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: CLASSICAL PORTFOLIO
OF
PRIMITIVE CARRIERS.
CONTAINING A PICTURESQUE
ACCOUNT OF THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION
OF TRANSPORTATION AND EMBRACING FIFTEEN HUND RED
BEAUTIFUL ENGRAVINGS PORTRAYING THE PRIMITIVE PEOPLE OF THE
WORLD AND THEIR METHODS OF CARRIAGE IN EVERY AGE AND QUARTER OF THE GLOBE.
HY
MARSHALL M. KIRKMAN,
AUTHOR OF “THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS,” OR MODERN CARRIAGE,
IN TWELVE VOLUMES.
<<PORTATION IX,
WN % SS
<S %22
MAR 30 1927
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$4. $.
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PUBLISHERS:
THE WORLD RAILWAY PUBLISHING COMPANY.,
OMAHA BUILDING, 134 VAN BUREN STREET,
CHICAGO, ILL.







Transportation
Library
| a
, A C S
COPYRIGHT BY
THE WORLD RAILWAY PUBLISHING COMPANY,
1895.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
ARABIA.
A bridal procession in Arabia.

'H'able of (Contents.
The pictures of primitive carriage embodied herein, including descriptions and other matter, are grouped according to countries or districts.
The classification and order of arrangement are as follows:
AFRICA. EGYPT. RAILWAY APPLIANCES, PRIMITIVE.
AFGHANISTAN. EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS. –See last section.
ALGERIA, FRANCE. RUSSIA AND SIBERIA.
ANCIENT.—See next to last section. GERMANY. SLAM.–See Burmah and Siam.
ARABIA, INDIA. SIBERLA.—See Russia and Siberia.
ARMENIA.—See Turkey. ISLANDS, MISCELLANEOUS. SOUTH AMERICA.
AUSTRALASIA. ITALY. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. JAPAN AND COREA. TUNIS AND MOROCCO.
BRITISH ISLES. MADAGASCAR. TURKESTAN.—See Central Asia.
BURMAH AND SIAM. MALAYSLA. TURKEY.
CANADA—See United States and Canada. MEDIAEVAL.-See next to last section. UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
CENTRAL AMERICA.—See Mexico. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTH-
CENTRAL ASIA. MOROCCO. —See Tunis and Morocco. OLOGICAL.
CEYLON. MYTHOLOGICAL.-See next to last section. PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
CHINA. PERSIA. WORLD, MAP OF.
COREA.—See Japan and Corea. PORTUGAL.-See Spain and Portugal.
AUTHOR'S NOTE.-As there is nothing wholly original in the world, so the accompanying pictures are not wholly original, although
they are so in the main. The idea, however, of making such a collection is my own. It, therefore, represents a new departure in Art-Literature.
its realization is the fruit of many years of personal research and endeavor, supplemented by the work of artists and travelers. . The collection
of the pictures has occupied me more or less all my life. It has served to make me acquainted with many strange peoples and out-of-the-way
nooks of the world. Many of the pictures are my own sketches. In the main they represent practices that long ago passed away or are now
to be found only in remote and obscure places. In my work on railroads, written for railroad men, economists and others interested in such
subjects, I have, in an introductory way, devoted more or less space to Primitive Carriers.” Much of this matter finds an appropriate place here,
I shall, therefore, transfer such of it to the pages that follow, as seems proper. The accompanying pictures are artistic and suggestive, and
exhaustive of the subject as well. They depict Man and his Work in every age and corner of the world, and because of this, interest people of
every class and degree of culture-children not less than others. Chicago, June, 1895. © Nº O
* “The Science of Rafºrays,” in Twelve Volum's. by Iſarshall M. Kirkman. The World Railway Puð/ishing Company. Chicago, Puk/ishers. In this work questions relating to Motiern transportation in contralistinction to
Primitive Carriage) are described. lt was 1:1 connect” with such investigations, some thirty odd years ago, that the author was first icoi, through curiosity and afterward through interest, to start the collection of pictorial examples of
primitive methods of transportation embodied herein.
iPrimitiue (Carriers.
OMAN is the most primitive of carriers. Her
53 status among Our Savage ancestors was that
of a slave or chattel. She was the first burden
bearer. Man's physical supremacy thus as-
serted itself. His chivalrous regard for woman
is not innate, but due to her #: and
constancy for countless centuries, coupled with
the absence of competitive effort between them.
To these influences she owes her emancipation. Under like condi-
tions we can not tell to what high pinnacle she may be exalted. In
all civilized countries men divided with women the burdens of life. But
the brunt of the burden, once borne wholly by woman, man now bears.
Homer refers in the Odyssey to Philaetus, the herdsman, who
brought heifers and goats to the feast of the suitors by ferrymen, who
transported in common all who sought passage between the rocky
coast of Ithaca and the fertile Isle of Cephallinia. This was twelve
hundred years before Christ. It is the first reference to a common
carrier. The furtive glimpse we get of these primitive mariners, who
at the very dawn of history braved the Ionian sea in quest of gain,
makes us desire to know more about them. They are but a speck
on an immeasurable horizon; a link in a vast chain of men who
connect the carriers of to-day with their progenitors of the remote
past. These progenitors differed from those about them, just as we
differ from those about us. To them first occurred the idea of trans-
ferring the packs they carried upon their backs to the backs of the
brute creation. This was a relief, but not adequate. The back of
the cow, the only animal available, was neither broad enough nor
strong enough. The horse had not yet been domesticated. The
outcome of this necessity was the invention of the cart or wagon.
The first vehicle, it is probable, consisted of a rough plank, drawn on
the ground. Afterward, by combining two or more planks, a sled
was formed. Then the idea of rollers suggested itself. These were
the precursors of the wheel. This latter was formed of wood. Two-
wheeled vehicles came first, then four. They were the first great
steps in the art of transportation. This art has progressed slowly
with the ages. The idea of making the axle and j apart was
the second great step. No greater discovery has ever been made.
Afterward followed the felloe and spoke. The railway carriage of
to-day, the acme of comfort and elegance, is simply an improvement
upon our forefathers' invention.
Such was the origin of land carriage. That by water was
equally simple. Floating driftwood suggested the dug-out or canoe,
hollowed at first with fire and afterward with rude implements. A
stick of wood or the limb of a tree propelled and guided it. Later, the
stick became an oar. The sail followed long afterward. In ancient
times vessels were guided from the side. The rudder is of more
recent origin.
The evolution of carriage has been gradual. For ages it was
imperceptible. It is only in Africa, Polynesia and other savage coun-
tries that the human being is still the principal factor. Elsewhere,
animals have been conquered and trained to the work.
Primitive transportation evinces the Unity of the human race;
man's likeness to man. Differences of method are merely differences
of individuality. No two forms of primitive carriage are ever exactly
alike, yet all are generally alike. Each conforms to local peculiarities
and environment. Nothing, however, is wholly original, so that
while we are able to trace the growth of transportation among the
Aryans, it is probable that many of their ideas were borrowed.
Where and when the wagon was first introduced we do not
know. The Aryans were familiar with the linch-pin, yoke, pole,
wheel, axle and nave. They were ignorant of the spoke and felloe.
These had not then been created. They undoubtedly did much to

fashion the wagon, as the word is a part of their language. No
reference is found to it elsewhere. This recalls the oft-repeated enquiry,
who were the Aryans? Who were the people whose descendants
are to-day the conquerors and carriers of the world? No one has
been able to answer this interesting enquiry. The home of the Aryan
people is still a matter of speculation. Scholars have placed it in
Russia, in Central Europe, on the far-off Ganges, amid the high alti-
tudes of Central Asia, in the Mesopotamian valley, on the shores of
the Baltic. The theorist of to-day attacks and demolishes the theorist
of yesterday, and with the evolution of each year we commence our
journey anew, hopeful but unrefreshed.
%. Greeks, descendants of the Aryans, were among the most
interesting of primitive carriers. They cared little, as individuals, for
travel. Their ships were small, illy constructed and cumbersome;
little better, in fact, than open boats. When ashore, they were drawn
upon the land, as the Indian draws his canoe. At such times the
masts and other paraphernalia were removed. Virgil speaks of the
vessels of Aeneas as i. anchors, 1200 B.C. But in this he erred,
as the anchor was invented later. Vessels in ancient times were with-
out cabins; commander, sailor and guest alike slept upon a rude bench
in an open boat. The compass was also unknown; the sun by day,
and the moon and stars by night, served to guide the way. The
early Greeks were migratory. hen overcrowded they formed new
colonies, and when molested—overpowered-moved away. There
was no security. Men were hunters and shepherds, but above all,
warriors. The Greek did much to perfect transportation on water,
and, through his love of horses, added greatly to their strength and
usefulness as land carriers.
The creation of roads, like most useful things, was not premedi-
tated. Successive footsteps formed the first path. While these were
accidental, they followed the most convenient route, adapting them-
selves naturally to the peculiarities of the ground with a view to the
saving of time and labor. They were directed towards the hunting
or grazing grounds of the clan or the rude huts of neighboring villages.
These paths became in after time the highways of nations, the thor-
oughfares of the world.
The discovery of the forms of carriage used by the ancients is
lost in the darkness of the prehistoric age. #. origin, it is probable,
was quite as accidental as that of the paths of the savage. When man
threw the first burden off his own shoulders on to those of the ox or
cow, the secret of carriage was evolved. The transfer was final.
Countless ages, however, preceded this. The evolution of primitive
carriage among primeval men occupied vast cycles of time. Savages
do not reason £, analogy and deduction as we do. They lack sug-
gestion, method and inclination. Their thoughts and devices are those
of very young children. Inventions may be said to multiply by the
square of the number; to be brought about by the suggestions of exist-
ing discoveries. Primitive people have no such resource.
At the dawn of history many successive steps had been traversed.
The cart had been invented and was used both for purposes of peace
and war. Among nomadic peoples it was also a dwelling. This com-
i. structure, of which there are several illustrations embodied
erein, was composed of wood and covered with bark, grasses or un-
dressed skins. The cart was put to many uses by the ancients, which
we do not recognize. Out of it grew the chariot. To the wheels,
axle and box of this vehicle the Assyrians and other warlike people
of antiquity attached scythes and knives, to make it more destructive.
In Rome the cart was also used as an instrument of punishment, crush-
#. men on the wheel being a favorite means of torture and execution.
e ancients believed that vehicles were used by the gods. Thus,
Jupiter, Minerva and the great deities of the Romans were supposed
to be transported in chariots drawn by horses; Neptune's car of shell
was drawn by beings half fish, half horse. Similar superstitions
existed among the Greeks. The Hindoos assigned different methods
of transportation to different gods. Brahma employed a swan, other
deities an eagle, bull, rat, peacock, elephant, fish, parrot, ram, lion,
#. or horse, as the case might be. The most ancient superstition
of this kind, perhaps, is that of Ea, the Chaldean's spirit of earth and
water, who, it was believed, protected the world (which was then
thought to be very small) by going round and round it in a ship,
The Egyptians used a four-wheeled vehicle for the carriage of one of
their deities, but seem not to have employed such a vehicle for any
other purpose.
Primitive man did not go away from home and knew nothing
about commerce. He believed that beyond the neighboring mountains
the world abruptly terminated. Trade was feeble and travel infrequent.
A few favored nations carried on a predatory commerce by land and
sea. But the effort was fitful. The world was peopled by savages.
Outside a restricted ray of light all was darkness. The innumerable
hordes that inhabited this unknown region never ventured beyond
their own confines, except in organized bands for purposes of rapine
and murder. But the principles, the fundamental methods of carriage,
had been evolved when we get our first view of man. He has since
been occupied in perfecting ãº. He has built on old lines. Thus
while vessels have been greatly improved since the fall of Carthage,
140 B.C., original outlines are still preserved. This is also true of
land carriage. With better roads, the rude carts and chariots of the
ancients have been perfected. Every important appliance is of primi-
tive origin. But new Motors have been called into being. These so
accelerate, cheapen and generalize that the ideas we have to-day of
intercommunication, distant travel, diffused knowledge and extended
research render us incapable of realizing the lethargy and isolation of
the ancients. We can neither comprehend their state nor imagine the
details of their lives.
The carriage of passengers and wares is as old as the disposition
of man to traveſ or look abroad for a market. Wherever, in any age,
industry characterized a people, and protection was accorded, there,
under one guise or another, . carrier plied his vocation. In the first
instance his field was limited to neighboring villages or ferriage across
some great river or arm of the sea. In the tº: men lived apart,
savage and unsociable. Property was precarious. With the lapse of
time the art of constructing vessels was evolved, and as man pro-
gressed we catch glimpses of him here and there in diminutive ships
plying back and forth along the Persian Gulf or in and out among
the islands of the Mediterranean.
Of the facilities of the ancients for transporting travelers, histo-
rians tell us very little. Even Herodotus, the most voluble, curious
and amiable of gossips, is silent. He describes his journeys, the peo:
ple he visited and heard about, but says nothing as to how he traveled
from place to place. And this notwithstanding his voyages necessi-
tated the most varied transportation; that jū. to sea and river,
desert and highway, mountain and valley. He tells us, with a relish
that time can never dull, of the habits, idiosyncracies, foibles and
weaknesses—especially the weaknesses—of mankind, but not a word
about means of transportation. His voice is soft and ductile when he
describes what he saw and heard; he dwells with evident pleasure
upon the salacious practices of ancient Babylonia, the scenes in and
around the sacred temple of Mylitta, the dower-earning women of
Lydia, the unclad virgins of Lacedomon, the Nasamoian marriage
rites, the anklet-wearing women of Lydia, the incense burners of
Persia, the loves of the Scythian nomads, peeping Gyges, and the
unhappy Candaules; his narrative loses nothing in interest in reciting
the legend of the blind king, Pheron, the amatory habits of birds, the
concupiscence of animals, the propagating qualities of hares, the virility
of vipers and the amorous propensities of cats; but not a word has
he to say about how he traversed Syria and Asia Minor, how he
journeyed from Halicarnassus to ancient Thebes, how travelers lived
en route, and the time it took to go from place to place. Such things,
it is apparent, he esteemed of no importance. But how interesting
they would be to us!
our accounts of antiquity reference is made to the voyages of
travelers before Herodotus, notably Lycurgus and Solon. But while
we are favored with more or less information in regard to the objects
of their journeyings, details of garriage are lacking. We derive much
#. information from Homer's account . the wanderings of
Ulysses, but the incidents of his journeyings are so outside the ordi-
nary course of events that we gain little insight into practical methods.
he Argonauts were among the most ancient of voyagers of whom
we have account, whether fabulous or otherwise. Their journey
occupied many months and was beset by great dangers. The same
route may to-day be traversed by a child safely, with little cost and
in a few hours. Such is the progress that has been made. But this
progress has not been continuous. There have been long periods in
which no advance was made, while the labors of centuries have
frequently been lost by the mishaps of an hour.
In the phraseology of travel, land carriage has adopted much of
the nomenclature of nautical life. This would seem to show, though
perhaps not truly, that the latter antedated the other. For many cen-
turies after the denizens of Shumir and the Eastern Mediterranean
were accustomed to make long and successful voyages by water, it
was still unsafe to travel by land except in armed bodies.
The accompanying illustrations contain pictures of the animals
that have been utilized for purposes of carriage. Woman was the
principal carrier before the domestication of wild animals. Among
some peoples the load is carried upon the head, among others upon the
shoulders, among others upon the back. Herodotus says the men of
Egypt carried their loads upon their heads, while the women carried
their loads upon their shoulders.
The use of the cart or chariot dates from very ancient times.
Fifty-seven hundred years ago Sharrukin, king of Agade, in the
Mesopotamian Valley, speaks of a warlike incursion he É. made in
chariots to the west, to the Sea of the Setting Sun—the Mediterranean.
He speaks of the vehicles as being made of bronze, and the reference
indicates that this means of travel was comparatively new—something
to boast of. For many ages the chariot was used in common for
pleasure riding and war. The occupants are invariably seen stand-
ing. The seat was afterward introduced, and it was a progressive
step. The evolution of carriage in this respect, as in others, was
exceedingly slow. Each step occupied vast cycles of time. Men
thought but little. The brains, as well as the morals, of our savage
ancestors were embryotic merely. The first step was the most difficult.
It suggested reflection, and this in turn precipitated other ideas. By
and by men began to think, to reason.
In the accounts we have of ancient wars the chariot occupies a
.. place. In the invasion of Syria by the Egyptians, thirty-
five hundred years ago, many chariots of bronze and gold, history tells
us, were captured at a great battle fought at Megiddo. Tiglath Pileser,
who reigned twelve hundred years before §. recounts that he
captured one hundred and twenty chariots in a campaign in the Nairi
country, a mountainous district to the north of Assyria. He also con-
structed many of these vehicles for his own people, thus showing them
to have been common mediums of conveyance.
Homer, in the Iliad, refers again and again to the war chariots of
the Greeks and Trojans. He speaks of them admiringly as possessing
“Solid beauty . . . . bright with the mingled
blaze of tin and gold.
The yoke of box embossed with costly pains,
Hung with ringlets to receive the reins;
Nine cubits long the traces swept the ground,
These to the chariot's polished pole they bound.”
Six hundred and fifty years before Christ the Assyrian monarch,
Asshurbinipal, recounts how he was hauled to the temple in a chariot
drawn by captive kings. The chariots of antiquity were oftentimes
of exquisite workmanship, profusely inlaid with gold, silver and
precious stones. Xenophon recounts that Abradates, a prince of Susa,
540 B.C., used, in the great battle between Cyrus and Croesus, near
Sardis, a chariot with four poles drawn by eight horses.
The chariot offered a most effective vantage ground in battle,
and its use was so general that the ancients resorted in time of war to
particular places with a view to its effective use. The great plain of
Esdraelon was one of these spots. The chariot or cart was the only
vehicle used on land in primitive times. The reason was simple. It
was easily constructed, strong, accessible, and capable of withstanding
the hard usage to which it was subjected in that rugged age.
Xerxes, in his invasion of Greece, used a carriage (four-wheeled
wagon) in common with his chariot. This is about the first mention
we have of such a vehicle. Indeed, its use would not have been pos-
sible at a much earlier period. Highways were, until then, practically
unknown. It was at this period that a Persian monarch conceived
the idea of connecting the widely separated districts of his empire by
public roads systematically laid out and maintained. These rendered
the general use of vehicles possible. The same monarch, Darius, also
º regular post routes, with relays of horses and riders, between
the capital and different parts of his kingdom. The emblem of the
United States postoffice department, a man on horseback, would answer
for the mail carrier of Darius. The embassy sent by Megabazus, the
Persian, to the king of Macedonia was said to have traveled with
wagons and all kinds of baggage. This was the embassy destroyed
with its retinue by the Macedonian prince, Alexander. The Persian
kings are said to have carried their drinking water with them from
Susa in wagons.
Many centuries passed with little or no improvement in vehicles.
Covered carriages were first known in Europe in the beginning of the
sixteenth century. They were used only by ladies of high rank, as
men deemed it disgraceful to use them. Women were for a long time
forbidden to ride in them. The first carriage used by ladies in Eng-
land was called a “whirlicote.” Coaches were first let for hire in
London about 1625, at which date there were only twenty in use. Ten
years afterward they had become so numerous that Charles I issued
an order limiting their number. The covered coach was at first very
unpopular. A writer, in 1605, speaks thus of it: “The coach is a
close hypocrite; for it hath cover for knavery and curtains to vaile
and shadow any wickedness. It is a dangerous kinde of
carriage for the commonwealth.”

