty-two thousand one hundred quarters, of which Q. Is not sugar the produce of a plant Q. Where is it cultivated? A. It has a jointed stem eight the larger proportion is wheat. belonging to this class? In the West Indies. A. Yes. Q. Describe it. A. or nine feet long, flat leaves of a greenish yellow colour, and flowers Q. What methods are used to extract the sugar from in bunches. the canes? A. When cut down, the leaves are thrown away, and the stems or canes divided into pieces. Q. Of what length are each of the pieces? A. Each about a yard in length. Q. What is next done? A. They are then tied up in bundles, and conveyed to the mill. Q. What process do they undergo here ? A. They are bruised between three upright and wooden rollers, covered with iron. Q. What then flows from them? A. The sweet juice. Q. What is done with that? A. Conducted into a large vessel. Q. What process does this juice then undergo, in order to make it into sugar? A. It is boiled in large cauldrons, and afterwards carefully drawn off, leaving the scum at the bottom of the pan. Q. What is next done? A. It is boiled again with a certain mixture of lime. Q. For what purpose is the lime introduced? Q. What is it next transferred to? Q. What effect has this upon it? chrystallization, by which it is separated from the inolasses or treacle. Q. What is this? A. An impure part of the juice, but which is used for many useful purposes. Q. What other plant belongs to this class? A. That called anciently papyrus. Q. Of what kind is it? A. Of the rush kind. Q. Where does it grow? A. On the Nile, a river of Egypt. Q. What height does it attain? A. Ten or twelve feet. Q. Describe the stem? A. It is naked, having a bushy head, and a few short leaves at the bottom. Q. What was formerly made of this plant? A. Paper. Q. What is paper now made from? A. Linen. A. To absorb the free acid. A. A large shallow wooden vessel. A. It cools and runs into a sort of CLASS FOURTH-TETRANDRIA (FOUR STAMENS). Three orders. The flowers of the class tetrandria, are characterized by having four BOTANY. 387 The teasel is a In dressing cloth it is stamens; for example, the teasel, madder, and holly. plant cultivated in several parts of England, and used in the dressing of woollen cloths. It is distinguished from other plants of the same tribe, by having its leaves connected at the base, the flower scales hooked, and the general calyx bent back. used in raising the nap that hides th threads. Holly is a small ever- green tree, with shining irregular leaves, and white flowers, which grow in clusters round the branches, and are succeeded by pretty, small red berries. This plant is useful, first, because it makes a strong serviceable fence, and retains its beautiful green verdure through the severest winters; second, for its wood, which is close-grained, and is used for many purposes; third, the leaves afford a grateful food to sheep and deer in winter; fourth, because the berries yield a sub- sistence to numerous birds; and, lastly, which I am sure all little boys have seen themselves, because we decorate our houses and churches at Christmas, to make us remember spring, even in the depth of winter. Thus you see the holly is not only a pretty, but a useful plant. There is another substance prepared from the bark of the holly, which, I am sorry to say, boys often convert to a bad use, that is, bird-lime. I am sure when you are told how cruel it is to take poor birds away from the fields and woods, where they live so happily, and sing so sweetly, you who read this lesson, will not do it, though bad boys may. Bird-lime is of a very adhesive or sticking quality, for which reason it is used, as I have told you, to ensnare poor birds, by sticking to their feathers and wings. Questions and Answers. Q. How many stamens have the flowers of the class tetrandria? A. Four stamens. Q. How many orders in this class? A. Four. Q. Give me some examples? A. Teasel, madder, and holly. Q. What is teasel ? A. A plant, cultivated in many parts of England. Q. Of what use is it? A. It is used in the dressing of woollen cloths. Q. How is it distinguished from other plants of the same tribe ? A. By having its leaves connected at the top, the flower scales hooked, and the general calyx reflexed or bent back. Q. In what part of the dressing of cloth is it used? A. In raising the nap that hides the threads. Q. What is holly? A. A small evergreen tree, with shining irregular leaves, and white flowers, which grow in : • CC 2 388 APPENDIX. Q. clusters round the branches. Q. What are those succeeded by? A. Small red berries. Q. What is the use of this plant? A. As a fence, the wood is very useful, the leaves afford a grateful food for deer and sheep in winter, and the berries feed the little birds. What do we use holly branches for? A. To decorate our houses and churches in winter, at Christmas time. Q. Is not bird-lime made from the bark of holly? A. It is. A. It is boiled about twelve hours, and after standing for a fortnight, it is mixed over the fire with a third part of oil. Q. What is it very remarkable for? A. For its adhesive or sticking quality. Q. What is it used for? A. To catch birds. Q. How is it made? CLASS FIFTH-PENTANDRIA (FIVE STAMENS). Seven orders. The The class pentandria contains in itself one-tenth of the vegetable world, and it includes many very agreeable flowers, as well as noxious plants. The primrose, oxlip, and cowslip belong to it, and so does a tribe of plants called luridæ, which is a name expressive of their noxious appearance, and strong scent. The polyanthus belongs to this class, and also the passion flower, both of which we have described before. Those plants belonging to the tribe called luridæ, are distinguished by having the characteristic marks of five stamens, and one petal; they coincide in a calyx, that is permanent and divided, like the ca- rolla, which consists of one petal, into five segments. Their seed vessel is either capsule or a berry enclosed within the flower. deadly nightshade is an example of this order, and it is the most fatal of any in its effects: the leaves are egg-shaped and undivided, and the blossoms of a dingy purple. Woods, hedges, aud gloomy shades, generally conceal this dangerous plant, and its bright shin- ing black berries, have too frequently tempted children to partake of its dangerous poison. The names of the other poisonous plants be- longing to this class are, the thorn apple; henbane, the smell of which is exceedingly disagreeable; and nightshade, which comprises two kinds, the woody nightshade, known by its blue blossoms and red berries, and the garden nightshade, distinguished by its white blos- soms, and black berries. There are, however, some valuable plants of this class. The potatoe, which forms the principal dependence for food of a large portion of the British people-the inhabitants of Ire- BOTANY. 389 land; and, the apple of Sodom, which has been celebrated as fair on the outside, but within full of ashes; but the cause is, a disease pro- duced by the puncture of an insect. mens. Questions and Answers. Q. How many stamens is class five distingnished by? A. Five sta- Q. How many orders? A. Seven. Q. What does this class comprise? A. One tenth of the vegetable kingdom. Q. What does it include ? A. Many very agreeable flowers. Q. What more? A. Many noxious plants. Q. Name some pretty flowers that belong to it. A. The primrose, oxlip, cowslip, and polyanthus. Q. What dis- agreeable, noxious, and dangerous class of plants belongs to it? A. Those called luridæ. Q. What is this name expressive of? A. Their ugly appearance, and strong scent. Q. How are they distin- guished? A. Besides having the characteristic marks of five stamens and one petal, they agree in a calyx that is permanent? Q. How is this divided? A. Like the corolla. Q. What does it consist of? A. One petal. Q. How is the calyx divided? A. Into five segments. Q. What is their seed vessel ? A. Either a capsule or a berry. Q. Where is it enclosed? A. Within the flower. Q. Which plant, of this class, is most fatal in its effects? A. The deadly nightshade. Q. What sort are the leaves? A. Egg-shaped and undivided. Q. What colour are the blossoms? A. A dirty purple. Q. What places mostly conceal this dangerous plant? A. Woods, hedges, and gloomy lanes. Q. What has frequently tempted children? A. Its bright, shining, black berries. Q. What is the consequence of eating them? A. They are poisoned. Q. Name another poisonous plant belonging to this class. A. The thorn apple. Q. Name another. A. Henbane. Q. What is there peculiar in the smell of henbane? A. It is very disa- greeable. Q. What is the name of another poisonous plant of this kind? A. Nightshade. Q. How many kinds does it comprise? A. Woody nightshade and garden nightshade. Q. How is the woody nightshade known? A. By its blue blossoms and red berries. How is the garden nightshade distinguished? A. By its white blos- soms and black berries. Q. Is there no valuable plant of this class? A. Yes; the potatoe. Q. Name some others. A. The egg plant, and the apple of Sodom. Q. What is said of the latter plant? That it is fair on the outside, and full of ashes within. Q. Is this the cc 3 Q. A. 390 APPENDIX. case? A. The puncture of a certain insect causes a disease in the ap- ple, which gave rise to the story. CLASS SIXTH-HEXANDRIA (SIX STAMENS). Five orders. From the plants belonging to this class, our gardens receive many of their most splendid ornaments. The gaudy tulip, with its striped coat of various hues; the hyacinth, of different colours and delightful fra- grance; lilies of every kind; the magnificent Amaryllis; and the great American aloe, which rises to the height of twenty feet; and many other foreign plants of the tribe of lilies, are comprised in this class ; also, many of our smaller garden flowers, the pretty, modest little snow- drop, the first harbinger of spring; the golden crocus, and the inno- cent and fragrant lily of the valley; with the daffodil, narcissus, and many others. The snowdrop consists of a corolla, comprised of six white petals, a little tinged with green, of which the three innermost are the shortest. This beautiful little flower never appears to more ad- vantage than when it intermixes its blossoms with those of the golden crocus, to which, in its manner of growing, and external structure, it is nearly allied. The barbary is another plant belonging to this class; it is a shrub common in hedges, and bearing bright red heavy berries in autumn. When this coral-like fruit is ripe, it adds much to the beauty of shrubberies, but it is so bitter to taste, that even the birds will not eat it. Questions and Answers. Q. What kind of plants belong to the class hexandria ? A. Many of the most beautiful that adorn our gardens. Q. Name one that is very well known. A. The gaudy tulip. Q. Another? Q. Another? A. The by- acinth. Q. What flowers of which there are many varieties, belongs to this class? A. The lily. Q. What is the most remarkable plant of the lily kind? A. The great American aloe. Q. What height does it often attain? A. Twenty feet. Q. Do any of our smaller garden plants belong to this class? A. Yes; the snowdrop, the cro- cus, the lily of the valley, the daffodil, the narcissus, and many others. Q. What is the snowdrop known as being? A. One of the first har- bingers of spring. Q. What is its calyx like? A. A shield; and the corolla is superior. Q. Of what does this consist? A. Of six white pe- BOTANY. 391 tals, a little tinged with green. pear to most advantage? Q. When does this pretty flower ap- A. When intermixed with the blossoms of A. The the golden crocus. Q. What shrub belongs to this class? barbary. Q. At what time does the barbary bear its berries? A. In Q. What sort of berries are they? A. Bright and red. autumn. Q. Are they very sweet? birds refuse to eat them. A. No; they are so bitter that even the CLASS SEVEN-HEFTANDRIA (SEVEN STAMENS). Four orders. There are very few plants of this class, and only one of them is a na- tive of Britain: this is chickweed, a beautiful mountain plant, with snow white flowers. Some of the class, however, are cultivated in these countries with success; for example, horse chesnut, which is a very common tree in parks or pleasure grounds, bearing elegant clusters of flowers in the form of pyramids, and is certainly one of the finest trees The fruit, of British growth. Some of them attain a very great size. which is contained in a prickly shell, has been found of considerable service in fattening cattle. The botanical characteristics of the horse chesnut are as follows:-a small calyx of one leaf, slightly divided at top into five segments, and swelling at the base; a corolla of five petals, inserted into the calyx; and a capsule of three cells, in one or two of which only is a seed. Questions and Answers. Q. How many speci- Q. What is that? A. A beautiful moun- A. Very pretty snow- Q. How many stamens are there in the seventh class? A. Seven stamens. Q. How many orders? A. Four. Q. Are the plants of this class very plentiful? A. By no means. mens do we find natives of Britain? A. One only. A. Chickweed. Q. What sort of plant is it? tain plant. Q. With what coloured flowers? white ones. Q. Are there not, however, some of this class of plants cultivated in Britain with success? A. Yes. Q. Give a specimen of those. A. The horse chesnut. Q. Where do we find it most? In gentlemen's parks and pleasure grounds. Q. What kind of blos- soms does it bear? A. Elegant clusters, in the form of pyramids. Q. Is it a small tree? A. No; it is one of the largest and finest that grows in this country. Q. How is its fruit contained? A. In prickly husks. Q. Of what use is it? A. To fatten cattle. A. Q. What are Cc4 392 APPENDIX. its botanical characters? A. A small calyx of one leaf, a corolla of five petals, and a capsule of three cells, in one or two only of which is a seed. CLASS EIGHT-OCTANDRIA (EIGHT STAMENS). Four orders. The description of plants comprssed in this class, are mostly either herbaceous, or shrubs; not many genera are natives of Great Britain. The heaths form the most numerous genus, containing more than 320 distinct species, a few of which cover the mountains and elevated parts of Europe; but by far the greater part are from the Cape of Good Hope. Many of those are very beantiful, and the blossoms of Euro- pean ones furnish bees with a great deal of honey. Another numerous genus of this class are the vacciniums, which comprise the mountain berries, such as the whortleberries and cranberries. They are ever- green under-shrubs, remarkably hardy. The genus amyris furnishes gums and resins, which are very valuable; they are handsome shrubs, and natives of the warm parts of the world. Besides these, there are many valuable fruits amongst them, the most singular of which is the Akee of Africa, which has a pear-shaped fruit, enclosing a substance like butter or cream. The most remarkable of the British genus is, pro- bably, the willow herb, which grows in fields and hedges, has the shoots eatable, can be fermented into beverage, and has a down on the seeds, which may be spun, mixed with cotton. Questions and Answers. Q. How many stamens has the eighth class? A. Eight stamens. Q. How many orders? A. Four. Q. What kinds of plants are com- prised in this class? A. They are mostly either shrubs or herbaceous plants. Q. Are many of them natives of England? A. Not very many genera. Q. Which are some of the genera? A. The heaths. Q. How many distinct species of heath have been found? A. More than 320. Q What do a few of them cover? A. The mountains and elevated parts of Europe. Q. Where are the greater part from? A. The Cape of Good Hope. Q. Are any of them beautiful? A. Many of the Cape heaths are very pretty small shrubs. Q. What do the European ones furnish to bees? A. A great deal of honey. Q. any other numerous genus? A. The vacciniums. Q. What do they comprise? A. The mountain berries. Q. Give me some Is there BOTANY. 393 specimens? A. Whortleberries and cranberries. Q. What are their characters? A. They are ever-green under-shrubs and remarkably hardy. Q. Do not many of them furnish gums and resins which are valuable ? A. Yes, the genus amyris. Q. What sort of plants are they? A. Handsome shrubs. Q. Where are they natives of? A. The warm parts of the world. Q. Are there any valuable fruits amongst them except the vacciniums? A. Yes, there are many. Q. Which is the most singular? A. The akee of Africa? Q. What is it singular in? A. In having a pear-shaped fruit, enclosing a sub- stance like butter or cream. Q. Which is the most remarkable British genus. A. Probably the willow herb. Q. Where does it grow? A. In fields and hedges. Q. What is remarkable in its shoots? A. They are good to eat. Q. What more can be done with them? A. They can be fermented into a beverage. Q. When mixed with cotton what may be done with the downy substance which is found on the seeds? A. It may be spun into thread. CLASS NINE-ENNEANDRIA (NINE STAMENS). Three orders. The best examples of this class are the genus laurus, (the laurels,) which include cinnamon, cassia, sassafras, bay, camphor, and many others. Another genera which may serve as examples is the anacar- dium, (the cashew nut;) with different species of rhubarb and some others. There is only one plant belonging to this class growing wild in these countries, which is, the flowering rush. This plant grows in the water, has a round smooth stalk, which rises from one to six feet high, according to its situation; at the top is a head of bright red flowers, sometimes not less than thirty, three short leaves from the cup, and the corolla has six petals. This plant, so stately from its height, and its beautiful tuft of flowers, would make a charming appearance in canals or other pieces of water; and it so hardy as to defy the severest frost. All the plants belonging to this class, are permanent. Questions and Answers. Q. How many stamens have the flowers of those plants belonging to the ninth class? A. Nine. QHow many orders in this class? A. Three. Q What examples can you furnish me of this class? A. The best example is perhaps the genus laurus. Q. What are com- prised in this genus. A The laurels, which include cinnamon, cassia, : 394 APPENDIX. : - sassafras, bay, camphor, and many others. A. The Q. What other genera? A. Anacardium. Q. What plants are comprised in this? cashew nut, with the different species of rhubarb, and some others. Q. Are there many British plants in this order? A. Only one. Q. Which is it? A. The flowering rush. Q. Where does it Q. Where does it grow? A. In the water. Q. What sort of stalk has it? A. A round smooth A. It rises from one to six stalk. Q. What height is this stalk? feet high. Q. What colour are the flowers? A. Bright red. Q. A. At the top of the stalk. Q. How A. Sometimes not less than thirty. Q. Three short leaves. Q. How many petals Q. Is this a hardy plant? A. Yes, it Q. Are the plants of this class permanent? Where are they situated? many in number are they? What form the cups? A. has the corolla? A. Six. can defy the severest frost. A. They are. CLASS TEN-DECANDRIA (TEN STAMENS). Five orders. In the class decandria, are comprised several trees of foreign growth, as well as various plants and flowers common in this country. The lignum vitæ tree, logwood, and mahogany, all natives of the tropical countries, each belong to this class. Several well known flowers also belong to it; the rich carnation, the modest sweet-william, and the whole tribe of pinks, which is in itself a most numerous genus, con- taining more than forty species; and the varieties are almost without number. Some remarkable shrubs also belong to it. One very nu- merous genus is melastoma, of which there are nearly 120 species in the warm parts of the world. They are called melastoma, be- cause the berries blacken the mouths of those that eat them. Those are not all shrubs, there are some trees and under-shrubs; they occupy the same place on the mountains of South America, that the vacciniums do on those of Europe. The shrubs are those that are planted in bog earth, and so ornamental to gardens. The saxifrages also belong to this class; the stone-crops, the campions, the catchflies, and a number of others. There is a plant belonging to this class which is very remark- able; it is called the Venus' fly-trap, and is a native of America. the bottom of the foot stalk of this curious plant, are several leaves, each of which are divided into two lobes at the extremity having long teeth on the margin like the antennæ of insects, and armed within with six spines; these lie spread upon the ground round the stem, and At BOTANY. 395 are so irritable, that when a fly happens to light upon a leaf it imme- diately folds up, and crushes it to death. The mahogany tree, which also belongs to this class, is of large di- mensions, with winged leaves and small white flowers. Its branches are numerous and spreading; its leaves are alternate and winged with four or five pairs of leaflets somewhat spear-shaped. It grows in tro- pical America and the West India Islands, and there are species in Africa and the East Indies. The cutting of mahogany has been a source of considerable profit to the British settlers in Honduras, some- times as much as 3000%. has been given for three logs all cut out of the same tree. But as the tree grows very slowly, and the settlers when they cut down, never think of planting again, the supply must in time be exhausted. Questions and Answers. Q. Q. How many stamens in the flowers of the tenth class? A. A. Ten. Q. How many orders? A. Five. Q. What kinds of plants does this class comprise? A. Several trees of foreign growth, as well as various plants and flowers, common in this country. Q. Name some specimens. A. The lignum vitæ tree, log wood, and mahogany. Q. Where are those natives of? A. Very warm countries. Q. What well known flowers belong to the class decandria. A. The rich carna- tion, the modest sweet william, and the whole tribe of pinks. Q. How many different species belong to the pink tribe? A. More than forty. Q. How many varieties? A. They are innumerable. Are there not some remarkable shrubs belonging to this class? A. Yes. Q. Name one very numerous genus. A. Metastoma. Q. Why are they called Metastoma ? A. Because the berries blacken the mouths of those that eat them. Q. Is there not a plant belonging to this class particularly curious? A. Yes; the Venus' fly-trap. Q. Where is it a native of? A. America. Q. Why is it called Venus' fly-trap? A. Because when a fly happens to light on one of its leaves it immediately folds up and crushes it to death. Q. Is the mahogany a small tree? A. No; it is a very large one. Q. Where does it grow? A. In the warm countries of America and the West Indies. CLASS ELEVEN.-DODECANDRIA (TWELVE STAMENS) Six Orders. The most interesting and valuable example of this class, is the weld 396 APPENDIX. - or dyers' weed, which is found on barren ground or on walls; and in the cloth manufacturing counties of England is cultivated to a con- siderable extent. Its leaves are spear-shaped and entire, with a tooth- like process on each side of the base. The flowers are yellow and in long spikes, and the calyx is divided into four segments. It affords a most beautiful yellow dye for cotton, woollen, silk, or linen; and this is procured from its roots and stems; and blue cloths dipped in a de- coction of it, become green. It is said that the ancient Britons, that is the people that lived in England muny hundred years ago, used to stain their bodies with it, for they did not wear any clothes, but painted their bodies all over. Some of the other genera belonging to this class are, the mangosteen, a native of the East India Islands and the finest fruit that grows, and the spurges, which are plants that contain a milky juice, and some of them, which are natives of very dry warm countries, are without leaves. Of this genus, there are more than 150 species. The houseleek that grows on the roofs of dwellings, belongs to this class. Questions and Answers. Q. By what number of stamens are the flowers of the twelfth class distinguished ? A. Twelve. Q. How many orders? A. Six orders. Q. Give an example of this class. A. Weld or dyers' weed is a good example. Q. Where is it found? A. On barren ground or on walls. Q. Where is it cultivated? A. In the cloth manu- facturing counties of England it is cultivated considerable. Q. De- scribe its leaves. A. They are spear-shaped and entire? Q. What description are the flowers of? A. They A. They are yellow, and in long spikes. Q. Into what is the calyx divided? A. Into four segments. Q. For what is this plant useful? A. It affords a most beautiful yellow dye. Q. What description of goods are dyed with it? A. Cotton, woollen, silk, or linen. Q. For what are the ancient Britons said to have used it? A. To stain their bodies. Q. Which are some of the other genera? A. The mangosteen. mangosteen. Q. Is this plant famous for anything? A. Yes; its fruit is considered excellent. Q. Where is it a native of? A. The East India Islands. Q. Is there any nu- merous genus? A. The spurges. Q. What sort of plants are they? A. They contain a milky juice. Q. In very dry countries what are they often without? A. Leaves. Q. Does the houseleek which grows on the top of houses, belong to this species? A. It does. BOTANY. 397 CLASS TWELVE.(TWENTY STAMENS ATTACHED TO THE CALYX.) Five Orders. It grows on the moun- There are two genera, A great variety of fruit trees belong to the twelfth class, such as the apple, pear, cherry, plum, nectarine, peach, almond, and medlar; also various shrubs and herbs, such as myrtles, roses, strawberries, and others. The myrtles are beautiful plants; but one, the pimento, fur- nishes a valuable spice, in great abundance. tains, and it is very difficult to cultivate it. and they contain a great number of species, and are at the same time very numerous; those are the Indian fig, and the fig marigold. The Indian fig inhabits the warm parts of Asia and America; they are succulent plants, enduring the greatest draught; some of them bear beautiful flowers, and others good fruit; but the plants themselves are not like either leaves or stems; they are lumps of matter often covered with prickles. One of them feds the cochineal insect that furnishes a fine scarlet dye. The fig marigold is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, though there are some species natives of the very warm and dry parts of Europe. Some of this species resemble the houseleek, only they are thicker and handsomer in their leaves. Questions and Answers. A. Twenty. How many A. A great Q. How many stamens do we find in this class? Q. To what are they attached? A. To the calyx. Q. orders. A. Five. Q. What plants belong to it? variety of fruit trees. Q. Name some of those. A. The apple, the pear, the cherry, the plum, the nectarine, the peach, the almond, and the medlar. Q. What shrubs and herbs belong to this class? A. Various kinds, such as myrtles, roses, strawberries, and others. Q. Is there any thing worthy of remark about the myrtles? A. They are beautiful plants. Q. Which is most remarkable? A. The Pi. mento. Q. What does it furnish in great abundance? A. A very valuable spice. Q. In what situation does it grow? A. Upon the mountains. Q. Is it easily cultivated? A. No; most difficult. Q. Are there any very numerous genera ? A. There are two which contain a great number of genera. Q. Are they numerous? A. They are. Q. What are they? A. The Indian fig and the fig marigold. Q. What countries does the Indian fig inhabit? A. The warm parts of Asia and America. Q. Do they require an abundance A. A 398 APPENDIX. : of moisture? A. No; they can bear the greatest draught. Q. A. Some most beautiful flowers, others good What do they bear? A. fruit. Q. Are they themselves handsome plants? A. No; they are not like either leaves or stems. Q. What are they then? Lumps of matter often covered with prickles. Q. What insect does one of them feed? A. The cochineal insect. Q. What does it fur- nish? A. A fine scarlet dye. Q. Of what place are the fig mari- golds natives of? A. Chiefly of the Cape of Good Hope? Q. Where are they also natives of? A. Of the very warm and dry parts of Europe. Q. What do they resemble? A. Some of them are like the houseleek, only they are thicker and handsomer in their leaves. CLASS THIRTEEN.-POLYANDRIA. (STAMENS NUMEROUS AND INDEFINITE ATTACHED TO RECEPTACLE.) Six Orders. The best examples of this class, are the poppy and tea tree; the former being the plant from which opium and laudanum are produced, and the latter affording a refreshing beverage which is now drunk by all classes in Britain. Opium is produced from the seed vessels of the poppy; in these several gashes are made, from which a milky fluid runs out, and when it becomes thick enough, is formed into balls or cakes. It is of a dark brown colour. Its uses in medicine, to cause sleep and aleviate pain, are too well known to require speaking of. The tea tree is an evergreen shrub, about five or six feet high, and much branched. It is a native of Japan and China. It flourishes with great luxuriance in valleys, or on the sloping sides of hills, and along the banks of rivers. The leaves are narrow and tapering, the flowers are not much unlike those of the wild rose, but smaller, and are succeeded by a fruit about the size of a sloe, containing two or three seeds. It is chiefly cultivated in the mildest and most temperate parts of China. The tea is gathered at three separate times; the tenderest leaves of but a few days growth are gathered in February or March; the second gathering is in April; and the third in June, when the leaves are full grown. The tea is afterwards prepared by drying it in a stove in shallow iron pans, and the supposition of its ever being dried in copper, to give a more beautiful green to the leaves, seems to be entirely without foundation. Tea was first introduced into BOTANY. 