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GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS,
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CLASS BOOK OF ASTRONOMY,
ACCOMPANIED BY A.
C E L E S T I.A. L. A T L A S.
BY ELIJAH H. BURRITT, A. M.
THIRD EDITION.
WITH AN INTRODUCTION,
BY THOMAS DICK, LL.D.,
Author of the Christian Philosopher, &c.
H A R T FOR D :
PUBLISHED BY F. J. HUNTINGTON.
1836.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1833, by
F. J. HUNTINGTON,
in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Connecticut.
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PUBLISHER'S NOTICE.
In presenting a third edition of this work to the public, it is
proper to point out several very important improvements which
… have been made. -
Dr. Dick of Scotland, so well known both in Europe and in
this country, as the author of the Christian Philosopher, and
* other scientific and popular works, has prepared, expressly for
Tº the work, an Introduction on the Advantages of the Study of
Astronomy. So far as authority and name can go to give cur-
rency to the work, and to establish the confidence of teachers in
it as a proper text book, this simple fact, the publisher flatters
himself, furnishes every testimonial which can be desired.
The work has been thoroughly revised, and the errors of for-
mer editions corrected. It will be observed that several new
Chapters, on the important subjects of Planetary JMotion, The
Phcnomena of Day and Night, The Seasons, The Tides,
The Obliquity of the Ecliptic, The Precession of the Equi-
moves, &c., have been added.
It is only necessary to observe the Atlas, to discover that the
Plates have been engraved entirely anew, upon steel, and in a
very superior and beautiful style. The figures of the Constella-
tions are far more natural and spirited than those of the former
Atlas. Especially, the characters which represent the stars
are distinct, so that the pupil can discern, at once, to what class
they belong. One new plate has been introduced, illustrating
to the eye, the Relative Magnitudes, Distances, and Positions
of the different bodies which compose the Solar System. This
plate the teacher will find to be of very important service, and to
aid him much in his verbal explanations. The arrangement of
the Plates in the present Atlas, is such, that the teacher and pu-
pil can easily place them, in mind, so as to have a distinct view
of the entire surface of the visible Heavens.
Such are the principal improvements which have been made
in the work. They speak for themselves. The publisher
knows not what could express his satisfaction with the past,
or his hopes for the future success of the work, better than such
improvements.
Hartford, Nov. 1835.
P. R. E. F. A. C. E.
I HAVE long felt the want of a Class Book, which should be to the
starry heavens, what Geography is to the earth; a work that should
exhibit, by means of appropriate delineations, the scenery of the
heavens: the various constellations arranged in their order, point
out and classify the principal stars, according to their magnitudes
and places, and be accompanied, at the same time, with such fami-
liar exercises and illustrations, adapted to recitation, as should bring
it within the pale of popular instruction, and the scope of Juvenile
understandings.
Such a work I have attempted to supply. I have endeavoured to
make the descriptions of the stars so familiar, and the instructions
for finding them so plain, that the most inexperienced should not
fail to understand them. In accomplishing this, I have relied but
little upon globes and maps, or books. 1 very early discovered
that it was an easy matter to sit down by a celestial globe, and, by
means of an approved catalogue, and the help of a little graduated
slip of brass, make out, in detail, a minute description of the stars,
and discourse quite familiarly of their position, magnitude and ar-
rangement, and that when all this was done, I had indeed given
the pupil a few additional facilities for finding those stars upon the
artificial globe, but which left him, after all, about as ignorant of
their apparent situation in the heavens, as before. I came, at length,
to the conclusion, that any description of the stars, to be practically
useful, must be made from a careful observation of the stars them-
selves, and made at the time of observation. f
To be convinced of this, let any person sit down to a celestial
globe or map, and from this alone, make out a set of instructions,
in regard to some favourite constellation, and then desire his pupil
to trace out in the firmament, by means of it, the various stars which
he has thus described. The pupil will find it little better than a
fancy sketch. The bearings and distances, and especially, the com-
parative brightness, and relative positions, will rarely be exhibited
with such accuracy that the young observer will be inspired with
much confidence in his guide.
I have demonstrated to myself, at least, that the most judicious in-
structions to put on paper for the guide of the young in this study,
are those which I have used most successfully, while in a clear eve-
ning, without any chart but the firmament above, I have pointed
out, with my finger, to a group of listeners, the various stars which
compose this and that constellation.
In this way, the teacher will describe the stars as they actually
appear to the pupil—taking advantage of those obvious and more
striking features that serve to identify and to distinguish them from
all others. Now if these verbal instructions be committed to Wri-
PREFACE.
ting and placed in the hands of any other pupil, they will answer
nearly the same end. This is the method which I have pursued in
this work. The descriptive part of it, at least, was not composed
by the light of the Sun, principally, nor of a lamp, but by the light
of the stars themselves. Having fixed upon the most conspicuous
star, or group of Stars, in each constellation, as it passed the meri-
dian, and with a pencil carefully noted all the identifying circum-
stances of position, bearing, brightness, number and distance—their
geometrical allocation, if any, and such other descriptive features
as seemed most worthy of notice, I then returned to my room to tran-
scribe arid classify these memoranda in their proper order; repeat-
ing the same observations at different hours the same evening, and
on other evenings at various periods, for a succession of years; al-
ways adding such emendations as Subsequent observations matured.
To satisfy myself of the applicability of these descriptions, I have
given detached portions of them to different pupils, and sent them
out to find the stars; and I have generally had the gratification of
hearing them report, that “every thing was just as I had described
it.” If a pupil found any difficulty in recognizing a star, I re-ex-
amined the 㺠to see if it could be made better, and when
I found it susceptible of improvement, it was made on the spot. It
is not pretended, however, that there is not yet much room for im-
provement; for whoever undertakes to delineate or describe every
visible star in the heavens, assumes a task, in the accomplishment
of which, he may well claim some indulgence.
The maps which accompany the work, in the outlines and ar-
rangement of the constellations, are essentially the same with those
of Dr. Wollaston. They are projected upon the same principles
as maps of Geography, exhibiting a faithful portraiture of the hea-
vens for every month, and consequently for every day in the year,
and do not require to be rectified, for that purpose, like globes.
They are calculated, in a good measure, to supersede the neces-
sity of celestial globes in schools, inasmuch as they present a more
natural view of the heavenly bodies, and as nearly all the problems
which are peculiar to the celestial globe, and a great number be-
sides, may be solved upon them in a very simple and satisfactory
manner. They may be put into the hands of each individual in a
class at the same time, but a globe cannot be. The student may
conveniently hold them before his eye to guide his survey of the
heavens, but a globe he cannot. There is not a conspicuous star
in the firmament which a child of ten years may not readily find by
their aid. Besides, the maps are always right and ready for use,
while the globe is to be rectified and turned to a particular meri-
dian; and then if it be not held in that position for the time being,
it is liable to be moved by the merest accident or breath of wind.
There is another consideration which renders an artificial globe
of very little avail as an auxiliary for acquiring a knowledge of the
stars while at school. It is this:—the pupil spends one, perhaps
two weeks, in solving the problems, and admiring the figures, on it,
in which time it has been turned round and round a hundred times;
it is then returned safely to its case, and some months afterwards,
or it may be the next evening, he directs his eye upwards to recog-
*
PREFACE.
nize his acquaintance among the stars. He may find himself able
to recollect the names of the principal stars, and the uncouth forms
by which the constellations are pictured out; but which of all the
positions he has placed the globe in, is now so present to his mind
that he is enabled to identify it with any portion of the visible hea-
Vens?
He looks in vain to see,
“Lions and Centaurs, Gorgons, Hydras rise,
And gods and heroes blaze along the skies.”
He finds, in short, that the bare study of the globe is one thing,
and that of the heavens quite another; and he arrives at the con-
clusion, that if he would be profited, both must be studied and com-
pared together. This, since a class is usually furnished with but
one globe, is impracticable. In this point of view also, the maps
are preferable.
I have endeavoured to teach the Geography of the heavens in
nearly the same manner as we teach the Geography of the earth.
What that does in regard to the history, situation, extent, popula-
tion and principal cities of the several kingdoms of the earth, I
have done in regard to the constellations; and I am persuaded,
that a knowledge of the one may be as easily obtained, as of the
other. The systems are similar. It is only necessary to change the
terms in one, to render them applicable to the other. For this rea-
son, I have yielded to the preference of the publisher in calling this
work “Geography of the Heavens,” instead of URANoGRAPHY, or
Some other name more etymologically apposite.
/* That a serious contemplation of those stupendous works of the
Möst High, which astronomy unfolds, is calculated above all other
departments of human knowledge, to enlarge and invigorate the
powers of religious contemplation, and subserve the interests of ra-
tional piety, we have the testimony of the most illustrious charac-
ters that have adorned our race.
If the work which I now submit, shall have this tendency, I shall
not have written in vain. Hitherto, the science of the stars has
been but very superficially studied if our schools, for want of pro-
per helps. They have continued to gaze upon the visible heavens
without comprehending what they saw. They have cast a vacant
eye upon the splendid pages of this vast volume, as children amuse
themselves with a book which they are unable to read. They have
caught here and there, as it were a capital letter, or a picture, but
they have failed to distinguish those smaller characters on which
the sense of the whole depends. Hence, says an eminent English
Astronomer, “A comprehensive work on Descriptive Astronomy,
detailing, in a popular manner, all the facts which have been ascer-
tained respecting the scenery of the heavens, accompanied with a
variety of striking delineations, accommodated to the capacity of
youth, is a desideratum.” How far this desirable end is accom-
º: by the following work, I humbly leave to the public to
ecide.
Hartford, Feb. 1833.

- - 4-
Andromeda,
Aries, the Ram,
Auriga, the Charioteer, - a
Argo Navis, the Ship *
Asterion et Chara, vel Canes
Venatici, the Greyhounds,
Aquila et Antinous, the Eagle
and Antinous, - -
Aquarius, the Water Bearer
Bootes, the Bear Driver,
Cassiopeia,
Cepheus, -
Cetus, the Whale,
Columba, the Dove, -
Camelopardalus, the Camelopard,
Canis Minor, the Little Dog,
Canis Major, the Great Dog,
Cancer, the Crab, - 4-
Coma Berenices, Berenice's Hair,
Corvus, the Crow, -
Centaurus, the Centaur,
Corona Borealis, the Northern
Crown, - ->
Cygnus, the Swan
Capricornus, the Goat,
Constellations,—origin of,
Draco, the Dragon,
Delphinus, the Dolphin,
Eridanus, River Po,
Equulus, vel Equi Sectio, the Lit-
tle Horse, or the Horse's Head,
Gemini, the Twins, -
Hydra, the Water Serpent
the Cup, -
Hercules,
Lépus, the Hare,
Lynx, -
Leo, the Lion, -
Leo Minor, the Little Lion
Lupus, the Wolf, -
Libra, the Balance,
Lyra, the Harp, 4-
Monoceros, the Unicorn,
Orion, * - --
Pisces, the Fishes,
Perseus et Caput Medusae, Per-
seus and Medusa's Head, -
- *- -
-
º
:
.
and
- - *
*
- * *
- º
J
sº
*
*
- Page
Pegasus, the Flying Horse, - 133
Piscis Australis, vel Notius, the
Southern Fish, - - - 136
Sextans, the Sextant, - - 82
Serpens, the Serpent, - - 102
Scorpio, the Scorpion, - - 109
Sagittarius, the Archer, - - 124
Stars—variable, sº - - 137
Double, - , - - 138
Clusters of - - - 141
Number, Distance, and
Economy of - - 152
Falling or Shooting, - 160
Taurus, the Bull, º - - 62
Ursa Major, the Great Bear, - 85
Ursa Minor, the Little Bear, - 105
Virgo, the Virgin, * - - 92
Via Lactea, the Milky Way, - 144
PART II.
ſº
Asteroids, - - - - 68
Aurora Borealis, the Northern
Lights, - - * - - 144
Comets, * - - -- - 88
Days and Nights, different lengths
of - - - - - - - 129
Earth, - - - * * – 35
Equinoxes, Precession of - - 112
Ecliptic,+Obliquity of, - - 120
Forces, Attractive and Projectile, 109
Gravitation, Universal Law of, I05
Herschel, - - - - - 86
Jupiter, - - - - - 74
Mars, •e - - - - 64
Mercury, - - & - - 17
Moon, * - - - - 47
Moon—Harvest and Horizontal, 136
Refraction, - “s - 140
Solar System—General Phenom-
ena of - - - - - I
Sun, * * - * - º 11
Saturn, sm - - - 80
Seasons, . - - - 129
Tides, - - - - - 123
Twilight, - - - - 140
Venus, - - - - - 22
A
IN T R O DUCTION.
ADVANTAGES OF THE STUDY OF ASTRONOMY
BY
THOMAS DICIK, L.L. D.
tº
Arº
AstroNoMY is a science which has, in all ages, engaged the at-
tention of the poet, the philosopher, and the divine, and been the
subject of their study and admiration. Kings have descended from
their thrones to render it homage, and have sometimes enriched it
with their labours; and humble shepherds, while watching their
flocks by night, have beheld with rapture the blue vault of heaven,
with its thousand shining orbs moving in silent grandeur, till the
morning star announced the approach of day.—The study of this
science must have been co-eval with the existence of man. For
there is no rational being who, for the first time, has lifted his eyes
to the nocturnal sky, and beheld the moon walking in brightness
among the planetary orbs and the host of stars, but must have been
struck with awe and admiration at the splendid scene, and its sub-
lime movements, and excited to anxious inquiries into the nature,
the motions, and the destinations of those far-distant orbs. Com-
pared with the splendour, the amplitude, the august motions, and
the ideas of infinity which the celestial vault presents, the most re-
splendent terrestrial scenes sink into inanity, and appear unworthy
of being set in competition with the glories of the sky. -
hº of the sublimity of its objects, and the pleasure
arising from their contemplation, Astronomy is a study of vast
utility, in consequence of its connexion with terrestrial arts and
sciences, many of which are indebted to the observations and the
rinciples of this science for that degree of perfection to which they
have attained. -
Astronomy has been of immense utility to the science of
GEO GRAPHY;
for it is chiefly in consequence of celestial observations that the
true figure of the earth has been demonstrated and its density as:
certained. It was from such observations, made on the mountain
Schehallien in Scotland, that the attraction of mountains was de-
termined. The observations were made by taking the meridian
distances of different fixed stars near the zenith, first on the south,
and afterwards on the north side of the hill, when the plumb line of
w INTRODUCTION. ix
the Sector was found, in both cases, to be deflected from the per-
pendicular towards the mountain; and, from calculations founded
on the quantity of this deflection, the mean density of the earth was
ascertained. It was likewise by means of celestial observations
that the length of a degree of the meridian was measured, and the
circumference of the globe, with all its other dimensions accurately
ascertained; for, to ascertain the number of degrees between any
two parallels on the Earth's surface, observations must be taken,
with proper instruments, of the sun or of the stars, at different sta-
tions; and the accurate measurement of the terrestrial distance be-
tween any two stations or º partly depends on astronomical
observations combined with the principles and operations of Trigo-
nometry. So that without the aids of this science the figure and
density, the circumference and diameter of our terrestrial habita-
tion, and the relative position of places on its surface, could never
have been ascertained.
Astronomy is likewise of great utility to the art of
NAVIGATION:
without a certain knowledge of which the mariner could never
have traced his course through pathless oceans to remote regions—
the globe would never have been circumnavigated, nor an inter-
course opened between the inhabitants of distant lands. It is of
essential importance to the navigator, not only to know the situation
of the port to which he is bound, but also to ascertain with pre-
cision, on what particular portion of the terraqueous globe he is at
any time placed—what course he is pursuing—how far he has tra-
velled from the port at which he embarked—what dangerous rocks
or shoals lie near the line of his course—and in what direction he
must steer, in order to arrive, by the speediest and the safest course,
to his destined haven. It is only, or 3. by astronomical obser-
vations that such particulars can be determined. By accurately
observing the distance between the moon and certain stars, at a
particular time, he can calculate his distance East or West from a
given meridian; and, by taking the meridian altitude of the sun or
of a star, he can learn his distance from the Equator or from the
poles of the world. In such observations, a knowledge of the con-
stellations, of the polestar, and of the general positions of all the
stars of the first and second magnitude, is of particular importance;
and, therefore, a navigator who is unacquainted with the science
of the heavens, ought never to be appointed to conduct a ship through
the Indian, the Atlantic, or the Pacific oceans, or through any por-
tions of the sea which is not within sight of land. By the observa-
tions founded on astronomical science, which have been made in
different regions, by mariners and travellers of various descriptions,
the latitudes and longitudes of the principal places on the globe,
and their various bearings and relations have been determined, so
that we can now take a view of the world we inhabit in all its mul-
tifarious aspects, and direct our course to any quarter of it, either
for business, for pleasure, or for the promotion of philanthropic ob-
jects. Thus, Astronomy has likewise become of immense utility
to Trade and Commerce, in opening up new emporiums for our
X INTRODUCTION.
manufactures, in augmenting and multiplying the sources of wealth,
in promoting an intercourse between the most distant nations, and
enabling us to procure, for Our accommodation or luxury, the pro-
ductions of every climate. If science has now explored almost
every region; if Politics and Philosophy have opened a communi-
Çation between the remotest inhabitants of the globe; if alliances
have been formed between the most distant tribes of mankind; if
Traffic has explored the multifarious productions of the earth and
Seas, and transported them from one country to another, and, if
heathen lands and barbarous tribes have been “visited with the
Day-spring from on high, and the knowledge of salvation,”—it is
Owing to the aids derived from the science of the stars, without
which the continents, the islands, and the different aspects of our
globe would never have been explored by those who were separa-
led from them by intervening oceans.
This Science has been no less useful to
AGRIC ULTURE,
and to the cultivators of the earth. The Successful cultivation of the
Soil depends on a knowledge of the course of the sun, the exact length
of the seasons, and the periods of the year most proper for the opera-
tions of tillage and sowing. The ancients were directed in these
operations, in the first instance, by observing the courses of the
moon, and that twelve rewolutions of this luminary corresponded
nearly with one apparent revolution of the sun. But finding the
coincidence not exact, and that the time of the seasons was chang-
ing—in order to know the precise bounds of the sun's annual course,
and the number of days corresponding to his apparent yearly revo-
lution, they were obliged to examine with care what stars were
successively obscured in the evening by the sun, or overpowered
by the Splendour of his light, and what stars were beginning to
emerge from his rays, and to re-appear before the dawn of the
morning. By certain ingenious methods, and numerous and at-
tentive observations, they traced out the principal stars that lay in
the line of the Sun's apparent course, gave them certain names by
which they might be afterwards distinguished, and then divided
the circle of the heavens in which the sun appears to move, first
into quadrants, and afterwards into 12 equal parts, now called the
signs of the Zodiac, which they distinguished by names correspond-
ing to certain objects and operations connected with the different
seasons of the year. Such were the means requisite to be used for
ascertaining the length of the year, and the commencement of the
different seasons, and for directing the labours of the husbandman;
—and, were the knowledge of these things to be obliterated by any
extensive moral or physical convulsion, mankind would again be
under the necessity of having recourse to astronomical observations
for determining the limits of the solar year, and the course of the
seasons. Although we find no difficulty, in the present day, and
require no anxious observations, in determining the seasons, yet,
before astronomical observations were made with some degree of
accuracy, the ancient Greeks had to watch the rising of Arcturus
the Pleiades and Orion, to mark their seasons, and to determine the
INTRODUCTION. * X1
gº
proper time for their agricultural labours. The rising of the star
Sirius along with the sun, announced to the Egyptians the period
when they might expect the owerflowing of the Nile, and, conse-
quently, the time when they were to sow their grain, cut their ca-
nals and reservoirs, and prepare the way for their expected harvest.
The science of
C H R O NOLOGY,
likewise depends on celestial observations. The knowledge of an
exact measure of time is of considerable importance in arranging
and conducting the affairs of life, without which, society in its
movements would soon run into confusion. For example, if we
could not ascertain, within an hour or two, when an assembly
or any concourse of human beings was to meet for an important
purpose, all such purposes would soon be frustrated, and human
improvement prevented. Our ideas of time or succession in du-
ration, are derived from motion ; and in order to its being divi-
ded into equal parts, the motions on which we fix as standards of
time must be constant and uniform, or at least, that any slight de-
viation from uniformity shall be capable of being ascertained.
But we have no uniform motion on earth by which the lapse of
duration can be accurately measured. Neither the flight of birds,
• the motion of the clouds, the gentle breeze, the impetuous whirl-
wind, the smooth-flowing river, the roaring cataract, the falling
rain, nor even the flux and reflux of the ocean, regular as they
generally are, could afford any certain standard for the measure
of time. It is, therefore, to the motion of the celestial orbs alone
that we can look for a standard of duration that is certain and inva-
riable, and not liable to the changes that take place in all terrestrial
movements. Those magnificent globes which roll around us in
the canopy of the sky—whether their motions be considered as
real or only apparent, move with an order and regularity which is
not found in any physical agents connected with our globe; and
when from this quarter we have derived any one invariable mea-
sure of time, we can subdivide it into the minutest portions, to
subserve all the purposes of civil life, and the improvements of
science. Without the aids of astronomy, therefore, we should have
had no accurate ideas of the lapse of time, and should have been
obliged, like the rude savage of the desert, to compute our time by
the falls of snow, the succession of rainy seasons, the melting of the
1ce, or the progress and decay of vegetation. *’
Celestial observations, in consequence of having ascertained a
regular measure of time, have enabled us to fix chromological dates,
and to determine the principal epochs of History. Many of those
epochs were coincident with remarkable eclipses of the sun or
moon, which the ancients regarded as prognostics of the loss of
battles, the death of monarchs, and the fall of empires; and which
are recorded in connexion with such events, where no dates are
mentioned. The astronomer, therefore, knowing the invariable
movements of the heavenly orbs, and calculating backwards through
the past periods of time, can ascertain what remarkable eclipses
must have been visible at any particular time and place, and con-
sequently, can determine the precise date of contemporary events.
xii 4& INTRODUCTION.
Calvisius, for example, founds his Chronology on 144 eclipses o.
the sun, and 127 of the moon, which he had calculated for the pur-
pose of determining epochas and settling dates. The grand con-
junction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn, which occurs once in
800 years, in the same point of the zodiac, and which has happened
only eight times since the Mosaic Creation, furnishes Chronology
with incontestable proofs of the date of events, when such phenomena
happen to be recorded. On such data, Sir Isaac Newton deter-
mined the period when Thales the philosopher flourished, particu-
larly from the famous eclipse which he predicted, and which hap-
pened just as the two armies under Algattes, king of Lydia, and
Cyaxares the Mede were engaged; and which has been calculated
to have happened in the 4th year of the 43d Olympiad, or in the
}. before Christ 603. On similar grounds Dr. Halley, a cele-
rated astronomer of the last century, determined the very day and
hour of the landing of Julius Cesar in Britain, merely from the
circumstances stated in the “Commentaries” of that illustrious
general. -
Astronomy has likewise lent its aid to the
PROPAGATION OF RELIGION,
and the conversion of the heathen world. For, without the light
derived from this celestial Science, oceans would never have been
traversed, nor the continents and islands explored where benighted
nations reside, and, consequently, no messengers of Peace could
have been despatched to teach them “the knowledge of salvation, and
to guide their steps in the way of peace.” But, with the direction
afforded by the heavenly orbs and the magnetic needle, thousands
of Christian missionaries, along with millions of bibles, may now
be transported to the most distant continents and islands of the ocean,
to establish among them the “Law and Testimony” of the Most
High—to illume the darkness and counteract the moral abomina-
tions and idolatries of the Pagan world. If the predictions of an-
cient prophets are to be fulfilled; if the glory of Jehovah is to cover
the earth; if “the isles aſar off,” that have not yet heard of the fame
of the Redeemer, nor seen his glory, are to be visited with the
“Day-spring from on high,” and enrolled among the citizens of
Zion; if the world is to be regenerated, and Righteousness and
Praise to spring forth before all nations—those grand events will
be accomplished partly through the influence and direction of those
celestial luminaries which are placed in the firmament to be for
signs, and for seasons, and for days and years. The light reflected
from the material heavens will lend its aidin illuminating the minds
of the benighted tribes of mankind, till they be prepared for being
transported into those celestial mansions where knowledge shall
be perfected, and Sovereign power triumphant. It will be likewise
from aid derived from the heavenly orbs that the desolate wastes
of the globe in every region will be cultivated and replenished with
inhabitants. For the Almighty “created not the earth in vain, but
formed it to be inhabited ;” and his purpose in this respect must ul-
timately be accomplished; and the process of peopling and cultiva-
tion is now going forward in New Holland, Van Diemen's Land,
*
INTRODUCTION. xiii
Africa, the Western States of America, and other regions where
Sterility and desolation have prevailed since the universal Deluge.
But how could colonies of men be transported from civilized na-
tions to those distant regions unless by the guidance of celestial lu-
minaries, and by the aid of those arts which are founded on the ob-
servations of astronomy 3 So that this science exerts an extensiv
and beneficial influence over the most important affairs of mankind.
In short, astronomy, by unfolding to us the causes of certain ce-
lestial phenomena, has tended to
D IS SIP A T E SU P E R ST IT IO U S N OT I O N S
and vain alarms. In former ages the approach of a blazing comet,
or a total eclipse of the sun or moon, were regarded with universal
consternation as prognostics of impending calamities, and as har-
bingers of Divine vengeance. Å; even in the present day, such
notions prevail among most of those nations and tribes that are un-
acquainted with astronomical science. During the darkness occa-
Sioned by a solar eclipse, the lower orders of Turkey have been
seen assembling in clusters In the streets, gazing wildly at the sun,
running about in wild distraction, and firing volleys of muskets at
the sun to frighten away the monster by which they supposed it
was about to be devoured. The Moorish song of #. or the
howl they make for the dead, has been heard, on such occasions,
resounding from the mountains and the vales, while the women
brought into the streets all the brass pans, and vessels, and iron
utensils they could collect, and striking them with all their force,
and uttering dreadful screams, occasioned a horrid noise that was
heard for miles around. But astronomy has put to flight such ter-
rific phantoms and groundless alarms, by unfolding to us the true
causes of all such phenomena, and showing us that they happen in
exact conformity, with those invariable laws by which the Almighty
conducts the machine of the universe—that eclipses are merely the
effects of the shadow of one opaque globe ſalling upon another, and
that comets are bodies which move in regular, but long elliptical
orbits—which appear and disappear instated periods of time, and are
destined to subserve some grand and beneficent designs in the sys-
tem to which they belong. So that we may now contemplate all
such celestial phenomena, not only with composure and tranquillity,
but with exultation and delight. In short, astronomy has under-
mined the absurd and fallacious notions by which the professors of
Judicial Astrology have attempted to jº on the credulity of
mankind, under pretence of disclosing the designs of Fate, and
the events of futurity. It shows us, that the stars are placed at im-
measurable distances from our terrestrial sphere—that they can
have no influence upon the earth, but what arises from the law of
universal gravitation—that the great end for which they were crea-
ted was to diffuse light, and to perform other important services in
regions infinitely distinct from the sphere we occupy—that the pla-
nets are bodies of different sizes, and somewhat similar to the globe
on which we live—that all their aspects and conjunctions are the
result of physical laws which are regular and immutable—and that
no data can be ascertained on yhich it can be proved that they
ad
xiv INTRODUCTION.
exert a moral influence on the temperaments and destinies of men,
except in so far as they tend to raise our affections to their Al-
mighty Author, and excite us to confide in his care, and to contem-
plate the effects of his wisdom and omnipotence. The heavens
are set before us, not as the “Book of Fate,” in which we may pry
into the secrets of our future destiny, which would only serve to
destroy activity, and increase the pressure of our present afflictions
—but as the “Book of God,” in which we may read his wondrous
works, contemplate the glory of his eternal empire, and be excited
to extend our views to those expansive scenes of endless ſelicity
which awaii the faithful in the realms above.
Independently of the considerations above stated, the study of as-
tronomy is attended with many advantages in a moral, intellectual,
and religious point of view.
§ 1. This department of science unfolds to us the most striking dis-
plays of the perfections of the Deity—particularly the grandeur of
his Omnipolence: His Wisdom is conspicuously displayed in the
general arrangement of the heavenly orbs, particularly in reference
to the globes which compose the solar system—in placing near the
centre of this system that immense luminary the Sun, from whence
light and heat might be distributed, in due proportion, to all the
worlds that roll around it—in nicely proportionating the motions
and distances of all the planets primary and secondary—in uniting
them in one harmonious system, by one grand universal law which
prevents them from flying off in wild confusion through the infini-
ty of space—in tº e constancy and regularity of their motions, no
one interfering with another, or deviating from the course pre-
scribed—in the exactness with which they run their destined
rounds, finishing their circuits with so much accuracy as not to de-
viate from their periods of revolution, the hundredth part of a mi-
nute in a thousand years—in the spherical figures given to all those
mighty orbs, and the diurnal motions impressed upon them, by
which a due proportion of light and heat is diffused over every part
of their surface. The Benevolence of the Deity shines no less con-
spicuous in those upper regions, in ordering all the movements and
arrangements of the celestial globes so as to act in subserviency to
the comfort and happiness of senticnt and intelligent beings. For,
the wisdom of God is never employed in devising means without
an end; and the grand end of all his arrangements, in so far as our
views extend, is the communication of happiness; and it would be
inconsistent with the wisdom and other perfections of God not to
admit, that the same end is kept in view in every part of his domin-
ions, however far removed from the sphere of our contemplation.
The heavens, therefore, must be considered as presenting a bound-
less scene of Divine benevolence. For they unfold to view a count-
less number of magnificent globes, calculated to be the habitations
of various orders of beings, and which are, doubtless, destined to be
the abodes of intellectual life. For the character of the Deity would
be impeached, and his wisdom virtually denied, were we to Sup-
pose him to arrange and establish a magnificent series of means
without an end corresponding, in utility and dignity, to the gran-
deur of the contrivance. When, therefore, we consider the innu-

INTRODUCTION. XV
merable worlds which must exist throughout the immensity of
space, the countless myriads of intelligences that people them, the
various ranks and orders of intellect that may exist among them,
the innumerable diversified arrangements which are made for pro-
moting their enjoyment, and the peculiar displays of Divine benig-
nity enjoyed in every world—we are presented with a scene of Di-
vine goodness and beneficence which overpowers our conceptions,
and throws completely into the shade all that we perceive or enjoy
within the confines of this sublunary world. And, although the
minute displays of Divine benevolence in distant worlds are not
yet particularly unfolded to our view, yet this circumstance does
not prove that no such displays exist;-and as we are destined to
an immortal life, in another region of creation, we shall, doubtless,
be favoured with a more expansive view of the effects of Divine .
benignity in that eternal scene which lies before us.
ſ' But this science exhibits a more striking display than any other
of the Omnipotent emergies of the Eternal Mind. It presents before
us objects of overpowering magnitude and splendour—planetary
globes a thousand times larger than the earth—magnificent rings
which would nearly reach from the earth to the moon, and would
enclose within their vast circumference 500 worlds as large as
ours—suns a million times larger than this earthly ball, diffusing
their light over distant worlds—and these Suns scattered in every
direction through the immensity of space, at immeasurable distances
'from each other, and in multitudes of groups which no man can
number, presenting to the eye and the imagination a perspective of
starry systems, boundless as immensity.—It presents to our view
motions so astonishing as to overpower and almost terrify the ima-
gination—bodies a thousand times larger than the earth flying with
a velocity of 29,000 miles an hour, performing circuits more than
three thousand millions of miles in circumference, and carrying
along with them a retinue of revolving worlds in their swift career;
nay, motions, at the rate of 880,000 miles an hour, have been per-
ceived among the celestial orbs, which as far surpass the motions
we behold around us in this lower world, as the heavens in height
surpass the earth. Such motions are perceived not only in the so-
lar system, but in the most distant regions of the universe, among
double stars—they are regular and uninterrupted—they have been
going forward for thousands, perhaps for millions of years—there
is perhaps no body in the universe but is running its round with
similar velocity; and it is not unlikely that the whole machine of
universal nature is in perpetual motion amidst the spaces of immen-
sity, and will continue thus to move throughout all the periods of
endless duration. Such objects and such motions evidently displa
the omnipotence of the Creator beyond every other scene whic
creation presents; and, when seriously contemplated, cannot but
inspire us with the most lofty and impressive conceptions of the
“eternal power” and majesty of Him who sits on the throne of the
universe, and by whom all its mighty movements are conducted.
They demonstrate, that his agency is universal and uncontrollable
—that he is able to accomplish all his designs, however incompre-
hensible to mortals—that no created being can frustrate his pur-
xvi INTRODUCTION.
poses, and that he is worthy of our highest affection, and our inces-
sant adoration.
2. Astronomy displays before us the extent and grandeur of God's
wniversal empire. #. globe we inhabit, with all its appendages,
forms a portion of the Divine empire, and, when minutely investi-
gated, exhibits a striking display of its Creator's power, benignity,
and intelligence. But it forms only one small province of his uni-
versal dominions—an almost undistinguishable speck in the great
map of the universe: and if we confine our views solely to the lim-
its of this terrestrial ball, and the events which have taken place on
its surface, we must form a very mean and circumscribed idea of
the extent of the Creator's kingdom and the range of his moral go-
vernment. But the discoveries of astronomy have extended our
views to other provinces of the empire of Omnipotence, far more
spacious and magnificent. They demonstrate, that this earth, with
all its vast oceans and mighty continents, and numerous population,
ranks among the smaller provinces of this empire—that the globes
composing the system to which it belongs, (without including the
sun,) contain an extent of territory more than two thousand times
larger than our world—that the sun himself is more than 500 times
larger than the whole, and that, although they were all at this mo-
ment buried in oblivion, they would scarcely be missed by an eye
that could survey the whole range of creation.—They demonstrate,
that ten thousands of suns, and ten thousand times ten thousands OI
revolving worlds are dispersed throughout every region of bound-
less space, displaying the creating and supporting energies of Om-
nipotence; and consequently, are all under the care and superin-
tendence of Him “who doth according to his will in the armies of
heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth.” Such an empire,
and such only, appears corresponding to the perfections of Him
who has existed from eternity past, whose power is irresistible,
whose goodness is unbounded, and whose presence fills the immen-
sity of space; and it leads us to entertain the most exalted senti-
ments of admiration at the infinite intelligence implied in the super-
tntendence of such vast dominions, and at the boundless beneficence
displayed among the countless myriads of sensitive and intellectual
beings which must people his wide domains.
3. The objects º; this science discloses, afford subjects of Sub-
lime contemplation, and tend to elevate the soul above vicious passions
and grovelling pursuits. In the hours of retirement and solitude
What can be more delightful, than to wing our way in Imagination
amidst the splendid objects which the firmament displays—to take
our flight along with the planets in their wide career—to behold
them running their ample founds with velocities forty times swifter
than a cannon ball—to survey the assemblages of their moons, re-
volving around them in their respective orders, and carried at the
same time, along with their primaries, through the depths of space
—to contemplate the magnificent arches which adorn the firmament
cf Saturn, whirling round that planet at the rate of a thousand miles
in a minute, and displaying their radiance and majestic movements
to an admiring population—to add scene to scene, and magnitude
to magnitude, till the mind acquire an ample conception of such