Of the chariots of the ancients, the best types were of bronze.
This was the metal in common use. Of it shields, swords, daggers,
knives and other implements were made. Iron was unknown, or, if
known, sparingly used. Its manipulation was so highly thought of
that thirty-five hundred years after Sharrukin's time the skill of an
ingenious Greek, an inhabitant of Chios, who practiced the art of
inlaying gold and silver vessels with iron, was thought of sufficient
importance to be singled out for personal mention by Herodotus.
In Herodotus' time travel within the limits of the Mediterranean
district, while not general, was more or less common. It is not, there-
fore, so surprising that he fails to tell us how he traveled from place
to place. On the Tigris rafts buoyed by inflated skins were the com-
mon form of carriage. They are still in use to-day. . This simple
device seems to have been one of the first that suggested itself to men.
The skins were filled with air by the lungs, just as we see children
inflate toy balloons. The buoys were fastened to the raft with strips
of skin or osier twigs. These frail structures served for crossing
streams and for purposes of commerce. Upon them the great blocks
of stone used in the palaces of Nineveh and other Assyrian cities were
floated down from the Zagros mountains. When a transport reached
its destination it was taken apart, the wood in the raft sold and the
skins cleaned and oiled preparatory to being sent back to be used .
The boats on the Euphrates, Herodotus tells us, were round like a
wash-basin. They were manned by two or more men, according to
their size. Long poles and paddles made of bamboo strips very much
like our oars, only not so convenient or strong, were used in guiding
and propelling them. Vessels, according to their size, transported
one or more donkeys to reconvey the skins covering the bottom of the
boat back to the starting point, for here, as in Assyria, the vessel was
broken up and sold for firewood when it reached its destination. The
voyages of these craft frequently extended from the mountains of
Armenia to the Persian Gulf, many hundreds of miles. These vessels
represent the second stage of boat building among the Chaldeans;
frail, rude, and difficult to manage, they were, nevertheless, an improve-
ment over preceding methods. At the time these clumsy vessels were
used on the Euphrates, Herodotus refers to three different kinds of
transportation on the Nile, namely, rafts, barges and sailing vessels.
The vessels were floated down the Nile, and towed from the shore
when going up a stream if there was not sufficient wind to fill the
sails.
While the vessels I have described sufficed for inland navigation,
they were not adapted to the ocean, and it is to the sea-faring people
of antiquity that we are indebted for the form of boat we use to-day—
at once convenient, swift and strong. The first effective ship, so far
as we know, was made by the Phoenicians. The Greeks helped to
perfect it. The Romans took up the construction of vessels, not
because of any love for the sea, but that they might overcome Carthage,
with whom they were at enmity. In the construction of their vessels,
as in everything else (except war), the Romans copied from their
neighbors.
For the purpose of commerce the ancients devised a strong, slow-
tº: vessel. Something swifter and easier to manage was required
or war. The trireme was the result, a galley with three rows of
oarsmen. Afterward followed the quadrireme, a galley with four
rows of oarsmen. This was succeeded by the quinquereme, a galley
with five rows of oarsmen These galleys were also used for pleasure
craft and for the transportation of persons and goods when traffic
warranted. They were models of strength and swiftness.
Much information in regard to early methods of carriage is
derived from the inscriptions and manuscripts of Egypt. Thus we
learn that the ass was the only animal used in that country at one
time as a beast of burden. A platform laid across the backs of
two animals and strapped thereto served as a seat for the traveler.
Chariots and horses made their appearance later. The framework
of the chariot was of wood, strengthened and ornamented with
metal. The bottom was a frame interlaced with thongs in the form
of a net. The wheels of the chariot were strengthened at the joints
of the felloes with bronze or brass bands and bound with hoops of
metal. The wheels of the war chariots had six spokes; those of cur-
ricles, or private cars, four. The wheel was fixed to the axle by a
linch-pin secured by a thong passed through the lower end. The
pole was fashioned with an ax; it was of wood and carved. It rested
on a yoke which was fastened to a small padded saddle on the withers
of the horse. The horses were harnessed to the vehicle by a single
trace on the inner side and were controlled by lines attached to a bit
or snaffle. Blinkers were not used. The chariot had no seat. When
used in military operations, it was drawn by horses; for traveling
purposes, oxen were more generally used. Vehicles occupied by
women of rank had an umbrella overhead, held by a rod rising from
the center of the chariot. The handle of the whip was of smooth,
round wood, and had a single or double thong; in some cases a lash
of leather twisted or plaited. Such were the chariots of the Egyptians.
They were highly ornamented with trappings and hangings. Leather
dyed in different colors and adorned with metal edges and studs was
the material most generally used in decorating. The construction of
the chariot required diversified skill and in its different parts particular
craftsmen were employed; for the woodwork, a carpenter; for the
bindings, saddle and coverings, a currier, and so on.
#. importance of the Nile in the economy of Egypt, traversing
as it did the whole length of the empire, early led to the construction
of different forms of water craft. It is claimed that the first sea voyage
of which there is any account was made by the Egyptians to the
coast of Greece. It is probable, however, that the art of navigation
was practiced on the Erythrean Sea (Persian Gulf) quite as early as
by the Egyptians, as the peoples who bordered its shores vied with
the latter in antiquity and culture. The inscriptions of Egypt refer to
the use of boats as early as the fourth dynasty. A statue of that date
of a naval constructor is extant. He is represented as seated on a
stool, holding an adze in his left hand. The inscriptions of this dynasty
record the building of a boat ninety feet long and thirty-five feet broad
in seventeen days, to be used in the transportation of stone. The
Egyptians early learned to utilize the mast and sail. At first the former
was double, but this was afterward changed. There were three classes
of boats: those of wood, of basket work, and of inflated skins. One
form was round like a shield, without head or stern. The hollow
part of the center of these round boats was filled with straw. The
boats were of all sizes. The wicker boats were used principally for
fishing, and were made of water plants or osiers bound together with
bands made of the stalks of the papyrus or cyperus. They were light
and could be carried from place to place, past rapids, cataracts, etc. It
was in such a boat, presumably, that Moses was exposed. The more
pretentious boats of the Egyptians were of wooden planks, with ribs
and keel. They had a mast, keel, prow, hold, lower and upper decks,
a scuttle hole, sails, halyards, pumps and rudders. They were used
for heavy transportation and purposes of war. Though not generally
large, we have references to some that equal our modern ships in size.
Diodorus mentions one of cedar wood, dedicated by Sesostris to the
god of Thebes, as being four hundred and twenty feet long. Another
is mentioned that carried four hundred sailors, four thousand rowers,
and three thousand soldiers; this vessel was four hundred and twenty
feet long and seventy-two feet high from keel to top of poop. Athenaeus
says it had forty benches of oars and four rudders, the longest oars
being fifty-seven feet in lºgº and poised with lead at the handles to
make them manageable. aval archaeologists have claimed, on the
other hand, that a vessel of this description could not be managed and
that no such vessel ever existed as a matter of fact. Who shall decide?
In the manipulation of their boats the Egyptians sometimes used four
rudders. The latter consisted of a long, broad blade and handle.
The oar was a round wooden shaft, to which a flat board of oval or
circular form was fastened; it turned on thole pins or in rings fastened
to the gunwale of the boat. The rowers sat on benches or low seats,
or stood or knelt to the oar, sometimes pushing, but more often pull-
ing. The Egyptians manufactured their sails and ropes from the rind
of the papyrus. The sails were often colored a brilliant hue. The
vessels were furnished with cabins, built of wood and painted inside
and out, and fully protected the occupants from the elements. They
were in many cases richly decorated and furnished. Entrance was
sought by a door at the front or side. The people of Egypt were
exclusive and self-contained and throughout the virile period of their
history they looked upon foreigners as unworthy of recognition. They
accordingly adopted every possible means of excluding them.
The neighbors of the Egyptians were the Phoenicians. They
occupied a narrow strip of land on the extreme eastern border of the
Mediterranean. Because of their near proximity and aggressive,
scheming character (they were of Semitic origin) they maintained
more or less intimate relations with Egypt. This relationship was of
much practical value to them, and to it they owed many of the ingen-
ious devices that contributed so much to their material wealth. The
people of Phoenicia were typical business men, the most remarkable
of antiquity, if not of all time. Their thoughts were occupied wholly
with gain. To them wealth was the beginning and end of life.
They cared nothing for fame. This is why we have no account of
their history, extending over thousands of years, except as we catch
furtive glimpses from the literature of other countries. Their achieve-
ments are lost, in the main, as completely as the secret of their incom-
parable dyes. They were the common carriers of their time. But
whether they thus operated directly for the profit derived from the
handling of men and goods, or made this only an incident of their
voyages, we can not tell. In later times it is likely they had well-
established transportation lines. This, it is probable, is why Herod-
otus did not think it worth while to mention them. History was too
precious to him to be made the medium of well-known facts. But it
is not likely that carriers were licensed as in our day; were accorded
a right to exact a particular sum for a particular service, no more, no
less, with the obligation attached of insuring what they carried against
the accidents of imperfect service. These details came later, with
better protection and higher organization. But wherever men have
been free to act they have, it is probable, from the earliest times, sought
profit from the carriage of men and goods. Thus in contemplating
the prehistoric age we must believe that in Egypt, at least, with its
great river, its immense transportation needs, its varied industries, and
vast peaceful population, common carriers were known. No other
ancient country, except Phoenicia, so strongly suggests the presence
of these commercial factors.
The Phoenicians are the earliest carriers of whom we have
authentic knowledge. They possessed the trade of the world and
their cities were its clearing houses. Robust, far-seeing, prudent and
industrious, their prosperity continued unabated for quite two thousand
years. They excelled all men of their time in executive ability, finan-
cial skill and business talent. Out of the necessities of their lives
many of the devices in use to-day originated. The greatest, however,
it is probable, is our alphabet. The cuneiform and pictorial writings
in use, while answering the purposes of monumental inscriptions, were
not adequate to the needs of an extended commerce. The Phoenicians
required some simple and expeditious means of writing up their
accounts and communicating with persons at a distance; something
cheap, simple, easily learned and capable of particularizing the wants
of trade. H. alphabet was the outgrowth of this need. It was a
device of clerks, and had, at the time, no romantic or social aspect.
Indeed, it was as devoid of literary associations as a mass of figures is
to us. How impossible for us to comprehend this! It was purely a
business device and intended to meet business needs. It rendered
simple what was before complicated; made accessible to all what had
previously been known only to a few. Thus to the base, mechanical
and crafty business men of Phoenicia we owe the greatest civilizing
force of all time, the greatest source of progress and happiness we
have. Scholars claim the Phoenicians derived the suggestion of the
alphabet from the Egyptians. From whence these last received the
idea we can as yet only surmise. The Phoenicians made it practica-
ble. Many thousands of years before the Christian era, Egypt pos-
sessed hieroglyphic picture writing, representing the simple sounds of
the language. With the lapse of ages these were somewhat simplified
for the purpose of the scribe, while retained in monumental writing.
It was in the modified form that the Phoenicians found the suggestion
of the alphabet. The hieroglyphic or pictorial characters of the
Egyptians comprised ideas, syſlables and letters. The Phoenicians
founded their system wholly upon the latter. The names they gave
the letters corresponded generally to the objects they resembled. Some
of these objects scholars claim to trace in the pictorial writing of the
Hittite people. The writing of the latter ran alternately from right to
left .# from left to right. This last feature was also peculiar to the
early Greeks, the latter undoubtedly deriving it from their Hittite neigh-
bors. . The hieroglyphics of the latter were original, but the idea É.
thought might thus be conveyed, they are believed to have derived from
the Chaldeans. The characters the Hittites used were ideographic, i.e.,
represented ideas or syllables. They were accompanied by determina-
tives to indicate the class to which they belonged. Phonetics were also
used to indicate the sound or pronunciation of words. Priortothe appear-
ance of the Phoenicians on the shores of the Mediterranean they are
thought to have occupied the fertile lands in the neighborhood of the
Bahrein Islands, on the west shore of the Red Sea. The Man Fish,
that tradition tells us appeared miraculously to the people of Shumir
to teach them wisdom, was a Phoenician it is quite likely, a practical
man of affairs. While we have no knowledge from whence this wise
man came, we know much about the people he visited. They lived
at that time on the lower Tigris and Euphrates, a horde of savages.
Scorched by the sun at noonday, they were poisoned by miasmatic
fogs at night. Goblin worshipers, they lived in eternal dread of evil
spirits, a most unhappy community. In after time they became agri-
cultural in habits and were famed far and near for their religious zeal
and knowledge of government, astronomy and letters. The canals they
constructed and maintained for many centuries for purposes of irriga-
tion and carriage have been the wonder of mankind in all ages. While
these people must be classed among primitive carriers, the Phoeni-
cians greatly exceeded them in subtlety, craft and acquisitiveness. The
latter were at once ostentatious and parsimonious, haughty and cring-
ing. They never wrote a book, at least we have no trace of any.
#.i. history is derived from others. Letters were to them what
dollar marks are to us, devices merely to expedite business and reduce
expenses. They attached no intellectual value to them whatever.
The character of the people of Phoenicia was intensely practical, that
of shrewd traders. On occasion, however, it was lighted up by the
most vivid fires and at such times became extremely picturesque.
Like all gloomy people, they indulged in the grossest excesses, were
capable of the wildest extremes. They were inclined to be sensual,
and had little or no imagination. Of the benefits that the Phoenician
incidentally conferred upon the world in his struggle to attain and
retain wealth, he took no note. They awakened in him no ray of
enthusiasm or interest. His spirit was purely commercial, wholly
intent upon individual gain. But it was that form of enlightened
selfishness to which the world owes its advancement. Let this be a
crumb to the business men of our time, who are thought to care too
little for abstract things.
Homer speaks of the Phoenicians as “cunning fellows, carrying
trinkets in their black ships.” They trafficked very much as did the
hucksters who followed Columbus, giving little and receiving much
in return. But in marked contrast to the Śrī, they protected and
built up. Thus, Greece, Sicily, Italy, Iberia and other countries of
the Mediterranean belt were opened to civilizing influences. The
Phoenicians bore to the people of Europe much the same relation that
early European voyagers bore to the savage Indians of North America.
Thus Phoenicia found the Grecians barbarians and taught them
manufacturing and trading. She also gave them their mythology, albeit
of Chaldean origin. Moreover, she gave to them, as she did to the other
barbarous º: with whom she traded, knowledge of government
and the organization of society, business methods, arts and mining.
She taught them the construction of masonry and the use of mortar,
familiarized them with the sword, with weights and measures, textile
fabrics, bronze, gold, silver and personal adornments. The voyage
of the Argonauts many believe to be but an old Phoenician navigator's
story, embellished by the versatile Greeks.
Phoenicia through her commercial ventures made known her
culture and shared it, albeit reluctantly, with her fellow men. Homer
speaks of the incomparable dyes of Sidon and the ships of Tyre. These
cities were for long centuries centers of travel and maritime adventure.
The education of the people of Phoenicia did not extend beyond prac-
tical needs. We have unearthed their gods and find them to be as we
might expect, rude and economical. They looked upon them, it is
apparent, as serviceable but expensive luxuries; intermediary agents
of trade and good fortune. With the methodical habits of business
men, the people of Phoenicia performed their religious duties with
regularity and decorum. When trade was good they kept up their
sacrifices and attendance lest neglect should invite disaster. In time
of war, or when pestilence scourged the land or danger threatened,
they increased their offerings. Their protestations at such periods
became more emphatic; their fervor knew no bounds. If the gods
remained obdurate, the priests mutilated themselves. If inattentive
still, children were sacrificed. Under no circumstances did the people
ever knowingly jeopardize their property or personal safety if an
acceptable offering could be found. Human sacrifices were with them
always a favorite means of propitiating the gods in time of distress.
While capable of the most ferocious acts, the Phoenicians were
not a warlike people. They were diplomatists, traffickers, temporizers.
They preferred to buy immunity. Hating the restraints of military
service, their armies were made up of mercenaries. They looked
askance at the doubtful results of war. Nevertheless they were capa-
ble of the most heroic acts of warlike bravery and endurance. In this
spirit the city of Tyre withstood the siege of the Babylonian king
thirteen years before it succumbed. The city was mighty even in its
decline. Here alone Alexander the Great met with stubborn resistance;
open defiance; heroic defense; real war; a courage he could not quell
or intimidate. The fangs of these traders, backed up by a courageous
understanding, he found sharper and stronger than those of the most
warlike and savage nations he : elsewhere.
The Phoenician cared nothing about history or the needs of
chroniclers. In consequence he is much despised by writers. He
was little concerned about what the world said of him and took no
pains to supply it with food for gossip. Idealists and moralists look
upon him as gross. They despise him, in fact. He has not furnished
them a single proverb! The benefits he conferred upon mankind, how-
ever, were great and lasting, and have been handed down to us º
intermediate ages with little change, unimpaired and substantial. We,
to-day, thus owe him much.
The Phoenicians were great organizers of capital. Their meas-
ures were prudent and far-seeing. They were both manufacturers
and merchants. The same man purchased the raw material, manu-
factured it and sold it. In order to save carriage, furnaces and smithies
were constructed in the various countries from which metals were
derived. The bulk of the world's trading was done before 500 B.C.
at fairs which were held at stated periods in great cities, and infre-
quently at other places. These fairs everywhere preceded established
markets. They were neutral ground, and were also the occasion of
social and religious festivals. Those held at Tyre exceeded, as we
may imagine, all others in the abundance and splendor of the goods
displayed and in the number in attendance. But they lacked greatly
in religious interest.
he Phoenicians were commercial nomads. They were not
satisfied with established avenues of trade. Wherever advantage
offered they formed colonies, using force in their establishment .
when they could not secure what they wanted otherwise. They are
said to have formed forty colonies, all of them offsprings of the mother
hive, and active agents of its industries. The Phoenicians in their
day possessed the carrying trade of the Mediterranean. They
monopolized, as well, the great caravan routes of Syria and Arabia.
Skillful sailors, they frequented every sea. Their merchant ships were
strong, broad and deep. Their war ships, not less i. COIl-
structed, long dominated the Aegean and Mediterranean seas.
The superior skill, wisdom and moderation of the Phoenicians
formed the basis of their supremacy. As an instance of their deftness,
Herodotus recounts that in excavating the canal across Mount Athos,
the Phoenicians were the only ones who commenced to dig far enough
back to prevent the walls caving in as they descended with their work.
The ships of Phoenicia and the skill of its sailors rendered Xerxes'
invasion of Greece possible. They organized and stocked his supply
depots along the coast and furnished #. ships and sailors. Their
ships were made of fir and cedar and their oars of oak.
Although the Phoenicians were essentially traders, they were not
averse to religious proselyting in a prudent, economical way, when
occasion offered. Thus, their daughter, the fair Jezebel, introduced
idolatry into the palace of her husband, the King of Israel, occasion-
ing thereby widespread scandal throughout alſ. Judea. At another
time the Phoenicians greatly outraged the pious Hebrews by offering
wares for sale in a city of the latter on the Sabbath. All days, it is
apparent, were alike to the Phoenician when opportunities for trade
offered. However, in all their vocations they were temperate, as well
as industrious and saving. The orgies in which they periodically
indulged, and of which we have account, were safety valves, merely;
the bursting of pent-up reserves; the ebolutions of melancholly men
and women. H. lapse of ages these outbursts took on the char-
acter of religious rites and thus came to be looked upon as not only
proper but eminently praiseworthy. Such were the greatest business
men and primitive carriers of antiquity. -
After the Phoenicians, the Carthaginians were the greatest traders
and carriers of primitive times. Carthage was a colony of Tyre,
founded by the Phoenician princess Dido,840 B.C. For several cen-
turies it enjoyed, with the parent country, the carrying trade of the
world. The Carthaginians are said to have .# in the west
the custom of paving streets. The Romans, who are accredited with
being the road builders of antiquity, learned from them.
he Carthaginians were traders by nature. They possessed
every quality that goes to make up a great business man, the far-
seeing instinct of the manufacturer, the subtlety of the buyer, the craft
of the seller, the docility of the carrier.
It is always interesting, as well as instructive, to compare our
age with that of the ancients. There is much in common between
them. Human nature is the same to-day that it was then; the con-
ditions it engenders are the same. Our time is supposed to be marked
more than any other by the commercial spirit. Yet, twenty-five
hundred years ago, the Carthaginians lived only to trade, to manufact-
ure, to buy, to sell, to carry, to acquire. In their polity, possession of
property and the happiness of mankind were coincident. Their central
thought was the acquisition and retention of wealth. All alike, from
the highest to the lowest, engaged in its acquisition; all alike felt the
thrill of success, the chill of #. It is said that they esteemed every
kind of gain honorable. The effect of this intense devotion to a
material idea was to lessen their regard for truth, so that unstapleness
in such matters (Punic Faith) became synonymous with their name.
A Carthaginian did not hold an untruth to be wrong if profit
accrued thereby. Far from it. Success was the purpose and end of
life. He strove for it by day, dreamed of it by night. His religion
ran parallel with his business. When times were prosperous he
palmed off the children of slaves as his own upon the gods as a sacri-
fice. But when financial reverses threatened or wavering armies
jeopardized the state, he did not hesitate to offer up his own offspring;
nay, threw into the balance whole hecatombs of children, lest anything
should be wanting. Crafty and complacent in the hour of success, he
was oftentimes timid and halting in . hour of danger. He thus lost,
through vacillation and fear, advantages he was never afterward able
to regain.
he Carthaginians were not only great business men, but pos-
sessed military talent of the highest order. One of their generals,
Hannibal, has never had a superior. Many others achieved distinc-
tion. With the instincts of traders they rewarded the commander
who was successful with honor and continuous employment, while
they degraded or crucified without mercy those who, through failure,
retarded or endangered the interests of the state.
No government of ancient or modern times exactly resembles that
of Carthage. Its methods were simple. It protected its people without
sentiment or cant. Everyone pursued his calling unimpeded. The
duty of the state was to guard each citizen from molestation, both
from within and from without. It selected its rulers from those who
were Successful in Private Life; who showed aptitude for affairs; who
achieved individual success in material things. It took those who had
shown the greatest foresight, the greatest constructive talent, the great-
est executive ability, and made them the guardians and servants of the
people. Thus, organized and fostered, Carthage flourished in uninter-
rupted splendor and without internal strife for six hundred years, and
was only overthrown when its system of property qualification, speci-
fied duty and attendant responsibility was relaxed. While other
countries (notably Rome) were torn with internal dissensions and their
streets deluged with the blood of citizens, Carthage pursued the even
tenor of her way, happy, prosperous and contented. This record,
unexampled in the history of the world, furnishes undisputed evidence,
if it were needed, of the marvelous executive ability and talent for
government possessed by common business men, a talent equal to
every occasion. Such men, above all others, know how to select good
servants; how to secure efficient service. Above all others they com-
prehend the universality of man's needs and how they may be attained.
Good government is impossible without their advice and far-reaching
counsel. Monarchs achieve greatness only when they are great busi-
ness men, when they possess great executive talent. The voyages
of the Carthaginians, in quest of gain, carried them into every known
part of the western world. Thus they explored many seas before
untraversed, but with the characteristic indifference of business men to
merely abstract things, they have left us no account of their voyages.
The only book ever written by the Carthaginians, of which we have
any knowledge, was on the subject of agriculture!
The continuance in our day of primitive methods of transpor-
tation in many old cities of the far east is inexplicable if we do not
remember their narrow streets, planned when modern vehicles were
unknown. Transportation is, in many such places, confined to men
and animals. The latter are prohibited in many cities because of the
narrow and crowded streets. In the suburbs of many of these old
cities modern vehicles are to be met with, but they look out of place.
In interior Africa heretofore, and in other countries peopled by
savages as well, wheeled vehicles are unknown. Land carriage is
confined to human beings.
Methods of carriage in vogue to-day in many parts of the world
seem almost as crude as those used by the ancients. Unfortunately
we have but few representations of carriage at the dawn of the his-
torical period. Such representations as we have show only the forms
used by the higher classes. They are such as the absence of general
and well preserved highways necessitated. Stoutly built and adaptable
to every kind of ...; they served the limited uses to which they were
put by the rugged people who used them.
On the water, our knowledge of carriage among the ancients is
still more meagre. It is probable, however, that at the time of the
Trojan war, 1200 B.C., the only vessel known was the open ship or
long boat, without cabin or other conveniences.
Methods of primitive transportation now in use among Savages
illustrate, in the main, carriage among the savages of the prehistoric
period. Origin and evolution are, without doubt, substantially, the
same in all ages. The raft manned by Polynesian savages (whose
only clothing is a loin cloth made from the frayed leaf of the banana)
represents the origin of water carriage in every age and quarter of the
world. In the same way the men and women of our time who bear
burdens upon their heads or backs represent the beginnings of land
carriage. The savage Kaffre, carrying a package through the jun-
gles of Africa, illustrates the beginnings of the postal and express
service; the naked blacks of the Congo district, carrying the mer-
chandise of the country back and forth on their heads, illustrate the
beginnings of our freight and baggage business.
While evolution is much the same everywhere, it is not literally
so. Thus, the vehicle of Nausicaa, in which she went, involuntarily,
to the rescue of Ulysses, Homer says, was a lofty, well-wheeled chariot,
fitted with a covering and drawn by solid-hoofed mules, but (and here
is the peculiarity) the mules were led under the chariot and thus yoked
thereto. The vehicle itself was stored with a goatskin of wine and
other dainties. Nowhere have I found a similar vehicle, and if Homer
had not in other places made similar reference I should believe it to
be a figure of speech. In the accompanying illustrations will be found
vehicles drawn by dogs hitched under the wagon, but the vehicle is
steadied by the hand of an attendant. While mankind are generally
alike, their ways are never the same, any more than their features or
temperament. Natives of different countries do not carry a burden
in the same way; they differ, also, in the way in which they strap it
upon an animal. Nor is their method of constructing a vehicle or
arranging the gearing and harness the same. On the water their
manner of building a ship, in arranging its cabin, and in supporting
its sails also differs. These differences add greatly to the interest of
the study of the evolution of carriage.
In examining primitive methods of carriage in different parts of
the world, their adaptability to the traffic and peculiarities of the
country is noticeable. It is also apparent that needed changes are
acquiesced in with reluctance. Because of this they are made to con-
form, outwardly at least, so far as possible, to thcse they replace. In
many sections of the world no progress whatever has been made in the
art of carriage in the last four thousand years. Thus, in some parts of
Asia women are carried in panniers on the backs of asses as they
were long before the time of Abraham. A primitive form of vessel
used on the Mesopotamian rivers, in the time of Nebuchadrezzar, is
still employed. In the construction of these curious rafts four hundred
inflated skins are sometimes used to buoy them up. The circular form
of boat used on the Euphrates three thousand years ago is still to be
found there, only, instead of a covering of hides, asphalt is now used.
On the vast steppes of Asia, and in many other districts of that country,
no change whatever has been made in methods of carriage during the
j period—the horse, the ox, the camel and the ass are used to-
day as they were forty centuries ago. These patient animals continue
to bear the burdens that in more progressive countries have been
transferred to wagons and railway cars.
The people we know as the ancients constituted a link in the
chain of the evolution of carriage. They were the children of man-
kind. Their imagination supplied the place of experience and reasoning
power. They could not conceive of motion without visible agency,
and in looking for this selected that with which they were most familiar.
Giving a free rein to their imagination, they pictured their gods and
mythological heroes as mounted upon magnificent chargers, or drawn
in chariots of surpassing splendor by animals of suitable dignity.
Vehicles were to them necessary to the movements of the planets, and
among their other delusions they believed the moon to be carried round
the world upon a car drawn by animals. Their superstitions and
delusions were infinite. The illustrations of a mythological character
contained herein afford a hint of this and at the same time give us a
glimpse of what the ancients knew of carriage.
The history of the animal species used for purposes of carriage is,
in the main, well known. There are not many. To be sure, every
species has been brought into requisition, but permanent selection
has been confined to a few. And first there is the horse. This
animal, it is believed, was first domesticated in Asia, the land
of the rising sun, of mystery and romance. Evidences exist of his
presence in Europe during the palaeolithic age, when he was used for
food. He does not appear at that time to have been larger than a
Shetland pony. He had, however, enormous teeth and jaws. His
development is the result of breeding. At the siege of Troy the Greeks
used him to draw their war chariots, but had not yet learned to ride
him. The fable of the Centaur—a being half horse, half man—is said
to have grown out of a belief upon the part of those who saw a man
on horseback for the first time that the two were one. A very nat-
ural belief. The Egyptians, rich, luxurious and exclusive, had no
knowledge of the horse in early times. The builders of the pyramids,
who, above all sovereigns, exercised arbitrary sway over men, did
not, it is thought, possess so simple a luxury as a palanquin. The
conquest of Mexico by Cortez could not have been effected, or, at
least, not so easily, except for the superstition the natives attached to his
horses. They had never seen such an animal before. Indeed, animals
generally were unknown to them! The horse is the favorite carrier
of mankind. The Grecians loved him as we do. Upon his fleetness,
intelligence and strength their lives oftentimes depended. Chariot
racing where two, three or four horses were hitched loosely abreast
was the great national amusement of the Greeks. To be victorious
at Olympia was the greatest honor a Greek could attain. All classes
competed. After the decadence of Greece the pastime was perpetuated
by the Romans. The strife that the contests engendered greatly
stimulated the improvement of horses. This improvement is still going
on. Horses of superior breed were revered by the ancients. #.
of Achilles were said to have sprung from the gods. Primitive history
is full of quaint superstitions regarding this animal. Thus, Bellerophon,
king of Lycia, was said to have sought to mount the skies on his
steed Pegasus. The nomad looks upon his horse as his best friend.
The Asiatic makes him his companion. Among the capable races of
mankind the Semitic people care the least for a horse.
The use of the horse is an incident in the evolution of man.
Running wild over the vast steppes of Central Asia, he was caught
and tamed. Broken, he became effective for war, added, in fact, to
its frequency and horror. Chivalrous Greece attached an exaggerated
value to the animal, but the roughness of the country prevented its
eneral use. The verdant valleys and grassy slopes of Ellis and
§. were favorite breeding places. However, all the horses
annually bred in Greece did not equal those of Tritaechmes, Cyrus'
governor of Babylon, who, Herodotus says, owned eight hundred
stallions and sixteen thousand mares, besides the annual contingent
he furnished the government for purposes of war. The Arab, of all
men, possesses the greatest affection for his horse. The Scythians, a
savage, untamable race, use the milk of their mares for food. The
Parthians, the most formidable horsemen of whom we have any
account, did the same. Before these fierce warriors the legions of
Rome, before invincible, went down like stubble. The Thessalian
horsemen were the most famous of Greece, or indeed of ancient times.
Siding with Xerxes, they afforded him effective aid in his invasion.
The phalanx of Philip of Macedon, supplemented by the Thessalian
horse, made him invincible. In the battle at Leuctra, for supremacy
between Sparta and Thebes, the former had one thousand horse,
while Epaminondas had a less number. In the final struggle at
Mantinea, where Epaminondas was killed, the Thebans had three
thousand horse, the Spartans two thousand.
The stealing of horses and cattle in primitive ages was common,
as it is now in new countries. It was punished with death. This
penalty is still inflicted in many cases. The horse, from being merely
a source of pleasure or an instrument of war, became, with the lapse
of time, a drudge, a vulgar carrier of packs, a drawer of water, a
hewer of wood. Of all Nature's gifts to men, none exceed him in
value. His strength represents the unit of service. He is the real
rogenitor of the steam locomotive. But with its advent he is not the
i. dear to us. Marco Polo, in his travels through Turkestan six
hundred years ago, speaks of the magnificent horses of that country.
They were used without shoes, notwithstanding the rough nature of
the country. Indeed, the shoeing of horses is largely conventional,
except where the streets are paved with stone. The #º is capable,
with a little care, of withstanding the most rugged use. The Greeks
hardened the feet of their horses by flooring ; stalls and paddocks
with cobble-stones.
Next to the horse, the mule is the great carrier of the world. Herod-
otus tells us that it was first bred on the southern shores of the Black
Sea. However this may be, the animal is to-day to be found in every
quarter of the world. Wherever man lives and thrives, this sturdy,
patient, abstemious brute is his faithful coadjutor and friend, performing,
in every instance, far more than his share of the burdens of life. More
hardy than the horse and relatively stronger, he thrives upon food that
the horse will not touch. Wherever hard work is required and
provender scarce, the mule is a favorite. Its universality is remarkable.
In China, India, Persia, on the shores of the Mediterranean, in Europe,
in the two Americas, in far-off Australia, this shaggy, sturdy, patient
animal is found in the van. Ill treatment does not sour its temper,
albeit it protests. The protest is always the same, a sharp, vigorous
kick. The kick is not vindictive, albeit lightning-like in motion and
vehemence. It is rather a warning against bad treatment and poor food.
Next in order as a draft . the ox. The Aryans were well
acquainted with this animal and utilized it as a beast of burden and
for purposes of food. The cow has ever afforded the basis of values
among nomadic tribes. Thus, a slave or prospective bride was worth
so many cows. We measure values in dollars; primitive, nomadic
man measured them differently. Thus, while our merchants ask five
dollars for an article, nomadic people, under like conditions, ask five
cows. In the time of Abraham and the patriarchs a man's wealth
was estimated by the number and size of his herds.
Oxen were worshipped by the ancient Egyptians and Hindoos,
and the shedding of the blood of such an animal was prohibited except
for sacrificial purposes. White bulls are still held sacred by the Hin-
doos. Among the Romans to wantonly destroy an ox was esteemed
a public crime. In nearly every country the ox is employed as a draft
animal or beast of burden, oftentimes for both purposes. The intelli-
gence of this animal is not equal to that of the horse, but it is more
docile and patient. To the natives of India the humped-back ox
occupies the same relation to carriage as our horse. Powerful and
fleet of foot, it is said to be able to travel at the rate of six miles an
hour for fifteen consecutive hours.
An animal that very much resembles the ox, indeed that is
analogous to it, is the Thibetan yak. This picturesque animal is as
common in Central Asia (more particularly in the mountainous por-
tions of the country) as the mule is in Spain, or the ass in Arabia.
It is the principal domestic animal of Thibet, being used as a draft
animal and a beast of burden, furnishing, moreover, as need be, food,
milk and raiment to the natives. It is to be found in a wild state in
the more unfrequented highlands of Central Asia, aptly termed “The
Dome of the World.” Like the moose and reindeer it is insensible to
cold. Gentle, strong, easily kept, it seems to have been created to
meet a particular want. While not identical, it very much resembles
the water buffalo used in Eastern Africa and Southeastern Asia.
The animals I have described are used generally; respond to a
common need. But for traversing the vast deserts of the earth, nature,
with exquisite adaptability of means to ends, has provided the camel.
Capable of carrying a heavy burden, this animal is able to subsist
without water for many days at a time. Its longest known record in
this respect has been six days in summer and ten days in winter. Its
secret ſies in the fact that the stomach is provided with pouches or
water cells, which measure, in the adult camel, three inches in width
and depth. Water is strained off into these pouches and by means of
powerful muscles retained until needed. In addition to this water
supply, the camel's hump, consisting of a fatty substance, supplies it
with nourishment. The hump is, in fact, a natural storehouse. For
this reason the keeper takes care to see that these storehouses are well
developed before starting on a long journey. The camel is the natural
carrier of the earth's deserts. Except for it, vast portions of the globe
could not be traversed. The camel is taught in its fourth year to bear
burdens, also to kneel down and to rise at a given signal. On the
march it is patient to the last degree and yields only to lie down and
die. The flesh of the young camel resembles veal and is used as food
by the Arabs. The milk of the animal is excellent and nutritious,
but does not yield butter. The camel is still to be found in a wild
state in the region of the Gobi Desert in Central Asia. It is used in
that locality not only for carrying burdens, but to till the soil and
perform every kind of drudgery. Along the southern shores of the
Mediterranean, bordering on the Great Desert of Sahara; also in
Arabia and on and about the vast deserts of Asia, the camel is the
principal carrier. There, where the heat is intense and food and
water scarce, it reigns supreme as a burden bearer. On the higher
plateaus of Central Asia the camel is supplied with a plentiful coat of
wool to protect it from the cold, while on the deserts of Arabia and
North Africa its hair is very scant and fine. There are two species
of camel, the Arabian and the Bactrian. The former has but one
hump and is sometimes called a dromedary. But, properly, this term
only applies to a fine-haired breed noted for its fleetness and able to
carry its rider one hundred miles a day. It is termed the race horse
of its species. Of all animals utilized as carriers, none are so lacking
in intelligence, so devoid of affection and interest as the camel. The
most tender care and lengthened acquaintance is insufficient to make
it familiar with its master. All men, moreover, are alike to it. If by
chance it wanders from the path, it continues straight ahead, idly
cropping the herbage until satiety is reached or its course is changed
by the driver. If the latter falls by the way, the beast passes on with-
out noticing that anything unusual has happened. It possesses only
the . instincts of nature.
Far more interesting than the camel, or, indeed, any other beast
of burden, is the elephant. It is also more rare. It is only in India
and the extreme southeastern districts that it is generally utilized for
purposes of carriage. The domestication of the elephant dates from
the earliest times. It was employed by the ancients both in peace and
war. Elephants figured in the invasions of Alexander and other early
conquerors. In some cases wooden towers holding thirty soldiers
were fastened to the backs of these animals. In other cases they were
used to crush opposing forces. Elephants were utilized by the Car-
thaginians in their wars. They formed a part of the army with which
Hannibal invaded Italy. They were similarly used by Pyrrhus of
Epirus on a like occasion sixty-three years before.
There are two species of elephants, the African and Asiatic. The
former is the larger of the two. Elephants continue to grow for some
thirty years after their birth. Instances have been known where they
have lived one hundred and thirty years in captivity. The elephant's
stomach has a chamber for storing water, capable of holding some
ten gallons. It can reconvey this water into its trunk at pleasure
* may slake its thirst or indulge in a shower bath whenever
it likes.
The capture of the wild elephant is generally effected by driving
the herd into an inclosure, or corral, built of the trunks and branches
of trees. In India the elephant is monopolized by the government and
it can not be captured or killed except under carefully prescribed rules.
Many devices are used for subjecting the elephant. It is usually
brought about, however, by those already tamed. The affection and
great intelligence of the elephant make it easy to handle. These
qualities are, however, frequently played upon in order to tame it the
more readily. Thus the contemplated keeper of an elephant that is
being tamed will go to its rescue after it has been beaten by other
elephants and by protecting and feeding it gain its good will, and thus
bring it under subjection. The keeper of an elephant in the East
Indies is called a mahout. The best understanding possible exists
between the animal and the man. Not only this, but the family and
children of the mahout also claim in a measure the kindly regard and
protecting care of the kingly animal. Thus it affords them a means
of livelihood, companionship and protection.
And now, having discussed primitive carriers, let us go in person
and hunt them up. In doing this we shall visit many countries and
become acquainted with many curious people. It will be a voyage of
discovery, as it has never before occurred to anyone to traverse the
road we shall follow. Travelers and artists have afforded us glimpses
of it but never distinctly nor connectedly so that we might study the
subject as a whole. In our journeyings we shall visit people so widely
separated as regards habits, abode, degree of culture, and the age in
which they lived, that they will seem to have nothing in common.
But this is only apparent. The natural processes by which men
advance from the low level of savagery to that of a high civilization
are the same in every case, showing that however they may differ in
minor details, including that of color, they are substantially alike in
all material things.

Africa.
=S_ HE customs of the people of Interior Africa, where
alº savagery still reigns, are those of our ancestors
after they had acquired a limited vocabulary but
were still governed by the strongest; when
might ruled and the chief of the horde consulted
his own passions and pleasures without refer-
ence to the comfort or rights of the community.
Methods of carriage in Interior Africa are wholly
those of savages: upon the water, rafts or primitive vessels hollowed
out of logs; on land, slaves and women perform the work. The
distinction between women and slaves is very slight, as it is with all
savage people. Africa may be said to present carriage in its forma-
tive state—the germ of transportation, in fact. Animals are not used,
and mechanical contrivances are unknown. The intrusion ºf civil-
ized men is rapidly changing this, and thus methods seem likely to
leap, at one bound, from those of the primitive iº to those of the
highest culture; from the burden bearing period of slaves and depend-
ent women to the age of steam locomotives and electric railways:
Thus will be accomplished in a century what would have required
unnumbered ages through natural processes. The association of the
rude appliances of savages with the methods of civilization, in Africa,
presents a confusing array. To see naked men and women drawing
a modern carriage filled with civilized people is incongruous. The
vehicle strikes a discordant note and shatters all thought of the
picturesque. Make-shifts govern carriage in Interior Africa as in
other new countries. The absence of roads, the impassable nature
of the country, the savagery of the inhabitants, and the absence of
depots of supply, coupled with other obstacles, render transportation
difficult and oftentimes dangerous. Africa, fostered by the great
countries of Europe, which in the main control its territory, is rapidly
acquiring inter-communication by means of railroads and otherwise,
and it will be but a short time before we shall be able to traverse the
continent without changing cars, as in America. Where the mails a
few years ago were unknown, or were carried by naked savages
or armed escorts, well-equipped railways in many cases are already
in operation. Many of the quaint methods of carriage illustrated in
this book have long been replaced by ultra-nineteenth century devices.
But the savage man and woman here pictured have lost no portion of
their interest as illustrations of primitive carriage. The African con-
tinent is a vast peninsula connected with Asia by the Isthmus of Suez.
It lies almost wholly within the Torrid zone. Its interior is a vast
tableland having an elevation of some four thousand feet above the
level of the sea. The country has no great navigable rivers except
the Nile in the northeast, emptying into the Mediterranean; the Niger
in the west; and the Congo in the southwest. The Zambesi, a great
river in the southeast, is navigable only a short distance because of its
cataracts. Africa contains about eleven and one-half million square
miles. . Its greatest length is about five thousand miles, and its greatest
breadth nearly four thousand eight hundred miles. The Sahara, the
largest desert in the world, occupies its northern border, a fringe of
arable land, only, separating it from the Mediterranean. The con-
tinent is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the west
by the Atlantic, on the south by the Southern Sea, and on the east
by the Indian Ocean and Red Sea. The illustrations that follow
refer only to Central Africa and the southern, southwestern and
southeastern parts of the country, including Abyssinia. That part
embraced in Egypt, Algiers, Morocco and Tunis is referred to
elsewhere.

AFRICA.
A primitive carrier. This illustration was suggested by Decamps' ideal picture of the Indian Desert in ante-diluvian days. It was Decamps' picture, painted fifty
years ago, that first suggested the accompanying collection, albeit the French artist had no thought of the elephant as a carrier. Except in isolated instances the
Africans, when discovered, had never made any effort to conquer and use the elephant. The tusks of the elephant have long been known by the natives to
possess a commercial value, and to obtain these they have been in the habit of hunting him in his habitat in the vast jungles of the interior.

AFRICA.
An African mother and child. Civilized (domesticated) women carry their children in their arms. Savage
women carry them slung on their backs; it is easier to carry them thus on the long and tiresome journeys that
have frequently to be made by such women; moreover, they must have their arms and hands free to carry the
burdens and perform the drudgery of every-day life, as all its hardships fall upon them. The greates ºversity
exists among savage women in regard to the manner of carrying children. The fashions in this respect of
different tribes throughout the world are as rigid as those the late M. Worth has been in the habit o: dictating
to society women. It is probable, however, that local conditions have much more to do in determining how
savage mothers will carry their children than they have had in shaping Paris fashions. Thus the child is
carried high or low on the back as it facilitates what the mother has to do. The receptacle in which the child
is carried is also determined by surroundings; in one case it is the loop of a blanket; in anothera grass sack; in
another a rough home-made basket; in another a receptacle of bark; and so on. Fashions vary, the methods
of tribes resembling each other generally, but differing in detail.
º
--
Žº
ºº%
% º
#% %
º %
%
º
%
º
º -
º/
Trafficking in Interior Africa in the days of the English explorers Speke and Grant, 1860. The people of Great
Britain have, it is probable, done more than all others combined to develop Africa. They have also, without
doubt, contributed more than all others, through their travelers, commercial agents and artists, to lighten up
the dark places and primitive customs of the world. While the above picture is real, the men of savage Africa,
it may be said in passing, were not in the habit of carrying goods or performing any kind of labor. But under
the stimulus of attractive offers and special rewards held out by traders and voyagers, they were sometimes
induced to take hold. Work, however, was highly distasteful to them and only the slightest provocation was
required to induce them to resume their former idle and vicious habits.

AFRICA.
A fashionable and luxurious means of travel in Africa in early days, a rude palanquin or hammock swung on poles,
protected by a linen canopy.
In the wilds of the dark continent a split
stick holds the letter of the savage mail car-
rier. In time we shall find him with a mail
pouch astride a mule, the forerunner of the
railway and postal car.
Natives of Central Africa laden with merchandise.



AFRICA.
The w
arcanoes of the savages living on the coast and borders of the great rivers in Africa are carved or burned
out of a single tree. These vessels are sometimes eighty feet long and carry as
high as one hundred and twenty-five paddlers and warriors.
Natives carrying a section of a boat from one stream to another.

AFRICA.
South African slave gang.
The tribute of a defeated king.
An Ashantee mother and son. The king of Ashantee has, it is said, three thousand three hundred wives. is not a secure harbor, and goods are moved from the vessels to lighters,
Polygamy is generally practiced throughout Africa, as it is among all savage peoples. and from the lighters to land, on the heads of the natives.



AFRICA.
An armed messenger.
Carriage in the Ashantee country, West Africa.
A spirited scene.
Nº.
º
S$
º
Sº
º
Kaffre mail carrier. The Kaffres are said to be able to walk
fifty or sixty miles a day. They are a semi-nomadic
people, brave, warlike and hospitable.



AFRICA,
Attendants on a native medicine man of Central Africa.
The latter is a personage of great importance,
A chain gang in East Africa carrying merchandise,
Kaffres carrying goods from a vessel at Port Elizabeth on
Ivory carrier of South Africa. Algoa bay, South Africa




AFRICA.
Swazi carriers, belonging to a warlike tribe or Kaffraria.
Southeastern Africa.
slave carriers on the Zambesi river, Southeastern Africa.
Native of the Mozambique coast near the mouth of the
Zambesi river, carrying a basket of shells. These people are
diligent cultivators of the soil and, having learned the value
of manure, gather and burn the ancient sea shells which are
found in great beds at some distance inland, relics of past
geological changes.
Afri Fingo laborer at Port Elizabeth, South
frica, wading through the surf from the
boat to shore with a bale of goods.




AFRICA.
--- An incident of war. Natives of the Soudan leaving their
Yoº- homes for a place of safety.
A woman of Zambesia. A short stick is inserted into the top-
knot which serves as a support for the water pot or burden to be
carried on the head. The Africans, like all people with robust
necks and bodies, like to carry their burdens on their heads. -
Females of Cape Coast Castle. These
women are said to be able to carry fifty
pounds twenty miles in a day.
Carriers of the Fanti tribe at Cape Coast Castle, West Africa.




AFRICA.
Crossing a river in Ashantee, West Africa.
A Senegambian porter. Some fifteen classes or tribes of the negro
race inhabit Senegambia, West Africa, differing much in character and
habits. The majority of them, however, are Mohammedan fetichists
—worshipers of material things.
Market scene in Ujiji, Central Africa. This town is a center of the trade in ivory and was
formerly a great slave market.



AFRICA
A hunter of Daka, South Africa. His arrows are
carried in a skin sack hung from his shoulders. He
is also supplied with spears, in the use of which he
is proficient.
Natives of Central Africa. The women, it will be observed, have a peculiar way of slinging their
babies on the lower part of their backs.
On the gold coast of West Africa. Here
the natives live in mud huts with
thatched roofs. Native carriers of East Africa bringing merchandise to land.




AFRICA.
Two sturdy market women of Sierra Leone, West Africa.
Native water carrier of the Soudan (the country of the blacks),
south of the Great Desert.
A carrier of Delagoa bay, East Africa.
The king-on a journey.




AFRICA.
Primitive canoe on the coast of Cape Verde, the westernmost point of Africa.
A native of the west coast.
Method of supplying water to the town of Cape Coast Castle at one time. The water was distilled
salt water from ponds several miles from the town.



AFRICA.
=-
º -
* M'ſ
- º
Primitive form of carriage on the Pra river, West Africa.
Embarkation at Cape Coast Castle, West Africa.
On Lake Tanganyika, Central Africa.




AFRICA.
Vessel formerly used in the East African slave trade.
Section showing the manner of stowing
the slaves on board.
The dhow, a coasting vessel of East Africa. Its peculiar features are a long
beak and largestern. It was much used in the
transportation of slaves.
Royal progress of the king of Shark's Point on the Congo river, West Africa
An African canoe.




AFRICA.
A hospital surfboat on the west coast.
sº
~~ -
==A=> Rº: & - -
º : 3A. yº -- * @ - º
º -T-
º
/*
ſºlº º
Primitive boat on the Pra river in the vicinity of the gold coast
Boat used to tranship goods off Cape Coast Castle.
C: the Shire river, on the coast of Africa.









AFRICA.
% ºf
º ſº,
% º
º
2%.
Zºº: Ž 2^ - - *
º *
Climbing a rugged acclivity in Natal, South Africa.
Travel in the Zambesi valley, South Africa. The vegetation in this valley sometimes
reaches a height of twelve feet.
En route to the Transvaal gold fields in South Africa. The Transvaal is described as the “paradise of hunters.”













AFRICA. º
- º Cameron's pontoon.
On the way to the Transvaal gold fields. This section was first settled by the Boers who immigrated from
Cape Colony in the early part of the present century
ºr:
ſº ſº
A spirited scene in South Africa.



AFRICA.
In Angola, West Africa. Horses cannot live in this district on
account of a poisonous fly called the tsetse,
Natal. A feature of its cattle is their long horns. Until recently goods were
conveyed in ox wagons. Now railways traverse the country.
Features of carriage in Natal.



AFRICA.
Transporting goods in Central Africa.
This form of carriage is employed in the United States and elsewhere,
as well as in Africa, for moving hogsheads of
tobacco and kindred products.
A postal station on the mail route from the city of Cape Town, South Africa
-
Kaffre trader. These people are somewhat like the Europeans in their
features but are woolly haired and their skin
is almost black.




AFRICA.
A carrier in Southwest Africa.
Wagon of the Boers in Kaffraria, South Africa. The Dutch Boers settled
there in A. D. 1652, and through them the country
has greatly prospered.
Manner in which the Kaffres carried their dead and
wounded on pack bullocks during one of
their wars in South Africa.
In the Congo country, West Africa.




AFRICA.
Abyssinian water carriers. The women of Abyssinia are
exceedingly attractive and much given to
coquetry, it is said.
In Abyssinia. Abyssinia is an independent kingdom in the northeastern part of Africa,
bordering on the Red Sea. It is one of the most ancient monarchies in the world. According
to the claims of its people, the Queen of Sheba who visited King Solomon was a monarch of
that country. The inhabitants of Abyssinia are, in the main, Caucasians. Their features
much resemble the Bedouins of Arabia. Their skin is of a dark olive color, almost black.
They are generally well formed and handsome, with lively eyes and long hair. They are light
hearted and fond of indulgencies. They are much given to wars and have little regard for
human life.
Abyssinian women.



AFRICA,
Picturesque scene in Abyssinia.
An Abyssinian ferry.
Forms of carriage in Abyssinia.



AFRICA.
A richly decorated Abyssinian carrier
An Abyssinian
soldier.
Crossing a river in Abyssinia



Afghamistam.
FGHANISTAN comprises the mountainous re-
§. between Northwestern India and Eastern
ersia, its extreme dimensions being about six
hundred miles north and south and a like dis-
tance east and west. The roads are few and
poorly maintained as in all semi-civilized coun-
tries. The precursor of the public highway, the
primitive path, is the chief avenue of commerce.
Along its narrow way commerce drifts through the valleys and in and
out among the gorges and mountain passes. The country is rugged
and mountainous. Its population is divided into settled communities
and tent dwellers or semi-nomadics. The great wealth of the latter
consists of herds. While Afghanistan has a central ruler, the commu-
nity is made up of tribes and clans as in the early ages of a people's
development. The Afghans have fine physiques and are said to be
extremely vain of their history, persons and acquirements. They
possess the cruelty and love of bloodshed so characteristic of all semi-
savage people. The Afghan is said to be a “bird of prey,” and while
e
he may not himself rob his guest, will quite likely suggest it to others.
The camel is the principal carrier of Afghanistan. It is more rugged
than that of India. The horses of the country are small. Many,
however, are raised for export. In the wars of Afghanistan with
India the Indian elephant has been an important adjunct. Some of
the accompanying illustrations are connected with these wars. The
humpback ox of India is also frequently to be met with in Afghanistan.
The chief reliance of the country, however, is the Arabian (single
hump) camel. As there are no great lakes or water courses in
Afghanistan, primitive water crafts are few and meager in design.
In the mountain streams the raft borne by inflated skins is still to be
met with. Indeed, it may be possible that here is where it came from
in the first place. The people of Afghanistan believe that man origi:
nated in their country and it has been claimed to have been the original
home of the Aryan race. Afghanistan has an area of about two
hundred and twenty-five thousand square miles and a population esti-
mated at five millions.