399 Europe, by the Dutch East India Company, in 1641, and a small quantity was brought from Holland to England about the year 1666. It was for many years afterwards drunk only by people of fashion, but during the last century it has become the general beverage of almost every description of persons. The other most remarkable plants of this class, are, magnalia, one of which species is the most beautiful and fragrant of flowering shrubs; anemone, and ranunculus, including also the common buttercup, which you may see in plenty as you walk along the fields in spring or suinmer, and which you will always recol- lect, belongs to the thirteenth class of plants. Questions and Answers. Q, What specimens of this class will you give me? A. The poppy and tea tree. Q. What is produced from the poppy? A. Laudanum and opium. Q. From what part of the plant is the opium produced from ? A. From the seed vessels. Q. How is this done? A. Seve- ral gashes are made in it. Q. What runs out of those? A. A milky fluid. Q. What is done with this when it becomes thick enough? A. It is formed into balls or cakes. Q. Of what colour is it then? A. A dark brown colour. Q. What are its uses? A. To cause sleep when sickness prevents it, and by this means to relieve pain. Q. What is laudanum? A. It is a liquid preparation from opium and spirits of wine. Q. For what is it used? A. For the same pur- poses as opium. Q. What description of shrub is the tea tree? A. An ever-green shrub. Q. What is the size it generally arrives at? A. About five or six feet. Q. Where is it a native of? A. Of China and Japan. Q. Where does it flourish with great luxuriance? A. In valleys, on the sloping sides of hills, and along the banks of rivers. Q. Describe the leaves of this plant? A. They are narrow and tapering. Q. To the flowers of what plant do they bear a resem- blance? A. The wild rose. Q. Are they larger? A. No; smaller. Q. What are the flowers of the tea plant succeeded by? A. A fruit about the size of a sloe. Q. What does it contain? A. Two or three seeds. Q. In what parts of China is the tea plant chiefly cul- tivated? A. In the mildest and most temperate parts. many separate times are the leaves gathered? A. Three. does the first commence ? A. When the leaves are but a few days old, in the month of February or March. Q. At what time of the year does the second gathering begin? A. In April. Q. When Q. How Q. When 400 APPENDIX. does the last take place? A. In June, when the leaves are full grown. Q. By whom was tea first introduced into Europe? A. By the Dutch East India Company. Q. In what year? Q. In what year? A. 1641. Q. About what year was a small quantity brought into England? A. About 1666. Q. Did it become generally used soon after? A. No; it was for many years drunk only by people of fashion. Q. When did it become general? A. During the last century. Q. Name some others of this class. A. Magnolia, one of which is the most fragrant and beautiful of flowering shrubs Q. What others? A. Anemone and ranunculus. Q. Tell me the name of a very common little flower that belongs to this class? A. The buttercup. CLASS FOURTEEN-DIDYNAMIA (FOUR STAMENS, TWO LONG, TWO SHORT). sesses. Two orders Many of the plants comprehended in this class, are distinguished by us as garden herbs, and valued for their odoriferous smell, and kitchen uses; as well as for the medicinal qualities which some of them pos- As an example let us take the common or spearmint, one of our most common garden herbs. It is a native British plant, and grows wild in watery places, in several parts of Great Britain and Ireland. There are some beautiful flowers belonging to this class. Amongst them is the trumpet flower. Questions and Answers. Q. What sort of plants are comprehended in this class? A. Many Q. Q. of our garden herbs. Q. What are those valued for? A. For their kitchen and medicinal uses. Q. Mention an example? A. The com- mon spearmint. Q. Where is it a native of? A. Of Britain. Where does it grow wild? A. In many parts of these countries. What description of places does it grow most in? A. Watery places, and near the banks of rivers. Q. Are there any beautiful flowers be- longing to this class? A. The trumpet flower. CLASS FIFTEEN-TETRADYNAMIA (SIX STAMENS, FOUR LONG, TWO SHORT). Two orders. The plants in this class are all eatable, and generally supposed to possess anti-scorbutic qualities. In it we find the cabbage, turnip, BOTANY. 401 Com- water cress, mustard, and a variety of wild plants and flowers. mon mustard is made from the powdered seeds of a plant, which grows wild in corn fields in most parts of England, and is known by its yel- low cruciform flowers with expanding calyx, and its pods being smooth, square, and close to the stem. It is cultivated in light sands to great advantage, particularly in the county of Durham, and that which is produced there is considered the best. Questions and Answers. Q. What kind of plants compose this class? A. They are all eata- ble. Q. What are they generally supposed to possess? A. Anti- scorbutic qualities. Q. Name some specimens. A. Cabbage, tur- A. By nips, water cress, mustard, and a variety of wild plants and flowers. Q. What is common mustard made from? A. From the powdered seeds of a plant. Q. Where does this plant grow? A. Wild, in corn fields in most parts of England. Q. By what is it known? its yellow flowers, with expanding calyx. Q. By what other marks? A. By its pods being smooth, square, and close to the stem. Q. In what English county is it cultivated to the greatest advantage? A. In the county of Durham. CLASS SIXTEEN.-MONADELPHIA. (ALL THE FILAMENTS United at THE BOTTOM BUT SEPARATE AT TOP). Eight orders. No plant can form a more useful and interesting example of this class, than the cotton plant, which is cultivated in the East and West Indies, and several other warm countries. It grows to a considerable height, and has leaves of a bright green colour, with flowers of only one petal, of a pale yellow colour, with five red spots at the bottom. The seed vessels or cotton pods contain a soft vegetable down which en- velope the seeds. The cloth we call cotton is made from this down ; after being gathered and carefully separated from the seeds, it is packed in bags, and imported into this country. Here it undergoes the pro- cess of carding, spinning, and weaving, which were formerly performed by hand, but now, for the sake of expedition, are effected by machinery. The camellia japonica, which belongs to this class, wants only scent to make it the very finest of ornamental plants. D D 402 APPENDIX. : Questions and Answers. Q. By what is this class distinguished? A. All the filaments are united at the bottom, but separated at top. Q. How many orders has it ? A. Eight. Q. Give an example of this class. plant. Q. Where is it cultivated? A. The cotton A. In the East and West Indies, A. A and other warm countries. Q. Is it a small plant? A. No; it at- tains a considerable height. Q. What colour are its leaves? bright green. Q. Describe its flower. A. It has but one petal, of a pale yellow colour, with red spots at bottom. Q. What do the seed vessels or cotton pods contain? A. A soft vegetable down, which en- Q. Is not the cloth we call cotton made from this Q. After it is gathered from the tree, what is A. It is carefully separated from the seeds, and A. It is imported into Where does it then go? A. The process of Q. What does it then undergo? velopes the seeds. down? A. It is. then done with it? packed in bags. Q. this country. spinning and weaving. Q. How was this formerly performed? A. By hand. Q. How is it now effected? A. By machinery, which is much more expeditious. Q. Name a very beautiful ornamental plant belonging to this class. A. Camellia Japonica. Q. What does it want to complete its beauty? A. Fragrance. CLASS SEVENTEEN. DIadelphia. -DIADELPHIA. SETS.) Four orders. (FILAMENTS UNITED IN TWO Many plants well-known to us, are comprehended under the head diadelphia, such as peas, beans, vetches, clover, lucern, broom, furze, We will take the &c., but a description of oue will be sufficient. common broom, which is a shrub seen on sandy heaths in mest parts of Britain. It has large yellow butterfly-shaped flowers, with leaves in threes, and the branches are without prickles. The sensitive hedysarum, a native of Bengal, which belongs to this class, may be considered as one of the most curious plants in the vege- table world. When the air is very warm, and quite still, its leaves are in continual motion, some rising, others falling, and others turning round by twisting their stems. The cause of this cannot, as yet, be ascertained. It grows about three feet high, the leaves are of a bright green, and the flowers of a pale red, slightly tinged with blue or yellow. The flowers of this order are called papilionaceous, because, in their BOTANY. 403 form, they something resemble a butterfly, which you can see by look- ing at the flower of a pea. Questions and Answers. A. Q. What is the seventeenth class distinguished by? A. By having the filaments united in two sets. Q. How many orders has it? A. Four. Q. What well-known plants are comprehended in it? Peas, beans, vetches, clover, lucern, broom, furze, &c. Q. Describe the broom. A. It is a shrub seen on sandy heaths, in most parts of England. Q. What description of flowers has it got? A. Large yel- lew butterfly-shaped flowers. Q. What are the branches without? A. Without prickles. Q. What curious sensitive plant belongs to the class diadelphia? A. The sensitive hedysarum. Q. Where is it a native of? A. Bengal. Q. What may it be considered as ? A. One of the most extraordinary plants in the vegetable world. Q. What remarkable phe- nomenon takes place with regard to it, when the air is very warm and quite still ? A. Its leaves are in continual motion, some rising, some falling, and some twisting round. What is there remarkable in the shape of the flowers of this class? A. That they resemble butterflies. Q. CLASS EIGHTEEN.-POLYDELPHIA. (THE FILAMENTS UNIted, MAKING MANY SETS). Four orders. Several foreign fruit trees are amongst the plants arranged in this class, such as the orange, the lemon, the citron, and the cocoa-nut trees; the orange lemon shrubs are ever-green plants, the latter has large and slightly indented shining leaves, of somewhat oval shape, but pointed; the flowers are large and white, but of a purplish hue on the outside of the petals. The orange tree is distinguished from the lemon, by having a kind of winged appendage on the leaf stalks, of which the latter is destitute. Among the other fruits belonging to this class, is the durion, a native of the Eastern isles, which, with a rough exterior, and an offensive smell, is one of the most wholesome and re- freshing of fruits. Questions and Answers. Q. By what is the eighteenth class distinguished? A. The fila- ments are united, making many sets. Q. How many orders does it contain? A. Four. Q. What description of plants are arranged in ! 2.2མ་ DD 2 404 APPENDIX. this class? A. Several foreign fruit trees. Q. Name some of them. A. The orange, the lemon, the citron, and the cocoa nut trees. Q. What sort of plants are the orange and lemon trees? A. They are ever-green plants. Q. Describe the leaves of the lemon tree? A. They are large, slightly indented, shining leaves, of somewhat oval shape, but pointed. Q. Describe the flowers? Q. Describe the flowers? A. They are large and white, but of a purplish hue on the outside of the petals. Q. By what is the orange distinguished from the lemon tree? A. By having a kind of winged appendage on the leaf stalks, of which the other is destitute. Q. What other fruit of this class is worthy of observation? A. The durion. Q. Where is it native of? A. The Eastern Isles. Q. What has it outside? A. A rough exterior, and offensive smell. Q. What sort of fruit is it to eat? A. One of the most wholesome and refreshing. CLASS NINETEEN. SYNGENESIA. (STAMENS UNITED BY ANTHERÆ; FLOWER COMPOUNDED). Five Orders. The daisy and dandelion are examples of this class; we will take the former, as it is a favourite with almost every one, and though a very humble little flower, yet, when we examine it closely, we find much to admire in it, and much that shows us the wisdom, power, and goodness of God. The plants of this order are very numerous, and some of them are beautiful flowers, as the aster and chrysan- themum; but very many of the British genera are troublesome as weeds. Questions and Answers. Q. Give me an example of this class. A. The daisy. A. By what is this class distinguished? A. By being compound flowers. Q How many orders in it? A. Five. Q. Are the plants of this order numerous? A. They are. Q. Which are pretty flowers? A. The aster and chrysanthemum. Q. What are many of the Bri tish genera troublesome as? A. Weeds. CLASS TWENTY.-GYNANDRIA. (STAMENS SITUATED ON THE PISTILS.) Seven Orders. Several well-known field plants, of the orchis tribe, are comprised BOTANY. 405 in this class; their general description is as follows: they have an ob- long withered germ below the flower, which has no proper calyx, but only a sheath; the corolla consists of five petals, the two innermost of which usually join to form an arch, or helmet, over the top of the flower. In some species the root is composed of a pair of solid bulbs, in others it consists of a set of oblong fleshy substances, tapering towards the ends. Some specimens from the Cape of Good Hope, from South America, are remarkably handsome plants; and that beautiful and scarce flower called the ladies' slipper, belongs to this class. Questions and Answers. Q. What well-known field flowers belong to this class? A. Several of the orchis tribe. Q. Describe them generally. A. They have an oblong withered germ below the flower, which has no proper calyx. Q. What has it instead? A. A sheath. Q. Q. What does the corolla consist of? A. Five petals. Q. What do the two innermost gene- rally form? A. An arch or helmet over the top of the flower. Q. What is the root composed of in some species? A. solid bulbs. Q. What does it consist of in others? oblong fleshy substances, tapering toward the ends. Q. From what parts of the world do the handsomest specimens of this class come? A. From the Cape of Good Hope and South America. Q. What beautiful and scarce flower belongs to this class? A. The ladies' where are the stamens situated in flowers belonging to slinper ? the twentieth class? A. On the pistils. it? A. Seven. Of a pair of A. Of a set of Q. How many orders has CLASS TWENTY-ONE.-MONŒCIA. (STAMENS AND PISTIL, ON SEPA- RATE FLOWERS, BUT UPON THE SAME PLANT.) Nine Orders. There are a variety of trees and plants, both native and foreign, that belong to this class. Among those of native growth may be reckoned the oak, birch, alder, beech, walnut, sweet chesnut, fir, hazel-nut, fil- bert, and mulberry trees, and the numerous kinds of sedges. In the list of foreign plants, may be noticed the bread-fruit tree, the cork, oak, the cocoa-nut tree, the tallow-tree, maize or indian corn, and many others. Amongst the most interesting trees of British growth, we may place the oak, which is a well known timber tree, invaluable to us, for to it the British Navy is indebted for its existence. Until DD 3 .406 APPENDIX. - the introduction of mahogany, oak timber was very genarally used for furniture, but it is now chiefly consumed in ship-building This tree is remarkable for the slowness of its growth, its longevity, and the di- mensions to which it attains. Its bark is very useful in the tanning of leather. The mulberry tree, independent of its fruit, is also very useful, for its leaves form the principal food of the silk-worm. The bread-fruit tree is cultivated in the Sandwich Islands, where the fruit is eaten for bread. It is also native of many islands in the East Indies, but is not there much cultivated. It is about the size of a middling oak, and the fruit is of the size and shape of a child's head, growing on boughs, like apples, with a thick and hard rind; when ripe, the fruit is yellow and soft, with a sweet and pleasant taste. It is, however, gathered when green, baked in an oven, and the out- side black crust being scraped off, there remains a tender thin crust, but the inside is soft, and as white as snow, having somewhat the ap- pearance of new bread. Beside this the bread-fruit tree has another useful property, for the inner rind of the young bark is manufactured into a kind of cloth, and worn by the natives. The cork tree grows in Spain and Portugal, and is a species of oak; the external part is of a fungous texture, which, when stripped off, is that elastic substance, we call cork, so very useful for stopping bottles, and other purposes. This order is very important, the most valuable trees of the forest belong to it; the most abundant is, probably, the fir tribe, which appears to cover a greater extent of surface than any other trees. The most important fruits that belong to this order are, the gourd, the cucumber, and the melon. Questions and Answers. Q. Mention some of the plants belonging to this class, which grow in this country. A. The oak, birch, alder, beech, walnut, sweet chestnut, fir, hazel-nut, filbert, mulberry, and the numerous kind of sedges. Q. What foreign trees should be noticed as belonging to this class? A. The bread-fruit tree, the cork tree, the cocoa-nut tree, the tallow tree, maize or indian-corn, and many others. Q. Give me the name of the most interesting tree, of British growth, belonging to this class. A. The oak. Q. What are we indebted to the oak for? A. For our navy. Q. What do you mean by our navy? A. The ships which are built and manned to defend us from our foreign ene- BOTANY. 407 mies. duced? A. For Q. For what was oak used before mahogany timber was intro- A. For making furniture. Q. What is it now chiefly used for? A. Ship-building. Q. What is this tree remarkable for? A. For the slowness of its growth. Q. For what more? A. For the the great length of time it lives. Q. For what beside ? great size it grows to. Q. Is not the bark of the oak very useful? A. Yes; it is used in the tanning of leather. Q. What important use is made of the leaves of the white mulberry? A. It is the prin- cipal food of silk worms. Q. Where is the bread-fruit tree cultivated? A. In the Sandwich Islands. Q. Where are they situated? A. In the South Seas, Q. Where is the bread-fruit tree also found? A. In many islands of the West Indies. Q. Of what size is this tree? A. About the size of a middling oak. Q. Of what size is the fruit? A. About the size and shape of a child's head. Q. What kind of rind has it? A. Thick and hard. Q. When ripe, is the fruit good to eat? A. Yes. Q. How is it usually used? A. It is gathered when green, baked in an oven, and the outside black crust being scraped off, there remains a soft slender crust, but the inside is soft and white, and tastes something like bread. Q. What other useful property has this tree? A. The inner rind of the young bark is made into a kind of cloth, which is worn by the natives. Q. Describe the cork tree. A. It grows in Spain and Portugal, and is a species of oak. A. The Q. What part of it makes the useful substance we call cork? outside part. Q. What is cork used for? A. For stopping bottles, and other purposes. Q. What is the most abundant tribe of this or- der? A. Probably the fir trees, for they appear to cover the greatest extent of surface. Q. What fruits belong to this class? A. The gourd, the cucumber, and the melon. CLASS TWENTY-TWO.-DIECIA. (STAMENS AND PISTILS DISTINCT UPON DIFFERENT PLANTS.) As an example of this class, the round leafed willow may be taken, which is a most remarkable and singular plant. Its leaves are smooth, entire, and egg-shaped; the upper surface is green and wrinkled, the under one bluish, and covered with a net-work of veins, which are at first red, but afterwards become green. It is a low shrub, and produces both flowers and leaves, from the same bud. Amongst the plants be- longing to this class which are well known to us, may be mentioned the The mistletoe is called parasitical mistletoe, the yew tree, and hemp. DD 4 408 APPENDIX. parasitical, because it grows upon another, instead of rooting and grow- ing in the earth; it fixes itself into the branches of a tree, where it roots, and forms a bush. It is commonly found on apple trees, producing a num- ber of white berries, of a sweetish taste. This plant was regarded with superstitious reverence by the ancient Britons, and was always held sa- cred by them; but now it only retains a place at Christmas, to orna- ment our houses and enliven the cheerless season of winter. The yew tree is not of much use now, but in former times the greatness of England depended upon it; for of it was manufactured the bows which were used by the soldiers, before gunpowder was intro- duced. The English archers, or bowmen, were considered the best in Europe, and many great battles were gained by them, in consequence of their skill. Many of them could strike a thin wand with their arrows from a great distance; and as they carried each twelve arrows in their belts, it was commonly said at that time, so sure was their aim, that they carried the lives of twelve of their enemies in their belts. The battle of Cressy, which was fought in the reign of King Edward III., 500 years ago, against the French, was gained principally by the skill of the English archers. The nutmeg, a fine spice, belongs to this class; it grows in the Asiatic Islands; also many valuable fruits, of which the most remark- able is the date-palm, which forms the principal food of the people in the sandy parts of Northern Africa, and the adjoining parts of Asia. Questions and Answers. Q. Gfve an example of some plant comprehended in this class. A. The round leafed willow. Q. What is it remarkable for? A For its singularity. Q. Describe its leaves. A. They are smooth, entire, and wrinkled, the under veins, which are at first and egg-shaped; the upper surface is green one bluish, and covered with a net-work of red, but afterwards become green. Q. What sort of shrub is it? A. A low shrub, and it produces both flowers and leaves from the same bud. Q. What remarkable plant should we also notice, belonging to this class? A. The mistletoe. Q. Describe it. A. It does not root and grow in the ground, but grows upon another tree. Q. What is it called, for this reason? A. Parasitical. Q. Q. By whom was this plant regarded with superstitious reverence? A. By the Ancient Britons. A. For making bows, before gunpowder was invented. Q. What fine spice belongs to Q. What was the yew tree formerly much used for? BOTANY. 409 this class? A. The nutmeg. Asiatic Islands. Q. Where does it grow? A. In the Q. What useful fruit is comprised in this class? A. A. The date palm. Q. What people use it as their principal food? The inhabitants of the sandy parts of Northern Africa, and the adjoin- ing parts of Asia. CLASS TWENTY-THREE. -POLYGAMIA. (STAMENS AND PISTILS VARIOUSLY SITUATED.) The plantain tree is the most remarkable plant of this class; it grows to the height of about twenty feet, with several leaves on the summit, many of which are eight feet long and two feet broad, but very thin and tender. The fruit is of a pale yellow colour, and is produced in bunches so large as to weigh about forty pounds, and this fruit is, to the negroes, what bread is to us. Amongst the other important plants be- longing to this class may be mentioned the fig-tree, the beautiful aca- cias, some of which furnish gum-arabic, the maples, the mimosas, in- cluding the sensitive plant, and a number of others. Very few of this class are natives of Britain; they are chiefly found in warm coun- tries. Questions and Answers. Q. What is the most remarkable plant of this class? A. The plan- tain tree. Q. What height does it grow? A. About twenty feet. Q. Where are its leaves? A. At the summit. Q. Describe them. A. Many of them are eight feet long, and two broad, but remarkably thin and tender. Q. Describe the fruit. A. It is of a pale colour, and produced in large bunches. Q. Of what use is it? A. It forms a very important part of the food of the negro. Q. Are there any other important plants in this class? A. Yes; the fig-tree, the acacias, some of which furnish gum-arabic, the maples, the mimosas, including the sensitive plant, and a number of others. Q. Are many of this or- der natives of Britain? A. Very few, they are chiefly natives of warm countries. CLASS TWENTY-FOUR.-CRYPTOGAMIA, (FLOWERS OBSCURE). We have now come to the last class, which comprehends all plants in which the flowers are not easily seen, such as mosses, ferns, fungi, and, among the latter, mushrooms are, of course, included. The com- mon mushroom is a fungus, consisting of a white stalk, and a convex 410 APPENDIX. : cover, of white or brownish colour, which has, beneath, an irregular arrangement of gills, of a pink hue when young, but afterwards of a dark liver colour; when it first appears above the ground, a mushroom is smooth, and nearly globular, and in this state is called a button. Great caution should be observed in gathering mushrooms, for though several are good to eat, some are highly poisonous. The rein-deer moss belongs to this class. This is an invaluable plant to the poor Laplanders, because it not only is the sole food of their favourite animals, the reindeer, to which they owe almost all their com- forts, but they also use it as a soft bed for their new-born infants. Many of these plants are good for food. The Iceland moss, when boiled, forms an excellent jelly. Questions and Anwsers. Q. Q. What are comprehended in this class? A. All plants in which the flowers are not easily seen, such as mosses, ferns, and fungi. What are included amongst the latter? A. Mushrooms. Q. Are they good to eat? A. Some kinds are, but ous. Q. What should we learn from this? others are highly poison- A. To use great caution in gathering them. Q. What very useful plant belongs to this class? A. The reindeer moss. Q. To what people is it useful? A. To the Laplanders. Q. For what reason? A. Because it not only forms the food of the reindeer, but they also make beds of it for their little children. Q. Could the Laplander live without that useful animal, the reindeer ? A. No; it supplies him with all his comforts. Q. What moss, belonging to this class, makes, when boiled, an excellent jelly ? A. The Iceland moss. ZOOLOGY. In giving lessons on zoology we have thought it best to follow the simple classification of the most amusing author on this science,-Gold- smith ; and from his work we have also drawn much of the informa. tion contained in the following lessons. We have also endeavoured, as far as we have gone on this subject, to make it so plain and simple that teachers may give lessons upon it with as little trouble to them- selves as possible. In order that they may understand the method we wish them to adopt, we have given a series of simple questions on each lesson, with the answer which should be obtained attached, and we have ZOOLOGY. 411 endeavoured to give the whole an amusing tendency, that the young mind may be instructed, and still not forced to learn by any other me- dium than a thirst for, and love of, knowledge. We begin with quadrupeds; giving a lesson to illustrate each class. CLASS ONE.-ANIMALS OF THE HORSE KIND. This class contains the horse, the ass, and the zebra. The native country of the horse cannot, with certainty, be traced; he has been found, varying materially in size and in utility, in all the temperate, in most of the very warm, and in many of the northern regions of the old world, which means Europe, Asia, and Africa. In the Holy Bible we are told that, so early as 1650 years before the birth of Jesus Christ, the horse had been domesticated by the Egyptians. You may remem- ber reading, in the book of Genesis, i. 9, that when Joseph carried his father's dead body from Egypt to Canaan, "there went up with him both chariots and horsemen." One hundred and fifty years afterwards, the horse constituted the principal strength of the Egyptian army; for in Exodus xiv. 7, we read that Pharaoh pursued the Israelites with "six hundred chosen chariots, and with all the chariots of Egypt." We have, therefore, sufficient evidence that the horse was, at a very early period, subjected to the dominion of man, and, unfortunately, for a very bad purpose, the business of war. Troops of wild horses are still found in the plains of Great Tartary, and also in several parts of South America; in neither, however, can we recognise the original race. The horses of Tartary, and those of South America, are both the descendants of those who escaped, at some distant time, from the dominion of man. The horse was not known in America until he was introduced by the Spaniards, and the wild horses of Tartary are the descendants of some that were turned loose at the siege of Azoph, in the year 1657. In the countries of La Plata and Patagonia, in South America, numerous droves of wild horses are seen,-sometimes many thousands in number; they appear to be under the command of a leader, whom they obey; and they know, by the instinct that God gives them, that their safety consists in union, and obedience to their leader. The lion, the tiger, and the leopard are their principal enemies; in the attack, the leader is the first to face the dan- ger, and when he thinks it necessary to retreat, they all follow him. The most beautiful breeds of horses are the barb, from Barbary, and 412 APPENDIX, the Arabian. still seen wild. In the deserts of Arabia a few of this description are We first find mention made of the horse of Great Britain in the his- tory of Julius Cæsar's invasion. Julius Cæsar was a great Roman ge- neral, who conquered England a great many years ago. The British army had, then, numerous war-chariots, drawn by horses; short scythes were faatened to the ends of the axle-trees, which swept down every thing before them, and carried terror and confusion into the ranks of their enemies. About the tenth century, that is, nearly 900 years ago, horses began to be used to draw the plough and harrow; before that time, oxen were always employed for this work. The breed of horses was improved by William I., and Henry II., and again by King John, who had many brought over in ships, from Flanders; and by Edward II., who purchased thirty Lombardy horses; also by Ed- ward III., who introduced the Spanish horse; under James I. the im- provement was hastened. In his reign, Turkish and Barbary horses were introduced, and also the Arabian horse. Charles I., and also Oliver Cromwell, encouraged the improvement of the breed, and in the eighteenth century the English horse had arrived at its state of highest perfection. The different breeds of horses are as follows:-The road horse; he is used for travelling, and is a very useful animal. The far- mer's horse is an animal of all work, to be ridden occasionally to mar- ket, but principally employed for draught. The coach horse, the heavy draught and dray horse, the cavalry horse, the race horse, and the hunter. There are few animals so useful to us as the horse; without him we should find it almost impossible to cultivate the land, and draw mer. chandize from place to place. We should never treat him cruelly, but be always gentle and kind to those that may be either ours, or placed under our care. The Arabs are celebrated for their kindness to their horses, and the horses are, in return, very gentle, and fond of their masters. Questions and Answers. Q. Of what have we been reading? A. Of the horse. Q. What is the native country of this animal? A. It cannot be known with cer- tainty. Q. In what countries has he been always known? A. In almost all countries of the old world. Q. What do you mean by the 414 APPENDIX. A. About the tenth century. Q. Q. How long is that since? A. About 900 years. Q. What do you mean by being used for agricultural purposes? A. Their being employed to draw the plough and harrow. Q. Before this time then, how did they get the plough drawn? With oxen. Q. Who improved the breed of horses? A William I., and Henry II. Q. Who next? A. King John. Q. Where did he import them from? A. From Flanders. Q. By whom was the Spanish horse introduced? A. By Edward III. Q. Was James I.'s reign remarkable for any improvement in the breed of the English horse? A. Yes; during his reign Turkish and Barbary horses were introduced, and also the Arabian horse. Q. Who after- wards improved the breed? A. Charles I., and also Oliver Crom- well. Q. At what period had the English horse arrived at its state of highest perfection? A. In the eighteenth century. Q. Are there many different breeds of horses? A. Yes. A. Yes. Q. Name some of them. A. The road horse, the farmer's horse, the coach horse, the heavy draught and dray horse, the cavalry horse, the race horse,and the hunter. Q. Is not the horse a very useful animal? A. Yes; but for him we should find it very difficult to transport merchandize from place to place. Q. What way should a horse be treated, whether he be our own, or placed under our care? A. With kindness and mercy. Q. What people are celebrated for their kindness to and love of horses? A. The Arabians. Q. Are the horses in return very gentle and fond of their masters? A. They are, and so much so that they let the children of the family sleep by their side. Q. How does the horse defend himself from flies? A. With his tail. Q. Will a horse defend its young? Q. How does he call his young or another horse? A. By neighing. After nightfall. Q. How does he fight? A. Yes. Q. A. When does he sleep? A. By kicking and biting. Q. Which is the most fatal A. Consumption of the bones most infectious and fatal. Q. A. Two hundred and ninety Q. Does he eat the grass close? A. Yes; closer than the ox. Q. Does the horse ever vomit? A. No. disease to which a horse is subject? of the nose, called glanders, is the How long does the mare go with foal? days. Q. Till what period does a horse acquire his canine teeth? A. Till the age of five years. 