INTRODUCTION. xvin
august objects—to dive into the depths of infinite space till we be
surrounded with myriads of suns and systems of worlds, extending
beyond the range of mortal comprehension, and all running their
appointed rounds, and accomplishing the designs of beneficence in
obedience to the mandate of their almighty Author Such objects
afford matter for rational conversation, and for the most elevated
contemplation. In this ample field the most luxuriant imagination
may range at large, representing scenes and objects in endless va-
riety and extent; and, after its boldest excursions, it can scarcely
go beyond the reality of the magnificent objects which exist within
the range of creating power and intelligence.
The frequent contemplation of such objects tends to enlarge the
capacity of the mind, to ennoble the human faculties, and raise the
soul above grovelling affections and vicious pursuits. For the dis-
positions of mankind and their active pursuits generally correspond
to the train of thought in which they most frequently indulge. If
these thoughts run among puerile and vicious objects, such will be
the general character of their affections and conduct. If their train
of thinking take a more elevated range, the train of their actions
and the passions they display, will, in some measure, be correspond-
ent. Can we suppose, that a man whose mind is daily conversant
with the noble and expansive objects to which I have adverted,
would have his soul absorbed in the pursuits of ambition, tyranny,
slavery and oppression, war and devastation ? Would he rush like
a madman through burning cities, and the mangled carcasses of
the slain, in order to trample under foot the rights of mankind, and
to enjoy a proud pre-eminence over his fellows—and find pleasure
in such accursed pursuits’; Would he ſawn on statesmen and
princes, and violate every moral principle in order to obtain a pen-
sign or a post of opulence or honour ! Would he drag his fellow
men to the stake, because they worshipped God according to the
dictates of their consciences, and behold with pleasure their bodies
roasting in the flames? Would he drive men, women and children
from their homes, loaded with chains and fetters, to pine in misery
and to perish in a distant land, merely because they asserted the
rights to which they were entitled as citizens and as rational beings?
Would he command the poor slave to be torn and lacerated by the
infernal whip, and to be hunted and shot down like a beast of prey,
and prosecute, without remorse, such a system of cruelty and in-
justice Or, would he degrade himself below the level of the brutes
by a daily indulgence in rioting and drunkenness, till his faculties
were benumbed, and his body found wallowing in the mire? It is
scarcely possible to suppose that such passions and conduct would
he displayed by the man who is habitually engaged in celestial con-
templations, and whose mind is familiar with the august objects
which the firmament displays. As a learned American professor
has observed,—“If men were taught to act in view of all the bright
worlds which are looking down upon them, they could not be guilty
of those abominable cruelties towards their species” which the
scenes of slavery so mournfully display. We should then expect,
that the iron rod of oppression would be broken in pieces—that war
would cease its horrors and devastations—that liberty would be
*
xviii * INTRODUCTION.
proclaimed to the captives—that “righteousness would run down
our streets as a river,” and a spirit congenial to that of the inhabit-
ants of heaven would be displayed by the rulers of mations, and by
all the families of the earth. For all the scenes which the firma-
ment exhibits have a tendency to inspire tranquillity—to produce a
love of harmony and order, to stain the pride of human grandeur-
to display the riches of Divine beneficence—to excite admiration
and reverence—and to raise the soul to God as the Supreme Director
of universal nature, and the source and centre of all true enjoy-
ment;-and such sentiments and affections are directly opposed to
the degrading pursuits and passions which have contaminated the
Society of our world, and entailed misery on our species.
I might have added, on this head, that the study of this subject
has a peculiar tendency to sharpen and invigorate the mental fac-
ulties. It requires a considerable share of gitention and of intel-
lectual acumen to enter into all the particulafs connected with the
principles and facts of astronomical science. The elliptical form
of the planetary orbits, and the anomalies thence arising, the muta-
tion of the earth's axis, the causes of the seasons, the difficulty of
reconciling the apparent motions of the planets with their real mo-
tions in circular or elliptical orbits, the effects produced by centri-
fugal and centripetal forces, the precession of the equinoxes, the ab-
erration of light, the method of determining the distances and mag-
litudes of the celestial bodies, mean and apparent time, the irregu-
larity of the moon's motion, the difficulty of forming adequate ideas
of the immense spaces in which the heavenly bodies move, and
their enormous size, and various other particulars, are apt, at first
view, to startle and embarrass the mind, as if they were beyond the
reach of its comprehension. But, when this science is imparted to
the young under the guidance of enlightened instructors—when
they are shown not merely pictures, globes and orreries, but direct-
ed to observe with their own eyes, and with the assistance of teles-
copes, all the interesting phenomena of the heavens, and the mo-
tions which º whether real or apparent—when they are shown
the spots of the sun, the moons and belts of Jupiter, the phases of
Venus, the rings of Saturn, and the mountains and vales which
diversify the surface of the moon—such objects tend to awaken the
attention, to expand the faculties, to produce a taste for rational in-
vestigation, and to excite them to more eager and diligent inquiries
into the subject. The objects appear so grand and novel, and strike
the senses with so much force and pleasure, that the mind is irre-
sistibly led to exert all its energies in those investigations and ob-
servations by which it may be enabled to grasp all the principles
and facts of the science. And every difficulty which is surmounted
adds a new stimulus to the exertions of the intellect, urges it for-
ward with delight in the path of improvement, and thus invigorates
the mental powers, and prepares them for engaging with spirit and
alacrity in every other investigation.
( 4. The study of astronomy has a tendency to moderate the pride of
man, and to promote humility.) Pride is one of the distinguishing
characteristics of puny man, and has been one of the chief causes
of all thé contentions, wars, devastations, oppressions, systems of
INTRODUCTION. XIX
slavery, despotisms, and ambitious projects which have desolated
and demoralized our sinful world. Yet there is no disposition more
incongruous to the character and circumstances of man. Perhaps
there are no rational beings throughout the universe among whom
pride would appear more unseemly or incompatible than in man;
considering the abject situation in which he is placed. He is ex-
posed to innumerable degradations and calamities, to the rage of
storms and tempests, the devastations of earthquakes and volcanoes,
the fury of whirlwinds, and the tempestuous billows of the ocean,
the ravages of the sword, pestilence, famine, and numerous dis
eases, and, at length, he must sink into the grave, and his body be-
come the companion of worms. The most dignified and haughty
of the sons of men are liable to such degradations, and are frequent-
ly dependent on the meanest fellow creatures whom they despise,
for the greater part of their accommodations and comforts. Yet,
in such circumstances, man, that puny worm of the dust, whose
knowledge is so limited, whose follies are so numerous and glaring
—has the effrontery to strut in all the haughtiness of pride, and to
glory in his shame. When scriptural arguments and motives pro-
duce little effect, I know no considerations which have a more pow-
erful tendency to counteract this deplorable Fº of human
beings than those which are borrowed from the objects connected
with astronomy. They show us what an insignificant being—what
a mere atom, indeed, man appears amidst the immensity of crea-
tion: What is the whole of this globe, compared with the solar sys-
tem, which contains a mass of matter ten hundred thousand times
greater q What is it in comparison of the hundred millions of suns
and worlds which the telescope has descried throughout the starry
regions, or of that infinity of worlds which doubtless lie beyond the
range of human vision in the unexplored regions of immensity ?
What, then, is a kingdom, or a province, or a baronial territory, of
which we are as proud as if we were the lords of the universe, and
for which we engage in so much devastation and carnage What
are they when set in competition with the glories of the sky | Could
we take our station on the lofty pinnacles of heaven, and look down
on this scarcely distinguishable speck of earth, we should be ready
to exclaim with Seneca, “Is it to this little spot that the great de-
signs and vast desires of men are confined 7 Is it for this there is
so much disturbance of nations, so much carnage, and so many ru-
inous wars? O folly of deceived men, to imagine great kingdoms
in the compass of an atom, to raise armies to divide a point of earth
with the sword!” It is unworthy of the dignity of an immortal
mind to have its affections absorbed in the vanishing splendours of
earthly grandeur, and to feel proud of the paltry possessions and
distinctions of this sublunary scene. To foster a spirit of pride and
vainglory in the presence of Him who “sitteth on the circle of the
heavens,” and in the view of the overwhelming grandeur and im-
mensity of his works, is a species of presumption and arrogance of
which every rational mind ought to feel ashamed. And, therefore,
we have reason to believe, that those multitudes of fools, “dressed
in a little brief authority,” who walk in all the loftiness of pride,
have not yet considered the rank they hold in the scale of universal
XX INTRODUCTION.
being;-and that a serious contemplation of the immensity of crea-
tion would have a tendency to convince us of our ignorance and
nothingness, and to humble us in the dust, in the presence of the
Former and Preserver of all worlds. We have reason to believe
that the most exalted beings in the universe—those who are fur-
nished with the most capacious powers, and who have arrived at
the greatest perfection in knowledge—are distinguished by a pro-
portional share of humility; for, in proportion as they advance in
their surveys of the universal kingdom of Jehovah, the more will
they feel their comparative ignorance, and be convinced of their
limited faculties, and of the infinity of objects and operations which
lie beyond their ken. At the same time they will feel, that all the
faculties they possess were derived from Him who is the original
fountain of existence, and are continually dependent for their exer-
cise on his sustaining energy. Hence we find, that the angelic
tribes are eminently distinguished for the exercise of this heavenly
virtue. They “cover their faces with their wings” in the presence
of their Sovereign, and fly, with cheerfulness, at his command, to
our degraded world, “to minister to the heirs of Salvation.” It is
only in those worlds where ignorance and depravity prevail (if there
be any such besides our own) that'such a principle as pride is known
or cherished in the breast of a dependent creature—and therefore
every one in whom it predominates, however high his station or
worldly accomplishments, or however abject his condition may be,
must be considered as either ignorant or depraved, or more prop-
erly, as having both those evils existing in his constitution, the one
being the natural and necessary result of the other.
5. The studies connected with astronomy tend to prepare the soul
for the employments of the future world. In that world, the glory of
the Divine perfections, as manifested throughout the illimitable
tracts of creation, is one of the objects which unceasingly employ the
contemplation of the blessed. For they are represented in their ado-
rations as celebrating the attributes of the Deity displayed in his
operations: “Great and marvellous are thy works, Lord God Al-
mighty thou art worthy to receive glory and honour and power,
for thou hast created all things, and for thy pleasure they are and
were created.” Before we can enter that world and mingle with
its inhabitants, we must acquire a relish for their employments, and
some acquaintance with the objects which form the subject of their
sublime investigations; otherwise, we could feel no enjoyment in
the society of heavenly intelligences, and the exercises in which
they engage. The investigations connected with astronomy, and
the frequent contemplation of its objects, have a tendency to pre-
pare us for such celestial employments, as they awaken attention to
such subjects, as they invigorate the faculties, and enlarge the ca-
pacity of the intellect, as they suggest sublime inquiries, and desires
for further information which may afterwards be gratified; as they
form the groundwork of the progress we may afterwards make in
that state in our surveys of the Divine operations, and as they ha-
bituate the mind to take large and comprehensive views of the em-
pire and moral government of the Almighty. Those who have
made progress in such studies, under the influence of holy disposi-
&
INTRODUCTION XX1
*
tions, may be considered as fitted to enter heaven with peculiar ad-
vantages, as they will then be introduced to employments and inves-
tigations to which they were formerly accustomed, and for which
they were prepared—in consequence of which they may be preparedſ
for filling stations of superior eminence in that world, and for di-
recting the views and investigations of their brethren who enjoyed
few opportunities of instruction and improvement in the present
state. For we are informed, in the º records, that “they who
are wise,” or as the words should be rendered, “they who excel in
wisdom shall shine as the brightness of the firmament, and they that
turn many to righteousness, as the stars for ever and ever.”
6. The researches of astronomy demonstrate, that it is in the
power of the Creator to open to his intelligent offspring endless sour-
ces of felicity. In looking forward to the scene of our future desti-
nation, we behold a series of ages rising in succession without any
prospect of a termination; and, at first view, it might admit of a
doubt, whether the universe presents a scene so diversified and
boundless, that intelligent beings, during an endless duration, could
expect that new scenes of glory and felicity might be continually
opening to their view, or, whether the same series of perceptions
and enjoyments might not be reiterated so as to produce satiety and
indifference. Without attempting positively to decide on the par-
ticular scenes or sources of happiness that may be opened in the
eternal world, it may be admitted, that the Deity has it in his power
to gratify his rational creatures, during every period of duration,
with new objects and new sources of enjoyment; and, that it is the
science of astronomy alone which has presented us with a demon-
stration, and a full illustration of this important truth. For, it has
displayed before us a universe boundless in its extent, diversified as
to its objects, and infinite as to their number and variety. Even
within the limits of human vision the number of worlds which exist
cannot be reckoned less than three thousand millions ; and those
which are nearest to us, and subject to our particular examination,
present varieties of different kinds, both as to magnitude, motion,
splendour, colour and diversity of surface—evidently indicating,
that every world has its peculiar scenes of beauty and grandeur.
But, as no one will be so presumptuous as to assert, that the bound-
aries of the universe terminate at the limits of human vision, there
may be an assemblage of creation beyond all that is visible to us,
which as far exceeds the visible system as the vast ocean exceeds
in magnitude a single drop of water; and this view is nothing more!
than compatible with the idea of a Being whose creating energies
are infinite, and whose presence fills immensity.' Here, then, we
have presented to our contemplation a boundless scene, correspond-
ing in variety, and extent of space, to the ages of an endless dura-
tion; so that we can conceive an immortal mind expatiating amidst
objects of benignity, sublimity and grandeur, ever varied and ever
new, throughout an eternal round of existence, without ever arri-
ving at a point, where it might be said, “Hitherto shalt thou come,
but no farther.” And we have reason to conclude that such will
be the privilege and enjoyment of all holy beings. For we are in-
; on the authority of inspiration, that “in God’s presence

XXIl INTRODUCTION.
there is fulness of joy, and at his right hand are pleasures for ever
7more.”
7. The science of astronomy is a study which will be prosecuted
without intermission in the eternal world. This may be inferred
from what has been already stated. For, it is chiefly among the
numerous worlds dispersed throughout the universe that God is
seen, his perfections manifested, and the plans of his moral govern-
ment displayed before the eyes of unnumbered intelligences. The
heavens constitute by far the grandest and most extensive portion
of the empire of Omnipotence ; and if it shall be one part of the
happiness of immortal spirits to behold and investigate the beauty,
grandeur and beneficence displayed throughout this empire, we
may rest assured, that they will be perpetually employed in such
exercises; since the objects of their investigation are boundless as
immensity;-or, in other words, astronomy, among other branches
of celestial Science, will be their unceasing study and pursuit. As
it has for its object, to investigate the motions, relations, phenomena,
scenery, and the ultimate destination of the great bodies of the uni-
verse, the subject can never be exhausted. Whatever may be said
in regard to the absolute perfection of other sciences, astronomy can
never be said, at any future period of duration, to have arrived at
perfection, in so far as it is a subject of study to finite minds; and, at
this moment, even in the view of the Infinite Mind that created the
universe, its objects may not yet be completed. For we have reason
to believe that the work of creation is still going forward, and, con-
sequently, that new worlds and systems may be continually emerg-
ing from nothing under the energies of Creating Power. However
capacious, therefore, the intellects of good men, in a future world,
may be, they will never be able fully to explore the extent and va-
riety, “the riches and glory” of Him “who dwells in light unap-
proachable;”—yea, the most exalted of created intelligences, where.
ever existing, although their mental powers and activities were
incomparably superior to those of man, will be inadequate to a full
investigation and comprehension of the grandeur and sublimities of
that kingdom which extends throughout the regions of immensity.
And this circumstance will constitute one ingredient of their hap-
piness, and a security for its permanency. For, at every period
of infinite duration, they will be enabled to look forward to a suc-
cession of scenes, objects and enjoyments different from all they
had previously contemplated or experienced, without any prospect
of a termination. We may therefore conclude, that, unless the
material universe be demolished, and the activities of immortal
minds suspended, the objects of astronomy will continue throughout
eternity to be the subject of study, and of unceasing contemplation.
Such are some of the advantages attending the study of the sci-
ence of astronomy. It lies at the foundation of our geographical
knowledge—it serves as a handmaid and director to the traveller
and navigator—it is subservient to the purposes of universal com-
merce—it determines the seasons, and directs the operations of the
husbandman—it supplies us with an equable standard of time, and
settles the events of history—it lends its aid to the propagation of re-
ligion, and undermines the foundation of superstition and astrology.
INTRODUCTION. xxiii
Above all, it illustrates the glory of the perfections of the Deity-–
displays the extent and grandeur of his universal empire—affords
subjects of Sublime contemplation, enlarges the conceptions, and in-
vigorates the mental powers—counteracts the influence of pride,
and promotes the exercise of humility—prepares the soul for the
employments of the futpure j". demonstrates, that the Cre-
ator has it in his power to open up endlessly diversified sources of
happiness to every order of * intelligent offspring, throughout all
the revolutions of eternity. The moral advantages arising from the
study of this Science, however, cannot be appreciated or enjoyed,
unless such studies and investigations be prosecuted in connexion
with the facts and principles of Revelation. But, when associated
with the study of the Scriptures, and the character of God therein
delineated, and the practice of Christian precepts, they are calcula-
ted “to make the man of God perfect,” to enlarge his conceptions
of Divine perfection, and to expand his views of “the inheritance
of the saints in light.”
Such being the advantages to be derived from the study of this
science, it ought to form a subject of attention in every seminary
intended for the mental and moral improvement of mankind. In
order to the improvement of the young in this science, and that its
objects may make a deep impression on their minds, they should be
directed to make frequent observations, as opportunity offers, on
the movements of the nocturnal heavens, and to ascertain all the
facts which are obvious to the eye of an attentive spectator. And,
while they mark the different constellations, the apparent diurnal
motion of the celestial vault, the planets in their several courses,
and the moon walking in her brightness among the host of stars—
they should be indulged with views of the rings of Saturn, the belts
and satellites of Jupiter, the phases of Mercury and Venus, the
numerous groups of stars in the Milky Way, the double and treble
stars, the most remarkable Nebulae, the mountains and plains, the
caverns and circular ridges of hills which diversify the surface of
the moon, as they appear through good achromatic or reflecting
telescopes. Without actual observation, and the exhibition of such
interesting objects, the science of astronomy makes, comparatively,
little impression on the mind. Our school books on astronomy
should be popular in their lang", ge and illustrations, but, at the
same time, they should be comprehensive in their details, and every
exhibition should be clear and well defined. They should contain,
not merely descriptions of facts, to be received on the authority of
the author or the instructer, but illustrations of the reasons or argu-
ments on which the conclusions of astronomy are founded, and of .
the modes by which they have been ascertained. And, while pla–
netariums, celestial globes, and planispheres of the heavens are ex-
hibited, care should be taken to direct the observations of the pupils
as frequently as possible, to the objects themselves, and to guard
them against the limited and distorted notions which all kinds of
artificial representations have a tendency to convey.
There is still room for improvement in all the initiatory books
on this subject I have examined; but such books are now rapidly
improving, both as to their general plan, and the interesting nature
xxiv. INTRODUCTION.
of their details. I have seen nothing superior in this respect, or
better adapted to the purpose of rational instruction, than Mr. Bur:
rett's excellent work entitled “The Geography of the Heavens,”
second edition, comprising 342 closely printed pages. . It contains,
in the first place, a full and interesting description of all the con-
stellations, and principal stars in the heavens, interspersed with a
great variety of mythological, historical and philosophical informa-
tion, calculated to amuse and instruct the general reader, and to
arrest the attention of the young. The descriptions of the bodies
connected with the solar system, are both popular and scientific,
containing a lucid exhibition of the facts which have been ascer-
tained respecting them, and a rational explanation of the phenomena
connected with their various aspects and motions. The Celestial
Atlas which accompanies the work is varied, comprehensive, and
judiciously constructed, and forms the most complete set of planis-
heres, for the purpose of teaching, which has hitherto been pub-
ished. It consists of four maps about fourteen inches square, de-
lineated on the same principles as geographical projections, exhi-
biting the stars that pass near the meridian at a certain hour, along
with the circumjacent constellations for every month, and for every
day of the year. Besides these there are two circumpolar maps of
the northern and southern hemispheres of the heavens, and a pla-
nisphere on the principle of Mercator's projection, which exhibits
at one view the sphere of the heavens, and the relative positions of
the different constellations and principal stars. With the assistance
of these maps, which in a great measure supersede the use of a
cclestial globe, an intelligent teacher may, at certain intervals in
the course of a year, render his pupils familiar with most of the
visible stars in the heavens; and they will make a deeper impres-
sion on their minds when taught in this way, than by the use of a
globe. This work, on the whole, indicates great industry and re-
search on the part of the author, and a familiar acquaintance with
thé various departments of the science of the heavens. He has de-
rived his materials from the most valuable and modern works of
science, and has introduced not a few illustrations and calculations
of his own, which tend to enhance the general utility of the work.
The moral and religious reflections which the objects of this science
naturally suggest, have not been overlooked, and, I trust, will have
a tendency to raise the minds of the young to that Almighty Being
whose power, wisdom, and superintending providence are so stri-
kingly displayed throughout the regions of the firmament.
PRELIMINARY CHAPTER.
IN entering upon this study, the phenomena of the heavens,
as they appear in a clear evening, are the first objects that
demand our attention. Our first step is to learn the names
and positions of the heavenly bodies, so that we can identify,
and distinguish them from each other.
In this manner, they were observed a
nd studied ages before.
books were written, and it was only after many, careful and
repeated observations, that systems and theories of Astronomy
were formed. To the visible heavens, then, the attention of
the pupil should be first directed, for it is only when he shall
have become in some measure, familiar with them, that he
will be able to locate his Astronomical knowledge, or fully
comprehend the terms of the science.
For the sake of convenient reference, the heavens were
early divided into constellations, and particular names assign-
ed to the constellations and to the stars which they contain. A
constellation may be defined to be a cluster or group of stars
embraced in the outline of some figure.” These figures are in
many cases, creations of the imagination, but in others, the
stars are in reality so arranged as to form figures which have
some resemblance to the objects whose names have been as-
signed to them. .
These divisions of the celestial sphere, bear a striking analogy to the civil
divisions of the globe. The constellations answer to states and kingdoms, the
most brilliant clusters to towns and cities, and the number of stars in each, to
their respective population. The pupil can trace the boundaries of any constel-
lation, and name all its stars, one by one, as readily as he can trace the bounda-
ries of a state, or name the towns and cities from a map of New England. In
this sense, there may be truly said to be a Geography of the Heavens.
The stars are considered as forming, with reference to their
magnitudes, six classes; the brightest being called stars of
the first magnitude, the next brightest, stars of the second
magnitude, and so on to the sixth class, which consists of the
smallest stars visible to the naked eye, In order to be able
Why, in entering upon the study of Astronomy, should the attention of the pupil be
first directed to the visible heavens? Why were the heavens early divided into con- .
stellations, and names assigned to the constellations and the stars What is a con-
stellation? Do these figures really exist in the skies? In what sense 2ndy there truly
be said to be a Geography of the Heavens 2 How many classes are the stars considered
as forming with reference to their magnitude. *...*
tº
26 PRELIMINARY CHAPTER.
to designate, with precision their situations, imaginary circles
have been considered as drawn in the heavens, most of which
correspond to and are in the same plane with similar circles,
supposed, for similar purposes, to be drawn on the surface of
the Earth.
In order to facilitate the study of it, artificial representations
of the heavens, similar to those of the surface of the Earth,
have been made. Thus, a Celestial Atlas, composed of se-
veral maps, accompanies this work. Before, however, pro-
ceeding to explain its use, it is necessary to make the pupil
acquainted with the imaginary circles alluded to above.
CIRCLEs of THE SPHERE.—The Aaris of the Earth is an
imaginary line, passing through its centre, north and south,
about which its diurnal revolution is performed.
The Poles of the Earth are the extremities of its axis.
The Aaris of the Heavens is the axis of the Earth pro-
duced both ways to the concave surface of the heavens.
The Poles of the Heavens are the extremities of their axis.
The Equator of the Earth is an imaginary great circle
passing round the Earth, east and west, everywhere equally
distant from the poles, and dividing it into northern and
southern hemispheres.
The Equator of the Heavens, or Equinoctial, is the great
circle formed on the concave surface of the heavens, by pro-
ducing the plane of the Earth’s equator. . .
A plane is that which has surface but not thickness. The plane of a circle is
that imaginary superficies which is bounded by the circle.
The Rational Horizon is an imaginary great circle, whose
plane, passing through the centre of the Earth, divides the
heavens into two hemispheres, of which the upper one is
called the visible hemisphere, and the lower one, the invisi-
ble hemisphere. It is the plane of this circle which deter-
mines the rising and setting of the heavenly bodies.
The Sensible or Apparent Horizon, is the circle which
terminates our view, where the Earth and sky appear to meet.
To a person standing on a plain, this circle is but a few miles in diameter. If
the eye be elevated five feet, the radius of the sensible horizon will be less than
two miles and three quarters; if the eye be elevated six feet, it will be just three
miles. The observer being always in the centre of the sensible horizon, it will
ºve as he moves, and enlarge or contract, as his station is elevated or depress-
€ -
~ What expedient has been devised for designating, with precision, the situations of
the heavenly bodies?, What is the axis of the Earth? What are the poles of the Earth?
What is the axis of the heavens? What are the poles of the heavens? What is the
equator of the Earth? What is the equator of the heavens or the equinoctial? What is
a plane? What is the plane of a circle? What is the rational horizon? What is the
sensible or apparent horizon? What is the diameter of this circle to a yer; Stand-
Žng on a gloº. 2 What will its radius be if the eye be elevated five feet? If it be ele-
wated six feet? On what does the place of its centre and its circumference depend?
PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 27
The Poles of the Horizon are two points, of which the one
is directly over head, and is called the Zenith : the other is
directly under foot, and is called the Nadir.
Vertical Circles are circles drawn through the Zenith and
Nadir of any place, cutting the horizon at right angles.
The Prime Vertical is that which passes through the east
and west points of the horizon.
The Ecliptic is the great circle which the Sun appears to
describe annually among the stars. It crosses the Equinoc-
tial, a little obliquely, in two opposite points which are called
the Equinores. The Sun rises in one of these points on the
21st of March ; this point is called the Vernal Equinox. It
sets in the opposite point on the 23d of September; this point
is called the Autumnal Equinox. One half of the ecliptic lies
on the north side of the Equinoctial, the other half on the
south side, making an angle with it of 23#9. This angle is
called the obliquity of the Ecliptic. The axis of the Eclip-
tic makes the same angle with the axis of the heavens; so
that the poles of each are 2349 apart.
This angle is perpetually decreasing. At the commencement of the Christian
era, it was about 23°45'. At the beginning of 1836, it was only 23° 27' 38 º’, show-
ing an annual diminution of about half a second, or 45’’.70 in a hundred years.
A time will arrive, however, when this angle, having reached its minimum, will
again increase in the same ratio that it had before diminished, and thus it will
continue to oscillate at long periods, between certain limits, which are said to be
comprised within the space of 20°42'. -
The ecliptic, like every other circle, contains 360°, and it i
divided into 12 equal arcs of 30° each, called signs, which the
ancients distinguished by particular names. This division
commences at the vernal equinox, and is continued east-
wardly round to the same point again, in the following order:
Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scor-
po, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces. The Sun,
commencing at the first degree of Aries, about the 21st of
March, passes, at a mean rate, through one sign every month.
The Zodiac is a zone or girdle, about 16 degrees in breadth,
extending quite round the heavens, and including all the
heavenly bodies within 89 on each side of the ecliptic. It in-
cludes, also, the orbits of all the planets, except some of the
asteroids, since they are never seen beyond 89 either north or
south of the écliptic. :
Parallels of Latitude are small circles imagined to be

What are the poles of the horizon? What are vertical circles? What is the prime
vertical? NWhat is the ecliptic? What are the equinoxes? The vernal equinox? The
autumnal equinox? How is the ecliptic situated with respect to the equinoctial? What
is the obliquity of the ecliptic P. Describe the manner in which this angle varies. De-
3cribe the division of the ecliptic into signs. How much, at a mean rate, does the Sun
†: in the ecliptic every month 3 "What is the zodiac What are parallels of
atitude 3
**
28 PRELIMINARY CHAPTER.
drawn on the Earth’s surface, north and south of the equator,
and parallel to it.
Parallels of Declination are small circles, imagined to be
drawn on the concave surface of the heavens, north and south
of the equinoctial, and parallel to it; or they may be consid-
ered as circles formed by producing the parallels of latitude
to the heavens.
The Tropic of Cancer is a small circle, which lies 234°
north of the equinoctial, and parallel to it. The Tropic of
Capricorn is a small circle, which lies 23#9 south of the
equinoctial, and parallel to it. On the celestial sphere, these
two circles mark the limits of the Sun’s farthest declination
north and south. On the terrestial sphere, they divide the
torrid, from the two temperate zones. That point in the
ecliptic which touches the tropic of Cancer, is called the Sum-
tner Solstice; and that point in the ecliptic which touches
the tropic of Capricorn, is called the Winter Solstice.
The distance of these two points from the equinoctial, is always equal to the
obliquity of the ecliptic, which, in round numbers, is 23c.9; but as we have seen
the obliquity of the ecliptic is continually changing; therefore the position of the
tropics must make a correspondent change.
The Colures are two great circles which pass through the
poles of the heavens, dividing the ecliptic into four equal
parts, and mark the seasons of the year. One of them passes
through the equinoxes at Aries and Libra, and is thence
called the Equinoctial Colure; the other passes through the
solstitial points or the points of the Sun’s greatest declination
north and south, and is thence called the Solstitial Colure.
The Sun is in the equinoctial points the 21st of March and the 23d of Septem-
ber. He is in the solstitial points the 22d of June and the 22d of December.
The Polar Circles are two small circles, each about 66;o
from the equator, being always at the same distance from the
poles that the tropics are from the equator. The northern is
called the Arctic circle, and the southern the Antarctic
circle.
Meridians are imaginary great circles drawn through the
poles of the world, cutting the equator and the equinoctial at
right angles.
Every place on the Earth, and every corresponding point in the heavens, is
considered as having a meridian passing through it; although astronomers apply
* , §
What are parallels of declination? What is the tropic of cancer? What is the tropic
of Capricorn? What is the summer solstice? What is the winter solstice? What is
their distance from the equator, compared with the obliquity of the ecliptic 2 Is this
distance glºbays the same?” What are the colures? What is the equinoctial colure?
What is th9 Solstitial colure? . On what days of the year is the sun in the equinoctial
UQirits? Qh what days, is he in the solstitial points? What are the polar circles?, By
what names, are they distinguished? What are meridians? How many meridians
are there? How many, do astronomers apply to the heavens 2
.* *~.
s
*
*

* &
º
PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 29
but 24 to the heavens, thus dividing the whole concave surface into 24 sections,
each 150 in width. These meridians mark the space which the heavenly bodies
appear to describe, every hour, for the 24 hours of th y. They are thence
sometimes denominated Hour Circles.
In measuring distances and determining positions on the Earth, the equator,
and some fixed meridian, as that of Greenwich, contain the primary starting
points; in the heavens, these points are in the ecliptic, the equinoctial, and that
#. ºlian which passes through the first point of Aries, called the equinoc-
tial colure.
Latitude on the Earth, is distance north or south of the
equator, and is measured on a meridian.
Latitude in the Heavens, is distance north or south of the
ecliptic, and at right angles with it.
Longitude on the Earth, is distance either east or west
from some fixed meridian, measured on the equator.
Longitude in the Heavens, is distance east from the first
point of Aries, measured on the ecliptic.
Declimation is the distance of a heavenly body either north
or south of the equinoctial, measured on a meridian.
Right Ascension is the distance of a heavenly body east
from the first point of Aries, measured on the equinoctial.
It is more convenient to describe the situation of the heavenly bodies by their
declination and right ascension, than by their latitude and longitude, since the
former correspond to terrestrial latitude and longitude.
Latitude and declination may extend 90° and no more. Terrestrial longitude
may extend 180° either east or west; but celestial longitude and right ascen-
sº being reckoned in only one direction, extend entirely round the circle, or
360°.
In consequence of the Earth’s motion eastward in its orbit,
the stars seem to have a motion westward, besides their
apparent diurnal motion caused by the Earth's revolution on
its axis; so that they rise and set sooner every succeeding
day by about four minutes, than they did on the preceding.
This is called their daily acceleration. It amounts to just
two hours a month.
ExAMPLE.—Those stars and constellations which do not rise until 10 o’clock
this evening, will, at the same hour, one month hence, be 30° above the
horizon; and, for the same reason, those stars which we see directly over head
this evening, will at the same hour, three months ºnce, be seen setting in the
id: having in this time, performed one fourth of their apparent annual revo-
ution. ar
The following table of sidereal revolutions, shows the difference between solar
and sidereal time. The first column contains the numbers of complete revolu-
tions of the stars, or of the Earth's rotation on its axis; the second exhibits the
Into how many sections, do these méridians divide the concave surface of the heavens 2
Of what width are these sections? Why are these meridians sometimes called hour cir-
cles 2 In ºneas wring distances on the Earth, what circles contain the primary starting
points 2 Where are these points in measuring distances in the heavens? What is la-
titude on the Earth? What is latitude in the heavens? What is longitude on the Earth?
What is longitude in the heavens? What is declimation? What is right ascension?
Why is it more convenient to describe the situation of the heavenly bodies by their de-
clination and right ascension, than by their latitude and longitude 2 Hoºt, many de-
grees may latitude and declination extend ? How many terrestrial longitude? Hºo
7nany celestial tongitude 2. What is meant by the daily acceleration of the stars". To
how many minutes does it amount? Ilustrº this subject with an eaſºn ple. 's
** :: --
, f
30 PRELIMINARY CHAPTER.
*
times in which these revolutions are made; and the third, shows how much
the Stars gain on the ºun every day—that is, how much sooner they rise and
come to the meridian A. ºry succeeding day, than they did on the preceding
Revolutions Times in which Revolutions Daily acceleration of the
Of the Stars. are made. Stars.
days ho. min. Sec. h min. SCC
1. 0 23 56 4 0 3 55
2 1 23 52 8 O 7 51
3 2 23 48 12 0 11 47
4 3 23 44 16 0 15 43
5 4 23 40 20 0 19 39
6 5 23 36 24 0 23 35
7 6 23 32 28 0 27 81
8 7 23 28 32 0 31 27
9 8 23 24 36 0 85 23
10 9 23 20 41 0 39 I9
J 1 J0 23 16 45 0 43 14
12 11 23 12 49 0 47 10
13 12 23 8 53 0 51 6
14 13 23 4 57 0 55 2
15 14 23 1 I 0 58 58
16 15 22 57 5 } 2 54
17 16 22 53 9 I 6 - 50
18 17 22 49 13 1 10 46
19 18 22 45 17 I 14 42
20 19 22 41 22 I 18 38
2] 20 22 37 26 1 22 33
22 21 22 33 30 i 26 29
23 22. 22 29 34 l 30 25
24 23 22 25 38 1 34 21
25 24 22 21 42 l 38 17
26 25 22 17 46 l 42 13
27 26 22 13 50 1 46 9
27 22 9 54 I 50 5
29 28 22 5 58 I 54 l
30 29 22 2 3 1 57 57
40 39 21 22 44 2 37 16
50 49 20 43 25 3 16 35
100 99 17 26 50 6 33 it)
200 199 10 53 40 13 6 9
300 299 4 20 30 19 39
360 359 0 24 23 35 23
365 364 0 4. 56 23 55 3
366 365 0 l 0 59 0
On this account, we have not always the same constella-
tions visible to us throughout the year. While some, that
were not visible before, are successively rising to view in the
east, and ascending to the meridian, others sink beneath the
western horizon, and are seen no more, until, having passed
through the lower hemisphere, they again reappear in the east.
It is easy to convert right ascension into time, or time into right ascension;
for if a heavenly body is one hour in passing over 159, it will be one fifteenth of
an hour, or 4 minutes, in passing over 19. -
If the first point of Aries be on the meridian at 12 o'clock, the next hour line,
which is 15° E, of it, will comé to the meridian at 1 o'clock; the second hour
line at 2 o’clock; the third at 3, &c. Of any two bodies whose right ascensions
are given, that one will pass the meridian first which has the least right ascension.
The first map of the atlas represents, upon a large scale,
a general view of the solar system.
This will be more fully described in the Second Part of the work.
Do we always see the same constellations? Explain themanner of converting right
ascerºszoº, 3rºo time. &nd time into right ascension.
PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 3i
The next six maps represent different sections of the concave
surface of the heavens. The first of these exhibits the principal
constellations visible to us in October, November and Decem-
ber; the second, those visible in January, February and March; .
the third, those visible in April, May and June; and the
fourth, those visible in July, August and September; with
the exception, however, of the constellations which lie be-
yond the 50th degree of north and south declination, of which,
indeed, those around the North Pole are always, and those
around the South Pole, never, visible to us. -
These constellations are represented on the sixth and seventh
maps, called circumpolar maps, which are an exact continu-
ation of the Cthers, and if joined to them at their correspond-
Ing degrees of right ascension and declination, they might be
considered as constituting one map. The scale on which all
the above-mentioned maps are drawn is that of a 16 inch
globe. The lines drawn on the maps have been already de-
fined; and their use, being nearly the same with those in
Geography, will be readily understood. Those which are
drawn from right to left, on each side of the equinoctial and
parallel to it, are called Parallels of Declination. Those
which are drawn up and down through the maps, at intervals
of 159, are called Meridians of Right Ascension, or Hour
Circles. The scale at the top and bottom of the first four
maps, and in the circumference of the circumpolar maps, in-
dicates the daily progress of the stars in right ascension, and
shows on what day of the month any star will be on the me-
ridian at 9 o'clock in the evening.
The constellation called the Great Bear is an exception to this rule; in this
constellation the principal stars are marked in the order of their right ascension.
That point of projection for the maps which would exhibit each successive
º of the heavens directly over head at 9 o'clock in the evening, was chosen,
ecause in summer at an earlier hour the twilight would bedim our observation
of the stars, and at other seasons of the year it is easier to look up to stars that
}. an hour of their meridian altitude than to those which are directly over
63.0}.
It will be readily seen that the stars are so represented on the maps as to show
their relative magnitudes. The method invented by Bayer, of designating them
by the letters of the Greek and Roman alphabets, is adopted. Thus in each con-
stellation the stars are marked alpha, beta, &c., and should the letters of the
Greek alphabet be exhausted, those of the Roman are employed. Some of the
stars have also proper names. -
The first four maps of the heavens are so constructed that the
For what months does the first map represent the heavens? For what months does
the second map represent the heavens? The third? The fourth? What constellations
are represented on the sixth and seventh maps? In what manner must these six maps
be arranged to form one complete map of the heavens? On what scale are these maps
drawn? What is the use of the scale at the top and bottom of the first four maps, and
in the circumference of the circumpolar maps? Why was that point Qf projection for
the maps, which would represent each successive portion of th; heavens directly over
Jhead at 9 o'clock in the evening, chosen 2 What is the method by which the stars are
72°3rrooted on the mans ? How must the pupil, in using either of the first four maps,
32 - PRELIMINARY CHAPTER.
.
pupil in using them must suppose himself to face the south, and
to hold them directly over head in such manner that the top of
the map shall be towards the north, and the bottom towards
the south; the right hand side of the map will then be west,
and the left hand east. In using the circumpolar maps he
must suppose himself to face the pole, and to hold them in
such a manner that the day of the given month shall be up-
permost. The Celestial Planisphere represents the whole
heavens lying between 70 degrees of north and south decli-
nation, not as the surface of a concave sphere, but of a con-
cave, cylinder, and spread out so as to form a plain surface.
A great variety of interesting problems, including almost all
those that are peculiar to the celestial globe, may be solved
upon it with facility and readiness.
We may now imagine the pupil ready to begin the study
of the visible Heavens. The first thing of importance is to
fix upon the proper starting point. This, on many accounts,
would seem to be the North Polar Star. Its position is ap-
parently the same every hour of the night throughout the
year, while the other stars are continually moving. Many of
the stars also in that region of the skies never set, so that
when the sky is clear, they may be seen at any hour of the
night. They revolve about the Pole in small circles, and
never disappear below the horizon. On this account they are
said to be within the circle of perpetual apparition. On the
other hand, the identity of the North Polar Star, strange as
it may appear, is not so easily determined, by those who are
just entering upon this study, as that of some others. For
this reason, the point directly over head, called the zenith,
is preferable, since upon this point every one can fix with cer-
tainty in whatever latitude he may be. It will be alike to all
the central point of the visible heavens, and to it the pupil
will learn imperceptibly to refer the bearing, motion, and dis-
tances of the heavenly bodies.
That meridional point in each map, whose declination corresponds with
the latitude of the place of observation, represents the zenith of the heavens
at that place; and those constellations of stars which occupy this position
on the maps, will be seen directly over head at 9 o'clock in the evening of the
day through which the meridian passes.—Thus in Georgia, for instance, the
starting point should be those stars which are situated in this meridian near the
33d degree of north declination, while in New England it should be those which
are situated in it near the 42d degree.
How, in using the circumpolar maps? Describe the construction and use of the Ce-
lestial Plamisphere. ...When the pupil is ready to begin the study of the visible heav-
ens, what is the first step to be taken 7–What advantages has the North Polar Star, as
a proper starting point? -What disadvantages? What point is preferable to the Polar
Star Why is it preferable? How may the point corresponding to this be found at port,
the maps? At whot time in the evening, wiil the stars which are near this point on
the maps, be seen directly over head? Is it indispensably necessary to begin with the
Stars noar this central meridian?
T’RELIMINARY CHAPTER. " 33
We might, nowever, begin with the stars near either of the
meridians represented on the maps, the only rule of selection
being to commence at that which approaches nearest to being
over head at the time required. &
We have chosen for our starting point in this work, that
meridian which passes through the vernal equinox at the first
point of Aries, not only because it is the meridian from which
the distances of all the heavenly bodies are measured; but
especially because the student will thus be enabled to observe
and compare the progressive motion of the constellations ac-
cording to the order in which they are always arranged in
catalogues, and also to mark the constellations of the Zodiac
passing over head as they rise one after another in their or-
der, and to trace among them the orbits of the Earth and of
the other planets.
As Greek letters so frequently occur in catalogues and maps of the stars and
on the celestial globes, the Greek alphabet is here introduced for the use of those
who are unacquainted with it. The capitals are seldom used for designating the
stars, but are here given for the sake of regularity.
THE GREEK ALPHABET.
A. (M. Alpha 3.
B 8 Beta . b
T y Gamma g
A d Delta d :
E & Epsilon e short
Z. § Zeta. Z
H . n Eta e long
{} 6 Theta th &
I t Iota i
K. K. Kappa k -
A. X Lambda l
M | Mu II] t
N 19 Nu Il
5. § Xi X
O O Omicron o short
TI Tr Pi p
P p Rho r
X S Sigma S
T rº- Tau t
Y ty Upsilon u
qā p Phi ph
X. 2. Chi * ch
ºpt t!, Psi ps
S} (a) Omega o long
In 1603, John Bayer, of Augsburg, in Germany, published a complete Atlas of
all the constellations, with the useful invention of denoting the stars in every
*
What is the only rule of selection? What is the starting point chosen for this work?
What advantages has this meri-dian as a starting point? t
34
PRELIMINARY CHAPTER.
constellation by the letters of the Greek and Roman Alphabets; assigning the
Greek letter a to the principal stars in each constellation, 3 to the second in
magnitude, 27 to the third, and so on ; and when the Greek alphabet was ex-
hausted, the notation was carried on with the Roman letters, a, b, c, &c. That
the memory might not be perplexed with a multitude of names, this convenient
method of designating the stars has been adopted by all succeeding astronomers,
who have farther enlarged it by the Arabie notation, 1, 2, 3, &c. whenever the

stars in the constellations outnumbered both alphabets.
INCREASE OF SIDEREAL TIME IN MEAN SOLAR HOURS, &c.