AFGHANISTAN.
ºnºſº
º
º
A comely group of Afghanistan burden bearers.
A stranger in the country. In one of the wars of Afghanistan
with India it was the province of this particular elephant to act as
scavenger in the removal of dead camels and other animals that
accumulated on the battlefield and about the army.



AFGHANISTAN.
Utilization of the elephant in modern war.
A war transport.
A great draft animal.


AFGHANISTAN.
An awkward team.
Nomads of Afghanistan.
of Afghanistan have kept that country and surrounding nations
in alarm from the earliest historical times.
The roving instincts and predatory raids of the inhabitants
\
º º
wºwn W
ºw-wºwº-
An Afghan soldier.





AFGHANISTAN.
Travelers leaving Candahar.
ſº
º *
---
Merchandise carriers. No road is too rough for these hardy
carriers, no mountain too rugged.
A bactrian (two-hump) camel. These animals are used,
but are not native to the country.






AFGHANISTAN.
Žº
§ º,
º
A quiet view near Quetta.
This spirited animal is modeled behind after
the so-called English hack.
An ambulance.
Passenger conveyances.





AFGHANISTAN.
Afghan carriers and robbers—more particularly
the latter.
An Afghan “sister of mercy.”
A great dooly race in Jelalab
ad. The dooly is a light conveyance made of cane and bamboo, used for
carrying passengers, baggage, invalids, etc.



AFGHANISTAN. <s
Raft on the river at Jelalabad, made of inflated skins covered with light boards. -
Carriage of the mails. Where the route is a long one, relays of horses
are provided. If necessary, an escort also accompanies the carrier.
In Cabul, the capital of Afghanistan.
Crossing the Cabul river on a raft of inflated skins. This is a fine illustration of these ratts.



AFGHANISTAN.
* -
-
sº
---
An artillery train.
There are but few highways in Afghanistan where this equipage or rate of speed would be possible.
This odd team harmonizes with the varied methods of Afghanistan.
s - U. - - - - - º
& NººSºº
º
- º "W N/ Nº.
r 2-
- º
wº -
r
A dawk gharry, or post wagon, of bamboo (without springs) in Candahar.








Algeria.
LGERIA was known to the ancients as Numidia,
famed for its magnificent horsemen, the stay and
flower of Hannibal's army in his invasion of
Spain and Italy. The Algerian horses are still
noted for their beauty, spirit and vigor. Methods
of carriage are hi § picturesque and exceed-
ingly primitive. #. beings, however, bear,
largely, its burdens, as they do wherever man-
kind are industrious and vigorous. The camel and mule are prime
factors. The strength and adaptability of the latter make it useful
here as elsewhere. The camel is indispensable. It is said the Great
Desert of Sahara was never traversed by man until the Arabs intro-
duced the camel into Algeria. It is now domesticated and a dominant
factor. The history of Algeria for the last twenty-five hundred years
is well known. Yet, notwithstanding this long period and the close
proximity of the country to the high civilization of Europe, it still
retains largely the customs of the earlier historical period. It affords
a fine field for studying the genesis of transportation and the habits of
primitive people. Its mixed population of Berbers, Numidians, Sara-
cens, Jews, Caucasians and Negroes presents a varied and indescrib-
able panorama of the human race hardly to be found in any other
quarter of the world. Algeria is a French colony in the north of
Africa bordering on the Mediterranean Sea, having an estimated area
of about one hundred eighty-four and a half thousand square miles,
and a population of about four millions. The native inhabitants are
non-nomadic and, in the main, agriculturists. The active construc-
tion of railroads is encouraged, both for military and commercial
1°CaSOIlS.

ALGERIA.
WN
\\
T
\tº Twº
| -- º -
º
-
º
Sº
sº
º -
- &º -
ºv
º
gº
Caravan crossing the Great Desert of Sahara.
En route to the Soudan. This interesting country lies across the face of
Africa immediately south of the Great Desert.


ALGERIA.
Freight carriers at rest in the desert.
- § § Y º
---
ſº
º -
º
Mº
º
ºf E.
Primitive carrier with tent devised for the better protection of passengers.
A load of halfa grass from the great plateau of Algeria.
















ALGERIA.
Resting in the city of Algiers before starting on the homeward journey
º
2- gº
7 * ~
A wide-awake farmer.
The palanquin as a method of carriage in Algeria.



ALGERIA.
Street scene in Oran, Algeria.
Camels slaking their thirst after traversing the great Desert of Sahara.
On the way to market in the city of Algiers.



ALGERIA.
Tightening up the straps preparatory to a start
Returning from market after a successful day
An Arab falconer of Algiers. Falconry was for ages one of the principal
*Pºrts of the world. It was known in China two thousand years before the
Christian era, and in Japan at least six hundred years B. C. Egyptian carv-
ºngs show that it was known in Africa many ages ago. It is still practiced in
that country



ALGERIA.
A limited express in the interior of Algeria. The attendant
would be termed in railway vernacular "a pusher."
A native soldier in the service of France.
An Algerian courier.



ALGERIA.
º
2.
Ø =Sº
=s -
º
===s
A native on the way to Fort Napoleon, Kabylia.
The water jug is shaped so it may be stuck into the
girdle of the carrier, as shown in the illustration. The
men of this section shave their heads with the excep-
tion of one long tuft of hair, which it is believed the
angel of the resurrection will take hold of after death
and hoist them into heaven.
Supplying water in Algiers. Numerous fountains in the city afford an abundant supply from reservoirs above the town.
It is distributed largely by men and women as in olden times.





Arabia.
RABIA is associated in our minds with enchant-
ment, romantic creations, golden dreams. It is
still unknown. From thence came the three wise
men of the East. It is the sanctuary of Mos-
lemism, the birthplace of Mohammed, the haunt
of the Bedouin and robber, the home of the camel,
the breeding place of incomparable horses, a
region of fertile plains, barren rocks and burnin
sands. There the Caliphs reigned; there the patriarchal state still
exists. The centuries that have come and gone have here passed
unnoticed. Its ways are still the ways of Abraham. Its methods of
carriage are altogether primitive. The camel is an indispensable fac-
tor. Of this animal there are many varieties. That which is most
highly esteemed, however, is the dromedary. Strong, docile and fleet
of foot, it is used mainly for carrying passengers. he common
camel, slower and less tractable, is used for transporting goods. The
flesh of the camel is used for food as we use beef. #: milk is also
highly esteemed. The Arabian camel, so-called, has only one hump.
This increases or diminishes in size according to the condition of the
animal. A halter is the only rein used. This is often dispensed with
by the driver, who directs the animal with his feet or by a blow on
the neck with the stick he carries. A good dromedary will travel
between five and six miles an hour for fifteen hours out of twenty-four
for a week at a time. Six days in summer and ten in winter form
Singularly
The ass, however, is
the longest period he can thus continue without water.
enough, the mule is in disfavor in Arabia.
highly prized and grows to a great size, and vies with the horse in
speed and endurance. It is still found here in a wild state as in the
days of Xenophon, 400 B.C. The horse is the animal par excellence
of Arabia. It is claimed to be indigenous. However that may be, it
here attains its greatest beauty. It is perfect in form and docility and
exceeds all other horses in the world in endurance. Horses are never
tied by the neck or head in Arabia, but picketed with a rope by the
foot. Oxen are much used for tillage purposes and carriage in the
fixed settlements of the country. Two-thirds of Arabia is made up of
desert wastes and barren rocks. The carriers of this inhospitable
region are Bedouins (nomads of the desert, tent-dwellers), roaming
shepherds and herdsmen—always robbers. The peninsula of Arabia
lies in the extreme southwestern part of Asia and is encompassed on
three sides by the sea. It is about thirteen hundred miles in length,
and has an average breadth about half as great. Its area is about
nine hundred twenty thousand square miles. Taken as a whole, the
country may be said to be a sun-burnt desert, with here and there
spots of arable land seldom exceeding twenty miles in width. Arabia
has no large and scarcely any permanent rivers. Primitive methods
of carriage prevail for general as well as local traffic. The population
of Arabia is estimated to be between eight and nine millions.

ARABIA.
º
\\\ººl
NXºlº
º
A bridal Procession in Arabia.

ARABIA.
A mail carrier of the Syrian Desert.

ARABIA.
- - º -
- - º
An Arab of the desert at bay.
º
A scene in Aden. Waiting for the rest of the party.
An Arab merchant with his face toward Mecca, offering his early morning prayer
to Mohammed. He is kneeling on his praying carpet. without
which he never travels.

ARABIA.
º - Journeying to Mecca, the Holy City, situated about
- forty-five miles east of the Red Sea. The Bedouins about
the city derive their chief support from the subsidies and
gifts by which they are hired to protect or abstain from
robbing pilgrims.
On the road in Southern Arabia.
A fine steed.



ARABIA.
Caravan entering Aden. This city is one of the oldest in Arabia and has been known from
extreme antiquity. It is situated on the southwestern border of the country and
is now a coaling station for steamers between India and Suez.
A marauder of the desert.
An Aden water cart



ARABIA.
An Arab trader. The Arabs are especially alive to
the advantages of commerce and trade, and fond of ex-
ercising them. It is said that no Arab undertakes a
journey, if only from one village to another, without
taking with him some object for exchange or sale, and
he will sooner trade off the handkerchief on his head or
the camel which he rides than return without having
effected something.
Old representation of travel in Arabia.
A sprightly carrier.



ARABIA.
Pilgrim on the way to Mecca.
º
º
Arab in the desert preparing to meet an approaching foe. Traveling in the desert is usually
done in companies or caravans for better protection.
A Bedouin. He carries with him a lance, the weapon of the
Arab, in the use of which he shows great skill.



ARABIA.
Arab family crossing the desert.
Group of pilgrims en route to Mecca. It is estimated that sixty thousand
people, using twenty thousand camels, go to Mecca each year
to the birthplace of Mohammed, in Arabia Felix.
A gentleman of Aden attended by his slave. Slavery is a recognized institution of
Arabia. The slaves are chiefly obtained from the East African coast and are usually
employed as herdsmen, domestic servants or body guards. A slave who has accepted
Islam, the Mohammedan religion, at the end of seven years of bondage is enfranchised
according to Arab custom, and when given his liberty is also given means for support-
ing himself and a family comfortably.




ARABIA.
- ~
A donkey ride in Aden.
A desert robber. The sharp-pointed
lance which he carries he can throw with
unerring aim. The manner in which the
lance is carried or trailed indicates the
tribe of the owner.
This picture of carriage in Oman shows the intercommunication of methods between India and
Arabia. The vehicle with its driver and oxen might easily be mistaken for those of the former
country. There is nothing primitive about the establishment or driver except from the standpoint
of the western world.




ARABIA.
... ', ºr
º:ºº º ==
Hºrtº iſſijl
* = \{#######iiriifºliº
-
- == === - - - - --- =
- –- - --~ –
- ==E=- ºr E
--- --- == - --
Freight transport off the coast of Arabia. The bow of the boat is two stories high and used
for living quarters by the crew, the cargo being carried in the center of the vessel. Arabia
possesses neither warships nor commercial vessels. The tastes of the community do not run
in such directions. Moreover, none of the various governments, big and little, that dominate
the different sections of the country, have means or facilities for such ventures
- - = ºs- º ==
== -
--
º s - A s -
Off the Arabian coast. The vessel is a clumsy affair, wide at the stern and sitting deep in the water.
Considerable speed is developed, however, as it is made to carry a large spread of canvas.











Australasia.
HE widely separated islands constituting Austral-
asia form a part of what is known as Oceanica.
The aborigines were savage blacks. Because
of their dark skin the territory has sometimes
been called Melanesia. It comprises the islands
between Malaysia and Polynesia, namely, Aus-
tralia, New Zealand, New Guinea, The Fijis,
New Britain,Tasmania, etc. When discovered
by white men no progress toward civilization had been made by the
aborigines. A desire to possess property, the first indication of enlight-
enment, a cracking of the shell of savagery, they lacked. They were
not familiar with agriculture, and the dog was the only domestic ani-
mal the ºf" They had in general no settled dwellings, but
lived in hovels. Their water craft were rude rafts or dug-outs, canoes
hollowed out of logs; those intended for war purposes, however, were
frequently of enormous size, in some instances being ninety feet long
and carrying one hundred and fifty men. Men and women, especially
the latter, bore all the burdens of transportation. But there was little
of the latter. Men looked for their food from day to day as do ani-
mals, giving little or no intelligent thought for the morrow. These
primitive conditions still exist in the unexplored or little frequented
parts of the territory. Like all savages, the men are lazy, idle and
quarrelsome. They do the fighting. The women do all the useful
work, bear all the drudgery of life. Foreigners have introduced im-
proved water craft, and on the larger islands, domestic animals. In
Australia the camel is found to thrive and to be especially useful in
traversing the vast wastes of the interior. The first account we have
of this great island, the largest in the group, and, indeed, the greatest
in the world, is in 1598. It might more properly be called a continent.
It is 2,500 miles from east to west and 1,950 miles in breadth, contain-
ing some 3,000,000 square miles. Its population is in the neighbor-
hood of 3,000,000. The territory is situated in the eastern part
of the Indian Ocean and bounded on the east by the South Pacific.
It is supposed that the island was at a comparatively recent date the
bed of an ocean. In its eastern part there is a range of mountains
some 1,700 miles long and averaging 1,500 feet in height. Its center
or interior is a vast incognito, a great desert of waste land without
water or rainfall. The construction of railroads is actively encouraged
by the government of Australia. The island is a colony of Great
Britain, as is also New Zealand. The last named consists of what
are called the North and South Islands. The islands of New Zealand
have an area of about 105,000 square miles and a population of
nearly 700,000. The natives are divided into tribes as are all savages
at a certain period of evolution, their social progress being indicated
by the nature of their tribal relations. Progress from savagery, it is to
be noted, is always the same if left to natural causes. The aborigines
of Australasia had no written laws, but in some instances customs
which they adhered to in a general way. . In some cases particular
tribes had fixed locations. This may be said to be a distinction which
usually exists between a tribe and a horde. Respect and obedience
were accorded the chief of the tribe. Their rule, however, was, in
the main, based on personal prowess. Some progress has been made
in New Guinea in the construction of railroads. This island is, next
to Australia, the largest in the world. It has a length of 1,500 miles
east and west and is 30 to 400 miles from north to south. Its area is
estimated at from 200,000 to 300,000 square miles. Little, however, is
known of its interior. The population consists of tribes with cannibalis-
tic tendencies. This last peculiarity characterized the savages in the
entire group at one time, as indeed it does all savages at a certain period
of evolution. The primitive savages of the Fiji Islands are in some re-
spects the most interesting of the group. About eighty of these islands,
out of the two hundred and fifty, have been found to be inhabited.
Inter-communication is, however, exceedingly dangerous. But the
natives are as much at home in the water as on the land. They are
one and all pronounced cannibals, and, despite the efforts of mission-
aries and others, cling with more or less tenacity to their old habits and
appetites. Following the practices of the savages of whom we have
account in Eastern Europe and Western Asia in early days, widows
are put to death on the demise of their husbands, and servants killed
when their master dies. These practices tend to make wives careful
of their husbands, servants regardful of their masters. The Fijis are
said to be sensitive, proud and cleanly; also hospitable and polite.
These charming qualities are, however, doubtless only relative; to be
viewed merely É. the standpoint of the savage who breakfasts on
his guest and dines off his enemy.

AUSTRALASIA.
2 §
\
\\
\ \ º N
º,
N
An aborigine of Australia. The account says that these women
carried on their back, outside their rug, a basket made of a tough
kind of rush, occasionally ornamented with stitches of various
kinds. They also carried in the same way a bag formed of the
tough inner bark of the acacia tree. Failing to procure this bark,
which was the best for the purpose, they used the bark of the mess-
mate or the stringy-bark tree. This was spun into cord and knitted
with the fingers into the required shape. The capacity of these
baskets was from two to three gallons each, and in them were
carried food, sticks and tinder for producing fire, gum for cement,
shells, tools, charms, etc.
N
Australian aborigines. Like all savage mothers, she carries her child
upon her back. While the practice is general, the manner of applying it
varies, as pointed out elsewhere, with different tribes and peoples. In this
case the child is held in a loop of the blanket, the blanket itself being kept
in place by a thong across the mother's shoulders.


AUSTRALASIA. *
A New Zealand war canoe.
C
~£2׺a
Pºž
New Guinea fishing boat, made of a tree hollowed out by fire. Double outriggers keep
it from tipping over. A large basket made of withes is carried in the boat to hold the fish.
The natives wear no clothing and their chief is distinguished by a necklace of shells. The
above is undoubtedly the first form of boat ever devised.
This illustration represents an exceedingly primitive form of water craft.



AUSTRALASIA.
Natives of the Gambier Islands. The raft will carry twenty persons, and has
a peculiar sail constructed of matting. Long poles are the
only weapons of these primitive savages.
New Guinea craft. The sail is woven by the natives.
Water craft of New Guinea. The canoe is sixty feet long, on which
rests a platform twenty feet wide. A strong cane house is built on this
platform, the roof constituting an upper deck. The sails are made of mats
spread between bamboo masts.



AUSTRALASIA.
Canoe in the Fiji Islands. The hull is double and the sail
made of matting.
- - L-
On the Teremakau River, in the western part of New Zealand.
- The raft is made of flax flower stalks about thirteen feet long, tied
- -º-º: - *- º - - -: - - -
together in bundles with flax, making a cigar shaped raft. These
Maori chief standing beside a New Zealand war canoe. In physical and flower stalks are porous like a cork, and three layers of them, as
mental qualities the Maori people are as fine a race of aborigines as any the shown in cut, will stand out of the water prominently.
Anglo-Saxons have found. The men are muscular and courageous and pos-
sess great endurance The women are small ; they do all the field work and
appear old at the age of forty.
In New Guinea. The island is inhabited by wild, barbarous people, some of whom are cannibals. Their weapons are
spears and arrows pointed with stones, and their only tool is a stone hatchet.





AUSTRALASIA.
In New South Wales, Australia. Canoes for inland waters are constructed
of bent bark and hastily prepared at need. For the sea coast
larger craft are constructed. Rafts are also used.
Canoe of the aborigines of New Britain. It is made of a hollow
log. The outrigger running across the canoe may be utilized as a seat
by the crew and at the same time makes a safe water craft of a boat
that would otherwise be easily overturned.
A South Sea Island craft,
º
CŞūtūtū
--- -
The above picture of carriage in Australia in early days also illustrates in a general way methods of
frontier life in many parts of North and South America.
º
- Laº
Sº, ºg
-
[-
- Nº. º ºf Sº
F-
- º
- ** –- Tº --
Freight traffic in Queensland, Australia.






AUSTRALASIA.
Native letter carrier of Queensland, Australia.
Manner of conveying the body of a New Zealand
prince to the funeral service. The best clothes of the
deceased are put upon the corpse. The legs are bent
and fastened close to the body, which is seated in a
chair-like frame, as shown above.
A Maori woman and child of New Zealand
Carriage of the dead by Australian aborigines. The
skin of the corpse is stripped off, dried and preserved,
while the body is packed, as shown in the cut, and borne
to the funeral pile and burned.




Austria-Hungaru.
N countries where a high civilization exists, as in
Austria-Hungary, primitive forms of carriage
due to the earlier conceptions and needs of men
are only to be met with in unfrequented spots
where the sunlight of prosperity does not shine,
or shines but faintly. Only research will bring
to light these long forgotten methods. They
are always interesting when found, because of
their quaintness and the angularity of thought and condition they
suggest. Frequently, however, they are rather odd than primitive.
arriage is very much the same in Austria-Hungary as in Germany.
No form is too rude or too simple, if it answers the purpose of saving.
Even the pig is, on occasion, made to do duty. The dog is a factor,
and with his master or mistress helps to draw the products of the
country to market. The ox, mule and horse, the great primitive
agents of civilization in all ages, do duty here as dº under like
circumstances. Many of the forms of carriage portrayed, while primi-
tive, are also stable. The Austro-Hungarian empire is in Central
Europe, and has an area of nearly two hundred and fifty thousand
square miles. Its population is about forty-two millions. It abounds
in picturesque scenery and contains numerous large rivers, the most
important of which is the Danube. On account º its inland position
and limited sea coast, the empire is not favorably situated for com-
merce. This obstacle is being rapidly overcome, however, by the
general introduction of railways.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
Tyrolean peasant coming down the mountain from his work.
Carriage early in the present century.


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
Carriage in Trieste on the Adriatic Sea.
A Herzegovinian.
A Viennese carter.
Gypsies on the road.



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
A Viennese gardener.
A cheese peddler in the Tyrol.
A heavy load for so light a team.
Going to Vienna to market




AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
On the Danube.
This picture represents the disposition of man to utilize
for purposes of carriage such means as are most convenient
and economical to him. Why should not the hog be utilized
to pull a load as well as the ox, dog or goat 2
A Herzegovinian carrier.
The method of towing here presented suggests a canal rather than the beautiful blue Danube.



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
Imperial mail carrier of Austria, A. D. 1450
-
Coming down the mountains to market.
º
%| | l
Ø |º
º º
ºiſillllllll
ºlº
†Nº. == -
|||||
A bird peddler of the eighteenth century.












AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
In the Alps.
|
\!
~~~-Ø4
·
|||||||||
----
Tyrolese smugglers of olden time.



Iſ
HE same evolution in carriage has occurred in
Ä the British Isles as elsewhere, but evidences of
the fact are not so plentiful. Old methods have
given place to those that are new. A country so
rich, progressive and enterprising turns instinct-
ively to appliances of the highest utility. While
it may treasure things that are old because of
associations or esthetic tastes, in matters con-
nected with the humdrum affairs of life it has no sentiment. Utility
governs in everything. The thrift and practical good sense of the
people of the British Isles, in the long ages of comparative peace that
have blessed them, have had full headway. In matters of carriage the
comparative level of the country renders the general use of vehicles
practicable so that such a thing as a pack-horse is not known at the
present day, though they were common enough in the middle ages.
Because of this we must not look to the British Isles for anythin
quaint in the way of transportation. One little city in Mexico .#
furnish the curious street observer with more picturesque specimens of
carriage than London. The vehicles of Great Britain and the draft
horses partake of the sturdiness of the British character. The great
lumbering, mammoth, shorthorn ox, so popular in England, enjoys no
such popularity elsewhere: other people want something more
33ritish isles.
sprightly, something that can get along faster and that does not con-
sume so much. But this animal just suits an Englishman. In every-
thing pertainingtotransportation the British are ahead of their neighbors
on the continent. Their roads are better, there are more of them, their
vehicles are better, their horses are better, their railways are better,
their facilities generally are better. They were better two hundred
years ago. The prosperity of the British Isles lies along common-sense
lines; is based on a regard for material things, the only real founda-
tion for prosperity. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
forms an archipelago of islands and rocks separated from the western
shores of Central Europe by the North Sea, the Strait of Dover and
the English Channel. The area of the United Kingdom is about one
hundred and twenty-one thousand square miles, and the population in
the neighborhood of thirty-eight millions. The British Empire is the
largest in the world and the most splendid ever known to man. It
extends into every zone and climate and includes about one-sixth of
the land of the globe. We have no knowledge of any people the
equal of the jº in the art of gº; in knowledge of good
government, in enforcement of necessary checks and safeguards, or
in power of personal self-restraint, without which good government
is impossible.

BRITISH ISLES.
An old picture of Queen Elizabeth on her way to the Hunsdon house.
the favorite means of carriage of the Chinese and
Japanese emperors in the middle ages.
This was
Carriage in Ireland one hundred years ago. The temperament of
the Irish people is generous and highly imaginative and poetical. The
most glaring contrasts exist between the Irishman and his English
brother. This dissimilarity has existed from the earliest times. Climate
and food have had much to do with it, for when they come to the United
States the difference disappears and one cannot be distinguished from
the other. They both become Americans—and the best of citizens.


BRITISH ISLES.
A pair of carriers.
A single carrier.
A group of carriers on Hampstead Heath.



BRITISH ISLES.
- -
Gathering seaweed on the coast
º
sº
- V.
Costermonger's cart, eighteenth century.
º
ºz-z- - 2-&Y. A --- º
º:-------- -*º 22, 2. %.º.º. \ º º
--- * > *-*. --~~~~ º --- -º-º:
º
* --- ---
In the Highlands of Scotland.
-º-
of the Channel Islands.
Going to market in Connemara, Ireland.











BRITISH ISLES. N
A low back Irish car.
A market scene.
Distributing water in the suburbs of London.
In the Island of Jersey.




BRITISH ISLES,
In rural England
Yarmouth cart.
One hundred years ago.
Going to town.




BRITISH ISLES.
An ancient Welsh cart.
º …
- º |º OMNI
- nº 2 -s º "Iſ
[[Iſſſſſſſſſſſſſ
ſ -
l H
-- -- -
The first English omnibus, 1829.
An outside jaunting car.
lº. - -T |||
Hºjº
An inside jaunting car.
`---
Stage wagon of the time of George III., 1808.











BRITISH ISLES.
A desire for something lighter than the
coach resulted in the sedan
cart, shown above.
State carriage in England in the time of Queen Anne. Great
stateliness was observed at this period
The form of rack for baggage on the rear
of this vehicle was introduced in 1616. In the
early part of the seventeenth century coaches
came into general use among the nobility and
gentry of London, much to the disgust of the
watermen.
Travel by stage coach in the eighteenth century.
Carriage of the time of Queen Elizabeth, 1558–1603.





BRITISH ISLES.
Vehicle of the time of George II., 1760.
º
º ºr=== -
Sºº-ºº: º º:
-- - ---
Gipsy house and wagon. This i
his house and wagon date
nstinct of the nomad to combine
s back of the historic period.
Vehicle
of the Lord Chancellor of Ireland, 1780.



BRITISH ISLES.
Carriage in the seventeenth century, at which time
sedans were introduced in England.
Vehicle of the time of Charles II., 1660.
º º
Vehicle of the time of Charles I., 1625.
Vehicle of the time of George III., 1790.






BRITISH ISLES.
“Charlotte Dundas,” the first steamboat launched by William
Symmington, 1801.
English man-of-war of the sixteenth century.
English man-of-war of the sixteenth century.



BRITISH ISLES.
English ship, 1482

BRITISH ISLES.
A coracle, or primitive boat used in Wales in ancient times. The
frame is of basket work, over which tarpaulin, leather orother water-
proof covering is tightly stretched. This is one of the most primitive
methods of boat building.
&
- -
- - - - -
--- ºr-
Zºº
-
English state barge of the time of James I. 1603-1625
A state barge of fifty years ago.






BRITISH ISLES.
Crossing a river in Scotland.
On the Thames river.
*N
§
NSA
º
T.
º WW->
- C. --~~
|- - -
On the canal



BRITISH ISLES.
This form of carriage,
while not primitive, is unique. It serves also to call to mind Renforth, the great English
champion, who died in his boat at the end of a successful race.
A voyage from Westminster to Greenwich.
Ice boat on Loch Cobbinshaw, Scotland.



BRITISH ISLES.
Moving a tree in Regent's Park.
An ideal four-in-hand.
This picture represents a woman pulling a box of coal to the
mouth of the pit, crawling on her hands and knees through the
narrow passage of the mine – a cruel form of labor for women.
abandoned early in the century.
-º-º:
----- -
ºr-- * , , * . º
|Mºººº.
| * -
º |. - |º Wu | -
º
|
º
- - - º gº º
-- | T
ºr
T.
L º -
º º
|- --
Pushing and pulling a coal wagon in a mine, in the early part of the century.
*- s
"...ºf º
"...fºllº -
|^T
Tº |
º
*||










Hºurmah and Siam.
N the great forests of Burmah the rhinoceros,
tiger, leopard and elephant abound. The elephant
is captured and tamed very much as the wild horse
of South America is caught and domesticated,
except that a corral instead of a lasso is used.
The people of Burmah are Buddhists with Mon-
golian characteristics. Their color is dark brown.
Agriculturists, they are said to raise one hundred
different kinds of rice. It is indigenous, as is also indigo. For draft
animals they use the ox; for agriculture the buffalo. They have a
small horse for riding. Formerly elephants were reserved exclusively
for the king. This restriction no longer exists. The camel is unknown
in Burmah, and the ass rare. Until recently Burmah was an intoler-
able despotism. This the British in absorbing the country have ha
pily overthrown. The habits of the people are primitive, notwith-
standing the great age of the country. Trade is fostered by fairs in
connection with religious festivals as in the first dawn of history in
the west. The vehicles on both land and water are ingenious and
É. In the upper country pack animals are much used.
urmah and Siam lie side by side in the extreme southeastern corner
of Asia.
Siam is an independent monarchy, or at least nominally so.
With France pressing on one side and England on the other its inde-
pendence is oftentimes little more than nominal. While Burmah and
Siam are very much alike the latter is the more interesting. It is more
enlightened, the result of greater freedom. In the north of Siam
vast caravans traverse the country in the trade carried on with south-
western China. A picturesque feature of the middle and southern
country is the elephants that are kept in villages for hire, very much
as we keep horses. The people of Siam are of mixed race, hospitable,
mild, patient, submissive and easy-going. They are, withal, musical.
In their religion they are Buddhists, but it is mixed up with a belief in
uncanny spirits, divination, propitiation, trial by ordeal, magic and
other delusions of savage and semi-civilized people. The climate of
Siam, like that of Burmah, is tropical and the products such as tropical
regions produce. In no country is primitive carriage more picturesque
or the inhabitants more interesting. Their olive complexions and
esthetic costumes make the picture a harmonious one to the º: of
the north. The area of Burmah is about two hundred and eleven
thousand square miles and its population is estimated at nearly eight
millions. #. area of Siam is approximately two hundred and fifty
thousand square miles and its population about six millions.

BURMAH AND SIAM.
-
ſ
|
Bamboo raft on the Irrawaddy river at Rangoon, Burmah.
A royal coach and four.


BURMAH AND SIAM.
Pushing timber into place-
The use of the elephant in Rangoon. Burmah. The elephant displays the
intelligence of human beings in the work allotted to him. Thus-he will classify
and pile lumber. This and the accompanying pictures show the method of
handling timber by elephants on the banks of the river at Rangoon. The
above illustrates the manner of drawing timber to the pile.
Carrying timber.


Raising timber from the ground.
Raising timber to the pile.


BURMAH AND SIAM.
º
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.
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protects and secludes the rider.
Completing the work of piling.







BURMAH AND SIAM.
This elephant, belonging to the king of Siam, possesses the same title and
privileges as a nobleman of the fifth rank, and is given furnished
apartments and slaves in accordance with its title,
-º-º: º
-º-º-º-º-º/
- y º º
º - º º º |--
Burmese prince on a visit of state, accompanied by his wife.
Comical elephant steeple chase in Rangoon, Burmah.



BURMAH AND SIAM.
Bullock cart of natives of rank in Mandalay, Burmah.
Burmese traveling cart in Farther India.
Water cart on the Irrawaddy, British Burmah.



BURMAH AND SIAM.
A Mandalay, Burmah, hack.
Mº’ſ
/*/ -
º *Sº º N º/Aº.
º
A gentleman's spring cart.
| |
|
-- | | -
º º |
tº
º -
Carriage of a Buddhist ecclesiastical dignitary of Pong, the northernmost province of the Burmese dominions.
















BURMAH AND SIAM.
1.
1|||| |
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-
Ž 24-º
º
ºn tº -
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º
Burmese cart.
Farm cart. The solid wheels are similar to those of many primitive vehicles
of other countries, but the construction of the platforms and racks of
Burmese carts is a feature belonging entirely to that people.
A Burmese cart with bells attached, forming part of a procession. The
Burmans have an excitable and impulsive disposition and are
much given to dramas, dances and shows of all kinds









BURMAH AND SIAM.
Burmese country cart near Mandalay.
º
A Burmese dignitary. To be protected by the shade of eight umbrellas is an emblem of royalty.
º/
nº-
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Burmese vehicle.






BURMAH AND SIAM.
Shans coming down from the mountains on their way to the city of Rangoon.
Pack ox with pad, on which is placed the burden
to be carried.
In the mountains of Burmah. Observe the paniers of wicker work and the pecular method
of fastening them to the back of the ox.



BURMAH AND SIAM.
.
An invalid in British Burmah on his way to the pagoda,
or temple of idols, to offer prayer.
Carrying the royal mail from steamers to the town of Thayetmayo, Burmah.
… Zºº,
Ž% º
º
º
The Shans, who inhabit Upper Burmah, are said to have lived there over two thousand years. In the fall they load their cattle
with produce, taking them to Lower Burmah, where they realize on the produce and also on the cattle.



BURMAH AND SIAM.
A form of passenger carriage in use at
Bangkok, Siam.
Natives crossing a river of Burmah carrying a disabled person. Various styles of doolies or palanquins are used in
Burmah, some made entirely of bamboo, others mounted on two wheels.
A native official traveling in state among the forests and hills of the Yaw country in Northwestern Burmah:



BURMAH AND SIAM.
An inhabitant of the Burmese Shan (or moun-
tain) states going to market.
Burmese burden bearers in the city of Mandalay.
Burmese women going to market with fruits.
The costume of the one in front with oranges is
such as is worn by an unmarried woman.
r
L.
º
º
Carriage in Bhamo, Burmah, a town inhabited
by Chinese and Shans.




BURMAH AND SIAM.
ſº
ſ Wººl
A Bangkok, Siam, water craft.
º
State targe of a king of Burmah.
\
º
**.
§§º º §: º: º: :
º º Sº tºº.
º
º º
T- - º
This highly ornamented barge, with forty rowers on each side, was used by the king of Siam forty years ago.









BURMAH AND SIAM.
ºf - - - -
- ---. *...* ---.
º º º º $3. º º:
ºº: -
º,
--- ---
-º-º: -
State barge belonging to a king of Siam on the river at Bangkok. On both sides of the river at this point are
built eight or ten ranges or streets of wooden houses on rafts of bamboo fastened to piles driven into the bottom of
the river. These are occupied by tradesmen who display their wares on platforms in front of their houses, and the
purchasers move about the streets in canoes.
A state barge,
F-
º
-
A characteristic of the boats of Burmah is the number of oarsmen employed. The above is an illustration of a war boat, with standing
figures in each end which have assumed the Burmese posture denoting defiance.



BURMAH AND SIAM.
º
º
º * -
º ^
-
- ^
wº-
º
º, º º - - -
ºś:...º.º.
º - - - - ºfºº -
K- - -
--~- --~~
Siamese state barge.
Passing the rapids of the Sitang river, Burmah.
Burmese war boat. The lower part of the hull is made of the hollow
trunk of the thingan tree; the sides are built of planks.
Siamese water craft or dug-out.












BURMAH AND SIAM.
Siamese dug-out, showing method of rowing.
Unique means of getting on in Burmah.
E-z
== fºr-Tºº
º "La - - º º º
- --- ==== º-
- º ** ==
A freight boat.
- - *Roº. º º L7
A. - alº- º º w ºv
º gº ºf
º 27- - |
. º
[\ \º- -
- º M
*º-º-
Troops crossing a river in Upper Burmah.















(ſentral Asia.
ºSENTRAL ASIA has been the center of roman-
§ tic interest in all ages. From this neighborhood
º the Huns, marshalled by the great Tartar leader,
^ Attila, made their memorable raid into eastern
Europe in A. D. 451. It was at one time thought
to be the birth-place of the Aryan race. It is gen-
erally believed to be the original home of the
horse and the ass, two of nature's greatest gifts
to man; two of the greatest factors in the problem of transportation. The
camel and Thibetan ox (yak) are still found here in a wild state.
The region of Central Asia or Turkestan (as it is often called) lies
amidst gigantic mountain ranges without parallel in the world. A por-
tion of it occupies an elevation so high and cold, and withal so dry,
as to be uninhabitable. The plateau of Pamir has a mean elevation of
sixteen thousand feet: that of Thibet fifteen thousand feet. Turkestan
is aptly termed the backbone of Asia and the roof of the world. Its
eastern and western sides are bordered by vast steppes, and these in
turn by deserts still more vast. Its population is widely scattered and
made up partly of nomadic people, who take their flocks to the mountain
valleys in summer and return with them to the villages in the foothills
in winter. Methods of carriage in this inhospitable region are simple and
primitive, and well illustrated by the accompanying engravings. Here
the camel of the highlands differs from his fellows of the plains to the
west by taking on a heavy coat of wool as a protection against the high
winds and extreme cold. In the western part of the country horses
are highly bred; in the eastern section they are diminutive. The mule
is much used in the lower country. There are no railroads in Central
Asia if we except the Russian line that penetrates the Caucasus. The
area of Central Asia can not be defined within particular metes and
bounds as England or France can. Generally speaking it is the vast
and little known district lying south of Siberia, east of the Caspian Sea
and north of Persia and Kºś and embracing a portion of the
western part of the Chinese Empire. It comprises in the neighborhood
of two millions of square miles, with an estimated population of about
nine and a half millions.


CENTRAL ASIA.
A faithful carrier and fond mother.
º
º
- - º º
Bactrian (two-hump) transports of Turkestan,










CENTRAL ASIA.
Equipage passing over the quicksands in the desert of Central Asia, east and south of the Aral Sea.
This district is supposed to be the site of an ancient sea.
In Khiva.
Mail carriage in the Gobi Desert. Marco Polo, in the thirteenth cen-
tury, was the first European to describe this desert. He says: “You ride
some five days through the sands, finding none but bad and bitter water;
and then you come to a city called Lop at the edge of the desert. -
The length of the desert is so great that it would take a year and more to
ride from one end of it to the other. It is all composed of hills and valleys
of sand." The time required to cross the desert is thirty days



CENTRAL ASIA.
A bactrian carrier of the steppes.
A caravan of the desert.
Caravan resting at an oasis in the Gobi Desert. The caravan seasons are the months
of spring, early summer and late autumn. Friday is the favorite day for setting out, the
most auspicious hour being that immediately following noonday prayer. Traveling is done
during the early morning and evening hours, the caravans resting during the mid-day
heat. The average pace of a laden camel is said to be about two miles per hour.
A lone carrier of the steppes.



CENTRAL ASIA.
In Eastern Turkestan.
A family group of Tartars.
A Tartar family on the move.
A party of observation.




CENTRAL
In Chinese Tartary.
An arabas, or ladies' omnibus—a conveyance used in Eastern Turkestan, more
epecially between Kashgar and Yarkand, a distance of one hundred and twenty miles.
On the steppes of Khiva
In Chinese Turkestan.




CENTRAL ASIA.
The yak.
In the streets of Yarkand, Eastern Turkestan.
----
-
Yaks carrying merchandise.
Crossing a river in Turkestan with the aid of Thibetan oxen or yaks.




(ſeulom.
LACK people make up the natives of Ceylon. To
these add other and still blacker people from the
Indian Peninsula, who have gone to Ceylon to find
work in the tea fields, and you have a picture of
the great bulk of the population. The governing
class are Englishmen; their's the capital. It is an
exceedingly interesting country and takes on many
of the picturesque features of India, by whom it
was conquered fourteen hundred years ago. About that time (543
B. C.) an Indian prince crossed over from the mainland and the con;
quest of the aboriginal population of Ceylon followed. It was colonized
by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century. They Were afterward
driven out by the Dutch. The island is now in possession of the
British. Here again we come across the elephant and the humpback
ox of India. These two primitive carriers in themselves make the
picture attractive. The elephant is found in, his native state in the
almost impassable jungles of the interior. The great herds, that at
one time roamed through this district have been greatly diminished by
hunters. The elephant is royal game and the public only regrets that
the animal's intelligence is not sº to enable it to exterminate those
who assail it for sport merely. The pleasure of the sportsman in
pursuing his quarry is nothing to be compared with the wild delight
of the public when the quarry pursues the hunter. Another interest-
ing feature of Ceylon carriage is its quaint methods of water trans-
portation. The island inhabitants of the southeastern seas, including
those who inhabit the Malay Peninsula, have their own fashions in
water craft. These fashions, while interesting and quaint, would not
prove adequate in the case of people whose commercial interests were
great, or who were great travelers. They are ample, however, to meet
the simple wants of the South Sea Islanders. Ceylon is an island in the
Indian Ocean, about one hundred miles from the southern extremity
of India. It is two hundred and seventy-one miles in length, and its
greatest breadth one hundred and thirty-seven miles. Its area is about
twenty-four thousand square miles, and its population between three and
four millions. The active construction of railways is encouraged.

CEYLON.
Singhalese boat. The outrigger may be changed from one side of the
craft to the other as exigencies require.
Native craft of cocoanut wood. No nails are used in its construction.


CEYLON.
|-
- T-
޺ºlſ W.
- | W.
ºnwºº
ſ
- º
º º º º
| º º º º
º
º
º
Surf boat of Singhalese fishermen. When the outrigger is not heavy enough to
hold the boat down the weight of one or more of the crew is added to it.
h
*
Native water craft on the Colombo river.
E_E
Pearl fishing off Ceylon.












CEYLON.
º ---
º
- º º:
-
* * º *
- - -
º:
Elephant of Kandy, assisting in laying water pipes.
These pipes weighed about six hundred pounds each, and
were carried and placed in position by the elephant.
A stately carrier.
Captive elephant being led to water. The domesticated elephant delights in taming his wild
brother-on the ground, probably, that misery loves company.





CEYLON.
. Neºs §º-º - i.e.
wºº ºl-L-
- *º Yºyº
º & º
A country gentleman. He handles the reins himself while
a servant protects him from the sun.
A nobby turnout.
Tea cart. The oxen of Ceylon are small but hardy and capable
of drawing heavy loads.
Bullock race in Colombo. The cart is called a hackery, and is drawn by a zebu or Indian ox.





(Iſhima.
HEN, with advancing age, men grow cold and
calculating, they j. enter into new ven-
tures or seek to explore new fields. They
cling with stubborn tenacity to old habits, to
that with which they are familiar. On the
other hand, the young continually speculate
upon higher and better conditions and hail
every change as an advantage, without stop-
ping to scrutinize what is likely to follow in its train. The old man
is in the main right. Experience has made him wise. Of all men he
alone can estimate the unknown in human affairs. But when it
comes to a trial of strength, as it always does, he is worsted by his
younger brother, and this the world accepts as a justification of the
superior wisdom of the latter and his greater capacity for governing.
Here, as in every instance in practical #. energy is mistaken by the
crowd for wisdom; assurance for knowledge. China is the old man
of the world: the grandfather of nations. ; is not at all certain that
the people of that country would be better off if they adopted western
practices. Instead of a few corrupt officials, they might number them
by thousands; instead of a few discontented sons, they might number
them by millions. Would the ballot, so-called representative govern-
ment, electric cars, railways and telephones compensate for this?
The highways of China and its methods of carriage represent the
pervading spirit. Roads are few and poorly maintained. To add to
their number and to keep them up would increase taxes, and the
people of China require taxes to be small and diminishing, not large
and increasing. Here again they differ from their more youthful and
virile neighbors. The streets of the Chinese cities and the great
roads of the empire vary from seven to fifteen feet in width. Alſ are
rough; all are poorly maintained. None of them are uniform. In no
eat country of the world, perhaps, is the use of draft animals and
and vehicles so meager as in China. The different specimens of the
latter may be counted on one's fingers. Men and women are the great
factors, the great carriers of the country. In the exchange of products
between the heart of the kingdom and the distant provinces of the west
and Mongolia and Manchooria on the north,the camel is the great factor.
Vast numbers of these animals are used and the caravans that tra-
verse the intervening country present a never-ending picture of eastern
habits and impassiveness. In some instances these caravans number
a thousand animals. Marshalled by the Tartar inhabitants of the
border country, they bring the products of the outlying districts, taking
back needed things in exchange. The camels of northern and western
China differ from those of the Mediterranean country in this, that in-
stead of soft, light hair they have heavy coats of wool to protect them
from the extreme cold. This wool is utilized very much as we utilize
the wool of sheep. The few means of land carriage China pos-
sesses are abundantly illustrated in the accompanying pages. But
what China lacks in variety of land vehicles, she makes up in the
number and picturesqueness of her water craft. These latter are
notable for their quaintness; one and all savor of a past age, of rude
appliances, of primitive conditions, of a people with few wants, easily
satisfied. Great pains have been taken, as the accompanying pictures
will show, to make as full a display of the water craft of this interest-
ing country as circumstances permit. The Chinese empire embraces
a vast territory in eastern Asia and comprises five great divisions:
Manchooria, Mongolia, Turkestan, Thibet and China proper. It has
an area of about 4,273,000 square miles and a population estimated
at 392,000,000. About one-third of the empire is included in China
proper. This portion has an area of about 1,313,000 square miles,
a coast line measuring some 2,500 miles, and contains nearly 380,000.
000 of human beings. The island of Formosa, heretofore a part of
the Chinese empire, lies in the China sea about ninety miles southeast
of the mainland. It has an area of 15,000 square miles and a popula-
tion of about 3,000,000. Its inhabitants are semi-civilized.

CHINA.
A craft used in common as * house and a boat.
Open palanquin or public chair. A traveler in the interior of China mentions having traveled
eight hundred miles without seeing a vehicle. The roads were oftentimes, however, crowded with
men and women carrying burdens; particular kinds of merchandise in one direction, particular
kinds in another. He also speaks of carts which he saw, with solid octagon of oval wheels, two
and a half inches thick, drawn by oxen.

CHINA.
Vessel constructed to attain speed.
&
7. -
% 2%;
2 ><g
- º
ºr - ~ -
7\; - º
- - - - º
A piratical craft. Pirates have from the earliest ages infested the Chinese ºr. -
seas. In the olden time it is said that when they got within reach of their victims - --> 7sº /
- º -- -- - - -
they threw on board the doomed vessel a large quantity of fire balls so prepared as --- - º º - º
to produce an intolerable and most offensive odor. Missiles of all kinds were ſ º - - º º -
scattered around and the pirates boarded the vessel in the confusion. º º *TV Z_ º
ſ
|
~
→
e S-
Sºs-
sº
== * *_2:
In the Gulf of Tonquin, Southeastern Asia. Primitive in the highest degree,
the craft yet answers very well the purposes for which it is used. The principle
upon which its sail is constructed and its especial utility are not esteemed or fol-
lowed by more advanced maritime people. Nevertheless, it is never likely to be
changed in the locality where used.



CHINA.
These craft, quaint and old-fashioned, are employed in
coast trading and for pleasure purposes.
This craft, with its immense sails, requires, like so many vessels of the
southeastern seas, a counterpoise. This counterpoise is sometimes furnished
by an outrigger that skims the surface of the water, and in other cases, like
the above, by a more simple contrivance. The above illustrates a phase of
carriage in Cochin China.
A medieval war craft.



CHINA.
|
:
- |
- |
|
|
|
|||
|||
- |H
SA S. º º **** --- ºw- º hº *L
issºttº
º - kāº. !- -- sº - ſº *
- --> --> --~~ lſº
ſºlºſiº
se-E-F-E-º
sis-E Esº: º
Side view of a Chinese junk.
A hundred years ago vessels of this character were common
in Chinese waters. They carried both passengers
and freight. They are still to be met with.
Vessel used in the coast trade, the
family living on the boat.










CHINA.
A Macao coasting vessel.
A vessel of the first class. It is called a junk in the sense
that we would call it a sailing vessel. It is both for passen-
gers and freight. Clumsy, it is exceedingly strong, often-
times fast. The sails close up like a fan.
Old fashioned Chinese war vessel.



CHINA.
-
-
*==#| ||
º º |
Tl|lº
-
Traffic on the Canton river.
Freighting at Ningpo. It is impossible to
conceive of anything more awk-
ward than this vessel.
The stern of these junks is sometimes forty feet in height,
with rudder so arranged that it may be raised or
lowered according to the depth of the water.
On the Yang-tse-Kiang river.










CHINA.
In Hong Kong harbor. In China house boats occupy a
relation to men and women not known in any other country.
N Children are born upon these boats, live upon them and are
`. buried from them. Much of the work is performed by women
and children. One of the reasons for the general use of
house boats on Chinese streams is the crowded condition of
the country. Among the poor classes the most meagre
covering serves for a home. Under such circumstances a
- snug house boat, floating at anchor upon one of the rivers of
Chinese house boat. Many of these boats are capacious, all the country, is a highly attractive residence. It possesses the
are picturesque. double advantage of being a place of abºe and a business
house, where traffic may be carried on without additional rent
or loss of time in going to and from business or the expendi-
ture of car fare. The house boats clustered together often
cover an area of many acres, passages being left for ingress
and egress very much as a city is supplied with streets and
allevs.
House boat on the Canton river. It is also used
for carrying passengers. Arrangement is made for a
sail. Canopies protect the load.
Small boat in Canton harbor, employed in
freight and passenger traffic.




CHINA.
On the Yang-tse-Kiang river. On the upper portion
of this river navigation is impossible for anything but light
native craft on account of the rapids, which occur at fre-
quent intervals, in the deep mountain gorges.
On the Yang-tse-Kiang river. The bow and stern of the vessel
are very high out of the water, the hulk being of heavy draft, allowing
the possibility of carrying a large spread of sail Considerable speed
can be attained by these boats.
On the Canton river.



CHINA.
Passenger craft on the Canton river.
A common junk. Awkwardly built, clumsy of motion, it possesses great strength
and carrying capacity.
Another form of house boat.


CHINA.
Trafficking on the Canton river.
A sampan girl on the Canton river-showing how they sit
sideways in the bow of the vessel while rowing.
~ Nº
º - º \s º
N
ºw - --- º
-º-º-º:
A picturesque craft.
Covered river boat. The roof is made in sections, arranged so
that the entire cover or parts of it may be removed.





CHINA.
An old-fashioned Chinese anchor.
Another form of house boat.
Chinese soldier, equipped with accoutrements
of war, sitting on an inflated bag made of pigskin.
When thus mounted they were considered by the
Chinese, early in the century, able to successfully
cope with British seamen.
A winter scene in Tientsin, Northern China.




CHINA.
Marriage procession on its way tº the ceremony
Chinese hearse in the sixteenth century-
Progress of the emperor of China in the sixteenth century.



CHINA.
Chinese lady shopping in Canton.
In the sixteenth century. Chairs borne by men have always been common in China.
The number of servants depends upon the rank of the persº" carried.
In the mountainous districts.




CHINA.
En route to the Shanghai derº
Covered palanquin or public chair, Hong Kong. It is said to be highly
uncomfortable.
g. The seat swings between two bamboo
e front and rear.
Transportation in Hong Kon
poles suspended from shorter poles in th
Bamboo chair or sedan, Hong Kong.






CHINA.
Chinese bride on her way to the hymeneal altar. She is followed by her
parents or nearest kindred on horseback, bands of music, standard bearers
and liveried servants carrying furniture, etc., presented to her as marriage
gifts.
Mountain chair for
women.
Crossing a stream in the island of Formosa. This island now belongs
to Japan, but until recently, formed a part of the Chinese kingdom. Some
of the customs of the inhabitants are peculiar – that of tattooing, for
instance. In some parts of the island the dead are buried in a sitting
posture under the bed on which they expired. Wars are common, the
heads of the slain being preserved as trophies, and in some districts the
- young men and boys sleep in the skull chambers in order that they may
be inspired with courage.



CHINA.
A mixed load. When conditions are favorable sails are used
to assist in propelling these vehicles. Sometimes donkeys are
hitched to them if the load is too great for the attendant. These
vehicles have no springs and are, therefore, exceedingly uncom-
fortable—especially in a country like China, noted for its poor and
rough roads
The above is a convenient form of carriage in the cities of China. The
streets of these cities are exceedingly narrow, some being only four or five
feet in width. The rule for travelers to keep to the right is strictly adhered to.
Every one stands aside for the passage of a funeral or priestly procession. A
mandarin on foot or a wealthy merchant moves aside to allow passage to the
lowest class laborer carrying a load.
The load on either side of the wheel balances the vehicle, while the slight friction
enables the attendant to push a heavy load at considerable speed.



CHINA.
In Hong Kong.
Offering children for sale a common custom in China.
.
On the way to the Shanghai derby.



CHINA.
A Chinaman.
Baskets and packages slung on each end of a stick.
hung like an old-fashioned pair of scales, with a pole or
beam on the shoulder, is a common means of carriage.
Peddlers carry all sorts of wares in this way-fruit, fish
and other edibles, live rats, cats, dogs, boxes, trays of
toys and so on.
Of the Ju tribe of mountaineers
in the interior of China; people who
live much in caves.
Coolies (porters) dressed in water-proof garments made of
leaves or straw Oiled paper is also used.



CHINA.
A sack of flour.
Handling coal in Hong Kong harbor.
- Bamboo basket.
A quiet smoke.



CHINA.
Chinese Tartar and bactrian camel.
in Mongolia.
-----
On the road between Pekin and Mongolia
and Manchooria.
-º-
The Mongols go down to Pekin in the winter with cattle,
game, coal and other produce.




CHINA.
This Mongolian wagon is roughly made, exceedingly
heavy and cumbersome. The load is pro-
tected by a covering of bark.
as are all Chinese roads.
A cavalryman.
Black water buffaloes. They are much used in the south of China, Siam.
Cambodia, Cochin China and the islands of the
Malaysian Archipelago.




CHINA.
ſº I
º:
º
* I
This is an extremely popular conveyance.
It is, however, clumsily made and uncomfort-
able to ride in.
A Chinese mandarin's cabriolet.
Imperial marriage procession. The groom rides a white
horse and is accompanied by four attendants on foot.






CHINA
Pugnacious Chinamen.
Litters of this description are frequently to be met with in the mountain passes north of Pekin.
In the level districts coolies take the place of the animals.
-
In the Nan-Kow Pass leading to the Great Wall.



Hºupt.
HIS country does not present anything remarkable
\ in the way of primitive carriage. While it is,
so far as we know, much older than India, its
methods of transportation fall behind the latter
in variety and picturesqueness. They may be
called commonplace if we except the Nile boat
with its far-spreading sail, peculiar mast, and
long-protruding boom. It is the presence of the
Nile, and the subordination of every part of the country to it, that
render specimens of primitive land carriage in Egypt so meager. In
ancient times the population pressed on the river, and men and women
bore the drudgery of carriage on land. It was not oppressive. Asses,
camels and oxen were introduced later and utilized. Nothing has
ever been so common, plentiful and cheap in Egypt as men and women.
The donkey and camel are favored means of local carriage at the
present time. The same reasons that make the former a favorite in
other parts of the world operate here. The great deserts that border
on Egypt make the camel valuable. Here as elsewhere it is the docile
creature of man's exactions and bears its burdens uncomplainingly,
albeit without intelligence or cheerfulness. Railways and other new
avenues of transportation make the camel less a factor than formerly.
Before the construction of the Suez Canal the coal used on the steam
vessels on the Red Sea was carried across the isthmus on the backs
of these animals. The considerable commerce that ebbed and flowed
across the strip of sand, now pierced by the canal, was also handled
formerly on the backs of camels. Egypt occupies the northeastern
extremity of Africa. It is bordered by the waters of the Mediterranean
on the north, and by the Red Sea on the east. It is bounded by Nubia
on the south and by the Great Desert of Sahara on the west. The
area of Egypt is about 175,000 square miles. It has a population of
about 7,000,000. Through the country from south to north flows the
Nile River, which annually overflows its banks, thus fertilizing the
valley, some eight miles wide and 800 miles long. This valley, with
its subsidiary #. forms the agricultural resource of the country, as
there are no rains.

EGYPT.
- |
º
A visit to ancient Thebes on the upper Nile.
An agriculturist.




EGYPT.
Nº-º- -
• Nºwº, sº º sº \\ s \\ - Nºss ---
N º, sº
- *
º -- º --- - º Yº-
- sº N º ºs--- º ºssº,
**º ºx. , "Kºº -ºss
º ~~ w -
^º *... ** -> -
tºº
- -
- ->º ºs-
\ºss-rrº
A Soudanese warrior.
*ross the face of Africa immediately South
desert of Sahar
Soudan is the country lying
of the great
Crossing the Suez canal, thirty miles from Port Said.







EGYPT.
Mail carriers of forty years ago.
The mail was carried in boxes made of timber.
A caravan.
These people live in tents and
They regard the plundering of caravans as
taking the place of passports or custom dues required else-
Travelers are looked upon as trespassers upon their
Bedouin of the deserts.
are nomadic.
where.
property.



EGYPT.
Two simple carriers.
A lady taking an airing.
An Arab lady of Cairo.
A street scene in Cairo.



EGYPT.
Natives crossing the upper Nile on the backs of yaks or buffaloes. This picture
illustrates an exceedingly primitive method of passenger transportation.
Transporting baggage at Cairo.
Carriage on the upper Nile. Primitive customs still
predominate there.



EGYPT.
ºf -
**T. --- -
-- *** -
º - - mº-
- ºu -
The sail of the Nile river boats is very large and is
fastened to what looks like a boom, which crosses and
is attached to the mast.
Carriage on the Sweet-Water canal, Tell-el-Kebir.
No one would mistake a Nile boat for a Mississippi river craft. Its
hull is peculiar and its sails characteristic. In no country in the world has
water transportation been so important as in Egypt, the Nile from the most
remote period affording the principal means of carriage.





EGYPT. ~
Water carrier of Cairo. The method
is the same in India.
f
º
º
--
º
º
-
º
#
A water peddler.
Water carriers of Alexandria. The tube or cylinder, of metal
or reed, reaching from the nose to the center of the forehead,
according to Mohammedan tradition is the instrument through
which celestial communication may be made, should the wearer
be so favored.




EGYPT.
A street peddler.
A Cairo maiden.
Constructing the Suez canal. The native laborers furnished their own
tools and received a compensation of one shilling and six pence per day
for removing the earth from the canal.



jºurope, itlistellaneous.
RIMITIVE carriage is common in Europe only in
the sense that men and women still bear burdens.
Many methods of carriage are quaint and pictur-
esque, and wide contrasts exist. . In the extreme
north the reindeer and dog are the great factors.
The use of snow-shoes is there necessary to
those who seek to get across the country on foot.
Many things have undergone little change for
thousands of years in Switzerland. On the steep hillsides men draw
rude plows as they have always done. The combination vehicle, half
sled and half wagon, is still to be met with. In Bulgaria and there-
abouts the vehicles are picturesque, primitive and poor-dilapidated, in
fact: so old and forlorn as to be attractive. An interesting feature
of carriage on the continent of Europe, to Americans at least, is the
general use of dogs as draft animals. This would not be possible in
either of the Americas, where highways are notoriously bad, but in
Europe the dog renders effective service. The accompanying illustra-
tions of primitive carriage in Europe, in countries that have not been
iven separate headings, are more attractive than would be supposed.
tility seems to be sought by the inhabitants, and outlay for ornamen-
tation avoided. Economy is the governing principle. The gorgeous
trappings of Spain, the smart trimmings of France, and the heavy
appliances of England are noticeably absent.

EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS.
vegetable cart in Antwerp, Belgium, Similar vehicles are used for carrying milk.
Carriage in Lapland


EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS.
The use of dogs for drawing vehicles,
milk, vegetables and light burdens is very
general in central and northwestern Europe,
the well-kept highways and streets rendering
it possible.
Rural carriage in Holland. The manner in which the dogs
are harnessed to the cart is unique.
Carriage in Holland. No people in the world
evince greater ingenuity in utilizing small re-
sources and economizing in matters of domestic
life than the Dutch. Thrifty, industrious and
- - - - - - in the
º º: º This is a Dutch outfit. They, above all people, utilize every means to save
labor and reduce expenses.




EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS.
Carriage in Brussels, Belgium. The dog is used in Belgium
for many purposes. Its intelligence, moreover,
has been developed to the utmost.
Milk peddler of Liege, Belgium.
A baker going his rounds in Rotterdam, Holland.
Holland passenger conveyance.




EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS.
Carriage in Servia. The wheels of the wagon are
made in sections. The whole structure is rude. The
agricultural population of Servia is scattered among
a great number of villages or homesteads. Each
º homestead is occupied by a group of families, gener-
ally relatives, who choose one person of prudence and
ability to act as the head. The custom is derived
from the savage state. He regulates the work and
distributes the proceeds of the labor of the entire
homestead, and his ruling is followed without ques-
tion. The land cultivated by such a group of families
is always their own property.
In Philippopolis, Bulgaria.
Bulgarian peasants. Culture and improvement have been retarded in Bulgaria by constant
recurring wars and political disturbances during the whole course of its history. The roads are
bad. The vehicles used are in the majority of instances like the above, rude and primitive in the
highest degree.
Servian cart.




EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS.
In no portion of Europe or America are methods of
carriage more primitive than in Servia. The manifest
instability of the above vehicle and its old-fashioned
appliances make it interesting.
Servian wagon, constructed wholly of wood, except a rude
metal spring. The octagon and oblong wheels to be met with
in western China vie with the above in oddity.
A mountain cart in Switzerland, suggestive of the first sledge
ever invented by man, before he had any con-
ception of wheeled vehicles.
A train in Servia.




EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS.
Baggage animal of Servia. Much of the
country is mountainous, rendering packani-
mals necessary.
Near Rustchuk, Bulgaria.
A scene in Roumania.
An old-fashioned vehicle.




EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS.
A Lapland carrier. The reindeer is the most
useful carrier of the Arctic regions. Its skin,
flesh and milk also afford clothing and food.
This is a fine illustration of the costume, means of carriage, harness
and equipment of the Laplander. The Lapland country is sparsely peopled.
There are no towns, and the villages are shifted about according to the
exigencies of fodder or fuel.
The reindeer of Lapland corresponds to the horse in England. When no longer serviceable or con-
venience prompts, it may be eaten. It is more hardy and requires less food than the horse, and is more
like the camel in its ability to get along without man's aid.



EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS.
Combination of boat and sledge, the equip-
ment of Arctic explorers.
º
-
-º-º-º-º:
- *- -- |
--~~ -
- --- º
-
-
-
- -
| Nº Yº
- QN
º
Arctic sleighs utilized by explorers.
Combination of sledge and wagon used in the Alps. The sledge part is designed to serve
as a brake in the steep descents of that mountainous country. The ingenious utilty of the
device is remarkable.
A Bulgarian vehicle.











EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS.
%|
ſ
º /
º
º
º
%
ſ
º -
\ \\ - 7. º º º . |
º \\ - -- © % %
- º º %
- \
- \
sº. sºN N
º
sº ºsº *Nº-
N.
-
º SS ~. -
sº -
º `s * - - S- -
^- vº- - - --
s -
- cº-º
º ſ
C - 2 º
2-
r to the above nave
e used for traversing
have been in use from
been found the most
on foot the vast snow
time immemorial.
Snow-shoes, or skees, simila
available implements that can b
fields of the north. These shoes











EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS.
In Finmark.
The numerous canals and rivers of the north of Europe
are utilized, when frozen over in winter, by travelers,
also for purposes of traffic and for skating as well.
A postman in Norway.




EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS. ~ -
Bulgarian peasant women.
In the Tyrolean Alps, Switzerland. The
wooden shoes and staff indicate the hardy Swiss
peasant, accustomed to act as guide and carry
burdens where no animal could go.
Peasants, expelled by war, seeking a new home.



EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS.
Grecian water carriers.
The picture was taken in the nineteenth
century, but illustrates customs many centuries old.
Servian woman and child.
Swiss guide.
A milk carrier of Dordrecht, Holland.



EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS.
Holland.
On the Maas river
A Holland woman.
Servian woman on her way to market.
Russian troops crossing the Danube.





EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS.
In the Gulf of Corinth, near Patras, Greece.
Trading vessel in the Grecian Archipelago. A Dutch fishing craft


EUROPE, MISCELLANEOUS.
On the old Rhine.
- - -
---
-
Going to market in Holland.
Market boat on the Scheldt river, Belgium.
Water navigation in Switzerland is not exten-
sive or elaborate. It is confined mainly to the
lakes, the pleasure resorts of the world. The
craft used are such as the needs of tourists de-
mand. The smaller boats possess many local
peculiarities, just as the forms of carriage of
every nation take on certain characteristics
handed down from earlier times. The above craft
was used on the Lake of Thun.




£camce.
F a man were to drop from the clouds upon French
soil the first cart he saw would lead him to ex-
claim, “I am in Europe—probably in France!”
Nations have a distinct personality, not clearly
definable always, but nevertheless real, just as
men have. This is true of France. Her meth-
ods are original. Those connected with car-
riage are especially so. They are in everything
effective. Plain and simple, there is an air of elegance about them, a
deference to men's taste peculiarly French. This is not confined to
Paris alone. It is true of all France. The peasant farmer and his
wife decorate their steed, so far as their means will permit, as consci-
entiously as they do their own persons. The good taste of the French
people makes everything they attempt of a decorative nature effective.
Devices of primitive carriage are not plentiful in France, Indeed, even
the evidences of initiatory processes were º ago swallowed up in
the changes and wars that have occurred. Make-shifts are not lack-
ing, but they are not primitive. French men and women are great
burden bearers. All industrious and sturdy men and women are. It
is probable the French peasantry are the most economical in the world,
and necessarily so. No saving is too small. On such accumulations
they build up great fortunes, and the nation great wealth. From a
picturesque point of view we could wish there were more reminders of
ancient Gaul among the methods of carriage in use to-day. While
they might not be useful they would be interesting. But these evi-
dences of the past have been swept away; have given place to more
effective devices of the present time. The French are impatient of
obsolete things: everything must conform to the progressive ideas of
a prosperous, wealthy, saving and alert people. France is situated in
southwestern Europe. It is bounded on the north by the English
Channel, the Straits of Dover, and Belgium; on the east by Italy,
Switzerland and the German Empire; on the south by Spain and the
Mediterranean Sea; and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. It covers
an area of two hundred and seven thousand one hundred and seven
. miles, and has a population of about thirty-eight millions of
people.

FRANCE.
º
-
º º
º º -
º
%
º
In Nancy.
In Brittany.



FRANCE.
h
º ſº } W
w
º
A Parisian porter.
Mother and daughter
Newspaper carriers of Paris.

FRANCE.
A carrier of Mentone.
Who would fardels bear.
A Norman.
In the north of France.




FRANCE. ~
In the forests of Picardy.
*º-dº.
--
ºu. -- -
-
º->
A pleasure party in the Zoological Gardens of Paris.
A French diligence in the Pyrenees mountains. These vehicles consist of three compartments: the front,
called the coupe, for three persons; the second, called the interieur, for six persons; and the rotonde, entered
from the rear, for six persons. Above in front is the banquette, where the conductor is seated, and behind this,
underneath a thick leather covering, passengers are sometimes huddled among the baggage.




FRANCE.
-
Vehicle of the time of Louis XV.
Post chaise of the time of Louis XV.
Of the time of Louis XIV
On the Seine.
Wheeled chair of the time of Louis XV.







(5ermany.
RIMITIVE carriage rapidly gives place to forms
less interesting in countries so much the center of
interest and animation as Germany has been for
many years past and promises to be for many
years to come. Her vigorous ruler and the states-
men who surround him know how much may be
saved by forms of carriage of the highest adapt-
ative type. In the by-ways of the empire, how-
ever, the Genesis of transportation may still be studied. Here we find
the cow and horse yoked complacently together, or in their place, per-
haps, the stalwart, honest-hearted peasant woman and the not less
stout and patient ox or donkey. Dogs are utilized where the roads
permit. They draw the carts, and when their strength fails man
supplements it with his own. No one is idle. In the north in winter
ice-craft, in a measure, take the place of the boats used in summer.
On the Rhine and other German waters heavy, slow-going vessels,
modeled on old lines, ply back and forth. Among the †. -working
and saving people #: is frittered away, and the forms of carriage
that their gains render possible, or ingenuity or economical habits sug-
gest, are employed. M. sentiment is not allowed to interfere. The
necessity of the situation is too great; the struggle for life too severe.
Germany is bounded on the north by the North Sea, Denmark and the
Baltic Sea; on the east by Russia and Austria; on the west by France,
Belgium and Holland; and on the south by Austria and Switzerland.
It has an area of about two hundred eight and a half thousand square
miles and a population in the neighborhood of fifty millions. The
central part of Germany is a region of plateaus; in the south the coun-
try is mountainous; in the north low.

GERMANY.
º – --
Milk peddler of Saxony.
The milk is taken directly
and peddled through the streets.
from the farm
A highly useful German
carrier.


GERMANY.
A group of carriers.
º \ º
ſº º
º "
I-Sº
º
A general carrier.
Dogs are used more or less in the German army for carrying
messages. They are also sent out oy the Red Cross Society to carry
water to wounded soldiers. They are found to be dexterous and
faithful messengers.
A mail carrier.








GERMANY.
Carter and horse, Munich, Germany. The outfit is quaint and clumsy,
hardly in keeping with a city which ranks among the art centers of Europe.
German karen, or cart, used in the early
part of the sixteenth century.
A scene in rural Germany
In the Bavarian Alps
Saxon market cart





GERMANY.
Wedding coach of the Duke of Saxony, A. D. 1584.
Frankfort-on-the-Main coach. A. D. 1667.
º
|^* g.º.
Twº sº. *.
Commercial traveler of Bavaria in the eighteenth century. While doubtless
overdrawn, the picture is representative. The pistol in the holster suggests danger
and the determination of its possessor to protect his wares. It is a mistake to
suppose a trader won't fight. He would rather buy immunity than fight, probably,
but where the former is impossible he will protect himself.
Carriage in Saxony, A. D. 1584.





GERMANY.
A typical river craft.
On the way to market.
Such animation and energy can only be found among an honest, hard working,
sturdy people. Whether the method of hauling the vessel is the most effective that
could be devised or not, is another question. The picture is, however, true to life.
On the Rhine. This stream has been one of the
chief waterways of Europe from the earliest times.
The first steamboat was launched there in A. D. 1817.
The river is navigable for a distance of five hundred
and fifty miles.




GERMANY.
On the Spree. In the cold countries in the
north of Europe the use of sails to facilitate trans-
portation on the ice is very common. These sails
take on different forms and are used in different
ways, according to the nature of the ice, the
velocity of the wind, the strength of the person,
the speed desired, and so on. Men carry sails to
propel them upon skates in the same way that
they are used upon ice-boats, except that they
are smaller and adapted to the particular use
required.
An ice craft. The speed attained by these boats is
equal sometimes to that of an express train.
On Rummelsburger lake
A carrier in the Harz mountains.




in dia.
HIS country is the delight and wonder of tourists
\ and scholars. The panorama it presents is in-
comparable and unique. Side by side with the
high-caste Brahmin, and outnumbering him
twenty to one, is the servile population, the abo-
rigines of the peninsula. These conditions have
existed uninterruptedly from a time far anterior
to the historical period. A continent in extent,
India presents kindred characteristics. Nowhere are more towering
mountains, vaster rivers, greater deltas, more impenetrable jungles,
fields possessing greater fertility. In one section a temperate climate
and hardy men and women; in another a torrid sun and the effeminate
population such conditions breed; in one section a harvest hardly ma-
turing, in another a multiplicity of crops annually. In the long ages
that have sleepily passed since men first emerged from savagery many
fantastic forms of carriage have been introduced in this picturesque
country and are still to be found in active use. They comprise every
process, from the half starved and scantily clad native to the modern
railway train; from the poorly fed donkey to the magnificently accou-
tered elephant. The stateliness of the last as a carrier adds to the
beauty and impressiveness of the scene. While the camel is less known
and less striking, his trappings and leonine aspect divide with his pon-
derous brother our admiration and never ending interest. The Indian
ox, famed for his stately carriage and enormous strength, is another
favorite. He vies with the horse in popularity, endurance and speed
as a carrier. The vehicles of India are also infinite in variety and
primitive quaintness, and the degrees of excellence that intervene
between the rude ox cart of the peasant and the chariot of a king or
prince drawn by elephants or stately bullocks, while immeasurable, are
yet constantly to be met with. These diversities are the outgrowth
of unnumbered centuries of uninterrupted evolution, for while India
has been subject to numerous conquests and many conquerors since
the invasion of the Aryans, her predominating classes have practically
remained unchanged from that time. The water craft of India, while
not so diversified as the vehicles used on land, are nevertheless inter-
esting and diversified. The boats of India more resemble those of
China than of the far west. They are, however, in many respects
original and characteristic of India. India is an anomaly socially. Its
invasions and internal strifes have created irreparable divisions among
its people. Its castes divide them as with a wedge, while its prevailing
religions, Buddhism and Brahmanism, could not possibly be more
antagonistic than they are. Before the people of India can become
homogeneous, can act unitedly, social distinctions must be greatly less-
ened and religious prejudices sensibly ameliorated. India is one of the
dependencies of Great Britain. It embraces an area in the neighbor-
hood of one and a half millions square miles, and has a population of
some two hundred and fifty millions. The center of the country is
a tableland. A plain lies to the east and a stony desert to the west.
India occupies the southern extremity of Asia, lying south of the Hima-
laya Mountains, on the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian
Ocean, and includes certain adjacent islands under the general term
East Indies.

INDIA.
A royal carrier.

INDIA.
A royal company crossing the Jovey river.
Crossing the Chenab river at Jummoo.
State carriage of a raiah.



INDIA.
Carriage in Agra. Here stands the Taj Mahal, the most beautiful
piece of monumental architecture in the world. It was built in the
seventeenth century by Emperor Shah Jehan as a mausoleum for him-
self and his favorite wife, and is made of white marble, decorated with
mosaic work. Twenty thousand men were employed upon it for over
twenty years.
Native chiefs of the Punjab.
An occasion of state at Jeypoor.



INDIA. º
Tº
|
Elephants taking a bath. The animals are driven into the water and scrubbed
with a bunch of rushes. Elephants are very fond of the water.
w
... I'll
|\\
Nº.
º
A local dignitary.
A state elephant of Kashmir.



INDIA.
Receiving the governor-general in Calcutta
Whe seat of government.
Fragment of a festal gathering.
Starting on an expedition. To the people of Europe and America the use of the elephant as a carrier
is a source of interest. In India he is much like the horse in America. His intelligence,
however, renders him useful in many ways where the horse is not available
Local potentates.




INDIA. T- º
. * --- ziºsº
º
º-
- --- * --- == ---
Preparing to take part in a great event.
State elephants with their mahouts (keepers)
-
An agreeable way to travel in fair weather.







INDIA.
Procession of native chiefs on a great occasion.
An agent of the commissariat.
procession of Sikh chiefs at a great fair at Lahore.
Ceremonial progress in Madras.




INDIA.
An elephant used to capture wild elephants in India. Elephants are
protected in India by the government and whoever kills, captures or
injures one or attempts to do so without a license, is punished. This is a
sensible restriction. Elephants are generally captured by being driven
into a stockade and starved into submission. They are then tamed by ani-
mals already domesticated.
The jungle.
Hunting tigers in Terai.
Of the many uses to which elephants are put, they
are made to tear down old structures, houses, etc.
The above animal is thus engaged.


INDIA.
A draft animal. The domestication
of the elephant dates from time imme-
morial. The earliest records show that
he was then used chiefly in war, carrying
soldiers in a tower upon his back.
An unexpected wetting. The elephant has an inner storehouse holding ten gallons of water
which he can eject into his trunk at pleasure.
Elephants awaiting embarkation. They are hoisted on board in
slings with ponderous cranes.
Elephants saluting a military commander. They are taught
to poise their trunks perpendicularly in the air at the words
"sulaam kurro."




INDIA. \ £4
A strong team.
Elephant kneeling to receive his load.
Loading a mortar.



INDIA.
zºº sº
- SSS
- -
-** *** -->- 's- ------~~~~
--- ******* ~~~~ *--~~~~ - - -
-- - - * > -- - - - - - --~~~~ --
- - - - ºš is . . .
* - sº -->
*****
Awaiting the word to start on a journey.
Elephant awaiting his load.
Notables en route to Delhi.








INDIA.
Bhownugger state carriage drawn by sacred oxen. These oxen will trot as fast as a horse and
maintain such speed uninterruptedly for many hours.

<ſ
C
2.
Bullocks pumping water.
ve carriers of Jeypoor.
Two meditat
Going to the races.



INDIA.
A water carrier making his rounds.
A water carrier distributing his supply. When the customer has enough, a wink or shrug of his
shoulders indicates the fact and the supply is shut off without wasting a drop.
W - -
-- W.
| º - Nº.
Nº.
ſ T
|
A sporting gentleman of Madras. - - -
J-E_
2----
-- **------
A stately water carrier. The leather bag is so arranged as to distribute the load on each
side of the animal. The water is poured in at the top and drawn
through a small nozzle at the bottom of the bag






INDIA.
Rice bullock carts. The vehicles are roofed with bamboo frames covered with mats. The
driver balances himself on the pole of the cart and by twisting the tails of the cattle and kicking
them accelerates their speed.
Difficulties of travel in interior Bengal. In addition to his other
troubles, this traveler is threatened by a tiger.
On the road near Bombay.
Stately car of a rajah. Profusion of rich trappings is everywhere a
craving of oriental dignity




INDIA.
º
|
Cardrawn by buffaloes in the valley of
Kashmir. Much has been written of the
beauty of this vale. In it are a large number
of buildings of the Hindoo period, rendered
interesting by their style and the traces of
Greek art which they bear.
" 2
ATA
- *-
Trafficking in Baroach.
- --
- - º
Tºulºus ºlº --~~~
º º º § º:
º
- - -º º -
_-º-º: º:
- > ºzºnº º º º º º
-. º
The equipage of a great dignitary.
Vehicle used for baggage and express purposes














INDIA.
-- EX.
ſ
~~ * *Xº
º wº
º º lºº S
. º
- -
Wºº-ºº:
wº- -- º
- tº º §: º º
}: º
Fº
#
f
Moving a heavy battery.
Natives of Orissa on the move. The carts resemble the Scythian houses on wheels, described by Herodotus
Carriage of a nobleman of Jeypoor. This style of
covering is undoubtedly derived from the old bee-hive
shaped house on wheels, the device of nomads of
earlier days.
.
|
º
and illustrated elsewhere herein.
|
|
º
A jungle wagon of Mysore. These carts are also used by the natives in farm work. The wheels are
a solid section of wood, revolving on wooden axles.















INDIA.
Carrying cotton to market. It is
said that over two thousand years
before Europe or England had con-
ceived the idea of manufacturing
cotton, India had matured a system
of hand spinning, weaving and dye-
ing.
Waiting for a fare in Bombay.
A picturesque and primitive vehicle,
the “bhylie.”
Strolling players and dancers, natives of the upper country, who go from
station to station in a clumsy ox cart, and get their living by entertaining the
people.
A party of sight-seers in Bombay.





INDIA.
Vehicle used for carrying the cheetah, an animal trained to hunt antelope in
India. It, in some respects, resembles a dog. The speed with which it bounds
upon its prey is said to exceed the swiftness of any other mammal. If it misses its
first attack it seldom attempts to follow, but returns to its master.
---
A rural scene in the northwest country.
A bullock train under way.
A break-down in Travancore, a picturesque section of India.





INDIA.
Guzerat village cart, one of the most useful vehicles in the agricultural
districts of India. The sides are of basket work made from cotton plant
stalks. The wheels are made of acacia wood and run in ruts about five
inches wide and about the same depth, in which the bullocks also travel.
In south Bahar, Bengal. This section is said to have been the cradle of
Buddhism, and is still regarded as a holy land by Buddhist followers.
Loading up preparatory to a start.
On the wav to market at Delhi.



INDIA.
A buffalo train.
Slender and long horns are
characteristic of the Indian buffalo.
On the march in Peshawur.
Scene on a country road.
Carriers in the interior. The coverings are of split bamboo.
A Rajputana bullock car.





INDIA.
A nobby Indian courier.
nºiſ
ºt
A live gun carriage. The brass cannon mounted on
the back of the camel may be fired by the rider without
dismounting.
Ambulance corps on the march.



INDIA.
An uncomplaining carrier.
Carriage in Delhi. Unlike most eastern cities,
Delhi has well paved streets.
Making his way through the streets of Bombay.
{} ºl º
A #% º
* -º -Yº --- . .
zº-º ºſſº
--- - -ºut tº
The modern equipage of a local grandee.







INDIA.
----- ------
Native soldiers breaking camp.
º
A native of Lahore and his “sabayee," an animal
bred for speed.
A detachment of Sepoys on the march.



INDIA.
Patient freighters of Delhi.
A blending of the east and west.
Getting on in Rajputana.
Resting.





INDIA.
|
#
º
º
º
N
An eka.
/.
5
Nobles of Gwalior. The horses of these noblemen
are of the highest type and are magnificently capari-
soned. The umbrellascarried from behind are of delicate
yellow silk. The variety and splendor of the costumes
possessed by a noble of India exceed those of any other
country. The fon, or dude, of England and America is
a pale excrescence beside his Indian brother.
Hastening forward with the mail in northwest India. The
horses are changed at frequent intervals and travel at the rate
often miles an hour.








INDIA.
To the people of India this vehicle, with the half-naked driver, is
far from interesting and anything but primitive. To us, however, it
is an object of curiosity. The cumbersome wheels and peculiar
appliances are unknown out of India.
Carriage in the hilly country.
Khuttuck horsemen, visitors from beyond the frontier
in northwestern India.
A baboo or writer, taking the morning air.




INDIA.
A carrier of Delhi loaded with rifles.
A Tartar of Ladak, Kashmir.
Native cavalry reconnoitering.
Out shopping in Baroach.



INDIA.
Floating milk to market on the Ganges river.
A native of the Coromandel coast on his way to a passing vessel, carrying letters in his hat.
Crossing the Beas river, in the Himalaya mount-
ains, on inflated bullock skins, called “mussucks":
an economical, albeit damp, system of ferriage.



INDIA.
Notice the primitive oar and simple fulcrum on which it works.
In every country and in every age upon such craft as this sav-
ages have traversed local waters.
- ºv-
**S*A*- ºr--ºl.1
º º * =#: - ſº
Eºs
gº /****
º
Trafficking along the coast of Bengal.
º
º
ºtº-ºº:
ſlº.
º
A grain boat on the Ganges.





INDIA.
- -
The barge of a nobleman. The vessel is built on good lines and practiced
oarsmen propel it through the water.
N º º ! #2
'', (T′-
/* * *
*Aſ ſº
Mºsº.
ºnºſº
Fº º
Off the coast of Bengal.
|
jars.
warlike inhabitants of the hill tribes of the Punjab crossing the Indus on water
On the Brahmapootra river






INDIA.
The barge of a high official.
- º-
This beautiful Picture represents a form of carriage at Calcutta.
----------
-º-º-º:
------
Stately progress of a grandee of Kashmir



INDIA.
observe the elevated position of the steersman and the frail structure
upon which he rests. This official not only acts as steersman, but lookout,
the latter office being quite as necessary as the former in the waters of
the southeastern seas, where the savage predatory raids of the natives
are both frequent and destructive.
Soliciting a fare. .
º
;
s
s
:
- --
- --------.
ºlº-.
Conveying cotton to the seaport.
















INDIA. -
Primitive carriage off the coast. From such a craft as this the canoe,
then the boat, and finally the ship were evolved.
º
- -
|
|
| in
|ºlº
º
wº
A cumbersome cratt.
A transport descending the Ganges, en route to
Calcutta, loaded with cotton.
A coracle, or wicker boat covered with hides.
Similar boats were used by the ancients. They
were at one time used in Wales.













INDIA.
A quiet scene on the
A primitive craft.
Barak river.
Off Cape Comorin, the southern extremity of india.
! | º |
- º | -
The boats on the Indus are heavy and of
rude construction, with sloping sides and flat
bottom.










INDIA.
On the Indus.
Crossing a river in the upper country in a coracle, a boat made of
wicker work covered with hides.
The absence of bridges and ferries makes scenes of this kind common
in some parts of India.


INDIA.
A ferry on the Indus.
A Bengalese war boat of olden times.
At eventide on the Hooghly river. Timber transport off the Malabar coast. The form of the bow and stern of the boat
gives it an appearance similar to the caravels of the fifteenth century.



INDIA.
- $. - ºw-
--------
-
---
--- - -
----- -
ºs-
--- º --- - - -
--- -
== ==
--- -
Calcutta boatmen.
A crowded ferry.
Fishing in the Indus. The earthenware pot on which he
floats is also used to hold the fish he catches.
A fragment from the Hooghly river. It tells its own story of
quaint, hooded women, of primitive conditions and old super-
stitions and practices.









INDIA.
* mail carrier of Rajputana.
A dooly, or Palanquin, made of bamboo framework
* one time he w
to house on his
A Palanquin of
ago. Similar means
are still in use.
The postman announcing his
arrival by beating a drum. Thus
ent from house
daily rounds.
Calcutta, fifty years
of transportation



INDIA.
º º
\º
|\º
A “palky dawk."
- -- - º |
- - º \\\\\\\ |-- - --~
--- -- - º Nºw º º º - -
*"...ºvºzzº, ºr, "Tºº
ºu tº ºvº º º
***
WAWNº. WWNº.
º -
- --- \ |\ – tº --~~ -
M\\ tº ''''''' \ º sº y
º s \º
º -
-
Carriage in Darjeeling, Bengal.
º
º N -w - Wºrº
- º º | \ -
º
--
º
* - "…
wº
Favorite method of carrying packages in
the far east.
Dharee traveling in the mountains of Nepaul.














INDIA.
Dawk walas (i.e., postmen) of Bengal, Packages are carried in the boxes and letters in the bags.
Curious visitors from the hills of Assam
Travel in Madras The number of carriers indicates
the rank of the passenger.



INDIA.
-------
The palanquin is still used in many great cities of the east, the narrow and
rough streets not permitting the use of wheeled vehicles.
This form of carriage, while picturesque, foreigners find more fatiguing than walking.
Primitive conveyance of a
traveling beggar. The beggars
of India are frequently opulent,
having servants to carry them
from place to place
§
Nº.
º
ſº
in
|\
A dooly of Delhi.




INDIA. ſº
--
s
ºgºsº
ºlº
-
Vendor of the holy water of the Ganges. It is sold to poor Hindoos who cannot
afford to make the pilgrimage to the river.
A street vendor of water. The cus-
tomer opens his mouth to
receive the stream.
Old-fashioned water carriers.
A Mahe maid delivering milk to her customers.






INDIA.
A Hindoo water carrier.
Progress of a local despot in Nepaul. In the mountains of Nepaul relays of
women, it is stated, take the place of beasts of burden in carrying passengers.
They strap a rough seat or cushion on their backs, upon which the traveler sits.
The women relieve each other from time to time as they become exhausted.
A graceful carrier of Madras.
A traveler and his luggage in Bengal.




INDIA.
A spirited scene. India, like China, has a dense population. Nothing is so cheap as human life, and in the struggle for
existence the brute creation finds in mankind the sharpest possible competition. Men and women look
with envy and longing upon the work allotted oxen, elephants and horses.
In Delhi.
A Bombay postman.
Natives of the hill tribes in northeastern Assam.








INDIA.
The palanquin of the prince of Jeypoor.
Perils of travel in the remote districts. The attendants have abandoned the traveler to his fate.
A picturesque farm cart in the Punjab, in the northern -
part of India.
The howdah of a governor of Madras.




INDIA.
A Hindoostanee cab.
A commonplace vehicle of India. It is provided with a guard
to prevent the dress of passengers from becom-
ing entangled in the wheels.
TI
|
Craft designed for both land and water. It is not primitive,
and is embodied here simply because unique. It is primitive in
the sense that it may prove the forerunner of a craft capable of
economical use both on land and water.
The car of Juggernaut. Until stopped by the British government,
the natives were in the habit of throwing themselves under the wheels
of the vehicle, believing that to thus perish procured eternal felicity









C.
|
zºº
DWSA s
rºE naturally expect to find water craft predominat-
ing in island life. In the main the boats that
tº: to the islands of the north are modern,
if we except the primitive dug-out of which sev-
eral illustrations have already been given. In
some cases the methods of land carriage are
C \
\] tº
sº-s- unique. Thus, in Madeira, passengers and
freight are carried on sledges drawn by oxen,
although the islanders never saw a snowflake. Palanquins are also
used for carrying passengers. In Jamaica everything, practically, is
carried on the heads of men and women. There are several great
islands that deserve to be classed as continents. Many islands are
embraced in the adjacent continent; this is so of Japan. Many stand
out distinct. Others are grouped. The principal groups of the Atlan-
tic, not to mention the British Isles, which form part of Europe, are
the islands of the Greater Antilles, or West Indies, embracing, among
others, Cuba, Jamaica, Hayti, and Porto Rico; the Bahamas, em-
bracing about seven hundred islands, and, finally, Iceland and New-
foundland. The groups of the Pacific are the Kuril Islands, forming
a part of the Japanese Empire; the Aleutians, off the extreme south-
“N
ſ
islands, itlistellaneous.
western coast of Alaska; Queen Charlotte's, which form a portion of
British Columbia; the Hawaiian, or Sandwich Islands, in the line
of commerce between California and China; eight groups in the
Torrid Zone, as follows: The Carolinas, comprising a great archipel-
ago; the Ladrones; the New Hebrides; the Fiji Islands; the Friendly
Islands; the Society Islands; the Marquesas Islands; the New Zealand
Islands, and, finally, the separate islands of New Guinea (Papua) and
Australia, in the Southern Pacific. Among the noted groups of the
Indian Ocean are the East Indies, embracing Borneo, Sumatra, Java,
Celebes, Luzon, and many other islands off #. southeast coast of Asia;
the Laccadive and Maldive group of coral islands; the Andaman group
in the Bay of Bengal; the §. Islands lying farther south. The
large single islands in the Indian Ocean are Madagascar, Mauritius,
Bourbon, Socotra and Ceylon. In the Mediterranean Sea are the
islands of Sicily and Sardinia, now included in the Italian kingdom;
Cyprus and Malta, belonging to Great Britain; Rhodes and Crete,
owned by the Ottoman Empire; Corsica, belonging to France; the
Ionian group off the coast of Greece and owned by that country, and,
finally, the Balearic Isles, under Spanish rule.







ISLANDS, MISCELLANEOUS.
A favorite vehicle in Madeira. The runners are shod with iron,
to which an attendant applies a greased rag from time to time. There
are no wheeled vehicles. The roads are paved with small stones, and
have become so smooth with time and use that they render coasting
possible on the hillsides.
Carriage in Madeira.
In Teneriffe, a health resort on the north Atlantic ocean.



ISLANDS, MISCELLANEOUS.
A passenger conveyance in Madeira.
--
---
How goods are handled in Madeira.
In the Canary Islands.
In Madeira.




ISLANDS, MISCELLANEOUS.
In Havana, Cuba.
In New Castle, Jamaica. The city is
situated on a ridge of mountains five
thousand feet above sea level. The car-
riers, it will be noticed, rest the burden
on their heads. This is the favorite
method of carrying a burden in Jamaica.
Carriage of hay in Iceland. The horses of Iceland
are small, but hardy and enduring. Many of them are
never housed, but forage for themselves through the
winter.
Icelandic saddle horse for ladies.




ISLANDS, MISCELLANEOUS.
Natives of Nassua, the seat of government
of the Bahama Islands. Columbus said of these
islands: “This country excels all others as
far as the day surpasses the night in splendor.”
A woman of Jamaica, West Indies
Islands. The carriage of burdens on
the head characterizes all sturdy semi-
civilized nations. It is also common in
the great cities of the world.
Women carrying coal at Kingston, Jamaica. Each woman has
a piece of tin bearing her number; for each load a tallyman drops a
pea into a perforated tin box over her number; when through with
her work she is paid according to the number of peas in her box.
Nothing could be more simple, or primitive, or direct. It is said of
one of the greatest American statesmer, and patriotic martyrs that,
when he was postmaster in a little village in the far west, he kept
the various funds of his office in separate stockings. This device
was a genuine inspiration. It rendered book-keeping unnecessary
and thus added greatly to the agreeableness of his life.
Native of Jamaica.




ISLANDS, MISCELLANEOUS.
-
-
-
-
Going to market in the Society Islands.
Off the island of Jamaica.
A Tahita craft, Society Islands.







ISLANDS, MISCELLANEOUS.
A Greenlander in his kyak, or hunting canoe. These canoes are shuttle shaped,
covered with hairless sealskin stretched on a wooden or whalebone frame, which has
a hole in the center for the paddler The paddler is covered with a water-proof skin
fastened to the mouth of the hole in which he sits, so that a drop of water can not enter
if the boat overturns. It is said a skillful kyaker can turn a complete somersault,
boat and all, through the water.
Eskimo on snow-shoes drawing a light sledge. A sail
facilitates his progress.
Eskimo and kyak. The kyak is to the Eskimo what the horse or camel is to the Bedouin.



ISLANDS, MISCELLANEOUS.
Sled made of wood, sewn together with
thongs, on the east coast of Greenland. It
illustrates the makeshifts of savages and - - - - -
semi-civilized people. Native craft in the Krusenstern group, Polynesia.
Early drawing of Eskimo Indians.



3Italy.
TALY was at one time synonymous with Rome
and shared with it the reputation Roman soldiers
and citizens had acquired for aggressiveness and
brutality. This was many centuries ago. We
know the Italians and Romans of the present
time to be the most amiable and lovable of man-
kind, much given to the soft pleasures of life and
not at all actuated by a desire to tyrannize over
the world, or influence it unduly. No country in Europe, it is proba-
ble, save Spain, affords the traveler greater contrasts or more pleasur-
able sensations than Italy. The mild manners of its people go hand
in hand with its climate. No harsh contrasts disturb the sensitive
observer, and the people have lived under too many forms of govern-
ment to allow mere matters of misgovernment to disturb their serenity
or lighten the laughter with which they welcome the fast recurring
holidays. Wide contrasts in methods of carriage present themselves
in Italy as elsewhere. Beside her well in: railroads the peasant
trudges contentedly with his burden, an uncomplaining competitor.
Forms of primitive carriage are not plentiful in Italy. #. gondola of
Venice, the great bullock cart of Sicily and the huge vehicle of Rome,
while interesting, are not primitive. The curious must look elsewhere
for primitive forms of carriage. Italy is a long and narrow peninsula
lying in the southern part of £irº, separated from the rest of the con-
tinent by the Alps. It borders on the Mediterranean, Adriatic and
Ionian Seas, and is traversed throughout its length by the Apennines
Mountains. Its area is about one hundred and fourteen thousand
square miles and its population in the neighborhood of thirty millions.
Sicily now forms a part of the Italian Kingdom.

ITALY. -
Going to market An ideal picture of Venice.
– ".
ºw. º/
º
/*
ſ/
\
Z
|\!/?
Aººſ.
º tº-
%%
A. Miſſ.
A goods carrier in Naples.








ITALY.
These carts, noticeable in Rome and other cities of Italy, are something
like the huge vehicles used for hauling merchandise across the vast pampas of
South America. A primitive cart somewhat similar to this, and drawn by three
animals, is used in central Asia. It is called an “araba."
This is a fine illustration of the variety and picturesqueness of
carriage, and the utility, cheapness, means to ends, that carriers
seek. It is serviceableness, not uniformity, that is important.
An Alpine team.



ITALY.
- º:
N
Nº
N -
N N
N- -
N
Nº.
W - w -
Vº Nº.
ſº ºw
A Sicilian ox cart.
- - - ---
In the country near Genoa. The cattle of Italy most extensively
raised are of the Podolian breed and have a white
or gray coat and enormous horns.
A Roman cart.














ITALY.
ŒŽ
^ （7)
�
………
Øſ,
----%%
/////{
//
º
º
A Sicilian carrier.
H
- º
atican.
's and the v
n St Peter
e
betwe
The pope passing
Naples.
Burden bearers of
Italian peasants on their way to the vineyards.




ITALY.
On the canal in Venice.
On his way to market.
A peddler.
ºº: º
ºfºrº
º º ºxº
A Venetian state barge.








ITALY.
Venetian gondola.
Carriage in Ticino, Italy.
Venetian boats.
On the Lago Maggiore, Italy.




3|apam and (Corea.
APAN is the Greece of the Orient. Its forms
of carriage represent the varied methods and
makeshifts that attend the growth of an indus-
trious, sturdy, peaceable, trading people. Many
of the devices of the very earliest times are still
used or are directly associated with those of a
later date. Methods of transportation in Japan
will always be distinctively characteristic, as
are those of other countries, although railroads,
electric cars and modern forms are being introduced. The great bulk
of the burdens of transportation in Japan from the earliest period has
been borne on the backs of men and women. This, with its strength-
giving influences, coupled with the energy and thrift of the people, has
made them strong and hardy. They are also brave, frugal and adapt-
ive. They appreciate withal the value of a liberal and stable govern-
ment, but are not imbued with the visionary schemes that are j
ing good government in many countries that esteem themselves much
farther advanced in civilization. At the present time horses are used
more or less in Japan to draw vehicles. Formerly they were employed
only to bear burdens. Oxen, that at one time were used to haul loads,
are now scarcely used at all. Much less use has been made of ani-
mals in connection with carriage in Japan than is the custom in Europe
or America. Men and women delight in the hardy exercise and labor
of burden bearing. The men of Japan are noted for their courage,
strength, dexterity and endurance. They are a nation of athletes.
This will seem remarkable to the meat-eating world when told that
the majority of the men and women of Japan live on rice, tea, and a
bit of vegetable and fish. The Japanese are both practical and realis-
tic, commercial and esthetical. They are skillful in manufacturing,
merchandising and agriculture, and their artistic sense is exquisite.
Their cleanliness and industry are especially noticeable. The Japanese
possesses a distinctive physical type, and his civilization, religion, liter-
ature and language are his own. He has a written history extending
over twenty-five hundred years. The emperor traces his ancestry
back in unbroken descent for a like period. The patriotism of the
Japanese is intense, so great, indeed, as to verge on provincialism.
There can be no doubt that Japan is destined to occupy a great place
in the future in the history of the far east, and to modify, if not entirely
change, what has been believed to be the destiny of that portion of the
world. Japan consists of a chain of islands in the east of Asia, off the
coast. It is bounded on the west by the Strait of Corea and the Sea
of Japan, and surrounded on the other sides by the Pacific Ocean. It
is one of the oldest countries in the world and contains some forty
millions of people. The area of Japan covers nearlv one hundred and
fifty-six thousand square miles.
Corea is an independent kingdom lying to the northwest of Japan
on a peninsula jutting out from the mainland. It has an area of about
ninety thousand square miles, and a population estimated at about
nine millions. The peninsula is some five hundred miles long and
has an average width of one hundred and forty miles. Japan and
Corea are embodied herein in one section as their forms of carriage are
much the same. The pictures relating to Japan come first; those of
Corea follow. Corea has no railroads and there are but three ways
of traveling, namely, in chairs, on horseback and on foot. Travelers
usually take their food with them, and if they do not take bedding,
they are compelled to sleep on the floor, as the inns are not provided
with beds. Accommodations for travelers are primitive and expensive.
The people are, however, kindly and peaceful.

JAPAN.
-----
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The chariot of the emperor in former times.
A sturdy porter.














JAPAN.
A doctor's attendant carrying medicines.
Drawing a cart containing a beggar through the streets, asking for alms.
The law now forbids begging on the streets except on the first, fifteenth and
twenty-eighth days of the month, and then only at the Buddhist temples.
Returning to the shop after delivering goods in the city.



JAPAN.
Their costumes bear the trade marks
of their employers.
Coolies, i.e., porters, carrying stone.
The flag on the wagon indicates that it is for the government.
A perambulating library and librarian.
Books distributed in this manner are called
for or exchanged a few days after delivery
at a nominal cost to the reader.
Transporting timber.



JAPAN.
//////////
///
.·
ſ.
ſae[2]，
，：
·-
ſae …
ſae，<！<<<
（）
№ae，
ſae
3
Female kindling wood vendor.
A white wine vendor. This wine is sold on the streets
only at certain seasons of the year.


Z
<r.
Q–
<r.
−
Japanese carpenters.
A carrier.
Loading a porter with merchandise.



JAPAN.
A kindling wood peddler.
-
Pºvº-
Tºtal
ſ
º
Q
º
2
Crossing a shallow stream. The passenger wears the costume of a pilgrim,
his amulet bearing the name of the god he worships.
form of ferriage is still common in Corea.
This
2. _2~
~~~~ -- ^ *-* \º -
- Yºº - *Cº.
** 2:
<< gº tºx-º- -*.
--- -
ºr-
A form of ferriage common in early days in Japan