理 ​ZOOLOGY. 413 old world? A. Europe, Asia, and Africa. Q. Is not America as old as the rest? A. Yes; it was created at the same time, but we did not know that it existed. Q. In what king's reign was it discovered? A. In Henry the VII. Q. Who was the discoverer ? A. Christopher Columbus. Q. Was the horse found in America at its discovery? A. No; it was brought from Europe. Q. What book gives us the first information concerning the horse? A. The holy Bible. Q. What country does it mention as possessing horses? A. Egypt. Q. For what purpose did the Egyptians use them? A. For the business of war. Q. Where may troops of wild horses still be found? A. On the plains of great Tartary, and also in several parts of South America. Q. Are either of these the original race? A. No; they are both descendants of those who escaped the dominion of man. Q. In what countries of South America are wild horses very nu- merous? A. In La Plata and Patagonia. Q. What is very re- markable in these? A. They seem to be under the command of a leader. Q. Do they know that in their unity and subordination their safety consists? A. Yes; Almighty God has given them this instinct. Q. Who are their principal enemies? A. The lion, the tiger, and the leopard. Q. Are those animals in America the same as the lion, tiger, and leopard of Asia and Africa. A. No; they are quite different. Q. Are they as dangerous? A. No; they are not so large or fierce. Q. When the horses are attacked, which faces the danger first? A. Their leader. Q. When he thinks it necessary to retreat do they follow him? A. They do. Q. From what countries do the most beautiful breeds of horses come? A. From Barbary and Arabia. Q. Are any still wild in Arabia? A. Yes; a few. Q. At what period of English history do we first read of the English horse? A. At the time of Julius Cæsar's invasion. Q. Who was Julius Cæsar? A. A great Roman General, who conquered Great Britain? Q How long is that since? years. Q. Who were the Romans? one time conquered nearly all Europe. this time any horses? A. They had. they use them? A. For drawing their war chariots. Q. What had they attached to those chariots which did much execution amongst their enemies? A. Short scythes. Q. About what time did horses first begin to be used in England for agricultural purposes? A. A. More than a 1,000 A. A mighty nation that at Q. Had the British army at Q. For what purpose did ZOOLOGY. 415 SECOND CLASS. ANIMALS OF THE Cow KIND. Comprehending the Uris, the Buffalo, the Bison, and the Bonassus. THE BUFFALO. The Buffalo belongs to the second class of animals of the cow kind, and they are also called ruminating animals, because they chew the cud, that is, they masticate their food twice. Of all animals those that chew the cud are the most harmless, and the most easily tamed. As they live entirely on vegetables, they have no occasion to make war upon the rest of the brute creation; content with the pastures on which they are placed, they seldom desire to change as long as those afford them a proper supply. Buffaloes, in general, are animals of a large stature, resembling the bull, low in proportion to their bulk, and supported by strong solid limbs. The buffalo is by no means so beautiful a creature as the cow; his figure is more awkward and clumsy, his air is wilder, and he carries his head lower and nearer the ground; his limbs are less fleshy, and his tail more naked of hair. The milk of the female is by no means so good as that of the cow; it is produced, however, in great abundance. In the warm countries almost all the cheese is made of the milk of the buffaloes, and they supply butter also in large quantities. The veal of the young buffalo is not better eating than the beef of the old. The hide of the animal is the most valuable thing he furnishes; the leather made from it is well known for its thickness, softness, and impenetrability. As these animals are gene- rally larger and stronger than the cow, they are usefully employed in agriculture; they are used in drawing burdens, and sometimes in carrying them, being guided by a ring which is thrust through their nose. Two buffaloe's yoked in a waggon are said to draw more than four strong horses, as their heads and necks are naturally bent down- ward; they are thus better fitted for draught, because the whole weight of their bodies is applied to the carriage which is drawn forward. Although these animals are chiefly found in the torrid zone, yet they are bred in several parts of Europe, particularly in Italy, where they form the riches and food of the poor. The female produces but one at a time in the same manner as the young twelve months cow, and goes with its 416 APPENDIX. :. food twice. Questions and Answers. A. Q. What are the animals of the second class or cow kind called? A. Ruminating animals. Q. Why? A. Because they chew their Q. Are animals of this kind gentle? A. Yes; they are easily tamed. Q. Do they make war on other animals? A. No; they have no occasion to do so, because they live entirely on vegetables. Q. What are buffaloes in general described as being? A. Animals of a large stature, resembling the bull, low in proportion to their bulk, and supported by strong solid limbs. Q. Are they as handsome animals as the cow? A. No; they are more clumsy and awkward, the head is lower, the tail more naked of hair, and in many ways less beautiful. Q. Is the milk of the buffalo as good as that of the cow? A. By no means. Q. Is it produced in abundance? It is. Q. What is it used for? A. In warm countries they make butter and cheese with it. Q. What is considered to be the most valuable part of the buffalo? A. Its hide. Q. What is made of this? A. Very good leather, celebrated for its thickness, softness, and impenetrability. Q. What are these animals very usefully em- ployed for? A. Agricultural purposes. Q. What other uses are they applied to? A. Drawing and carrying burthens. Q. How are they guided? A. By a ring which is thrust through their nose. Q. Can a buffalo draw a greater weight than a horse? A. Yes; it is said that two buffaloes yoked weight than four strong horses. are so well adapted to draught? in a waggon can draw a greater Q. What is the reason that they A. Because their heads and necks are naturally bent downward, and the whole weight of their bodies is applied to the carriage that is to be drawn forward. Q. Where are those animals chiefly found? A. In the torrid zone. Q. Are they bred any where else? A. Yes; in many parts of Europe, par- ticularly in Italy. Q. Are they very useful to the people of Italy? A. Yes; they are invaluable to the poor, making their principal food, and wealth. Q. Is the buffalo a clean animal? A. No; it is very dirty, and never likes to be cleaned. Q. When in a wild state, where do those animals like best to live? A. By the sides of large rivers where the grass is good and plenty. THIRD CLASS.-ANIMALS OF THE SHEEP KIND. With cloven feet, and chewing the cud like the former, in this ZOOLOGY. 417 is comprehended the sheep, the goat, the llama, the vigogne, the ga- zelle, the guinea deer, and all of a similar kind. THE CHAMOIS, The chamois, though a wild animal, is very easily tamed. Like the goat, he loves wild and mountainous places, and in a wild state is to be found no where else. It is about the size of the goat, and resembles that animal in many other ways; it is agreeably lively and active beyond any expression. The chamois' hair is short: in spring it is of an ash colour, in autumn a dun colour, inclining to black, and in winter a blackish brown. This animal is found in great plenty in the mountains of Dauphiny, of Piedmont, Savoy, Switzerland, and Germany. They are peaceful gentle creatures, and live in great harmony with each other in flocks of from four to four score, and even a hundred, dispersed upon the crags of the mountains. The female brings forth her young in April and March: the young keep with the dam for about five months, and sometimes longer. It is said that they live twenty years or more. Their flesh is good to eat. The chamois has scarcely any cry, as most animals are known to have: it calls its young by a feeble bleat, and when alarmed by the approach of the wolf or the hunter, it uses a hissing noise to give warning to the rest, which can be heard at a great distance, for it is a most vigilant animal, possessing an amazing quick eye and scent, so that the hunter finds it extremely difficult to steal upon it unawares. The chamois feeds upon the best herbage, and chooses the most de- licate part of the plants, the flowers, and the tender buds. It drinks but very little, and chews the cud in the intervals of feeding. This animal is much admired for the beauty of its eyes, which are round, full, and sparkling. They go to pasture both morning and evening, but seldom in the heat of the day. They run along the rocks and precipices with the greatest ease, aud seem quite indifferent, as they leap from crag to crag, so that no dog whatever is able to follow them. There is nothing more extraordinary than to see them climbing and descending precipices, that to all other quadrupeds are inaccessible : they always mount or descend in an oblique direction, and they will throw themselves down a rock thirty feet in height, and descend with great security upon some point overhanging an immense depth, which is just large enough to place their feet upon. They however strike the rock as they descend with their feet, to stop the velocity of their E E S 418 APPENDIX. motion, but when they get upon their base below they at once seem fixed and secure. During the rigours of winter the chamois sleeps in the thick forests, and feeds upon the shrubs and buds of the pine tree. It often turns up the snow with its feet, to endeavour to get at the herbage uuderneath, and when it succeeds, if it be green, makes a delicious repast. The more craggy and uneven the forest, the more the animal is pleased with its abode, and this also adds to its security. The hunting of the chamois is very laborious, and both extremely dan- gerous and difficult; the way usually adopted is to hide behind the clefts of the rock and shoot them. This, however, must be done with great precaution; the sportsman must creep a vast way upon his belly, and also take advantage of the wind, which, if it blow from him, they will immediately smell him, and make away. arrived at a proper distance, he then advances his rifle, loaded with a single ball, and tries his fortune amongst them. Many men lose their lives in following this animal amongst the frightful rocks and preci- pices which it inhabits. The skin of the chamois is famous for its softness when tanned, and is very useful. Questions and Answers. When A. A. About the A. In What size is it generally? Q. Of what colour is its hair? Q. Where is the chamois, in its wild state, only to be found? In wild rocky places. Q. size of the domestic goat. spring it is of an ash colour, and in autumn of a dun colour, inclining to black, and in winter of a blackish brown. Q. Where is this animal found? A. In the mountains of Dauphiny, Piedmont, Savoy, Switzerland, and Germany. Q. Where is Dauphiny? A. A pro- vince of France. Q. Where is Piedmont? A. A country of Italy. Q. Where is Savoy? A. A place between France and Italy. Q. A. Two countries of Europe. Where are Germany and Switzerland? A. Vienna. Q. Of Swit- A. Yes, Q. What is the capital of Germany? zerland ? A. Berne. Q. Are those animals peaceful ? Q. How long very mild and gentle. Q. Do they keep together? A. Yes, in flocks of from four to fourscore. Q. In what part of the year does the female bring forth her young? A. In April and March. A. For about five with the dam ? Q. Is the flesh of the chamois good Q. Has the chamois a loud cry? does the young chamois keep months, and sometimes longer. to eat? A. Yes, very good. A. No, when calling its young it uses only a gentle bleat. Q. In ZOOLOGY. 419 case of danger being near, how does it alarm the rest of the flock? A. By a loud hissing noise. Q. Is this noise heard far? A. Yes, at a great distance. Q. Can the chamois detect the approach of an enemy by its smell? A. It can. Q. Which are its principal enemies? A. Man is their greatest, and the wolf also is their enemy. Q. On what does the chamois feed? A. On the best herbage, and chooses the most delicate parts of the plant, the flower, and the tender bud. Q. Does it drink much? A. No, it drinks but little. Q. What is this animal particularly admired for? A. The beauty of its eyes, which are full, round, and sparkling. Q. When do they go to pasture? A. Both morning and evening, and seldom during the heat of the day. Q. Do they seem to be afraid to run along the rocks? A. No, they do so with the greatest ease and indifference, and leap from one to another, so that no dog can pursue them. Q. What is very extra- ordinary to see? A. Those animals as they climb and descend pre- cipices. Q. What wonderful feat will they often perform? will throw themselves down a precipice of thirty feet in height, and alight on a small point below uninjured. Q. During the rigour of winter where does the chamois sleep? A. In the thicker woods and forests. Q. What does it feed on there? A. Upon the shrubs and buds of the pine tree, and it will sometimes scratch up the snow with its feet, in order to get at the herbage underneath. Q. Is the chase of the chamois laborious? A. Yes, and also very dangerous. Q. How does the chamois hunter often lose his life? A. Very frequently when the animal finds himself over pressed, he drives at the hunter with his head, and throws him down the neighbouring precipice, and at other times the hunter may miss his footing, and be dashed to pieces. Q. What is the skin of the chamois used for? A. In making leather, which is remarkable for its softness. CLASS FOURTH.-ANIMALS OF THE Deer Kind. A. They With cloven hoofs, and with solid horns that are shed every year. This class coutains the elk, the reindeer, the stag, the buck, the roe- buck, and the axis. THE STAG. The stag is one of those innocent animals, that seem formed to adorn the forest, and animate with its presence the solitudes of nature. Many years ago, before all the ground was enclosed for gentlemen's EE 2 420 APPENDIX. - • parks and farms, there were great forests in England, in which large herds of those animals used to live in a wild state; and it was then the amusement of kings, princes, and noblemen, to enter those great forests for the purpose of hunting those animals with dogs, and shoot- ing them with arrows. William II., who was generally called Wil- liam Rufus, or the red, because of the colour of his hair, and who was king of England about 800 years ago, was killed while hunting the stag, by an arrow, shot at a stag, by one of his favourites; the arrow glanced off an oak tree and entered the king's heart, and the person who was the accidental cause of his death was so much frightened, that he rode away and left the kingdom. The princely diversion of stag- hunting has become now almost extinct in this country; the places where the stag used to live in its wild state, are now corn fields and cultivated land, and the wild stag is only to be found in Devonshire, Huntingdonshire, the North of Scotland, and the Western parts of Ire- land; in which places the stag is still hunted in a regular manner by noblemen and gentlemen, as it was in the old time when wild stags were to be found in all parts of the country. The female stag is called a hind, and the young a calf. The horns of the stag are very beautiful and large, branching out like a tree; the first year a stag has no horns, but a horny rising in the head, covered with hair; the next year the horns are single and straight; the third year they have two antlers or branches, three the fourth, four the fifth, and five the sixth; but this number is not always certain, for some- times there are more and often less. When arrived at the sixth year, the antlers do not always increase, and although the numbers may amount to six or seven at each side, yet the animal's age is known ra- ther from the size of the antlers, and the thickness of the branch that sustains them, than from the variety. These great horns are shed every year, and new ones come in their place. The old horns are of a firm solid nature, and are very useful in making handles for knives, and other domestic utensils. But although those horns when old are very hard, when young nothing can be more soft and tender; and the ani- mal as if conscious of its own weakness, at those times, after he has shed his old horns, retires from his companions into the thickest parts of the forest, never venturing out except by night. During this time, which usually happens in the spring, the new horns are very painful, and a touch will hurt them; the flies even are very troublesome at this pe- riod to the pour animal. When the old horn falls off, the new one ZOOLOGY. 421 The When does not immediately appear; after a short time, however, they bud forth like the graft of a tree, and rising by degrees from the head, shoot out at either side in antlers. The usual colour of the stag in England, Scotland, and Ireland, is red; but in other countries the greater num- bers are brown. Of all the animals that are natives of this country none have so beautiful an eye as the stag; his senses of smelling and hearing are no less perfect; when he is the least alarmed he lifts his head, and erects his ears, standing a few minutes as if to listen, when, if he finds it a real alarm, he darts off with amazing swiftness. stag eats slowly, and is very delicate in its choice of pasture. he has eaten a sufficient quantity, he then retires to some thicket to chew the cud with security and ease. The stag seldom drinks in win- ter, and still less in spring, while the plants are tender and covered with dew in the heat of summer, however, he is seen frequently at the banks of lakes and rivers satisfying his thirst. The stag can swim very well, particularly during the part of the year when he is fat and in good condition. The female has no horns; is not so strong, or fit for hunting as the male; brings forth its young about the month of May, or the beginning of June; has but one at a birth, which she takes care of with great fondness and perseverance. : Questions and Answers. A. A calf. Q. Has the stag horns Q. Is there any appear- Q. What is the female stag called? A. The hind. Q. What is the young of the hind called? during the first year of its life? A. No. ance of them? A. Yes, a horny lump or excresence, which is short, rough, and covered with a thin hairy skin. Q. Do the horns ap- pear on the second year? A. Yes, they are then single and straight. Q. What appearance have they in the third year? A. They have two antlers or branches. Q. How many the fourth year? A. Three. Q. How many the fifth year? A. Four. Q. How many the sixth year? A. Five. Q. Is this number always certain! No-sometimes there are more, and often less. . Do the antlers increase after the sixth year? A. Not always. Q. How is the ani- mal's age known? A. Rather from the size of the antlers, and the thickness of the branch that sustains them, than from the number. Q. Do the same set of horns remain on the stag during its life? A. No-they are shed, that is they drop off every year, and new ones come in their place. Q. What are the old horns used for? A. In making A. EE 3 422 APPENDIX. handles for knives, and other domestic utensils. Q. During the time the horns are young and tender are they very painful to the stag? A. Yes-the slightest touch will hurt them. Q. How do they avoid this? A. By seeking out the most remote places to graze in. Q. What is the usual colour of the stag? A. It is red in this country, but is brown in some other countries. Q. Has the stag the sense of seeing very perfect? A. Yes, his eyes are very bright and beautiful. Q. Has he the senses of hearing and smelling? A. Yes-in great perfection. Q. When he is alarmed what does he do? A. He lifts his head and erects his ears, and then flies off, if the alarm be real. Q. Is the stag very delicate in his eating? A. Yes, he is very choice in his pasture, and eats very slowly. Q. When he has eaten sufficiently what does he do? A. He retires to some thicket to chew the cud. Q. At what time does the stag drink least? A. In spring. Q. When does he drink most? A. In the heat of summer. Q. Who is the stag's greatest enemy? A. Man; the men of every age have made the chase of the stag their favorite amusement. Q. In what country in parti- cular has this been the case? A. In our own, so much so that the stag is now only seen in a few places. Q. Where may the stag be still found in a wild state? A. In the western parts of Ireland, and the north of Scotland, and in some extensive woodlands in Devonshire and Huntingdonshire. Q. What English Q. What English king was killed by an arrow when hunting? A. William Rufus. Q. By whom was he killed? A. By Walter Tyrrell, his favourite, who, shooting his arrow at a deer, accidentally killed the king. Q. Did this cause Tyrrell to fly? A. Yes, he left the country, and went to join the Crusades. Q. What were the Crusades ? A. Bloody wars, which the people of those days made against the Saracens. Q. What did they fight about? A. About the possession of the city of Jerusalem. CLASS FIFTH.-THE HOG KIND. Comprehending the Peccary, and the Babyroussa, or Indian Hog. THE WILD Boar. The wild boar is the original of all the varieties we find of this ani- mal; he is by no means so stupid or so filthy a creature as that which we have in some measure tamed, and which serves us as food. He is much smaller than the tame hog, and does not vary in colour, as most of the domestic animals do, from those of the same species; but in a ZOOLOGY. 423 wild state, he is always found of an iron-grey colour, inclining to black; his snout is much longer than that of the tame hog, and his ears are shorter, rounder, and black, and the feet and tail are of the same colour. He roots the ground in a different manner from the tame hog, for as this turns up the earth in little spots here and there, so the wild ani- mal turns it up like a furrow, and does great damage to the cultivated lands of the farmer; the tusks, also, of the animal are larger than the tame breed, some of them being almost a foot long; these tusks grow from both the upper and under jaw, bend upwards circularly, and are exceedingly sharp at the points; the tusks of the lower are always the most to be dreaded, and with them the wild boar can inflict very terrible wounds. The wild boar can properly be called neither a soli- tary nor a gregarious animal. The three first years the whole litter follows the sow, and the family live in a herd together; they then unite their common forces against the invasion of the wolf, and are called beasts of company. Upon this their principal safety while young depends; for when attacked, they give each other mutual assistance, calling to each other very loudly and fiercely, the strongest facing the larger, forming a ring, and keeping the weakest in the centre; in this When the wild boar position few wild beasts dare attack them. arrives at a state of maturity, he is not afraid of any animal, but walks This the forest alone, neither seeking danger nor seeming to avoid it. animal is, therefore, not often attacked, except at a disadvantage, either by numbers, or when sleeping by moon-light. Hunting the wild boar is one of the principal amusements of the noblemen and gentlemen of the countries in which it is found. The dogs provided for this sport are of a slow heavy kind; those used to hunt the stag or the roebuck would not by any means answer, as they would too soon come up with A small their prey, by which the pleasure of the chase would be lost. mastiff is, therefore, chosen, and with dogs of this description they hunt the old boar principally by his track. When the boar is scared, which means driven from his cover, he goes slowly forward, not much afraid, nor very far ahead, of his pursuers: at the end of every half mile, or thereabouts, he turns round, stops till the hounds come up, and offers to attack them; those, on the other hand, knowing their danger, keep off and bay him at a distance. After they have awhile gazed on each other with mutual animosity, the boar again slowly goes on his career, and the dogs renew their pursuit; in this manner the chase is continued till the boar becomes quite tired, and refuses to ZE 4 424 APPENDIX. : go any further; the dogs then attempt to close in upon him from be- hind; those which are young and fierce and unaccustomed to the chase, are generally the foremost, and often lose their lives by their rashness; those which are older and better trained, wisely wait till the hunters come up, who strike at the boar with their spears, and after several blows, disable or kill him. The instant the animal is killed, the huntsmen celebrate the victory with their horns. There are no wild boars at present in this country, but they are still numerous in Ger- many, and other countries of Europe. Questions and Answers. Q. What is remakable in the animals of the hog kind? A. They seem to unite in themselves all those distinctions by which others are separated. Q. What do they resemble animals of the horse kind in? A. In having the same number of teeth, which in all amount to forty-four; in the length of their head, and in having only a single stomach. Q. How do they resemble the animals of the cow kind? A. In their cloven hoofs, and the position of their intestines. Q. In what do they resemble the animals of the claw-footed kind? A. In their appetite for flesh, in their not chewing the cud, and in their numerous progeny. Q. What does this animal serve as ? A. As a link to connect those animals which feed on grass, and those that feed on flesh. Q. What is it possessed of? A. The ravenous appe- tite of the one, and the inoffensive disposition of the other. Q. What is the general character of animals of this kind? A. They live upon vegatables, seldom seek for animal food, unless urged by necessity; they offend no other animals of the forest, at the same time that they are furnished with arms to terrify the bravest. Q. Which animal is the original of all the varieties we find of the hog kind? A. The wild boar. Q. What description of animal is he? A. By no means so stupid or filthy as the domestic hog. Q. Is he a solitary animal ? A. He can properly be called neither a solitary or a gregarious animal. Q. What do you mean by a solitary animal ? A. One that lives entirely alone. Q. What do you mean by a gregarious animal? One that lives in flocks, or societies. Q. Why cannot the wild boar be said to belong to either sort. A. Because when young, they keep, for protection, together, but when grown old, they live apart. Q. When attacked, how do the young pigs defend themselves? A. They form a ring, placing the strongest outside, and the weakest within, A. ZOOLOGY. 425 and in this position few animals dare attack them. Q. Is hunting the boar a favourite amusement? A. Yes; with the noblemen and gen- tlemen of the countries which it inhabits. Q. Are the dogs used in this sport the same as those used for hunting the stag and roebuck? A. No; they are slower and stronger. Q. Of what country is the wild boar a native? A. Of Germany, and other countries of Europe. Q. What does the boar feed on? A. Principally on roots and veget- ables; but if it meets with flesh, it will eat it readily. Q. Are the animals of the hog tribe found in many countries? A. Yes; but few Q. What are the countries are without some specimens of this class. bristles used for? A. For making brushes, brooms for sweeping, and brushes for painting, and the shoe-makers use it for drawing the wax end through the leather, and when cut short, the bristles make clothes brushes, and other kinds. Q. Where are those bristles taken from? Q. From whence do most of A. From the top of the hog's back. them come? From Russia and Prussia. Q. Is there much used in England? A. Yes; it takes 1,748,921 hogs and boars to supply the demand in England for bristles. Q. How long ago is it since the wild boar was hunted in England? A. Four or five hundred years. Q. What king made a very cruel law to protect the boar from those who were not privileged to hunt it? A. William the First. Q. What was the punishment of those who were detected In killing the boar in the royal forests? A. The loss of their eyes. Q. Is the breed of the wild boar now extinct? for food in this country? is almost entirely supplied other flesh will do. A. It is. A. It is. Q. Is the tame sow much used A. Yes; no country uses more; our navy with it, because it bears salt better than CLASS SIX.