Increase.
Hours. m. sec.
1 0 9,857
2 19.713
3 29,569
4 39,426
5 49.282
6 59,139
7 1 8,995
8 18.852
9 28.708
10 38.565
11 48,421
12 58.278
13 2 8.134
14 17.991
15 .847
. 16 37,704
17 47.560
18 57.4.17
19 3 7.273
20 17.130
21 26.986
22 36.S42
23 46.699
24 56.555
Daily acceleration
of a star in passing
- the meridian, “.
Iſl. SCC,
3 55,9095
M
I
11
i
THE
GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS.
CHAPTER I.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN NOVEMEER.
g
ANDROMEDA.
IF we look directly over head at 10 o’clock, on the 10th &
November, we shall see the constellation celebrated in fable,
by the name of ANDROMEDA. It is represented on the map by
the figure of a woman having her arms extended, and chainedº
by her wrists to a rock. It is bounded N. by Cassiopeia, E.
by Perseus and the head of Medusa, and S. by the Triangles
and the Northern Fish. It is situated between 200 and 500
of N. declination. Its mean right ascension is nearly 159;
or one hour E. of the equinoctial colure. -
It consists of 66 visible stars, of which three are of the 2d
magnitude, and two of the 3d; most of the rest are small.
The stars directly in the zenith, are too small to be seen in
the presence of the moon, but the bright star Almaack, of the
2d magnitude, in the left foot, may be seen 139 due E., and
Merach, of the same magnitude, in the girdle, 70 south of the
zenith. This star is then nearly on the meridian, and with
two others N. W. of it forms the girdle.
The three stars forming the girdle are of the 2d, 3d, and
4th magnitude, situated in a row, 39 and 4° apart, and are
called Merach, Mu and Nu. *
About 29 from Nu at the northwestern extremity of the
girdle, is a remarkable nebula of very minute stars, and the
only one of the kind which is ever visible to the naked eye. It
resembles two cones of light, joined at their base, about #9 in
length, and #9 in breadth.
If we look directly over head at 10 o'clock on the 10th of November, what constella-
tion shall we see? How is it represented on the map? How is it bounded? What are its
right ascension and declination? How many visible stars has it? Describe the girdle
of Andromeda. Describe the appearance of a remarkable nebula which lies at its
northwestern extremity. t
*
36 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS,
{}
If a straig tº line, connecting Almaack with Merach, be
produced southwesterly, 8° farther, it will reach to Delta, a
star of the 3d magnitude in the left breast. This star may
be otherwise known by its forming a line, N. and S. with
two smaller ones on either side of it; or, by its constituting,
with two others, a very small triangle, S. of it.
ſº
\
Nearly in a line with Almaack, Merach and Delta, but
curving a little to the N. 79 farther, is a lone star of the 2d
magnitude, in the head, called Alpheratz. This is the N. E.
corner of the great “Square of Pegasus,” to be hereafter de-
scribed.
It will be well to have the position of Alpheratz well fixed in the mind, because
it is but one minute west of the great equinoctial colure, or first meridian of the
heavens, and forms nearly a right line with Algemib in the wing of Pegasus, 14°
S. of it, and with Beta in Cassiopeia, 30° N. of it. If a line, connecting these three
stars, be produced, it will terminate in the pole. These three guides, in connex-
ion with the North Polar Star point out to astronomers the position of that great
circle in the heavens from which the right ascension of all the heavenly bodies
is measured. .-
HISTORY..—The story of Andromeda, from which this constellation derives its
name, is as follows: She was daughter of Cepheus, king of Æthiopia, by Cassio-
peia. She was promised in marriage to Phineus, her uncle, when Neptune
drowned the kingdom, and sent a sea monster to ravage the country, to appease
the resentment which his favourite Nymphs bore against Cassiopeia, because
she had boasted herself fairer than Juno and the Nereides. The oracle of Ju-
piter Ammon was consulted, and nothing could pacify the anger of Neptune
unless the beautiful Andromeda should be exposed to the sea monster. She was
accordingly chained to a rock for this purpose, near Joppa, (now Jaffa, in Syria,)
and at the inoment the monster was going to dévour her, Perseus, who was then
returning through the air from the conquest of the Gorgons, saw her and was
captivated by her beauty. -
“Chained to a rock she stood; young Perseus stay’d
His rapid flight, to woo the beauteous maid.”
He promised to deliver her and destroy the monster if Cepheus would give
her to him in marriage. Cepheus consented, and Perseus instantly changed the
sea monster into a rock, by showing him Medusa's head, which was still reeking
in his hand. The enraged Phineus opposed their nuptials and a violent battle
ensued, in which he, also, was turned into a stone by the petrifying influence or
the Gorgon’s head.
The morals, maxims, and historical events of the ancients, were usually com-
municated in fable or allegory. The fable of Andromeda and the sea monster,
might mean that she was courted by some monster of a sea-captain, who at-
tempted to carry her away, but was prevented by another more gallant and suc-
cessful rival,
PISCES.
THE FISHEs.—This constellation is now the first in order,
of the 12 constellations of the Zodiac, and is usually repre-
sented by two fishes tied a considerable distance apart, at the
extremities of a long undulating cord, or riband. H. occupies
Describe the magnitude and position of Delta. How may this star be otherwise
known? Describe the position and magnitude of Alpheratz. What position does this
star occupy in the great square of Pegasus? Why is it important to have the position
of this star well ſized in the mind? What is the present order of the Fishes among
the constellations of the Zodiacº How is it represented 3 Describe its outline and Space
, in the heavens. '.
PESCES. 37
a large triangular space in the heavens, and its outline at first
is somewhat difficult to be traced.
In consequence of the annual precession of the stars, the constellation Pisces
has now come to occupy the sign Aries; each constellation having advanced
one whole sign in the order of the Zodiac. The sun enters the sign Pisces,
while the earth enters that of Virgó, about the 19th of February, but he does not
reach the constellation Pisces before the 6th of March. The Fishes, therefore,
are now called the “Leaders of the Celestial Hosts.”—See Aries.
That loose assemblage of small stars directly south of
Merach, in the constellation of Andromeda, constitutes the
Northern Fish, whose mean length is about 169, and breadth,
79. Its mean right ascension is 159, and its declination 250
N. Consequently, it is on the meridian the 24th of Novem-
ber; and, from its breadth, is more than a week in passing
over it. The Northern Fish and its riband, beginning at
Merach, may, by a train of small stars, be traced, in a S. S.
easterly direction, for a distance of 339, until we come to the
star El Rischa, of the 3d magnitude, which is situated in the
node, or flexure of the riband. . This is the principal star in
the constellation, and is situated 2° N. of the equinoctial, and
53 minutes east of the meridian. !,
Seven degrees S. E. of El Rischa, passing by three or four very small stars
we come to Mira, in the Whale, a star of about the 3d magnitude, and known as
the “Wonderful Star of 1596.” El Rischa may be otherwise identified by means
of a º cluster of five stars in the form of a pentagon, about 15° E. of
it.—See Cetus.
From El Rischa the riband or cord makes a sudden flexure,
doubling back across the ecliptic, where we meet with three
stars of the 4th and 5th magnitude situated in a row 39 and
49 apart, marked on the map Zeta, Epsilon, Delta. From
Delta the riband runs north and westerly along the Zodiac,
and terminates at Beta, a star of the 4th magnitude, 119 S.
of Markab in Pegasus.
This part of the riband including the Western Fish at the
end of it, has a mean declination of 5° N., and may be seen
throughout the month of November, passing the meridian
slowly to the W., near where the sun passes it on the 1st of
April. Twelve degrees W. of this Fish, there are 4 small
stars situated in the form of the letter Y. The two Fishes,
and the cord between them, make two sides of a large
triangle, 309 and 40° in length, the open part of which is
towards the N. W. When the Northern Fish is on the
what are the size and position of the Northern Fish? When, and how longisit on the
meridian? How may it be traced? What is the principal star in this constellation, and
where is it situated? How far, and in what direction from Alpha, is Mira, in the Whale?
By what peculiarappellation is this star known? What is the direction of the riband from
Alpha, What stars do we meet with, where the riband doubles back across the eclip-
tic? What is the direction of this part of the riband from Delta, and where does it ter-
minate? What are its mean declination, and the time of its passing the meridian? What
striking cluster is seen about 12° W. of the Western Fish? What geometrical figure . . . .
may be conceived to be formed by the two Fishes and the cord between them; Where
is the Western Fish when the Northern is on the meridian 2 .
38 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |Nov.
meridian, the Western is nearly 2 hours past it. This con-
stellation is bounded N. by Andromeda, W. by Andromeda
and Pegasus, S., by the Cascade, and E. by the Whale, the
Ram and the Triangles.
When, to enable the pupil to find any star, its direction from another is given.
the latter is always understood to be on the ineridian. -
After a little experience with the maps, even though unaccompanied by di-
rections, the ingénious youth will be able, of himself, to devise a great many ex-
pedients and facilities for tracing the consteilations, or selecting out particular
StarS.
HISTORY..—The ancient Greeks, who have some fable to account for the ori-
gin of almost every constellation, say, that as Venus and her son Cupid were one
day on the banks of the lºuphrates, they were greatly alarined at the appearance
of a terrible giant, named Typhon. Throwing theimselves into the river, they
were changed into fishes, and by this means escaped danger. To commemorate
this event, Minerva placed two fishes among the stars.
According to Ovid, Holmer, and Virgil, this Typhon was a famous giant. He
had a hundred heads, like those of a serpent or dragon. Flames of devouring
fire darted from his ſmouth and eyes. He was no sooner born, than he made
war against heaven, and so frightened the gods, that they fled and assumed diſ.
ferent shapes. Jupiter became a rain; Mercury, aim ibis; Apollo, a crow ; Juno,
a cow; Bacchus, a goal, ; Diana, a cat; Venus, a fish, &c. The father of the
gods, at least, put Typhon to flight, and crushed him under Mount AEtna.
The obvious sentinent implied in the fable of this hideous monster, is evi-
dently this: that there is in the world a description of men whose unouth is so
“full of cursing and bitterness,” derisipm and violence, that modest virtue is
sometimes forced to disguise itself, or flee from their presence, \
In the Hebrew Zodiac, Pisces is allotted to the escutcheon of Simeon.
No sign appears to have been considered of more malignant influence than
Pisces. The astrological calendar describes the emblems of this constellation
as indicative of violence and death. Both the Syrians and Egyptians abstained
from eating fish, out of dread and abhorrence ; and when the latter would re-
present any thing as odious, or express hatred by hieroglyphics, they painted a
fish. *
In using a circumpolar map, face the pole, and hold it up in your hands in
such a mammer that the part which contains the name of the given month shall
be uppermost, and you will have a portraiture of the heavens as seen at that
time.
. The constellations about the Antarctic Pole are not visible in the United
States; those about the Arctic or northern pole, are always visible.
CASSIOPEIA.
CAssiopBIA is represented on the celestial map, in regal
state seated on a throne or chair, holding in her left hand the
branch of a palm tree. Her head and body are seen in the
Milky Way. Her foot rests upon the Arctic Circle, upon
which her chair is placed. She is surrounded by the chier
personages of her royal family. The king, her husband, is
on her right hand—Perseus, her son-in-law, on her left—and
Andromeda, her daughter, just above her.
This constellation is situated 26° N. of Andromeda, and
midway between it and the North Polar Star. It may be
What are the boundaries of this constellation? How is the constellation Cassiopeia
represented on the map? By whom is she surrounded? How is this constellation
situated in respect to Andromeda and the polar star?
MAP VI.] CASSIOPEIA. 39
*
seen, from our latitude, at all hours of the night, and may be
traced out at almost any season of the yºax. Its mean decli-
nation is 600 N. and its right ascension 129. Trisis on our
meridian the 22d of November, but does not sensibly change
its position for several days; for it should be remembered
that the apparent motion of the stars becomes slower and
slower, as they approximate the poles.
Cassiopeia is a beautiful constellation, containing 55 stars
that are visible to the naked eye; of which five are of the 3d
magnitude, and so situated as to form, with one or two
smaller ones, the figure of an inverted chair.
— “Wide her stars
** Dispersed, nor shine with mutual aid improved;
Nor dazzle, brilliant with contiguous flame:
Their number fifty-five.”
• Caph, in the garland of the chair, is almost exactly in the
equinoctial colure, 30° N. of Alphératz, with which, and the
Polar Star, it forms a straight line. [See note to Androme-
da.] Caph is therefore on the meridian the 10th of Novem-
ber, and one hour past it on the 24th. It is the westernmost
star of the bright cluster. Shedir”, in the breast, is the up-
permost star of the five bright ones, and is 5° S. E. of Caph:
the other three bright ones, forming the chair, are easily dis-
tinguished, as they meet the eye at the first glance.
There is an importance attached to the position of Caph
that concerns the mariner and the surveyor. . It is used, in
connexion with observations on the Polar Star, for determi-
ning the latitude of places, and for discovering the magnetic
variation of the needle.
It is generally supposed that the North Polar Star, so called, is the real immoye-
able pole of the heavens; but this is a mistake. It is so near the true pole that
it has obtained the appellation of the North Polar Star; but it is, in reality, more
than a degree and a half distant from it, and revolves about the true pole every
24 hours, in a circle, whose radius is 1° 35'. It will consequently, in 24 hours, be
twice on the meridian, once above, and once below the pole; and twice at its
greatest elongation E. and W. * [See North Polar Star.]
The Polar Star not being exactly in the N. pole of the
heavens, but one degree and 35 minutes on that side of it
which is towards Caph, the position of the latter becomes
Important as it always shows on which side of the true pole
the polar star is.
There is another mportant fact in relation to the position
* Shedir, from El Seder, the Seder tree; a name given to this constellation by
Ulugh-Beigh. , . º
When may it be seen from this latitude? When is it on our meridian? How is the
motion of the stars affectell as they approach the poles? How many principal stars in
this constellation, and witat is their appearance? Descrihe the situatiºn of Caph.
When is Caph on the méridian What is the relative position of Shedir? Why is the
position of Caph important?
40 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. NOW.
of this star. It is equidistant from the pole, and exactly op-
posite another remarkable star in the square of the Great
Bear, on the other side of the pole. [See Megrez.] It also
serves to mark a spot in the starry heavens, rendered memo-
rable as being the place of a lost star. Two hundred and fifty
years ago, a bright star shone 50 N. N. E. of Caph, where
now is a dark void
On the 8th of November, 1572, Tycho Brahe and Corne-
lius Gemma saw a star in the constellation of Cassiopeia,
which became, all at once, so brilliant, that it surpassed the
splendour of the brightest planets, and might be seen even at
noonday ! ... Gradually, this great brilliancy diminished, until
the 15th of March, 1573, when, without moving from its place,
it became utterly extinct.
Its colour, during this time, exhibited all the phenomena
of a prodigious flame—first it was of a dazzling white, then
of a reddish yellow, and lastly of an ashy paleness, in which
its light expired. It is impossible, says Mrs. Somerville, to
imagine any thing more tremendous than a conflagration that
could be visible at such a distance. It was seen for sixteen
months.
Some astronomers imagined that it would reappear again
after 150 years; but it has never been discovered since.
This phenomenon alarmed all the astronomers of the age,
who beheld it; and many of them wrote dissertations con-
cerning it.
Rev. Professor Vince, one of the most learned and pious
astronomers of the age, has this remark:—“The disappear-
ance of some stars may be the destruction of that system at
the time appointed by the DEITY for the probation of its in-
habitants; and the appearance of new stars may be the for
mation of new systems for new races of beings then called
into existence to adore the works of their Creator.”
Thus, we may conceive the Deity to have been employed from all eternity,
and thus he may continue to be employed for endless ages; forming new sys-
teins of beings to adore him; and transplanting beings already formed into hap-
pier regions, who will continue to rise higher and higher in their enjoyments,
and go on to contemplate system after system through the boundless universe.
LA PLACE says:—“As to those stars which suddenly shine forth with a very
vivid light, and then immediately, disappear, it is extremely probable that great
conflagrations, produced by extraordinary causes, take place on their surface.
This conjecture, continues he, is confirmed º: change of colour, which is
analogous to that presented to us on the earth by those bodies which are set on
fire and then gradually extinguished.”
The late eminent Dr. Good also observes that—worlds and systems of worlds
What memorable spot does Caph serve to mark Out? \Describe thc phenomenon of
the lost star. What does Mrs. Somery ille say of it?, How long was it seen? Has any
thing been discovered of it since ºs. How did this phenomenon affect the astronomers
of the age?-What does Vince say of the disappearance ºf some stars, and the new ap-
pearance of others?' Repeat the observations of Dr. Good won the subject of new stars
appearing and disappearirg, .
MAP VI.] CEPHEUS. 41
are not only perpetually creating, but also º disappearing. It is an
extraordinary fact, that within the period of the last century, not less than thir-
teen stars, in different constellations, seem to have totally perished, and ten new
ones to have been created. In many instances it is unquestionable, that the stars
themselves, the supposed habitation of other kinds or orders of intelligent be-
ings, together with the different planets by which it is probable they were sur-
rounded, have utterly vanished, and the spots which they occupied in the hea-
vens, have become blanks! What has befallen other systems, will assuredly
befall our own. Of the time and the manner we know nothing, but the fact is
incontrovertible; it is foretold by revelation; it is inscribed in the heavens; it
is felt through the earth. Such is the awful and daily text; what then ought to
be the comment?
The great and good Beza, falling in with the superstition of his age, attempted
to prove that this was a comet, or the same luminous appearance which conduct-
ed the magi, or wise men of the East, into Palestine, at the birth of our Saviour,
and that it now appeared to announce his second coming ! -
About 60 N. W. of Caph, the telescope reveals to us a
grand nebula of small stars, apparently compressed into one
mass, or single blaze of light, with a great number of loose
stars surrounding it.
HISTORY..—Cassiopeia was wife of Cepheus, king of Æthiopia, andmother of An-
dromeda. She was a queen of Imatchless beauty, and seemed to be sensible of it;
for she even boasted herself fairer than Juno, the sister of Jupiter, or the Nerei-
des—a maine given to the sea nymphs. This so provoked the ladies of the sea that
they complained to Neptune of the insult, who sent a frightful monster to ravage
her coast, as a punishment for her insolence. But the anger of Neptune and the
jealousy of the nymphs were not thus appeased. They demanded, and it was
finally ordained that Cassiopeia should chain her daughter Andromeda, whom
she tenderly loved, to a desert rock on the beach, and leave her exposed to the
ſury of this monster. She was thus left, and the monster approached; but just
as he was going to devour her, Perseus killed him.
“The saviour youth the royal pair confess,
And with heav'd hands, their daughter's bridegroom bless.”
- - JEusden’s Ovid.
CEPHEUS.
CEPHEUs is represented on the map as a king, in his royal
robe, with a sceptre in his left hand, and a crown of stars upon
his head. He stands in a commanding posture, with his left
foot over the pole, and his sceptre extended towards Cassio-
peia, as if for favour and defence of the queen.
- - - - - -—“Cepheus illumes
The neighbouring heavens; still faithful to his queen,
With thirty-five faint luminaries mark'd.”
This constellation is about 25° N. W. of Cassiopeia, near
the 2d coil of Draco, and is on the meridian at 8 o’clock the
3d of November; but it will linger near it for many days.
Like Cassiopeia, it may be seen at all hours of the night,
when the sky is clear, for to us it never sets. -
By reference to the lines on the map, which all meet in the pole, it will be evi-
dent that a star, near the pole, moves over a much less space in one hour, than
There is a remarkable nebula in this constellation; describe its situation and ap-
pearance. How is Cepheus represented? What is his posture? Where is this con-
stellation situated? 4% -
42 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. | Nov.
one at the equinoctial; and generally, the nearer the pole, the narrower the
space, and the slower the motion.
The stars that are so near the pole may be better described by their polar
distance, than by their declimation. By polar distance, is meant—the distance
from the pole; and is what the declination wants of 90°.
In this constellation there are 35 stars visible to the naked
eye; of these, there glitters on the left shoulder, a star of the
3d magnitude, called Alderamin, which with two others of
the same brightness, 89 and 120 apart, form a slightly-curved
line towards the N. E. The last, whose letter name is Gam-
ma, is in the right knee, 199 N. of Caph, in Cassiopeia. The
middle one in the line, is Alphirk, in the girdle. This star is
one third of the distance from Alderamin to the pole, and
nearly in the same right line.
It cannot be too well understood that the bearings, or direction of one star from
another, as given in this treatise, are strictly applicable only when the former
one is on, or near the meridian. The bearings given, in many cases, are not the
least approximations to what appears to be their relative position; and in some,
if relied upon, will lead to errours. For example:–It is said, in the preceding
paragraph, that Gamma, in Cepheus, bears 19° N. of Caph in Cassiopeia. This
is true, when Caph is on the meridian, but at this very morment, while the author
is writing this lime, Gamma appears to be 199 due west of Caph; and six months
hence, will appear to be the same distance east of it. The reason is obvious;
the circle which Cepheus appears to describe about the pole, is within that of
Cassiopeia, and consequently when on the east side of the pole, will be within,
, or between Cassiopeia and the pole—that is, west of Cassiopeia. And for the
same reason, when Cepheus is on the west side Öf the pole, it is between that
and Cassiopeia, or east of it.
Let it also be remembered, that in speaking of the poie, which we shall have
frequent occasion to do, in the course of this work, the North Polar Star, or an
imaginary point very near it, is always meant; and not as some will vaguely ap-
prehend, a point in the horizon, directly N. of us. The true pole of the heavens
is always elevated just as many degrees above our horizon, as we are north of
the Equator. If we live in 42° N. latitude, the N. pole will be 42° above our
horizon. (See North Polar Star.)
There are also two smaller stars about 99 E. of Alderamin
and Alphirk, with which they form a square; Alderamin
being the upper, and Alphirk the lower one on the W. 89
apart. In the centre of this square there is a bright dot, or
semi-visible star.
The head of Cepheus is in the Milky-Way, and may be
known by three stars of the 4th magnitude in the crown,
which form a small acute triangle, about 90 to the right of
Alderamin. The mean polar distance of the constellation is
25°, while that of Alderamin is 28° 10'. The right ascension
of the former is 338°; consequently, it is 229 E. of the equi-
noctial colure.
. The student will understand that right ascension is reckoned on the equinoc-
tial, from the first point of Aries, E., quite round to the same point again, which
How many, and what are the principal stars in it? Describe the last star ºn, the
curve. Describe the middle one. What four stars form a square in this constellation?
Where is the head of Cepheus, and how may it be known? What is the mean pºlar
º of this constellation? How far, and which way is it from the equinoctial
COłure?
MAP II.] ARIES. 43
is 360°, Now 338°, measured from the same point, will reach the same point
again, within 22°; which is the difference between 360° and 338°. This rule
will apply to any other case.
HISTORY..—This constellation immortalizes the name of the king of AEthiopia.
The name of his queen was Cassiopeia. They were the parents of Andromeda, who
was betrothed to Perseus. º: was one of the Argonauts who accompanied
Jason on his perilous expeditionſ in quest of the golden fieece. Newton supposes
that it was owing to this circumstance that he was placed in the heavens; and
that not only this, but all the ancient constellations, relate to the Argonautic ex-
pedition, or to persons some way connected with it. Thus, he observes that as
Musæus, one of the Argonauts, was the first Greek who made a celestial sphere,
he would naturally delineate on it those figures which had some reference to
the expedition. Accordingly, we have on our globes to this day, the Golden Ram,
the ensign of the ship in which Phryxus fled to Colchis, the scene of the Argo-
nautic achievements. We have also the Bull with brazen hoofs, tamed by Ja-
son; the Twins, Castor and Pollux, two sailors, with their mother Leda, in the
form of a Swan, and Argo, the ship itself; the watchful Dragon Hydra, with the
Qup of Medea, and a raven upon its caréass, as an emblem of death; also Chi-
ron, the Master of Jason, with his Altar, and Sacrifice; Hercules, the Argonaut,
with his club, his dart, and vulture, with the dragon, crab and lion which he slew;
and Orpheus, one of the company, with his harp. All these, says Newton, refer
to the Argonauts.
Again; we have Orion, the son of Neptune, or, as some say, the grandson of
Minos, with his dogs, and hare; and river, and scorpion. We have the story of
Perseus in the constellation of that name, as well as in Cassiopeia, Cepheus, An:
dromeda and Cetus; that of Calisto and her son Arcas, in Ursa Major; that of
Icareus and his daughter Erigone, in Bootes and Virgo. Ursa Minor relates to
one of the nurses of Jupiter; Auriga, to Erichthonius; Ophiuchus, to Phorbas;
Sagittarius, to Crolus, the son of one of the Muses ; Capricorn, to Pan, and
Aquarius to Ganymede. We have also Ariadne’s crown, Bellerophon’s horse,
Neptune’s dolphin, Ganymede’s eagle, Jupiter's goat with her kids, the asses of
Bacchus, the fishes of Venus and Cupid, with their parent, the southern fish.
These, according to Deltoton, comprise the Grecian constellations mentioned by
the poet Aratus; and all relate, as Newton supposes, remotely or immediately,
to the Argonauts.
. It may 'be remarked, however, that while none of these figures refer to any
transactions of a later date than the Argonautic expedition, yet the great disa-
greement which appears in the mythological account of them, proves that their
invention must have been of greater antiquity than that event, and that these
constellations were received for some time among the Greeks, before their poets
referred to them in describing the particulars of that memorable exhibition.
C H A P T E R II.
gº
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACIN', THE CONSTELLATIONs which ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN DECEMBER.
*.
- ARIES.
THz RAM.–Twenty-two centuries ago, as Hipparchus in-
forms us, this constellation: occupied the first sign in the
ecliptic, commencing at the vernal equinox. But as the con-
stellations gain about 50/1 on the equinox, at every revolution
of the heavens, they have advanced in the ecliptic nearly 31°
beyond it, or more than a whole sign: so that the Fishes now
-- What was the position of Aries in the ecliptic, 22 centuries ago? *
44 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [DEC.
occupy the same place in the Zodiac, that Aries did, in the
time of Hipparchus; while the constellation Aries is now in
the sign Taurus, Taurus in Gemini, and Gemini in Cancer,
and so on. **
ARIES is therefore now the second constellation in the
Zodiac. It is situated next east of Pisces, and is midway
between the Triangles and the Fly on the N. and the head
of Cetus on the S. It contains 66 stars, of which, one is of
the 2d, one of the 3d, and two of the 4th magnitudes.
\
“First, from the east, the Ram conducts the year; .
Whom Ptolemy with twice nine stars adorns,
Of which two only claim the second rank;
The rest, when Cynthia fills the sign, are lost.”
It is readily distinguished by means of two bright stars in
the head, about 40 apart, the brightest being the most north-
easterly of the two. The first, which is of the 2d magnitude,
situated in the right horn, is called Alpha Arietis, or simply
Arietis ; the other, which is of the 3d magnitude, lying near
the left horn, is called Sheratam, and may be known by an-
other star of the 4th magnitude, in the ear, 130 S. of it, called
Mesarthim, which is the first star in this constellation.
Arietis and Sheratan, are one instance out of many, where
stars of more than ordinary brightness are seen together in
pairs, as in the Twins, the Little Dog, &c., the brightest star
being commonly on the east.
The position of Arietis affords important facilities to nau-
tical science. Difficult to comprehend as it may be, to the
unlearned, the skilful navigator who should be lost upon an
unknown sea, or in the midst of the Pacific Ocean, could, by
measuring the distance between Arietis and the Moon, which
often passes near it, determine at once not only the spot he
was in, but his true course and distance to any known meri-
dian or harbour on the earth. i
Lying along the moon’s path, there are nine conspicuous’
stars that are used by nautical men for determining their lon-
gitude at sea, thence called nautical stars.
These stars are Arietis, Aldebaran, Pollua, Regulus,
Spica Virginis, Antares, Altair, Fomalhaut, and Markab.
The true places of these stars, for every day in the year, are given in the Nau-
tical Almanac, a valuable work published annûally by the English “Board of Ad-
miralty,” to guide mariners in navigating the seas. They are usually published
two or three years in advance, for the benefit of long voyages.
That a man, says Sir John Herschel, by merely measuring the moon's appa-
rent distance from a star, with a little portable instrument held in his hand, and
What is its present position?, How is it now situated with respect to the surround-
ing constellations? What are the number and magnitude of its stars? How is this
constellation readily distinguished? Describe the two bright stars in the head, For
what purposes is the position of some of the stars in Arietis important? How many
stars are used for determining longitude at sea, and where are they situated? By What
general name are they called? Enumerate them.
MAP II.] ARIES. 45
applied to his eye, even with so unstable a footing as the deck of a ship, shall say
positively within five miles, where he is, on a boundless ocean, cannot but appear
to persons ignorant of physical astronomy, an approach to the miraculous. And
et, says he, the alternatives of life and death, wealth and ruin, are daily and
ourly staked, with perfect confidence, on these marvellous computations. *
Capt. Basil Hall, of the royal navy, relates that he had sailed from San Blas on
the west coast of Mexico, and after a voyage of 8000 miles occupying eighty-nine
days, arrived off Rio Janeiro, having in this interval passed through the Pacific
ocean, rounded Cape Horn, and crossed the South Atlantic without making any
land or seeing a single sail on the voyage. Arrived within a few days' sail of
Rio, he took a set of lunar observations, to ascertain his true position, and the
bearing of the harbour, and shaped his course accordingly. “I hove to,” says
he, “ at 4 in the morning, till the day should break, and then bore up; for
although it was hazy, we could see before us a couple of miles or so. About 8
o'clock it became so foggy that I did not like to stand in farther, and was just
bringing the ship to the wind again before sending the people to breakfast, when
it suddenly cleared off, and I had the satisfaction of seeing the great Sugar-loaf '
rock, which stands on one side of the harbour's mouth, so nearly right ahead
that we had not to alter our course above a point in order to hit the entrance of
Rio. This was the first land we had seen for three months, after crossing so
. . and being set backwards and forwards by innumerable currents and
oul winds.”
Arietis comes to the meridian about 12 minutes after She-
ratan, on the 5th December, near where the sun does in mid-
summer. Arietis, also, is nearly on the same meridian with
Almaach, in the foot of Andromeda, 190 N. of it, and culmi-
nates only four minutes after it. The other stars in this con-
stellation are quite small, constituting that loose cluster which
we see between the Fly on the north, and the head of Cetus
On the south. . - rºw
When Arietis is on the meridian, Andromeda and Cassio-
peia are a little past the meridian, nearly over head, and Per-
seus with the head of Medusa, is as far to the east of it.
Taurus and Auriga are two or three hours lower down;
Orion appears in the S. E., and the Whale on the meridian,
just below Aries, while Pegasus and the Swan are seen half
way over in the west.
The manner in which the ancients divided the Zodiac into 12 equal parts, was
both simple and ingenious, . Having no instrument that would measure time
exactly, “They took a vessel, with a small hole in the bottom, and having filled
it with water, suffered the same to distil, drop by drop, into another vessel set
beneath to receive it, beginning at the moment when some star rose, and con-
tinuing till it rose the next following night, when it would have performed one
complete revolution in the heavens. The water falling down into the receiver,
they divided into 12 equal parts; and having twelve other small vessels in readi-
ness, each of them capable of containing one part, they again poured all the wa-
ter into the upper vessel, and observing the rising of some star in the Zodiac,
at the same time suffered the water to drop into one of the small vessels. And
as soon as it was full, they removed it, and set an empty one in its place. Just
as each vessel was fui, they took notice what star of the Zodiac rose at that
, time, and thus continued the process through the year, until the 12 vessels were
filled.”
Thus the Zodiac was divided into l? equal portions, corresponding to the 12
When does Arietis pass the meridian? What other brilliant star is on the meridian
nearly at the same time? When Aries is on the meridian, what other constellations
are immediately in view3. Describe the manner in which the ancients divided the
Zodiac. At what point of the Zodiac did this division commence?
46 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [DEC.
months of the year, commencing at the vermal equinox. Each of these portions
served as the visible representative or sign of the month it appeared in.
All those stars in the Zodiac which were observed to rise while the first vessel
was filling, were constellated and included in the first sign, and called Aries, an
animal held in great esteem by the shepherds of Chaldea. All those stars in the
Zodiac which rose while the second vessel was filling, were constellated and
included in the second sign, which for a similar reason, was denominated Tau-
Tus; and all those Stars which were observed to rise while the third vessel was
filling, were constellated in the third-sign, and called Gemini, in allusion to the
twin season of the flocks.
Thus each sign of 30° in the Zodiac, received a distinctive appellation, accord-
ing to the fancy or superstition of the inventors; which names have ever since
been retained, although the constellations themselves have since left their nom-
inal signs more than 30° behind. The sign Aries, therefore, included all the stars
embraced in the first 30° of the Zodiac, and no more. The sign Taurus, in like
manner, included all those stars embraced in the next 30° of the Zodiac, or those
between 30° and 60°, and so of the rest. Of those who imagine that the twelve
constellations of the Zodiac refer to the twelve tribes of Israel, some ascribe
Aries to the tribe of Simeon, and others, to Gad. }
HISTORY.—According to fable, this is the ram which bore the golden fleece,
and carried Phryxus and his sister Helle through the air, when they fled to Col-
chis from the persecution of their stepmother Ino. The rapid motion of the ram
in his aerial flight high above the earth, caused the head of Helle to turn with
giddiness, and she fell from his back into that part of the sea which was after-
wards called Hellespont, in commemoration of the dreadful event. Phryxus
arrived safe at Colchis, but was soon murdered by his own father-in-law, AEtes,
who envied him his golden treasure. This gave rise to the celebrated Argo-
nautic expedition under the command of Jason, for the recovery of the golden
iłeece.
Nephele, queen of Thebes, having provided her children, Phryxus and Helle,
with this noble animal, upon which they might elude the wicked designs of
those who sought their life, was afterwards changed into a cloud, as a reward
for her parental solicitude; and the Greeks ever after called the clouds by her
name. But the most probable account of the origin of this constellation is given
º al ºins paragraph, where it is referred to the flocks of the Chaldean
shepherds. k
During the campaigns of the French army in Egypt, General Dessaix discow-
ered among the ruins at Dendera, near the banks of the Nile, the great temple,
supposed by some to have been dedicated to Isis, the female deity of the Egyp-
tians, who believed that the rising of the Nile was occasioned by the tears which
i. ºnually shed for the loss of her brother Osiris, who was murdered by
yphon. --
Others suppose this edifice was erected for astronomical purposes, from the
circumstance that two Zodiacs were discovered, drawn upon the ceiling, on op-
posite sides. On both these Zodiacs the equinoctial points are in Leo, and not
in Aries; from which it has been concluded, by those who pertinaciously en-
deavour to array the arguments of science against the chronology of the Bible
and the validity of the Mosaic account, that these Zodiacs were constructed when
the sun entered the sign Leo, which must have been 9720 years ago, or 4000 years
before the inspired account of the creation. The infidel writers in France and
Germany, make it 10,000 years before. But we may “set to our seal,” that what-
ever is true in fact and correct in inference on this subject will be found, in the
end, not only consistent with the Mosaic record, but with the common meaning
of the expressions it uses.
The discovery of Champollion has put this question for ever at rest; and M.
Latronne, a most learned antiquary, has very satisfactorily demonstrated that
these Egyptian Zodiacs are merely the horoscopes of distinguished personages,
or the precise situation of the heavenly bodies in the Zodiac at their nativity.
The idea that such was their purpose and origin, first suggested itself to this
gentleman on finding, in the box of a mummy, a similar Zodiac, with such
What did each of these portions of the Zodiac serve 2 JWhat stars were placed in the
first sign 2 What name was given to the constellation, thus formed 2 What stars were
placed in the second sign 2 What was the second constellation called 2 What stars were
placed in the third sign, and what was it called? Are the sa/me names still retained 2
What does this precession, or going forward of the stars amount to in a year?
MAP II. J CETUS. 47
inscriptions and characters as determined it to be the horoscope of the deceased
81"SO}}.
p Of all the discoveries of the antiquary among the relics of ancient Greece, the
ruins of Palulyra, the gigantic pyramids of Egypt, the temples of their gods, or
the sepulchres of their kings, scarcely one so aroused and riveted the curiosity
of the learned, as did the discovery of Champollion the younger, which deciphers
the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt.
The potency of this invaluable discovery has already been signally manifested
in settling a formidable controversy between the champions of infidelity and
those/who maintain the Bible account of the creation. It has been shown that
the constellation Piscés, since the days of Hipparchus, has come, by reason of
the annual precession, to occupy the same apparent place in the heavens that
Aries did two thousand years ago. The Christian astronomer and the infidel are
perfectly agreed as to the fact, and the amount of this yearly gain in the appa-
i ent motion of the stars. They both believe, and both can demonstrate, that the
fixed stars have gone forward in the Zodiac, about 50” of a degree in every revo-
lution of the heavens since the creation; so that were the world to light upon any
authentic inscription or record of past ages, which should give the true position
or longitude of any particular star at that time, it would be easy to fix an unques-
tionable date to smell a record. Accordingly, when the famous “Egyptian Zo-
diacs,” which were sculptured on the walls of the temple at Dendera, were
brought away en masse, and exhibited in the Louvre at Paris, they enkindled a
more exciting interest in the thousands who saw them, than ever did the en-
trance of Napoleon. “ Educated men of every order, and those who had the
vanity to think theimselves such,” says the commentator of Champollion, “rush-
ed to behold the Zodiates. These Zodiacs were immediately published and colm-
1mented upon, with 14:ore or less good faith and decorum. Science struck out
into systeins very bold; and the spirit of infidelity, seizing upon the discovery,
flattered itself with the hope of drawing from thence new support. It was unjus-
tifiably taken for granted, that the ruins of Egypt furnished astronomy with mon-
uments, containing observations that exhibited the state of the heavens in the
most remote periods. Starting with this assumption, a pretence was made of
demonstrating, by in eans of calculations received as inălți. that the celestial
appearances assigned to these monuments extended back from forty-five to six-
ty-five centuries; that the Zodiacal system to which they must belong, dated
back fifteen thousand years, and must reach far beyond the limits assigned by
Moses to the existence of the world.” Among those who stood forth more or
less bold as the adversaries of revelation, the most prominent was M. Dupuis,
the famous author of L' origine de tows les Cultes.
The infidelity of Dupuis was spread about by means of pamphlets, and the ad-
vocates of the Mosaic account were scandalized “until a new Alexander arose
to cut the Gordian knot, which men had vainly sought to untie. This was Cham-
pollion the younger, armed with his discovery,” The hieroglyphics now speak
a language that all can understand, and no one gainsay. “The Egyptian Zodiacs,
then,” says Latronne, “relate in no respect to astronomy, but to the idle phan-
tasies of judicial astrology, as connected with the destinies of the emperors who
Inade or completed them.”
CETU.S.
THE WHALE.—As the whale is the chief monster of the
deep, and the largest of the aquatic race, so is it the largest
constellation in the heavens. It occupies a space of 500 in
length, E. and W., with a mean breadth of 209 from N. to S.
It is situated below Aries and the Triangles, with a mean
declination of 12° S. It is represented as making its way to
the E., with its body below, and its head elevated above the
equinoctial: and is six weeks in passing the meridian. Its
W.
what is the comparative size of the Whale? What is its extent? Where is it situ-
ated? How long is the Whale in passing the meridian?
&
48 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [DEC.
tail comes to the meridian on the 10th of November, and its
head leaves it on the 22d of December.
This constellation contains 97 stars; two of the 2d mag-
nitude, seven of the 3d, and thirteen of the 4th. The head
of Cetus may be readily distinguished, about 20° S. E. of
Aries, by means of five remarkable stars, 40 and 5° apart,
and so situated as to form a regular pentagon. The brightest
of these is Menkar, of the 2d magnitude, in the nose of the
Whale. It occupies the S. E. angle of the figure. It is 349
N. of the equinoctial, and 150 E. of El Rischa in the bight of
the cord between the Two Fishes. It is directly 37° S. of
Algol, and nearly in the same direction from the Fly. It
makes an equilateral triangle with Arietis and the Pleiades,
being distant from each about 23° S.; and may otherwise be
known by a star of the 3d magnitude in the mouth, 3° W. of
it, called Gamma, placed in the south middle angle of the
pentagon. -
Nu is a star of the 4th magnitude, 49 N. W. of Gamma,
and these two constitute the S. W. side of the pentagon in
the head of the Whale, and the N. E. side of a similar oblong
figure in the neck.
Three degrees S. S. W. of Gamma, is another star of the 3d
imagnitude in the lower jaw, marked Delta, constituting the
E. side of the oblong pentagon; and 60 S. W. of this, is à
noted star in the neck of the Whale, called Mira, or the
“wonderful star of 1596,” which forms the S. E. side. This
variable star was first noticed as such by Fabricius, on the
13th of August, 1596. It changes from a star of the 2d mag-
nitude so as to become invisible once in 334 days, or about
7 times in 6 years. Herschel makes its period 331 days, 10
hours, and 19 minutes; while Hevelius assures us that it once
disappeared for 4 years; so that its true period, perhaps, has
not been satisfactorily determined.
The whole number of stars ascertained to be variable, amounts to only 15;
while those which are suspected to be variable, amount to 37.
Mira is 70 S. S. E. of El Rischa, in the bend or knot of the
riband which connects the Two Fishes. Ten degrees S. of
Mira, are 4 small stars, in the breast and paws, about 39 apart,
which form a square, the brightest being on the E. Ten de-
When does it approach, and when does it leave the meridian'ſ What is the whole
number of stars in Cetus? What is the magnitude of the principal ones? How
may, the head of Cetus be distinguished? What are the name and position.9f the
brightest? How far is it from the equinoctial, and the principal star in the Fishes!
What is its direction from Algol and the Fly? With what stars does it form an equi-
lateral triangle? How may it otherwise be known? Describe the position of Nu.
Describe the situation of Delta and Mira. When and by whom was this star discover-
ed to be variable? What are the extent and period of this variation? How long does
Herschel make it? What does Hevelius say of it? Has the true perio of Mira been
satisfactorily determined? How far, and which way is Mira from Alpha, in the knot
of the riband? What four small stars do you observe 100 S. of Mira'ſ
MAP II.] PERSEUs, ET CAPUT MEDUSE. 49
grees S. W. of Mira, is a star of the 3d magnitude in the
heart, called Baten Kaitos, which makes a scalene triangle
with two other stars of the same magnitude 70 and 10° W. of
it; also, an equilateral triangle with Mira, and the eastern-
most one in the square.
A great number of geometrical figures may be formed from the stars in this,
and in most of the other constellations, merely by reference to the maps; but
it is better that the student should exercise his own ingenuity in this way with
reference to the stars themselves, ſor when once he has constructed a group
into any letter or figure of his own invention, he never will forget it.
The teacher should therefore require his class to commit to writing the result
of their own observations upon the relative position, magnitude and figures of
the principal stars in each constellation. One evening's exercise in this way
will disclose to the student a surprising multitude of crosses, squares, triangles, .
arcs and letters, by which he will be better able to identify and remember them,
than by any instructions that could be given.
For example: Mira and Baten in the Whale, about 10° apart, make up the
S. E. or shorter side of an irregular square, with El Rischa in the node of the
riband, and another star in the Whale as far to the right of Baten, as El Rischa
is above Mira. Again,
There are three stars of equal magnitude, forming a straight line W. of Baten;
from which, to the middle star is 109, thence to the W. one 12%; and 8° or 9° S.
of this line, in a triangular direction, is a bright star of the second magnitude in
the coil of the tail, called Diphºla.
In a southerly direction, 25° below Diphaa, is Alpha in the head of the Phe-
nix, and about the same distance S. § is Fomalhaut, in the mouth of the
Southern Fish, forming together a large triangle, with Diphola in the vertex or
top of it. -
#. fine cluster of small stars S. of the little square in the Whale, constitutes
a part of a new constellation called the Chymical Furnace. The two stars N. E.
and the three to the southward of the little square, are in the river Eridanus.
History.—This constellation is of very early antiquity; though most writers
consider it the famous sea monster sent by Neptune to devour Andromeda be-
cause her mother Cassiopeia had boasted herself fairer than Juno or the Sea
Nymphs; but slain by Perseus and placed among the stars in honour of his
achievement.
“The winged hero now descends, now soars,
And at his pleasure the vast monster gores.
Deep in his back, swift stooping from above,
His crooked sabre to the hilt he drove.”
It is quite certain, however, that this constellation had a place in the heavens
long prior to the time of Perseus. When the equinoctial sun in Aries, which is
right over the head of Cetus, opened the year, it was denominated the Preserver
or Deliverer, by the idolaters of the East. On this account, according to Pausa-
nias, the sun was worshipped, at Eleusis, under the name of the Preserver or
Saviour
“With gills pulmonic breathes the enormous whale,
And spouts aquatic columns to the gale ;
Sports on the shining wave at noontide hours,
And shifting rainbows crest the rising showers.”—Darwin.
PERSEUS, ET CAPUT MEDUSAF.
PERSEUs is represented with a sword in his right hand, the
head of Medusa in his left, and wings at his feet. It is situ-
How is Baten Kaitos situated? What is said of the various figures that different
constellations eachibit 2 Give an eſtample. Of what constellation does that fine cluster
of stars of the little square in the Whale, constitute a part 2 How is the constellation
Perseus represented 2
5
50 . PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [DEC.
ated directly N. of the Pleiades and the Fly, between Andro-
meda on the W. and Auriga on the E. Its mean declination
is 490 N. lt is on the meridian the 24th of December. It
contains, including the head of Medusa, 59 stars, two of which
are of the 2d magnitude, and four of the 3d. According to
Eudosia, it contains, including the head of Medusa, 67 stars.
——“Perseus next,
Brandishes high in heaven his sword of flame,
And holds triumphant the dire Gorgon’s head,
Flashing with fiery snakes the stars he counts
Are Siarty-seven ; and two of these he boasts,
Nobly refulgent in the second rank—
One in his west, one in Medusa's head.”
THE HEAD of MEDUSA is not a separate constellation, but
forms a part of Perseus.
It is represented as the trunkless head of a frightful Gor-
gon, crowned with coiling snakes, instead of hair, which the
victor Perseus holds in his hand.
There are, in all, about a dozen stars in the Head of Me-
dusa ; three of the 4th magnitude, and one, varying alter-
mately from the 2d to the 4th magnitude. This remarkable
star is called Algol. It is situated 120 E. of Almaach, in the
foot of Andromeda, and may be known by means of three
stars of the 4th magnitude, lying a few degrees S. W. of it,
and forming a small triangle.
It is on the meridian the 21st of December; but as it
continues above the horizon 18 hours out of 24, it may be seen
every evening from September to May. It varies from the 2d
to the 4th magnitude in about 3% hours, and back again in the
same time; after which it remains steadily brilliant for 2%
days, when the same changes recur.
The periodical variation of Algol was determined in 1783,
by John Goodricke of York (Eng.) to be 2 days, 20 hours, 48
minutes, and 56 seconds.
Dr. Herschel attributes the variable appearance of Algol to
spots upon its surface, and thinks it has a motion on its axis
similar to that of the sun. He also observes, of variable stars
generally:—“The rotary motion of stars upon their axes is a
capital feature in their resemblance to the sun. It appears to
me now, that we cannot refuse to admit such a motion, and
that indeed it may be as evidently proved as the diurnal mo-
Where is it situated? What is its declimation, and when is it on the meridian 7 What
is the whole number of its stars What is the magnitude of its principal ones? Of
what constellation does Caput Medusae form a par’? How is it represented? What
is the whole number of its stars? What is the magnitude of the principal ones? What
are the name and position of the variable star in this constellation? When is it on the
meridian, and how long may it be seen In what time does it vary from the 2d to the
4th magnitude, and back again? How long is it steadily brilliant? When and by whom
was its periodical variation determined? What is its exact period? To what does Dr
Herschel attribute its variable appearance?
MAP III.] PERSEUS, ET CAPUT MEDUSAE. 51
tion of the earth. Dark spots, or large portions of the surface,
less luminous than the rest, turned alternately in certain di-
rections either towards, or from us, will account for all the
phenomena of periodical changes in the lustre of the stars, so
satisfactorily, that we certainly need not look out for any other
cºli ISé.
It is said, that the famous astronomer Lalande, who died at Paris in 1807, was
wont to remain whole nights, in his old age, upon the Pon: Neuf, to exhibit to
the curious the variations in the brilliancy of the star Algol.
Nine degrees E. by N. from Algol, is the bright star Alge-
nib, of the 2d magnitude, in the side of Perseus, which with
Almaack, makes a perfect right angle at Algol, with the open
part towards Cassiopeia. By means of this strikingly perfect
figure, the three stars last mentioned may always be recog-
nised without the possibility of mistaking them. Algenib
may otherwise be readily distinguished by its being the
brightest and middle one of a number of stars lying four and
five degrees apart, in a large semicircular form, curving to-
wards Ursa Major. g
Algenib comes to the meridian on the 21st December, 15
minutes after Algol, at which time the latter is almost di-
rectly over head. When these two stars are on the meridian,
that beautiful cluster, the Pleiades, is about half an hour E.
of it; and in short, the most brilliant portion of the starry
heavens is then visible in the eastern hemisphere. The
glories of the scene are unspeakably magnificent; and the
student who fixes his eye upon those lofty mansions of being,
cannot fail to covet a knowledge of their order and relations,
and to “reverence Him who made the Seven Stars and
Orion.” f
The Milky-Way around Perseus is very vivid, being un-
doubtedly a rich stratum of fixed stars, presenting the most
wonderful and sublime phenomenon of the Creator's power
and greatness. Kohler, the astronomer, observed a beautiful
nebula near the face of Perseus, besides eight other nebulous
clusters in different parts of the constellation.
The head and sword of Perseus are exhibited on the circumpolar map. That
very bright star 23° E. of Algol, is Capella in the Charioteer.
History.—Perseus was the son of Jupiter and Danae. He was no sooner born
than he was cast into the sea with his mother; but being driven on the coasts
of one of the islands of the Cyclades, they were rescued by a fishermian, and
carried to Polydectes, the king of the place, who treated then with great hil-
manity, and intrusted them to the care of the priests of Minerva’s Temple. His
rising genius and manly courage soon made him a favourite of the gods. At a
How may Algenib be distinguished? When is it on the meridian? How long fifter
Aſgol'. When these two stars are on the meridian, what beautiful cluster is hºlſ an
four east of it? What is the general appearance of the eastern hemisphere at that time?
What is the appearance of the Milky Way around Perseus? What nebulae have been
observed in this constellation 3 -
52 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [JAN.
great feast of Polydectes, all the nobles were expected to present the king with
a superb and beautiful horse; but Perseus, who owed his benefactor much,
not wishing to be thought less munificent than the rest, engaged to bring him
the head of Medusa, the only one of the three Gorgons who was subject to mor-
tality. The maines of the other two were Stheno and Euriale. They were re-
presented with serpents wreathing round their heads instead of hair, having
yellow wings and brazen hands; their bodies which grew indissolubly together,
were covered with impenetrable scales, and their very looks had the power of
turning into stones all those on whom they fixed their eyes.
To equip Perseus for this perilous enterprise, Pluto, the god of the infernal
regions, lent him his helmet, which had the power of rendering the wearer in-
visible. Minerva the goddess of wisdom, furnished him with her buckler, which
was as resplendent as a polished mirror; and he received from Mercury, wings
for his feet, and a dagger made of diamonds. Thus equipped, he mounted into
the air, conducted by Minerva, and came upon the monsters who, with the
watchful snakes about their heads, were all asleep. He approached them, and
with a courage which amazed and delighted Minerva, cut off with one blow Me-
dusa's head. The noise awoke the two immortal sisters, but Pluto’s helinet rem-
dered Perseus invisible, and the vengeful pursuit of the Gorgons proved fruitless.
“In the mirror of his polished shield
Reflected, saw Medusa slumbers take,
And not one serpent by good chance awake;
Then backward an unerring blow he sped,
And from her body lopped at once her head.”
Perseus then made his way through the air, with Medusa's head yet reeking
in his hand, and from the blood which dropped from it as he flew, sprang all
; innumerable serpents that have ever since infested the sandy deserts of
y lä. *.
The victor Perseus, with the Gorgon head,
O'er Lybian sands his airy journey sped,
The gory drops distilled, as swift he flew,
And from each drop envenomed serpents grew.”
The destruction of Medusa réndered the name of Perseus immortal, and he
was changed into a constellation at his death, and placed among the stars, with
the head of Medusa by his side. -
C H A P T E R III.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONs which ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN JANUARY.
The constellations which pass our meridian in the months of January, Febru-
ary and March, present to us the most brilliant and interesting portion of the
heavens; embracing an annual number of stars of the highest order and bright-
jº all so conspicuously situated, that the most inexperienced can easily trace
the Iſl Out. - • ,
TAURUS.
THE BULL is represented in an attitude of rage, as if about
to plunge at Orion, who seems to invite the onset by provo-
cations of assault and defiance. Only the head and shoulders
of the animal are to be seen; but these are so distinctly
- -What is the comparative brilliancy of the constellations which pass the meridian in
January, February and March A How is Taurus represented? What parts of the
animal are to be seen?
MAP. III.] TAURUS. 53
marked that they cannot be mistaken. Taurus is now the
second sign and third constellation of the Zodiac; but ante-
rior to the time of Abraham, or more than 4000 years ago,
the vernal equinox took place, and the year opened when the
sun was in Taurus; and the Bull, for the space of 2000 years,
was the prince and leader of the celestial host. The Ram
succeeded next, and now the Fishes lead the year. The head
of Taurus sets with the sun about the last of May, when the
opposite constellation. the Scorpion is seen to rise in the S.
E. It is situated between Perseus and Auriga on the north,
Gemini on the east, Orion and Eridanus on the south, and
Aries on the west, having a mean declination of 16° N.
It contains 141 visible stars, including two remarkable
clusters called the PLEIADEs and HYADEs. The first is now
on the shoulder, and the latter in the face of the Bull.
The Pleiades, according to fable, were the seven daughters
of Atlas and the nymph Pleione,” who were turned into stars,
with their sisters the Hyades, on account of their amiable
virtues and mutual affection. º
Thus we every where find that the ancientº, with all their barbarism and
idolatry, entertained the belief that umblemished virtue and a mueritorious life
would meet their reward in the sky. Thus Virgil represents Magnus Apollo as
Lending from the sky to address the youth Iulus:—
“Macte nova virtute puer; sic itar ad astra;
l)iis genite, et geniture Deos.”
“Go on, spotless boy, in the paths of virtue; it is the way to the stars; offspring
of the gods thyself—so shalt thou become the father of gods.” o
Our disgust at their superstitions may be in some Imeasure mitigated, by seri-
ously reflecting, that had some of these personages lived in our day, they had
been ornaments in the Christian church, and models of social virtue.
The names of the Pleiades are Alcione, Merone, Maia,
Electra, Tayeta, Sterope and Celeno, Merope was the only
one who married a mortal, and on that account her star is
dim among her sisters.
Although but six of these are visible to the naked eye, yet
Dr. Hook informs us that, with a twelve feet telescope, he
saw 78 stars; and Rheita affirms that he counted 200 stars
in this small cluster.
The most ancient authors, such as Homer, Attalus, and Geminus, counted only
siz Pleiades; but Simonides, Varro, Pliny, Aratus, Hipparchus, and Ptolemy,
reckon them seven in number; and it was asserted, that the seventh had been
seen before the burning of Troy; but this difference might arise from the dif
ference in distinguishing them with the naked eye.
* Dr. Hutton is of opinion that Atlas being the first astronomer who disco-
vered these stars, called them by the names of the daughters of his wife Pleione.
- What is the numerical order of Taurus among the signs and constellations of the
Zodiacº what was its position in the Zodiac before the time of Abraham? How long
did it continue to lead the celestial host? What constellation succeeded next? Where
is Taurus now situated? How many stars does it contain? What remarkable clusters . . .
are in this constellation?-Where are these placed? Mention the names of the Pleiades.
which of these seven stars is not seen, and why? Are these six all that can be seen
through the telescope?
**
54 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. ' [JAN
The Pleiades are so called from the Greek word, TXaeiv,
pleein, to sail; because, at this season of the year, they
were considered “the star of the ocean” to the benighted
mariner.” Alcyone, of the 3d magnitude, being the brightest
star in this cluster, is sometimes called the light of the Ple-
iades. The other five are principally of the 4th and 5th
magnitudes.
The Pleiades, or as they are more familiarly termed, the
seven stars, come to the meridian 10 minutes before 9 o'clock,
on the evening of the 1st of January, and may serve, in place
of the sun, to indicate the time, and as a guide to the sur-
rounding stars.
According to Hesiod, who wrote about 900 years before the birth of our Sa
viour, the heliacal rising of the Pleiades took place on the 11th of May, about the
time of harvest.
“When, Atlas-born, the Pleiad stars arise
Before the sun above the dawning skies,
'Tis time to reap; and when they sink below
The morn-illumin’d west, 'tis time to sow.”
Thus, in all ages, have the stars been observed by the husbandman for
“signs and for seasons.” - *
Pliny says that Thales, the Miletan astronomer, determined the cosmical setting
of the Pleiades to be 25 days after the autumnal equinox. This would make a
difference between the setting at that time and the present, of 35 days, and as a
day answers to about 59' of the ecliptic, these days will make 34° 25'. This di-
vided by the annual precision (50}^^), will give 2465 years since the time of
Thales. Thus does astronomy become the parent of chronology.
If it be borne in mind that the stars uniformly rise, come to the meridian, and
set about four minutes earlier every succeeding night, it will be very easy to
determine at what time the seven stars pass the meridian on any night subse-
quent or antecedent to the 1st of January. For example: at what time will the
* Virgil, who flourished 1200 years before the invention of the magnetic needle, says
that the stars were relied upon, in the first ages of nautical enterprise, to guide the
Tude bark Over the SeaS.
“Tung almos primum fluvii sensere cavatas;
Navita tum stellis numeros, et nomina fecit,
Pleiadas, Hyadas, claramgue Lycaonis Arcton.”
“Then first on seas the shallow alder swam ;
Then sailors quarter'd heaven, and found a name
For every fix’d and every wand'ring star—
The Pleiads, Hyads, and the Northern Car.”
The same§. also describes Palinurus, the renowned pilot of the Trojan fleet, as
“watching the face of the nocturnal heavens.”
“Sidera cuncta notat tacito labentia cq210,
Arcturum, pluviasque Hyadas, geminośgue Tr1Ones,
Armatumque auro circumspicit Oriona.
*Observe the stars, and notes their sliding course,
The Pleiads, Hyads, and their wat'ry force;
And both the Bears is careful to behold
‘A And bright Orion, arm'd witn ournish’d gold.”
Indeed, this sagacious pilot was once so intent in gazing upon the stars while at the
helm, that he fell overboard, and was lost to his companions.
“Headlong he fell, and, struggling in the main,
Cried out for helping hands, but cried in vain.”
... From what circumstance do the Pleiades derive their name? What is the brightest
of the Pleiades called? -What is the size of the restrºWhen are the Pleiades, on the
meridianº-How much earlier do the stars rise, conse to the mériqian, and Sct, every
succeeding night?
MAP III.] TAURUS, - 55
-
seven stars culminate on the 5th January 1 Multiply the 5 days by 4 and take
the result from the time they culminate on the 1st, and it will give 30 minutes
after 8 o'clock in the evening.
The Pleiades are also sometimes called Vergiliae, or the
“Virgins of spring;” because the sun enters this cluster in
the “season of blossoms,” about the 18th of May. He who
made them alludes to this circumstance when he demands
of Job: “Canst thou bind the sweet influences of the Ple-
iades,” &c.—[Job 38: 31.]
The Syrian name of the Pleiades is Succoth, or Succoth-Benoth, derived from
a Chaldaic word, which signifies “to speculate, to observe,” and the “Men of
Succoth,” (2 Kings 17: 30.) have been thence considered observers of the
StarS.
The Hyades are situated 11° S. E. of the Pleiades, in the
face of the Bull, and may be readily distinguished by means
of five stars” so placed as to form the letter W. The most
brilliant star is on the left, in the top of the letter, and called
Aldebaran ; from which the moon’s distance is computed.
“A star of the first magnitude illumes
His radiant head; and of the second rank.
Another beams not far remote.”
Aldebaran is of Arabic origin, and takes its name from two
words which signify, “He went before, or led the way”—
alluding to that period in the history of astronomy when this
star led up the starry host from the vernal equinox. It comes
to the meridian at 9 o'clock on the 10th of January, or 48%
minutes after Alcyone, on the 1st. When Aries is about 279
high, Aldebaran is just rising in the east. So MANILIUs:—
“Thus when the Ram hath doubled ten degrees,
And join’d seven more, then rise the Hyades.”
A line 1539 E. N. E. of Aldebaran will point out a bright
star of the 2d magnitude in the extremity of the northern
horn, marked Beta or El Nath; (this star is also in the foot
of Auriga, and is common to both constellations.) From
Beta in the northern horn, to Zeta, in the tip of the southern
horn, it is 89, in a southerly direction. This star forms a
right angle with Aldebaram and Beta. Beta and Zeta, then,
in the button of the horns, are in a line nearly north and south,
80 apart, with the brightest on the north. That very bright
star 174° N. of Beta, is Capella, in the constellation Auriga.
# The ancient Greeks counted seven in this cluster:-
“The Bull's head shines with seven refulgent flames,
Which, Grecia, Hyads, from their showering, names.”
At what time will the seven stars culminate on the 'fiſh January 2*By what other
names are they sometimes called, and why T. What allusion is made to this cluster
in the ancient Scriptures? NDescribe the situation and appearance of the Hyades.
- What is the brightest of them called What is the origin of the word Aldebaran, and
to what does it allude? When does Aldebaran culirinate Describe the position of
Beta? What are the name and direction of the sºr in the southern hºrn? What is the
relative position of these stars? What very bright star is secn 17° 30' N. of Beta?
... 56 ſ’ICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. +. [JAN.
History.—According to the Grecian mythology, this is the animal which bore
Europa over the seas to that country, which derived from her its name. She was
the daughter of Agenor, and princess of Phoenicia. She was so beautiful that
Jupiter became enamoured of her ; and assuming the shape of a snow-white
bull, he mingled with the herds of Agenor, while Europa, with her female at-
tendants, were gathering flowers in the meadows. Europa caressed the bèau.
tiful animal, and at last had the collrage to sit upon his back. The god now took
advantage of her situation, and with precipitate steps retired towards the shore,
and crossed the sea with Europa upon his back, and arrived safe in Crete. Some
suppose she lived about 1552 years before the Christian era. It is probable,
however, that this constellation had a place in the Zodiac before the Greeks be-
gan to cultivate a knowledge of the stars; and that it was rather an invention of
the Egyptians or Chaldeans. Both the Egyptians and Persians worshipped a
deity under this figure, by the name of Apis ; and Belzoni is said to have found
an embalmed bull in one of the notable sepulchres near Thebes,
In the Hebrew Zodiac, Taurus is ascribed to Joseph.
ORION.
Whoever looks up to this constellation and learns its name,
will never forget it. It is too beautifully splendid to need a
description. When it is on the meridian, there is then above
the horizon the most magnificent view of the celestial bodies
that the starry firmament affords; and it is visible to all the
habitable world, because the equinoctial passes through the
middle of the constellation. It is represented on celestial
maps by the figure of a man in the attitude of assaulting the
Bull, with a sword in his belt, a huge club in his right hand,
and the skin of a lion in his left, to serve for a shield.
Manilius, a Latin poet, who composed five books on as-
tronomy a short time before the birth of our Saviour thus
describes its appearance:—
“First next the Twins, see great Orion rise,
II is arms extended stretch o'er half the skies
His stride as large, and with a steady pace
He marches on, and measures a vast space;
On each broad shoulder a bright star display’d,
And three obliquely grace his hanging blade.
In his vast head, immers'd in boundless spheres,
Three stars, less bright, but yet as great, he bears,
But farther off removed, their splendour's lost;
Thus grac'd and arm’d he leads the starry host.”
The centre of the constellation is midway between the
poles of the heavens and directly over the equator. It is also
about 8° W. of the solstitial colure, and comes to the me-
ridian about the 23d of January. The whole number of
visible stars in this constellation is 78; of which, two are of
the first magnitude, four of the 2d, three of the 3d, and fif-
teen of the 4th.
| Those four brilliant stars in the form of a long square or
>What is the general appearance of the constellation Orion ** when this constellation
is on the uneridian, what is the appearance of the starry firmament? To whom is it
-visible, and why? How is Grion represented on celestial maps? Describe its position.
How is it situated \h respect to the solstitial colure, and when is it on the meridian?
what remarkable stats forth the outline of the consieilation?
MAP III.] ORION. 57
parallelogram, intersected in the middle by the “Three
Stars,” or “Ell and Yard,” about 25°.S. of the Bull's horns,
form the outlines of Orion.” The two upper stars in the par-
allelogram are about 15° N. of the two lower ones; and
being placed on each shoulder, may be called the epaulets of
Orion. The brightest of the two lower ones is in the left
foot, on the W., and the other, which is the least brilliant of
the four, in the right knee. To be more particular: Bella-
trix is a star of the 2d magnitude on the W. shoulder; Be-
telguese is a star of the 1st magnitude, 74° E. of Bellatrix,
on the E. shoulder. It is brighter than Bellatrix, and lies a
little farther towards the north; and comes to the meridian
30 minutes after it, on the 21st of January. These two form
the upper end of the parallelogram.
Rigel is a splendid star of the 1st magnitude, in the left
foot, on the W. and 15° S, of Bellatrix. Saiph, is a star of
the 3d magnitude, in the right knee, 84° E. of Rigel. These
two form the lower end of the parallelogram.
“First in rank
The martial star upon his shoulder flames:
A rival star illuminates his foot;
And on his girdle beams a luminary
Which, in vicinity of other stars,
Might claim the proudest honours.”
There is a little triangle of three small stars in the head of
Orion, which forms a larger triangle with the two in his
shoulders. In the middle of the parallelogram are three stars
of the 2d magnitude, in the belt of Orion, that form a straight
line about 30 in length from N. W. to S. E. They are usu-
ally distinguished by the name of the Three Stars, because
there are no other stars in the heavens that exactly resemble
them in position and brightness. . They are sometimes de-
nominated the Three Kings, because they point out the
Hyades and Pleiades on one side, and Sirius, or the Dog-star
on the other. In Job they are called the Bands of Orion ;
while the ancient husbandmen called them Jacob’s rod, and
sometimes the Rake. The University of Leipsic, in 1807,
gave them the name of Napoleon. But the more common
appellation for them, including those in the sword, is the Ell
and Yard. They derive the latter name from the circum-
stance that the line which unites the “three stars” in the belt
measures just 3° in length, and is divided by the central star
. Describe the two upper ones in the group. Describe the two lower ones. Give a
more particular description of the stays in the shoulder. How do you distinguish Be-
telguese from Bellatrix? When does Betelguese come to the meridian? Describe the
stars which form the lower end of the parallelogram. What stars do you observe in
the head of Orion}-Describe the situation and appearance of the “Three Stars?” Why
are they called the three stars? -What else are they denominated, and why? What
names were given to them by the ancients? What by the University of Leipsic *YWhat
is the more familiar term for them...and whence is it derived?
58 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. LJAN.
into two equal parts, like a yard-stick; thus serving as a
graduated standard for measuring the distances of stars from
each other. When therefore any star is described as being
so many degrees from another, in order to determine the dis-
tance, it is recommended to apply this rule.
It is necessary that the scholar should task his ingenuity only a few evenings
in applying such a standard to the stars, before he will learn to judge of their
relative distances with an accuracy that will seldom vary a degree from the truth.
The northernmost star in the belt, called Mintika, is less
than #0 S. of the equinoctial, and when on the meridian, is
almost exactly over the equator. It is on the meridian, the
24th of January.* -
The “three stars” are situated about 80 W. of the solstitial
colure, and uniformly pass the meridian one hour and fifty
minutes after the seven stars.
There is a row of stars of the 4th and 5th magnitudes, S. of .
the belt, running down obliquely towards Saiph, which forms
the sword. This row is also called the Ell because it is
once and a quarter the length of the Yard or belt.
A very little way below Thabit, in the sword, there is a ne-
bulous appearance, the most remarkable one in the heavens.
With a good telescope an apparent opening is discovered,
through which, as through a window, we seem to get a
glimpse of other heavens, and brighter regions beyond.
As the telescope extends our knowledge of the stars and greatly increases
their visible number, we behold hundreds and thousands, which, but for this
almost divine improvement of our vision, had forever remained, unseen by us,
in an unfathomable void. -
A star in Orion's sword, which appears single to the unassisted vision, is mul-
tiplied into six by the telescope; and another, into twelve. Galileo found 80 in
the belt, 21 in a nebulous star in the head, and about 500 in another part of
Orion, within the compass of one or two degrees. Dr. Hook saw 78 stars in the
Pleiades, and Rheita with a better telescope, saw about 200 in the same cluster,
and more than 2000 in Orion.
About 90 W. of Bellatrix are eight stars, chiefly of the 4th
magnitude, in a curved line running N. and S. with the con-
cavity towards Orion; these point out the skin of the lion in
his left hand. Of Orion, on the whole, we may remark with
Eudosia:— ,
§He who admires not to the stars is bind.”
HISTORY.—According to some authorities, Orion was the son of Neptune and
queen Euryale, a famous Amazonian huntress, and possessing the disposition of
* Though the position of this star, with respect to the equator, is the same at all
times, whether it be on the meridian or in the horizon; yet it appears to occupy this
position, only when it is on the meridian.
How may the distances of the stars from each other be measured by reference to the
yard? How are the three stars situated with respect to the solstitial colure, and how
with respect to the seven stars? \Describe the stars which form the Sword of Qrion,
~What else is this row called? MDescribe the nebulous appearance which is visible in
this cluster. What other discoveries has the telescope made in this constellation ?
What stars about 9° W. of Bellatrix *
MAP III.] ORION. 59
*
his mother, he became the greatest hunter in the world, and even boasted that
there was not an animal on earth which he could not conquer. . To punish this
vanity, it is said that a scorpion sprung up out of the earth and bit his foot, that
he died; and that at the request of Diana, he was Pºi. among the stars directly
opposite to the Scorpion that caused his death.
mother, but was the gift of the gods, Jupiter, Neptune, and Mercury, to a peasant
of Boeotia, as a reward of piety, and that he was invested with the power of Walk-
ing over the sea without wetting his feet. In strength and stature he surpassed
all other mortals. He was skilled in the working of iron, from which he fabri-
cated a subterranean palace for Vulcan; he also walled in the coasts of Sicily
against the inundations of the sea, and built thereon a temple to its gods.
Orion was betrothed to the daughter of OEnopion, but he, unwilling to give up
his daughter, contrived to intoxicate the illustrious hero and put out his eyes on
the seashore where he had laid himself down to sleep. Orion, finding himself
blind when he awoke, was conducted by the sound to a neighbouring forge,
where he placed one of the workmen on his back, and, by his directions, went
to a place where the rising sun was seen with the greatest advantage. Here he
turned his face towards the luminary, and, as it is reported, immediately recov.
ered his sight, and hastened to punish the perfidious cruelty of OEnopion.
The daughters of Orion distinguishéd themselves as nuch as their father;
and, when the oracle had declared that Boeotia should not be delivered from a
dreadful pestilence, before two of Jupiter’s children were immolated on the
altars. they joyfully accepted the offer, and voluntarily sacrificed themselves for
the good of their country. The deities of the infernal regions were struck at the
patriotism of the two females, and immediately two stars were seen to ascend
up from the earth, still smoking with their blood, and they were placed in the
heavens in the form of a crown. Ovid says their bodies were burned by the
Thebans, and that two persons arose from their ashes, whom the gods soon after
changed into constellations.
As the constellation Orion, which rises at noon about the 9th day of March,
and sets at noon about the 21st of June, is generally supposed to be accompani-
ed, at its rising, with great rains and storms, it became extremely terrible to
mariners, in the early adventures of navigation. Virgil, Ovid, and Horace, with
some of the Greek poets, make mention of this. -
Thus Eneas accounts for the storm which cast him on the Aſrican coast on his
way to Italy:— -
“To that blest shore we steer'd our destined way, ,
When sudden, dire Orion rous’d the sea ;
All charg’d with tempests rose the baleful star,
And on our navy pour’d his wat'ry war.”
To induce him to delay his departure, Dido's sister advises her to
“Tell him, that, charg’d with deluges of rain,
Orion rages on the wintry main.”
The name of this constellation is mentioned in the books of Job and Amos. and
in Homer, . The inspired prophet, penetrated like the psalmist of Israel, with
the omniscience and power displayed in the celestial glories, utters this sublime
injunction : “Seek Him that maketh the seven stars and Orion, and turneth the
shadow of déath into morning.” Job also, with profound veneration, adores His
awful majesty who “cornmandeth the sun and sealeth up the stars; who alone
spreadeth out the heavens, and maketh Arcturus, Orion, and Pleiades, and the
chambers of the south :” And in another place, the Almighty demands of him—
“Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven? Canst thou hind the sweet influen-
ces of the Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion; canst thou bring forth Mazza-
roth in his season, or canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons?”
| Calmet supposes that Mazzaroth is here put for the whole order of celestial
bodies in the Zodiac, which, by their appointed revolutions, produce the varions
seasons of the year, and the regular succession of day and night. Arcturus is
the name of the principal star in Bootes, and is here put for the constellation
itself. The expression, his sons, doubtless refers to Asterion, and Chara, the
N. º with which he seems to be pursuing the great bear around the
orth pole. "
. The following lines are copied from a work entitled “Astronomical Recrea-
tions,” by J. Green, of Pennsylvania, to whom the author is indebted for many
valuable hints concerning the mythology of the ancient constellations.
thers say that Orion had no
60 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. |JAN,
“When chilling winter spreads his azure skies,
Behold Orion's giant form arise;
His golden girdle glitters on the sight,
And the broad falchion beams in splendour bright;
A lion's brindled hide his bosom shields,
And his right hand a ponderous weapon wields.
The River's shining streams beneath him pour,
And angry Taurus rages close before;
Behind him Procyon barks, and Sirius growls,
While full in front, the monster Cetus howls.
See bright Capella, and Medusa there,
With horrid serpents hissing through her hair,
See Cancer too, and near the Hydra dire,
With roaring Leo, filled with furious fire.
The timid Hare, the Dove with olive green,
And Aries, fly in terrour from the scene;
The warrior Perseus gazes from above,
And the Twin offspring of the thunderer Jove.
Lo! in the distance, Cassiope fair
In state reposes on her golden chair;
Her beauteous daughter, bound, before ner stands,
And vainly strives to free her fettered hands;
For aid she calls on royal Cepheus near,
But shrieks from her reach not her father's ear.
See last of all, around the glowing pole,
With shining scales, the spiry Dragon roll
A grizzly Bear on either side appears,
Creeping with lazy motion 'mid the stars ”
These lines are easily committed to memory, and would assist the pupil in re-
valling the names of the constellations in this very interesting portion of the
11623. We HS,
-LEPUs.
THE HARE.-This constellation is situated directly south
of Orion, and comes to the meridian at the same time;
namely on the 24th of January. It has a mean declination
180 S. and contains 19 small stars, of which, the four princi-
pal ones are of the 3d magnitude. It may be readily distin-
guished by means of four stars of the 3d magnitude, in the
form of an irregular square, or trapezium.
Zeta, of the 4th magnitude, is the first star, and is situa-
ted in the back, 50 S. of Saiph, in Orion. About the same
distance below Zeta are the four principal stars, in the legs
and feet. These form the square. They are marked Alpha,
Beta, Gamma, Delta. Alpha and Beta otherwise called
Arneb, form the N. W. end of the trapezium, and are about
30 apart. Gamma and Delta form the S. E. end, and are
about 23° apart. The upper right hand one, which is Arneb,
is the brightest of the four, and is near the centre of the con-
Where is the constellation of the Hare situated? When does it come to the merl;
dian? What is the whole number of its stars? What is the magnitude of its principal
ones? How may it he distinguished? In what part of the animal are these stars pla–
ced? Describe the principal star in Lepus. Whāt are the distance and direction of the
fguare from Zeta?" Describe the stars at each end of this square. Which is the
tº fightest of the four? t -
MAP. III.] coLUMBA—ERIDANUs. t 61
stellation. Four or five degrees S. of Rigel are four very
minute stars, in the ears of the Hare.
History.—This constellation is situated about 189 west of the Great Dogs
which, from the motion of the earth, seems to be pursuing it, as the Greyhounds
do the Bear, round the circuit of the skies. It was one of those animals which
Orion is said to have delighted in hunting, and which, for this reason, was made
into a constellation and placed near him among the stars.
t
COLUMBA.
NoAH's Dow E.-This constellation is situated about 16° S.
of the Hare, and is nearly on the same meridian with the
“Three Stars,” in the belt of Orion. It contains only 10
stars; one of the 2d, one of the 3d, and two of the 4th mag-
nitudes; of these, Phaet and Beta are the brightest, and are
about 23° apart. Phaet, the principal star, lies on the right
and is the highest of the two ; Beta may be known by means
of a smaller star just east of it, marked Gamma. A line
drawn from the easternmost star in the belt of Orion, 320 di-
rectly south, will point out Phaet; it is also 1130 S. of the
lower left hand star in the square of the Hare, and makes
with Sirius and Naos, in the ship, a large equilateral triangle.
HISTORY..—This constellation is so called in commemoration of the dove which
Noah “sent forth to see if the waters were abated front off the face of the
ground,” after the ark had rested on mount Ararat. “And the dove came in to
him in the evening, and lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf plucked off.”
——“The surer messenger,
A dove :-ent forth once, and again to spy
Green tree or ground, whereon his foot may light:
The second time returning, in his bill
An olive leaf he brings, pacific sign!”
ERIDANUs.
THE River Po.—This constellation meanders over a large
and very irregular space in the heavens. It is not easy, nor
scarcely desirable, to trace out, all its windings among the
stars. Its entire length is not less than 1309; which, for the
sake of a more easy reference, astronomers divide into two
sections, the northern and the southern. That part of it
which lies between Orion and the Whale, including the great
bend about his paws, is distinguished by the name of the
Northern stream ; the remainder of it is called the Southern
streaſº. * i
The Northern stream commences near Rigel, in the foot
Are these all the stars that are visible in this constellation? Describe the situation
of Noah's Dove. How many stars does it contain, and what are the principal? Which
of these are the brightest, and how situated? How may Beta be known? What is the
position of Phaet with regard to Orion \ Describe the general form of the constellation
Eridanus. What is its entire length, and how is it divided? By what names are these
sections distinguished? What are the course and distance of the Northern stream?
62 | PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [JAN.
*
of Orion, and flows out westerly, in a serpentine course,
nearly 400, to the Whale, where it suddenly makes a com-
plete circuit and returns back nearly the same distance to-
wards its source, but bending gradually down towards the
south, when it again makes a similar circuit to the S. W.
and finally disappears below the horizon.
West of Rigel there are five or six stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, arching
.. in a semicircular form, and marking the first bend of the northern stream.
About 8° below these, or 19° W. of Rigel, is a bright star of the 2d magnitude,
in the second bend of the northern stream, marked Gamma. This star cul-
minates 13 minutes after the Pleiades, and one hour and a quarter before Rigel.
Passing Gamma, and a smaller star west of it, there are four stars nearly in a
row, which bring us to the breast of Cetus, 8° N. of Gamma, is a small star
gº Ried, which is thought by some to be considerably nearer the earth than
1THUIS
Theemim, in the southern stream, is a star of the 3d magnitude, apout 17° S.
W. of the square in Lepus, and may be known by means of a smaller star, 19
above it. Achermar is a brilliant star of the 1st magnitude, in the extremity of
|. southern stream; but having 58° of S. declination, can never be seen in this
atitude. t
The whole number of stars in this’ constellation is 84; of
which, one is of the 1st magnitude, one of the 2d, and eleven
are of the 3d. Many of these cannot be pointed out by ver-
bal description; they must be traced from the map.
History.—Eridanus is the name of a celebrated river in Cisalpine Gaul, also
called Padus. Its modern name is Po. Virgil calls it the king of rivers. The Latin
poets have rendered it memorable from its connexion with the fable of Phaeton,
who, being a son of Phoebus and Clymene, became a favourite of Venus, who
intrusted him with the care of one of her temples. This favour of the goddess
made him vain, and he sought of his father a public and incontestable sign of his
tenderness, that should convince the world of his origin. Phoebus, after sonie
hesitation, made oath that he would grant him whatever he required, and no
sooner was the oath uttered, than—
“The youth, transported, asks without delay,
To guide the sun’s bright chariot for a day.
The god repented of the oath he took,
For anguish thrice his radiant head he shook;-
My son, says he, some other proof require,
Rash was my promise, rash was thy desire—
Not Jove himself the ruler of the sky,
That hurls the three-forked thunder from above,
Dares try his strength; yet who as strong as Jove?
Besides, consider what irnpetuous force
Turins stars and planets in a diff'rent course.
I steer against their motions; nor am I
Borne back by all the current of the sky:
But how could you resist the orbs that roll
In adverse whirls, and sters, the rapid poll?”
Phoebus represented the dangers to which he would be exposed in vain. He
undertook the aerial journey, and the explicit directions of his father were for-
gotten. No sooner had Phaeton received the reins than he betrayed his igno-
rance of the manner of guiding the chariot. The flying coursers became sem-
sible of the confusion of their driver, and immediately departed from the usual
track. Phaeton repented too late of his rashness, and already heaven and earth
Describe its first bend? Describe the position of Gamma, and tell when it comes to
the meridian', What stars are between Gamma and the Whale? What small star
gbout 8° above'Gamma, and what is its distance from the earth compared with that qf
Sirius 2 Describe the situation of Theemim. Describe the position and magnitude
of Archernar?. What is the whole number of stars in this constellation? What is the
magnitude of the principal ones? -
MAP III.] - AURIGA. 63
h
were threatened with a universal conflagration as the consequence, when Jupi-
ter, perceiving the disorder of the horses, struck the driver with a thunderbolt,
and hurled him headlong from heaven into the river Eridanus. His body, con-
sumed with fire, was found by the nymphs of the place, who honoured num with
a decent burial, and inscribed this epitaph upon his tomb :-
“Hic situs est Phaeton, currus auriga paterni:
Quene si non tenuit, magnis tamenezcidit ausis.”
His sisters mourned his unhappy end, and were changed by Jupiter into
poplars.
“All the long night their mournful watch they keep,
And all the day stand round the tomb and weep.”—OvID.
It is said the tears which they shed, turned to amber, with which the Phoeni-
cians and Carthaginians carried on in secrecy a most lucrative trade. The great
heat produced on the occasion of the sun's departing out of his usual course, is
said to have dried up the blood of the Ethiopians, and turned their skins black;
and to have produced sterility and barrenness over the greater part of Lybia.
“At once from life and from the chariot driven,
Th’ ambitious boy fell thunderstruck from heaven.”
“The breathless Phaeton, with flaming hair,
Shot from the chariot like a falling star,
That in a summer's evening from the top
Of heav'n drops down, or seems at least to drop,
Till on the Po his blasted corpse was hurl’d,
Far from his country, in the western world.”
The fable of Phaeton evidently alludes to some extraordinary heats which
were experienced in a very remote period, and of which only this confused tra-
dition has descended to later times.
ATJRIGA.
THE CHARIOTEER, called also the Wagoner, is represented
on the celestial map by the figure of a man in a declining
posture, resting one foot upon the horn of Taurus, with a
goat and her kids in his left hand, and a bridle in his right.
It is situated N. of Taurus and Orion, between Perseus on
the W. and the Lynx on the E. Its mean declination is 450
N.; so that when on the meridian, it is almost directly over
head in New England. It is on the same meridian with
Orion, and culminates at the same hour of the night. Both
of these constellations are on the meridian at 9 o'clock on the
24th of January, and 1 hour and 40 minutes east of it on the
1st of January. -
The whole number of visible stars in Auriga, is 66, inclu-
ding one of the 1st and one of the 2d magnitude, which mark
the shoulders. Capella is the principal star in this constel-
lation, and is one of the most brilliant in the heavens. It
takes its name from Capella, the goat, which hangs upon the
left shoulder. It is situated in the west shoulder of Auriga,
How is the constel'ation Aurigarepresented? Where is it situated? What is its méan
declination, and what its position on the meridian? ... How is it situated in respect to
Orionº. When are these constellations on the meridian? What is the whole number
of visible stars in Auriga? How many of the 1st and 2d magnitude? What is the name
of the principal star, and whence derived? Where is this situated?
*
sº.
64 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [JAN.
240 E. of Algol, and 280 N. E. of the Pleiades. It may be
known by a little sharp-pointed triangle formed by three stars,
30 or 40 this side of it, on the left. It is also i80 N. of El
Nath, which is common to the northern horn of Taurus, and
the right foot of Auriga. Capella comes to the meridian on
the 19th of January, just 2% minutes before Rigel, in the foot
of Orion, which it very much resembles in brightness.
Menkalima, in the east shoulder, is a star of the 2d magnitude, 74° E. of Capella,
and culminates the next minute after Betelguese, 373° S. of it. Theta, in the
right arm, is a star of the 4th magnitude, 89 directly south of Menkalina.
It may be remarked as a curious coincidence, that the two stars in the shoul-
ders of Auriga are of the same magnitude, and just as far apart as those in Orion,
and opposite to them. Again, the two stars in the shoulders of Auriga, with the two
in the shoulders of Orion, Inark the extremities of a long, narrow parallelogram,
lying N. and S., and whose leng his just five times its breadth. Also, the two
stars in Auriga, and the two in Orion, make two slender and similar triangles,
both meeting in a common point, halfway between them at El Nath, in the north-
ern horn of Taurus. *
Delta, a star of the 4th magnitude in the head of Auriga, is about 9° N. of the
two in the shoulders, with which it makes a triangle, about halſ the height of
those just alluded to, with the vertex at Delta. The two stars in the shoulders
are therefore the base of two similar triangles, one extending about 9° N., to the
head, the other 18° S., to the heel, on the top of the horn: both figures together
resembling an elongated diamond. -
Delta in the head, Menkalina in the right shoulder, and Theta in the arm of
Auriga, make a straight line with Betelguese in Orion, Delta in the square ºf the
Hare, and Beta in Noah's Dove; all being very nearly on the same meridian,
4° W. of the solstitial colure. * -
“See next the Goatherd with his kids; he shines
With seventy stars, deducting only four.
Of which Capella never sets to us,” *
And scarce a star with equal radiance peams
Upon the earth : two other stars are seen
Due to the second order.”—Eudosia.
HISTORY..—The Greeks give various accounts of this constellation; some sup-
pose it to be Erichthonius, the fourth king of Athens, and son of Vulcan and Mi-
nerva, who awarded him a place among the constellations on account of his many
useful inventions. He was of a monstrous shape. He is said to have invented
chariots, and to have excelled all others in the management of horses. In allu-
sion to this, Virgil has the following lines:— -
“Primus Erichthonius currus et quatuor ausus
Jungere equos, rapidisque rotis insistere victor.”
.." Georgic. Lib. iii. p. 113
“Böld Erichthonius was the first who join’d
Four horses ſor the rapid race design'd,
And o'er the dusty wheels presiding sate ’”—Dryden.
Other writers say that Bootes invented the chariot, and that Auriga was the
Som'of Mercury, and charioteer to OEnomaus, king of Pisa, and so experienced,
that he rendered his horses the swiftest in all Greece. But as neither of these
ſables seems to account for the goat and her kids, it has been supposed that they
refer to Almathaba and her sister Melissa, who fed Jupiter, during his infancy,
&
* In the latitude of London; but in the latitude of New England, Capella disappears
below the horizon, in the N. N. W., for a few hours, and then reappears in the N. N. E.
How may it be known? What are its distance and direction from El Nath, in the
horn of Taurus? When does Capella come to the meridian . Describe the star in the
east shoulder of Auriga. Describe Theta. What curious coincidence eacists betwcén.
the stars in the shoulders of Auriga and those in the shoulders ºf Orion ? Describe the
situation ºf Delta. The too stars in the shoulders of Azeriga form the base ºf two tri-
angles; please describe thern. What stars in Auriga, Orion, the Hare, and the Dove,
are ow the same ºneridian 2 How fºr is this line of stars west of the solstitial colure?
MAP III.] CAMELOPARDALUs.--THE LYNX. 65,
with goat's milk, and that, as a reward for their kindness, they were placed in
the heavens. But there is no reason assigned for their being placed in the arms
uf Auriga, and the inference is unavoidable, that mythology is in fault on this
oint,
p Jamieson is of opinion that Auriga is a mere type or scientific symbol of the
beautiful ſable of Phaeton, because he was the attendant of Phoebus at that re-
mote period when Taurus opened the year.
CAMELOPARDALUS.
THE CAMELOPARD.—This constellation was made by He-
velius out of the unformed stars which lay scattered between
Perseus, Auriga, the head of Ursa Major, and the Pole Star.
It is situated directly N. of Auriga and the head of the Lynx,
and occupies nearly all the space between these and the pole.
It contains 58 small stars; the five largest of which are only
of the 4th magnitude. The principal star lies in the thigh,
and is about 20° from Capella, in a northerly direction. It
marks the northern boundary of the temperate zone; being
less than one degree S. of the Arctic circle. There are two
other stars of the 4th magnitude hear the right knee, 129 N. E.
of the first mentioned. They may be known by their standing
19 apart and alone.
The other stars in this constellation are too small, and too
much scattered to invite observation.