JAPAN.
Japanese fisherwoman. Men catch the fish in that
country and women dispose of them.
\
Ż ºr ſ
%iº |
-- <> Women selling articles at the festival in Kloto.
Wº %"
WWº. º -
W Wº | | AXV w Éiº
Wº -------- -->
W. -
|º
==WYN
\
N
WWWW
N W º W
Nºvº
Sº
Litter covered with woven wire, formerly used in the city of Tokyo for carrying criminals from a
lower to a higher court. An official stands in front of the litter.





JAPAN.
Method of carrying marriage gifts in olden times. It is still practiced in Japan where there is a
desire to cling to old customs. Ten or twelve of these litters filled with gifts are sometimes exchanged
between the families of the bride and groom. This was done during the evening, the way being
lighted by a Japanese lantern. The family emblem is emblazoned on the side of the litter.
A begging friar who goes about ringing a bell, stopping
from time to time to show the idols he carries in the case on his
back. He solicits alms for food and to help him on his pilgrim-
age. In some instances his face is covered to protect it from
the weather. Noted criminals have been discovered wearing
the costume and acting the role of a begging friar.
LTTI
FI º
||| ºf-
—ºf T
--~ [.
-º-º-
- Sº "LH
A Japanese porter in dishabille—a favorite costume of the coolies in hot weather.












JAPAN.
- -
º -
4 º'
tºº
A fruit peddler
— e.
—º.
. - º º
Nurse girl with her charge. Young girls
are trained to bear burdens
in this way
A litter for common people.







JAPAN.
A “cango,” or mountain litter, pronounced by foreigners as exceedingly uncomfortable.
A traveler on the island of Loo Choo
Mountain litter. Foreigners regard this chair as the most disagreeable
means of conveyance ever devised.



JAPAN.
Only a primitive, hardy people would think
of carrying merchandise across a stream on the
backs of porters instead of by boats or rafts
Between a divinity and the deep sea.
The life of a ferryman in the west is prosaic enough.
In far off Japan it seems to be more varied.
Still another primitive ferry




JAPAN.
Hauling freight. The great bulk of the merchandise and products of the empire
is carried on two-wheeled carts, pushed and pulled by native porters.
Carriage a century ago.
~ - --~
--------->~~~~ º:
-------T-
rº-sº
Traveler with his traps A charcoal peddler.









JAPAN.
A mail carrier.
Travel in the interior.
A lamp peddler.
Beginning of the postal system.




JAPAN. M
The jin-riki-shas, portrayed on this page, afford the principal means
of transportation in Japan. There are said to be ten thousand jin-riki-shas
in use in the city of Tokyo alone. They are hauled and pushed by men.
This hardy exercise adds to the vigor and strength of the people. The heat
in some parts of Japan is intense. When it becomes oppressive the coolies
throw off their clothes with easy conventionality, substituting therefor a
loin cloth, straw sandals and a light, airy hat. In rainy weather the in-
habitants protect themselves with over-garments made of straw or oiled
paper. The quality of paper, however, is almost equal in strength and
durability to linen.

JAPAN.
Pack ox-formerly common, now
hardly used at all.
T -
[.
º %
&_AºA ſ
º ºf
Lº
This form of vehicle is used at festivals, oftentimes platforms being built one above another, a figure surmounting the
whole representing some historical person, god, or genius of fun.
ſº
ſº º
Carriage of the emperor in the olden time The vehicle was highly ornamented with gold and silver; the wheels,
while apparently heavy, were light.









JAPAN.
A freight carrier.
Pack horse laden with huge bowls for cooking rice.
Horse equipped with straw shoes and reins of cotton. An extra supply
of shoes is carried under the stirrups of the rude saddle.
Japanese representation of wild horses. These animals are still
to be found in some parts of Japan.




JAPAN.
A Japanese gentleman.
A sturdy carrier.
º º
The journey of a Japanese dignitary in olden times.



JAPAN.
&S
j.
Tºrr
--
§§§º a
A water cart.
A bunch of coffins and how they are carried. The corpse is placed in a sitting posture
according to a Buddhist rite. The barrel-shaped receptacle is used by very
poor people; the others by the common classes.
A group of primitive sledges and carts.





JAPAN.
Basket and sickle.
A mountain ferry. This was a favorite method of crossing impassable gorges in the olden time.
and baskets were made of vines and the pliant bark of a tree.
The ropes
l- ".
º
- - --~~~~-
- zººs ºº*
Žºrž zº:32:
- $ ºzº &
- - - 223
£3. 3s gº
£3: º33
º - - ºxº~~~ º º
-
3. § - - - -
2× 3º Š:
§32&#3
- º-º-º-º-º-º-º-o-
sºx
Frame for carrying a pack on the back.














JAPAN.
A picturesque fishing craft. The net is pulled up, as shown above.
Whaling vessel manned by aborigines. The aboriginal inhabitants of Japan were a short, dark, hairy race, called Ainos.
They may yet be found in the northern part of the island of Yezo.
A boat drawn by swans is poetic, but how odorless compared with a boat loaded with beautiful women drawn
by gallant men, buffeting the waves in advance. While the conception is ideal, it is
quite in accordance with realities of life in Japan.



JAPAN.
Freight junk.
º
--
.
i
#
º
º
3.
Man-of-war of the sixteenth century. The flags at the stern are ensigns of the feudal lord in charge. The
boat is richly decorated inside and out. Craft of this character were limited in size according to the rank of
the lord. One or two cannons were carried on board, but most of the fighting was done with swords.
A war junk of the olden time. The sail bears the emblem of the chief
of the feudal lords.
Off the coast of Japan.









JAPAN,
&sºs --
§º
Sºº tº
A pleasure boat in Tokyo. Excursions are Popular both in summer and winter. The boats
carry about ten persons, are provided with cooking utensils
and are propelled by men with oars.
º
-* " _
*
—- -
º
Floating his goods to market.
- >=-- -
A picnic boat of other days.
A scene on the beach in primitive days.

















JAPAN.
|
No one can look upon this picture of the far east without feeling an
irresistible desire to enjoy its dreamy languor. While the artistic
features are not borne out by either cleanliness or comfort, yet they
appeal to us no less strongly.
- *…*...” º
- --- º -
- - - - - -
§ºß º --- =
º: \t ºº: anº- T. º - /
º F-º- LT. ºr ºrg/__ "…
*: º HH Tºrº---- --~~
-º- º
A freight transport at the dock in Tokyo.
---.
--
Officials of the custom house at Nagasaki.
A pleasure party.









JAPAN.
The Japanese God of Treasure. On the back of his horse is
supposed to be every kind of treasure cherished by man. He is
represented as hunting for good men to whom he may distribute
his favors.
fisy N
The Japanese are the Greeks of the nineteenth century. They are - | N]
|
º
highly imaginative and have their mythological heroes, just as the Greeks
would have had to-day could they have maintained an uninterrupted life as
the Japanese have been able to do. It does not require any stretch of
imagination upon the part of the people of Japan to believe that one of
their gods might be carried from place to place on the back of a crane.
They accept it as a matter of course. They have a legend that the founder
of the ancient capital and holy city of Nara visited the site, before locating,
on the back of a deer, and, respecting this tradition, these animals are not
molested by residents. The Japanese God of Age, shown above, is one of
their seven Gods of Fortune, his especial gift being long life. He is sup-
posed to be conveyed over the world on the back of a crane (a sacred bird in
Japan), supposed to live a thousand years. The Japanese account of the
creation quite rivals the Grecian in beauty. According to the Japanese,
Izanagi and Izanami, the first man and woman, stood together on a floating
bridge in the high heavens. Izanagi, drawing his jeweled falchion or
spear, plunged it into the unstable waters beneath and, withdrawing it,
the drops of water that trickled from its glistening point formed an island,
upon which they descended. This island was Japan. Could anything be
more poetical?
The Japanese God of Man's Destiny. The scroll in his hand is sup-
posed to tell the past, present and future of man's destiny, and by wor-
shiping him it is believed he will avert bad fortune. He is dressed in the
costume of the ancient Chinese sages, worn about two thousand years ago.
The rat is claimed to be an especial favorite of the God of
Treasure. He is represented here as a servant of that god,
carrying on his shoulders the sacred staff, from one end of
which is suspended a bag of money, and from the other end a
summer dress and fan used by sacred beings. He wears the
costume of a sacred servant.