-THE CAT KIND. Comprehending the Cat, the Lion, the Panther, the Leopard, the Jaguar, the Cougar, the Jaguarette, the Lynx, the Ounce, and the Catamountain. These are all carnivorous, and furnished with hooked claws, which they can sheathe and unsheathe at pleasure. THE LION. Most animals are found larger, fiercer, and stronger in the warm than in the cold or temperate climates; they are also braver and more enterprising; their dispositions seeming to partake of the heat of their native soil. The lion produced under the burning sun of Africa is, of all 426 APPENDIX. crease. others, the most terrible and undaunted. Such, however, of these animals as are bred in more temperate climates, or on the sides of lofty cold mountains, are far more gentle in their dispositions; that is, they are less dangerous. The lions that live on Mount Atlas have neither the strength nor the ferocity of those that are bred in the deserts of Africa, and it is in those dreary deserts that most of those large and ferocious animals are found; they are not now, however, very nume- rous, and are gradually decreasing, not from the increase of any other animal, for they are superior in strength to all others, but because man has made war against them, and he is provided with weapons which they cannot resist; and in proportion as men increase in any country where the lion is found, the courage and daring of the beast will de- In the vast deserts of Zaara, and in the burning sands which lie between Mauritania and Negroland, (which you will find on the map of Africa,) and in all the burning deserts of that continent, the lion is still found in all his native strength and courage. The lion is called the king of beasts; he has a very broad face, with a long shaggy mane all round it; his eyes are bright and fierce, and his roar is very loud and terrible; his appearance is majestic and dignified. He is a carnivorous animal, which means that he lives entirely on flesh, and all the animals of the cat tribe are carnivorous animals. The bones of the fore limbs of the lion are remarkable for their strength and firmness, and the great size of the muscles; nor are those of the jaw and neck less powerful. The tongue is rough; the sense of taste and smell not very good; but the lion has the senses of seeing and hearing in great perfection, and, like the cat, the pupils of his eyes are well adapted for seeing at night. But the most curious parts of the lion are his paws, which are beautifully adapted for his method of taking his prey, which he effects by creeping silently near it, and then bounding upon it from a distance of twenty or thirty feet, invariably bringing his victim to the ground by the force of the spring and the weight of his own body. If we examine one of the lion's fore paws, we find it softly cushioned below, no formidable talon visible, and the whole mass heavy, but sinewy and flexible; and this is needed by an animal that has to bound upon its prey, because the springy cushions which are placed under its foot serve for two purposes-to render its step completely noiseless, and to give it a greater power of springing; but although the talons are not visible, they are hid be- neath the fur, and by a curious contrivance can be sheathed and un- ZOOLOGY. 427 sheathed at pleasure; thus the lion at play with his cubs and mate, uses an unarmed paw in his gambols, and only throws out those for- midable weapons when he strikes in real earnest ; and then, by a sin- gle blow, he can rip up the side of a horse or buffalo. The lioness has no mane; her young are called cubs, and although they are pretty and playful when young, they grow up strong, fierce, and terrible; and even when born in confinement, soon shew their natural dispositions. Questions and Answers. Q. What are the principal marks of the animals of the cat tribe? A. They are all carnivorous, and are furnished with hooked claws, which they can sheathe and unsheathe at pleasure. Q. What do you mean by carnivorous? A. Living entirely on flesh. Q. Which is the principal animal of this tribe? A. The lion. Q. In what countries is he found in a wild state? A. In the continents of Africa and Asia. Q. In what particular parts is the lion fiercest and most dan- gerous? A. In the wild and uninhabited deserts of Africa. Q. Where is he weakest and least fierce and terrible? A. In the regions which are coldest, such as the sides of mountains. Q. Is the lion a match for any inhabitant of the forest? A. Yes, and for this reason is called the king of beasts. Q. Is man a match for him? A. Yes; man is Q. armed by artificial weapons, which the lion cannot resist. Q. Do we derive any benefit from the lion ? A. We know of no benefit, except that the skin is of some value; but no doubt Almighty God created such animals for his own wise and good purposes. Q. What is the lion remarkable for ? A. His great strength of muscle and limb. What very remarkable instruments has he for taking his prey? A. His paws and talons. Q. What are they adapted for ? A. For steal- ing softly on his victim, and then tearing it to pieces. Q. Are the talons always visible? A. No; he can sheathe and unsheathe them at pleasure. Q. What sort of face has the lion? A. A very broad one. Q. What surrounds it? A. A shaggy mane. Q. Is the lion a well-proportioned animal? A. Yes, it is a model of strength and agility. Q. Can lions be tamed? dered quite tame and gentle. Q. Are they very fierce in peopled countries? A. No; in Morocco and India they are acquainted with human power, and a shout is sufficient to drive them away. the lioness more gentle than the lion? A. No; on the contrary, she is much more fierce and cruel. Q. Does she defend her young fiercely? A. Yes; many have been ren- Q. Is انوه . 428 APPENDIX. A. Yes, she will fight to the last for their preservation. Q. What are the young of the lioness called ? A. Cubs. Q. Is the roar of the lion very loud? A. Yes; when re-echoed by the mountains, it re- sembles distant thunder. Q. What appearance has the lion when excited to anger? A. He lashes his sides with his long tail, he moves his mane in every direction, his eyeballs glare, he shews his long teeth, and he extends his sharp and dreadful claws. Q. Which are the only animals that are not afraid singly of the lion? A. The elephant, the rhinoceros, the tiger, and the hippopotamus. Q. By what animals is man assisted in hunting the lion? A. By dogs. dogs venture to attack him if they were not aware of man? A. No, they would fear to go near him. employed in hunting the lion small ones? A. No, they are of a very large breed. Q. What is the general size of the lion? A. Between three and four feet high, the female being about one-third less than the male. Q. Would those of the protection Q. Are the dogs SEVENTH CLASS.-ANIMALS OF THE DOG KIND, Carnivorous, and furnished with claws, like those of the cat tribe, but which they cannot sheathe; this class comprehends the dog, the wolf, the fox, the jackall, the isatis, the hyæna, the civette, the gibet, and the genet. THE DOG. Animals of the dog kind, although deficient in some of the qualities possessed by those of the cat kind, yet have others of which the latter are deficient. Upon examining their claws, it will be easily seen that they cannot, like cats, pursue their prey up a tree, and hunt it amongst the branches; for this reason the proper prey of the animals of this class are those animals which, like themselves, are unfit for climbing, such as the hare, the rabbit, the gazelle, or the roebuck. As they are in this respect unequal to the cat tribe, they excel them in their sense of smelling, by which they can hunt with more certainty and success. Of all this tribe the dog has every reason to claim the preference, being, of all known quadrupeds, the most intelligent, and the acknowledged, tried, and faithful friend of man. His whole life seems devoted to one purpose only, the service of his master. A Ill usage will not even change his fidelity; he licks the hand that strikes him, and tries, by perseverance and faithful services, to disarm it of its ZOOLOGY. 429 No cruelty; but of all species of cruelty, that shown to so faithful a servant is the worst, and we hope much of it does not now exist. truly good boy or man ever treats a dumb animal unkindly; doing so is a plain proof of a bad, wicked, and cowardly disposition. More docile than man, more obedient than any other animal, the dog is not only instructed in a short time, but he also takes the disposition and manners of those who command him; he is disdainful amongst the great, and churlish amongst clowns; he takes his tone from the house he inhabits; always assiduous in serving his master, and only a friend to his friends, he is indifferent to all the rest, and declares him- self openly against such as seem to be dependent like himself. He knows a beggar by his clothes, by his voice, and his gestures, and forbids his approach. When at night the guard of the house is com- mitted to his care, he seems proud of the charge; he continues a watchful sentinel; he goes his rounds, scents strangers at a distance, and gives them warning of his being upon duty. If they attempt to break in upon his territories he becomes more firm, flies at them, threatens, fights, and either conquers alone, or alarms those who have most interest in coming to his assistance. When he has conquered, he quietly reposes on the spoil which he has deterred others from abusing, giving us a lesson of courage, temperance, and fidelity. The desire of hunting is natural to the dog; for all animals that live upon flesh hunt by nature. The lion and the tiger hunt alone, because their strength is so great that they are sure to conquer; but the wolf, the fox, and the wild dog hunt in packs, assist each other, and each has his own share of the spoil; but when education has perfected this talent in the domestic dog, when he has been taught by man to repress his ardour, to measure his motions, and not to exhaust his force by too sudden an exertion of it, he then hunts with method, and always with success. Like the wild horse, the wild dog, such as he was before he came under the protection of man, is now unknown; yet there are many that from a domestic state have become wild and savage, and entirely pursue the dictates of nature. In America, where they were originally brought by the Europeans, they have niultiplied to such a degree that they spread in packs over the country, and attack all other animals; but they can be easily domesticated again, if treated with kindness and lenity. It would be impossible to name all the numerous varieties of the dog; each kind is, in its own particular way, useful. The shep- herd's dog collects together the straggling sheep, and guides the flock 430 APPENDIX. ". with astonishing sagacity and patience from place to place; the esqui- maux dog carries his master, when attached to a sledge, over the trackless waste of snow and ice, with unexampled perseverance, and great speed. The Newfoundland dog is most useful as a watch-dog, and will fight and die for his master, or plunge into the water to save him, if in danger of drowning. The mastiff is a faithful servant, trustworthy, and never forsaking his duty. The greyhound will hunt down for his master the swiftest bare. The terrier will never tire of hunting and destroying such annoying vermin as water and sand-rats, and will also pursue foxes, rabbits, and hares. The wolf dog is not very useful in these countries, as the wolf is not found in them, but when the wolves were plenty, and did much mischief, the wolf dog was of great value in hunting and destroying them. The pointer and setter are used to find. out game by sportsmen, and are very valuable and highly prized. Be- side these there are many other kinds of dogs; some of whom are not of much use, but are praised more for their beauty than for their utility. Questions and Answers. Q. What is the character of the dog? A. He is brave, faithful, and generous. Q. In what does he differ from animals of the cat tribe? A. In having claws which will not, like theirs, unsheathe at pleasure, and in hunting in company with his fellows, not alone, as they do. Q. Has the dog been long domesticated? A. Yes; we have no records to tell the exact time of his first domestication, but it must have been about the same period as the horse was first brought under the protection of man. Q. Are there any wild dogs at present in existence? A. No, except the descendants of those which have escaped from a domestic state. Q. What desire is natural to the dog? A. That of hunting. Q Is this desire improved by man? A. Yes; the dog is taught by him to hunt with method, and conse- quently more chance of success. Q. Are there many different varieties of this animal? A. Yes, too many to attempt describing all. Q. Name the principal. A. The shepherd's dog, the Esquimaux dog, the Newfoundland dog, the grey-hound, the fox-hound, the hare-hound, the blood-hound, the wolf-dog, the mastiff, the terrier, the bull-dog, the Thibet dog, the coach dog, the setter, the spaniel, and the pointer. Q. Of what use is the shepherd's dog? A. No animal is more valuable : he collects the sheep for his master, which, but for his help, it would ZOOLOGY. 431 be almost impossible to do on the wild mountains where he is used. Q. Of what use is the Esquimaux dog? A. In his native country, Esquimaux, which is always covered with snow, he draws his master in a sledge over the great wastes, which otherwise would not be pass- able. Q. Of what use is the greyhound? A. To course and kill hares. Q. Of what use is the fox-hound? A. To hunt and kill foxes. Q. And what is the hare-hound used for? A. To hunt hares. Q. Is the blood-hound of much value? A. Not now; but in former times he was used to hunt the robbers, which he did by smelling their track, Q. Is the mastiff a useful animal? A. Yes; he watches his master's house at night, and guards against the en- trance of thieves. Q. What is the terrier used for? A. To destroy such vermin as rats, and to trace foxes and rabbits. the spaniel, and the pointer valuable dogs? A. Yes; they find out game, such as partridges, pheasants, &c., for the sportsman. Q. What is very remarkable in the dog? A. He is the only animal that dreams. Q. How do we know that a dog dreams? A. Because we often see them when asleep start and growl, and move their legs, as if runniug, which clearly shews they are dreaming. Q. What are the young of the dog called? A. Puppies. Q. What is remarkable about them? A They are blind for nine days after their birth. Q. CLASS EIGHT. THE WEASEL KIND, Are the setter, With a long, thin body, having five toes or claws on each foot, the first of them separated from the rest like a thumb; this comprehends the weasel, the martin, the pole-cat, the ferret, the mangoust, the vansire, the ermine, with all the varieties of the American moufetts. THE WEASEL. The weasel is the smallest animal of this numerous tribe, generally not exceeding seven inches in length, from the tip of its nose to the insertion of its tail. This length, however, compared with the height of the animal, which is but an inch and a half, appears very great. The tail, also, which is bushy, is two inches and a half long, which adds to the apparent length of this little animal's body. The colour of the weasel is of a bright red on the back and sides, but white under the throat and belly; it has whiskers like a cat, and thirty-two teeth, which is two more than any of the cat kind, and these also seem better adapted for tearing and chewing than any of the cat kind are. The 432 APPENDIX. eyes are small and black, the ears short, broad, and roundish, and have a fold at the lower part which makes them seem, as if they were double. Beneath the corners of the mouth on each jaw is a spot of brown. This animal, though in appearance very diminutive, is never- theless a very formidable enemy to quadrupeds a hundred times its own size. It is very common and well known in most parts of this country, but seems in very different estimation in different parts of it; in those parts where sheep and lambs are bred, it does a great deal of mischief, and every art is used to destroy it; on the contrary, in places where agriculture is chiefly followed, the weasel is considered as a friend that thins the number of such vermin as chiefly live upon corn. Night is the time that the weasel chooses to make its depredations; at the ap- proach of evening it steals from its hole and creeps about the farmer's yard in search of its prey. If it enters the place where poultry are kept, it never attacks the cocks or the old hens, but confines itself to the young ones. It does not eat its prey on the spot, but after killing it by a single bite near the head, and with a wound so small, that it is It also extremely difficult to perceive it, it carries it off to its retreat. breaks and sucks the eggs, and often kills the old hen, if she attempts to defend them. It is remarkably active, and in a place which does not afford the poultry a chance of escape, commits dreadful depredation; it will run up the sides of walls with such ease, that no place is secure from it; and its body is so small, that it can force itself through a very small hole. During the summer it takes more extensive excursions, but in the winter it confines itself chiefly to farm yards and barns, where it remains til spring; and where it brings forth its young. All this season it makes war upon rats and mice with still greater success than the cat; for being more slender and active, it can pursue them It creeps into their holes, and after a short resistance destroys them. also into pigeon holes, and kills the young; it catches sparrows, and all kinds of small birds; and if it has brought forth its young, hunts with still greater boldness and avidity. In summer it ventures further from the house, and particularly goes into those places where the rat, its chief prey, goes before it. Accordingly it is found in the lower grounds, by the side of waters near mills, and often is seen to hide its young in the hollow of a tree. The female always takes the greatest pains to form a soft and comfortable bed for her young ones; she lines the bot- tom of her hole with grass, hay, leaves, and moss; and generally brings forth from three to five at a time. The weasel, like all others of its ZOOLOGY. 433 kind, does not run along as the other animals do, but moves by bound- ing, and when it climbs a tree, by a single spring, it gets a good dis- tance from the ground. It jumps in the same manner upon its prey, and in the same manner evades the attempts of other animals to seize it. The weasel, like the remainder of the animals of this class, has a very unpleasant smell. Questions and Answers.“ A. For tearing They are black, Q. What are the distinguishing marks of animals of the weasel kind? A. They have a long thin body, with five toes, or claws, on each foot, the first of them separated from the rest, like a thumb. Q. Which is the smaller animal of this numerous tribe? A. The weasel. Q. What is the length of this animal? A. Seven inches from the tip of the nose to the insertion of the tail. Q. Is this a great length in comparison with its height? A. Yes, it is not above an iuch and a half in height. Q. Does the tail seem to increase the length of this animal? A. Yes, it is two inches and a half long, and thick and bushy. Q. What is the colour of the weasel ? A. On the back and sides it is of a bright red, but white under the throat and belly. Q. What has it like a cat? A. Whiskers, and it has thirty-two teeth, which is two more than any of the cat kind. Q. What are those teeth better adapted for than those of the cat? and chewing. Q. What colour are the eyes of? A. and very small? Q. Describe the ears. A. They are short, broad, and roundish, and have a fold at the lower part, which makes them seem as if they were double. Q. Is the weasel a mischievous animal? A. Yes; though so diminutive in appearance, it is nevertheless a formidable enemy to quadrupeds a hundred times its size. Q. Is it A. Yes, it is well known in most parts of this country. Q. In what places is it most noxious? places as lambs and sheep are bred. Q. Where is it considered as a friend? A. Where corn is grown in large quantities. Q. Of what service is it in such places? A. It destroys the vermin which feed upon the grain. Q. What time does the weasel choose for its de- predations? A. Night. Q. What are particularly the objects of its attack? A. Poultry. Q. Does it attack the old ones? A. No, it confines its depredations generally to the chickens. Q. How does it kill them? A. By a bite near the head, which is so very small, that it can scarcely be perceived. Q. What does it often prey upon? very common ? F F A. In such 434 APPENDIX. Q. Is it difficult to prevent its wall with great ease, and will A. Eggs, which it breaks and sucks. attacks? A. Yes, it can climb a make its way through a very small hole. cursions far? A. Yes, in to the farm-yard and barn. cess even than the cat? successful than the cat? Q. Does it extend its ex- summer; but in winter they are confined Q. What does it pursue with more suc- A. Rats and mice. Q. Why is it more A. Because it can follow them into their places of retreat. Q. What does it also destroy? A. The young Q. Where does it and eggs of pigeons, and all sorts of young birds. go in summer? A. To those places where the rat, its chief prey, goes before it. Q. Where is it therefore found at that time? A. Q. What is In the low grounds by the side of water, and near mills. the female very particular about ? A. In making a bed for her young. Q. Does she like it soft and warm? A. Yes, and she therefore Q. How many young lines it with grass, hay, leaves, and moss. does she bring forth at a time? does the weasel run ? A. By a succession of bounds. Q. Is it able from larger animals? A. Yes, from its great nimbleness it is hard to catch it. Q. What peculiar and disagreeable quality have all animals of the weasel kind. A. A most offensive smell. A. From three to five. Q. How to escape CLASS NINTH.-THE RABBIT KIND, With two large cutting teeth in each jaw. This comprehends the rabbit, the hare, the guinea-pig, all the various varieties of the squirrel, the dormouse, the marmotte, the bat, the mouse, agouti, the paca, the aperea, and the tapiti. THE HARE. The hare is one of the most persecuted of animals, and at the same time the most timorous; and as it has many enemies, it is accordingly All its muscles are provided with means of flight from their attacks. formed for swiftness, and all its senses seem only given to direct its flight. It has very large prominent eyes, placed backward in its head, so that it can almost see behind it as it runs; these are never wholly closed, but as the animal is continually on the watch it sleeps with them open. The ears are still more remarkable for their size; they are movable, and capable of being directed in every quarter; so that the smallest sounds are readily received, and the motions of the animal directed ac- cordingly. The muscles of its body are very strong, and without fat, so ZOOLOGY. 435 that it carries no superfluous burden of flesh about it; the hinder feet are longer than the fore, which adds greatly to the rapidity of its motions; and almost all animals that are remarkable for their speed, except the horse, are formed in the same manner. An animal so well formed for escape, might be supposed to live in tolerable security; but as every rapacious creature is its enemy, it seldom lives its natural term. Dogs of all kinds pursue it by instinct, and follow the hare more eagerly than any other animal. The cat and the weasel kinds are continually lying in ambush, and practising all their little arts to seize it. Birds of prey are still more dangerous enemies, as against them no swiftness can avail, nor retreat secure; but man, an enemy far more powerful than all, prefers its flesh to that of other animals, and destroys greater numbers than the rest. Thus pursued and persecuted on every side, the race would long since have become extinct, did it not find a resource in its amazing fertility. The hare multiplies exceedingly; the females go with young but thirty days, and generally bring forth three or four at a time, and then produce young again, much quicker than any other animal. and The young of the hare are brought forth with their eyes open; the dam suckles them for twenty days; after which they leave her and seek for their own subsistence. They feed during the night, rather than by day, choosing the most tender blades of grass, and quenching their thirst with the dew. They live also upon roots, leaves, fruits, and corn, and prefer such plants as are furnished with a milky juice. They also, during the winter, strip the bark off trees, there being scarcely any that they will not feed on, except the lime and alder; they are particularly fond of birch, pinks, and parsley. When they are kept tame, they are fed with the lettuce and other garden herbs, but the flesh of such as are thus brought up is always indifferent. As their limbs are made for running, they easily outstrip all other animals in the beginning, and could they preserve the same speed, it would be impossible to overtake them; but as they exhaust their strength at the first effort, and double back to the place they were started from, they are more easily taken than the fox, which is a much slower animal. As their hind legs are longer than their fore, they always choose to run up hill, by which the speed of their pursuers is diminished, and theirs remains the same; their motion is also without any noise, as they have the sole of the foot furnished with hair, F F 2 436 APPENDIX. and they seem the only animals which have hair on the inside of their mouths. They seldom live above seven or eight years at the utmost; they come to their full perfection in a year; they are not so wild as their dispositions and habits seem to indicate, but are of a complying nature and easily domesticated; but they are not to be depended upon, for they will take the first opportunity of regaining their liberty, though taken ever so young. The hares of the hot countries, particularly in Italy, Spain, and Barbary, are smaller than ours. There is scarcely a country in which this animal may not be found. Questions and Answers, A. No, on the contrary, it Q. Is it a persecuted ani- Q. Is it famous for A. Yes, and A. They are Does it close its Q. Is the hare a courageous animal? is one of the most timorous we know of. mal? A. Yes, its enemies are most numerous. its swiftness? A. Yes, all its senses seem given to direct its flight. Q. Has it the sense of seeing in great perfection? also of hearing and smelling. Q. Describe its eyes. very large, and placed very far back in its head. Q. eyes when at sleep? A. No, it keeps them half open. Q. What are its ears remarkable for? A. For their size Q. What more do we know of them? A. They are moveable, and capable of being turned in every direction, so that the smallest sound may be received. Are the muscles of the body remarkable for any thing? A. Yes, for being very strong, and but little encumbered with useless flesh. Q. What is singular in its feet? A. The hind legs are much longer than the fore. Q. What does this give the hare? A. Great swiftness in running. Q. Do you not suppose that an animal so well calculated for escape leads a life of tolerable security? A. No, be- cause every rapacious aniinal is its enemy. Q. Name some of its Q. principal enemies? A. Dogs of all kinds, cats, weasels, and ferrets, foxes, and birds of prey. Q. Which is however its most formidable enemy? A. Man, who pursues it for the sake of its flesh. Q. How is it that with such a number of enemies the breed is not entirely ex- tirpated? A. Because of its amazing fertility. Q. How long does the female go with young ? A. Thirty days. Q. How many does she bring forth at a birth? A. From three to four, and this number she brings forth many times each year. Q. Are the young brought I ZOOLOGY. 437 forth blind as puppies are? A. No, they are born with their eyes open. Q. How long does the mother suckle them? A. Twenty days. Q. What do they then do? A. They go to provide for them- selves. Q. At what time does the hare feed? A. At night. Q. What do they eat? A. Tender blades of grass, roots, leaves, fruit, and corn, and in winter the bark of trees. Q. When they are kept A. Lettuce and other garden herbs: tame, what are they fed upon? they are particularly fond of parsley. Q. How do they quench their thirst? A. With dew. Q. How long do they live? A. Seven or eight years. Q. Are they capable of being domesticated? A. Yes; but though taken ever so young they will endeavour to escape at the first opportunity. Q. Are they larger or smaller in warm countries ? A. Smaller. Q. Where are they found? A. In almost every country. Q. Q. How are the animals of this kind known? A. By having two large cutting teeth in each jaw. Q. What are the other animals of this tribe? A. The rabbit, the guinea pig, all the various varieties of the squirrel, the dormouse, the marmot, the rat, the mouse, the agouti, the paca, the aperea, and the tapiti. Q. Is it not cruel for man to destroy such numbers of poor harmless hares? A. It is necessary that they should do so, otherwise they would multiply to such an extent, as to become a very serious nuisance. Q. What other reason is there to justify man in this? A. That God created all creatures for his use and benefit, therefore the hare is killed to supply food. CLASS TENTH.