History.—The Camelopard is so called from an animal of that name, peculiar
to Ethiopia. This animal resembles both the camel and the leopard. Its body
is spotted like that of the leopard. Its neck is about seven feet long, its fore and
hind legs, from the hoof to the second joint, are nearly, of the same length; but
from the second joint of the legs to the body, the fore legs are so long in coul-
parison with the hind ones, that no person could sit upon its back, without in-,
stantly sliding off as from a horse that stood up on his hind feet.
C H A P T E R IV.
bIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN FEBRUARY. -
THE LYNX.
THE constellation of the Lynx, like that of the Camelopard,
exhibits no very interesting features by which it can be dis-
tinguished. It contains only a moderate number of inferior
stars, scattered over a large space N. of Gemini, and between
Auriga and Ursa Major. The whole number is 44, including
Of what was the Camelopard made? Where is it situated? What is the whole num-
ber of stars? What is the magnitude of the largest? What are the name and position
of the principal one? Where are the other º stars situated? How may they *
be known. Whence does it derive tts name? What is the situation of the Lynx?
What are the number and magnitude of its stars?
66 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [FEP.
only three that are so large as the 3d magnitude. The largest
of these, near the mouth, is in the solstitial colure, 14%o N. of
Menkalina, in the E. shoulder of Auriga. The other two prim-
cipal stars are in the brush of the tail, 3}o S.W. of another
star of the same brightness in the mouth of the Lesser Lion,
with which it makes a small triangle. Its centre is on the
meridian at 9 o'clock on the 23d, or at half past 7 on the 1st,
of February.
HISTORY —This constellation takes its name from a wild beast which is said to
be of the genus of the wolf.
GEMINI.
. THE Twins.—This constellation represents, in a sitting
posture, the twin brothers, Castor and Pollux.
Gemini is the third sign, but fourth constellation in the
order of the Zodiac, and is situated south of the Lynx, be-
tween Cancer on the east, and Taurus on the west. The
orbit of the earth passes through the centre of the constella-
tion. As the earth moves round in her orbit from the first
point of Aries to the same point again, the sun; in the mean-
time, will appear to move through the opposite signs, or those
which are situated right over against the earth, on the other
side of her orbit.
Accordingly, if we could see the stars as the sun appeared
to move by them, we should see it passing over the constel-
lation Gemini between the 21st of June and the 23d of July;
but we seldom see more than a small part of any constellation
through which the sun is then passing, because the feeble
lustre of the stars is obscured by the superior effulgence of the
Sun.
When the sun is just entering the outlines of a constellation on the east, its
western limit may be seen in the morning twilight, just above the rising sun. So
when the sun has arrived at the western limit of a constellation, the eastern part
of it may be seen lingering in the evening twilight, just behind the setting sun.
Under other circumstances, when the sun is said to be in, or to enter, a particu-
lar constellation, it is to be understood that that constellation is not then visible,
but that those opposite to it, are. For example: whatever constellation sets with
the Sun on any day, it is plain that the one opposite to it must be then rising,
and continue visible through the night. Also, whatever constellation rises and