COREA.
QN Nº.
- º 2.
A Corean monocycle or chair. The weight of the passenger is borne by the single wheel, A Corean prisoner's chair.
kept erect by the handles held by the coolies.
() 2:-
N/ 2.
ſº
º º
º º
º -
/
An ancient Corean nobleman with attendants. The footman at the left carries a supply of straw sandals on his back, fresh
ones being necessary at frequent intervals.
7/-
º
A Corean sedan chair for people of the higher class.












COREA.
Corean coolies (laborers.
- Rºll - SN
-
TIII III. |
--~~~~
-
Corean water carriers.
A Corean timber carrier.



COREA.
Corean farmer on his way to market.
A Corean candy vendor
~~）;
−
Corean monk carriers.
A Corean lantern carrier.




COREA.
·
§.
<s>
§§
~）.
Corean laundresses going to the river.
Coreans carrying babies.
Men and women in this hitherto little known country (aptly
Corean carriers.
") actively compete as burden
termed the “hermit kingdom
bearers with animal carriers.


















COREA.
ſ
A Corean sedan chair for common use.
A Corean palanquin.
Corean package carrier
O
A Corean sedan chair for common officials.
A Corean sedan chair for people of the higher class.
It is carried by four men.





COREA.
|
A Corean boat. ſ
7. Yº
|-- º --
ºn T. -
E---
A Corean junk in harbor.
A Corean junk in motion.
Corean vessel. Everything about the Coreans
is interesting. Their method of reefing the sails
of vessels is peculiarly oriental.
A pleasure boat in Corean waters.








3tladagascar.
N no country in the world, not excepting Africa,
are methods of carriage more primitive than in
this far off country in the southeastern seas.
There are no highways—only rude paths.
Upon these the burdens of carriage are borne
on the shoulders of stalwart natives. Vehicles
can not be used except in local instances. Rude
palanquins with canvas seats attached to poles
carried on the shoulders of attending negroes are the highest type of
transportation the country affords. adagascar has been known for
a thousand years or more, but is still uncivilized, still undeveloped—
much of it still unexplored. The aboriginal inhabitants are negroes.
The island of Madagascar is situated in the Indian Ocean, some two
hundred miles east of the mainland of Africa. It has an estimated
area of two hundred and forty thousand square miles, and a popula-
tion of about three and a half millions. The numerous rivers on the
island afford only meager facilities for internal navigation. They
spread into lakes in the #. regions and are slow, shallow and feeble
when they reach the seashore. Madagascar is noted for its India
rubber and other valuable forest trees. The French claim a protect-
orate over the island.

MADAGASCAR.
A high official of Tamatave
A hat, a cotton shirt and a cane constitue a full dress
in interior Madagascar.


MADAGASCAR.
A hide seller.
A wood peddler.
A basket slung on each end of a long stick, carried on the shoulder,
is a step in advance of carrying burdens in
the hands or on the back.



MADAGASCAR.
Madagascar, although it has been known to Arab
merchants for more than a thousand years and has
been frequently visited by Europeans since the begin-
ning of the sixteenth century, is still imperfectly
explored.
Still another form of primitive transportation.
A luxurious passenger conveyance and an active group of carriers.



MADAGASCAR.
A filanzana. A piece of wood suspended from the poles
supports the feet of the passenger.
-
The progress of a former queen of Madagascar.
Embarking cattle at Tamatave. The oxen of Madagascar are remarkable
for their enormous dorsal hump and the membranous
folds of skin about the throat.



3tlalam A
ETHODS of transportation in this region, some-
times called the Eastern or Indian Archipelago,
H. nothing new except in water carriage.
he Malays belong to the Mongolian family
and partake of its characteristics. They are,
however, more courageous, venturesome, §
and warlike. Living on the borders of the sea,
they are much upon its waters. They are good
sailors, but are poor constructors. Their ideas are not much farther
advanced than those of the North American Indians. In the main,
their vessels are little more than canoes hollowed out of logs with
balancing outriders on one or both sides to steady them. In this latter
idea they have improved on the dug-out of the Red man. While the
people of Europe or America would hardly venture to sea in vessels
rchipelago.
considered of the highest order in Malaysia, we concede their craft a
picturesqueness that we do not accord our own vessels. But here
commendation ceases. In connection with the larger islands making
up the Malay Archipelago or Dutch East Indies (notably Sumatra,
Java and Borneo), higher excellence in methods of carriage is attained
than elsewhere. But even here it is very crude. The vessels are
cumbersome and lacking in important essentials. Carriage on land is
still more backward. #. camel and ass do not thrive in this locality,
and the horse is a luxury rather than a staple article. The buffalo
and Indian bullock of the Brahma species are the domesticated animals
most in use. The Malay Archipelago is situated southeast of Asia
between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and embraces the most exten-
sive group of islands in the world. Among them are Java, Sumatra,
Borneo, Celebes, Philippine, Moluccas, Floris and Banda.

MALAYSIA.
Malaysian craft. It is constructed larg
ey of bamboo and is covered with a thatched roof.
Characteristic Malay craft.
The outrigger steadies the vessel and permits a large spread of canvas.


MALAYSIA.
Javanese craft. Nothing could be more cool and inviting than this
picture. Yet it is probable that the thermometer is 100 degrees above
zero. The climate of Java is extremely hot, otherwise it could not pro-
duce coffee.
Javanese passenger boat. A bamboo outrigger is placed on each side of the vessel and the sail so arranged
that a large surface is presented to the wind as low down as possible.
Off the coast of Java. It is said that the method of rigging sailing vessels amongst
the people of the classical period was the same as the above, namely,
one mast with two yards and a square sail.



MALAYSIA.
Carriage in Java. This vessel resembles the old-fashioned canal packet. It is, however, not nearly so comfortable.
Its thatched roof, while picturesque, affords only a frail protection.
wide paddle of the steersman is crude.
southeastern seas, so crude a method of propelling a vessel of this size.
Off the coast of Manilla, Philippine Islands.
The bamboo mast with sail attached lies unused. The
It would probably be impossible to find, outside of the semi-savage people of the
W |
-
--
zzº
P- º:
2: 4
- ~~
- ->
--- -
-*-*.
º º,
--~ * **
- - º
A primitive war vessel. The arm of the outrigger is used to carry the warriors and
at the same time trim the vessel. The sail is of peculiar shape, made of skins fastened to
bamboo poles. The end of the sail resting on the stern of the boat is held in place by guy
ropes from the sides.











MALAYSIA.
|
||||| ſº
\ || **)
|\ |\ |\ .
º | | T … Nº *
º | | | | || º | \ º \\ º
º | | * * A. -- º
\\ º \\ | - - º \\ *
\ |\ \.
\\ \\ - \\\\
\ \\ | - \ \ º \
\ N -- - \ \\\\\\\\ --
\ Nº. \ \ \ \ -º-º:
N Nº. Mº
º - - --> - -
Ž º º -
- Z 74% 3/3// Ž/////º3////////-
- – **** - - , ſº - --
------------------- = * -- _- ** - - - - == * -- --- - ~
Another view of the foregoing picture.
sº--es S
º-º- w
- - - - sº
- --- * > -- - ºs-
- * ----- - - - --
- º - T------~ -- º'-' º- - - - -
- - - - - *-- ~~~~~~ --- - -
Malay vessel.
The sail is rolled up like a mast. The craft is steadied and aided by the men on the outriggers.
While the illustration is defective, it portrays the arrangement of the different
banks of oars, three in all.
A vessel in the Indian archipelago. "








MALAYSIA. /
On the Perak river, Malacca.
The Dutch have held possession of the East Indies for some three hundred years. The above cut
represents one of their vessels in the early period of occupation.
º
-º-
-
tº
tº ".
Dutch vessel of the Indian archipelago, sixteenth century.
In the Strait of Malacca.









MALAYSIA.
House boat on the Batang Lupar river in
Sarawak, Borneo.
Primitive life among the Nikobar islands in the Indian ocean.
Transporting cattle from the port of Batavia to the ships.
This delicate little craft is built with duplicate outriggers to preserve its balance The idea of constructing a vessel
broad enough to withstand rough weather does not seem to have occurred to the primitive people of the Malay archipelago.
The counterpoise here presented solved the problem of a sea-going vessel and rendered further advance in naval architecture
in their opinion unnecessary.




MALAYSIA.
Freight coaster, East India Islands
Coaster formerly used in the slave trade.
Boat belonging to the Molucca or Spice Islands.
A Singapore craft.




MALAYSIA.
Milkman of Manilla, Philippine Islands.
A basket seller of Borneo.
- --
-- -------
- --- --
Carriage in the *y of Singapore, on an island of the same name off
the south end of the Malay peninsula,





MALAYSIA.
Borneo is largely dependent upon man as a carrier.
Domestic animals are few. In some districts bullocks of
the Brahmin breed are used. The buffalo is sometimes
employed in agriculture. A few horses, introduced by
Europeans, but possessed only by the wealthier classes,
are found. The palanquin is a common means of trans-
portation.
i
ſ
|
A native of Borneo. His shield is made of a soft, tough wood, adorned
with human hair. He carries a combination spear and blow-pipe, with which
he shoots his arrows, poisoned with the juice of the upas tree and other herbs
in the jungles.
S.s#
§
i.
§
w-
Primitive water carrier of Manilla, the capital
of the Philippine Islands. The water is carried
in a bamboo stalk plugged at the ends.
-- - -l- zº-
---> Ǻ {</*~.
The sledge in the Philippine Islands is a substitute for the cart
used in other countries. It is made of bamboo.





t
uresque a more interesting field than Mexico.
Quaint and old fashioned, its people and their
ways are ideal from the standpoint of the traveler.
Railroads are doing much to obliterate primitive
ways, but off from these thoroughfares the habits
of the people are those of four hundred years ago;
the habits of old Spain and Portugal mingled with
Aztec peculiarities and memories. A considerable part of the popula-
tion of Mexico is made up of pure Indians, descendants of the myste-
rious race of Mound Builders who held sway there in prehistoric times.
Methods of carriage in Mexico differ radically from those of her north-
ern neighbors. #. are partly modeled after those in vogue when
the country was conquered by Cortez, partly after those of Spain.
The traveler is continually reminded of the less frequented parts of the
latter country. Mexican men and women are natural burden bearers,
the most sturdy and dexterous in the world. Theirs is the acquired
skill of many centuries, for before Cortez the natives had never seen
an animal carry a burden. They had been in the habit of availing
themselves of water carriage so far as possible, but on land the whole
burden fell on men and women, and as the population was dense and
civilization far advanced, the labor was a great one. The vehicles of
Mexico are, in the main, similar to those of Spain. In the United
States wagons with four wheels are the rule; in Mexico such vehicles
are almost unknown, carts being used. The Mexicans are fond of
horses and noted for their fine horsemanship. They have all the love
of the Spaniard for finery in connection with the trappings of their
steeds. Diminutive burros (asses), with big heads, stout legs and
compact bodies, outnumber many times all other kinds of Mexican
itlexico and (ſemtral America.
carriers. The trains of these little animals that are to be met with
everywhere continually remind the traveler of Palestine and Egypt.
Indeed there is much besides to suggest the latter country. The don-
key trains and picturesque Mexicans with their many-colored serapes
and solemn Oriental manners remind one more of the east than of the
west. Primitive carriage in Central America is not so full as in Mex-
ico. The methods are largely those of new countries fashioned after
modern forms. The community is not lacking in thrift and ingenuity,
but it has not the picturesqueness of Mexico. Few countries have.
Mexico, formerly called New Spain, lies in the southern part of North
America. The country is a great ridge (supposed to have been raised
by volcanic forces) between two oceans. It has an area of about seven
hundred and forty-one thousand square miles, and a population in the
neighborhood of eleven millions. Central America is an irregular
country lying between Mexico and South America, bounded on the
east by the §. Sea and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Its
area is about one hundred and seventy-three thousand eight hundred
square miles and its population in the neighborhood of two million
seven hundred thousand. It is a mountainous region containing many
high plateaus and volcanoes. The country is subject to earthquakes.
The colony of Balize is governed by the British. All the other coun-
tries of Central America at the present time are republics. The names
of the countries and their estimated area and population are as follows:
Balize, 7,560 square miles, population 31,500; Costa Rica, 21,495
. miles, population 238,800; Guatemala, 40,777 square miles, pop-
ulation 1,225,000; Honduras, 47,090 square miles, population 432,000;
Nicaragua, 49,500 square miles, population 283,000; San Salvador,
7,335 square miles, population 435,000.

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
T
t
==
=
º
ſ SQ
// --
* tº
% * * -
Žſº
º º
-
Mexican carrier.
Primitive Mexican ox cart.



MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
Primitive Mexican vehicle.
The Mexican aquador, or water carrier.
Mexican water carrier.
Mexican woman. Observe the rack in which
she carries her child.
A Mexican water carrier.





MEXICO AND CENTRAL
AMERICA.
Mexican peddler.
Carriage in Mexico is divided between human
beings and the burro, the former doing, perhaps,
more than half the work. Railroads are being
introduced throughout the country, but have
sharp competition from the sources named.
Mexican carrying a bale of hay. It is hung
on his back by a rope around his chest. The
shoulder yoke and frame have been adopted by
many Mexicans for carrying purposes. No
people in the world show greater skill than they
in carrying a burden.
EF-
The native woman of Mexico does
her full share of manual labor. She
works in the field as well as in the
house, ever patient, hardy and in-
dustrious.




MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
Primitive carriage in Mexico. The wheelbarrow is made of wood; a strap hung
from one shoulder and passing under the right arm supports the shafts.
Mexican peddler selling water jars. The jars
ſº are similar to those used in ancient times.
In the Mexican mines.
Mexican butcher delivering meat from a basket
of woven split cane. A heavy pad under the basket
serves as a protection to his back.




MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
An old-fashioned Mexican cart.
à
------ ------ -
- ---- - - - -**
- ----- - - -----
Mexican farm cart.
Carriage of merchandise in the Cordillera
mountains of Honduras.
Mexican ox cart.
In Mexico, as in nearly every other country
in the world, the ox is found useful for hauling
burdens. Except in India, however, he is incapa-
ble of making much speed.





MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
In rural Mexico.
An ecclesiastical dignitary of Mexico.
Mexican ranchman


MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
Carriage of water in Mexico.
A stage in the evolution of transportation; a step in
advance of the primitive sledge.
º |
- º
Carriage in Mexico in early days. The use of donkeys for carrying the palanquin is
a step in advance of the custom of employing men for the purpose.
In the Cordillera mountains, Honduras.
The Mexicans, like the Spaniards, are extremely picturesque
in their costumes and methods.





MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
Mexican Indians going to market.
Before the conquest of Cortez the great capital of the Aztecs, the City of Mexico,
was supplied almost wholly in this way.
A burro, or donkey.
2. - m i
fººl
º H
ſ i H. º
&#####||
º
A Mexican carrier | Ai
|
AM
*\\
|W
Mºw
U
iW. M
W
§
N
Carriage in Mexico in the sixteenth century.











































Gſ) . * z O * S-
iPersia-Ancient iram.
3HIS name conjures up many memories to the lover
C- º of ancient history. It recalls Rollins' fables;
< 'º. Cyrus, the great Persian; his subjugation of
Sº, Media, Babylon and Susa; the downfall of
Croesus; Xerxes' invasion of Greece; the Retreat
of the Ten Thousand, and, finally, the conquest
of the Persian Empire and the overthrow of the
great king by Alexander the Great. The center
of power for two hundred and twenty-five years, it thereafter disappears
as a factor in the affairs of men. The Persia of our day is much
larger than the diminutive kingdom out of which Cyrus first marched
his army. But the people are not the people of Cyrus; they lack their
patriotism, courage, physique and homogeneity. Persia has a mixed
population such as we might expect to find in a country that has been
a battle field for thousands of years and the focus of many invasions
and counter-invasions. Methods of carriage conform to physical and
social conditions and differ little from what they were in the time of
Cyrus, twenty-four hundred years ago. While the disposition of the
government is, on the whole, friendly to railroads, the country is not
able to support them. The internal commerce of the country is car-
ried on by means of horses, mules and camels. Oxen are much used
for agricultural purposes. The Persian camel is stronger than that of
India or Afghanistan. It is said to be able to carry seven hundred
pounds. The Persians cross the Bactrian camel (two hump) with
the Arabian (one hump) camel. The government is an absolute
despotism under a Shah, who is the vice-regent of the prophet. The
population is divided into those who live in towns and villages, and
those who live in tents. The latter generally live on the hills in sum-
mer, each having his particular locality, and in the lowlands in winter.
The Persians are kind, hospitable and obliging, and cleanly in their
habits. Slavery is practiced, but it is said they treat their slaves as
highly prized servants rather than mere creatures. Persia is bounded
on the north by the Caspian Sea and a portion of the Russian Empire;
on the east by Russia, Afghanistan and Beloochistan; on the south by
the Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf, and on the west by Asiatic Turkey.
It has an estimated population of about nine millions and an area of
six hundred and thirty-five thousand square miles, much of which is
tableland without water.

PERSIA.
Mussulman pilgrims on their way to the Holy City of Meshed.
º: .
-- º
º
A Persian family.
--~~
ſºlº
"Nº-º-
NS
-
º
Nº.
*…*.
!/A
wº-




PERSIA.
Typical Persian and donkey. The donkey occupies an
important position among the tame
animals of Persia.
TN=
{|| |M||
-
This form of palanquin is more or less used, especially
where the country is rough.
>
Carriage in the mountainous districts, where wheeled
vehicles would be of little or no use, is carried on partly
by the aid of donkeys, with paniers attached to either
side, as shown above. This method of land carriage
is about the first of which we have any illustration.
Government courier carrying the news of an uprising.







PERSIA.
-
A Gipsy family.
Persian woman in Teheran, the capital of Persia
The face of a Persian woman is
veiled when in public.
Persian water carrier. The sack is made
of skin, carried over the shoulder by a
leather thong *ttached to each end of the
**ter bag. This method of distributing
water is more or less practiced in all the
oriental countries, and was found to be
common in Mexico and Peru when they
Persian farmer's Cart. were discovered by the Spaniards.




Hiłussia and Siberia.
N all highly civilized countries under stable and
fairly well administered governments like that of
Russia, primitive forms of carriage are not gen-
erally found except in out-of-the-way places; in
the nooks and corners of the country, so to speak.
Russia, however, covers so vast a territory, much
of which has only recently been subjected to civ-
ilizing influences, that her methods of carriage
embrace an unusual variety of forms. Every country, however, has
some predominating idea. This is so of Russia. It is the sledge. The
long winters and superabundance of snow make this a means of car-
riage par excellence. The great rivers of Russia have, however,
always been favorite avenues of communication and trade. While
railroads are actively encouraged, the extent of the country and its
comparative newness and scant population prevent their general intro-
duction. This necessitates other forms of carriage, in the main primi-
tive. The government encourages, and in many instances maintains,
post horses and routes. It is said there are over one hundred thou-
sand miles of post roads in Russia and five thousand stations connected
therewith maintained by the government. In Siberia and the east the
raising of horses, cattle and sheep is the principal industry. Forms of
transportation conform, generally, thereto. Because of the extreme
cold in Northern Siberia, dogs and reindeer are much used. Horses
and cattle cannot withstand the severe climate. In the Caucasus the
camel is a favorite. In Russia proper the people are agriculturists, and
as the industry is oftentimes barely self-sustaining, forms of carriage
are necessarily the most economical that can be devised. Russia, the
largest state in the world, comprises the whole of the northern part of
Europe and Asia. It has an area of nearly eight and a half million
square miles and a population of about one hundred millions. Euro-
pean Russia is bounded on the north by Norway and the Arctic Ocean,
on the east by Siberia and the Caspian Sea, on the south by Persia,
the Black Sea and the Ottoman Empire, on the west by Austria, Prus.
sia, the Baltic Sea and Sweden. Its surface is a vast plain, enclosed
on the east, south and a portion of the west by mountain chains.
Siberia is included in Asiatic Russia and extends from the Ural Mount-
ains on the west to the Pacific Ocean on the east. It is bounded on
the north by the Arctic Ocean and on the south by the Chinese Empire
and Turkestan. In the western portion of Siberia are extensive steppes
inhabited by the Cossack tribes, while in the north is a vast desert
region peopled by tribes in the lowest state of barbarism.

RUSSIA AND SIBERIA.
On the great post road in Siberia.
Favorite means of carriage in Novgorod. By the use of the high circular yoke
duga, so universal in Russia, the shafts to which it is attached
become fixed, making the whole a rigid frame.


RUSSIA AND SIBERIA.
- , 7 º º, ſº
A rough road in Siberia.
|
|.
A winter scene. Dipping water from the Neva for use in St. Petersburg
Removing snow from the streets in St. Petersburg.
Typical Russian conveyance.




RUSSIA AND SIBERIA.
As primitive man's wants multiplied, the conveyance of persons and merchandise on
the backs of animals was attended with serious drawbacks: the
invention of the sledge and the cart followed
Pursued by wolves.
Z . º
ºv, º
º Ž 4/
º
Ø
77//
A/
&
Russian peasant.
º
º
The ox as a draft animal in Russia.
















RUSSIA AND SIBERIA.
Sledge drawn by dogs. The attendant is provided with snow-shoes.
bow and arrows and necessary provisions.
--~~
*** -
----------~~
------
------------
On the road in Siberia.
Between Yeniseisk and Kasnoiarsk.




RUSSIA AND SIBERIA.
Carriage in Georgia The Georgians are distinguished for their high mental qualities, personal courage and love of music. /
The women are bold riders and sit astride the animal.
A Cossack. This name originally applied to certain Russian tribes
on the southern frontiers of Russia in Europe that are now scattered.
The Cossacks are very superstitious, and in the midst of a conflict have
been known to give chase to a hare in order to avert an omen by its
destruction. They still retain a measure of the freebooter's fondness - -- -
for plunder. Native of the wild border country east of the Caspian sea.
The inhabitants generally live in tents.
º, ~. ****



RUSSIA AND SIBERIA.
Mail carriage between Kars and Alexandropol, Russia. The mail bags are carried behind
the driver. An armed guard rides ahead.
A mountaineer.
Bashkirs, inhabitants of the southern Ural districts of Russia.
Cossacks stopping to water their horses while on the march.



RUSSIA AND SIBERIA.
Carriage in Baku, a town on the coast of the
Caspian sea. This vicinity is celebrated for
petroleum springs, and in ancient times was held
in veneration by the Parsees, fire worshipers.
The mail express.
Distributing water in St. Petersburg
A Russian stage coach.




RUSSIA AND SIBERIA.
Russian hay cart.
A baku cart.
On the steppes of Russia. Three horses are often driven
abreast. In all such cases the largest and
most speedy is placed in the middle.
A Russian telega, a vehicle in which imperial couriers and travelers, who have not
made other provision, are carried.




RUSSIA AND SIBERIA.
Peasant of Livonia, a Baltic province
Native women of Georgia, Asia. These people are supposed to be descendants of Persian emigrants or Arabs
of Mesopotamia, driven northward by Tartar conquests The women are noted for their beauty
Women as burden bearers. Much laborious
out-door work is performed by
women in Russia.
Picturesque Circassian carriers




RUSSIA AND SIBERIA.
A water carrier. Buckets are among the articles which every
householder is bound by law to provide himself with. On each
cottage is to be seen a rough painting of the implement which the
owner is expected to have ready in case of fire. -
Hostler carrying water.
Peasants of Georgia on their way to market.
Russian water carrier.
A freight wagon.





RUSSIA AND SIBERIA.
—A-
Sºº'ſ
º º º º: T tº-
*- =º º
º,
º
J
MA
*- - º W Tºw
K= - - -
E-
- -wº *T -
- --- – ----------
-----
A group of Russian carriers.




RUSSIA AND SIBERIA.
Freight carrier of the Caucasus.
A wanderer on the shores of the Aral.
Passenger carrier of the Caucasus.
Natives.
A primitive outfit.





RUSSIA AND SIBERIA.
Siberian mail boat on the Yenesei river. The mail is carried by sledge in winter.
During the short season of navigation in Siberia methods of transportation are not
noticeably different from those of central and eastern Asia. The form
of paddle used in the above picture is peculiarly oriental.
Seal hunting in the Kara sea. The inhabitants of the fur-bearing regions
of Siberia are made up of political exiles and a few savage tribes.
River boat of Siberia. It is drawn on shore at night and used to sleep in.



South America.
ILE North America did not contain a single
primitive beast of burden when the continent
was discovered four hundred years ago, South
America possessed the llama, which the natives
used for purposes of carriage, and still use. In
some respects it resembles the camel, but is
diminutive and a poor substitute for either the
camel, ox or horse. The accompanying illus-
trations of carriage in South America are interesting and varied, con-
sidering the newness of everything. One can not but be impressed
with the vastness of the country and the devices that have been
brought into play for cheapening and expediting primitive methods of
carriage. Railroads are everywhere encouraged. The two-wheeled
cart, so seldom seen in the far north, is here a favorite vehicle, not
only in the cities but on the vast pampas of the interior. In Brazil,
which has a large negro population, many of the simple devices of
equatorial Africa are noticed. The methods of carriage of the Peru-
vians are, on the whole, the most attractive of any. #., resemble
those of Mexico somewhat, and are more or less permeated with the
spirit of the ancient civilization of the Incas. They suggest the con-
nection, impossible to define, between the civilization of a remote past
and the present. In this far-off country we are surprised to find ves-
sels and rafts made of inflated skins, the same in idea as those used by
the people of Central Asia three thousand years before our era. Is the
coincidence a chance one; if not, whence the avenue of connection?
In South America, as in other countries, every device that can be
made serviceable to facilitate and cheapen carriage is brought into play.
In the vast unsettled portions of the country, as in North America, the
bullock stands as the chief of carriers. Docile, he is easily kept, and
when no longer useful will furnish his owner food. This happy con-
junction has made him a favorite in every age, and will so long as
man possesses a stomach and has need of beasts of burden. South
America is a great triangular peninsula connected with North Amer-
ica on the northwest by the Isthmus of Panama. It is bounded on
the north by the Carribean Sea, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean,
on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and on the south by the Antarctic
Ocean. It is about four thousand eight hundred miles in extent from
north to south, and its greatest breadth is about three thousand two
hundred miles. Its estimated area is six million eight hundred thousand
square miles, and its population about thirty-five millions. Within
its boundaries lies the Amazon, the largest river in the world, four
thousand miles long. British Guiana, Dutch Guiana and French
Guiana are governed respectively by the British, Dutch and French.
All the rest of the countries of South America are republics. The
names of the various countries with their estimated area and popula-
tion are as follows: Argentine Republic, 1,125,000 square miles, popu-
lation 4,050,000; Bolivia, 784,554 square miles, population 2,350,000;
Brazil, 3,209,878 square miles, population 14,000,000; Chile, 293,970
square miles, population 2,800,000; Colombia, 533,238 square miles,
population 3,878,000; Ecuador, 118,630 square miles, population
1,100,000; Guiana, British, 85,422 square miles, population 284,900;
Guiana, Dutch,40,000 square miles, population 69,300; Guiana, French,
27,560 square miles, population 25,000; Paraguay, 98,000 square
miles, population 1,400,000; Peru, 480,000 square miles, population
2,700,000; Uruguay, 71,740 square miles, population 595,000; Vene-
zuela, 632,695 square miles, population 2,150,000.

SOUTH AMERICA.
ºn tº . -
-- ^: + -
>~
º
º
Camping on the pampas on the way to market at Buenos Ayres.
Savages descending the Trombetas river, Brazil, in a native boat made of wicker work.


SOUTH AMERICA.
º sºº #!.
º - A.
£º
sº.º.º.º.
A Brazilian planter's family.
iº º 7.
This conveyance, like all those of Buenos Ayres and the South American countries, is such
as the sparsely settled country and vast distances to be traversed requires.
-º-
i
º ---.
- º
ºr rº
Primitive form of carriage in rural Chile
Transportation in Chile. Farm cart in the vicinity of the city of Santiago, Chile.














SOUTH AMERICA.
Ox cart commonly used on the pampas.
Chilean vehicle for carrying stone or other heavy material.
-- º s * -
º
Nº.
wºº
-
~ -
Cart used for the carriage of freight over the mountains and
across the vast plains of South America. The thatched roof is
at once cheap, effective and durable. Oxen pull the load.
Chilean vehicle for carrying light and
bulky merchandise.
Primitive Brazilian vehicle for hauling sugar-cane to mill.













SOUTH AMERICA.
A balancin, a clumsy two-wheeled Peruvian vehicle.
-** -
2-ºxº~ --~~~~
22- - ----------
The "caleza," an old-fashioned Peruvian carriage.
A carretonero, or carrier, of Lima, Peru.
A quaint form of carriage in Chile,





SOUTH AMERICA.
Peruvian courier
Chilean farmer on his way to market.
Carriage in Uruguay.
Carriage in Santiago, the capital of Chile.




SOUTH AMERICA.
Brazilian horse. Vast numbers of
horses, sprung from the original Euro-
pean stock, roam in a wild state over
the extensive plains of southern Brazil.
- # * - -
º º ------
A Patagonian hunter of the guanaco, an animal of the llama
species. Vast herds of the guanaco roam over the steppes of
South America and with the ostrich form a means of subsistence
for the native tribes. The hunters entangle the feet of their
prey by using thongs with metal balls attached, and are accom-
panied by dogs which kill the game after it is snared.
A Peruvian arriero, or muleteer, pre-
paring for a journey. His supplies are
carried in the pockets of the saddle.
People of good society in Peru ride on horseback in
European style. Women of the lower classes, however,
sit astride like men. If a family has only one horse, the
husband mounts behind the wife, as shown above.
A Peruvian pescadora, or fish
peddler. The coast of Peru was
originally inhabited by a diminu-
tive race of fishermen, called Chan-
gos, a gentle and hospitable peo-
ple, never exceeding five feet in
height. They fished in boats made
of inflated seal skins, lived in seal
skin huts and slept on heaps of
seaweed.









SOUTH AMERICA.
A mounted aquator, or water carrier, of Lima, Peru.
A method of carrying fluids in the interior of Chile.
A melon seller of Lima, Peru.
This illustrates a peculiar arrangement
of the panier, used in transporting passen-
gers and freight in Chile. The goods are
stowed away in the ample hampers at the
sides, while the passenger sits between them
on the back of the animal.
Carriage in Lima, Peru.
A baker's outfit.





SOUTH AMERICA.
- Carriage in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The
streets of the city are narrow. Even the fash-
ionable Rua do Ouvidor, which is lined on
both sides with handsome shops, is a mere
alley.
Fºr-º-
º
It is said that the llama was the only
animal on the American continent, at the
time of its discovery, utilized as a carrier.
The aborigines of South America thus
used it.
The llama is not only available as a beast of burden, but
is also valuable for its flesh, hide and wool. These animals
were often compared to sheep by the early writers. They
were used in Peru before the Spanish conquestin the sixteenth
century.
ſ
Negro porters carrying a barrel of sugar suspended from
poles resting on their shoulders, a common means of freight
transportation in Brazil.





SOUTH AMERICA.
A pongo, or water carrier, of Cuzco, Peru, the
old capital of the Incas.
A fisherman of Santos, Brazil.
The women of the lower classes in Brazil often carry
their babies fastened to their backs with a part of their
raiment, leaving their arms and hands free.
Peruvian peddler.




SOUTH AMERICA.
The canoes of the natives of the island of Navarino are made of the bark of the
beech tree, sewn together with wood fibre. The seams are caulked with
soaked and bleached stalks of wild celery mixed with clay.
Head band and basket used by the Napos
Indians of Ecuador for carrying purposes.
Sticks are also used to throw a portion of the
load upon the arms.
Peruvian soldier with his vivandiere, or
attendant, carrying wine and other refresh-
ments. Vivandieres are not recognized as a
class in the United States service. In the
French army, however, they are tolerated,
but are placed under special regulations. It
is a survival of savage life that women must
do all the work and men can only fight.
This unique palanquin is found in the valley of the Amazon, Brazil.




SOUTH AMERICA.
Primitive boat of the Indians of Peru.
-
=== º º sº M § -
-
Canoes of the natives of Dutch Guiana.
In the mountainous districts of Peru.
In Dutch Guiana. This is the earliest form of water craft known: a simple dug-out.




SOUTH AMERICA.
Barge on the Surinam river at Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana.
In Peruvian waters.
- º *E=-
- - . º
Rude Chilean boat or raft.
Carriage on the Amazon river in early days.
Primitive boat on the lower Madeira river.







SOUTH AMERICA.
On the Amazon river. The cabins and the manner in which the
platforms, or decks, are built and supported are peculiar.
\\ N
ſ s - N N N - N N
In NN N
º
In northern Brazil.
== =-s -
==== - --~ - º -
- == - -
A jangada, a light raft made of logs on which are fixed long masts with
triangular sails. In these vessels the natives of northern Brazil sail with great
speed through the surf, balancing the boat with skill, hanging on to the ropes
and leaning over on the windward side.
-
On the Amazon river. The hull is covered with matting,
divided into two large compartments.














Spain and
T has been said that no one ever hurries in Spain.
This is, of course, not true. But that people are
less impregnated with the frenzy of haste than
in the New World is so, without doubt. Every-
thing, including railroad trains, goes forward in a
dignified way. The Spanish people are exceed-
ingly picturesque; their dress noticeably so. The
peasantry, while restricted in their wardrobe,
nevertheless in its arrangement and coloring, obtain the best effects.
Not satisfied with carefully decorating himself, the Spaniard displays
even greater zeal in decorating his steed. His saddle is resplendent
with gorgeous trappings, his bridle a mass of ornamentation. The
despised mule of other countries is here a royal animal, covered with
tinsel and rich cloths. But there is no greater zeal displayed in getting
work out of him than there is in getting work out of railroad trains.
Everything is done with due deliberation. What matters it? Looking
back through the dim vistas of time to the Iberian kingdom and the
conquests of Hasdrubal and Hannibal, what has Spain ever gained by
haste? Therefore, no Spaniard should hurry. He accordingly wraps
his cloak about him and meditatively pursues his way. rriage is
much more interesting in Spain than in England or France. On every
jportugal.
street and highway we observe highly wrought pictures; the blending
of attractively dressed men and women in active and animated life.
Man and wife are one here in their efforts to keep the wolf from the
door. Indeed, there is a snap and vigor about the Spanish women
that sometimes seems to be lacking in the men. The Portuguese are
much like the Spaniards in their methods of transportation. There
is the same love for the donkey, though less disposition to decorate
him; the same rude carts; the same slow gait. But going further
back than Spain, the palanquin of other days is still a favorite in Por-
tugal. Spain and Portugal are situated in the southwestern part of
Europe and together constitute what is known as the Spanish Penin-
sula. This peninsula is bounded on the north by the Pyrenees Mount-
ains and the Bay of Biscay, on the east and south by the Mediterranean
Sea and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. The area of Spain is
about one hundred and ninety-seven thousand square miles, and its
population nearly seventeen millions. Portugal occupies the western
part of the peninsula. It is a parallelogram in shape, three hundred
and forty-five miles long and one hundred and forty miles wide, hav-
ing an area of thirty-four thousand five hundred square miles. Its
population is said to be about four millions.

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
Mſ.
N W. º A º
º Nº. º --
W º …is -
A favorite Spanish carrier.
Portuguese cart.



SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
Water carrier of the Alhambra
Water carrier of the Alhambra.
Water carriers of Gibraltar.



SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
Near the town of Estella.
ºf-w
º
ºf
* * ,
Three of a kind.
In Estella.



SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
Transportation of cannon in the
mountains of Spain.
Trafficking in Lisbon.
A Spanish baggage smasher.
A Gibraltar scavenger.




SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
In the mountainous districts of Portugal.
In Andalusia.
A troubadour.
- A Lisbon cabriolet.



SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
Jerez is a great wine market, and
Hauling wine to Jerez de la Frontera from the vine-
yards of Andalusia.
from it sherry wine received its name.
Œ
，
ſae^p
In Andalusia.
A beggar.
In Gibraltar.






SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
Carrying wine in Oporto.
Crossing a stream in the mountains
Passing the Douro rapids.
Something primitive
State coach of the time of John V., 1707.





SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. ###
The Spanish galleon Capitana of the Armada, 1588. The Spanish galleons were
huge, clumsy vessels, with bulwarks three or four feet thick.
The “Santa Maria,” the boat in which Columbussailed to Z V777-7- - = } *Tºº
º % ºf ºffiºſº º Fº
America in 1492. º %fº º *** * *
--- - Fºr - ſ |Mººº- º
=2%ft º
ºº::
- zºº. % ºlº s "-- =>
iº
º %2% ºf tºº
*::3%ftāſāº:
Spanish war vessel, 1588.
















SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
à-º-
__
º N
- º_-_-_-
Old Spanish galleon.
In the vineyards of Val-de-Penas.
- -------->
* *---------- -
--
------
Cardinal returning to his palace from the cathedral in Seville.
º-º-º-º: - A water carrier of San Sebastian.
IV
º
-
º
º
º -
\ __
===>=> →
º -
A fish vendor of Lisbon. Some of the customs
of the Portuguese people are peculiar and to be
highly commended. For instance, milk peddlers
drive their cows along the streets and milk the
quantity required at each door.











'I'umis and it lococco.
3UNIS embraces within its territory the site of
Ç ſº ancient Carthage, the seat of Carthaginian power
º! for six j years. It is under the protector-
Sº, ate of France and lies to the northeast of Algiers
in an angle of the Mediterranean. The first
account of it we have dates back to about 1100
B. C. While dominated by the Carthaginians
it was under a high state of cultivation. º,
it is but little, if any, further advanced than Arabia. The donkey and
camel are the chief carriers. Bordering on the Great Desert, the camel
is an important factor, and the commerce that is carried on with the
Soudan country is handled on its back. Morocco is even less advanced
than Tunis. It has no railroads whatever, while Tunis has found
some favor in this direction, albeit slight. In Morocco public roads
that may be traversed by vehicles are unknown. It has paths only.
Along these the scant commerce and travel of the kingdom pass.
Men, women and donkeys traverse them as in the early history of
man. It is said that Tangier has only one cart, and that the carriages
which have been presented to the emperor at various times, he is unable
to use except in his own grounds. What an interesting country it
must be to visit, to rest in; quaint, primitive, slow-going, drowsy,
mysterious. Morocco is the Mauretania of the ancients. It lies
directly across the channel from Gibraltar. Like Tunis and Algiers,
it borders on the Great Desert. This suggests the use of camels.
They alone are able to traverse the vast waste. Everywhere one
goes in Morocco these patient, sad-eyed animals greet him. The wealth
of Morocco, like all countries in a similar state of evolution, consists
largely of herds. Trade and commerce, worthy to be thus dignified,
hardly exist. Tunis is about four hundred and forty miles long and
one hundred and sixty miles wide, having an estimated area of
seventy thousand square miles. The inhabitants number about one
and a half millions. Morocco is bounded on the north by the Medi-
terranean Sea, northeast by Algeria, east and south by the Great
Desert, and west by the Atlantic Ocean. It has an area of about one
hundred and ninety thousand five hundred square miles, and a popu-
lation estimated at six millions.

TUNIS AND MOROCCO.
The commerce of Morocco with the east and south
is carried on by means of camels.
Carriage in the city of Tangier, Morocco.


TUNIS AND MOROCCO.
A mode of handling merchandise in Morocco.
A sprightly Moorish warrior. Whether his haste arises from a desire
to get away from his enemies or the reverse,
the artist failed to note.
Travel in Morocco.
Dromedaries, or running camels, of the Mahari breed, used in Tunis




TUNIS AND MOROCCO.
Porter carrying a drunken man in Tunis.
The drunkard sits limp in a sack or basket
supported on the back and from the head of
the porter. Many of the streets of Tunis are so
narrow that wheeled vehicles can not be used.
This picture of a half century ago represents the emperor of Morocco giving
audience, which he was required to do four times each week, to administer justice
to all who might appeal to him from the local magistrates.
A Mohammedan of Morocco starting
on a journey.




TUNIS AND MOROCCO.
This is another favorite carrier. It vies in popularity
with the camel and horse in Morocco.
| \
--
º W
Wº
wn
º
-
|
º
Scene in the market place of Tangier, Morocco The wealth of the Arab tribes
inhabiting north Africa consists very largely in their herds.
Arab chief in the streets of Tunis, his animal being led by his boy runner-


TUNIS AND MOROCCO.
--- ---
-
- --~~~~
A water carrier of Tunis.
Stone carriers.
º
º
-%
%
º
-
\ jº
//\!/3
º % º
º
* N ſ N }
A woman of Tangier.
º/ * º: º s/ %)
*7 2x









URKEY contains within her widely extended and
\ irregular boundaries many interesting monu-
ments of events that have been of vast conse-
quence to the human race. The site of ancient
Troy is but a few hours' ride from Constantino-
ple. Sardis, Croesus' capital, where money is
said to have been first coined, is but a little fur-
ther. The subjects of Turkey tend their flocks
on the sites of ancient Nineveh and Babylon. The Chaldeans, who
were old before the Hebrew race existed or the Bible had been con-
ceived, believed the ark to have rested on Jebel Judi, on the Upper
Tigris. There were similar Syriac and Arabian traditions. The
sites of Tarsus and opulent Antioch lie within Turkish territory. The
eatest voyagers, traffickers and maritime traders of antiquity, the
É.i. had their home at Tyre and Sidon, along the eastern
shore of the Mediterranean, in what is now known as Asiatic Turkey.
Jerusalem and Palestine lie immediately east. Still farther on lies
Chaldea, the birthplace of the human race in the estimation of many,
and from whence sprung the culture of the west. It is now desolate
and its people have passed away, but the Tigris and Euphrates remain
and by their aid we are able to identify the spot. Upon these streams
little change has occurred. The same circular boats, the same curious
rafts borne upon inflated skins that Herodotus described twenty-three
hundred years ago, are to-day the principal means of carriage. All
the great events of extreme antiquity with which we are familiar, it
will thus be seen, transpired in what is now known as Turkish terri-
tory. Everything about the country savors of ancient times, of primi-
tive conditions. Opposite Constantinople on the southern shores of
the Euxine (Black Sea) the greatest of primitive carriers, the mule, was
first bred, Herodotus tells us. No event in ancient history surpassed
this in practical importance. Turkey embraces so many distinct forms
of primitive carriage that a description of them covers methods of trans-
'I'un.
lieu.
portation in many other quarters of the world. In Syria (the battle-
field in ancient times of the Hittites, Aramaneans, Assyrians, Egyptians,
Chaldeans and Hebrews), the camel and ass are the prominent factors.
Old forms of carriage are maintained. Constantinople is distinctly
Oriental. Many of its streets are so narrow that animals and vehicles
are excluded, the burdens of carriage being borne wholly by men.
Outside of Constantinople, in European Turkey, methods of transpor-
tation are rather European than Oriental. They are, however, simple
and primitive. This territory covers what is known as ancient Thrace.
It has been a battle-field from the earliest ages. Its savage tribes have
never responded kindly to civilizing influences. When Greece and
Rome were the centers of culture, Thrace was the scene of tumult and
savage warfare. The advancement that follows security and order
maintained over a long period has never been known in this region.
The truth of this is shown in the poverty of the people and their rude
forms of carriage. The Mohammedans of the Turkish Empire incline
to an agricultural or pastoral life; the Christians and Jews are traders.
Pioneer railroads are forming in Turkey, but the outlook is not hope-
ful for the general introduction of railroads. The agricultural and
commercial interests of the empire do not warrant it at this time.
Turkey, or the Ottoman Empire, has an area of over a million square
miles, occupying the southeastern corner of Europe and the western
portion of Asia, omitting Arabia and part of ancient Armenia. Its
population is estimated to be about twenty-one millions. Egypt is
nominally a dependency of Turkey. A separate section is assigned
Armenia. This country, formerly comprising so extensive a portion
of Western Asia, is now divided between Russia, Turkey and Persia.
The Armenia of ancient times is no more. It occupied an elevated
tableland high above the level of the sea, culminating in the peak of
Ararat. It was watered by the Euphrates, Tigris and tributary
streams, and abounded in romantic scenery and luxurious pasture
land.

TURKEY.
§§
-
Carriage on the Tigris river. The vessels are of wicker work coated
with asphaltum. Their shape is such as to make them safe, of light draft
and large carrying capacity.
Fruit seller going up to Jerusalem.


TURKEY.
On the Syrian desert.
Pilgrims with their dead packed in mummy cases going to the shrine of
Saint Abdel Kadir, near Bagdad. It is visited by pilgrims
from all parts of the Mohammedan world.
Traveler in the Syrian desert protecting himself and his belongings from a hungry eagle.



TURKEY.
A caravan.
A resting place for flocks and herds near Jerusalem.
Syrian carriers.
An Arab and his family.




TURKEY.
A scene in Palestine,
-º-, - -
-----
Caravan starting from Palmyra into the Syrian desert.
Method of carriage in Bagdad. It was the same
in Syria forty-five hundred years ago.
Waiting at the door of a khan, or inn. These inns are
used by travelers, without charge, for sleeping room and
storage of merchandise; on their departure, however, they
are expected to make a small present to the khanji, or inn-
keeper. The khan gates are closed at sunset and after that
time admission is not easily secured.




TURKEY.
A Turkish araba, a basket-like conveyance large enough to accommodate one
person. It is without springs.
-
~ſº º Yº
º º
ºn Syria merchandise is largely carried on the backs of animals. It is est-
mated that the transit trade employs eighty thousand beasts and about thirty
thousand drivers. The lack of roads is a great impediment to commerce, those
that exist being mere mule or came tracks.
In European Turkey,
Transporting lumber in Constantinople. p y



TURKEY.
Kurdish bandit
y.
The sultan of Turke
Carriage in Kurdistan.



TURKEY.
A queen of the Kurds.
Kurdish chief. These people are only semi-civilized
and are much given to brigandage.
Syrian Bedouin watering his horse at a well in the desert.


TURKEY.
In Albania
A family araba, or carriage,
Primitive Syrian conveyance.
Rural carriage in European Turkey.
Carriage of women of distinction in Constantinople.




TURKEY.
A primitive cart.
Carriage in the interior of Asia Minor.
In European Turkey.
A unique vehicle.




TURKEY.
– = - º
-
~ſ T- ſºlº. --
This barge, on the upper Tigris, illustrates the primitive condition of affairs in
that far-off country. Little, if any progress has been made in the last two thou-
sand years. On land, the dense population, the highly cultivated fields the great
cities of which Babylon and Nineveh were the queens, the culture that thousands
of years had slowly evolved, are all gone, and in their place there is a desert given
over to nomads, who find thereon a scant pasturage for their herds.
Water craft on the Tigris. It is made of rushes woven together and strongly braced.
It is smeared on both sides with pitch. These vessels are exceedingly
light and have relatively an enormous carrying capacity.
Raft of inflated skins on the Tigris river Only a small portion of this river
is navigable for steamers. Rafts are used almost wholly above Bagdad. The
current is so rapid that the traffic is all down stream, the craft being broken up
at Bagdad and transported up the river by land.
ºzº
The barge of the sultan of Turkey









TURKEY.
Crossing the Tigris on an inflated skin, the
earliest form of ferriage known.
Sponge fishing off the coast of Syria.
A primitive ferry
Turkish boatmen soliciting P*onage at the wharf at Constantinople. The boats
are called caiques.




TURKEY.
A Constantinople porter.
Carriage in Salonica.
Raft used on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, buoyed by inflated skins.
Water carriers of Constantinople.
Phoenician vessel. Phoenicia at one time possessed the carrying trade of the world.




TURKEY.
In Scutari.
How baggage is handled in Constantinople.
Moving a disabled man.
Wine carriers of Constantinople.




TURKEY.
The bulk of the traffic of Constanti-
nople is handled by porters, as in this case.
A porter is capable of carrying five hun-
dred pounds with ease.
A blind beggar of Constantinople.
º º - T. º
--
|T º º | Water carrier of Nazareth The costume is
| - | tºy representative of ancient as well as present fash-
| - ions.
A Bethlehem water carrier.





ARMENIA.
Carriage in Erzeroum, on the Euphrates. The houses of the city are made of
mud or sun-dried brick. It is the chief halting station for caravans from Teheran,
the capital of Persia, to Palestine and the Arabian peninsula.
Carriage of baggage in Erzero"
Pack horse in Erzeroum.



ARMENIA.
The carriage of merchandise in Erzeroum.
On a country road near Erzeroum,
---
-----
---
-
An Erzeroum ox cart.



ARMENIA.
Armenians seeking a new home.
Erzeroum water carrier.
A sturdy Erzeroum porter.



(ſlimited States and (ſamada.
OR four hundred years emigrants have pushed
westward from the Atlantic, seeking homes in
the New World. The picturesque wagon train,
drawn by oxen, carrying the hardy explorer and
his family, are no longer to be seen; or, at best,
but seldom. The land has been spied out to its
utmost limit, and when it is necessary to reach
the interior, other and cheaper means of travel
than the ox train presents itself. Every means of primitive carriage
is still more or less practiced in North America. In the far north, the
reindeer and dog are factors; while in the mountains of the west the
rude contrivances of the Indian are still to be met with. The horse,
ox and mule are actively employed in connection with both local and
through carriage. The ox is used in the south and far west more
than elsewhere. It answers the purpose, and is cheaper and more
easily maintained than the horse. Moreover, when no longer useful,
it may be fattened and killed. Where the ox is not used in the south,
the mule stands in high favor. The camel promises to be a factor in
some parts of the United States in the near future. It has been found
especially adapted to the hot climate and deserts of Arizona. Nothing
could be more primitive than many of the vehicles used in the interior
of North America, away from the great cities. As a rule, new coun-
tries have little of interest about them except their natural scenery. In
North America the aborigines have been objects of especial interest.
Of noble bearing, virile, courageous and cruel, they will forever stand
for ideal savages. Those who have succeeded them lack in pictur-
esqueness, and their methods of carriage are commonplace. Every-
thing is new. An old medieval cart excites interest; but a modern
wagon, freshly painted, with the name of the manufacturer blazoned
on its side, is commonplace. While the great continent of North
America affords a wide range of carriage, the forms now in general
use are so familiar that it would be tiresome to reproduce them here.
They are therefore omitted, except in so far as they are old and unique.
The accompanying pictures, in the main, emphasize the life of the
Indian and the period that attends the opening up of a new country
to civilizing influences. Canada, a province of Great Britain, borders
on the United States on the north. It is the hope of many patriotic
Canadians, as well as Americans, that these two great countries may
one day be united. They constitute, practically, the continent. North
America is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean; on the east by
the Atlantic Ocean; on the south by the Gulf of Mexico; on the west
and southwest by the Pacific Ocean. Its area, inclusive of Mexico,
covers nearly eight million square miles, and its population is in the
neighborhood of eighty-eight millions. The area of the United States
is three million six hundred and two thousand square miles, its popu-
lation over sixty-three millions. The area of Canada is three and
one-half million square miles, its population five millions.

UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
ſºC \\\.
| -
/
A scene in the streets of Asheville, North Carolina.
Farming in rural Georgia.
In the Blue Range,
North Carolina.

UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
A Florida cracker (farmer,
In rural Georgia.
This picture, taken in Asheville, North Carolina, is a good representation of methods of carriage
still in vogue among country people in that locality. The streets of the beautiful little city present an
animated and exceedingly picturesque aspect: the ox, mule and horse being used separately and in
conjunction in the most unexpected and quaint ways.



UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
- a &
º
Market day in Georgia
a *7.*
- ||||||||||
º º º
| |-
Nº.
. -
In Californ
ia in early days.
Marketing cotton in Georgia.



UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
Life on the plains.
Carriage of baggage in the Blue Range.
Perpetuated primitive methods. The ox
veness of this section is very much enh
of its means of transportation.
The rugged nature of the
is more frequently to be met with
anced by the great variety and
Country and its isolation have
than the horse. The attract.
in many instances, quaintness
Primitive form of carriage in Georgia.
In Jacksonville, Florida.



UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
A phase of carriage in North Carolina.
Florida crackers, or farmers. In carrying a load the person on the horse usually rides astride,
sitting with the feet on the thills to prevent the cart from tipping backward.
Water carrier of Winnipeg.
rºw
-
-
º
º, tº ºr
º --
º º
º º'
Litter used in emergencies on the frontier. It consists simply of
a piece of matting fastened to two poles, carried by donkeys.




UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
In the Red river country of the north.
In the vast country lying away from the railroads in North America the stage coach carries
the people to and fro, as occasion requires. In some instances, as in the case illustrated above,
six horses are required; in others four; in still others two. The bad condition of the roads
often requires more horses than would otherwise be the case.
- ---
=–1----
A device of the postoffice department of the
United States. The pony express at one time was
the most expeditious means of transporting mails
across the continent. Fresh horses were held in
readiness at stations on the route.
Crossing on the ice from the Isle of Orleans to the city of Quebec
The winters in this section are long and severe.




UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
Carriage in Newfoundland. The Newfoundland dog is famous
for his size, strength, beauty and love of man.
Carriage in Manitoba in winter.
Mail carriage in Manitoba. The country is a level prairie,
well adapted for the use of dogs as draft animals in winter when
the earth is covered with snow.
Old world forms revived in the new.




UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
On the Alleghany river, Pennsylvania.
Crossing the Red river, Manitoba. The passengers sit in the wagon
box, their baggage being transported on a raft made of buffalo skins
stretched over the wheels.
|
|
mill-L-L
'se yacht on the Hudson river.
Lumbering on the Mississippi.
showing the manner in which logs are floated down the river.



UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
John Fitch's steamboat, A. D. 1788. Fitch seems to have
anticipated Fulton in the use of steam for purposes of naviga-
tion.
A steam vessel invented by Oliver Evans, A. D. 1804
John Fitch's screw propeller, A. D. 1796.
º
rºº
º º N †. Hº - &
ºffs..." is N->
ºil. ºr
Ezz
º
-
"The Savannah,” the first steamship that crossed the Atlantic,
constructed in A. D. 1819 by Mr. Stevens.
The first steamboat constructed by Robert Fulton, in the beginning of the nineteenth century.
This is in many respects modeled after John Fitch's steamboat of 1786-87.













UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
A North American Indian.
The North American Indian is at home
in the chase. Elsewhere he is inert and
lazy. His weapons are maintained at a
high state of perfection.
-- -
Breaking a wild horse. Horses were introduced into North America by the
Spaniards. They multiplied and for many years vast herds, wild and untamed,
roamed the interior wastes of the country. Many were caught and subdued by
the Indians. There is a natural affinity between an Indian and a horse. No better
horsemen exist than the wild Indians of North America.



UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
First device of the North American Indian for carrying purposes. It
consisted merely of two poles tied on either side of a horse and trailing on
the ground in the rear. Upon these poles he placed the burden which had
hitherto been carried by squaws.
Among the North American Indians.
This rude conveyance is sometimes called a travoise. The frame carrying
the burden is made of intertwined willow twigs, strips of hide, or other material
that will form a mat. In those cases where there are not enough horses for the
men to ride, the women are compelled to drag these vehicles. Like all savages,
the red man has no regard whatever for woman except to perform the drudgery of
life. Their relations are those of animals merely. An ancient Greek said that
woman was delightful to man on his wedding day and on the day on which she
was buried. This is not an extreme way of looking at it, but the natural way—for
a savage. Affection and love are the result of high cultivation.
A warrior of the Lipan tribe.




UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
Indian canoe. The frame work is of seasoned cedar
covered with birch bark, sewn together with willow threads
or sinews and the seams covered with pitch.
Indian warriors crossing a river on a raft, taking with them their captive.
Canoe of the North American Indian
Birch canoe of the North American Indians.




UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
The primitive Indian canoe is made of birch bark sewn together, and
so light that it can be easily carried from one stream to another. On long
journeys and in strange rivers where difficulties are liable to be met with,
a canoe is much more convenient than the ordinary row boat.
Puget Sound Indians
Hupa Indian craft
Birch bark canoe.
On the Youkon river, northern Alaska,





UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
A piece of bark sewed together at the ends and spread in the center was one of the early
devices of savages for water carriage. It was very light and could be made to skim over
the water with great rapidity under the dexterous hand of the Indian.
Carriage in California in early days.
When Indians are on the march or have a great
distance to traverse, two sacks or receptacles contain-
ing papooses (Indian children) are sometimes fas-
- tened together and thrown across the back of a pony,
one on either side, like paniers. Usually, however,
the squaws (Indian women) are compelled to trudge
along carrying their children, following after the
Indian bucks (men) and youth on horseback.
Water carrier. The jar is made of twigs woven
together and caulked with hot pitch. Loops are fas-
tened to the sides, to which the head-band of buckskin
is tied.
Primitive carriage.





UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
Carrying net of the Ute Indians. It is made of
the standard mesh-knot, found all over the world.
The nets are also used for catching rabbits and
other small game.
Carrying frame, with head-band and resting prop, of the
Carrying yoke of the Mexican Indians.
Carrying basket of the Mojave Indians. The head-band is made Pima Indians of Arizona.
of coarse rags, padded in the center for the forehead.



UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
--
º: flºº
=L- *-nº- #: -
- §::=####3
-- º # š
-ºllº --- - º
--> -
Carrying crate of the Zuni and Rio Grande Pue-
blos. These Indians carry their burdens on their
heads and for this purpose a head ring is made of
shredded fiber, upon which the burden is placed.
-
M-\l.
º º -
º
Carrying basket of the Arikara Indians of
Dakota. It is made of narrow strips of birch or
other tough bark, and the carrying straps are of
rawhide.
Ute Indian basket for collecting seeds. The
basket is held in the left hand and the seeds are
beaten into it with a coarse fan held in the right
hand. The strap which goes over the forehead
is made of buckskin.
It is made to rest on
the back of the carrier, supported by the head-band
from the forehead. These wallets are made of woven
grasses or rushes and are common to the Indians of
Indian wallet for carrying.
the western coast of North America.









Ancient, itlediaeval and itluthological.
HE ancients (the first people of whom we have
§ any account) had made considerable progress
in the art of carriage-building The Assyrians
were the most expert of their time. They pos-
sessed constructive ability and considerable taste
in decorating. . They dominated for several cent-
uries the region about the Tigris. No more
blood-thirsty or avaricious people ever lived.
Their cruelty was as great as that of the wild Indian. They were
overthrown about 625 B. C. The Assyrian chariots were modeled
after those of the Chaldeans. The first of the latter of which we have
mention were those of a king of Agade about 3800 B.C. The Chal-
deans were in some respects the most interesting people of extreme
antiquity. From them came the enlightenment of the West. . They
were peculiarly mild and amiable, fond of trade, withal, and much
iven to religious speculation and star-gazing. Like all people who
ve been great conquerors, the Assyrians were fond of horses. The
Persians had a similar liking. So did the Greeks and Romans. The
chariots of the Egyptians were copied after those of the East. Among
ancient illustrations of carriage, we have one of an Elamite cart, 700
B. C. It is probable that the chariot was a re-adaptation of the cart.
Four-wheeled vehicles came later. The so-called Persian carriage
was merely a stout covered wagon without springs. It was, however,
esteemed a kingly luxury. It is unfortunate that the drawings we
have of the chariots of ancient Assyria and Egypt afford us, in many
instances, only a rough outline. Details would be exceedingly inter-
esting. The pictures were not drawn, however, to illustrate carriage.
That was a minor incident. The ass is associated with the most
ancient illustrations we have of carriage. It is probable that it was
tamed before the horse. So far as we know, they both had the same
Asiatic origin. Coming down to mediaeval times, we find the chariot
and rude wagon have become a heavy coach. But little progress had
been made, however. The coach too often lacked the decorations and
artistic lines of the ancient chariot. Mankind rested content for ages,
making little progress. The last sixty years have wrought greater
changes than the preceding five thousand. The war chariots of ancient
times were also used for carrying passengers and merchandise. Later
on they were utilized in the great races of Greece and Rome. Of all
the sports of ancient times chariot racing was the most splendid and
the most popular. The people of mediaeval times were scarcely more
enlightened than the ancients. To be sure, they no longer exposed
the j sick by the wayside, hoping that some passer-by might
suggest a remedy. Nor did they light fires to drive away pestilential
miasmas, as in the days of Pericles. But they were as absurd in other
things. Nothing that we know of the ancients exceeds in grotesque-
ness or horror the burning of witches in the eighteenth century, or the
persecution of men for religious beliefs. The people of the mediaeval
age were scarcely less savage than the Thracians of ancient times;
nor were rulers hardly less oppressive than the Assyrian kings. Until
the nineteenth century progress in carriage building was retarded by
poor roads, the narrow streets of cities, the poverty of the people, the
eneral insecurity that existed and the lack of an exalted idea.
tended travel was impossible in the classical and mediaeval ages.
Traffic on land was light and confined to neighborhoods. On the
water it was more extended. The pirates that infested the sea might
be evaded or fought off. But land pirates (the robber barons of the
middle ages among them) were not to be evaded. They robbed all
alike. And as they left little to the wayfarer, extended intercourse was
impossible. The Phoenicians were, so far as we know, the first to
make extended journeyings for the purpose of trade. The Chaldeans
also carried on a more or less extended trade with surrounding coun-
tries. But aside from these instances there was but little trading
except along the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The vessels of the
Assyrians and neighboring people were exceedingly crude. It is not
until we reach the Mediterranean that we come in contact with a
maritime people—a people who displayed the same taste and ingenuity

ºncient, 3 Hediaeual and 3’tluthological–Continued.
in fashioning water craft that the carriage maker of to-day displays
in constructing his vehicles. The people of the Tigris and Euphrates
were satisfied to float on inflated skins, their bodies immersed in water;
or, if luxurious and powerful, were carried in rude boats or on rafts
upheld by inflated skins. The people of the Mediterranean, on the
other hand, at once grasped the art of ship-building as we understand
it. From discoveries in the tombs of Egypt we know row boats to
have been used there as far back as 2500 § C. We have also repre-
sentations of vessels used on the Mediterranean 1200 B. C. These
latter had from twelve to twenty-two oars apiece; in some instances
the vessel had as high as forty. The Phoenicians had ships with two
banks of oars as early as 700 B.C. Herodotus speaks of Egyptian
ships with three banks of oars as early as 610 B.C. Alexander the
Great constructed vessels with ten banks of oars, and at the time of
his death had just finished a fleet of ships with seven banks of oars,
designed for use along the Persian Gulf. The Macedonians are said
to have constructed ships with sixteen banks of oars about 170 B.C.
Much confusion exists among naval archaeologists and others who
have given the subject thought as to just how the oarsmen were
arranged in ancient vessels. Some writers, indeed, go so far as to
assert that no one can now tell what a bank of oars consisted of. It
is probable—indeed, we know—that the rowers were not arranged
the same in different vessels. There was, it is probable, the same
difference in regard to this that there is to-day in the manner in which
people in different sections of the world hang the sails on their vessels
or harness their draft animals. In some cases the oarsmen sat one
above another; in other instances in oblique tiers “with such a perpen-
dicular distance between them as to allow the inner end of the second
oar, being worked, to pass clear of the head of the man who was
working the first; and so on successively.” The arrangement of the
rowers in oblique tiers would render practicable the sixteen banks of
oars that the i. are said to have constructed, or, indeed,
even a greater number if need be. The oarsmen on the ancient ves-
sels were divided equally, half on each side. They slept and lived on
the benches on which they sat to row. It is said that while there were
oftentimes many tiers of rowers in a vessel and some oars were longer
than others, there was only one strokesman to each vessel. Polybius
relates that the Romans in the first instance accustomed their rowers
by exercising them on shore. They seated them on the beach in the
same arrangement and order that they would have occupied on the
benches of the vessel, and placed in the midst of them a commandin
officer, who trained them to lean backward and pull their oars .#
taneously, to bend forward together, and to cease rowing instantane-
ously at a given signal. Remarkable precision was thus reached. The
oar of the Egyptians, a writer on such matters tells us, was a long,
round, wooden shaft to which a flat board of oval or circular form was
fastened. The oar turned either on a toll pin or in a ring fastened to
the gunwale, and the rowers sat on the deck on benches or on low
seats, or stood or knelt to the oar, sometimes pushing it forward, but
more generally pulling it. Those who ..f the oars of the galleys
both in ancient and mediaeval times were made up of condemned per-
sons, slaves and malefactors. The rower was chained to the bench
on which he rowed. It has been supposed that the force of men on
each oar must have varied with its size, which was regulated by the
distance from the water. In bad weather the lower oars were undoubt-
edly taken in and their ports closed. The human voice, and oftentimes
the trumpet, was used to secure the rhythm or harmony of action so
necessary among the oarsmen. Cries were adapted appropriate to
each maneuver of the vessel. The Greeks, in many cases, regulated
the movement of their oars by singing or music of the flute or harp.
While we can trace with tolerable accuracy the progress of transpor-
tation in the past, it is impossible to foretell the future. The experience
of the last fifty years leads us to expect a great deal. But continued
improvement is dependent upon manythings, above all upon the secu-
rity afforded the community. And this is only to be attained under
strong and enlightened governments; under organizations that protect
the individual as well as the community; that encourage the citizen to
accumulate property, and having accumulated it, protects him in its
enjoyment and use.
ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Rameses III, king of Egypt, in his war chariot.
Hut and wagon of nomads—people who travel about from place to place. The hut was made of
wands laced together with narrow thongs and covered with felt or cloth soaked in tallow or ewes'
milk to make it water proof. Some of the huts were very large, measuring twenty feet between the
wheel tracks.


ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Chariot captured by the Assyrians. The body and
pole are unique. Theyoke is also curious. The bas-
relief from which the illustration was taken shows
this chariot carried on the shoulders of two soldiers
Procession of Assyrian chariots. We have accounts of war chariots drawn by eight horses.
22
c
- | A.
Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 700 B.C., on his way to a lion hunt.
º
º
|
Traveling chariot of ancient Assyria. These chariots
were often inlaid with gold, silver and costly woods. The
Assyrians paired their horses according to color, size and
style, as we do.
D
-





ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
w ſº º
Assyrian king aiming an arrow at a lion.
Judeans carried into captivity by the Assyrians.
Assyrian king hunting in his chariot. The arrows that fill the carcass of the
prostrate animal illustrate the means of its death.
ºf ºr wº
- º
º -
Assyrian king hunting.








ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Sennacherib, king of Assyria, before a besieged city, accompanied
by his charioteer and umbrella bearer.
Assyrian war chariot. The king stands with his bow
strung, the charioteer and the guard holding a shield as a
defense.
Triumphal return of a victorious king of Assyria. The kings of
Assyria were great hunters as well as great warriors and kept royal
parks containing such wild beasts as they could procure.
The chariot of an Assyrian king.




ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Assyrian war chariot, 875 B. C. The trappings of the
horses and warriors were elaborate. The glories achieved by
this king (sometimes called Sardanapalus) were sculptured
on alabaster slabs lining the walls of his palace at Nineveh.
War scene of the time of Shalmaneser, 854 B.C.
Susiana captives of Sennacherib. Vehicles of this kind were
used for the transportation of merchandise and also in war; some were
capable of seating five or six persons.
Captives of Sennacherib. The cart is exceedingly primitive, having but four spokes
Elamites fleeing from the field of battle, 630 B.C. The
wheels were high and contained twelve spokes, while
Assyrian chariots had but eight.





ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Assyrian slave grooming a horse.
--
ſ
Assyrian warrior pursuing an enemy.
º- CŞ
|
*N
&
i
sº
4.
Assyrian horses. Observe the trappings, how beautiful
and elaborate.
A conveyance of the king of Assyria. It was
provided with wheels, to be drawn by hand when
required.
Assyrian-ass going to the hunting ground, carry-
ing a portion of a net inclosure.





ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Carriage in Egypt, 1800 B.C. For many centuries after the first glimpse we have of
the Egyptians, burden-bearing animals were unknown to them. That which could not be
carried upon the water, men and women handled, oftentimes slaves, as in this case.
Israelitish burden bearers in the time of the captivity.
Hebrew slaves. A servant on the image protects the Egyptian driver from the heat of the sun.



ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Primitive wagon, pictured on the walls of the ancient
temple of Luxor in the ruins of Thebes, 1300 B. C. The
vehicle undoubtedly illustrates the conception of a much
earlier period.
Ancient Egyptian sledge hearse drawn by sacred cattle,
Vehicles captured by Rameses II, king of Egypt, from the Tokkari,
about 1300 B. C. The Tokkari fought in chariots with spears, large
pointed knives and swords. They had carts with solid wheels, drawn by
oxen, for carrying off the old men, women and children in defeat.
Palanquin of a state official in ancient Egypt
Ethiopian princess traveling through upper Egypt on her way to Thebes.
The vehicle is a plaustrum.





ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
O
º
Fº º
º
ºf
Ancient Egyptian funeral cortege. On its arrival at the sacred lake adjoining every large city, the judges
formed a semi-circle around the mummy and made formal inquiries into its past life and character. If no
accusation was heard, an eulogy was pronounced and the body passed over the lake. If, however, an evil life
was proven, the distressed friends were compelled to leave the body of their relative unburied, or carry it home
and wait until their gifts and devotions, with the prayers of the priests, should pacify the gods. In this
instance the boat is placed upon a sledge and the sledge mounted upon wheels.
Mineptah I, king of Egypt, on his triumphal homeward march from
battle, with the heads of slain enemies hanging at the rear of his chariot,
1300 B. C. Mineptah conquered Mesopotamia, Assyria and Chaldea and
built the great hall of Karnak.
Mineptah III, king of Egypt.
Ancient Egyptian chariot, with driver and armed warrior.






















ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
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Ancient Egyptian cart.
ſº->RS
Ancient Egyptian war chariot, equipped for battle.
-
º
º
Egyptian “carruca,” 1000 B. C. Great
sums were expended in decorating these vehi-
cles. Suetonius tells us that the Roman
emperor Nero had three thousand carrucas in
his train, drawn by mules shod with silver.
Egyptian chariot, supposed to belong to the Ptolemaic age, 300 B. C. It was
built of birch and iron, the floor being made of woven rushes or flags.
Chariot captured by ancient Egyptians. The
yoke attached to the pole shows that the manner
of hitching the horses was unlike that of the
Egyptians, as is also the construction of the
vehicle.








ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Ancient Egyptian tire, spoke, wheels and thills, found in a mummy pit at Dashoor.


ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
--
Willllllllllllllliſſiſſiſſiſſiſſilſ
|IIIIIIIIIITIIIIllutiliſtſ
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Effſhāiliſil
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Form of vehicle said to have been used
in ancient Troy. It resembles in some
respects the old Thracian cart.
Egyptian sledge hearse. A side panel has been
removed to show the head of the mummy case.
Syrian Bedouins, 2500 B. C. From an illustration
on an Egyptian tomb.
Ancient Grecian car. The horses were yoked to the car like
oxen and were guided by a long staff bent at the end like a shep-
herd's crook.
Carriage in ancient Egypt. The passenger sits on a platform
strapped on the backs of two donkeys. This is exceedingly
primitive.












ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL
Racing chariot of ancient Greece. Chariot races were the most
popular of Grecian games, and occupied the attention of all classes
The chariots were drawn either by two or four horses abreast. The
position of the chariots in the race was determined by lot, and after a
certain number of times around the circus he whose chariot came in
first on the last round was proclaimed victor. Enormous sums were
spent to secure superior horses and accessories.
Ancient Grecian chariot.
ºz
º
Ancient Grecian cart. Herodotus tells us that the Greeks learned
to harness four horses abreast from the Lybians.
Sº §
w º \ SN
º
Grecian horsemen of the time of Alexander the Great, 332 B.C. Stirrups were unknown to the ancient
Grecians. They vaulted into their saddles or were aided by a transfer bar attached to their spears. The Persian
grandee or noble, more dignified, used the shoulder of a slave. The use of iron shoes for horses was not
known to the Greeks, and in consequence great care was exercised by them to harden the feet of their horses.
The biga or car of a Grecian lady.





ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Ancient Grecian chariot. In beauty of outline
and nicety of finish, Grecian vehicles were in advance
of contemporary nations.
QIT-
s
Allº!
A scytaclae of the time of Aristotle, 320 B.C. He
claimed it had many advantages over a cart with axle
and wheels.
Ancient Grecian diphron, or war chariot.
The body was placed upon the axle without
any device for breaking the jar.
Rude representation of ancient Thracian cart.
Grecian cart of the age of Mycenae.







ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Ancient Roman vehicle. On the night of a
marriage the bridegroom took the bride from her
father's home to his own dwelling in a vehicle of
this description. Friends of the parties led the
way and slaves and servants followed.
A Roman post birotum of the time of Constantine, A. D. 325.
Abiga, or two-horse racing chariot, of
the Romans. The wheels were of wood,
slightly ironed, while those of the Grecians
were made of iron or brass and were very
light. The axles were long, in order to pre-
vent the vehicle upsetting. The bigas used
by the emperors and princes were remark-
able for artistic workmanship and rich
ornamentation.
-
ºilſ,
§ſº
Funeral car of Alexander the Great. The coffin was of gold and in it the king was laid, wrapped in spices. The
peristyle of Ionic columns upon which the canopy rested was also of gold. The platform of the car was supported by
- *s, each having two Persian wheels. The car had four poles, to each of which sixteen mules were harnessed,
Roman carpenta. The carpentum supplanted the covered litter. four abreast








ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Herculaneum racing chariot.
A favorite vehicle with the ancient Romans was the rheda, shown above. There
were three kinds—the military or state rheda, the post rheda, and the family or private
rheda. Some hung on four and some on two wheels. They were usually drawn by
oxen and were supposed to have been invented by the Gauls and adopted by the
Romans.
It is said elephants were first used for war purposes in the time of
Alexander the Great, 335 B.C. The turrets were made to hold from ten to
thirty soldiers. These huge beasts struck terror to those unaccustomed
to them and their mode of attack.
Ancient Roman benna, a rustic wagon made of twisted grass
rope, sewed together and put on a wooden platform.




ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
The pilentum of the ancient Romans. It was
much in favor as it permitted a display of the rich
costumes of the occupants on public occasions.
The plaustrum, a vehicle for transporting
passengers in Herculaneum.
Method of transporting wine in Pompeii, the wine being
carried in a huge skin in the body of the wagon. The
attendants are represented as drawing the wine.
-- º - - º-
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---
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A Roman wine cart. A basket was placed on
the platform of the wagon between the wheels.
Skins filled with wine were placed within, so that
in the event they burst, the basket, being tight,
would prevent the liquid escaping. Bags were
used in the carriage of wine and olive oil and were
made of goat skins, with the hair turned inside.
Hay plaustrum, or farm cart of the Romans. The wheels were strengthened
by strips of wood and the basket was made of interwoven splints. These carts
were also used for carrying provisions and equipment on hunting expeditions.







ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
A small wheel carriage from
the ruins of Persepolis. The
mode of attaching the axle to
the carriage is unique.
An ancient Persian hunting scene.
An ancient Persian carpentum, or harmamaxa. A traveling
wagon. The ladies reclined in it or sat on the cushions
according to oriental custom. The vehicle was sometimes
drawn by oxen.
A chariot of Cyrus, the great king of Persia, 550 B.C., who conceived the
idea of constructing a machine which would prove more effective in battle than
the old-fashioned chariots. The wheels were of great strength; the axle trees
A currus, or chariot of the ancient were long, with steel scythes about two and one-half feet in length attached to
Persians. The wheels were roughly the ends. Below the chariot were fixed scythes pointing to the ground. The box
shod, like some of the Assyrian chariots. for the driver was turret-shaped, often high enough to reach to his elbows.





ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
A Gallican covinus, or battle wagon, mounted with scythes.
Ancient scythe wagon.
A British covina of the first century; a heavy chariot armed
with scythes. These vehicles were made large enough for the
driver and one, two, or more fighting warriors.
Chariot of Boadicea, the British queen, A. D. 60.




ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Anglo-Saxon cart.
Primitive Anglo-Saxon vehicle
A Saxon chariot, A. D. 400
A primitive oarlock.
Paleolithic horses. Remains of wild horses which roamed in herds over
Europe and formed an article of food for the hunters of the pre-glacial period,
have been found in the caves of western Europe. The horses were diminu-
tive, standing about thirteen hands high. The head was of disproportionate
size and the teeth large and powerful.





ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Ancient raft buoyed upon inflated skins.
Assyrian king crossing a river. The chariot rested on the boat, while the horses, held by an attendant, swam the stream.
- Sºº-ºº: º - -
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Carriage by water as depicted by the Assyrians. While rude, it is sufficiently clear
to enable us to determine the method pursued.
Assyrians crossing a river. The trappingsofthehorses and soldiers were carried in the boats.
The soldiers who swam the stream carried in one hand a skin bag which they inflated, using the
other hand to propel and direct their course.



ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
2s; º_2 #232%
sº?=Ząż.
In ancient Greece. The Phoenicians, whom
Homer describes as the most expert oarsmen of
their time, used leather loops for holding the
oars. At night the ancients were in the habit
of removing the masts from their vessels and
drawing the latter up on the shore.
A primeval boatman
Ancient Egyptian vessel
††
An ancient Egyptian fisherman.

















ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL. —º
Heptereme—a vessel with seven banks of oars.
Trireme—a boat with three banks of oars.
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Bireme—a boat with two banks of oars.

















ANCIENT,
MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
A war vessel of ancient Rome. The prow or beak
of the galleys of ancient times was intended to be
used as a ram.
-xº~ Yºº
-- -- - -º-º- - - º º º - - * -
- º -º- º º - -- ºr.
º
Quinquereme. The ancient war vessels of the Phoenicians
had three banks of oars, called triremes. At the time the Romans
first overcame the Carthaginians they built one hundred and
thirty vessels with five banks of oars, called quinqueremes, which
they modeled after a Carthaginian vessel wrecked on their shores.
War vessels of ancient Rome, propelled by sails
and oars. The oarsmen were protected from the
enemies' arrows by shields, as was long the custom.
Trireme built by Napoleon III, to give those interested in ship building an oppor-
tunity of seeing the means employed by the ancients, who constructed ships with
several benches of oars. It was built one hundred and thirty feet long, seventeen feet
wide, the deck being ten feet above water line, and was pierced in three rows for one
hundred and twenty oars.






ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL. ſhiftſ.
º
Ancient floating war tower.
- Ancient ship.
Ancient galley of Herculaneum. It will be noticed that the vessel is steered from the side,
This was the ancient custom.


ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL,
ſº
-
The Buccentaur, a state galley in which the Doges of Venice were said to sail out every year and sink
a ring in the Adriatic, to wed it in token of perpetual sovereignty.
Ancient Venetian fishing craft.







ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Ships of William the Conqueror, A. D. 1066. º
§
º
§




ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL
Vessels of Holland, thirteenth century.
A Norman ship.
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III.
|
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Tº:
An early English ship.
Sail boats of the time of Richard II.









ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Travels of Marco Polo. The blowing of
horns, the general air and activity on board the
vessel and the hauling of the anchor, suggest
departure from port.
arºº
-- º §: ſº. º
- - -- --> -
Primitive Chinese craft. It is evidently war- ------ ºft º
like. The men in the lookout and on the hurricane § º
º
deck with crossbows, and the man on the fore- Sºsº
castle with drawn sword, indicate a belligerent
purpose.
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º
S
SS
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2.
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A water craft of the middle ages.
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unnamº th -
www.nw ---*" "inturn*"...
* ww.
An incident in the voyages of Marco Polo
in the thirteenth century.









ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL
AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
A mediaeval fragment.
Norse ship of the ninth century.
Rude model of a vessel of the Norsemen
in the middle ages. The shields protected
the rowers and the vessel was guided from the
sides. It had a diminutive cabin and one
great sail
Italian ship of the time of Marco
Polo. The lines of the vessel are
strongly drawn, but the significance
of some of its parts and the arrange-
ment of the rigging is not clearly
apparent.




ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
------------- ---
----------------.
; :-----> --.
Archaic representations of vehicles used in different parts of Germany in pre-historic times, as depicted on rude earthen-
ware utensils found among the ruins of ancient habitations in that country. The vehicles were of the most primitive kind,
and represented the rudimentary period in transportation. The artist's conceptions are not above those of the savage, and
it is apparent that the people among whom he lived had not yet become civilized.
Wheel used in Germany in the primitive period.
Bronze vehicle with three wheels, used in Germany in pre-historic times.






ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
having
Car of Chinese royalty in the eleventh century: vehicles
four wheels were also sometimes used on state occasions
Chinese state car of the eleventh century.
Ancient Chinese magnetic chariot. The figure in
front revolved, as do our magnetic needles, always point-
ing toward the north.



ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
flºº & º *—-
º Sºº-º-º-º- Sºº-ºº: A º ſº - $ º § - - - º
ſº=éé º 4-ſº crº £º-Tºº
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English traveling wagon of the thirteenth century.
Passenger train, under escort, in the middle ages.
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Goods train, under escort, in the middle ages.














ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Traveling in state in the fourteenth century.
Fourteenth century car.
Hungarian carriage of the middle ages.
Chariot of the king of France in the
middle ages.
An Italian cochio, a vehicle of the thirteenth century. The women
sat in the front of the carriage and the men in the rear.





ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
In the middle ages.
An incident of travel in England in the middle ages.
. --
A French litter of the fourteenth century, con-
veying Queen Clotilde to Tours.
Asiatic warriors of the thirteenth century, according to Marco Polo.




ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND. MYTHOLOGICAL.
In the thirteenth century.
The mediaeval age. The above engraving represents the fantastic
accoutrements of that period.
Japanese ruler of the middle ages, borne on the shoulders
of his subjects.
Tartar cart of the thirteenth century.



ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Traveling carriage of the king and queen of France in the eighth century.
A pilgrim of the middle ages.
* Nºji
º
A Scythian house on wheels. Arched roles were inserted in the sides of a
flat floor and matting spread over them, giving the appearance of a bee-hive
made of straw. The women lived in these movable huts while on the road,
following their work undisturbed. This form of housewagon was also common
to the Aryans in their nomadic state.
A mishap that befell Pope Johann XXIII, A. D. 1414




ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Š- Chariot of Bacchus, the Grecian god of wine, and his wife Ariadne.
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* 7,-- - - /
\ºv/ \
Mythology. In their mythology the ancients applied the known to the
unknown. They believed that the clouds, the trees, streams, rocks, mountains,
hills, in fact every material thing, had the same consciousness, the same
sensibility that man had. They believed that mankind sprung from trees,
rocks, and so on. Every evil that afflicted man they traced directly to malev-
olent demons. These they strove constantly to propitiate by prayers and
offerings. A belief in good spirits grew up later. The mythology of races
differed, although each borrowed more or less from the other. The Greeks'
conception of the gods was especially poetic. They believed, however, that
these deities had the same passions that they possessed; the same jealousy,
love of strife, intrigue and power. In fixing the abode of the gods their im-
agination ran riot. They located them in the clouds, in the tops of great mount-
ains like Olympia and Mount Ida, in lonely caves and the caverns of the deep
sea. When the gods had occasion to travel abroad, their vehicles were such
as the ancients themselves used, but instead of oxen and donkeys for steeds
they used tigers, doves, swans, griffins, and so on. Among the childish delu-
sions of the ancients, they believed vehicles were necessary to the movements
of the planets. Thus they thought the moon was carried around the world on
a car drawn by bulls, as shown in the above sketch of primitive carriage.
The equipage of Nirthus, the creator and preserver of animate
and inanimate beings and the ruler of man's affairs.








ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Diomedes, of the Amythonidae, at the siege of Troy.
Chariot of Eos, the goddess of morning
Chariot of Mars, the god of war. Homer says the Grecians
took great pains to have their chariots well made to stand the
*** * battle, and that they considered it safer to remain in the
chariot during a conflict than to fight on foot.



ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Pegasus, the winged horse which sprung from
the blood of Medusa when her head was struck
off by Perseus.
Lady Godiva, as Tennyson pictured her, riding forth to save her beloved city, “clothed
in chastity, the deep air listening round her, the low wind hardly breathing."
Nereid, a daughter of Nereus who ruled over the AEgean sea,
riding hippocamps—horses with dolphin's tails. The Nereides
were worshipped in the seaport towns of Greece.



ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
The Grecian legendary Amazon of the Caucasus.
Heimdall, son of Odin, the supreme deity of
the Scandinavians.
Diana, a divinity of ancient Rome, worshipped as
the goddess of light.



ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Griffin harnessed to a biga. It has been suggested that the
ancients borrowed this idea from the account of the
cherubim referred to in the Scriptures.
Car of Apollo, containing musical instruments sacred
to the god. The vehicle was drawn by grif-
fins, animals sacred to the sun.
*** **** º -sº
Chariot of Venus from Pompeii. The vehicle
is of carved and gilded ivory. In this instance it
was drawn by swans, although it is sometimes
represented as being drawn by swallows or doves.
Among the Pompeiians the parrot signified affection. The above picture represents a parrot
drawing a funeral car, in which the remains of Love are being carried to the grave,




ANCIENT, MEDIAEVAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL.
Car of the goddess Minerva, said to have
been the daughter of Jupiter, born without a
mother from the brain of the Thunderer.
Egyptian festival car of the Ptolemys.
Charon. According to the Grecian fable Charon
served as the ferryman of Hades, carrying the souls of
the dead over the Stygian lake, for which he received
an obolus from the passenger, friends placing money
in the dead man's mouth for that purpose.
Egyptian car drawn by gazelles.




21) v. Ravy, £3 s.v.s 212 “Y”
iPrimitive ſºail
P º RºHE evloution of railway fixtures is rather inter-
ZZ & Ä esting than instructive to the majority of us. It
sº º!) is only when we compare the first locomotive
º Q with its simple appliances with the gigantic
Q machine of to-day with its myriad fixtures, that
' we get a glimpse of the progress that has been
# . To most of us all locomotives are alike.
They pull their load amidst much puffing of
smoke and noisy ringing of bells, and that is all we know. Important
distinctions, such as weight, relative consumption of fuel, speed, load,
facility in making steam, wear and tear, and other important considera-
tions, we know nothing about. The accompanying pictures are not
intended to afford a scientific illustration of railway appliances, but
simply to point out some of the primitive utensils of the past. They
are quaint and old-fashioned to us; but to those who used them, they
#. all that was worth knowing, or likely ever to be known.
he evolution of locomotives has been attended by improvements in
cars, track and other appliances, but not to the same extent, because
less opportunity is offered. The locomotive is the key, the central
idea, the fulcrum around which all other thoughts cluster. The use
auan, Appliances.
of steam, in its early application, was confined to moving the locomo-
tive back and forth. To-day, it is utilized to warm the cars, apply
the brakes, heat the water before it is introduced into the boiler, pump
water, ring the bell and do still other things. Further advances will
undoubtedly be made. No two locomotives are alike, any more than
two faces are exactly alike. Even when the same pattern is used,
differences, the result of contraction and expansion or other unavoid-
able details of construction, affect, radically, the economy of the
machines. While great progress has been made in railway carriage,
much remains to be done. Stephenson unloosed the genius of inven-
tion. It will not cease to manifest itself so long as men are able to
apply their ideas in experimental effort. Every day sees some advance
in railway construction and management, the outgrowth of added
knowledge and increased means. It is manifest in higher speed,
greater safety, better appliances, and, quite as important, in a more
scientific division of labor and increased responsibility upon the part
of owners, officers and employes. Competition and the enlightened
selfishness of the owners of railroads will finally carry these properties
to the highest state of usefulness if these influences are allowed to
have full play.

PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
A primitive railway frog. The evolution of the railway track
is unique as well as interesting. One hundred and thirty engrav-
ings are devoted to its illustration in Marshall M. Kirkman's
“Science of Railways.”
A seventeenth century railway.
&Yoséc
Iron rail of the pattern of 1789.




PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES. g---
== =#| ||
--~~~~
Stockton and Darlington railway car, 1825.
A primitive signal lamp.
The first signal, a light in a window, Stop.” Red is now very
kenerally a signal of danger on railroads. In early times upon some
railroads red lanterns were assigned to officers as a distinguishing
mark, employes using white lanterns. The idea that different colors
might be used for signals, could be made to stand for different things,
to form a species of picture writing, in the operations of trains, had
not vet dawned generally upon men.
English passenger coach “Experiment,” 1825.
-- A. -
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Iron railway and truck of the time of George IV.






PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
On an American railway in 1830.
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A first-class railway coach in the early
days of railways.
º
The first sleeping car, 1830.
Railway coach, built after a design by
George Stephenson. The idea of lighting
passenger trains is said to have originated
from the use of this coach.













PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
Facing the storm. Railway traveling in early days.
-
|
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-
-
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|| ||
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A second-class compartment, 1847.
Passenger coach of the German nobility, 1850.
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Carriage of Queen Victoria, 1850.
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--- - --
Contrivance for transferring the diligence or stage coach
of early days to the bed of a railway wagon.

























































PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
Carriage in Hindostan. This picture is the emination of an exuberant fancy, designed originally for those who could be induced
to buy shares and ventures in a proposed railway in India in 1851. The road has since been built, and to-day the animals
here portrayed are carried back and forth upon it in the same humdrum way that we carry cattle and pigs.
Coach of the Egyptian ruler, 1858
Baroda, India, tramway
Pºº-ºº-ºººººº-
|\ººlººlºº
- ---.
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Train of Napoleon III., 1859.









PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
º
|
ºff.
The first steam engine, invented by Hero, B.
C. 130. External heat was applied to the boiler
(shown above) containing water. The steam thus
generated was forced through the two pipes
into the ball at the top, which turned freely
on a pivot. The steam rushing from the two
orifices in the ball, as indicated in the diagram,
produced a rotary motion: this was the power.
Discovery of the value and utility of steam by the Marquis of Worcester,
1653. Worcester was thought to be crazy by the “practical men” and rustics
of his time.
Steam engine, A. D. 1629, of Giovanni Branca, an Italian philosopher. The
bust beneath the head represents the boiler. The steam which rushes from the
mouthpiece strikes the vanes of the wheel, causing it to revolve on a pivot. An
objection to this engine was that the steam was partially condensed during its
passage through the air before striking the wheel.



PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
,
ſº
- -- ---
_F== 3.2,
Newton's locomotive, 1680.
The Read, 1790.
The Catch-me-who-can. 1808
-)
Cugnot's locomotive, 1769.
Trevithick's, 1800-1803.
Blenkinsop's, 1811.
fºr-
Cºs
Nº.
The Murdock, 1784
(23(23:
Nº-º---
-
-
^ …' !. ------- º J. -
ºr ------
º
The Oruktor Amphibolis, 1804.
-4-4-4-4-4-
(CºC&C)
Hedley's, 1812.






PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
A mechanical traveler, 1812.
Hedley's Puffing Billy, used at the collieries near Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, in 1813. It is supposed to have been the first engine to
run upon smooth rails.
(§§
Blucher, 1814


PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
N
Rú Eye- - º r º
wº
º-1-
- NS u- \
The old and the new-
The Royal George.
English locomotive, 1825.



C- rº-
PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
ſº-
º
º
º |
|
The Seguin, 1828
The Sans Pareil, 1829.
The Howard, 1829.
Stephenson's locomotive, The Rocket, 1830. Through Stephenson's
efforts the projectors of the Stockton and Darlington railway, of England,
who contemplated using horses for hauling their cars, were induced to
construct a railroad upon which a locomotive should be used. The line
was opened September 27th, 1825. On September 15th, 1830, the road
between Liverpool and Manchester, built through the efforts of Stephen-
son, was opened. The Rocket, pictured above, drew the first train on this
last named road. It was able to make twenty-nine miles an hour on its
trial trip. The use and power of steam was well known before the time of
Stephenson. The latter's contribution consisted in the construction of
apparatus whereby steam might be made at pleasure. Before that its pro-
duction was fitful and uncertain. He made its use practicable.
~~~~~~
The Novelty, 1829.
~~~~
---
The Stourbridge Lion, 1829.
The Tom Thumb, 1829,







PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
COr,
ÜCC y
The Mercury, 1830.
The Best Friend, 1830.
The James I., 1831.
The Child, 1831
–––fºr-
The Atlantic, 1832.
The Old Ironsides, 1832
The Geo. W. Johnson, 1830.
The York, 1831.
The Costell, 1831.
The Experiment, 1832.
The South Carolina, 1832. |
The Campbell, 1836.






PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
A locomotive of 1836.
4. Sº -
--- -
- --
Pº. |MA-
- º º
A train on the Erie and Kalamazoo railroad, United States, 1837 º º -
- The lower center compartment was used for baggage º º- sº º º:
* =
º
ſ N tº:
- |-|
- |- - - - - -
- -
tºº- ==
Tºl-FT
Tºſº. º
-
* º
English locomotive, 1840.
An English locomotive, 1838.











PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
* A-
-
…
- --
[III] - º
Pºrº
- - . º' Mº. -
- - -
-
Ericsson's engine, The Novelty, and train, 1829.
Another representation of Stephenson's Rocket.
One of Stephenson's engines, A. D. 1831.
An English passenger engine with domed fire-box, 1838.



PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
*Fºs
Railway carriage and engine on the London and Birmingham railway, 1843.
An English locomotive of 1844; hauling the government mail,
as indicated by the three white lights in front.
Lilliputian locomotive operated between London and Cambridge, England, 1847.
The length of the engine and car was twelve and one-half feet and their weight two
hundred pounds. This machine made the distance of fifty-seven miles in one and
three-quarters hours.
Priests pronouncing a benediction at the opening of the Rouen and
Eastern Counties railway, England, 1845. Havre railroad in France, 1847.






PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
This is such a picture as an Indian
might make on the walls of his teepee. It
is, however, a free-hand drawing of one
of the early passenger trains of England
wending its way across the country. A
train in those days had the appearance of
a line of stage coaches tied together and
coupled to a rude, ungainly thing called
a locomotive.
Fairfield's combined engine and car, west London railway, 1848.
º: º
An English switch engine, 1849
The Queen's engine and coach, 1849.




PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
A German locomotive of 1850,
A German locomotive of 1850.
German locomotive with water tanks at the sides, 1850.
McConnell's locomotive, 1855.




PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
º N
John Haswell's duplex locomotive, Austria, 1862.
Screw locomotive for ascending gradients, 1857.
In British Guiana, South America.
Alpine locomotive, 1871.




PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
James' steam highway carriage, 1832.
Gurney's steam highway carriage. It ran from London to Bath,
July 28th, 1829, a distance of eighty-four miles, in
nine hours and twenty minutes.
An Italian motor.
Highway locomotive, 1849.
Church's steam highway locomotive, 1832.




PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
Truxford's, 1862.
Truxford's traction engine, 1857.
Steam highway carriage, Buckingham, England, 1860.
It was able to run ten miles an hour.
Bray's traction engine, 1858.
Traction engine, Chatham dockyards, England, 1863.




PRIMITIVE RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
-- ---
. In
*Tº º-
- - law.
--- -* Lºſ -
º
Thomas' traction engine, Leith, Scotland, 1870.
Scottish traction engine and train hauling whisky from the distillery
to the railway station.
designed for the conveyance of passengers and mails in India, 1871.
Highway locomotive and car,



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83 Longitude 63 from 43 Washington 23
-

THE "SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS,” OR MODERN CARRIAGE.
Twelve Volumes—THIRD EDITION.
EY NAIA R S H A L L NAI. Pºç I F Pº NM A. N.
HIS work is a monument of labor and represents the most advanced ideas on the operations of railroads and the government of corporations.
U specific things, but does not reflect the methods of any particular property or organization.
e-, or capability renders their opinions valuable.
publishers have received from such men would fill a volume.
It treats of
The work is everywhere commended by those whose experience
The following commendatory references are from men of the highest rank.
The favorable notices that the
Only enough are printed here (selected, in the main, from the active, governing railway
officials of the country) to show the estimation in which the books are held. Appreciation of the work is general and commendation universal.
“The books are an epitome of railway principles and practices, at once
lucid, instructive and interesting. They assign the railroad interest its
proper place in the economy of commerce, and elucidate the principles that
govern its operations. To those wishing to familiarize themselves with the
multitudinous details of railway service, these books will prove of in estima:
ble value. They are an encyclopedia of authoritative information and
embody the wide experience and calm observation of a railway official of
nearly forty years' standing.” — A Libert KEEP, Chairman Chicago and
North-Western Railway.
“There is nothing in railway literature to be compared with these
books in extent or value. I can not think of anything better that l can do
for our employes than to bring such a fund of information with in their easy
reach.”—SiR WILLIAM C. VAN H or NE, President Canadian Pacific Railway.
“I have been impressed by the extreme thoroughness of the work in all
the intricate details of railroad management. It is a valuable work for both
eneral officers and subordinates.”—C. P. H U Nti NGto N, President Southern
acific Railway.
“Mr. Kirkman in this work has substantially covered the entire
science of building and operating railroads. . . . The books ought to be
in the library of every professional railroad man, young or old.”—J. D.
LAYNG, General Manager West Shore Railroad.
W. H. Baldwin, J.R., Vice-President Southern Railway, Company,
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afford most useful information that could not otherwise be obtained, and
they suggest improved methods that must be highly beneficial to railway
management.”—C. C. HARVEy, President New Orleans and North-Eastern
Railroad.
“It is full and complete on every subject it deals with, and, in my
opinion, should be read by every railroad man.”—N. D. Wiggins, Super-
intendent Illinois Central Railroad, Jackson, Tenn.
“These writings form a very valued addition to my library.”—S. W.
CHAMPI on, General Manager Green Bay, Winona and St. Paul Railroad.
“A work of great merit.”—Jo HN KING, President Frie Railroad.
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DEP Ew, President New York Central and Hudson River Railroad.
“I shall consider the books a valuable addition' to my library, covering,
as they do, so many of the various branches of railway science from the
stand-point of one who has so many years of practical experience in dealing
with such questions. . . . There have not been enough of such works
by those who have made the railroad business a profession, and are, there-
fore, able to view the railroad science from a practical stand-point.”—Ros-
well. M ILLER, Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway.
“I am glad to recognize in them a distinct benefit rendered to the rail-
way service of the country by their publication. It was particularly felicitous
that such a work should be undertaken by a gentleman of so well estab-
lished a reputation in all matters pertaining to railway organization and
management. One of the features of the books that commends them
especially is the simple and concise diction, thus placing them within the
understanding of a vast number of employes who are not reached by the
more elaborate and technical treatises of specialists in the different branches
of the service.”—Colon El S. W. For pyce, President St. Louis South-
western Railroad.
‘‘These books should be on the library shelf of every railroad official,
and I have no doubt whatever that many persons, not in active railway life,
will find them useful and interesting as books of reference.”—T. P. Fowler,
President New York, Ontario and Western Railway.
“Officers and employes of railway companies and the students of this
form of transportation owe you much for the benefits you have conferred
through the publication of your books. . . .”—M A R v IN H UGHitt,
President Chicago and North-Western Railway.
‘‘I find the books most interesting. It is a work that ought to be in the
library of every railroad man."— A Usti N Cor BIN, President Long Island
Railroad.
**The work is not only entertaining, but contains an immense store of
valuable information, which can not be other than of great assistance to any
student of the railroad problem.”—E. B. THoMAs, President New York,
Lake Frie and Western Railroad.
“As railroading becomes more of a science, text books of this character
will be much sought after, and it is fortunate that so able a man as Mr.
Kirkman has concentrated his energies in this direction.”—M. J. Car-
PENTER, President Chicago and Eastern Illinois Railroad.
“I have studied Mr. Kirkman's books. His work is a monument of
careful labor and a reservoir from which railway information of all kinds
can be drawn. I am impressed with the practical character of the work and
the endeavor to adapt it to the needs of those in active railway work. Where
the author occasionally indulges in philosophic review his opinions are well
digested and interesting. The enthusiasm of the author which pervades the
entire work is most edifying in these days of commercial despondency, and
the high standard which he assumes of railway character and service holds
out a fitting goal for the aspiration of workers in the field to which Mr.
Kirkman has devoted his "...wº GREEN ough, Vice-President Louisville,
New Albany and Chicago, and Wheeling and Lake Erie Railways.
“Your books dignify our calling and will prove of permanent value to
the rank and file of railways.”—John NEw Ell, President Lake Shore and
Michigan Southern Railway.
“Mr. Kirkman has rendered the profession and the public a valuable
service by producing this work.”—J. C. STU blºs, Third Vice-President
Southern Pacific Railway.
“You have added very much to the value of railroads by the books you
have published.”—H. H. Porter, Railway Fixecutive and Capitalist.
“The books will be of great service in the Departments of Political
Fconomy and Social Science.”—W. R. HARPER, President University of
Chicago.
“This work will prove a lasting benefit to the public, to the owners of
railroads and to their officers and employes.”—CH Arles B. F A Rw ELL, United
States Senator.
“A most excellent work and a thorough instructor.”—F. A. SMITH, C.
E. M. E., Principal Institute of Technology, Chicago.
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President Northwestern University.
“No library will hereafter be complete without these beautiful books,
treating of new subjects in literature.”—ProFEssor D Avi D Sw1NG.
“A most interesting and valuable addition to any library.”—FREnerick
H. Hill), Librarian the Chicago Public Library.
“A contribution to the world's history of incalculable value. Mr. Kirk-
man is eminently fitted above most men, both in culture and in experience,
to make the work not only of surpassing value, but of the most fascinating
interest.”—Professor A. F. Night, NGALE, Chicago, Ill.
“These volumes show scholarship, research and devoted study.”—
DANIEL R. Cameron, President Board of Education, Chicago, Ill.
THE “SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS ’’— COMMENDATORY REFERENCES-CONTINUED.
“It is not only a monument to the author's industry, but the work itself
is valuable to railroad men.”—J. G. McCullough, President Chicago and
Erie Railroad.
“An able and interesting work. . . . I am not at all surprised at the
thoroughness with which the work has been done, coming from the pen of
Mr. Kirkman, as it is only in harmony with the completeness manifested in
all his efforts and in all he does.”—A. N. Towne, Second Vice-President
Southern Pacific Railway.
“The books are the recognized standard on the subjects treated of in
this country.”—JAMEs McCREA, Vice-President Pennsylvania Co.
“Aside from being very interesting from a literary point of view, it is
valuable as a guide to all in our business.”—W. H. McDoel, Vice-President
Louisville, New Albany and Chicago Railway.
“The books will be a great assistance to the young generation who are
endeavoring to fit themselves for the various positions in railway service,
and will also be a valuable aid to many railroad officials.”—J. T. HARAHan,
Second Vice-President Illinois Central Railroad.
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and old. There is something in every volume interesting, and it is, well
adapted to the wants of young and ambitious railroad men, and it should be
in the hands of those employes whose aim is advancement.”—John M.
Toucey, General Manager New York Central and Hudson River Railroad.
“The work is a remarkable one, very interesting and valuable tº railway
men, and students generally. I commend the work most highly.”–C. G.
WARNER, Vice-President Missouri Pacific Railroad.
“Replete with valuable information and suggestion, pertaining tº the
construction, operation, and maintenance of railroads. I he author's large
experience in the service has eminently qualified him for the authorship of
these practical and didactic volumes.”—Geo. W. Parker, President St.
Louis, Alton and Terre Haute Railroad.
“You have done a service to the railway world which will long survive
you. . . . The whole collection is fine, unique, and not comparable in its
scope and purpose with any author's writings.”-M. L. Syk Es, Vice-Presi.
dent, Secretary and Treasurer Chicago and North-Western Railway.
“Is an instructive and exhaustive work, destined to benefit all classes of
railway employes.”—S. R. A INSLIE, General Manager Chicago and North-
ern Pacific Railroad.
“The Science of Railways . . . . . is a work which every student of
railway matters and methods should read. . . . Mr. Kirkman wields a
vigorous pen and his long experience and knowledge of his subject render
his works valuable.”—E. P. Ripley, Third Vice-President Chicago, Mil-
waukee and St. Paul Railway.
“The manner of treatment of the various modes of construction and
operation and other subjects connected with railroading . . . makes it
the most interesting work I have ever read. No one who takes an interest
in following the different subjects in different countries down to the present
time can fail to appreciate this, work.”—SHERBURNE SANBorn, &.
Superintendent Chicago and North-Western Railway.
“The books will be found of great value to anyone who intends to follow
the railway business.—H. F. W Hitcom B, General Manager Wisconsin Cen-
tral Railway Lines.
“It is far more comprehensive than one would expect such a work to be,
§º evidence of the vastness to which railroad science has grown, while
Mr. Kirkman has kept pace with it in all directions.”—Willi AM F. FITch,
General Manager Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic Railway.
“Of high educational value. . . . The various subjects discussed
are treated in a most interesting and instructive way and can not fail to leave
a deep and lasting impression on all thoughtful readers.”—J. C. W Elli NG,
Vice-President Illinois Central Railroad.
“It is a work that can be recommended, and will afford a great deal of
information for all classes of railway employes.”—A. B. Plough, Vice-
President St. Paul and Duluth Railroad.
“Mr. Kirkman certainly thoroughly comprehends the subject, and has
presented it in a masterful and interesting form.”—W. B. Doddridge, Gen-
eral Manager Missouri Pacific Railway.
“You have performed a much needed service for railroads.”—HoRACE
G. BURT, General Manager Fremont, Elkhorn and Missouri Valley Railroad.
“Mr. Kirkman's long connection with railway service eminently con-
stitutes him an authority on such subjects.”—J. M. WHITMAN, General
Manager.
“It is a work that no railway employe can afford to be without. It is
not only comprehensive, but indispensable for acquiring a knowledge of
practical railroading.”—E. P. BRoughto N, General Superintendent Chicago
and Eastern Illinois Railway.
“I know of no books that are of greater value to the young mall of the
present day who intends to follow the railroad business as a vocation.” –
J. C. STUART, Superintendent.
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ested in railway properties.”—W. H. NEwMAN, Vice-President.
“They indicate, a close study of the problems of Maintenance and
Transportation.”—Will AM A. GARDNER, Superintendent.
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makes it a very valuable as well as reliable work for every railroad official.”
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Railroad.
“A splendid system of rules and principles, that will be of lasting benefit
and interest to all those connected directly or remotely with the science of
railroading.”—J. S. Oliver, Superintendent Dakota Central Railroad.
“Will be held in the highest esteem by all railroad officials and others
interested in railroads.”—G Eorge F. BIDw Ell, Superintendent Lake Shore
and Western Railway.
“A guide for railway men in any branch of the service.”—C. H.
HArtLEY, Assistant Superintendent.
Of the myriad newspaper notices that Kirkman's writings have elicited, a few only, taken at random, can be noticed :
“The author has a great reputation.”—3 ournal of the German Railway
Administration Society.
“There is wit as well as wisdom in his books.”–3 ournal of the Franklin
Institute.
“Should have a place in the library of every railroad man."—Buffalo
Ezrening News.
“Dear evidence of marked ability and polished style.”—Railway World.
“Mr. Kirkman is an authority in the highest sense on the matters
treated in his works.”—Bankers’.Magazine.
“Will prove useful to all, and secure, for the author a place among his
great nation’s literary men.”—Railway Sheet and Official Gazette, London,
England.
“Useful to all who desire to gain sºme insight into the arcana of railway
management.”—PHerapath's Railway 3 ourna/, London.
“Specific information is intermingled with a great deal of general knowl-
edge and philosophical comment, which makes interesting reading and sug-
gests and instructs in a thousand ways.”—Railroad Gazette.
“Aspiring men find in Mr. Kirkman's books much that is of value to
them and to the companies they represent.”—The Railway Service Monthly
Magazine.
, “A comprehensive and systematic work on railways, railway building,
railway finance, railway management and railway operation. . . . The
whole work is a colossal one.”—Railway Age.
“Mr. Kirkman's works are interesting, instructive and practical.”—
Chicago Evening Post.
“Authoritative, studious, thoughtful and enlightened.”— Chicago Eren-
ing journal
“Written in a calm and judicial spirit.”—Chicago Herald.
“Anything that comes from his pen is as good as careful study of the sub-
ject and large capacity for comprehending can make it."—The Railroader.
“A writer of great force and ability, and a recognized authority.”—
Station Agents’ Magazine.
“Written with force. The authpr shows a thorough knowledge of the
complex questions involved.”—Philadelphia Press. ©
“Should be in the hands of every practical railroad man.”—Buffalo
Express.
“Mr. Kirkman is a recognized authority in America, and h is views are
accepted in England.”—Commissioner of Railroads for New South Wales.
“Even the casual reader can not ſail to remark the fertility and capacity
of a mind whose observations have given him a mastery over such a mass of
detail. Every railroad man who believes his calling should have the
dignity of a profession, owes to Mr. Kirkman a great debt.”—Railway
3 ournal.
SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION, COMPLETE IN SETS OF TWELVE VOLUMES, PRICE $30.oo.
PUBLISHED BY
THE WORLD RAILWAY PUBLISHING COMPANY, NEW YORK AND CHICAGO.
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