-THE HEDGE-HOG KIND, With claw feet, and covered with prickles, Comprehending the hedge-hog, the porcupine, the couando, and the urson. THE HEDGE-HOG. The hedge-hog, though somewhat formidable in its appearance, is yet one of the most harmless animals in the world; unable or un- willing to offend, all its precautions are only directed to its own secu- rity, and it is armed to keep off the enemy, but not to invade it. This animal is of two kinds, one with a nose like the snout of a hog, the other more short and blunt, like that of a dog. That with the muzzle of a dog is the most common, being about six inches in length, from the tip of the nose to the insertion of the tail. The tail is little more than an inch long, and so concealed by the spine as to be scarcely FF 3 438 APPENDIX. visible; the head, back, and sides, are covered with prickles, the nose, breast, and belly, are covered with fine soft hair, the legs are short, of a dusky colour, and almost bare, the toes on each foot are five in num- ber, long and separated; the prickles are about an inch in length, and very sharp pointed; their lower part is white, the middle black, and the points white; the eyes are small and placed high in the head; the ears are round and naked; the mouth is small, but well furnished with teeth; these, however, it uses only for chewing its food, neither applying them to the purposes of attack or defence; its only re- liance, in cases of danger, is on its spine, the instant it perceives an enemy it puts itself into a posture of defence, and keeps upon its guard until it supposes the danger over; on such occasions it immediately alters its whole appearance from its usual form, which somewhat re- sembles a small animal with a bunch on its back; the animal begins to bend its back, to lay its head upon its breast, to shut its eyes, to roll down the skin of the sides towards the legs, to draw those up, and lastly to tuck them in on every side, by drawing the skin still closer. In this form, which the hedge-hog always puts on when dis- turbed, it no way resembles an animal, but rather a roundish mass of prickles, impervious on every side. The shape of the animal thus rolled up, somewhat resembles a chestnut in the husk, there being on one side a kind of flat space, which is that on which the head and legs have been tucked in. The hedge-hog, like most other wild animals, sleeps by day, and ventures out at night; it generally resides in small thickets, in hedges, or in ditches, covered with bushes; there it makes a hole of about six or eight inches deep, and lies well wrapped up in moss, grass, or leaves; its food is fruit, roots, worms, and insects. The female hedge-hog brings forth her young about the first of May. The hedge-hog sleeps during the winter; they at no time eat much, and they can remain a long time without any food whatever. Their blood is cold, like that of all other animals that sleep during the winter; their flesh is not good for food, and their skins are converted to no use, except to muzzle calves, to keep them from sucking. Questions and Answers. Q. What are the marks of animals of the hedge-hog kind? A. They have claw feet, and are covered with prickles. Q. What animals are contained in this class? A. The hedge-hog, the porcupine, the ZOOLOGY. 439 couando, and the urson. Q. Is the hedge-hog a harmless animal? A. Yes; it is most inoffensive and harmless. Q. What two kinds are there of this animal? A. One with a nose like the snout of a hog; the other more short and blunt like that of a dog. Q. Which is the commonest ? A. That with a snout like a dog. Q. What is its length? A. About six inches, from the tip of the nose to the inser- tion of the tail. Q. How long is the tail? A. About an inch in length, and so concealed by spines, as to be scarce visible. Q. What is its head, back, and sides, covered with? A. Prickles. Q. How is the nose, breast, and belly covered? A. With fine short hair. Q. Describe the toes. A. There are five on each foot, long, and se- parated Q. What is the length of the prickles? A. About an inch in length. Q. Describe them. A. They are very sharp-pointed; the lower part is white, the middle black, and the points white. Q What sort of eyes has it? A. They are small, and placed high in its head. Q. Is the mouth large? A. No; small, and well fur- nished with teeth. Q. On what does the hedge-hog rely in time of danger? A. On its spines. Q. How does it use them? A. It rolls its body up like a ball, the prickles presenting themselves on all sides. Q. What is the shape of the animal when thus rolled up. A. Something like a horse-chestnut with the husk on. Q. During what time does the hedge-hog sleep? A. Like most wild animals it sleeps during the day. Q. Where does it generally reside? A. In small thickets, in hedges, or in ditches, covered with brambles. Q. What sort of a hole does it make? A. About six or eight inches deep, well lined with moss, grass, or leaves. Q. What is the food of the hedge-hog? A. Roots, fruits, worms, and insects. Q. When does the female bring forth her young? A. About the beginning of May. Q. Does the hedge-hog remain active during the winter? A. No; it sleeps during all the cold season. Q. What sort of blood has the hedge- hog? A. Cold blood, like all those animals that sleep during winter. Q. Is the flesh of the hedge-hog good to eat? A. No. Q. Is the skin of any use? A. Of none; except to muzzle calves to prevent their sucking the cow after they have been weaned. CLASS ELEVENTH.-ANIMALS OF THE TORTOISE KIND, Covered with a shell, or scales; This comprehends the tortoise, the pangolin, and the phataguin. FF4 440 APPENDIX. F. THE TORTOISE. Tortoises are usually separated into two classes,-those that dwell on land, and those that live in water; and we are accustomed also to call them by different names; those that live upon land being called tor- toises, and the water animal, turtle. In their outside appearance there is very little difference between them, they are both covered by two great shells, the one laid upon the other, and only touching at the edges. On examining those shells more minutely, we shall find that the upper shell is composed of no less than thirteen pieces, which are laid flat upon the ribs, as we may see the tiles of a house placed, by which the shell is arched, and sup- ported. The shells both above and below, are firmly bound together. At either edge of this vaulted body, are two holes, one for the very small head, shoulders, and arms, to peep through; the other at the opposite end for the feet and tail. These shells the animal is never disengaged from, and it serves as a safe defence from every animal. Man alone is able to destroy it. The tortoise's head is very small, with no teeth, having in their place two bony ridges, which are very hard; these serve to gather and grind its food, and such is the amazing strength of its jaws, that it is impossible to open them when they have once fastened; even when the head is cut off, the jaws still keep their hold. The animal is possessed of equal strength in all other parts of its body; the legs, though short, are very strong, and it has been known to move the weight of five men upon its back. The land tortoise is generally about from one foot to five feet long, from the end of the snout to the end of the tail, and from five inches to a foot-and-a-half across the back; it has a small head, some- thing like a serpent; an eye without an upper lid, the under one serv- ing the purpose of two. Its head the animal can put out and hide at pleasure, under its shell, and so defended is it upon all sides, that it does not fear the attack of the strongest animal in the forest. The tortoise lives to a great age; many have been ascertained to have lived to more than one hundred years. This animal is often kept in gardens, where it is of great use in destroying insects and snails, which it feeds upon; it will also eat almost any thing that offers, such as leaves, fruits, corn, bran, or grass, and it sleeps during the entire winter. ZOOLOGY. 441 The sea-tortoise or turtle, is larger than the land, and its flesh is esteemed a great delicacy; it is found on the sea-coasts of the West. Indian Islands, and many other warm places, and in the Mediterranean Sea. Questions and Answers. A. A. No. Q. What A. As a defence from head of the tortoise. serpent's. Q. What Q. What two different descriptions of tortoises are there? Those that dwell on land, and those that live in water. Q. What is the sea-tortoise called? A. The turtle. Q. By what are those animals covered? A. By two great shells, the one laid upon the other, and only touching at the edges. Q. When we examine those shells more minutely, what do we find? A. That the upper one is composed of no less than thirteen pieces. Q. What are those laid upon? A. Upon the ribs, as the tiles of a house are placed. Q. Are the upper and lower shells fastened together? A. Yes; very firmly. Q. What is there at both ends of this vaulted body? A. Two holes. Q. What are these for? A. One for the head, shoulders, and arms, to go through, the other at the opposite end for the feet and tail. Q. Is the animal ever disengaged from those shells? useful purpose do they serve the tortoise? every animal, except man. Q. Describe the A. It is very small, and something like a kind of teeth has it? A. It has no teeth, and in their place two bony ridges, which are very hard. Q. What do those serve to do? A. To gather and grind its food. Q. Are its jaws very strong? A. Yes; amazingly so; it is impossible to open them when they have once fastened. Even when the head is cut off, they will still retain their hold. Q. Is this animal possessed of equal strength in other parts of its body? A. It is; it has been known to carry the weight of five men. Q. What length is the land-tortoise generally of? A. From one to five feet long. Q. What is its breadth across the back? A. From five inches, to a foot and a half. Q. Is the tortoise a long lived animal ? A. Yes; it generally lives to eighty years, sometimes to a hundred and upwards. Q. What will the tortoise eat? Worms, snails, fruit, grass, and almost any thing it can get. Q. Does it sleep during the winter? A. It does. Q. Is the sea-tortoise, or A. In turtle, a large animal? A. It is. Q. Where is it found? the Mediterranean Sea, the Islands of the Pacific Ocean, the coasts of A. 442 ZOOLOGY. . : the West Indies, and other places. Q. Is their flesh good to eat? A. Yes; it is esteemed a great delicacy. CLASS TWELFTH. THE OTTER, OR AMPHIBIOUS KIND, Comprehending the otter, the beaver, the desman, the morse, and the seal. THE OTTER. The Otter may be called the link, which connects together the land and amphibious animals; it resembles those of the terrestrial kind in shape, and in the formation of its internal parts, and those of the aquatic tribe, in its manner of living, and in having membranes be- tween the toes, to assist it in swimming. From this peculiar make of its feet, which are very short, it swims even faster than it runs, and can overtake fish in their native element. The colour of this animal is brown, and it is long, slender, and soft skinned; it is usually about two feet in length from the tip of the nose to the insertion of the tail; the head and nose are broad and flat; the neck short and equal in thickness to the head; the body long; the tail broad at the insertion, but tapering off to a point at the end; the eyes are very small and placed near the nose; the legs are very short, but remarkably strong, broad, and mus- cular; and the joiuts are so loosely put together, that the animal is able to turn them quite back, and bring them on a level with his body, by which he makes them serve the same purpose as fins for fishes. Each foot is furnished with five toes, connected by strong webs, like the toes of the duck, and other water-fowl; and thus this animal is well adapted by nature to a life which, as he lives upon fish, must of necessity be principally spent in the water. This voracious animal is never found in any place except the sides of lakes and rivers, but particularly the former, as it prefers calm water to a running stream to fish in, because in a stream it either swims too fast with the current, and overshoots its mark, or too slowly against it. It seems to take a pleasure in fishing, and does not follow it entirely from necessity, for it will often bring considerable quantities of fish on shore, which it cannot use, and leave them there. But although it has thus a greater quantity of food than it can use in summer, yet in win- ter, when the still water is frozen over, and the running streams muddy, full, and rapid, he is often very badly off for food, and is then obliged to ZOOLOGY. 443 have recourse to that which, during the season of plenty, he would have despised, and eats grass, weeds, and even the bark of trees. He comes upon land, and necessity having emboldened him, he attacks rats, insects, and even sheep. The otter makes his den under the hollow banks of lakes and rivers. Young otters, when properly trained, have been made very useful in fishing, and have been taught to bring the fish they take from the water, and lay them at their master's feet. Otters are to be met with in almost all parts of the world, differing, however, considerably from each other in size and colour. In North America and Carolina, they are usually found white, inclining to yel- low; the Brazilian otter is much larger than ours, with a roundish head, almost like a cat's; the tail is shorter, being but five inches long and the hair is soft, short, and black, except on the head, which is of a dark colour. Questions and Answers. Q. What may the otter be considered as? A. The link which con- nects together, terrestrial and amphibious animals? Q. What do you understand by a terrestrial animal? A. One that lives entirely upon land. Q. What is the meaning of an amphibious animal? A. One that lives partly upon land and partly in the water. Q. Tell me of some amphibious animal? A. The crocodile. Q. Name another. A. The beaver. Q. Give another example. A. The seal. Q. Name another? A. The sea-horse. Q. Can you name any other? A. Yes, the duck billed platypus of New Holland. Q. Is this latter a curious animal? A. Yes, it is the most extraordinary creature we know of, having the most perfect duck's bill, engrafted as it were upon its head. Q. To return to the otter; can you describe it? A. Yes, it is of a brown colour, and of a long slender shape, with a soft skin; its length generally from the nose to the insertion of the tail being about two feet; the neck is broad and short, the tail tapering to a point, the eyes are very small, the legs very short, but remarkably strong, broad, and inuscular. Q. What is remarkable of the legs? A. The joints are so supple, that the animal can bend its feet quite back, so as to make them answer the purpose of fins. Q. What is remarkable in the feet? A. The toes are connected by strong broad webs, similar to those of the duck, and other water-fowl. Q. On what does the otter live? A. Principally on fish, which in the summer season it destroys in large 444 APPENDIX. . quantities. Q. What is the reason it cannot procure fish in winter, equally well as in summer? A. Because the still waters are frozen, and the streams are too rapid and muddy at that season. Q. When it cannot get fish, what will it eat? A. Grass, the bark of trees, and rats, and sometimes even sheep. Q. Where does it make its den? A. In the hollow banks of lakes and rivers. Q. Is the skin of the ot- ter of any use? A. Yes, the skin of the American otter makes ex- cellent fur? Q. What do you mean by fur? A. The dressed skins of all animals is called fur. Q. Is the otter found in our islands. A. Yes, near those streams and lakes that are least resorted to by man: otters are very plenty in Scotland and Ireland. THE THIRTEENTH CLASS IS THAT OF THE APE AND MONKEY KIND, With hands, and feet resembling hands. Instead of giving a lesson in illustration of this, we would recom- mend the teacher to read a classification of the numerous varieties of this tribe, and give the pupils a series of lessons upon them, in the way we recommend, as opportunity offers. THE FOURTEENTH CLASS IS THAT OF WINGed Quadrupeds, or the BAT KIND, Containing the bat, the flying squirrel, and some other varieties. We will leave this sub- The common bat should be the illustration. ject also to the teacher's own care, recommending a real specimen of the bat to be obtained, which is almost always possible. Before entering into the history of birds, lessons should be given on those animals which belong to no particular class, but are distinct in themselves, and of which suitable and properly illustrated lessons may be had of the author, or publisher of this work; as also a complete set of lessons, illustrating the different divisions of zoology for the use of schools. Having by the aid of the preceding lessons given the boys an idea of the classification and habits of the principal quadrupeds, the teacher will now go on to give them some knowledge of the natural history of birds, commencing with ZOOLOGY. 445 CLASS FIRST.-RAPACIOUS BIRDS, OR BIRDS OF PREY. The animals of this order are all carnivorous; they go together in pairs, and build their nests in the highest and most solitary places they can find. The female is mostly larger than the male. THE EAGLE. * You see this picture, boys. It is a very correct representation of the golden eagle, and will give any of you, who have not had an opportunity of seeing the real bird, a very good idea of its appear- ance and shape, although no one could correctly represent its fierce bright eye and noble look; and even if you saw the bird in a confined state, you could form but a poor idea of the grandeur of his appear- ance when he springs up from the cliff where he has made his nest, and soars away through the sky, until he seems but a small black speck, or perhaps till we lose sight of him altogether. Of all animals, the eagle flies highest; and it is from this quality that the ancients, many hundred years ago, called him the bird of heaven; of all others also he has the quickest eye. But although he exceeds all other birds in the sense of seeing, his sense of smelling is by no means so perfect, and so he never pursues his prey till he is within sight; but he can see it even when soaring at an immense height, and then down he shoots with the quickness of an arrow, strikes his hocked claws into his victim, and carries it away to feed his young. He will carry away geese and cranes, and sometimes hares, kids, and lambs, often killing fawns and calves to drink their blood; nay, many instances are on record where infants left exposed have been taken off by eagles; though in most cases of this kind that I have heard of, I find the children were saved; doubtless because a merciful and good God was watching over them. This beautiful, noble, but dangerous bird, is now but seldom seen in England, and is only to be met with in the Highlands of Scotland, and in the western parts of Ireland, where the people are few, and which abounds with high and rocky mountains, and tall cliffs, and lonely In giving questions on this lesson, we have supposed the questions given on the same subject in another part of this work have been asked, and we then proceed to carry out the subject still further. The reader will at once perceive that no bird of this order can furnish so entertaining and instructive a lesson for boys. We for this reason select it, although we have given a nea:ly similar lesson in "the Infant System.' 446 APPENDIX. : : lakes, where the eagles love to make their nests, and to bring up their young; in such places as these they may be seen soaring over head, watching for their prey, and feeding their young ones, whom they bring up in their great nests, made of large sticks and rushes. Beside the golden eagle, there are many others, called the king tailed eagle, the common eagle, the bald eagle, the white eagle, the rough footed eagle, the erne, the black eagle, the osprey, the sea eagle, the crowned eagle, and the bird of Washington, which last is a rare and noble bird, only found in North America, and called after George Wash- ington, a very brave and good man, and an American general. All these are noble and brave birds; and belonging to the same class with them are the condor, the vulture, the falcon, the hawk, and the owl; but none of these can compare with the eagle, who is justly called the king of birds. Questions and Answers. Q. What other kinds of eagles are there beside the golden eagle? A. The ringtailed eagle, the common eagle, the bald eagle, the white eagle, the roughfooted eagle, the erne, the black eagle, the osprey, the sea eagle, and the crowned eagle. Q. What may the eagle be consi- dered amongst birds? A. What the lion is amongst quadrupeds. Q. Will he kill such small animals as the rook and magpie? A. He disdains such petty prey, and only follows those that are worthy of his conquest. Q. Will he eat carrion? A. No, although very hungry he will not eat anything he has not himself killed. Q. What does the eagle further resemble the lion in? A. In its sparkling eyes, sharp claws, and fierce disposition. Q. Is it easily tamed? A. No, it is impossible to tame it altogether. Q. Do eagles ever congregate toge- ther in large numbers? No, it is very rare to see two pair within many miles of each other? Q. What very extraordinary circumstance occurred in Ireland, concerning an eagle's nest? A During a summer of famine a poor man in Kerry supplied his family with food, by taking away from the young eagles of a nest near, the food which the old ones had brought, and this he did during the entire summer. Q. What is the eagle often called? A. From soaring so high, it has been named the bird of heaven, and because no bird is so strong and noble, it has been called the king of birds. ZOOLOGY. 447 CLASS SECOND.--Birds oF THE POULTRY KIND, Comprehending the cock and hen, the peacock, the turkey, the phea- sant, the guinea hen, the bustard, the grouse, the partridge, and the quail. THE TURKEY. Birds of the poultry kind are the most useful to mankind, and form no inconsiderable article in their food; and their flesh is esteemed the most delicate, and the mildest of that of any other animal; it is recom- mended to those persons whose constitutions are too delicate to bear a stronger diet. Those that have been domesticated by man, and which are, of course, the most useful to him, are the cock and hen, the pea- cock, and the turkey. The pheasant has been taken under his pro- tection, but has never been entirely domesticated. The native place of the turkey is doubtful; but the general opinion now is, that it originally came from America, and this is the only With us country where the bird has ever been found in a wild state. when young, it is considered a very delicate bird, and requires much care and attention: yet it is found wild in the forests of Canada, which for the greater part of the year are covered with snow; and to hunt them and shoot them forms the principal diversion of the inhabitants. The turkey cock, although a great bully, and very fond of frightening children, is, like many men of the same disposition, a most cowardly creature himself. The turkey hen seems of a milder disposition, and is most persevering in searching for food for her young ones. She lays eighteen eggs, larger than those of a hen, whitish, and marked with spots resembling freckles; her young are extremely tender at first, and must be takeu great care of, but as they grow older they become more hardy, and will follow their mother to great distances, in pursuit of in- sect food, which they prefer to any other. On these occasions, how- ever, the female, though so large an animal, will not do much to pro- tect them of any danger should chance to come in the way. When once grown up turkeys are very hardy birds, and feed them- selves at very small expense to the farmer. The Norfolk turkeys are said to be the largest in this kingdom, weighing sometimes from twenty to thirty pounds. There are places, however, in the East Indies, where they are known only in their domestic state, in which they grow up to the weight of sixty pounds. 448 APPENDIX. Questions and Answers. • A. No; he will Q. Are turkeys A. No; the turkey is much Q. Is the turkey cock a much larger bird than the common cock? A. Yes, much larger. Q. What sort of noise does he make? A. A gobbling noise. Q. What does he eat? A. All sorts of corn and in- sects. Q. Is the flesh of the turkey good to eat? A. Yes; and people take great pains in feeding them that they may be fat. Q. Is the turkey cock like the peacock in anything? A. Yes; he spreads his tail in the same manner. Q. Is he a quiet bird? often run after a little child, but he is a great coward. wild in any country? A. Yes; in America, and in Canada the people shoot and hunt them for pleasure, and for the sake of their flesh. Q. Where is Canada? A. In North America. Q. Are the turkey's feathers pretty? A. Yes; not so handsome, however, as the peacock. Q. Is the peacock's flesh better to eat? better. Q. What has he on his head? A. A great piece of red flesh, which he can put up and down when he likes? Q. When he is vexed what does he do? A. He looks fierce and makes a great gobbling noise, and struts about as if he was very proud. Q. Q. Has he anything to be proud of? A. No; for he is a great coward and cannot sing as the little birds can? Q. What does he pride himself on? A. His fine feather. Q. When boys are inclined to be proud of having better or newer clothes than their companions what would it be well they thought of? A. The silly pride of the turkey in his plumage. Q. Tell me the names of the other birds belonging to the poultry tribe. A. The cock and hen, the peacock, the pheasant, the Guinea hen, the bustard, the grouse, the partridge, and the quail. Q. Which of those have been domesticated and made useful by man beside the turkey? A. The cock and hen, the peacock and hen, the Guinea hen, and the pheasant. Q. Are pheasants easily domesticated? A. No; they can never be made completely so, as the cock and hen and turkey can. Q. Is the bustard common in this country at present? A. No; it is but seldom met with. Q. Is it a large bird? A. It is. Q. Are the grouse, the partridge, and the quail plenty? A. Yes; they are called game, and rich men preserve them. Q. What do they preserve them for? A. That they may have the pleasure of looking for them and shooting them? Q. What do they take pleasure in this for? A. Be- cause walking a long way in the fields to look for them, gives them good exercise, and rich people that do not work, would get very weak and ZOOLOGY. 449 Q. Is exercise necessary for delicate if they did not have exercise. the poor as well as the rich? A. Yes, equally so, because God made us all the same. Q. How do the poor have exercise? A. In working for their living, which is very good exercise, if they have not to work too hard, CLASS THIRD.-THE PIE KIND, Comprehending the raven, the crow, the rook, the magpie, the jay, the woodpecker, the cuckoo, all the different tribes of parrots, the pigeon and its varieties. THE MAGPIE. The magpie is a bird which all boys know too well to need to be told much about its appearance. It is a pretty bird, and has a great many different colours on its body, such as black and white, green and purple, and a beautiful glossy tail; and if it was as amiable in its disposition as it is pretty, few birds could compare with it. But it is vain, restless, proud, and quarrelsome, and is, in conse- quence, an unwelcome intruder every where, and it never misses an opportunity of doing mischief. It has more instinct than the gene- rality of birds. Its nest is no less remarkable for the manner in which it is built, than for the place chosen to build it in. It is usually placed conspicuously enough, either in the middle of some hawthorn bush, or at the top of some high tree. The place however tree pitched upon is always found to be difficult of access, for the usually grows in some thick hedgerow, fenced by brambles at the root, or sometimes one of the higher bushes is fixed upon for the pur- pose. When the place is thus chosen, the next care is to fence the nest above, so as to defend it from all the various enemies of air. The kite, the crow, and the sparrow-hawk, it has to guard against, be- cause their nests have been sometimes plundered by the magpie, the magpie very reasonably fears they will take the first opportunity of re- taliation; to prevent this, and all other dangers, the magpie's nest is built with surprising labour and ingenuity. The body of the nest is composed of hawthorn branches, the thorns sticking outwards, but well fastened together within, the inside being lined with fibrous roots, wool, and long grass, and then nicely plastered round with mud and clay. The body of the nest being thus made firm and commodious, the next work is to make the canopy which is to defend it above. G G 450 APPENDIX. This is composed of the sharpest thorns, woven together in such a manner as to make an entrance impossible, except at the door, which In this is just large enoagh to admit the magpie itself and its mate. fortress the cunning birds generally lay their eggs, and bring up their young in security, sheltered from every attack except that of cruel boys, who go out to rob poor birds of their eggs, and even they find that they have sometimes paid too dearly for the spoil, by scratched and torn hands. The magpie may be easily tamed; but even in its domestic state it never forgets its natural disposition. The same noisy, mischief- Those loving disposition it shews in the cage as it did in the woods. who are desirous of making it speak, have a foolish custom of cutting its tongue, which only puts the poor animal to great pain, without improving its speech in the smallest degree. Its speaking is some- times very distinct, but its sounds are too thin and sharp to be an exact imitation of the human voice. The hoarse raven and parrot can imitate it much better. When tame, the magpie will steal every thing it can get hold of, and thus often causes great confusion. Questions and Answers. A. The Q. What birds are comprehended in the pie kind? raven, the crow, the rook, the magpie, the jay, the woodpecker, the cuckoo, all the different tribes of parrots, the pigeon and its varieties. Q. What is remarkable in most of these birds? A. The facility with which they imitate the human voice. Q. Tell me those of them that are most celebrated for this. A. The magpie, the raven, the jay, and all the parrot kind. Q. What great piece of cruelty and igno- rance is practised often upon the magpie in order to increase its power of imitating the human voice? A. Its tongue is slit. Q. Does this really make it speak better? A. No; beside the cruelty of the custom, it cannot make the poor bird speak the least plainer. Q. Is the magpie a pretty bird? A. Yes, it has a great many different colours on its body. Q. Name them. A. Black, white, green, and purple, and a beautiful glossy tail. Q. Is its disposition as amiable as its colours are pretty? A. No, it is vain, restlsss, proud, and quarrelsome. Q. What is the consequence of this? A. It is universally shunned by the other birds. Q. Is the magpie a stupid bird? A. No, it has greater instinct than the generality of birds. Q. In what does it employ the greater part of its ingenuity? A. In ZOOLOGY. 