sets with the sun to-day, will, six months hence, rise at sun-setting, and set at
sun-rising. For example: the sun is in the centre of Gemini about the 6th of
Describe the position of the largest. Describe the position of the other two principal
stars. What are their distance and direction from the one in the head? When is its
centre on the meridian? Describe the position and appearance of the Twins. What
is the relative position of Gemini among the signs and constellations of the Zodiacº
How is the orbit of the earth situated, with respect to these constellations? How do
the sun and earth appear to move through these signs? When does the sun appear to
pass through the constellation Germini? Do we usually see the constellations while
the sun is passing through them? Under what circumstances can we see some part ºf
them? . When the sºn is in or entering any constellation, are the opposite constellº
tions visible or ngã 2 If a constellation rise with the sun to-day, how will it rºsé sta,
months hence? Give an example, d
MAP III.] * GEMINI. 67
July, and must rise and set with it on that day; consequently, six months from
that time, or about the 4th of January, it will rise in the east, just when the sun
is setting in the west, and will colne to the meridian at midnight; being then ex-
actly opposite to the surf.
Now as the stars gain upon the sun at the rate of two hours every month, it
follows that the centre of this constellation will, on the 17th of February, come
to the meridian three hours earlier, or at 9 o'clock in the evening.
It would be a pleasant exercise for students to P. questions to each
other, somewhat like the following:—What zodiacal constellation will rise and
set with the sun to-day ? What one will rise at sun-setting 7 What constellation
is three hours high at sun-set, and where will it be at 9 o'clock q What constel-
lation rises two hours before the sun ? How many days or months hence, and
at what hour of the evening or morning, and in what part of the sky shall we see
the constellation whose centre is now where the sun is ? &c., &c.
. In solving these and similar questions, it may be remembered that the sun is
in the vernal equinox about the 21st of March, from whence it advances through
one sign or constellation every succeeding month thereaſter; and that each con-
stellation is one month in advance of the sign of that name: wherefore, reckon
Pisces in March, Aries in April, Taurus in May, and Gemini in June, &c.; be-
ginning with each constellation at the 21st, or 22d of the month.
Gemini contains 85 stars, including one of the 1st, one of
º & ) is - º º
the 2d, four of the 3d, and seven of the 4th magnitudes. It is
readily recognised by means of the two principal stars, Cas-
tor and Polluſc, of the 1st and 2d magnitudes, in the head of
the Twins, about 40 apart.
There being only 11 minutes' difference in the transit of
these two stars over the meridian, they may both be consid-
ered as culminating at 9 o'clock about the 24th of February.
Castor, in the head of Castor, is a star of the 1st magnitude,
4}o N. W. of Pollux, and is the northernmost and the bright-
est of the two. Pollua', is a star of the 2d magnitude, in the
head of Pollux, and is 44° S. E. of Castor. This is one of
the stars from which the moon’s distance is calculated in the
Nautical Almanac. ./
“Of the famed Ledean pair,
One most illustrious star adorns their sign,
And of the second order shine twin lights.”
The relative magnitude or brightness of these stars has
undergone considerable changes at different periods; whence
it has been conjectured by various astronomers that Pollux
must vary from the 1st to the 3d magnitude. But Herschel,
who observed these stars for a period of 25 years, ascribes the
variation to Castor, which he found to consist of two stars,
very close together, the less revolving about the larger once
in 342 years and two months.
Bradly and Maskelyne found that the line joining the two stars which form
Castor was, at all times of the year, parallel to the line joining Castor and Pollux;
and that both of the former move around a common centre between them, in

If a constellation come to the meridian at midnight to-day, how long before it will
come to the meridian at 9 o'clock in the evening 2 the constellation, Geminº Come to
the meridian at midnight, on the 4th of January, when will it culminate at 9 o'clock?
What is the number of stars, in Gemini? By what means is it readily recognised?
When do these stars culminate? Describe Castor. Describe Pollux. For what pur-
pose is it observed at sea? Is the brightness of these two stars always the same? Who
ascribes this variableness to Castor, and for what reason?
68 PICTURE OF THE IHEAVENS, |FEB.
orbits nearly circular, as two balls attached to a rod would do, if suspended by a
string affixed to the centre of gravity between them.
“These men,” says Dr. Bowditch, “were endowed with a sharpness of vision,
and a pºwer of penetrating into space, almost unexampled in the history of as-
tronolny.
. 20° S. W. of Castor and Pollux, and in a line nearly parallel with them,
is a row of stars 3° or 4° apart, chiefly of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, which dis-
tinguish the feet of the twins. The brightest of these is Alhena, in Pollux’s upper
foot; the next small star S. of it, is in his other foot: the two upper stars in the
line next above Gamma, mark Castor's feet. ł
This row of feet is nearly two thirds of the distance from Pollux to Betelguese
in Orion, and a line connecting them will pass through Alhena, the principal star
in the feet. About two thirds of the distance from the two in the head to those
in the feet, and nearly parallel with them, there is another row of three stars.
about 69 apart, which mark the knees.
There are, in this constellation, two other remarkable parallel rows, lying at
right angles with the former; one, leading from the head to the foot of Castor,
the brightest star being in the middle, and in the knee; the other, leading from
the head to the foot of Pollux, the brightest star, called Wasat, being in the body,
and Zeta, next belcw it, in the knee.
Wasat is in the ecliptic, and very near the centre of the constellation. The
two stars, Mu and Tejat; in the northern foot, are also very near the ecliptic:
Tejat is a small star of between the 4th and 5th magnitudes, 2° W, of Mu, and
deserves to be noticed because it marks the spot of the summer solstice, in the
tropic of Cancer, just where the sum is on the longest day of the year, and is,
Inorecwer, the dividing limit between the torrid and the N. temperate zone.
Propus, also in the ecliptic, 2.49 W. of Tejat is a star of only the 5th Inagul-
tude, but rendered memorable as being the star which served for imany years to
determine the position of the planet Herschel, after its first discovery.
Thus as we pursue the study of the stars, we shall find continually new and
more wonderful developments to engage our feelings and reward our labour. We
shall have the peculiar satisfaction of reading the same volume that was spread
out to the patriarchs and poets of other ages, of admiring what they adulired, and
of being led as they were led, to look upon these lofty mansions of being as hav-
ing, above then ail, a common Father with ourselves, “who ruleth in the armies
of heaven, and bringeth forth their hosts by number.”
HISTORY..—Castor and Pollux were twin brothers, sons of Jupiter, by Leda,
the wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta. The manner of their birth was very sin.
gular. They were educated at Pallena, and afterwards embarked with Jason in
the celebrated contest for the golden fleece, at Colchis; on which occasion they
behaved with unparalleled courage and bravery. Pollux distinguished hiluself
by his achievements in arms and personal prowess, and Castor in equestrian
exercises and the management of horses. Whence they are represented, in the
temples of Greece, on white horses, armed with spears, riding side by side,
their heads crowned with a petasus, on whose top glittered a star. Among the
ancients, and especially among the Romans, there prevailed a superstition that
Castor and Pollux often appeared at the head of their armies, and led on their
troops to battle and to victory.
“Castor and Pollux, first in martial force,
One bold on foot, and one renown'd ſor horse. tº
Fair Leda's twins in time to stars decreed,
One ſought on foot, one curb’d the fiery steed.”—Virgil.
“Castor alert to tame the foaming steed,
And Pollux strong to deal the manly deed.”—Martial.
The brothers cleared the Hellespont and the neighbouring seas from pirates,
after their return from Colchis; from which circumstance they have ever since
been regarded as the friends and protectors of navigation. In the Argonautic
expedition, during a violent storm, it is said two flames of fire were seen to play
around their heads, and immediately the tempest ceased, and the sea was calm.
pescribe the stars tohich mark the feet of the Twins. Specify the stars in each. How
is this roº” situated toith respect to Orion 2 Describe the second row of stars in this
constellatºom. Are there yet other rows in this constellation 2 Describe them. What
is the position of Wasat? Two other stars are very near the ecliptic; mention them.
Describe the position of Tejat. Give a description of the star Propus.
MAP III.] - CANIS IMINOR. f 69
From this circumstance, the sailors inferred, that whenever both fires appeared
. the sky, it would be fair weather: but when only one appeared, there would
e SiOrlſl S. -
St. Paul, after being wrecked on the island of Melita, embarked for Rome “in
a ship whose sign was Castor and Pollua; ;” so formed, no doubt, in accordance
with the popular belief that these divinities presided over the science and safety
of navigation.
They were initiated into the sacred mysteries of Cabiri, and into those of Ceres
and Eleusis. They were invited to a feast at which Lynceus and Idas were going
to celebrate their nuptials with Phoebe and Telaria, the daughters of Leucippus,
brother to Tyr:darus. They became enainoured of the daughters, who were
about to be 1married, and resolved to supplant their rivals: a battle ensued, in
which Castor killed Lynceus, and was hiliseif killed by Idas. Pollux revenged
the death of his brother by killing Idas; but, being himself immortal, and most
tenderly attached to his deceased brother, he was unwilling to survive him; he
therefore entreated Jupiter to restore him to life, or to be deprived himself of
in unortality ; wherefore, Jupiter permitted Castor, who had been slain, to share
the immoriality of Pollux; and consequently, as long as the one was upon earth,
so long was the other detained in the internal regions, and they alternately lived
and died every day. Jupiter also further rewarded their fraternal attachment
by changing thein both into a constellation under the name of Gemini, Twins,
which, it is strangely pretended, never appear together, but when one rises the
other sets, and so on alternately.
“By turns they visit this ethereal sky,
And live alternate, and alternate die.”—Homer.
“Pollux, offering his alternate life.
Çould free his brother, and could daily go
By turns aloft, by turns descend beiow.”—Virgil.
Castor and Pollux were worshipped both by the Greeks and Romans, who
sacrificed white lambs upon their altars. In the Hebrew Zodiac, the constella-
tion of the Twins relers to the tribe of Benjamin.
g
CANIS MINOR.
THE LITTLE Dog.—This small constellation is situated
about 5° N. of the equinoctial, and midway between Canis
Major and the Twins. It contains 14 stars, of which two are
very brilliant. The brightest star is called Procyon. It is
of the 1st magnitude, and is about 40 S. E. of the next bright-
est, marked Gomelza, which is of the 2d magnitude. .
These two stars resemble the two in the head of the Twins.
Procyon, in the Little Dog, is 230 S. of Pollux in Gemini,
and Gomelza is about the same distance S. of Castor.
A great number of geometrical figures may be formed of
- the principal stars in the vicinity of the Little Dog. For ex-
ample; Procyon is 23° S. of Pollux, and 26° E. of Betelguese,
and forms with them a large right angled triangle. Again :
Procyon is equidistant from Betelguese and Sirius, and forms
with them an equilateral triangle whose sides are each about
269. If a straight line, connecting Procyon and Sirius, be
produced 239 farther, it will point out Phaet, in the Dove.
Describe the situation of Canis Minor. \\hat is its whole number of stars? What
is the magnituſle of its principal ones What is the brightest one called, and how is
it situated? What otherstars do Procyon and Gomelza resemble? What are the distance
and direction of Procyon from Poliux? Of Gornelza from Castor? What are their distance
and direction from Castor and Pollux What kind of figures may be formed of the
stars in the neighbourhood of the Little I)og 3 Give semc examples. *
70 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |FEB.
Procyon is often taken for the name of the Little Dog, or
for the whole constellation, as Sirius is for the greater one;
hence it is common to refer to either of these constellations
by the name of its principal star. Procyon comes to the me-
ridian 53 minutes after Sirius, on the 24th of February;
although it rises, in this latitude, about half an hour before it.
For this reason, it was called Procyon, from two Greek words
which signify (Ante Canis) “before the dog.”
“Canicula, fourteen thy stars; but far
Above them all, illustrious through the skies,
Beams Procyon ; justly by Greece thus calléd
The bright jorerunner of the greater Dog.”
HISTORY..—The Little Dog, according to Greek fable, is one of Orion’s hounds.
Some suppose it refers to the Egyptian god Anubis, which was represented with
a dog's head : others to Diana, the goddess of hunting; and others, that it is the
faithful dog Maera, which belonged to Icarus, and discovered to his daughter
Erigone the place of his burial. Others, again, say it is one of Actaeon's hounds
that devoured their master, after Diana had transformed him into a stag, to pre-
vent, as she said, his betraying her.