451 the construction of its nest. nest from its enemies of air? Q. What place does it usually choose for its habitation? A. Either the middle of some thick hawthorn · bush, or the top of some high tree. Q. Where is the tree usually situated? A. In some thick hedgerow. Q. Is its nest ever found in an exposed situation? A. Never. Q. How does it defend its A. By a thick canopy of thorns above. Q. What do you mean by its enemies of the air? A. Such birds as the kite, the crow, and the sparrow-hawk. Q. What reason have they for attacking the magpie's nest? A. Because the magpie attacks theirs whenever it has an opportunity. Q. What is the body of the nest composed of? A. Hawthorn branches. Q. How are these branches placed? A. With the thorns sticking out, and well fastened together inside. Q. How is the interior of the nest furnished? A. It is first well lined with fibrous roots, wool, and long grass, and afterwards plastered round very nicely with mud and clay. Q. Of what is the canopy above composed? A. Of the sharp- est thorns, woven together in such a manner as to make all entrance impossible, except through the door. Q. Is this door large? A. Only just large enough to admit the magpie and his mate. Q. Is this fortress secure from every enemy? A. No, cruel boys will often succeed in robbing the eggs and young ones. Q. Do they do this without any trouble? A. No, their hands are scratched and torn for their pains. Q. How many eggs does the female magpie lay? A. Six or seven eggs, of a pale green colour, spotted with brown. Q. Is the magpie, when in a tame state, a mischievous bird? A. Yes, always on the look out for an opportunity to do mischief. Q. What remarkable propensity has it? A. To steal and hide every thing it can carry away. Q. What does the magpie feed upon? A. Upon fruits. Q. What will it sometimes do? A. Kill small it birds. CLASS FOURTH.-BIRDS OF THE SPARROW KIND, Comprehending the sparrow, the hedge-sparrow, the thrush, the blackbird, the starling, the nightingale, the redbreast, the lark, the canary, the wren, the swallow, the humming-bird, and many others. THE LARK. There are two kinds of larks, the sky-lark and the wood-lark; both G G 2 452 APPENDIX. having the power of singing very loudly and beautifully. Almost all the birds of this kind are song birds, that is, birds that sing prettily, and which delight us so much as we walk in the fields and woods. The most beautiful song birds are the nightingale, the thrush, the blackbird, the redbreast, the goldfinch, and the canary. The lark is distinguished from all the small birds by the length of its bill; and the sky-lark flies very high into the air, and conti- nues all the time to sing its beautiful song. The lark uses its long heel to remove its eggs, in case of danger, to a safer place. It builds its nest on the ground, generally beneath some turf that serves to hide and shelter it. The female lays four or five eggs, of a dusky hue in colour, and while she is sitting on them in order to hatch them, the male entertains her by his singing; he flies upwards in an almost straight line, always above his nest. In winter, larks as- semble in great flocks, and are then taken in large quantities by the bird-catchers; their flesh being thought a great luxury. Questions and Answers. Q. Are many birds comprehended in the sparrow tribe? A. Yes; a great many. Q. Name the principle kinds? A. The spar- row, the hedge-sparrow, the thrush, the blackbird, the starling, the nightingale, the redbreast, the lark, the canary, the wren, the swallow, the humming-bird, and many others. Q. What are almost all these birds remarkable for? A. Their beautiful song. Q. What are these called? A. Song birds. Q. Name those amongst them that are the best singers? A. The nightingale, the thrush, the blackbird, the lark, the goldfinch, and the canary. Q. How many kinds of larks are there? A. Two. Q. Name them. A. The wood or tit-lark, and the sky-lark. Q. Where does the lark build its nest? A. On the ground beneath some turf, which serves to protect and conceal it. Q. How many eggs does the female lay? A. Four or five, of a dusky colour. Q. What time does the lark sing? A. While the female is hatching the eggs. Q. Does he remain on the ground whilst singing? A. No; he soars very high into the air. Q. At what time do larks assemble in great numbers? A. In winter. Q. Who catch them at that time? A. The bird-catchers. Q. What do they take them for? A. For the sake of their flesh, which is thought a luxury. ZOOLOGY, 453 CLASS FIFTH.-THE CRANE KIND, Comprehending the crane, the stork, the heron, the bittern, the spoon-bill, the flamingo, the scooper, the red-shank, the knot, the snipe, the woodcock, the lapwing, the godwit, the waterhen, and the coot. THE CRANE. The class of birds of the crane kind are distinguished from others by their manner of eating, and their long legs and bills. Most of the birds of this kind are also bare of feathers half way up the thigh. All this class live upon fish and insects, which they wade after into the water, and from this circumstance, many writers on birds, call this class wading birds. The crane is a tall slender bird, with a long neck and long legs. Its plumage is ash colour. It is a very social bird, that is, it is seldom alone, but goes in flocks with its fellows. While one part of the flock are resting, others watch the approach of danger. They are generally inhabitants of cold countries, but they are birds of passage, that means, at regular times they fly from one place to another. In making those journies, they fly to a great height, making a loud noise as they go along; and although they are at a great distance from the earth, yet they can see it very well, and when they come over a place where they think they can get plenty of food, they all descend together. Questions and Answers. Q. Are there many birds comprehended in the crane kind? A. Yes. Q. Name them? A. The crane, the stork, the heron, the bittern, the spoon bill, the flamingo, the scooper, the red-shank, the knot, the snipe, the woodcock, the lapwing, the godwit, the water- hen, and the coot. Q. How are this class of birds distinguished from others? A. By their manner of eating, by their long legs and bills, and by their being bare of feathers half way up the thigh. Q. What does their chief food consist of? A. Fish and insects. Q. How do they take them? A. By wading into the water. Q. What A. Wading birds. Q. What sort of bird is the crane? A. A tall slender bird. Q. Of what are they sometimes called from this? colour is its plumage? A. An ash colour. Q. Do cranes go together A. An ash colour. in flocks? A. They do. habit? A. Cold countries. Q. What countries do they generally in- Q. Do they always remain in the same GG 3 454 APPENDIX. country? A. No; they are birds of passage, that is, they fly from one country to another. Q. When they travel thus, do they fly near the ground? A. No; they keep at a very great height. Q. Do they go along silently? A. No; they make a great noise. Q. When they see a place where they think food is plenty, what do they do? A. They fly down, and remain there some time. CLASS SIXTH.-WATER FOWL, Comprehending the pelican, the albatross, the cormorant, the Solon goose, the gull and petril, the penguin, the puffin, the swan, the com- mon and wild goose, the duck, wild and domestic, the kingfisher. THE SWAN. The swan, the goose, and the duck, are handsome and useful birds. The swan is one of the most beautiful and graceful of birds. It has a handsome arched neck, and a pretty white bosom and wings, and when sailing along in the water, it has a most majestic appearance; although when walking on land, it is very awkward, for its whole shape and make is much better adapted for the element in which it almost en- tirely lives. So on land with its long neck stretched forwward, it is a stupid looking bird; but on the water it is one of the most beautiful objects that can be imagined, and adds much to the splendour of a fine lake or river. The tame swan is quite white, but the wild swan is ash colour along its back and the top of its wings. This beautiful bird is as delicate in its appetite as it is elegant in its form. Its chief food is corn, bread, herbs growing in the water, roots, and seeds, which are found on the marshes. The female lays seven or eight eggs, white, and much larger than those of the goose, and with a very hard shell. It sits very nearly two months on the eggs, before the young are hatched. They are ash-coloured when they first leave the shell, and for some months afterwards. Swans can give a very hard blow with their wing, and it is very dangerous to attempt to take their young, as they have strength enough to break a man's arm. Questions and Answers. Q. Are there many birds comprehended in the class of water-fowl? A. Yes, a great number. Q. Name them? A. The pelican, the al- batross, the cormorant, the Solon goose, the gull, the petril, the penguin, ZOOLOGY. 455 A. the puffin, the swan, the common and wild goose, the wild and domes- think is tic duck, and the kingfisher. Q. Which of all these do you most useful to man? A. The tame goose and duck. Q. Why are they most useful? A. Because they are the only ones amongst all these different birds that have been made completely domestic. Q. What use are they of in their domestic state? A. They lay eggs, which are very good for food. Q. What more use are they of? Their flesh is most excellent to eat. Q. And of what use is the goose besides? A. Its feathers are most useful for making pens and stuffing beds and pillows. Q. What part of the goose's body do the feathers come from that make the pens ? A. From the wings. Q. And from what part do we get the feathers for beds? A. Chiefly from the breast, and the inside feathers of the whole body. Q. Amongst all the water-fowl which do you think is generally considered the most beautiful bird? A. The swan. Q. Are its feathers also useful? A. Yes, the feathers of the swan's wing make most beautiful pens, and the Q. Des- down or inside feathers of its body, makes the softest beds. cribe the general appearance of the swan? A. He has an arched neck and white wings and bosom. Q. Which does he look better on, the water or land? A. On the water. Q. What colour is the wild swan of? A. Ash colour along its back and the tops of its wings. Q. What does the swan feed on? A. On corn and bread, and also on herbs which grow in the water, and seeds which it finds on the margin. Q. How many eggs does the swan lay? A. Seven or eight. Q. Are they smaller than the eggs of the goose? A. No, much larger. Q. How long does the female swan sit on them before the young ones are hatched? Q. Of what co- A. Nearly two months. lour are they for some months after leaving the shell? A. Ash colour. Q. Has the swan great strength in its wing? A. Yes, a blow from it would be strong enough to break a man's arm. From these lessons the teacher may, on the same principle, give others, until the pupils have a knowledge of all the principal birds of each class. Many teachers will find the specimens we have given quite sufficient to enable them to carry out the object in view; but as all teachers have not intelligence sufficient, or knowledge of natural history enough for this purpose, it is the intention of the author to publish immediately a set of lessous on zoology, which will be quite sufficient for the purposes of those schools for the use of which these GG 4 456 APPENDIX. specimens are given; which lessons may be had in a very short time, on application either to the author or publisher of this work. FISHES, THE WHALE. No animal that lives upon land, or swims in the water, can compare in size with the whale. It is the largest living creature of which we have any certain account; its general size is eighty feet long, and twenty feet high, and although of such an amazing size, it swims in the deep sea with all the ease and swiftness of the smaller fishes. The great Greenland whale is the most remarkable of the various kinds of which we know anything, and for the taking of this fish great preparations are made every year in various parts of Europe. It has very large fins, and its tail, which lies flat on the water, is about twenty-four feet broad, and when the fish lies on one side, a blow of this great tail could knock a boat, full of men, high into the air, and break it to pieces. This tail is also the instrument with which the whale pushes itself along so fast through the water. The mouth of the whale is about twenty feet long, and his jaws are furnished with bones, which, when taken out of the animal, and prepared, form that substance which we call whalebone, which is used in making umbrellas, and for various other purposes. The eyes of the whale are small, and situated in the back of the head, by which the animal is enabled to see both before and behind. They are guarded by eyelids and eyelashes as in the animals which live upon land; and whales can also hear very well, although their ears are not visible, unless we look for them very closely, when we shall find a black spot behind the eye, which serves them for the same pur- pose as our ears do us. The nostrils, or as they are called spout-holes, are situated one at each side of the head before the eyes; from these holes the animal blows out the water very furiously, with such a noise that it may be heard at three miles distance, and the sound is like a strong wind. The female brings forth her young in a different man- ner from other fishes, and in the same manner as the land animals do ; the young one is called a cub, and the mother suckles it as a cow does a calf, and the milk of a whale much resembles that of a cow. Nothing can exceed the tenderness of the female whale for her young one; she carries it with her wherever she goes, and when hardest pursued, keeps it supported between her fins. Even when wounded she still. ZOOLOGY. 457 holds her young one, and when she dives to avoid danger, takes it with her to the bottom, and rises soon again to give it air. The whale is a harmless animal, and has many enemies; there is a little animal of the shell-fish kind, called the whale-louse, that sticks to its body under its fins, and whatever efforts the great animal may make to get rid of it, it still holds its place, and lives on the flesh of the poor whale. The sword-fish, however, is a still inore terrible enemy. At the sight of this little animal the whale seems dreadfully frightened, leaping from the water as if in great terror, and swimming off rapidly in an opposite direction. The whale has no instrument to defend it- self with, but its tail; and with this it endeavours to strike the sword- fish, but he is too nimble, and always contrives to get out of the way; and then, taking his opportunity, he leaps into the air and falling upon the unfortunate whale, he commences cutting into its flesh with its teeth, the sea is soon dyed with its blood, and although it lashes with its tail, making noises louder than the greatest can- non, yet still the sword-fish keeps its hold until the whale dies. The whale has however a still more dreadful enemy than either of the two we have mentioned; that enemy is man; who fits out large ships to sail into those seas where whales are found in greatest numbers, to kill them for the sake of their oil, which is very useful for lamps, for oiling steam engines, machinery of every kind, and for many other useful purposes; and the men in those ships kill the great whales by striking long spears, to which great ropes are tied, into their bodies, and repeating this until the whale is dead, when they draw him with their boats to the large ships, and there take out of his body the oil and whalebone. It is not cruel of man to kill the whale, because God gave all animals for our use; nor is the poor whale particularly unfor- tunate in having so many enemies. God orders all these things for his own wise reasons, and when you grow older and read more, and think more, you will be able to see yourself what a wise and good God he is, and how beautifully he bas arranged every thing in this world, to pre- vent confusion, and to preserve good order amidst all he has created. Questions and Answers. Q. In what does the whale and its varieties differ from the other fishes that live in the seas and rivers? A. In having red and warm blood in circulation through their bodies, which the others have not. Q. What do you understand by the circulation of the blood? A. Its - 458 APPENDIX. being driven through the veins, which run through the entire body. Q. By what is the blood driven? A. By the motion of the heart which we call beating. Q. What is the use of this circulation of blood? A. It diffuses life through the body; when our hearts beat languidly, that is, slowly, the blood circulates slowly, and we feel ill and weak. Q. When the heart beats quickly, how do we feel? A. Full of life and spirits. Q. In what more do the whale tribe differ from other fishes? A. In having, like quadrupeds, lungs, stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, and bladder, and in breathing through the lungs. Q. Do not fishes breathe air then? A. Certainly; but they procure it from the water, which they draw in through their gills. Q. What advantage have they in this over the whale tribe? A. They can remain any time under the water. Q. Cannot the whale do this? A. No, after a short stay below, he must come to the surface for a fresh supply of air. Q. State any other way in which the whale tribe differ from other inhabitants of the water? A. Their senses are very superior. Q. What do you mean by their senses? A. The organs by which they see, hear, feel, smell, and taste. Q. Name the first sense in which you find a superiority. A. That of seeing. Q. Prove this. A. The eyes of other fishes are only covered by that skin which covers the rest of the head, but the eyes of the whale are covered with eyelids as in man. Q. Are fishes then blind? You say their eyes are co- vered with the same skin as covers there head, how then do they see? A. That skin is transparent. Q. Do you understand what transparent means? A. Yes; any substance that we can see through is called transparent. Q. What is a substance called that we cannot see through? A. Opaque. Q. Give me an example of an opaque substance. A. A piece of iron. Q. But you have not yet sufficiently proved to me that the sense of seeing is superior in the whale tribe to other tribes of fishes; you only said they had got eye-lids, now we do not see with our eye- lids? A. No; but they preserve the sight by resting it when they are closed. Q. Cannot the other fishes close their eyes? A. No; they are continually staring, and so their eyes must be injured. Q. Right; now name another sense in which you find the whale has a great su- periority over the other inhabitants of the sea. A. That of hearing. Q. Have the other fishes no organs of hearing? A. No. Q. Is the whale tribe provided with such? A. Yes; with complete ones. Q. Name another, and the greatest distinction between the whale tribe and other fishes. A. The manner in which their young are produced. !: ZOOLOGY. 459 Q. State the difference. A. Other fish deposit their spawn and leave its coming to perfection to accident or chance. Q. How does the whale differ in this? A. She brings forth her young alive, and suckles them in the same manner as land animals do theirs. Q. Being so different, then, from others, is it not wrong to call the whale tribe fishes? A. It is, if in doing so we are made to suppose them alike in every particular. Q. But, as you now understand the difference, do you think you may class them with fishes? A. Yes; because they are constant inhabitants of the sea, and in other ways resemble them. Q. State another reason for so calling them. A. They are shaped as other fishes are. Q. Give me another reason. fins. Q. Very right; give me another. A. They swim with A. They are entirely with- out hair. Q. Give me another. A. They never come on the shore, unless driven there. Q. Do you consider these reasons sufficient? A. I think so. Q. Having now come to a thorough understanding as to the difference between the whale tribe and other fishes; let us now go a little into its history. Is there any animal on land, or in water, superior in size? Q. No; we have no account of any larger animal. Q. What is the length of an ordinary whale ? A. About eighty feet. Q. What is its height? A. About twenty feet Q. Does not its enormous bulk greatly retard its progress through the water? A, No; it swims as quickly, and with as much ease as any other dweller in the sea. Q. Which is the most remarkable animal of the whale kind? A. The great Greenland whale. Q. What is the size of its head in proportion to the rest of its body? A. About one- third. Q. What is the length of its fins? A. From five to eight feet. Q. Of what are those fins composed? A. Of bones and mus- cles. Q. What is the breadth of the tail? A. About twenty-four feet. Q. Can it give a strong stroke with its tail? A. Yes; its stroke is tremendous. Q. Would it injure a large boat if it struck it? A. Yes; it has often, with a single stroke, broken one into pieces. Q. What kind of skin has the whale? A. Smooth and black. Q. Is it entirely of a black color? A. No; in some cases it is marked with white and yellow. Q. What do these marks give the skin the appearance of? A. Of marble. Q. What use does the whale make of its tail, besides as a weapon of defence? A. To push itself forward in the water. Q. Is this aided by the fins? A. Yes; the fins act as a rudder to turn the body round, and to steer it in any direction. Q. What use does the female make of her fins? A. To carry her young. 460 APPENDIX. Q. In what manner does she do this? A. She places her young upon her back, and the fins prevent them from falling off. Q. Is the open- ing of the mouth very large? A. Yes; it is about twenty feet long. Q. Must it not, then, be able to swallow very large fishes, or other animals? A. No; it cannot swallow any fish larger than a herring. Q. What is the reason of this? A. On account of the extreme nar- rowness of their throats, in comparison to the enormous extent of their mouths. Q. On what do those animals chiefly feed? A. On a small insect about the size of a bean, which floats in great quantities on the seas which they inhabit, and also on many of the smaller fish, such as herrings. Q. In what part of the whale is the substance called whale- bone found? A. In the mouth and jaws. Q. Where are the eyes of the whale situated? A. In the back part of the head. Q. Is this position of any particular advantage to the animal? A. Yes; he can thus see both before and behind. Q. Has the whale any enemies? A. Yes. Q. Name the most fatal ones. A. The whale-louse, the swordfish, and man. Q. Who is the most terrible enemy of the three? A. Man. Q. For what reason is man the enemy of the whale. A. Man takes away the life of the whale, because it yields substances which are of value to him. Q. Has man a just right to take the whale's life? A. Certainly; God gave mankind dominion over the fowls of the air, the beasts of the field, and the fishes of the sea. Q. In what seas is the whale-fishing carried on? A. In the North seas, where the fish most abounds. Q. In what manner is it carried on ? A. By means of ships which are fitted out for the purpose with every convenience. Q. When the crew of a ship discover a whale, how do they proceed? A. They fit out their boats, and row away to where the whale was seen. Q. When they approach the fish, what do they next do? A. The harpooner stands at the top of the boat with his harpoon. Q. What do you mean by the harpooner? A. The man who is to strike the harpoon or spear into the whale. Q. What is fastened to the spear? A. Several hundred yards of strong rope. Q. When the boat comes near the whale, what is dune? The harpooner strikes his spear into the whale, and then the boat rows away very quickly. Q. When the whale feels the spear entering its flesh, what does it do? A. It swims off with amazing rapidity. Q. But does it escape? A. No; the rope is let out with it, and the harpoon keeps its hold. Q. How long does the whale generally re- main below? A. About half an hour. Q. Why does it rise again? A. ZOOLOGY. 461 A. To get a supply of air. Q. When it again rises to the surface, what do the men do? A. They strike more harpoons into its body, and it again darts downward. Q. What at length happens? A. The poor whale completely exhausted makes no further resistance, and is killed. Q. What is then done? A. It is pulled to the ship, cut up, and the oil and the whalebone taken out. Q. What very surprising method has the whale of spouting out the water which he takes into his body? A. Through his nostrils. Q. Does he do this very gently? A. No; he drives it to a great height, and with a noise as loud as a cannon. Q. What is the young of the whale called? A. A cub. Q. Is the female very fond of her young? A. Yes; she will fight for it, although herself wounded, and will bear it away on her back. Q. How many different kinds of whales are there? A. Seven. Q. Name them. A. The Greenland whale. Q. How is it distinguished from the others? A. It is without a back fin, and black on the back. Q. Name the next. A. The Iceland whale, Q. How is it diatinguished? A. It is also without a back fin, and whitish on the back. Q. Name the next. A. The New England whale? Q. How is it known. Q. Tell me the next kind. A. The A. By having a hump on its back. whale with six humps on its back. Q. What is the next called? A. The fin fish, with a fin on the back near the tail. Q. What are the two last kinds called? A. The pike-headed whale and the round- lipped whale. Q. To what tribe of fishes do all those belong? A. To cetaceous fishes. Q. What other fishes belong to this tribe? A. The dolphin, the grampus, and the porpoise. Q. Do all these bring forth their young alive in the same manner as the whale? A. They do. THE SHARK. Of all the inhabitants of the deep, those of the shark kind, are the fiercest and most voracious. The great white shark is sometimes found nearly as large as the whale, having been known to reach the length of from twenty to thirty feet. The head is large, and some- what flatted, the snout long, and the eyes large; the mouth is enor- mously large, as is the throat, and capable of swallowing a man with great ease; but its teeth are still more terrible; of these there are six rows, extremely hard, sharp pointed, and of the shape of a wedge. There are seventy-two in each jaw, which make one hundred and forty-four in the whole; so that where the shark seizes its prey, it holds it with all those terrible teeth, and it could easily bite a man in 462 APPENDIX. : two. His fins are large, his eyes can turn round, and he can see before and behind; his skin is rough, hard, and prickly, and from it is made that substance with which instruments and spectacles are co- vered, called shagreen. No animal is so terrible as the shark; no fish can swim so fast; and he would commit much more mischief than he does, but on account of his lower jaw projecting very much, he is obliged to turn on his side before he can seize his prey; as this takes some time to perform, the animal pursued takes the opportunity to make its escape. There is no animal that lives in the sea, from which man has to dread so much as the shark; he is the constant at- tendant of those ships which sail through the seas of warm climates, and if a sailor have the misfortune to fall overboard, or if he carelessly goes overboard to bathe, the shark immediately darts upon him, and makes him his prey. A sailor was once bathing near Antibes, in the Mediterranean Sea, and while he was swimming, about fifty yards from the ship, he perceived a great shark making towards him, and survey- ing him on every side. The poor man, struck with terror at the sight, called out to his companions to take him on board; they accordingly threw him a rope as quickly as possible, and were drawing him up, when the shark darted at him, and nipped off his leg. At St. Vin- cent's, in Jamaica, a gentleman sailing in a boat at night, and sitting in the stern, a large shark that followed, at length inade a spring at him, but at the same time fell into the boat. The gentleman imme- diately sprung up, and after some trouble killed the shark, which he found to measure twelve feet. The shark will eat almost any thing, but it seems fonder of the flesh of man than any other. When once it has tasted it, it never fails to haunt places where it expects to find more; aud along the coast of Africa, where these animals are found in greatest numbers, many of the poor black people are continually devoured by them. Man is a great enemy to the shark also; and the remora, or sucking fish, is even a greater. It follows the shark every where, and when it once gets hold of it, it will not let it go until it has killed it. The shark brings forth its young alive, but, unlike the whale, it breathes with its gills. This terrible fish is of but little use after its death, except to make shagreen of its skin. The shark belongs to the class of fish called cartilaginous fishes, as also does the torpedo, the lam- prey, the sturgeon, and many others. ZOOLOGY. 