“This said, the man began to disappear
By slow degrees, and ended in a deer.
Transform’d at length, he flies away in haste,
And wonders why he flies so fast.
But as by chance, within a neighb'ring brook,
He saw his branching horns, and alter'd look,
Wretched Actaeon in a doleful tone sºf
He tried to speak, but only gave a groan;
And as he wept, within the watery glass,
. He saw the big round drops, with silent pace,
Run trickling down a savage, hairy face.
What should he do? or seek his old abodes,
Or herd among the deer, and skulk in woods?
As he thus ponders, he behind him spies
His opening hounds, and now he hears their cries.
From shouting men, and horns, and dogs, he flies.
When now the flectest of the pack that press'd
Close at his heels, and sprung before the rest,
Had fasten’d on him, straight another pair
. Hung on his wounded side, and held him there,
Till all the pack came up, and every hound
Tore the sad huntsman grovelling on the ground.”
It is most probable, however, that the Egyptians were the inventors of this con-
stellation; and as it always rises a little before the Dog-star, which, at a particu-
lar season, they so much dreaded, it is properly represented as a little watchful
creature, giving notice like a faithful sentinel of the other's approach.
* It is not difficult to deduce the moral of this fable. The selfishness and caprice of
human friendship furnish daily illustrations of it. . While the good man, the philan-
thropist, or the public benefactor, is in affluent circumstances, and, with a heart to
devise, has the power to minister blessings to his numerous beneficiaries, his virtues
are the general theme; but when adverse storms have changed the ability, though
they could not shake the will of their benefactor, he is straightway pursued, like AC-
taeon, by his own hounds; and, like Actaeon, he is “torn to the ground” by the fangs
that fed upon his bounty.-L. Q. C. L. s
& r
*SWhat name is usually given to the Little Dog? When does Procyon rise and culmi-
mate, with respect to the Dog-star? what name, for this reason, was given to this
&
constellation?
• MAP III.] MONOCEROS—CANIS MAJOR. 71
MONOCEROS.
THE UNIcorn.—This is a modern constellation, which was
made out of the unformed stars of the ancients that lay scat-
tered over a large space of the heavens between the two
Dogs. It extends a considerable distance on each side of the
equinoctial, and its centre is on the same meridian with
Procyon.
It contains 31 small stars, of which the seven principal
ones are of only the 4th magnitude. Three of these are
situated in the head, 30 or 40 apart, forming a straight line
N. E. and S. W. about 90 E. of Betelguese in Orion’s shoul-
der, and about the same distance S. of Alhena in the foot of
the Twins. -
The remaining stars in this constellation are scattered over
a large space, and being very small, are unworthy of particu-
lar notice.
History.—THE Monoceros is a species of the Unicorn or Rhinoceros. It is
about the size of a horse, with one white horn growing out of the middle of its
forehead. It is said to exist in the wilds of Ethiopia, and to be very formidable.
Naturalists say that, when pursued by the hunters, it precipitates itself from
the tops of the highest rocks, and pitches upon its horn, which sustains the whole
force of its fall, so that it receives no damage thereby. Sparmann informs us,
that the figure of the unicorn, described by some of the ancients, has been found
delineated on the surface of the rock in Caffraria; and thence conjectures that
such an animal, instead of being fabulous, as some suppose, did once actually
exist in Africa. Lobo affirms that he has seen it.
The rhinoceros, which is akin to it, is found in Bengal, Siam, Cochin China,
part of China Proper, and the isles of Java and Sumatra. *
CANIS MAJOR.
THE GREAT Dog.—This interesting constellation is situa-
ted southward and eastward of Orion, and is universally
known by the brilliance of its principal star, Sirius, which is
apparently the largest and brightest in the heavens. It glows
in the winter hemisphere with a lustre which is unequalled
by any other star in the firmament.
Its distance from the earth, though computed at 20 millions
of millions of miles, is supposed to be less than that of an
other star: a distance, however, so great that a cannon ball,
which flies at the rate of 19 miles a minute, would be two
millions of years in passing over the mighty interval; while
sound, moving at the rate of 13 miles a minute, would reach
Sirius in little less than three millions of years. -
—-ºh
- What stars compose the constellation Monoceros? How is this constellation situ-
ated, and when is it on the meridian? What is the whole number of its stars? What
is the magnitude of its principal ones?. Describe those in the head.--Describe the
sition and appearance of Canis Major. What is its appearance in the winter?-, t
is its distance from the earth computed to be, and how is it compared with that of the
other stars?-How long would it take a cannon-ball to pass over this distance in what
time would sound reach Sirius from the earth? *
*
72 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |FEB.
It may be shown in the same manner, that a ray of light, which occupies only
8 minutes and 13 seconds in coming to us from the sun, which is at the rate of
nearly two hundred thousand niiies a second, would be 3 years and 82 days in
passing through the vast space that lies between Sirius, and the earth, Conse-
auently, were it blotted from the heavens, its light would continue visible to us
for a period of 3 years and 82 days after it had ceased to be.
If the nearest stars give such astonishing results, what shall we say of those
which are situated a thousand tinues as far beyond these, as these are from us?
In the remote ages of the world, when every man was his
own astronomer, the rising and setting of Sirius, or the Dog-
star, as it is called, was watched with deep and various so-
licitude. The ancient Thebans, who first cultivated astro-
nomy in Egypt, determined the length of the year by the
number of its risings. The Egyptians watched its rising
with mingled apprehensions of hope and fear; as it was
ominous to them of agricultural prosperity or blighting
drought. It foretold to them the rising of the Nile, which
& ºt g rºw
they called Siris, and admonished them when to sow. The
Romans were accustomed yearly, to sacrifice a dog to Sirius
to render him propitious in his influence upon their herds and
fields. The eastern nations generally believed the rising of
Sirius would be productive of great heat on the earth.
Thus Virgil:—
“Tunisteriles exurere Sirius agros:
Ardebant herba’, et victum seges agra negabat.”
— “Parched was the grass. and blighted was the corn :
Nor 'scape the beasts; for Sirius, from on high,
With pestilential heat infects the sky.” -
Accordingly, to that season of the year when Sirius rose
with the sun and seemed to blend its own influence with the
heat of that luminary, the ancients gave the name of Dog-
days, (Dies Caniculares). At that remote period the Dog-
days commenced on the 4th of August, or four days after the
summer solstice, and lasted forty days or until the 14th of
September. At present the Dog-days begin on the 3d of
July, and continue to the 11th of August, being one day less
than the ancients reckoned.
Hence, it is plain that the Dog-days of the moderns have no
reference whatever to the rising of Sirius, or any other star,
because the time of their rising is perpetually accelerated by
the precession of the equinoxes: they have reference then
only to the summer solstice which never changes its position
in respect to the seasons.
: How long is light in coming from Sirius to the earth? Suppose this star were now to
be blotted from the heavens, how long before its twinkling would expire? How was the
rising of Sirius regarded in the remote ages of the world? What use was made of it
by the ancient Thebans? How did the Egyptians regard it, and for what reason?
What did it foretel to them? What did the Romans offerin sacrifice to Sirius annually?
Why? How was it regarded by the eastern nations generally? What season of the
year did the ancients call Dog-days? When did these begin, and how long did they
łº, At pººn', when do they begin and end? Have our Dog-days any reference to
e Dog-star? -
MAP III.] CANIS MAJOR. 73
The time of Sirius’ rising varies with the latitude of the place, and in the same
latitude, is sensibly changed after a course of years, on account of the preces-
sign at the equinoxes. This enables us, to deteriuine with approximate accu-
racy, the dates of uţany events of antiquity, which cannot be well determined
by other records. We do not know, ſor instance, in what precise period of the
world Hesiod flourished. Yet he tells us, in his Opera et Dies, lib. ii. v. 185, that
Arcturus in his time rose heliacally, 60 days after the winter solstice, which,
then was in the 9th degree of Aquarius, or 399 beyond its present position. Now
39° .504” =2794 years since the time of Hesiod, which corresponds very ncarly
with history.
When a star rose at sun-setting, or set at sun-rising, it was called the Achromi-
cal rising or setting. When a planet or star appeared above the horizon just
before the sun, in the morning, it was called the Heliacal rising of the star; and
when it sunk below the horizon immediately after the sun, in the evening, it was
called the Heliacal setting. According to Ptolenly, stars of the first magnitude
are seen rising and setting when the sun is 13° below the horizon; stars of the
20 magnitude require the sun's depression to be 13°; stars of the 3d magnitude,
149, and so on, allowing one degree for each magnitude. The rising and setting
of the stars described in this way, since this mode of description often occurs
in Hesiod, Virgil, Columella, Ovid, Pliny, &c., are called poetical rising and set.
ting. They served to mark the times of religious ceremonies, the seasons al-
lotted to the several departments of husbandry, and the overflowing cº "k" Nile
The student may be perplexed to understand how the
Dog-star, which he seldom sees till mid-winter, should be
associated with the most fervid heat of summer. This is
explained by considering that this star, in summer, is over
our heads in the daytime, and in the lower hemisphere at
night. As “thick the floor of heaven is inlaid with patines
of bright gold,” by day, as by might; but on account of the
superior splendour of the sun, we cannot see them. .
Sirius is situated nearly S. of Alhena, in the feet of the
Twins, and about as far S. of the equinoctial as Alhena is
N. of it. It is about 100 E. of the Hare, and 260 S. of Be.
telguese in Orion, with which it forms a large equilateral
triangle.) It also forms a similar triangle with Phaet in the
Dove, and Naos in the Ship. These two triangles being joined
at their vertex in Sirius, present the figure of an enormous
X, called by some, the EGYPTIAN X. Sirius is also pointed
out by the direction of the Three Stars in the belt of Orion.
Its distance from them is about 239. It comes to the meri-
dian at 9 o'clock on the 11th of February.”
Mirzam, in the foot of the Dog, is a star of the 2d magni-
tude, 53° W. of Sirius. A little above, and 40 or 50 to the
left, there are three stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, form-
ing a triangular figure somewhat resembling a dog's head.
What is meant by the Achronical rising and setting of the stars 2 What, by their
Heliacal rising and setting 2 By whom were the terms thºts applied, and what were
these risings and settings called?...What did they serve?". Explain how it is, that the
Dog-star, which is seldom seen till mid-winter, should be associated with the most
fervid heat of summer. “Are there as many stars over our head in the daytime as in
the night?’s Describe the situation of Sirius. What is its position with regard to Bé-
teiguese and Procyon, and in connexion, with them what figure does it form? With
what other stars does it form a similar triangle? What is the appearance of these two
triangles taken together? SHow else is Sirius pointed out? Describe the position and
magnitude of Mirzam. What stars mark ** of the Dog:
74 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |MAR.
The brightest of them, on the left, is called Muliphen. It
entirely disappeared in 1670, and was not sean again for
more than 20 years. Since that time it has maintained a
steady lustre.
Wesen is a star of between the 2d and 3d magnitudes, in
the back, 11° S. S. E. of Sirius, with which, and Mirzam in
the paw, it makes an elongated triangle. The two hinder
feet are marked by Naos and Lambda, stars of the 3d and 4th
magnitudes, situated about 30 apart, and 129 directly S. of
the fore foot. This constellation contains 31 visible stars,
including one of the 1st magnitude, four of the 2d, and two
of the 3d ; all of which are easily traced out by the aid of
the map. -
History.—Manilius, a Latin poet who flourished in the Augustan age, wrote
an admirable poem, in five books, upon the fixed stars in which he thus speaks
of this constellation :- .*
“All others he excels; no fairer light .
Ascends the skies, rione sets so clear and bright.”
But EUDosLA best describes its:– -
“Next shines the Dog with sixty-four distinct;
Fam’d for pre-eminence in envied song,
Theme of Homeric and Virgilian lays: *
His fierce Inouth flames with dreaded Sirius;
Three of his stars retire with feeble beams.”
According to some mythologists, this constellation represents one of Orion's
hounds, which was placed in the sky, near this celebrated huntsman. Others
say it received its name in honour of the dog given by Aurora to Cephalus,
which surpassed in speed all the animals of his species. Cephalus, it is said at-
tempted to prove this by running him against a fox, which, at that time, was
thought to be the fleetest of all animals. After they had run together a long
time without either of them obtaining the victory, it is said that Jupiter was so
much gratified at the fleetness of the dog that he assigned him a place in the
heavens. -
2. But the name and form of this constellation are, no doudt, derived from the
Egyptians, who, carefully watched its rising, and by it judged of the swelling of
the Nile, which they called Siris, and, in their hieroglyphical manner of writing,
since it was as it were the sentinel and watch of the year, represented it under
the figure of a dog. They observed that when Sirius hecame visible in the east,
just before the morning dawn, the overflowing of the Nile immediately followed.
i. it warned them, like a faithful dog, to escape from the region of the inun-
ation,
f
C H A P T E R W .
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS which ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN MARCH.
ARGO NAVIS.
THE SHIP ARGo.—This constellation occupies a large space
in the southern hemisphere, though but a small part of it can
Which is the brightest of these, and what remarkable circumstance in its history?
IIow has it appeared since its return? Describe the situation and magnitude of Wesent
What stars mark the hinder feet? What is the number of visible stars in this con-
stellation? Describe the constellation Argo Navis 7
MAP III.] ARGO NAWIS. 75
be seen in the United States. It is situated S. E. of Canis
Major, and may be known by the stars in the prow and deck
of the ship.
If a straight line joining Betelguese and Sirius, be produ-
ced 18° to the southeast, it will point out Naos, a star of the
2d magnitude, in the rowlock of the ship. This star is in
the S. E. corner of the Egyptian X., and of the large equi-
lateral triangle made by itself with Sirius and the Dove.
When on the meridian, it is seen from this latitude about 8°
above the southern horizon. It comes to the meridian on the
3d of March, about half an hour after Procyon, and continues
visible but a few hours. w
Gamma, in the middle of the ship, is a star of the 2d mag-
nitude, about 70 S. of Naos, and just skims above the south-
ern horizon for a few minutes, and then sinks beneath it.
The principal star in this constellation is called, after one of
the pilots, Canopus; it is of the 1st magnitude, 36° nearly
S. of Sirius, and comes to the meridian 17 minutes after it;
but having about 53° of S. declination, it cannot be seen in
the United States. The same is true of Miaplacidus, a star
of the 1st magnitude in the oars of the ship, about 25° E. of
Canopus, and 61° S. of Alphard, in the heart of Hydra.
An observer in the northern hemisphere, can see the stars as many degrees
south of the equinoctial in the southern hemisphere, as his own latitude lacks
of 90°, and no more.
Markeb, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the prow of the
ship, and may be seen from this latitude, 169 S. E. of Sirius,
and about 100 E. of Wesen, in the back of the Dog. This
star may be known by its forming a small triangle with two
othérs of the same magnitude, situated a little, above it, on
the E., 39 and 40 apart.
This constellation contains 64 stars, of which, two are of
the 1st magnitude, four of the 2d, and nine of the 3d. Most
of these are too low down to be seen in the United States.
HISTORY..—This constellation is intended to perpetuate the memory of the
famous ship which carried Jason and his 54 companions to Colchis, when they
resolved upon the perilous expedition of recovering the golden fleece. The de-
rivation of the word Argo has been often disputed. Some derive it from Argos,
supposing that this was the name of the person who first proposed the expedi-
tion, and built the ship. Others maintain that it was built at Argos, whence its
name. Cicero calls it Argo, because it carried Grecians, commonly called Ar-
gives. Diodorus derives the word from , which signifies swift. Ptolemy
says, but not truly, that Hercules built the ship and called it Argo, after a son of
Jason, who bore the same name. This ship had fifty oars, and being thus pro-
pelled must have fallen far short of the bulk of the smallest ship craft used by
Where is it situated? Point out the situation of Naos, in the ship? When may it be
seen in this latitude 3. When is it on the meridian? Describe the position and magni-
tude of Gamma. What are the situation and name of the principal star in this constel-
lation? Why can it 11ot be seen in the United States? Is any other considerable star
in the ship similarly situated? Describe Markeb. How may this star be known? What
is the number of visible stars in this constellation? What is the magnitude of its prin-
cipal ones?
76 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. | MAR.
moderns. It is even said that the crew were able to carry it on their backs
from the Danube to the Adriatic.
According to many authors, she had a beam on her prow, cut in the forest of
Dondona by Minerva, which had the power of giving oracles to the Argonauts.
This ship was the first, it is said, that ever ventured on the sea. After the expc-
dition was finished, and Jason had returned in triumph, he ordered her to be
jº ashore at the isthmus of Corinth, and consecrated to Neptune, the god of
the Sea. -
Sir Isaac Newton endeavours to settle the period of this expedition at about 30
ears before the destruction of Troy; and 43 years aſter the death of Solomon.
r. Bryant, however, rejects the history of the Argonautic expedition as a mere
fiction of the Greeks, and supposes that this group of stars, which the poets de;
nominate Argo Navis, reſers to Noah's ark and the deluge, and that the fable of
the Argonautic expedition, is ſounded on certain Egyptian traditions that relate
to the preservation of Noah and his family during the flood.
\
CANCER. .
THE CRAB, is now the fifth constellation and fourth sign
of the Zodiac. It is situated in the ecliptic, between Leo on
the E. and Gemini on the W. It contains 83 stars, of which,
one is of the 3d, and seven of the 4th magnitude. Some
place the first-mentioned star in the same class with the other
seven, and consider none larger than the 4th magnitude.
Beta, is a star of the 3d or 4th magnitude, in the south-
western claw, 100 N. E. of Procyon, and may be known from
the fact that it stands alone, or at least has no star of the
same magnitude near it. It is midway between Procyon and
Acubens. +
Acubens, is a star of similar brightness, in the southeastern
claw, 10° N. E. of Beta, and nearly in a straight line with it
and Procyon. An imaginary line drawn from Capella through
Pollux, will point out Acubens, at the distance of 249 from
Pollux. It may be otherwise distinguished by its standing
between two very small stars close by it in the same claw.
Tegmine, the last in the back, appears to be a small star,
of between the 5th and 6th magnitudes, 849 in a northerly
direction from Beta. It is a treble star, and to be distinctly
seen, requires very favourable circumstances. Two of them
are so near together that it requires a telescopic power of 300
to separate them.
About 79 northeasterly from Tegmine, is a nebulous
cluster of very minute stars, in the crest of Cancer, suffi-
ciently luminous to be seen by the naked eye. It is situated
in a triangular position with regard to the head of the Twins
and the Little Dog. It is about 20° W. of each. It may
otherwise be discovered by means of two conspicuous stars
What is the relative position of Cancer among the signs and constellations of the
- Zodiac! How is it situated 3 What are the number and magnitude of its stars? Where
is Beta situated, and how may it be known Which way from Procyon and Acubens?
Dèscribe Acubens. What are its distance and direction from Pollux? How may it be
otherwise known? Describe Tegmine. There is a remarkable cluster in this con-
stellation—describe its position. How may it otherwise be discovered?
MAP II.] CAN CER. 77
of the 4th magnitude lying one on either side of it, at the dis-
tance of about 29, called the northern and southern Aselli.
By some of the Orientalists, this cluster was denominated
Praesepe, the Manger, a contrivance which their fancy fitted
up for the accommbdation of the Aselli or Asses; and it is
so called by modern astronomers. The appearance of this
nebula to the unassisted eye, is not unlike the nucleus of a
comet, and it was repeatedly mistaken for the comet of 1832,
which, in the month of November, passed in its neighbour-
hood. w -
The southern Asellus, marked Delta, is situated in the
line of the ecliptic and in connexion with Wasat and Tejat.
marks the course of the earth's orbit for a space of 369 from
the solstitial colure. -
There are several other double and nebulous stars in this
constellation, most of which are too small to be seen; and in-
deed, the whole constellation is less remarkable for the bril-
liancy of its stars than any other in the Zodiac.
&
The sun arrives at the sign Cancer about the 21st of June,
but does not reach the constellation until the 23d of July.
The mean right ascension of Cancer is 1289. It is conse-
quently on the meridian the 3d of March.
A few degrees S. of Cancer, and about 17° E. of Procyon, are four stars of the
4th magnitude, 3° or 49 apart, which mark the head of Hydra. This constella-
tion will be described on Map III.
The beginning of the sign Cancer (not the constellation) is called the Tropic
of Cancer, and when the sun arrives at this point, it has reached its utmost limit
of north declination, where it seems to remain stationary a few days, before it
begins to decline again to the south. This stationary attitude of the sun is called
the suminer solstice; from two Latin words signifying the Sun's standing still.
The distance from the first point of Cancer to the equinoctial, which at present,
is 230 373", is called the obliquity of the ecliptic. . It is a remarkable and well as:
certained fact, that this is continually growing less and less. The tropics are
slowly and steadily approaching the equinoctial, at the rate of about half a second
every year; so that the sun does not now come so far north of the equator in
Ruminer, nor decline so far South in winter, as it must have done at the creation,
by nearly a degree. -
History.—In the Zodiacs of Esne, and Dendera, and in most of the astrological
remains of Egypt, a Scarabaeus, or Beetle, is used as the symbol of this sign;
but in Sir William Jones's Oriental Zodiac, and in some others found in India, we
ineet with the figure of a crab. As the Hindoos, in all probability, derived their
knowledge of the stars from the Chaldeans, it is supposed that the figure of the
crab, in this place, is more ancient than the Beetle.
In some eastern representations of this sign, two animals, like asses, are found
in this division of the Zodiac; and as the Chaldaic name for the ass may be
translated muddiness, it is supposed to allude to the discolouring of the Nile,
which river was rising when the sum entered Cancer. The Greeks, in copying
this sign, have placed two asses as the appropriate symbol of it, which still re-
What is the name of this cluster? What is its appearance to the naked eye, and for
what has it been mistaken? How is the star called the southern Asellus, situated,
with respect to the ecliptic?...What other stars in this constellation ?, At what time
ãoes the sun enter the sign Cancer?. At what time the constellation? Where Žs the
Tropic ºf Cancer situated? When the sun regghes this point what is said of its dé.
ciążón 3. What is this stationary attitude of the sun cºlled? What is the obliquity
of he ecliptic? What remarkable fact in respect to this distance? Doe: his affect tººd
stability of the tropic3. 7%
78 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [APRIL.
main. They explain their reason, however, for adopting this figure, by saying
that these are the animals that assisted Jupiter in his victory over the giants.
Dopuis accounts for the origin of the asses in the following words :-Le Can-
ccr. oil sont les etoiles appellees les anes, forine l'impreinte du pavillon d’IS-
sachar que Jacob assimile à l'ane. - -
Mythologists give different accounts of the origin of this constellation. The
prevailing opinion is, that while Hercules was engaged in his famous contest
with the dreadful Lernaºan monster, Juno, envious of the ſame of his achieve-
ments, sent a sea-crab to bite and annoy the hero’s feet, but the crab being Soon
despatched, the goddess to reward its services, placed it among the constella-
tions.
“The Scorpion’s claws here clasp a wide extent,
And here the Crab's in lesser clasps are bent.”
C H A P T E R W I.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN APRIL.
T.E.O.
THE LION.—This is one of the most brilliant constellations
in the winter hemisphere, and contains an unusual number
of very bright stars. It is situated next E. of Cancer, and
directly S. of Leo Minor and the Great Bear. .
The Hindoo Astronomer, Varaha, says, “Certainly the southern solstice was
once in the middle of Asleha (Leo); the northern in the first degree of Dhan-
ishta” (Aquarius). Since that time, the solstitial, as well as the equinoctial
points, have gone backwards on the ecliptic 75°. This divided by 50}”, gives
5373 years; which carry us back to the year of the world 464. Sir W. Jones,
says, that Varaha lived when the solstices were in the first degrees of Cancer
and Capricorn; or about 400 years before the Christian era.
Leo is the fifth sign, and the sixth constellation of the Zo-
diac. The mean right ascension of this extensive group is
1509, or 10 hours. Its centre is therefore on the meridian the
6th of April. Its western outline, however, comes to the
meridian on the 18th of March, while its eastern limit does
not reach it before the 3d of May.
This constellation contains 95 visible stars, of which two
are of the 1st magnitude, two of the 2d, six of the 3d, and
fifteen of the 4th. -
“Two splendid stars of highest dignity, r \
Two of the second class the Lion boasts,
And justly figures the fierce sunumer’s rage.”
The principal star in this constellation is of the 1st mag-
nitude, situated in the breast of the animal, and named Re-
gulus, from the illustrious Roman consul of that name.
what is the general appearance of the constellation Leo? Where is it situated?
What is the relative order among the signs and constellations of the Zodiacº What is
the right ascension of Leo, and when is its centre on the meridian 2. When do the
outlines of the figure come to the meridian? What number of visible stars does if Con-
tain, and how large are the principal ones? What is the name of the first star in the
constellation, and whence is it derived? 2
*
MAP iv.] . - . LEO. - 79
It is situated almost exactly in the ecliptic, and may be
readily distinguished on account of its superior brilliancy. It
is the largest and lowest of a group of five or six bright
stars which form a figure somewhat resembling a sickle, in
the neck and shoulder of the Lion. There is a little star of
the 5th magnitude about 20 S. of it, and one of the 3d mag-
nitude 50 N. of it, which will serve to point it out.
Regulus is the brightest star in the constellation, except
Denebola, in the tail, 25° E. of it. Great use is made of Re-
gulus by nautical men, for determining their longitude at sea.
Its latitude, or distance from the ecliptic, is less than #9; but
its declimation, or distance from the equinoctial is nearly
132 N.; so that its meridian altitude will be just equal to that
of the sun on the 19th of August. Its right ascension is very
nearly 1509. It therefore culminates about 9 o'clock on the
6th of April.
When Regulus is on the “meridian, Castor and Pollux are seen about 400 N.
W. of it, and the two stars in the Little Dog, are about the same distance in a S.
W. direction; with which, and the two former, it makes a large isosceles tri-
angle whose vertex is at Regulus.
The next considerable star, is 5° N. of Regulus, marked
Eta, situated in the collar; it is of between the 3d and 4th
magnitudes, and, with Regulus, constitutes the handle of the
sickle. Those three or four stars of the 3d magnitude, N. and
W. of Eta, arching round with the neck of the animal, de-
scribe the blade. º -
Al Gieba, is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, situated in
the shoulder, 49 in a N. E. direction from Eta, and may be
easily distinguished by its being the brightest and middle
one of the three stars lying in a semicircular form, curving
towards the west; and it is the first in the blade of the sickle.
Adhafera, is a star of the 3d magnitude, situated in the
neck, 40 N. of Al Gieba, and may be known by a very mi-
nute star just below it. This is the second star in the blade
of the sickle.
Ras al Asad, situated before the ear, is a star of the 3d or
4th magnitude, 6° W. of Adhafera, and is the third in the
blade of the sickle. The next star, Epsilon, of the same
magnitude, situated in the head, is 24° S. W. of Ras al Asad,
and a little within the curve of the sickle. About midway
Describe the situation of Regulus. What other stars serve to point it out? ...What is
its comparative brightness? What use is made of it in nautical astronomy? What are
its latitude and declination? On what day will Regulus culminate at 9 o'click in the
evening? When is it on the meridian, with what stars does it form a large triangle, '
and in what direction are they from it? What are the name and position of the next
considerable star in its vicinity? What stars form the blade of the sickle? Where is
Al Gieba situated, and how may it be distinguished? What is the position of Adhafera.
and bow may it be known? Describe the situation of Ras al Asad.
S0 PICTURE OF THE IIEAVENS. [APRIL.
--
between these, and a little to the E., is a very small star,
hardly visible to the naked eye.
Lambda, situated in the mouth, is a star of the 4th magni-
tude, 3}o S. W. of Epsilon, and the last in the sickle’s point.
Rappa, situated in the nose, is another star of the same
magnitude, and about as far from Lambda as Epsilon. Epsilon
and Kappa are about 54° apart, and form the longest side of
a triangle, whose vertex is in Kappa. --
Zozma, situated in the back of the Lion, is a star of the
2d, magnitude, 18° N. E. of Regulus, and midway between
it and Coma Berenices, a fine cluster of small stars, 189 N.
E. of Zozma.
Theta, situated in the thigh, is another star of the 3d mag-
nitude, 59 directly S. of Zozma, and so nearly on the same
meridian that it culminates but one minute after it. This star
makes a right angled triangle with Zozma on the N. and
Denebola on the E., the right angle being at Theta.
Nearly in a straight line with Zozma, and Theta, and
south of them, are three or four smaller stars, 40 or 59 apart,
which mark one of the legs. f
Denebola, is a bright star of the 1st magnitude, in the
brush of the tail, 100 S. E. of Zozma, and may be distin-
guished by its great brilliancy. It is 50 W. of the equinoc-
tial colure, and comes to the meridian 1 hour and 41 minutes
after Regulus, on the 3d of May; when its meridian altitude
is the same as the sun’s at 12 o'clock the next day.
When Denebola is on the meridian, Regulus is seen 25° W. of it, and Phad,
in the square of Ursa Major, bears 39° N. of it. It forms, with these two, a large
right angled triangle ; the right angle being at Denebola. It is so nearly on the
same meridian with Phad that it culminates only four minutes before it.
Denebola is 35}o W. of Arcturus, and about the same dis-
tance N. W. of Spica Virginis, and forms, with them, a
large equilateral triangle on the S. E. It also forms with
Arcturus and Cor Caroli a similar figure, nearly as large on
the N. E. These two triangles, being joined at their base,
constitute a perfect geometrical figure of the forms of a Rhom-
bus: called by some, the DIAMOND OF VIRGO.
A line drawn from Denebola through Regulus, and continued 79 or 89 further
in the same direction, will point out Xi and Omicron, of the 3d and 4th magni-
tudes, situated in the fore claws, and about 3° apart.
What star is next? Describe the position of Lambda? What are the situation and
magnitude of Kappa? What is the distance between Epsilon and Kappa? Describe the
position of Zozma? What are the magnitude and position of Theta;. What geometri-
Cal figure may be formed with this star, Zozma and Denebola? What stars in this
neighbourhood mark one of the legs of Leo? Describe Denebola? How far is it from
... the equinoctial colure, and when does it come to the meridian? When Denebola is on
the meridian, what geometrical figure does it form, in connevion with Régulus and
Phad 2 With what other star is it nearly on the same meridian 2 What is the position
of Denebola in regard to Arcturus and Spica Virginis, and what figure does it form
with them? With what other stars does Denebola form a similar figure?, What large
º, figure is formed by these two triangles? What stars point out those in ñé
fe claws
MAP IV.] LEO. - 81
º
- C
There are a number of other stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes in this con-
stellation, which require no description, as the scholar will easily trace them out
from the map. The position of Régulus and Denebola are often referred to in
the geography of the heavens, as they serve to point out other clusters in the
saine neighbourhood.
HISTORY..—According to Greek fable, this Lion represents the formidable ani.
mal which infested the forests of Nemasa. It was slain by Hercules, and placed
by Jupiter among the stars in commemoration of the dreadful conflict. Some
writers have applied the story of the twelve labours of Hercules to the progress
of the sun through the twelve signs of the ecliptic ; and as the combat of that
celebrated hero with the Lion was his first labour, they have placed Leo as the
§ sign. The figure of the Lion was, however, on the Egyptian charts long
efore the invention of the fables of Hercules. 'It would seein, moreover, ac.
cording to the fable itself, that Hercules, who represented the sun, actually slew
tlie Nemasan Lion, because Léo was already a zodiacal sign.
In hieroglyphical writing, the Lion was an emblem of violence and fury; and
the representation of this animal in the Zodiac, signified the intense heat occa-
sioned by the sun when it entered that part of the ecliptic. The Egyptians were
much annoyed by lions during the heat of summer, as they at that season, left
the desert, and hunted the banks of the Nile, which had then reached its greatest
elevation. It was therefore natural for their astronomers to place the Lion where
we find him in the zouliac. *
The figure of Leo, very much as we now have it, is in all the Indian and Egyp-
tian Zodiacs. The overflowing of the Nile, which was regularly and anxiously
expected every year by the Egyptians, took place when the Sun was in this sign.
They therefore paid more attention to it, it is to be presumed, than to any other.
This was the principal reason. Mr. Green supposes, why Leo stands first in the
zodiacs of Dendera. -
The circular zodiac, mentiomed in our account of Aries, and which adorned
the ceiling in one of the inner rooms in the fainous temple in that city, was
brought away en masse in 1821, and removed to Paris. On its arrival at the Louvre,
it was purchased by the king for 150,000 francs, and, after being exhibited there
for a year, was placed in one of the halls of the library, where it is now to be
seen in apparently perfect preservation. This most interesting relic of astrology,
after being cut away from the ruins where it was found, is about one foot thick,
and eight feet square. The rock of which it is composed, is sandstone. Qn the
face of this stone, appears a large square, enclosing a circle four feet in dialne-
ter, in which are arranged in an irregular spiral line, the zodiacal constellations,
commencing with the sign Leo. On eacli side of this spiral line are placed a
great variety of figures. These are supposed to represent other constellations,
though they bear no analogy, in form, to those which we now have. Many of
these figures are accompanied with hieroglyphics, which probably express their
names. The commentator of Chalmpollion, from whom we have derived inany
interesting facts in relation to them, has furnished merely a general history of
their origin and purpose, but does not add particulars. Copies of these drawings
and characters, have been exhibited in this country, and the wonderful conclu-
sions that have been drawn from them, have excited much astonishinent.
Compared with our present planispheres, or with stellar phenomena, it abounds
with contradictory and irrelevant matter. So far from proving what was strenu-
ously maintained by infidel writers, soon after its discovery, that the Greeks
took from it the model of their zodiac, which they have transmitted to us, it
seems to demonstrate directly the reverse. The twelve signs, it is true, are
there, but they are not in their proper places. Cancer is between Leo and the
pole; virgo bears no proportion to the rest; some of the signs are placed double;
they are all out of the ecliptic, and by no means occupy those regular and equal
portions of space which Egyptian astronomers are said to have exactly ineasured
by means of their clepsydra. . - -
The figures, without what may be termed the zodiacal circle, could never have
included the same stars in the heavens which are now circumscribed by the
figures of the constellations. . Professor Green is of opinion, that the small
apartment in the ruins of Dendera, which was mysteriously ceiled with this zo-
diac, was used for the purposes of judicial astrology, and that the sculptured
figures upon it were employed in horoscopical predictions, and in that casting of
nativities for which the Egyptians were so ſainous.
+
Why is the position of Regulus and Denebola often referred to?
82 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [APRIL.
º
--
- -- *
In the Hebrew Zodiac, Leo is assigned to Judah, on whose standard, according
to all traditions, a Lion is painted. This is clearly intimated in numerous passa-
ges of the Hebrew writings: Ex-‘‘Judah is a Lion’s whelp ; he stoopeth down.
he croucheth as a Lion ; and as an old Lion; who shall rouse him up 3’ Gen.
xlix. 9. “The Lion of the tribe of Judah hath prevailed.” Rev. v. 5.
LEO MINOR.
THE LITTLE LION.—This constellation was formed by
Hevelius, out of the Stellae informes, or unformed stars of
the ancients, which lay scattered between the Zodiacal con-
stellation Léo, on the S. and Ursa Major, on the N. Its mean
right ascension is the same with that of Regulus, and it
comes to the meridian at the same time on the 6th of April.
The modern constellations, or those which have been added to our celestial
maps since the adoption of the Greek notation, in 1603, are referred to by the
letters of the English alphabet, instead of the Greek. This is the case in regard
to Leo Minor, and all other constellations whose origin is subsequent to that
period.
Leo Minor contains 53 stars, including only one of the 3d
magnitude, and 5 of the 4th. The principal star is situated
in the body of the animal, 13° N. of Gamma Leonis,* in a
straight line with Phad, and may be known by a group of
smaller stars, a little above it on the N. W.
It forms an equilateral triangle with Gamma and Delta Leonis, the vertex being
in Leo Minor. This star is marked with the letter l, in modern catalogues, and
being the principal representative of the constellation, is itself sometimes called
the Little Lion : 8° E. of this star (the Little Lion) are two stars of the 4th mag-
nitude, in the last paw of Ursa Major, and about 10° N. W. of it, are two other
stars of the 3d magnitude, in the first hind paw.
“The Smaller Lion now succeeds; a cohort
Of fifty stars attend his steps;
And three, to sight unarm’d, invisible.”
SEXT ANS.
THE SExTANT, called also URANIA's SExTANT, f is a modern
constellation that Hevelius made out of the unformed stars of
the ancients, which lay scattered between the Lion, on the
N., and Hydra, on the S. -
It contains 41 very small stars, including only one as large
* Leonis is the genitive, or possessive case of Leo, and Ganima Leonis means the
Gamma of Leo. Thus also the principal star in Aries is marked Alpha Arietis, mean-
ing the Alpha of Aries, &c.
f Urania was one of the muses, and daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She pre-
sided over astronomy. . She was represented as a young virgin. dressed in an azure-
coloured robe, crowned with stars, holding a robe in her hands, and having many
mathematical instruments about her.
What is the origin of Leo Minor, and how is it situated What is its mean right as-
cension? When is it on the meridian? What are the number and magnitude of its
stars? What is the position of the principal star in this constellation, and how may it
be known What figure does it form with some other stars 2 What letter represents
this star, and what else is it called 2 What nebulae do the find in this constellation 2
What are the origin and position of the Sextant? How many stars does it contain?
MAP IV.] HYDRA AND THE cup, 83
as the 4th magnitude. This is situated very near the equi-
noctial, 13° S. of Regulus, and comes to the meridian about
the same time on the 6th of April. The other stars in this
constellation are too small to engage attention. A few of the
largest of them may be traced out from the map.
HistoRY.—A sextant, in mathematics, is the sixth part of a circle, or an arch
comprehending 60 degrees. But the terri, is more particularly used to denote
an astronounical instrument well known to imariners. Its use is the same as that
of the quadrant; namely, to measure the angular distance, and take the altitude
of the sun, Inoon, planets, and fixed stars. It is indispensable to the mariner in
finding the latitude and longitude at sea, and should be in the hands of every
surveyor and practical engineer. It may serve the purpose of a theodolite, in
measuring inaccessible heights and distances. It may gratify the young pupil to
know, that by means of such an instrument, well adjusted, and with a clear eye
and a steady hand, he could readily tell, within a few hundred yards, how far
north or south of the equator he was, and that from any quarter of the world,
known or unknown. This constellation is so called, on account of a supposed
resemblance to this instrument.
* *
HYDRA AND THE CUP.
HyDRA, THE WATER SERPENT, is an extensive constella-
tion, winding from E. to W. in a serpentine direction, over
a space of more than 100 degrees in length. It lies south of
Cancer, Leo, and Virgo, and reaches almost from Canis Mi-
nor to Libra. It contains sixty stars, including one of the 2d
magnitude, three of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th.
Alphard, or Cor Hydrae, in the heart, is a lone star of the
2d magnitude, 230 S. S. W. of Regulus, and comes to the
meridian at the same time with Lambda, in the point of the
sickle, about 20 minutes before 9 o'clock on the 1st of April.
There is no other considerable star near it, for which it can
be mistaken. An imaginary line drawn from Gamma Leonis
through Regulus, will point out Cor Hydrae, at the distance
of 239.
The head of Hydra may be distinguished by means of four
stars of the 4th magnitude, 249 and 40 apart, situated 69 S. of
A cubens, and forming a rhomboidal figure. The three upper
stars in this cluster, form a small arch, and may be known by
two very small stars just below the middle one, making with
it a very small triangle. The three western stars in the head,
also make a beautiful little triangle. The eastern star in this
group, marked Zeta, is about 60 directly S. of Acubens, and
culminates at the same time. -
When Alphard is on the meridian, Alkes, of the 4th mag-
nitude, situated in the bottom of the Cup, may be seen 24°
What is the position of the largest one? Describe the situation and extent of the
constellation Hydra. What are the number and magnitude of its stars 3 Describe the
position and magnitude of Alphard. What are the distance and direction of Cor Hy-
drae from Gamma Leonist. How may the head of Hydra be distinguished? How may
the three upper stars in this cluster be known? Which stars form a beautiful little
triangle? Hów is Alkes situated, and when may it be seen 7 .
*
84 * PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |APRIL.
S. E. of it, and is distinguished by its forming an equilateral
triangle with Beta and Gamma, stars of the same magnitude;
60 S. and E. of it. Alkes is common both to Hydra and
the Cup. Beta, on the S., is in Hydra, and Gamma, on the
N. E., is near the middle of the Cup. A line drawn from
Zozma, through Theta Leonis, and continued 38%.9 directly
S. will reach Beta; it is therefore on the same meridian, and
will culminate at the same time on the 23d of April.
The Cup itself, called also the Crater, may be easily dis-
tinguished by means of six stars of the 4th magnitude, form-
ing a beautiful crescent, or semicircle, opening to the W. The
centre of this group is about 150 below the equinoctial, and
directly S. of the hinder feet of Leo. The crescent form of
the stars in the Cup is so striking and well defined, when the
moon is absent, that no other description is necessary to point
them out. Its centre comes to the meridian about two hours
after Alphard, on the same evening; and consequently, it
culminates at 9 o'clock, one month after Alphard does. The
remainder of the stars in this constellation may be easily
traced by aid of the map.
When the head of Hydra is on the meridian, its other ex-
tremity is many degrees below the horizon, so that its whole
length cannot be traced out in the heavens until its centre, or
the Cup, is on the meridian.
- —“Near the equator rolls
The sparkling Hydra, proudly enuinent
To drink the Galary’s refulgent sea ;
Nearly a fourth of the encircling curve
Which girds the ecliptic, his vast ſolds involve;
Yet ten the number of his stars diffused
O'er the long track of his enormous spires :
Chief beams his heart, sure of the second rank,
But emulous to gain the first.”—Eudosia.
History.—The astrologers of the east, in dividing the celestial nosts into vari-
ous compartinents, assigned a popular and allegorical meaning to each. Thus
the sign Leo, which passes the ineridian about midnight, when the Sun is in
Pisces, was called the House of the Lions, Leo being the domicil of Sol.
The introduction of two serpents into the constellations of the ancients, bad its
origin, it is supposed, in the circumstances that the polar one represented the
oblique course of the stars, while the Hydra, or Great Snake, in the southern
hemisphere, symbolized the moon’s course: hence the Nudes are called the
Dragon’s head and tail, to this day.
The hydra was a terrible monster, which, according to mythologists, infested
the neighbourhood of the lake Lerma, in the Peloponnesus. It had a hundred
leads, according to Diodorus; fiſty, according to Simonides; and nine, accord-
ing to the more cominorily received opinion of Apollodorus, Hyginus, and others,
As soon as one of these heads was cut off, two immediately grew up if the wound
was not stopped by fire.
If Alkes be situated in the Cup, why is it also included in Hydra? How are the other
two stars that make a triangle with Aikes, situated? How is Beta situated with respect
to Zozma and Theta Leonis? When is Béta on the meridian? How may the Cup be
distinguished? How is the centre of this group situated with respect to Leo, and the
equinoctial? What single circumstance is sufficient to designate the stars in the Cup?
When is it on the meridian When the head of Hydra is on the meridian, where is
the other extremity of the constellation?
MAP. VI.] URSA MAJOR. 85
* “Art thou proportion'd to the hydra’s length,
* Who, by his wounds, received augmented strength 3
He raised a hundred hissing heads in air,
When one I lopp'd, up sprang a dreadſul pair.”
To destroy this dreadful Inonster, was one of the labours of Hercules, and
this he easily effected with the assistance of Jolaus, who applied a burning iron
to the wounds as soon as one head was cut off. While Hercules was destroying
the hydra, Juno, jealous of his glory, sent a sea-crab to bite his foot. This new
enemy was soon despatched; and Juno was unable to succeed in her attempts
to lessen the fame of Hercules. The conqueror dipped his arrows in the gall of
the hydra, which ever after rendered the wounds inflicted with them incurable
and mortal.
This fable of the many-headed hydra may be understood to mean nothing more
than that the marshes of Lerna were infested with a multitude of serpents, which
seemed to multiply as fast as they were destroyed. p
C H A P T E R W II.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN MAY.
URSA MAJOR.
THE GREAT BEAR.—This great constellation is situated
between Ursa Minor on the north, and Leo Minor on the
south. It is one of the most noted and conspicuous in the
northern hemisphere. It has been an object of universal ob-
servation in all ages of the world. The priests of Belus, and
the Magi of Persia; the shepherds of Chaldea, and the Phoe-
nician navigators, seem to have been equally struck with its
peculiar outlines. And it is somewhat remarkable that a re-
mote nation of American aborigines, the Iroquois, and the
earliest Arabs of Asia, should have given to the very same
constellation the name of “Great Bear,” when there had
probably never been any communication between them; and
when the name itself is so perfectly arbitrary, there being no
resemblance whatever to a bear, or to any other animal.
It is readily distinguished from all others by means of a
remarkable cluster of seven bright stars, forming what is
familiarly termed the Dipper, or Ladle. In some parts of
England it is called “Charles's Wain,” or wagon, from its
fancied resemblance to a wagon drawn by three horses in a
line. Others call it the Plough. The cluster, however, is
more frequently put for the whole constellation, and called,
simply, the Great Bear. But we see no reason to reject the
How is Ursa Major situated? How has it always been regarded ? What people
seem to have becn peculiarly struck with its splendour? What remarkable cir-
cumstance respecting its name? Is there any resemblance hetween the outlines of -
this constellation and the figure of a bear? By what is this constellation readily dis-
tinguished from all others? By What other names is the Dipper called ! What is this
S
cluster more frequently called?
º
**.
86 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [MAY.
very appropriate appellation of the shepherds, for the resem-
blance is certainly in favour of the Dipper: the four stars in
the square forming the bowl, and the other three, the handle.
When the Dipper is on the meridian, above the pole, the
bottom lies towards us, with the handle on the right.
Benetmasch is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, and is the
first in the handle. The second, or middle star in the handle,
is Mizar, 79 distant from Benetnasch. It may be known by
means of a very minute star almost touching it, called Alcor.
which appears to be double when seen through a telescope,
and of a silver white. The third star in the handle is called
Alioth, and is about 40 W. of Mizar. Alioth is very nearly
opposite Shedir in Cassiopeia, and at an equal distance from
the pole. Benetmasch, Mizar, and Alioth, constitute the han-
dle, while the next four in the square form the bowl of the
Dipper. -
Five and a half degrees W. of Alioth is the first star in the
top of the Dipper, at the junction of the handle, called Megrez;
it is the smallest and middle one of the cluster, and is used
in various observations both on sea and land, for important
purposes.* At the distance of 4}o S. W. of Megrez, is Phad,
the first star in that part of the bottom, which is next the
handle.
The stars in this cluster are so well known, and may be so easily described
without reference to their relative bearings, that they would rather confuse than
assist the student, were they given with ever so much accuracy. The several
bearings for this cluster were taken when Megrez was on the meridian, and will
not apply at any other time, though their respective distances will remain the
Sal Iłę. -
At the distance of So W. of Phad, is the westernmost star
in the bottom of the Dipper, called Merak. The bright star
5° N. of it, towards the pole, is called Dubhe; but these two,
Merak and Dubhe, are, by common consent, talled the Point-
ers, because they always point towards the pole; for, let the
line which joins them be continued in the same direction 283.9
farther, it will just reach the north pole.
The names, positions, and relative distances of the stars in
this cluster, should be well remembered, as they will be fre-
sition of Merak and Dubhe. What are these stars called, and why?
* .
* When Megrez and Caph have the same altitude, and are seen in the same hori-
zontal line east and West, the polar star is then at its greatest elongation from the true
pole of the heavens; and this is the proper time for an observer to take its angle of
elevation, in order to determine the latitude, and its azimuth or angle of declination,
in order to determine the magnetic variation.
What, on the whole, is an appropriate appellation for it, and why? Ypescribe the po-
sition of the Dipper when on the meridian. Describe the position of Benetrasch. What
is the next star in the Dipper, and how may it he known What is the next, or third-
star in the Dipper? What stars form the bowl and handle of the Dipper? Describe the
position and use of Megrez. What star is situated next to Megrez : Describe the po-
MAP VI.] URSA MAJOR. - 87
quently adverted to. The distance of Dubhe, or the Pointer
nearest to the north pole, is 283°. The distance between the
two upper stars in the Dipper is 10°; between the two lower
ones is 8°: the distance from the brim to the bottom next the
handle, is 4°; between Megrez and Alioth is 5%"; between
Alioth and Mizar 4°, and between Mizar and Benetnasch, 79.
The reason why it is important to have these distances clearly settled in the
mind is, that these stars, being always in view, and more familiar than any other,
the student will never fail to have a standard measure before him, which the eye
can easily make use of in determining the distances between other stars.
The position of Megrez in Ursa Major, and of Caph in
Cassiopeia, is somewhat remarkable. They are both in the
equinoctial colure, almost exactly opposite each other, and
equally distant from the pole. Caph is in the colure, which
passes through the vernal equinox, and Megrez is in that
which passes through the autumnal equinox. The latter
passes the meridian at 9 o'clock, on the 10th of May, and the
former just six months afterwards, at the same hour, on the
10th of November. -
Psi, in the left leg of Ursa Major, is a star of the 3d mag-
nitude, in a straight line with Megrez and Phad, distant from
the latter 1249. A little out of the same line, 39 farther, is
another star of the 3d magnitude, marked Epsilon, which
may be distinguished from Psi, from its forming a straight
line with the two Pointers. º
The right fore paw, and the two hinder ones, each about
15° from the other, are several y distinguished by two stars
of the 4th magnitude, between 19 and 29 apart. These three
duplicate stars are nearly in a right line, 20° S. of, and in a
direction nearly parallel with, Phad and Dubhe, and are the
only stars in this constellation that ever set in this latitude.
There are few other stars of equal brightness with those
just described, but amidst the more splendid and interesting
group with which they are clustered, they seldom engage our
observation.
The whole number of visible stars in this constellation is
87; of which one is of the 1st, three are of the 2d, seven of
the 3d, and about twice as many of the 4th magnitude.
HISTORY..—URSA MAJOR is said to be Calisto, or Helice, daughter of Lycaon,
What is the distance of Dubhe from the north pole? Mention the relative distances
between the other stars in this group. “ Tiſhy is it important to have the relative dis-
tances of these stars from each other well settled in the mind 2 What is there remark-
able in the position of Megrez, and Caph in Cassiopeia? When do they pass the me.
ridian! Describe the position of Psi. Where is Epsilon situated, and hūw may it be
distinguished? How are the paws of the Bear distinguished What is the situation
of these stars with respect to Phad and Dubhe What are the only stars in this con-
stellation that ever Set in this latitude? What is the whoke number of visible stars in
- & .
this constellation, and bow many of each magnitude?
88 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [MAY.
king of Arcadia. She was an attendant of Diama,” and mother of Arcas, by Ju-
piter, who placed her among the constellations, aſter the jealousy of Juno had
changed her into a bear.
“This said, her hand within her hair she wound,
Swung her to earth, and dragg’d her on the ground;
The prostrate wretch liſts up her hand in prayer;
Her arms grow shaggy and deform'd with hair,
Her mails are sharpen'd into pointed claws,
Her hands bear half her weight, and turn to paws;
Her lips, that once could tempt a god, begin
To grow distorted in an ugly grin;
And lest the supplicating brute might reach
The ears of Jove, she was deprived of speech.
How did she fear to lodge in woods alone,
And haunt the fields and meadows, once her own |
How often would the deep-mouth’d dogs pursue,
Whilst from her hounds the frighted hunters flew.”—Ovid's Met.
Some suppose that her son Areas, otherwise called Bootes, was changed into
Ursa Minor, or the Little Bear. It is well known, that the ancients represented .
both these constellations under the figure of a wagon drawn by a team of horses;
hence the appellation of Charles’s Waim, or wagon. This is alluded to in the
Phenomena of Aratus, a Greek poem, from which St. Paul quotes, in his address
to the Athenians:— - §
“The one call’d Helix,t soon as day retires,
Observed with ease, lights up his radiant fires:
*.
—r
* Diana was the goddess of hunting, and the patroness of modesty and chastity —
“The huntress Džūn,
Fair, Silver-shafted queen, for ever chaste,
Set at maught
The frivolous bolt of Cupid ; gods and men
Fear her stern frown, and she was queen o' th' woods.”—Mºlton.
The most famous of her temples was that of Ephesus, near Smyrna, in Asia, which
was one of the seven wonders of the world. It is related in the Acts of the Apostles,
that “Demetrius, a silverSmith, Who made silver shrines for Diana,” endeavoured to
excite opposition to the Christian religion, because “this Paul had persuaded much
people that they be no gods which are made with hands,” and “that the temple of the
great goddess Diana should be despised, and her mag,nificence should be destroyed,
whom all Asia and the world worshippeth. And when they heard these sayings they
were full of wrath, and cried out, saying, Great is Diana of the Ephesians / And thus
they continued shouting for the space of two hours.” And again, “When the town
glerk had appeased the people, he said, Ye men of Ephesus, what man is there that
knoweth not how that the city of the Ephesians is a worshipper of the great goddess
Diana, and of the image which fell down from Jupiter?” -
The “image which fell down from Jupiter,” doubtless alludes to the fable that Juno
cast her out of heaven, and that Neptune, in pity of her desolate condition, raised the
island of Delos, from the AEgean sea, for her birth and habitation ; for it was in this
island that the twins, Apollo and Diana, were born. Diana is therefore sometimes
called Delia, from the name of the island that gave her birth. She was represented
under the figure of a very beautiful virgin, in a hunting dress, a head taller than any
of her attendant mymphs, with a bow in her hand, a quiver suspended across her
shoulders, and her forehead ornamented with a silver crescent “which Jews might
kiss and infidels adore.” The inhabitants of Taurica sacrificed upon her altars all the
strangers that were shipwrecked upon their coast. The Lacedemonians yearly Offer-
ed her human victims till the age of Lycurgus, who changed this barbarous custom of
immolation to flagellation. The Athenians generally offered her goats, while others
offered white kids and ewes. -
- “Haste the sacrifice ;
Seven bullocks yet unyoked for Phoebus choose,
And for Diana, seven unspotted eves.”—Virgil.
Who does not bow with grateful veneration at that Christian intrepidity of St. Paul,
who risked his life in exposing the delusion and idolatry of the worshippers of the
goddess Diana
It is a remarkable circumstance, that the temple of Diana was burnt to the ground
the very day on which Alexander the great was born 1
t Calisto was a native of the city of Helice, in Achaia, a district near the bay of Co-
rinth ; hence the Greater Bear is sometimes called Helice :- -
S., “Night on the earth pour’d darkness; on the sea,
The watchful sailor, to Orion's star
And Helice, turn’d heedful.”—Apollonizis.
MAP IV.] & COMA BERENICES, 89
The other, smaller, and with feebler beams,
In a less circle drives its lazy teams;
But inore adapted for the sailor’s guide,
Whene'er, by night, he tempts the briny tide.”
In the Egyptian planispheres of remote antiquity, these two constellations are
represented by the figures of bears, instead of wagons; and the Greeks, who
derived most of their astronomical symbols from the Egyptians, though they
usually altered them to emblems of their own history or superstition, have, nev-
ertheless, retained the original form of the two bears. It is said by Aratus, that
the Pheniclan navigators made use of Ursa Minor in directing their voyages:–
“Observing this, Phenicians plough the main:”
while the Greeks confined their observations to Ursa Major.
Some imagine that the ancient Egyptians arranged the stars near the north
pole, within the outlines of a bear, because the polar regions are the haunts of
this * and also because it makes neither extensive journeys nor rapid
HIla.T.C. ſ. CS *
At what period men began to sail by the stars, or who were the first people
that did so, is not clear; but the honour is usually given to the Phenicians. That
it was practised by the Greeks, as early as the time of the Trojan war, that is,
about 1200 years B. C., we learn from Homer: for he says of Ulysses, when
sailing on his raft, that
“Placed at the helm he sate, and mark'd the skies,
Nor closed in sleep his ever watchful eyes.”
It is ration at to suppose that the stars were first used as a guide to travellers
by land, for we can scarcely imagine that men would venture themselves upon
the sea by night, before they had first learned some safe and sure method of
('irecting their course by land. And we find, according to Diodorus Siculus, that
I tº ellers in the sandy plains of Arabia were accustoned to direct their course
} the Bears
That people travelled in these vast deserts at night by observing the stars, is
directly proved by this passage of the Koran:—“God has given you the stars to
be guides in the dark, both by land and by sea.”
*
CoMA BERENICEs.
BERENICE’s HAIR.—This is a beautiful cluster of smalf
stars, situated about 5° E. of the equinoctial colure, and mid-
way between Cor Caroli on the northeast, and Denebola on
the southwest. If a straight line be drawn from Benetmasch
through Cor Caroli, and produced to Denebola, it will pass
through it. -
The principal stars are of between the 4th and 5th magni-
tudes. According to Flamsted, there are thirteen of the 4th
magnitude, and according to others there are seven ; but the
student will find agreeably to his map, that there is apparently
but one star in this group, entitled to that rank, and this is
situated about 70 S. E. of the main cluster.
Although it is not easy to mistake this group for any other
in the same region of the skies, yet the stars, which compose
it are all so small as to be rarely distinguished in the full pre-
sence of the moon. The confused lustre of this assemblage
Describe the appearance and situation of Coma Berenices. What are the magnitudes
of the principal stars in this cluster? What are they, according to Flamsted and
others? How many stars of the 4th magnitude will the student find on the map? Is it *
easy to mistake this group, and is it visible in presenée of the moon? * 3.
90 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. , |MAY.
*
of small stars somewhat resembles that of the Milky-Way. It
contains besides the stars already alluded to, a number of
nebulae.
The whole number of stars in this constellation is 43; its
mean right ascension is 1859. It consequently is on the me-
ridian the 13th of May.
* —“Now behold
The glittering maze of Berenice's Hair;
Forty the stars; but such as seem to kiss
The flowing tresses with a lambent fire:
Four to the telescope alone are seen.”
HISTORY..—Berenice was of royal descent, and a lady of great beauty, who
married Ptolemy Soter, or Evergetes, one of the kings of Egypt, her own bro-
ther, whom she loved with much tenderness. When he was going on a danger-
ous expedition against the Assyrians, she vowed to dedicate her hair to the
goddess of beauty, if he returned in safety. Sometime after the victorious re-
turn of her husband, Evergetes, the locks which agreeably to her oath, she had
deposited in the temple of Venus disappeared. The king expressed great re-
gret at the loss of what he so much prized; whereupon Conon, his astronomer,
publicly reported that Jupiter had taken away the queen's locks from the temple,
and placed them among the stars. W
“There Berenice's locks first rose so bright,
The heavens bespangling with dishevelled light.”
Conon, being sent for by the king, pointed out this constellation, saying,
“There behold the locks of the queen.” This group being among the unformed
stars until that time, and not known as a constellation, the king was satisfied with
the declaration of the astronomer, and the queen became reconciled to the par-
tiality of the gods.
Callimachus, an historian, and poet, who flourished long before the Christian
era, has these lines as translated by Tytler:—
“Immortal Conon, blest with skill divine,
Amid the sacred skies behold me shine;
E’en me, the beauteous hair, that lately shed
Refulgent beams from Berenice's head;
The lock she fondly vowed with lifted arms,
Imploring all the powers to save from harms
Her dearer lord, when from his bride he flew,
To wreck stern vengeance on the Assyrian crew.”
CORV U.S.
THE CRow.—This small constellation is situated on the
eastern part of Hydra, 15° E. of the Cup, and is on the same
meridian with Coma Berenices, but as far S. of the equinoc-
tial as Coma Berenices is N. of it. It therefore culminates
at the same time, on the 12th of May. It contains nine visi-
* stars, including three of the 3d magnitude and two of the
4th.
, This constellation is readily, distinguished by means of
three stars, of the 3d magnitudé and one of the 4th, forming a
trapezium or irregular square, the two upper ones being
about 34° apart, and the two lower ones 60 apart.
What does its lustre resemble? What is the number of stars in this constellation,
and when is it on the meridian? Where is the Crºw situated? When is it on the ºne-
: h º What are the number and magnitude of its stars How is it readily distin-
Shed? *
MAP Iv.] CCRWUS, 91
The brightest of the two upper stars, on the left, is called
Algorab, and is situated in the E. wing of the Crow ; it has
nearly the same declination S. that the Dog-star has, and is
on the meridian about the 13th of May. It is 2139 E. of
Alkes in the Cup, 149 S.W. of Spica Virginis, a brilliant
star of the 1st magnitude to be described in the next chapter.
Beta, on the back of Hydra and in the foot of the Crow, is
a star of the 3d magnitude, nearly 7° S. of Algorab. It is the
brightest of the two lower stars, and on the left. The right-
hand lower one is a star of the 4th magnitude, situated in the
neck, marked Epsilon, about 6° W. of Beta, and may be
known by a star of the same magnitude situated 2° below it,
in the eye, and called Al Chiba. Epsilon is 213° S. of the
vernal equinox, and if a meridian should be drawn from the
pole through Megrez, and produced to Epsilon Corvi, it would
mark the equinoctial colure.
Gamma in the W. wing, is a star of the 3d magnitude, 34°
W. of Algorab, and is the upper righthand one in the square.
It is but 1° E. of the equinoctial colure.
10° E. of Beta is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the tail of
Hydra, marked Gamma; , these two, with Algorab, form
i.early a right angled triangle, the right angle being at Beta.
. . History.--The Crow, it is said, was once of the purest white, but was changed
for tale-bearing to its present colour. A fit punishment for such a fault
“The raven once in snowy plumes was drest,
White as the whitest dove's unsullied breast,
Fair as the guardian of the capitol,
Soft as the Swan; a large and lovely fowl;
His tongue, his prating tongue, had changed him quite,
To sooty blackness from the purest white.”
According to Greek fable, the Crow was made a constellation by Apollo. This
god being jealous of Coronis, (whom he tenderly loved,) the daughter of Phle-
gyas and mother of OEsculapius, sent a crow to watch her behaviour; the bird
perceived her criminal partiality for Ischys the Thessalian, and immediately
acquainted Apollo with her conduct, which so fired his indignation that he lodged
an arrow in her breast, and killed her instantly.
“The god was wroth ; the colour left his look, g
The wreath his head, the harp his hand forsook;
His silver bow and feather'd shafts he took,
And lodged an arrow in the tender breast,
That had so often to his own been prest.”
To reward the crow, he placed her among the constellations. -
Others say that this constellation takes its name from the daughter of Coro-
naeus, king of Phocis, who was transformed into a crow by Minerva, to rescue
the maid from the pursuit of Neptune. The following, from an eminent Latin
poet of the Augustine age, is her own,account of the metamorphosis as transla-
ted into English verse by Mr. Addison —
‘For as my arms I lifted to the skies,
I saw black feathers from my fingers rise:
Describe the position of Algorab. How does its declination compare with that of
Sirius? What are its distance : direction from Alkes and Spica Virginis? De-
scribe the situation of Beta. Describe the situation of the righthand lower star. What
is the distance of Epsilon from the vermal equinox, and how may the equinoctial
colure be traced out by it? What are the magnitude and position of Gamma?" Of Beta?
92 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |MAY.
I strove to fling my garment on the ground;
My garment turned to plumes, and girt me round:
My hands to beat my naked bosom try;
Nor naked bosom now nor hands had Î:
Lightly I tripp'd, nor weary as before
Sunk in the sand, but skimm’d along the shore;
Till, rising on my wings, I was preferr’d
To be the chaste Minerva's virgin bird.”
VIRGO.
THE VIRGIN.—This is the sixth sign, and seventh constel-
lation in the ecliptic. It is situated next east of Leo, and
about midway between Coma Berenices on the N. and Cor-
vus on the S. It occupies a considerable space in the hea-
vens, and contains, according to Flamsted, one hundred and
ten stars, including one of the 1st, six of the 3d, and ten of
the 4th magnitudes. Its mean declination is 5° N., and its
mean right ascension is 195°. Its centre is therefore on the
meridian about the 23d of May.
The sun enters the sign Virgo, on the 23d of August, but does not enter the
constellation before the 15th of September. When the sun is in this sign, the
earth is in Pisces; and vice versa. -
, Spiga Virginis, in the ear of corn” which the virgin holds
in her left hand, is the most brilliant star in this constella-
tion, and situated nearly 15° E. N. E. of Algorab in the Crow,
about 35° S. E. of Denebola, and nearly as far S. S. W.
of Arcturus—three very brilliant stars of the 1st magnitude
that form a large equilateral triangle, pointing to the S. Arc-
turus and Denebola are also the base of a similar triangle on
the north, terminating in Cor Caroli, which, joined to the
former, constitutes the Diamond of Virgo. The length of this
figure, from Cor Caroli on the north to Spica Virginis on the
south, is 509. Its breadth, or shorter diameter, extending from
Arcturus on the east, to Denebola on the west, is 3549. Spica
may otherwise be known by its solitary splendour, there being
no visible star near it except one of the 4th magnitude, situ-
ated about 19 below it, on the left.
The position of this star in the heavens, has been deter-
mined with great exactness for the benefit of navigators. It
* In the Egyptian Zodiac, Isis, whose place was supplied by Virgo, was represented
with three ears of corn in her hand. According to the Egyptian mythology, Isis was
said to have dropped a sheaf of corn, as she fled from Typhon, who, as he continued
to pursue her, Scattered it over the heaven . The Chinese call the Zodiac the yellow,
road, as resembling a path over which the ripened ears of corn are scattered.
What is the relative position of Virgo among the signs and constellations of the
ecliptic? How is it situated? How many stars does it contain, and how large are the
principal ones? What are its mean declination and right ascension? When is the
Centre of the constellation on the meridian 7 Describe the principal star in Virgo. What
are the distance and direction of Virgo from Algorab, Denebola and Arcturus? What
are the magnitude and appearance of these three stars, and what figure do they form?
How may Spica be otherwisé distinguished? Why has its position been determined
With great exactness?
Map IV.] VIRGO. - 93
is one of the stars from which the moon's distance is taken
for determining the longitude at sea. Its situation is highly
favourable for this purpose, as it lies within the moon’s path,
and little more than 2° below the earth’s orbit.
Its right ascension being 1999, it will come to our meridian
at 9 o'clock about the 28th of May, in that point of the heav-
ens where the sun is at noon about the 20th of October.
Windemiatriz, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the right arm, or northern wing
of Virgo, and is situated nearly in a straight line with, and midway between
Coma Berenices, and Spica Virginis. It is 1949 S. W. of Arcturus, and about the
same distance S. E. of Coma Berenices, and forms with these two a large tri-
angle, pointing to the south. It bears also 18° S. S. E. of Denebola, and comes
to the meridian about 23 minutes before Spica Virginis.
Zeta, is a star of the 3d magnitude 1149 N. of Spica, and very near the equi-
noctial. Gamma, situated near the left side, is also a star of the 3d magnitude,
and very near the equinoctial. It is 13° due west of Zeta, with which and Spica
it forms a handsome triangle. Eta, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the southern
wing, 5°W. of Gamma, and but 24° E. of the autumnal equinox.
Beta, called also Zavijava, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the shoulder of
the wing, 74° W*of Eta, with which and Gamma, it forms a line near the Earth’s
orbit, and parallel to it. Beta, Eta, Gamma and Spica, form the lower and longer
side of a large spherical triangle whose vertex is in Beta. The other stars in this
figure may Be easily traced by means of the map. About 13° E. of Spica, there
are two stars of the 4th magnitude, 3° apart, which mark the foot of Virgo.
These two stars are on nearly the same meridian with Arcturus, and culminate
nearly at the same time. The lower one, marked Lambda, is on the south, and
but 8° W. of the principal star in Libra. Several other stars of the 3d magni-
tude lie scattered about in this constellation, and may be traced out by the map.
“Her lovely tresses glow with starry light;
Stars ornament the bracelet on her hand;
Her west in ample fold, glitters with stars:
Beneath her snowy feet they shine; her eyes
Lighten, all glorious, with the heavenly rays,
But first the star which crowns the golden sheaf.”
History.—The famous zodiac of Dendera, as we have already noticed, com-
mences with the sign Leo ; but another zodiac, discovered among the ruins at
Estne, in Egypt, commences with Virgo; and from this circumstance, some
have argued, that the regular precession of the equinoxes established a date to
this at least 2000 years older than that at Dendera. The discoveries of Cham: .
pollion, however, render it probable that this ancient relic of astrology at Estne
was erected during the reign of the Emperor Claudius, and consequently did
not precede the one at Dendera more than fourteen years.
Of this, however, we may be certain: the autumnal equinox now corresponds
with the first degree of Virgo; and, consequently, if we find a zodiac in which
the summer solstice was placed where the autumnal equinox now is, that zodiac
carries us back 90° on the ecliptic ; this divided by the annual precession 50%",
must fix the date at about 6450 years ago. This computation, according to the
chronology of the Sacred writings, carries us back to the earliest ages of the
human species on earth, and proves, at least, that astronomy was among the
first studies of mankind. The most rational way of accounting for this zodiac,
says Jamieson, is to ascribe it to the family of Noah; or perhaps to the patriarch
himself, who constructed it for the benefit of those who should live after the
deluge, and who preserved it as a monument to perpetuate the actual state of
the heavens immediately subsequent to the creation.
Fable represents the ancient Egyptians as believing that the yearly and regu-
lar inundations of the Nile proceeded from the abundant tears which Isis shed
Why is its situation favourable for taking the moon's distance? When does it pass
our meridian? Describe the situation of Windemiatria. Describe the figure ºphich it
forms with other stars in the same neighbourhood. What are its distance and bearing
from Denebola? Describe Zeta. Describe Gamma. Describe the position qf Eta Dé-
cribe the position of Beta. What geometrical figure may be formed qf the stars in this
zzeighbourhood? *.
94 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |MAY.
for the loss of Osiris, whom Typhom had basely murdered. By confounding
the simple allegory of the learned with the mythological cread of the vulgar, the
historical account furnished us, respecting Isis, becomes perplexed and unin-
telligible. Perhaps with the following key, we may unlock the mystery :—The
sun in Leo, was adormed as the god Osiris; in Virgo, it was worshipped as his
sister Isis; at its passage into Scorpio, the terrible reign of Typhon commenced.
Columella fixes the transit of the sun into Scorpio, on the 13th of the calends of
November; and this period nearly corresponds with that in which Osiris was
feigned to have been slain by Typhon, and the death of Orion was to have been
occasioned by the sting of a scorpion. When Scorpio begins to rise, Orion sets;
when Scorpio comes to the meridian, Leo begins to set:-Typhon then reigns,
Qsiris is slain, and his sister follows him to the tomb weeping. The traditions allot
the sign Virgo to Naphtali, whose standard had for its symbol, a tree “bearing
goodly branches.”
Thus mythology, in describing the physical state of the world, Invented a
symbolical language which personified inanimate objects; and the priests redu-
ced the whole of their noblest science to fables, which the people believed as
true histories representing the moral condition of mankind during the first ages
of civil government. '
According to the ancient poets, this constellation represents the virgin AS-
traºa, the goddess of justice, who lived upon the earth during the golden age ;
but being offended at the wickedness and impiety of mankind during the brazen
and iron ages of the world, she returned to heaven, and was placed among the
constellations of the zodiac, wiih a pair of scales (Libra) in one hand and a
sword in the other. f
Hesiod, who flourished nearly a thousand years before the birth of our
Saviour, and later writers, mention four ages of the world; the golden, the
silver, the brazen, and the iron age. In the beginning of things, say they, all
men were happy, and all men were good; the earth brought forth her fruits
without the labour of man ; and cares, and wants, wars and diseases, were un-
known. But this happy state of things did not last long. To the golden age, the
silver age succeeded; to the silver, the brazen ; and to the brazen, the iron.
Perpetual spring no longer reigned; men continually quarrelled with each other;
rrime succeeded to crime; and blasphemy and murder stained the history of
every day. In the golden age, the gods did not disdain to mix familiarly with
the sons of men. The innocence, the integrity and brotherly love which they
found among us, were a pleasing spectacle even to superior natures; but as
mankind degenerated, one god after another deserted their late beloved haunts;
Astraea lingered the last; but finding the earth steeped in human gore, she her-
self flew away to the celestial regions.
“Victa jacet pietas; et virgo cade madentes
Ultima coelestum terras Astraea reliquit.”
Met. Lib. i. v. 149.
“Faith flees, and piety in exile mourns;
And justice, here oppress'd, to heaven returns.”
Some, however, maintain, that Erigone was changed into the constellation
Virgo. The death of her father Icarius, an Athenian, who perished by the
hands of some peasants, whom he had intoxicated with wine, caused a fit of
despair, in which Erigone hung herself; and she was afterwards, as it is said,
§. among the signs of the zodiac. She was directed by her faithful dog
Maera to the place where her father was slain. The first bough on which she
hung herself, breaking, she sought a stronger, in order to effect her purpose.
“Thus once in Marathon's impervious wood,
Erigone beside her father stood,
When hastening to discharge her pious vows,
She loos'd the knot, and cull'd the strongest boughs.”
- LEwis’s Statius, B. xi.
ASTERION ET CHARA; VEL CANES VENATICI.
THE GREYHounds.--This modern constellation, embracing
two in one, was made by Hevelius out of the unformed stars
what is the origin of the constellation called the Greyhounds;
MAP IV.] ROOTES. • 95.
of the ancients which were scattered between Bootes on the
east, and Ursa Major on the west, and between the handle of
the Dipper on the north, and Coma Berenices on the south.
These Hounds are represented on the celestial sphere as
being in pursuit of the Great Bear, which Bootes is huntings
round the pole of heaven, while he holds in his hand the leash
by which they are fastened together. The northern one is
called Asterion, and the southern one, Chara.
The stars in this group are considerably scattered, and are
principally of the 5th and 6th magnitudes; of the twenty-five
stars which it contains, there is but one sufficiently large to
engage our attention. Cor Caroli, or Charles’s Heart, so
named by Sir Charles Scarborough, in memory of King
Charles the First, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the neck
of Chara the Southern Hound. -
When on the meridian, Cor Caroli is 1749 directly S. of Alioth, the third star
in the handle of the Dipper, and is so nearly on the same meridian that it culmi-
nates only one minute and a half aſter it. This occurs on the 20th of May.
A line drawn from Cor Caroli through Alioth will lead to the N. polar star.
This star may also be readily distinguished by its being in a straight line with,
and midway between Benetmasch, the first star in the handle of the Dipper, and
Coma Berenices: and also by the fact that when Cor Caroli is on the ineridian,
Denebola bears 28° S. W., and Arcturus 26° S. E. of it, forming with these two
Stars a very large triangle, whose vertex is at the north; it is also at the north-
ern extremity of the large Diamond, already described. \ -
The remaining stars in this constellation are too small, and too much scattered
to excite our interest. -
t
C H A P T E R W III.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CoNSTELLATIpNs which ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN JUNE.
BOOTES.*
THE BEAR-DRIVER is represented by the figure of a hunts-
man in a running posture, grasping a club in his right hand,
and holding up in his left the leash of his two greyhounds,
Asterion and Chara, with which he seems to be pursuing the
Great Bear round the pole of the heavens. He is thence called
Arctophylax, or the “Bear-Driver.”.
* Pronounced Bo-o'-tes.
How are the Greyhounds represented? By what names are they distinguished?
What are the magnitudes of the stars which compose this group, and how are they sit-
uated with respect to each other? Describe the principal star. When on the meridian,
what is its situation with regard to Alioth 2 Hów is Čor Caroli situated with respect
to the polar star? How may this star be otherwise readily distinguished 2. What large
geometrical ſigºtre does it form with two other bright stars in its vicinity? How is the
constellation Bootes represcnted? Why is Bootes called the Bear-Driver?
A
96 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [JUNE.
*-
This constellation is situated between Corona Borealis, on
the east, and Cor Caroli, or the Greyhounds, on the west. It
contains fifty-four stars, including one of the 1st magnitude,
seven of the 3d, and ten of the 4th. Its mean declimation is
20° N., and its mean right ascension is 2129; its centre is
therefore on the meridian the 9th of June.
Bootes may be easily distinguished by the position and
splendour of its principal star, Arcturus, which shines with a
reddish lustre, very much resembling that of the planet Mars.
Arcturus is a star of the 1st magnitude, situated near the
left knee, 260 S. E. of Cor Caroli and Coma Berenices, with
which it forms an elongated triangle, whose vertex is at Arc-
turus. It is 3540 E. of Denebola, and nearly as far N. of
Spica Virginis, and forms with these two, as has already
been observed, a large equilateral triangle. It also makes,
with Cor Caroli and Denebola, a large triangle whose vertex
is in Cor Caroli. -
A great variety of geometrical figures may be formed of the stars in this bright
region of the skies. For example; Cor Caroli on the N., and Spica Virginis in
the S., constitute the extreme points of a very large figure in the shape of a dia-
mond; while Denebola on the W. and Arcturus on the E., limit the mean diam-
eter at the other points.
Arcturus is supposed, by some, to be nearer the earth than
any other star in the northern hemisphere.
Five or six degrees S. W. of Arcturus are three stars of the 3d and 4th maghi.
tudes, lying in a curved line, about 2° apart, and a little below the left knee of
Bootes; and about 7° E. of Arcturus are three or four other stars of similar mag-
nitude, situated in the other leg, making a larger curve N. and S.
Mirac, in the girdle, is a star of the 3d magnitude, 10° N. N. E. of Arcturus,
and 'about 11° W of Alphacca, a star in the Northern Crown. Segimus, in the
west shoulder, is a star of the 3d magnitude, nearly 20° E. of Cor Caroli, and
about the same distance N. of Arcturus, and forms, with these two, a right an-
gled triangle, the right angle being at Šeginus. The same star forms a right an-
gled triangle with Cor Caroli and Alioth, in Ursa Major, the right angle being at
Cor Caroli. H &
Alkaturops, situated in the top of the club, is a star of the 4th magnitutle, about
10#9 in an easterly direction from Seginus, which lies in the left shoulder: and
about 4}9. S. of Alkaturops is another star of the 4th magnitude, in the club near
the east shoulder, marked Delta. Delta is about 99 distant from Mirac, and 74°
from Alphacca, and forms, with these two, a regular triangle, 4.
Nekkar is a star of the 3d magnitude, situated in the head, and is about 6° N.
E. of Seginus, and 5° W. of Alkaturops; it forms, with Delta and Segimus, nearly
a right angled triangle, the right angle being at Nekkar.
These are the principal stars in this constellation, except the three stars of
the 4th magnitude situated in the right hand. These stars may be known, by
two of them being close together, and about 5° beyond Benetmasch, the first star
How is this constellation situated? How many stars does it contain How large are
the principal ones? What is its mean right ascension? What is its mean declination?
men is its centre on the meridian? THow is it easily distinguished from the sur-
rounding constellations 3 Describe Arcturus. What is its situation with respect to
Denebolā and Spica Virginism. How is it situated with respect to Cor Caroli and Dene-
bola? What remarkable configuratiºn in this part of the sky? What is the distance
of Arcturus from the earth, compared with that of the other stars in the northern hem-
isphere? What stars five or sia: degrees southwest of Arcturus? What Stars in the
other leg 2 Describe the star Mirac. Descrile Segānus. With what other stars does
Seginus form a right angled triangle? Describe the position of Alkatūrops. Describe
the position ºf Deita. Descriàe Nekkar. -
MAP IV.] BOOTES. 97
in the handle of the Dipper. About 6° E. of Benetnasch is another star of the
4th magnitude, situated in the arin, which ſorms, with Benetnasch and the three
in the hand, an equilateral triangle. 1.
The three stars in the left hand of Bootes, the first in the handle of the Dipper,
Cor Caroli, Colina Berenices, and Denebola, are all situated nearly in the same
right line, running from northeast to southwest. -
“Bootes follows with redundant light;
Fifty-four stars he boasts; one guards the Bear,
Thence call’d Arcturus, of resplendent front, ,
The pride of the first order: eight are veil'd, - --
Invisible to the unaided eye.”
MANILIUS thus speaks of this constellation:—
“And next Bootes comes, whose order'd beams
Present a figure driving of his teams
Below his girdle, near fiis knees, he bears
The bright Arcturus, ſairest of the stars.”
Arcturus is mentioned by name in that beautiful passage
in Job, already referred to, where the Almighty answers “out
of the whirlwind,” and says:—
“Canst thou the sky’s benevolence restrain,
And cause the Pleiades to shine in vain 3
Or, when Orion sparkles from his sphere, -
Thaw the cold seasons and unbind the year?
Bid Mazzaroth his station know,
And teach the bright Arcturus where to glow 3’’ -
Young's Paraphrase.
HISTORY..—The ancient Greeks called this constellation Iycaon—a name de-
rived from Aukoç, which signifies a wolf. The Hebrews called it Caleb Anubach,
the “Barking Dog ;” while the Latins, among other names, called it Canis. If
we go back to the time when Taurus opened the year, and when Virgo was the
fifth of the zodiacal signs, we shall find that brilliant star Arcturus, so reunarka-
ble for its red and fiery appearance, corresponding with a period of the year as
remarkable for its heat. Pythagoras, who introduced the true systein of the
universe into Greece, received it from QEnuphis, a priest of On, in Egypt. And
this college of the priesthood was the noblest of the east, in cultivating the studies
of philosophy and astronolny. Among the high honours which Pharaoh confer.
red on Joseph, he very wisely gave him in marriage “a daughter of the priest of
On.” The supposed era of the book of Job, in which Arcturus is repeatedly
mentioned, is 1513 B.C *
Bootes is supposed by some to be Icarus, the father of Erigone, who was killed
by shepherds for intoxicating them. ... Others maintain that it is Ericthonius, the
inventor of chariots. According to Grecian fable, as well as later authorities,
Bootes was the son of Jupiter and Calisto, and named Arcas. Ovid relates, that
Juno, being incensed at Jupiter for his partiality to Calisto, changed her into a
bear, and that her son Arcas, who became a faunous hunter, one day roused a
bear in the chase, and not knowing that it was his mother, was about to kill her,
when Jupiter snatched thern both up to heaven and placed them among the con-
stellations. Met. b. ii. v. 496–508.
“But now her son had fifteen summers told,
Fierce at the chase, and in the forest bold;
When as he beat the woods in quest of prey,
He chanced to rouse his mother where she lay.
She knew lier son, and kept him in her sight,
And fondly gazed: the boy was in a fright,
And aim’d a pointed arrow at her breast;
And would have slain his mother in the beast :
But Jove forbad, and snatch'd them through the air
In whirlwinds up to heaven, and fix d'em there;
Describe the three stars in the left hand of Bootes. What stars in this neighton ſhood
form a long line through the heavens? Where is Arcturus mentioned in the Scrip-
tureS3 f
9
98 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. * [JUNE.
Where the new constellations nightly rise,
And add a lustre to the northern skies.”
e & Garth’s Translation.
LUCAN, in his Pharsalia, says, -
“That Brutus, on the busy times intent,
To virtuous Cato's humble dwelling went.
'Twas when the solemn dead of night came on,
When bright Calisto, with her shining son,
Now half that circle round the pole had run.”
This constellation is called Bootes, says Cicero, (Nat. Deo. Lib. ii. 42) from a
Greek word signifying a wagoner, or ploughman; and sometimes Arctophylaz,
from two Greek words signifying bear-keeper or bear-driver.
“Arctophylax, vulgo qui dicitur esse Bootes,
Quod quasi temone adjunctum praese quatit Arctum.” w
The stars in this region of the skies seem to have attractèd the admiration of
almost all the eminent writers of antiquity. Claudian observes, that
“Bootes with his wain the north unfolds;
The southern gate Orion holds.”
And Aratus,” who flourished nearly 800 years before Claudian, says,
“Behind, and seeming to urge on the Bear,
Arctophylax, on earth Bootes named,
Sheds o'er the Arctic car his silver light.”
CENTAURUS.
THE CENTAUR.—This fabulous monster is represented by
* This is the poet whom St. Paul refers to when he tells the Athenians, Acts xvii.
23, that “some of their own poets have said,” “Tov yap waſ yeyo; 27/28) : For We are
also his offspring.” These words are the beginning of the 5th line of the “Phenome-
na,” of Aratus; a celebrated Greek poem written in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus,
two thousand one hundred years ago, and afterwards translated into Latin verse by
Cicero. Aratus was a poet of St. Paul's own country. The apostle borrows again from
the same poet, both in his Epistle to the Galatians, and to Titus. The subject of the
poem was grand and interesting: hence we find it referred to in the writings of St.
Clement, St. Jerome, St. Chrysostom, QEcumenius, and others. As this poem describes
the nature and motions of the stars, and the origin of the constellations, and is, more-
over, one of the oldest compositions extant, upon this interesting subject, the author
has taken some pains to procure a Polyglot copy from Germany, together with the As-
tronomicon of Manilius, and some other works of similar antiquity, that nothing should
be wanting on his part which could impart an interest to the study of the constella-
tions, or illustrate the frequent allusions to them which we meet with in the Scrip-
res
Ures.
Dr. Doddridge says of the above quotation, that “these words are well known to he
found in Aratus, a poet of Paul’s own country, who lived almost 300 years before the
apostle's time; and that the same words, with the alteration of only one letter, are to
be found in the Hymn of Cleanthes, to Jupiter, the Supreme God; which is, beyond
Comparison, the purest and finest piece of matural religion, of its length, which I know
in the whole world of Pagan antiquity; and which, so far as I can recollect, contains
nothing unworthy of a Christian, or, I had almost said, of an inspired pen. The apos-
tle might perhaps refer to Cleanthes, as well as to his countrymān Aratus.”
Many of the elements and fables of heathen mythology are so blended with the in-
spired Writings, that they must needs be studied, more or less, in order to have a more
prºper understanding of numerous passages poth in the Qld and New Testament.
The great apostle of the Gentiles, in uttering his inspired sentiments, and in pen:
ning his epistles, often refers to, and sometimes quotes verbatim from the distinguished
writers who preceded him. -
Thus, in 1 Cor. xv. 33, we have “M” raayaağe ‘dºugºvaty ºn 3.pngº' oatata,
wºu.” Be not deceived; evil communications corrupt good manners;” which is a
literal quotation by the apostle from the Thais of Menander, an inventor of Greek
Comedy, and a celebrated Athenian poet, who flourished nearly 400 years before the
apostle wrote his epistle to the Corinthians. Thus Paul adopts the sentiment, of the
comedian, and it becomes hallowed by “the divinity that stirred within him.” Teſ:
tullian remarks, that “in quoting this, the apostle hath sanctified the poet's sentiment.”
How is the Centaur represented?
f tº
MAP Iv.1. LUPUS, 99
the figure of a man terminating in the body of a horse, hold-
ing a wolf at arm’s length in one hand, while he transfixes its
body with a spear in the other.
Although this constellation occupies a large space in the
southern hemisphere, yet it is so low down that the main
part of it cannot be seen in our latitude. It is situated south
of Spica Virginis, with a mean declination of 50°. It con-
tains thirty-five stars, including two of the 1st magnitude, one
of the 2d, and six of the 3d; the brightest of which are not
visible in the United States.
Theta, is a star of between the 2d and 3d magnitude, in the east shoulder, and
may be seen from this latitude during the month of June, being about 27° S. by
E. from Spica Virginis, and 129 or 139 above the southern horizon. It is easily
recognised, in a clear evening, from the circumstance that there is no other star
of similar brightness, in the same region, for which it can be mistaken. It is so
; on the same meridian with Arcturus that it culminates but ten minutes
efore it. - -
Iota, is a star of between the 4th and 5th magnitude, in the west shoulder, 94°
W. of Theta. It is about 26° almost directly south of Spica Virginis, and is on
the meridian nearly at the same time.
Mu and Nu, are stars of the 4tn magnitude, in the breast, very near together,
and form a regular triangle with the two stars in the shoulders.
A few degrees north of the two stars in the 'shoulders, are four small stars in
the head. The relative position of the stars in the head and shoulders is very
similar to that of the stars in the head and shoulders of Orion.
HISTORY..—Centaurs, in mythology, were a kind of fabulous monsters, half men
and half horses. This fable is, however, differently interpreted; some suppose
the Centaurs to have been a body of shepherds and herdsmen, rich in cattle, who
inhabited the mountains of Arcadia, and to whom is attributed the invention of
pastoral poetry. But Plutarch and Pliny are of opinion, that such monsters have
really existed. Others say, that under the reign of Ixion, king of Thessaly, a
herd of bulls ran mad, and ravaged the whole country, rendering the mountains
inaccessible; and that some young men, who had found the art of taming and
mounting horses, undertook to expel these noxious animals, which they pur-
sued on horseback, and thence obtained the appellation of Centaurs.
This success rendering them insolent, they insulted the Lapithae, a people of
Thessaly; and because, when attacked, they fled with great º it was Sup-
posed that they were half horses and half men; men on horses being at that
period a very uncommon sight, and the two appearing, especially at a distance,
to constitute but one animal. So the Spanish cavalry at first seemed to the as-
tonished Mexicans, who imagined the horse and his rider, like the Centaurs of
the ancients, to be some monstrous animal of a terrible form.
The Centaurs, in reality, were a tribe of Lapithae, who resided near Mount
Pelion, and first invented the art of breaking horses, as intimated by Virgil:—

“The Lapithae to chariots add the state
Of bits and bridles; taught the steed to bound;
To turn the ring, and trace the mazy ground;
To stop, to fly, the rules of war to know;.
To obey the rider, and to dare the foe.”
LUPUS.
THE Wolf.-This constellation is situated next east of
the Centaur, and south of Libra; and is so low down in the
What is the situation of this constellation? What are the number and magnitude of
its stars? Describe the situation of Theta. How is it easily recognised in a clear even-
dng 2 What is its distance from the meridian of Arcturus? Describe the star in the
west shoulder. Describe the stars in the breast, Where is the Wolf situated?
100 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [JUNE.
k
southern hemisphere, that only a few stars in the group are
visible to us.
It contains twenty-four stars, including three of the 3d mag-
nitude, and as many of the 4th; the brightest of which, when
on the meridian, may be seen in a clear evening, just above
the southern horizon. Their particular situation, however,
will be better traced out by reference to the map than by writ-
ten directions.
The most favourable time for observing this constellation,
is towards the latter end of June.
History.—This constellation, according to fable, is Lycaon, king of Arcadia,
who lived about 3,600 years ago, and was changed into a wolf by Jupiter, because
he offered human victims on the altars of the god Pan. Some attribute this met-
amorphosis to another cause. The sins of mankind, as they relate, had become
so enormous, that Jupiter visited the earth to punish its wickedness and impiety.
He came to Arcadia, where he was announced as a god, and the people began
to pay proper adoration to his divinity. Lycaon, however, who used to sacrifice
all strangers to his wanton cruelty, laughed at the pious prayers of his subjects,
and to try the divinity of the god, served up human flesh on his table. This im-
piety so offended Jupiter, that he immediately destroyed the house of Lycaon,
and changed him into a wolf.
“Of these he murders one ; he boils the flesh,
And lays the mangled morsels in a dish;
Some part he roasts; then serves it up, so dress'd,
And bids me welcome to his human feast.
Moved with disdain, the table I o’erturn'd,
And with avenging flames the palace burn'd.
aw The tyrant in a fright for shelter gains
*. The neighb’ring fields, and scours along the plains:
Howling he fled, and ſain he would have spoke,
But human voice his brutal tongue forsook.
His mantle, now his hide, with rugged hairs,
Cleaves to his back; a ſamish’d face he bears;
His arms descend, his shoulders sink away
To multiply his legs for chase of prey:
He grows a wolf.”—Ovid, Met. B. i.
LIBRA.
THE BALANCE.-This is the seventh sign, and eighth con-
stellation, from the vernal equinox, and is situated in the Zo-
diac, next east of Virgo.
The sun enters this sign, at the autumnal equinox, on the
23d of September; but does not reach the constellation before
the 27th of October.
Virgo was the goddess of justice, and Libra, the scales,
which she is usually represented as holding in her left hand,
are the appropriate emblem of her office. When the sun en-
ters the sign Libra, the days and nights are equal all over the
How many stars does it contain? Under what circumstances may the brightest of
them be seen? How may the stars in this group be most conveniently traced out?
When is the most favourable time for observing this constellation? How is Libra sit-
uated among the constellation of the Zodiac At what season of the year times the
sun enter Libra? Who was Virgo, and what was the emblem of her office? What is
the relative length of the days and nights when the sun enters Libra?
MAP IV.] LIBRA. 101
world, and seem to observe a kind of equilibrium, like a
balance. f
When, however, it is said that the vernal and autumnal
equinoxes are in Aries, and Libra, and the tropics in Cancer
and Capricorn, it must be remembered that the signs Aries
and Libra, Cancer and Capricorn, and not the constellations
of these names are meant; for the equinoxes are now in the
constellations Pisces and Virgo, and the tropics in Gemini
and Sagittarius; each constellation having gone forward
one sign in the ecliptic. º ~
About 22 centuries ago, the constellation Libra coincided
with the sign Libra; but having advanced 30° or more in the
ecliptic, it is now in the sign Scorpio, and the constellation
Scorpio is in the sign. Sagittarius, and so on. -
While Aries is now advanced a whole sign above the equi-
noctial point into north declination, Libra has descended as
far below it into south declination. -
Libra contains fifty-one stars, including two of the 2d mag-
nitude, two of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. Its mean decli-
nation is 89 south, and its mean right ascension 2269. Its
centre is therefore on the meridian about the 22d of June.
It may be known by means of its four principal stars, form-
ing a quadrilateral figure, lying northeast and southwest, and
having its upper and lower corners nearly in a line running
north and south. The two stars which form the N. E. side of
the square, are situated about 7° apart, and distinguish the
Northern Scale. The two stars which form the S. W. side
of the square, are situated about 60 apart, and distinguish the
Southern Scale.
Zubeneschamali, in the Southern Scale, about 21° E. of Spica, and 8° E, of
Lambda Virginis, is a star of the 2d magnitude, and is situated very near the
ecliptic, about 42}9 E. of the autumnal equinox. The distance from this star
down to Theta Centauri, is about 23°, with which, and Spica Virginis, it forms a
large triangle, on the right.
Zubenelgemabi, the uppermost star in the Northern Scale, is also of the 2d
magnitude, 9}º above Zubeneschamali, towards the northeast, and it comes to
the meridian about twenty-six minutes after it, on the 23d of June. Zubenelge-
mabi is the northernmost of the four bright stars in this figure, and is exactly
opposite the lower one, which is 11° south of it.
Zubenhakrabi, is a star of the 3d magnitude in the Northern Scale, 7° S. E. of
Zubenelgemabi, and nearly opposite to Zubeneschamali, at the distance of 11°
on the east. These two make the diagonal of the square east and west.
Iota, is a star of the 3d magnitude, and constitutes the southernmost corner of
When it is said that the vernal and autumnal equinoxes are in Aries and Libra, and
the tropics in Cancer and Capricorn, what is meant? In what constellations, then, are
the equinoxes and the tropics situated? . When did the constellation of Łibra coincide
with the sign. Of that name? In what sign is the constellation Libra now situated ;
What are the number and magnitude of the stars in Libra? What are its right ascen-
sion and declination? When is its centre on the meridian? How may this constella-
tion be known? What figure do the three upper stars, in this figure form? What stars
distinguish the Northern Scale? What the Southern? Describe Zubeneschamali. With
what other stars does it form a large triangle 2 Describe the principal star in the
Northern Scale. Describe the position of zºnesiast. Describe the position ºf Iota.
†.
*.