463 Questions and Answers. Q. What seas does the shark inhabit? A. Those that are in hot climates as the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, near the coasts of Africa and the West Indies. Q. What length is the great white shark? A. From twelve to thirty feet. Q. Describe it. A. The head is large and somewhat flatted, the snout long, and the eyes large, the mouth and throat are enormously wide, so that it can swallow a man with ease. Q. What is the most terrible part of this animal? A. Its teeth. Q. How many rows of teeth has it? A. Six, ex.. tremely hard, sharp pointed, and of a wedgelike shape. shape. Q. Q. How many teeth has it altogether? A. One hundred and forty-four. Q. Do those teeth always remain in the same position as ours do? A. No, they lie quite flat when the animal is at rest. Q. When he pro- poses to seize his prey, what does he do? A. He erects them by the help of a set of muscles that join them to the jaw. swim fast? A. Yes, no fish swims faster. Q. to do before he seizes his prey? A. To turn on one side. Q. Does he eat human flesh ? A. Yes, and he likes it better than any other. Q. Is it dangerous to bathe in those places which he frequents? A. Yes, he will dart suddenly on a person doing so, and eat them if he can succeed in catching them. Q. What fish is the shark's greatest enemy? Q. Can the shark What is he obliged A. The remora, or sucking fish, which follows the shark every where, and when it gets hold of him, generally kills him. Q. Does the shark breathe through gills? A. Yes. Q. Does the female produce her young alive? A. She does. Q. To what class of fishes does the shark belong? A. To the cartilaginous fishes. SPINOUS FISHES. The third general division of fishes is into that of the spinous, or bony kind, distinguished from the rest by having a complete bony covering to their gills; by being furnished with no other method of breathing but by gills only; by their bones, which are sharp and thorny, and their tails which are placed in a situation perpendicular to the body. The history of any one of this class much resembles all the rest. They breathe air and water through the gills; they live by devour- ing different sorts of animals; and they bring forth their young by spawn, or roes, as they are generally called. All British fishes belong to this class. 464 APPENDIX. Questions and Answers. Q. How are Q. What is the third division of fishes? A. The spinous or bony kind. Q. What have they to their gills? A. A complete bony co- vering. Q. How do they breathe? A. By their gills only. Q. What sort of bones have they? A. Sharp and thorny. their tails placed? A. Perpendicular to their body. they bring forth their young? fishes belong to this class? we take as an illustration ? Q. How do A. By spawn or roes. Q. What All British fishes. A. A. + All British fishes. Q. What fish may A. The salmon. many of its own kind. THE SALMON. The salmon is a very prolific fish; which means, it produces a great The roe of the female is found to contain from These are very small, about as large 17,000 to 20,000 ova or eggs. as a pea. During the months. of August, September, and October, they spawn, and they seek the rivers for this purpose, in order to find out places suitable, and ascend nearly to the river's source, that is, to the place from which the river first springs. They no longer, as in the winter and spring months, roam over the coasts and shores, and re- turn backwards and forwards with the flowing and ebbing of the tide, but pursue the most direct route up the river, and make the greatest. efforts to overcome every obstacle, either natural or artificial, that may impede their progress. The spawning is accomplished in the months of November, December, and January. When the parent fishes have reached the spawning grounds, they proceed to the shallow water ge- nerally in the morning, or at twilight in the evening, where they play round the ground, two of them together. After a turn they begin to make a furrow, by working up the gravel with their noses, rather against the stream, as the salmon cannot work with his head down the stream, for the water going then into his gills the wrong way, drowns him. When the furrow is made, the male and female return to a little dis- tance, one to the one and the other to the other side, of the furrow; they then throw themselves upon their sides, and rubbing against each other, both shed their spawn into the furrow at the same time. This process is not completed at once, as the eggs of the ova must be ex- cluded one by one, and from eight to ten days are required for com- pleting the operation. When this process is over, they go to the pools The spawn thus placed, is afterwards covered to recruit themselves. : ZOOLOGY. 465 with loose gravel, and in this state the eggs remain for weeks, or sometimes longer, like seeds buried in the soil, and early in spring it changes into salmon fry, as the young fish are called. Generally they begin to rise from the bed about the beginning of March, and their first movement is usually completed about the middle of April. The tail first comes up. The reason that the salinon deposits its spawn in fresh water is, that if it chose salt, the spawn would not produce fish. After the fry have left the egg and come up, they keep at first in the eddy pools until they gain strength, and then prepare to go down the river, remaining near its sides, and proceeding on their way, till they meet the salt water. The descent begins in the month of March, con- tinues through April, and sometimes even till June. After remaining some weeks at sea, the fry return again to the coasts and rivers, and are then from a pound to a pound and a half in weight. By the mid- dle of June they weigh three pounds, and so increase till they weigh from seven to eight pounds, and upwards, by the end of the fishing season. They afterwards increase more slowly, and often reach a a weight of thirty-five pounds, in thirty-three months. After the pro- cess of spawning, the old ones go to the pools to recruit themselves; in two or three weeks from that time the male begins to seek its way down the river; the female remains longer about the spawning ground, sometimes till April or May. The sea seems to be the element in which the salmon feeds and grows; in fresh water it is never so plump and heavy. The salmon is a handsome fish, and its flesh, when in good condi- tion, is better than that of any other. Questions and Answers. Q. What do you Q. How many Q. Is the salmon a prolific fish? A. Yes. mean by prolific? A. Producing many young. eggs does the roe of the female contain? A. From 17,000 to 20,000. Q. When the salmon are ready to spawn where do they go? A. Up the rivers. Q. During what months does this happen? A. During the months of August, September, and October. Q. During what months is the spawning accomplished? A. November, December, and January. Q. When they have arrived at a proper place for spawn- ing what do they do? A. The male and female unite in forming in the gravel a proper place to deposit their spawn or eggs. Q. How long do the eggs lie there? A. Until the ensuing spring. Q. When H H 466 APPENDIX. Q. the spawning is over where do the parents go? A. To the sea. When do the young fry begin to appear? A. In the months of March and April. Q. How long are they in the beginning of May? A. Five or six inches in length. Q. Where do the young ones go go? A.. To the sea. Q. Do they stay there long? A. No, about the middle of June the largest begin to return. Q. What does the food of the salmon consist of? A. The smaller fishes, insects, and worms. CRUSTACEOUS AND TESTACEOUS, OR SHELL FISHES. The lobster, the prawn, the cray fish, the shrimp, the crab, &c. are crustaceous fishes. Oysters, muscles, cockles, and sea snails are the testaceous. THE LOBSTER. The lobster is of a most extraordinary form; those who first see it are apt to mistake the head for the tail, but it is soon discovered that the animal moves with its claws foremost, and that the jointed part is the tail. The two great claws are the lobster's instruments of provision and defence; those, by opening like a pair of nippers, have great strength, and take a firm hold; they are usually notched like a saw. Besides those powerful instruments, which are to the lobster what our arms are for us, the lobster has eight legs, four on each side, and those, with the tail, give to the animal its sidelong motion. Between the two claws is the animal's head, very small and furnished with eyes, that seem like two black horny specks, at each side; and these it has the power of advancing out of the sockets and drawing in at pleasure. The mouth opens the long way of the body, like insects, not cross It is furnished ways as with us, and the higher classes of animals. with two long feelers, or horns, that issue on each side of the head, and make up for its dim sight in some measure. Of this extraordi- nary but well known animal, there are many varieties. The shell is black when taken out of the water, but turns red by boiling. The most common way of taking the lobster is by a basket, or pot, as the fishermen call it, made of wicker work, in which they put the bait, and then let it sink to the bottom of the sea, with a rope attached, in order that they may draw it up at pleasure. The lobster creeps into this to get at the bait, but is not able to get out again. ZOOLOGY. Questions and Answers. 467 Q. What two kinds of shell fish are there? A. Crustaceous and testaceous. Q. To which class does the lobster belong? A. To the crustaceous. Q. Is the lobster of an extraordinary form? A. It is. A. To take Q. When first seen what mistake are we apt to make? the head for the tail. Q. After some examination what do we dis- cover? A. That the animal moves with its claws forward, and that the jointed part is its tail. Q. What do the two great claws serve the lobster as? A. As hands. Q. How many feet has it? Q. Where is its head situated? Q. Is it large? A. No, very small. A. A. Eight, Between the Q. Is it fur.. horny specks A. He can four at each side. two large claws. nished with eyes? A. Yes, they seem like two black at each side. Q. What can the lobster do with these? advance them in the sockets, and draw them back at pleasure. Q. Does the lobster always have the same shell? A. No, when it gets too small he puts it off, and a new one grows. Q. Is the lobster good to eat? A. Yes, when the fish is picked from the shell, and stewed with mustard, pepper, vinegar, and other things, it is very nice. Q. How are the lobsters caught? A. By a basket which contains the bait. Q. What is done with this? A. It is lowered into the sea by a rope. Q. Does the lobster creep into this? A. He does, and is then pulled up and taken. THE FROG Kind. After fishes, comes this class of animals, consisting of two kinds, the frog and toad. There are no toads in Ireland. THE FROG. The appearance of the frog is too well known to need much descrip- tion. Its powers of taking leaps is remarkable, compared to the bulk of its body. It is the best swimmer of all four-footed animals. The common brown frog begins to deposit its spawn about the month of April, the eggs soon begin to enlarge and grow lighter, and then rise to the surface of the water. The twenty-first day the egg is seen to open a little at one side, and the beginning of a tail to peep out, which becomes more and more distinct every day. The thirty-ninth day the little animal begins to have motion; it moves at intervals its tail. In two days more some of them fall to the bottom, and others remain HH 2 468 APPENDIX. The next day they require their appear, the tail drops off and they swimming in the water about them. tadpole form, then the legs begin to become frogs. They then change their appetites, and begin to become carnivorous; they go on land, and catch worms and insects for their food. Questions and Answers. Q. Can the frog jump very far? A. Yes, it takes most extraor- dinary leaps in comparison with its size. Q. Is it a good swimmer? Q. Yes, the best amongst four-footed animals. Q. How are the young produced? A. From spawn or eggs. Q. What are they first like? A. They have a round body and a long tail. Q. What are they then called? A. A. Tadpoles. Q. What do frogs live upon? A. Insects Q. Is their flesh ever eaten? A. Yes, some people A. and worms. think it very good. Q. What sort of noise does the frog make? A croaking noise. Q. Do they croak when wet weather is coming? A. Yes, their loud noise is generally a sign of rain. Q. How does the frog catch insects? A. By surprising them, and taking them with its tongue. Q. Do the people of this country ever eat frogs? A. No, but the French people like them when dressed nicely, and served up with soups. Q. Is the toad like the frog? A. Yes, very like. Q. What country has no toads? A. Ireland. THE LIZARD KIND, Comprehending the lizard, chameleon, the crocodile, and alligator. THE CROCODILE. Its teeth The crocodile is a very large animal, which inhabits the banks of the Nile, a great river in Egypt, and also many other African rivers; they are of the same species as the lizard, which is an inhabitant of this country. This animal is sometimes of a great length; some of them have been seen thirty feet long, but their usual length is eighteen. The strength of every part of the crocodile is very great. are sharp, numerous, and formidable; but its tail is its principal instrument of destruction, and with a single blow of it, has been known to overturn a canoe, and seize upon the unfortunate man who conducted it. It is not so powerful upon land, but yet very terrible; as it runs very fast, and those whom it pursues run from it in a zig zag direction, because, on account of the hard scales with which it is ZOOLOGY. 469 covered, it cannot easily turn round. says, The great animal described in the Bible, and called the leviathan, is supposed to mean the crocodile; you will find the description of it in the book of Job, chap. xli., where it "His scales are his pride, shut up together as with a close seal, canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons, or his head with fish spears? Lay thy hands upon him; remember the battle, do no more, he maketh the deep to boil like a pot, he maketh the sea like a pot of ointment, he maketh a path to shine after him, one would think the deep to be hoary.” The young crocodiles come from eggs, which the old ones lay in the sand. Many beasts eat those eggs, which prevents those animals from becoming too numerous. Questions and Answers. Q. What is the shape of the crocodile? A. Almost the shape of a lizard. Q. What do the people of England call lizards? Q. A. Noots. Q. What are they called in Ireland? A. Archlouchres Q. Where may those lizards be found? A. In ponds, and nooks of old buildings. Q. Is the body of the crocodile covered with hair? A. No; it is covered with hard scales. Q. Is the mouth of the animal small? A. No; it is very large, with rows of hard teeth with which it could bite off a man's leg. Q. What river do they chiefly inhabit? A. The river Nile. Q. Where does this river flow? A. Through Egypt. Q. Where are they found also? A. On the banks of other large rivers in Africa and South America. What other animal resembles the cro- codile? A. The alligator. Q. Where are they found. A. In the East Indies, and other places. Q. Are there any crocodiles in this country? A. Yes, sometimes sailors bring young ones in the African ships, and they may be often seen alive in Liverpool. Q. Are there any wild ones in our rivers? A. No. Q. Can the crocodile run fast? A. Yes, very fast, if he runs straight. Q. How are the young ones produced? Q. Are those A. By the eggs which the old ones lay in the sand. eggs ever destroyed? A. Yes, various animals look for them and scratch them out of the sand to eat them. Q. What does this prevent? A. Those animals from becoming too numerous. THE SERPENt Tribe, Comprehending the viper, the boa, the rattle-snake, the asp, and many others. HH 3 470 APPENDIX. THE RATTLE-SNAKE. The rattle-snake is only found in America. Some are as thick as a man's leg, and six feet in length; the most usual size is from four to five feet long. It has a large head and a small neck, being of a dusky colour, and furnished with fangs that inflict the most terrible wounds. They are of an orange, tawny, and blackish colour on the back, and of an ash colour on the belly; but what distinguishes them from all other animals is their rattle, an instrument lodged in their tail, by which they make such a loud rattling noise when they move, that their approach may be readily perceived, and the danger avoided. This rattle, when taken out of the body, somewhat resembles the curb-chain of a bridle: it is composed of several thin, hard, hollow bones, linked to each other, and rattling upon the slightest motion. The bite of this animal is followed by certain death, unless means are immediately used to stop the poison from reaching the vital parts ; but generally the person bitten dies in great agony. Questions and Answers. Q. Where is the rattle-snake only found in a wild state? A. In America. Q. What is its usual length ? A. From four to five feet. Q. Is its body thick? A. Yes, as thick as a man's leg. Q. Has it a small head? A. No, a large head, and small neck. Q. What colour is it of? A. Orange, tawny, and blackish on the back, and of an ash colour on the belly. Q. What is this animal distinguished by ? A. Its rattle. Q. Where is this instrument situated? A. In the tail. Q. What is its use? A. To warn man, and other animals, of the approach of this dreadful animal. Q. Is its bite fatal? A. It is. Q. Where is the poison contained ? A. In vessels under the tongue. Q. With what does it inflict the wound? A. With its fangs. Q. Should we not be very thankful A. We should, that our country is free from such a dreadful animal? and for all the other great blessings which we enjoy. Having thus gone through all the classes of the superior animals, and brought our pupils down to the history of insects, we may then proceed with that department. But as our limits will not allow us to follow out the subject further here, we can only recommend it as a fit and proper study for children; for although the history of the ZOOLOGY. 471 superior animals may fill their minds with useful lessons, yet even from the most diminutive insect instruction and amusement may be derived. "After an attentive examination," says Swammerdam, "of the nature and anatomy of the smallest as well as the largest animals, I cannot help allowing the insect an equal, if not a superior, degree of dignity. Notwithstanding the smallness of ants, nothing hinders If we consider either our preferring them to the largest animals. their unwearied diligence, their wonderful strength, or their inimitable propensity to labour. Their amazing love to their young is still more unparalleled among the larger classes; they not only daily carry them to such places as may afford them food, but if by accident they are killed or cut into pieces, they will, with the greatest tenderness, carry them away piecemeal in their arms. Who can find any in- stance amongst the superior animals that can equal this ?" GEOMETRY. On reading some of the best lesson books on this subject, I find I cannot improve upon them further than the mere elements; and as I have already done this for infants, and know that many boys might be given those lessons with advantage, I beg to mention that a series of geometrical plates and lessons published by me, may be had at my re- sidence, or of my publisher, 112, Fleet Street, London. .. • · .. I # H 4 472 APPENDIX. میری LORD JOHN RUSSELL'S SPEECH In the House of Commons, Tuesday, February 12, 1839, ON THE SUBJECT OF NATIONAL EDUCATION. WITH REMARKS THEREON. Lord John Russell, after bringing up some papers on the subject of Education, said, "Sir, in moving that those papers do lie on the table, I am anxious, as much discussion has taken place on this subject in va- rious quarters, to state, without going into details, the general outline of the views of Her Majesty's Government upon this question, because I think whatever objection may be taken to their views or intentions, on this or any other subject, it is desirable that those objections should be grounded upon what those intentions really are, and not on any fan- ciful grounds of objection, which may be created by parties themselves, which they should say were part of the Government views, and then launch forth into invectives against such supposed plan (hear, hear). I am one who still think, that there is a lamentable want of education in the country, particularly amongst the poorer classes (hear, hear). I have thought it my duty to represent that opinion to her Majesty, and call her attention particularly to the subject; the present state of edu- cation may be sufficiently gathered from the various reports that have been made to this House, from the debates which have taken place, both in this and the other House of Parliament; and from the publi- cations of different writers engaged in the useful and benevolent task of promoting education (hear, hear). I think the result of all those state- ments, however they may differ in matter of detail, place the fact be- yond a doubt, that there is a considerable portion of the people of this country at present without instruction, there are many persons, as ap- pears from the reports of the chaplains of goals, who do not enjoy the slightest degree of the most elementary matters of education; and it further appears, that, defective as education is at present in quantity, it is still more defective in its nature and quality. It has been stated by my Lord Brougham, upon the authority of returns made to Parlia- ment, that there are 1,270,000 young persons now receiving education in this country; and it has been stated at a public meeting, that there are no less than 1,500,000 persons receiving education, in connection with the parish labours of the Established Church. Now there is a great LORD JOHN RUSSELL'S SPEECH. 473 discrepancy between those two statements, but I do not think it would be right for the House to lay any great stress on the returns which have been made upon this subject." In another Every iota of what is here advanced by Lord John Russell, I could prove by visiting schools in all parts of the United Kingdom. From whatever source he got the information conveyed in the above observa- tions, no man can deny that in the schools in existence for the educa- tion of the children of the poor, and I will also add for the middle class of society, education is both defective as to quantity, and still more defective as to its nature and quality. Returns of schools on paper, will never be a fair criterion for any government to form an opinion by, as to the actual state of education in the country. They must employ practical men, well acquainted with the subject, to visit schools and report on them to themselves: this is the only way in which they can come at correct knowledge of the real state of education in the provinces. If this method were adopted with respect to the Irish schools, I feel they would not exist in their present state for six months; in fact, they are a burlesque upon national education, which I shall be able to prove from actual visits, when the time comes. part of his speech, his Lordship observes, "That whether we refer to the nations on the continent whose governments take part in the edu- cation of their subjects, or to the United States of America, we shall find in them all greater and more systematic and united efforts than in There is our own, which we boast to be a free and united country. another reason," says Lord John Russell, in the same speech, "why I foresee it would be impossible to attempt any general plan of education in this country; those who have of late years undertaken the task of education, have done so either on behalf of the church, or of the pecu- liar sect to which they belonged, or in connexion with a society to which I have had the honour for some years to belong-I mean the British and Foreign School Society, which does not profess to teach according to the tenets of any particular religious denomination. The main point of distinction is between the Established Church, and the British and Foreign School Society. The church, not only ecclesiastics, but many lay members of it, contend that we should not assist in any plan of education which is not founded upon the principles of the church, and immediately under the superintendence of its parochial clergy, and in which the catechism was not taught, and the school-master a church- man. The British and Foreign School Society on the other hand say, 474 APPENDIX. that they consider it desirable that the Bible should be taught, but not any catechism. Nor did they allow any restriction as to the peculiar religious denomination of the school-master, who might be either an independent or a baptist, or, indeed, of any other denomination as he thought proper. Between those two systems there does appear to me to be so wide a difference, that after consulting several persons, as to the propriety of whose views of both parties I do not wish to enter, I am led to think it quite hopeless to induce them to concur in any one united plan with which they would be both satisfied. I must say, at the same time, however, that any such plan would not be liable to such difficulties as occurred in the way of the plan of education first adopted by the noble Lord, the Member for North Lancashire. In Ireland, there is undoubtedly a great and wide distinction between the religious tenets of the people; they do not consent to read the scriptures the same way ; for whilst one class require that it should not be read without a com- ment, another class objects to the adoption of any such comment, and upon this ground, therefore, it is undoubtedly extremely difficult to unite the two in any one system of education. At the same time, however, I must say, that I consider great success to have attended that experiment.' "" We clearly see from the various documents laid before Parliament, and from his Lordship's speech, that there is a very considerable want of instruction in these kingdoms, and that as far as universal education goes, we are behind the United States, Prussia, and other countries. It is quite true there is an obvious distinction between what may be done in this county and others, and it is equally true that what will do for them, will not do for the British people, the great and only difficulty, in my opinion, that stands in the way of a system of national education in this country, is the attempt to exclude the Bible. From what I know of the feelings of the people in Scotland, and of every county in England, not forgetting the protestants of Ireland, I am quite certain that any general system of national education, to be re- ceived by the people whose opinion is worth having, must include the Bible; let this grand principle be admitted, that the Bible shall be read in the schools, and on no account excluded to please any small sect, then the chief and main difficulty is over. I feel quite assured that Great Britain has no need to go to Prussia, to America, or to any other country for a system of national education. We who dethroned a Napoleon, and were once at war with almost every nation in the world, have only LORD JOHN RUSSELL'S SPEECH. 475 to will that a system of national education must be had, and there are men enough amongst us competent to draw out the plan, which is one part of the subject, and others will be found who will prove whether it is workable or not. I am one of those who think that foreign vanity is not preferrable to home discretion, that it would be a libel on the British people to think we must go begging to other nations for a plan to educate our own. I think it might be possible to frame a system of National Education, which the British people would gladly accept, but then it must be framed by practical men, and not by theorists. The noble Lord is quite right when he says that he thinks it would be impossible to frame any one scheme of education, which would supersede and embrace the objects of all those schemes and institutions already in operation; there is, however, no necessity for this, all the country wants is a good plan, which she does not at present possess. The reason is obvious enough. The subject has been too recently mooted to allow time for such a scheme to be developed, and there is no doubt that should any attempt be made to force any system on the country, unsuited to the character of our constitution, such a scheme would be unsuccessful. There is a distinction, it is true, between the established church, and the British and Foreign School Society, but that difficulty seems to me not so insurmountable; both agree in introducing the Bible into the schools, and this is the grand point which distinguishes them from what is called "The Irish System.' The doctrine that no man should be a schoolmaster unless he be a churchman, will not do for the present day-a good man who is acquainted with the art of teaching, ought never be rejected as a schoolmaster, provided he believes in the truth of the Sacred Scriptures ; and I do not think the plan is beset with so many difficulties, as the government seem to imagine. But if what is called "The Irish System" is to be adopted, then I say without the least fear, as knowing some- thing of that system, that it never will be received by the English people, for that as regards a mixed system of education it is a downright failure. It is true that the corporation school of Liverpool have succeeded, after much violent opposition, but why? Simply because the Bible was not excluded. Catholic boys read the Douay, and Protestant boys read the Oxford edition, and each are taught their own catechisms, and all went on with the greatest harmony, and what is more with the greatest success; but this system would not be tolerated in Ireland by the Roman Catholic clergy for six months, they not only do not "" 476 APPENDIX. : consent to the reading the Scriptures the same way, but they will not consent to the reading them at all; this is a fact well known to every man who has visited the schools in Ireland. I believe even in the model schools in Dublin a single Bible is not to be found, and it is with deep regret that I observe the noble Lord saying, that great success had attended that experiment. If the noble Lord had been in Ireland as long as I have, and visited as many schools connected with the Irish Board as I have, I am confident he would be of a different opinion; my opinion however is, that it began those who could have worked it out. elsewhere in this work. His lordship then goes on to say, well, and was in the hands of But this subject is treated of "In England, however, the Roman Catholics do not form any great portion of the community, and the only other sect which does not agree in the general reading of the Bible, and that species of ex- position of it which is so necessary for young people, is the Unita- rians, which do not form a considerable number; I think, therefore, as far as religious distinctions are concerned, there will not be found in this country such difficulties as in Ireland. At the same time I think it right to state the objections as I find them stated by the respective parties themselves; and I own, that taking their own pe- culiar views into consideration, I think those objections to be of con- siderable moment. I come now to the plan lately put forward at public meetings, and particularly at a public meeting which has been lately held in this metropolis, which implies that the whole of the edncation of the country must and ought to be confided to the hands of the clergy of the Established Church, and that no system of educa- tion ought to receive any countenance or assistance from the state, which should not be conducted under the clergy, and in accordance with the doctrines and tenets of the Established Church, which should be enforced and taught on all occasions. Now I must say, that it does appear to me that the propounding of such a plan at the present time, so late in the history of the country, is opposing a very serious obstacle in the way of the general edueation of the people (cheers). It was no doubt the intention of the plan of the eccle- siastical bodies of the reformation in this country, that, as the Catholic religion had hitherto embraced the whole people of the country, so the Protestant church should likewise embrace the whole population of the country. That this plan however was not successful, all persons LORD JOHN RUSSELL'S SPEECH. 477 know. I need not inquire into the causes why it had not succeeded, but I think they are causes founded in the very principles of reforma- . tion itself (hear, hear). The result, however, is very well known, that after long punishments, and after the punishments and persecution of those who dissented from the doctrines of the Established Church, one of the very first results of the revolution of 1688 was to recognize and establish the existence of Protestant dissenters by the Act of Toleration. There was after this another era in the history of the Church, an era to which we all look back with pride and satisfac- tion, I mean the establishment of the house of Hanover, when many restrictions were cast away, and the freedom of education established. Therefore from that time I conceive it to be a general and recognized doctrine of the state, that education was free, not only to the church, but to every religious denomination (hear hear, from the opposition benches, reiterated by ministerial cheers). These principles were carried still further by the acts of 1828 and 1829, which granted relief to Protestant dissenters and to Roman Catholics, so that I think it can no longer be said in regard to education, and the distri- bution of political power in the state, that the church stands in that position of exclusiveness in regard to the state which some of its communicants seem to affirm, but that, on the contrary, the prin- ciple now recognized and to be acted upon is that of admission, liberty, and equal participation in civil rights (cheers). Applying this prin- ciple to the subject of education, I think it should be considered whether the great object should be confined entirely to the matter of religion, because, if so, in my opinion, having already an established church, I should say that the instruction required being entirely of a religious nature, the Established Church should be already enabled to afford what was required in that way; but this is really not the Religion undoubtedly forms a great part in every sound system of education, but there are also other parts; and looking at the state of the people, I think we should consider whether we could not afford them those parts, and not exclude them wholly from the benefits of education (cheers). I must hold, therefore, that the principle of ex- clusiveness is an assumption of a principle at variance with the general principle of our law, and at variance with the general state of the realm (cheers). There is another point also connected with this question; it is confessed not on the part of the church, because I be- lieve the church has really nothing to be ashamed of in this respect; case. 478 APPENDIX. . but on the parts of the friends of the church, and of those who were formerly in power in this country, that there has been a considerable neglect of the religious instruction of the people, and that the means. and operation of the Church of England had not been extended from time to time, in proportion to the growth of the population of the country (hear, hear). They have thus allowed the flood of population to cover the surface of the land, and not prepared those channels of education, by which it would be diverted in useful and profitable courses (hear, hear). What was the reason of this? It is not be- cause the subject of education has been entirely neglected by the clergy; far from it. Not only have the clergy of the established church, but Protestant dissenters of every denomination, exhibited a most laudable zeal in the service of Christianity, and in teaching to the people those doctrines, without which they must have remained in the state of the most uninstructed people in the world. After the Pro- testant dissenters have done all this, after they have erected some 10,000 places of worship throughout the country, I think it would be neither just to attempt, nor successful if attempted, to deprive them of a share in any means of education which the state may grant, and to say that the state should enclose itself within the pale of the church only, and would not look to anything beyond or beside it (cheers); this assumption would be an entirely new one, and differing essentially from the principle upon which some of the highest authorities of the country have acted. The first large Society which was established for the pur- pose of educating the youth of this country, was the British and Fo- reign School Society; and amongst those who prominently came for- ward to support its views, was his late Royal Highness the Duke of Kent; and at the head of the list of subscriptions, stood the name of his Majesty, George the Third, who subscribed 1001. a year, a sub- scription which was continued by their Majesties, George the Fourth and William the Fourth, and is still paid to the present day (hear, hear). Now looking at this fact, I cannot reconcile it with the doctrine, that no encouragement should be given by the state, to any system of edu- cation, not exclusively based upon the doctrines of the established church, and conducted by its professors (bear, hear); therefore, for these reasons the government is unable to adopt either a general plan of education, on which should be established the new schools throughout the country, and to which both clergymen of the established church, and dissenters might subscribe; and they are also unable to give their LORD JOHN RUSSELL'S SPEECH. 479 adhesion to a system which has lately been propounded, that the church, and the church alone, should direct the education of the coun- try. Far am I, and I hope I shall not be understood as so doing, from blaming the efforts made by the church to extend the blessings of edu- cation (cheers); on the contrary, I rejoice to say that these efforts have been made; I rejoice to say that in the present year, the National Society especially, has sent out queries, and collected information for the improvement of schools; and an attempt has been made in various dioceses, if not in all, throughout the land, to extend and improve those institutions. I think that these efforts are most meritorious; I am not without some disposition to flatter myself with the belief, that the declaration of government on this subject, has led to increased activity and zeal, at all events I rejoice to see those qualities so strongly exhi- bited. But not being able to adopt either of those plans, it has ap- peared to us that the best way was to proceed gradually, and in the first place to endeavour to establish some body, by which any exertions to be made in favour of education, might be deliberately considered and systematically arranged. I know there has been a wish, and it was expressed in the last session by the honourable member for Waterford (Mr. Wise), that there should be a central Board of Education. Now, if that were to be formed by combining persons of different religious persuasions, I think it will appear, from what I have already stated, that it would not be a Board having the confidence of the church; I think it better therefore that we should form that body, call it board or committee, or what you will, not of persons who belong to one party or the other, but that we should form it entirely of the official servants of the crown, and that it should depend on the confidence of this House whether or not their system should be supported. I see that a noble friend of mine (Lord Ashly we believe) objects to this plan; I say, as it would be hopeless to form this body of different persons, with the view that they would be led to agree in their opinions, nothing remains but to constitute it of persons, who being already the official servants of the crown, must always be responsible to Parliament for their conduct (cheers). I have, therefore, by the command of her Majesty, proposed to the President of the Council, that he should be at the head of the board or committee of privy councillors, not being more than five, who shall consider in what manner the grants of money made by this House, shall from time to time, be distributed. I have, therefore, addressed a letter to the Marquiss of Lansdown, the President of the Council, on this 480 APPENDIX. subject, with the other official persons named, to undertake, if the House of Commons should make the grant for that purpose, to consider such measures as may be necessary to attain the object we have in view. Now with respect to those measures; taking the grant at either 25,000l., as it was last year, or what I should much rather see, en- creasing it to 30,000., it becomes necessary to consider which of those it is most desirable should first take place. I say the measure which should be first adopted is the establishment of a good Normal school. Whatever may he the religious difference of the church, and of the British and Foreign School Society; yet these are questions which are not at all touched upon in their differences, and in which I think that persons who have attended very much to the subject, will find both of them defective. I think, too, that it will be discovered that there are modes of instruction, some used in foreign establishments, and others practised within this kingdom, by which education may be very much improved. It would, therefore, be the endeavour of this body, in the first place, to apply the money at its disposal to the foundation of a Normal school, and make that Normal school as perfect as possible. I think that the four objects to which it may be generally said that the education of those young persons should be directed, would be, in the first place, religious instruction, then moral training, then habits of industry, and such knowledge as would fit for a trade or profession. All these are matters on which many suggestions have been made from time to time-on which many plans have been formed, and with respect to which, perhaps, much remains to be done before the most perfect system can be established. But I think I may say that the instruction hitherto given in schools proceeds on a very false assump- tion; when it proceeds on this, that reading and writing, with some elements of religious instruction, do in part form education. I really think there was a good deal of that true sense which belonged to him in the objections made by the late Mr. Cobbett to popular education, of which he was a decided enemy, he said, 'What is the use of teaching a young boy, the son of a labourer, his letters? If he wish to mount a cart-horse, and he sees a gate near him, he will get on the gate, and then on the horse, and that is the education of an agriculturist." Now this observation was not without the seuse which belonged to him, be- cause you do want not only to teach reading and writing, but to incul- cate habits of industry and moral dispositions; and you don't want merely that a boy should, at eight or nine years, know how to read, LORD JOHN RUSSELL'S SPEECH. 481 and at fifteen or sixteen forget entirely how to do so; but you do want to instruct him in the duties of his situation-those duties which he has to perform both to God and man, and likewise in the skill which is necessary to enable him to obtain that competency which can alone carry him through life (hear, hear, and cheers). I think, therefore, sir, in this repect, that a good Normal school would be found the best and most approved system yet suggested, and that it would be of very great advantage to the whole of this country, even although it would be carried on at an expense of 4007. or 5001. a year; I believe that a school of that kind would be found useful in this way, that it would be so superior to the ordinary methods of education that those who visited it might afterwards introduce into their own neighbourhood, the same rules and practice which had been found there established. I will not read any part of the letter which I addressed to the President of the Council, but I will read that part of his letter in which he states his readiness, if any grant should be made, to carry into effect its object. (The noble Lord then proceeded to read the noble Marquess's letter.) I have now stated the general views of government with regard to education-1 have stated the plan not as the best that could be pur- sued, not as a faultless scheme of education, but which we think to be most practical in the present state of the country. I think that seeing the manner in which education has been promoted in all foreign countries, and the indefatigable means which have been taken to extend it on the other side of the Atlantic, the time is come when we ought no longer to remain with our arms folded, and suffer this great ques- tion to be entirely neglected (cheers). I think a plan of combined union in all education is impossible. I think that a system which should be confined solely to the Church, would be regarded as exclu- sive and intolerable, by a great proportion of the population; but I do feel that it is necessary to propose some plan, and that while I bring forward, as I did yesterday, a measure prescribing different modes of punishment, and different methods of trial, that the guilty may be more quickly visited with the penalty of their offences, it is incumbent on us not to leave unsettled the great waste field of instruction and educa- tion, but to give, at least, an opportunity to the youth of this country, and especially to that portion which forms the seed of the criminal po- pulation, of learning what religious and moral duties are, that if they should afterwards fall into the ways of vice and crime, we may be sa• tisfied that we are justified in putting into force the harsh provisious of ΓΙ • 482 APPENDIX. the law, and have not to charge ourselves with neglect or omission in punishing the untaught and uninstructed, for the commission of crime, without having afforded them the means of acquiring a knowledge of their duties to God and man (loud cheers)." I have given my opinion, elsewhere, as to the propriety of the clergy coming to the school, at a regular hour, to give religious intruction: Sometimes the children may be in the mood to receive his instruction at that specific time; at other times I have seen them, in the Liverpool Corporation schools, not pay the slightest attention; and it was clearly seen that the labour at these times was completely thrown away. I have generally found the Unitarians very active in promoting the education of the people: I have had a good deal to do with them in various parts of this country, and I cannot charge my memory with any single school which I ever visited, in which I did not meet the Bible; therefore on this point his lordship must have been misin- formed; and I can safely say from my own experience, that many of them are most anxious, that the Bible should be received in the schools and properly taught. I believe that the Roman Catholics are the only body of Christians who would object to the Scriptures being taught in the Schools. In Ireland I know they do object; and I know that their objections are acted upon; and if these objections become general, a system of national education based upon them would, in my opinion, be worthless. It is quite evident that the real state of the schools throughout England, are not very well known. I hardly ever visited a school, in any part of England, where I did not find some children of Dissenters going to the National school; and in very many instances I have found the children of Churchmen going to a British and Foreign School; and I have found the children of Roman Catholics in both; but the greatest number in the British and Foreign Schools; and I am quite sure, and I can speak in the positive degree, that the Dissenters generally are as anxious for Bible teaching as the members of the Established Church; and I should say that the members of the Esta- blished Church ought to be satisfied if they get the entire Bible in a system of national education. They did not get this in the Irish system, and hence as a body they did not or could not join in its propagation. Whether this was wise in them is another matter. I can only say that the consequence has been that it has thrown the system completely into the hands of the Roman Catholics; they have it all entirely their own way; and I beg leave to ask, what other results could be ex- LORD JOHN RUSSELL'S SPEECH. 483 pected? A few of the clergy of the Established Church may advocate the principle, that they should have the whole and sole education of the people; but this, in the present state of party feeling, every man, who has moved about the country, must know to be impossible; at the same time I must say, while I see the Roman Catholic clergy managing the system of education in Ireland, it is but fair that the English clergy should be put upon a par with them, and have the chief, if not entire management of a system of education for England. We see that his lordship admits that religion undoubtedly forms a great part in every sound system of education. Mr. Wyse, Mr. O'Con- nel, Mr. Shiel, and other Roman Catholic speakers, have admitted, in my hearing, that religious education was essential in a system of educa- tion for the people. Why then not admit the Bible? Are we to be told that the rights of conscience will not permit the Bible to be read? No other religious body are afraid of the Bible; and I see no just rea- son why the Roman Catholics should; and still less do I see, however tolerant I may feel disposed to be, that they can expect the Protestant people to put the Bible from their schools, in order that the scruples of the Roman Catholics may be complied with. In England this will not be done in my day; and I feel as fully assured of this, as I do of my own existence. It is with pain that I am obliged to declare, that I have never yet visited a school, belonging to any sect, where I found genuine unadulterated religious instruction given; I have found plenty of religious talk given to the children, but a very small portion of reli- gious doings. Nothing can be a greater truth, than that the quality and quantity of education throughout the realm, is decidedly defective. No man, let him belong to what party he may, if he is acquainted with the subject, will ever deny it. The Church are now erecting schools from one end of the country to the other: a large Diocesan Normal School is in progress in Chester, from which, no doubt, the greatest good will result; and I believe if there had been as much spirit mani- fested upon this subject forty years ago as there is at present, the Church would have been much stronger than she is; and hundreds of thousands of persons might have been retained in her communion. There is no denying this, and therefore we must make the best use we can of the subject, and take more care for the future. A liberal Churchman need not be so liberal as to give up the Bible in a school education; but he must be liberal enough to advocate universal edu- cation amongst the people, and particularly amongst the poor of his II 2 484 APPENDIX. own body, if he wishes the Church to be powerful, respected, and strong, in the principles of divine truth. There can be no doubt that the National Society have done a great amount of good. It is one thing however to build schools, and another to have a life-giving education within them. That her Majesty's mi- nisters have taken the additional weight of legislating for the education of the people in detail, in addition to their other important and heavy duties, is an encouraging fact; but whether they will be able delibe- rately to consider, and systematically arrange, a system of education for the people, remains to be seen. And as to Mr. Wyse's plan of a central Board of Education, it is also beset with difficulties; and one, in my opinion is, that it might become a political engine, and that persons might be put in office merely for their political views; and others be made inspectors for the same reason, though they might be no more fit to inspect and report properly on the state of a school, than they would be to report upon the duties of some of the mandarins in China. For the present government to claim the right of inspection is per- fectly natural, provided the inspectors are practical men, and compe- tent to the duty; if so, no good schoolmaster in the kingdom would ob- ject to have his school inspected by such persons: it would encourage him, he would feel delighted with it. But if the inspector was to comie with a high sounding title, and a number of letters attached to his name, such as LL.D. and F. R.S., D.D., B. A., and so on, with a cor- responding amount of buckram and pomposity in his behaviour, and probably with all these titles, totally ignorant of the essential qualities necessary in a master, as well as thè necessary facts to be developed in a school, with regard to physical, intellectual, moral, and religious edu- cation; then I say, such a man could not do a master justice; he could not report properly, and of course the master would be disgusted, and become miserable in his office. In my opinion it is better that the of- ficial servants of the crown should compose the Board for the present, because they are responsible to Parliament for their conduct. But suppose the government change, what are we to do then? The new servants of the crown might have different views, and upset the arrangements made by the old ones. Then we should have new super- intendents, new inspectors, new head masters, and all the rest new, and a system of confusion would be the sure consequence throughout all the schools in the country. If there is a Board at all, it must be a perma- nent one, if it is ultimately to work well; and it must be managed by LORD JOHN RUSSELL'S SPEECH. 485 paid commissioners, who must devote their entire time to the subject. This Board should fairly represent the Established Church; and the other bodies of Dissenters should be represented in proportion: and I think such a Board might carry out a good system. Whether such a Board could be established, which would have the confidence of the public, I will not undertake to decide; at all events something must be done, to improve the system of the British and Foreign School Society, as well as the system pursued by the National Society, whose plans at present are very defective, especially in moral and physical training. For the above reasons I should object to a minister of public instruc- tion; it would soon descend to a purely political appointment, and have nothing to do with the education of the people. I would sooner see the power vested in the Archbishop of Canterbury, who would at all events hold it for life, and consequently it would not be so subject to change. Nothing would injure a system of national education more than per- petual change; and I never saw a good school during my entire life, where the master or committee were always changing their plan. It is quite evident that the council of five alluded to by Lord John Russell, must depend for their information upon persons who are employed by them; of their own knowledge, they can know no more than any other Board could, and hence they will be open to imposition in exactly the same manner as I have seen in similar cases. However I am aware it is very easy to object, and as an individual, I feel thankfu! that the sub- ject has been mooted by her Majesty's ministers at all, for in the end, good must be the result. It is a singular fact that the president of the council was the first and last president that the late Infant School Society ever had. And it is to be hoped, that the Infant System will meet with its due share of attention, for I am sure it will be found inferior to none of the other systems, when its principles are more known and better understood. With respect to the distribution of any sums of money granted by Parliament, certainly the thing cannot be in better hands; and I hope the schools connected with the Established Church, if there still must be a distinction, will have their fair share of the grant. A good Normal School is certainly desirable; in this I agree alto- gether with the noble Lord; but this cannot be originated without the assistance of practical people. I am no advocate for mere boys and girls being sent through the country as school masters and mis- 486 APPENDIX. tresses; they cannot have the experience requisite for such a respon- sible charge; that is one thing very defective in the Irish Board, most of the masters appear to me to be too young, and this difficulty ought to be carefully guarded against in the English plan. A good system of religious, moral, and intellectual education is much wanted; and if you can get the children to be industrious in all these matters it is as much as ought to be expected from young persons under 12 years of age. The English people are naturally industrious; when you see lights in the various factories as early as 5 o'clock in the morn- ing, and sometimes as late as 9 in the evening, I think a want of industry amongst the people cannot well be argued for as existing. My opinion is, that the industrial system is already pushed too far: we already find old heads upon young shoulders, and the consequence is, that the working population are already becoming degenerate in mental and physical capacity; this may be proved by a visit to any large school in the manufacturing districts. The children are by no means equal in capacity, to the Irish children, who do not work so hard. This is a subject well worthy of consideration. If we can train the pupils properly on the forementioned subjects, we should leave the teaching of trades to the apprenticeship system; for the master will teach his apprentice his trade much better than the school master can, and if we put too much on the school master, nothing will be taught well, for it is highly irrational to suppose that a boy can be taught every thing necessary at school. This is not the case in our higher schools, and ought not to be expected in our schools of a lower grade. Lord John Russell seems to think, that a good Normal School, can be carried on at an expense of 400l. to 500l. a year; surely this must be a misprint; I should imagine it must have meant 40007. or 5000l. a year; for the superintendent of such an establishment ought to have, at least, 500l. a year; and I am sure, if there is a niggardly plan adopted with regard to the salaries of the principal teachers, a good Normal School cannot be established. Many respectable shop- keepers will realize greater profits than that during the year; and if inen of talent are to be invited to turn their attention to national education, suitable encouragement should be held out to them, other- wise they had better turn their energies and talents to trade, where they will be more likely to meet with suitable returns. That it is our duty as a christiau people, to prepare the population for obedience to the laws, is self evident; and it certainly is the height LORD JOHN RUSSELL'S SPEECH. 487 of cruelty to punish poor ignorant creatures for neglect of duties, which we have taken no means to induce them to perform. Upon the whole, I think there is a very fair prospect of a better state of things being not far distant, when a government are found willing to recommend the crown to support a system of education for the people. I have lived in the reign of four sovereigns, and never remember to have read anything of the kind before. I have often lamented that the time of the legislature had been so much taken up in legislating for punishment, and cannot but feel thankful and gratified that they are now begining to turn their attention to pre- vention: and it is to be hoped that the good sense of men of all parties will assist in accomplishing this glorious work, to the utmost of their power, and that we shall be able to get rid of what is defective, and hold fast to that which is good. THE END. Hodson, Printer, 15, Cross Street, Hatton Garden, London, WILDERSPIN'S BOOKS ON INFANT EDUCATION. I. A SYSTEM FOR THE EDUCATION OF THE YOUNG, applied to all the Faculties; founded on immense Experi- ence on many Thousands of Children, in most parts of the Three Kingdoms. With an APPENDIX and PLATES. In Foolscap 8vo, cloth, nearly ready. II. Dedicated by Permission to the Right Honourable Baron Brougham EAR and Vaux. ARLY DISCIPLINE ILLUSTRATED; or Infant System Progressing and Successful. 3rd edition, 12mno. Price 5s. III. Dedicated by Permission to the Queen Dowager. THE INFANT SYSTEM, for Developing the Intellectual and Mora Powers of all Children. 7th edition, revised throughout, with considerable Additions. Foolscap 8vo. Price 5s. SCHOOL HOUSES: shewing the Form and Arrange- ment best adapted for Promoting the Health, Comfort, and Improve- ment of Children. Being a Report to the American Board of Education. By HORACE MANN, Sec. With Plans. 18mo. 1s. 6d. THE ROLLO SERIES OF JUVENILE BOOKS, BY ABBOTT. In Six Volumes, royal 18mo. with Engravings, 2s. 6d. each, bound in green, and lettered. THE LITTLE SCHOLAR LEARNING to TALK. A PICTURE BOOK for ROLLO. Second Edition. ROLLO LEARNING to READ; or, EASY STORIES ROLLO AT YOUNG CHILDREN. Second Edition. OLLO AT PLAY; or, SAFE AMUSEMENTS. INDUSTRIOUS. ROLLO AT WORK; or, THE WAY for a Boy to learn ROLLO AT SCHOOL. ROLLO'S VACATION. BIBLE GEOGRAPH Y, With beautiful Wood Engravings. In square 16mo., cloth, gilt, 3s. 6d. 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