102 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |JUNE.
the square. It is about 6° S. E. of Zubeneschamali, and 11° S. of Zubenelge-
mabi, with which it forms the other diagonal north and south.
Zebenelgubi, is a star of the 3d magnitude, situated below the Southern Scale,
at the distance of 69 from Iota, and marks the southern limit of the Zodiac. It is
situated in a right line with, and nearly midway between, Spica Virginis and Beta
Scorpionis; and comes to the meridian nearly at the same moment with Nekkar,
in the head of Bootes.
The remaining stars in this constellation are too small to engage attention.
The scholar, in tracing out this constellation in the heavens, will perceive that
Lambda and Mu, which lie in the ſeet of Virgo on the west, form, with Zubenès-
chamali and Zubenelgemabi, almost as handsome and perfect a figure, as the
other two stars in the Balance do on the east.
History.—The Libra of the Zodiac, says Maurice, in his Indian Antiquities, is
perpetually seen upon all the hieroglyphics of Egypt; which is at once an argu-
inent of the great antiquity of this asterism, and of the probability of its having
been originally fabricated by the astronomical sons of Misraim. In some few
zodiacs, Astrăşa, or the virgin who holds the balance in her hand as an emblem
of equal justice, is not drawn. Such are the zodiacs of Estne and Dendera.
Humboldt is of opinion, that although the Romans introduced this constellation
into their zodiac in the reign of Julius Cesar, still it might have been used by the
Egyptians and other nations of very remote antiquity
It is generally supposed that the figure of the balance has been used by all
nations to denote the equality of the days and nights, at the period of the Sun's
arriving at this sign. It has also been observed, that at this season there is a
greater uniformity in the temperature of the air all over the earth's surface.
Others affirm, that the beam only of the balance was at first placed among the
stars, and that the Egyptians thus honoured it as their Nilometer, or instrument
by which they measured the inundations of the Nile. To this custom of measur-
ing the waters of the Nile, it is thought the prophet alludes, when he describes
the Almighty as measuring the waters in the hollow of his hand.—Isa. xl. 12.
The ancient husbandmen, according to Virgil, were wont to regard this sign
as indicating the proper time for sowing their winter grain :-
“But when Astrata's balance, hung on high,
Betwixt the nights and days divides the sky,
Then yoke your oxen, sow your winter grain,
Till cold December comes with driving rain.”
The Greeks declare that the balance was placed among the stars to perpetuate
the memory of Mochus, the inventor of weights and measures.
Those who refer the constellations of the Zodiac to the twelve tribes of Israel,
ascribe the Balance to Asher.
SERPENS.
THE SERPENT.—There are no less than four kinds of ser-
pents placed among the constellations. The first is the Hydra,
which is situated south of the Zodiac, below Cancer, Leo and
Virgo; the second is Hydrus, which is situated near the south
pole; the third is Draco, which is situated about the north
pole; and the fourth is the Serpent, called Serpens Ophiuchi,
and is situated chiefly between Libra and Corona Borealis.
A large part of this constellation, however, is so blended with
Ophiuchus, the Serpent-Bearer, who grasps it in both hands,
that the concluding description of it will be deferred until we
come to that éonstellation.
“The Serpens Ophiuchi winds his spire
Immense; fewer by ten his figure trace;
What star in this constellation marks the southern limit of the Zodiac2. How many
kinds of serpents have been placed among the constellations? Mention them, and their
situations, With what is a large part of this constellation blended?
MAP v.] SERPENS. 103
One of the second rank; ten shun the sight;
And seven, he who bears the monster hides.” ..
Thoses stars which lie scattered along for about 25°, in a
serpentine direction between Libra and the Crown, mark the
body and head of the Serpent. * #
About 100 directly S. of the Crown there are three stars of
the 3d magnitude, which, with several smaller ones, distin-
guish the head.
Umuk, of the 2d magnitude, is the principal star in this con-
stellation. It is situated in the heart, about 100 below those
in the head, and may be known by its being in a hine with,
and between, two stars of the 3d magnitude—the lower one,
marked Epsilon, being 249, and the upper one, marked Delta,
about 5}o from it. The direction of this line is N. N. W. and
S. S. E. Unuk may otherwise be known by means of a small
star, just above it, marked Lambda. -
In that part of the Serpent which lies between Corona Bo-
realis and the Scales, about a dozen stars may be counted, of
which five or six are conspicuous.
For the remainder of this constellation, the student is refer-
red to Serpentarius. * *
“Vast as the starry Serpent, that on high
Tracks the clear ether, and divides the sky.
And southward winding from the Northern Wain,
Shoots to remoter spheres its glittering train.”—Statius.
IIISTORY..—The Hivites, of the Old Testament, were worshippers of the Ser-
pent, and were called Ophites. The idolatry of these Ophites was extremely
ancient, and was connected with Tsabaism, or the worship of the host of heaven.
The heresy of the Ophites, mentioned by Mosheim in his Ecclesiastical History,
originated, perhaps, in the admission into the Christian church of some remnant
of the ancient and popular sect of Tsabaists, who adored the celestial Serpent.
According to ancient tradition, Ophiuchus is the celebrated.physician AEscu-
lapius, son of Apollo, who was instructed in the healing art by Chiron the Cen-
taur; and the serpent, which is here placed in his hands, is understood by some
to be an emblem of his sagacity and prudence ; while others suppose it was
designed to denote his skill in healing the bite of this reptile. Biblical critics
º that this constellation is alluded to in the following passage of the book
of Job :—
“By his spirit He hath garnished the heavens; his hand hath formed the
crooked serpent.” Mr. Green supposes, however, that the inspired writer here
refers to Draco, because it is a more obvious constellation, being nearer the pole
where the constellations were more universally noticed; and moreover, because
it is a more ancient constellation than the Serpent, and the hieroglyphic by which
the Egyptians usually represented the heavens,
CORONA BOREALIS.
THE NorthERN CRowN.—This beautiful constellation ma
be easily known by means of its six principal stars, whic
are so placed as to form a circular figure, very much resem-
What stars mark the head and body of the Serpent? Describe the principal star in
this constellation. How may it be known? What stars distinguish the head?. How
many stars maybe counted in that part of the constellation which lies between Corona
Borealis and the Scales? How may Corona Borealis be easily known?
104 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |JUNE.
bling a wreath or crown. It is situated directly north of the
Serpent's head, between Bootes on the west and Hercules on
the east.
This asterism was known to the Hebrews by the name of Ataroth, and by this
name the stars in Corona Borealis are called, in the East, to this day.
Alphacca, of the 3d magnitude, is the brightest and middle
star in the diadem, and about 110 E. of Mirac, in Bootes. It
is very readily distinguished from the others both on account
of its position and superior brilliancy. Alphacca, Arcturus,
and Seginus, form nearly an isosceles triangle, the vertex of
which is at Arcturus.
This constellation contains twenty-one stars, of which
only six or eight are conspicuous; and most of these are not
larger than the 3d magnitude. Its mean declination is 30°
north, and its mean right ascension 2359; its centre is
º on the meridian about the last of June, and the first
of July.
“And, near to Helice, effulgent rays
Beam, Ariadne, from thy starry crown:
Twenty and one her stars; but eight alone
Conspicuous; one doubtful, or to claim
The second order, or accept the third.”
HISTORY..—This beautiful little cluster of stars is said to be in commemoration
of a crown presented by Bacchus to Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, second king
of Crete. eseus, king of Athens, (1235 B.C.,) was shut up in the celebrated
labyrinth of Crete, to be devoured by the ferocious Minotaur which was con-
fined in that place, and which usually fed upon the chosen young men and
maidens exacted from the Athenians as a yearly tribute to the tyranny of Minos;
but Theseus slew the monster, and being ſurnished with a clue of thread by
Ariadne, who was passionately enamoured of him, he extricated himself from
the difficult windings of his confinement.
He afterwards married the beautiful Ariadne, according to promise, and car-
ried her away; but when he arrived at the island of Naxos, he deserted her,
notwithstanding he had received from her the most honourable evidence of at-
tachment and endearing tenderness. Ariadne was so disconsolate upon being
abandoned by Theseus, that, as some say, she hanged herself; but Plutarch
says that she lived many years after, and was espoused to Bacchus, who loved
her with much tenderness, and gave her a crown of seven stars, which, after
her death, was placed among the stars. -
“Resolves, for this the dear engaging dame
Should shine forever in the rolls of ſame;
And bids her crown among the stars be placed,
And with an eternal constellation grac'd,
The golden circlet mounts; and, as it flies,
Its diamonds twinkle in the distant skies;
There, in their pristine form, the gemmy rays
Between Alcides and the Dragon blaze.”
Manilius, in the first book of his Astronomicon, thus speaks of the Crown.
“Near to Bootes the bright crown is view'd
And shines with stars of different magnitude:
Where is it situated? Describe the principal star in the group. What geometrical
fi is formed by the stars in this neighbourhood? What are the number and mag-
nitude of the stars in this constellation? What are its mean declination and right as-
Cension? When is it on Cur meridian
MAP wi.] URSA. MINOR, 105
Cr placed in front above the rest displays 2.
A vigorous light, and darts surprising rays,
This shone, since Theseus first his faith betray’d.
The lmonuliaent of the ſorsaken traid.”
* URSA. MINOR. -
THE LITTLE BEAR.—This constellation, though not re-
markable in its appearance, and containing but few conspi-
cuous stars, 1s, nevertheless, justly distinguished from all
others for the peculiar advantages which its position in the
heavens is well known to afford to nautical astronomy, and
especially to navigation and surveying.
The stars in this group being situated near the celestial
pole, appear to revolve about it, very slowly, and in circles
so small as never to descend below the horizon. .
In all ages of the world, this constellation has been more
universally observed, and more carefully noticed than any
other, on account of the importance j, mankind early at-
tached to the position of its principal star. - .
This, star which is so near the true pole of the heavens,
has, from time immemorial, been denominated the North
Polar STAR. By the Greeks it is called Cynosyre; by the
Romans, Cynosura, and by other nations, Alruccabah.
It is of the 3d magnitude, or between the 2d and 3d, and
situated a little more than a degree and a half from the true
pole of the heavens, on that side of it which is towards Cassi-
opeia, and opposite to Ursa Major. . Its position is pointed
out by the direction of the two Pointers, Merak and Dubhe,
which lie in the square of Ursa Major. A line joining Beta
Cassiopeiae, which lies at the distance of 329 on one side, and
Megrez, which lies at the same distance on the other, will
pass through the polar star.
So general is the popular notion, that the North Polar Star
is the true pole of the world, that even surveyors and
navigators, who have acquired considerable dexterity in the
use of the compass, and the quadrant, are not aware that it
ever had any deviation, and consequently never make allow-
ance for any. All calculations derived from the observed posi-
tion of this star, which are founded upon the idea that its
bearing is always due north of any place, are necessarily er-
roneous, since it is in this position only twice in twenty-four
hours; once when above, and once when below the pole.
What rentlers Ursa Minor an important constellation? What is its situation with
respect to the North Pole, and how do its stars appear to revolve around this pole?
Wily has this constellatiºn bech more universally observed, in all ages of the world,
than any other What is this star denominated i What are its magnitude and posi-
tion? How is its position pointed out? How is it situated with respect to Megrez
and Beta Cassiopeiae?, Is it generally considered to be the north pole of the heavens?--
Are calculations founded upon this, notion correct? -
106 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [JUNE
According to the Nautical Almanac, the mean distance of
this star from the true pole of the heavens, for the year 1833
is 1° 34' 53", and its mean right ascensión is 1 hour and 19
seconds. Consequently, when the right ascension of the me-
ridian of any place is 1 hour and 19 seconds, the star will be
exactly on the meridian at that time and place, but 1° 34'
53'' above the true pole. , Six hours after, when the right as-
cension of the meridian is 7 hours and 19 seconds, the star
will be at its greatest elongation, or 1934ſ 53'ſ directly west
of the true pole, and parallel to it, with respect to the horizon;
and when the right ascension of the meridian is 13 hours and
19 seconds, the star will be again on the meridian, but at the
distance of 1° 34' 53// directly below the pole.
In like manner, when the right ascension of the meridan is
19 hours and 19 seconds, the star will be at its greatest east-
ern elongation, or 1934/53// east of the true pole; and when
it has finished its revolution, and the right ascension of the
meridian is 25 hours and 19 seconds, or, what is the same
thing, 1 hour, and 19 seconds, the star will now be on the
meridian again, 1934/53!! above the pole.
N. B. The right ascension of the meridian or of the mid-heaven, is the dis-
tance of the first point of Aries from the meridian, at the time and place of ob-
servation. The right ascension of the meridian ſor any time, is found, by adding
to the given time the sun’s right ascension at the same time, and deducting 24
hours, when the sum exceeds 24 hours.
From the foregoing facts we learn, that from the time the
star is on the meridian, above the pole, it deviates farther and
farther from the true meridian, every hour, as it moves to the
west, for the space of six hours, when it arrives at its greatest
elongation west, whence it reapproaches the same meridian
below the pole, during the next six hours, and is then again
on the meridian; being thus alternately half the time west
of the meridian, and half the time east of it.
Hence, it is evident that the surveyor who regulates his
compass by the North Polar Star, must take his observation
when the star is on the meridian, either above or below the
pole, or make allowance for its altered position in every other
situation. For the same reason must the navigator, who ap-
plies his quadrant to this star for the purpose of determining
the latitude he is in, make a similar allowance, according as
its altitude is greater or less than the true pole of the hea-
>What is the present distance of this star from the true pole of the heavens? What is
its mean right ascension? Nhem is it on the meridian, and what then is its bearing
from the pole. What is its situation six hours afterwards? What is its situation six
hours after that? What is its situation when in its third quadrant? What do ygºt tºrt-
dierstand by the right ascension of the meridian, or of the mid-heaven 2 Hoºp do 4/944
Jºnd the right ascension of the mid-heaven? In what manner does the north star de-
viate from the meridjan during one revolution? How do these facts concern the Sur-
veyor? -
MAP VI.] URSA MINOR. . 107
vens; for we have seen that it is alternately half the time
above and half the time below the pole.
The method of finding the latitude of a place from the alti-
tude of the polar star, as it is very simple, is very often re-
sorted to. Indeed, in northern latitudes, the situation of this
star is more favourable for this purpose than that of any other
of the heavenly bodies; because a single observation, taken at
any hour of the night, with a good instrument, will give the
true latitude, without any calculation or correction, except
that of its polar aberration. , * -
If the polar star always occupied that point in the heavens which is directly
opposite the north pole of the earth, it would be easy to understand how latitude
could be determined from it in the northern hemisphere ; for in this case, to a
person on the equator, the poles of the world would be seen in the horizon.
º star would appear just visible in the northern horizon, with-
out any elevation.) Should the person now travel one degree towards the north,
he would see one degree below the star, and he would think it had risen one
degree. e ~.
And since we always see the ...}. of the upper hemisphere at one view,
when there is nothing in the horizon to obstruct our vision, it follows that if we
should travel 10° north of the equator, we should see just 10° below the pole,
which would then appear to have risen 10°; and should we stop at the 42d de- .
gree of north latitude we should, in like manner, have our horizon just 42° below
the pole, or the pole would appear to have an elevation of 429. Whence we de-
rive this general truth: The elevation of the pole of the equator, is always equal
to the latitude of the place of observation.
Any instrument, then, which will give us the altitude of the north pole, will
give us also the latitude of the place.
The method of illustrating this phenomenon, as given in most treatises on the
globe, and as adopted by teachers generally, is to tell the scholar that the north
pole rises higher and higher, as he travels farther and farther towards it. In
other words, whatever number of degrees he advances towards the north pole,
so many degrees will it rise above his horizon. This is not only an obvious errour
in principle, but it misleads the apprehension of the pupil. It is not that the pole
is elevated, but that our horizon is depressed as we advance towards the north.
The same objection lies against the artificial globe; for it ought to be so fixed
that the horizon might be raised or depressed, and the pole remain in its own
invariable position. #
Ursa Minor contains twenty-four stars, including three of
the 3d magnitude and four of the 4th. The seven principal
stars are so situated as to form a figure very much resembling
that in the Great Bear, only that the Dipper is reversed, and
about one half as large as the one in that constellation.
The first star in the handle, called Cynosura, or Alrucca-
bah, is the polar star, around which the rest constantly re-
volve.) The two last in the bowl of the Dipper, corresponding
to the Pointers in the Great Bear, are of the 3d magnitude,
Why is the method of finding the latitude by the polar star, often resorted to? Why
is the position of this star favourable to this purpose? If the north star perfectly co-
ſincided with the north pole of the heavens, where would it be seen from the equator?
Should a person travel one degree north of the equgtor, where would the star appear
then 2's Suppose he should travel 10 degrees north of the equator? Suppose he were to
stop at the 42d degree of north latitude 2 * What general truth results from these facts?
... What, then, is all we want, to find the latitude of any place? Of what advantage to dº
mariner, is an instrument zohich will give the altitude of the pole? -What are the
number and magnitude of the stars, contained in Ursa Minor?...What figure do the
seven principal stars form?--Describe the first in the handle of the Little Dipper. De-
scribe the two last in the bowl of the Dipper.

108 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [JUNE.
*
and situated about 150 from the pole. The brightest of them
is called Kochab, which signifies an axle or hinge, probably
in reference to its moving so near the axis of the earth.
Rochab may be easily known by its being the brightest
and middle one of three conspicuous stars forming a row, one
of which is about 29, and the other 30, from Kochab. The
two brightest of these are situated in the breast and shoulder
of the animal, about 30 apart, and are called the Guards or
Pointers of Ursa Minor. They are on the meridian about the
20th of June, but may be seen at all hours of the night, when
the sky is clear.
Of the four stars which form the bowl of the Dipper, one
is so small as hardly to be seen. They lie in a direction to-
wards Gamma in Cepheus; but as they are continually
changing their position in the heavens, they may be much
better traced out from the map, than from description.
Kochab is about 250 distant from Benetnasch, and about
249 from Dubhe, and hence forms with them a very nearly
equilateral triangle.
“The Lesser Bear
Ileads from the pole the lucid band: the stars
Which form this constellation, faintly shine,
Twice twelve in number ; only one beams forth
Conspicuous in high splendour, named by Greece
The Cynosure ; by us the Polar STAR.”
History.—The prevailing opinion is, that Ursa Major and Ursa Minor are the
nymph Calisto and her son Arcas, and that they were transformed into bears
by the enraged and imperious Juno, and aiterwards translated to heaven by the
favour of Jupiter, lest they might be destroyed by the huntsunen,
The Chinese claim that the emperor Hong-ti, the grandson of Noah, first dis-
covered the polar star, and applied it to purposes of navigation. It is certain that
it was used for this purpose in a very remote period of antiquity. From various
passages in the ancients, it is unaniſest that the Phoenicians steered by Cynosura,
or the Lesser Bear; whereas the mariners of Greece, and some other nations,
steered by the Greater Bear, called Helice, or Helix. Y
J.ucan, a Latin poet, who flourished about the time of the birth of our Saviour,
thus adverts to the practice of steering vessels by Cynosura:—
“Unstable Tyre now knit to firmer ground,
With Sidon for her purple shells renown'd,
Safe in the Cynosure their glittering guide
With well-directed navies stem the tide.”
Row E’s Translation, B. iii.
The following extracts from other poets contain allusions to the same fact:—,
“Phoenicia, spurning Asia’s bounding strand, *
By the bright Pole star's steady radiance led,
Bade to the winds her daring sails expand,
And fearless plough’d old Ocean's stormy bed.”
MAURICE’s Elegy on Sir W. Jones
“Ye radiant signs, who from the etherial plain
Sidonians guide, and Greeks upon the main,
Who from your poles all earthly things explore,
And never set beneath the western shore.” &
OVID's Tristia.
How may Kochab be easily known? What are the position and name of the two
brightest of these? When are they on the meridiana. How is Kochab situated with.
respect to Benetmasch and Dubhen .
mar v.] g SCORPIO. 109
“Of all yon multitude of golden stars,
Which the wide rounding sphere incessant bears.
The cautious mariner relies on none,
But keeps him to the constant pole alone.” * =
LucAN's Pharsalia, B. viii. v. 225.
Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, are sometimes called Triones, and sometimes the
Greater and Lesser Wains. In Pennington's Memoirs of the learned Mrs. Car-
ter, we have the following beautiful lines:— -
“Here, Cassiopeia fills a lucid throne,
There, blaze the splendours of the Northern Crown •
While the slow Car, the cold Triomes roll
O'er the pale countries of the frozen pole:
Whose faithful beams conduct the wand'ring ship
Through the wide desert of the pathless deep.”
Thales, an eminent geometrician and astrońomer, and one of the seven wise
men of Greece, who flourished six hundred years before the Christian era, is
generally reputed to be the inventor of this constellation, and to have taught the
use of it to the Phoenician navigators; it is certain that he brought the knowledge
of it with him from Phoenice into Greece, with many other discoverios both in
astronomy and mathematics. - sº
/ Until the properties of the magnet were known and applied to the use of navi-
gation, and for a long time after, the north polar star was the only sure guide."
At what time the attractive powers of the magnet were first known, is not cer-
tain; they were known in Europe about six hundred years before the Christian
era; and by the Chinese records, it is said that its polar attraction was known in
that country at least one thousand years earlier. -
CHAPTER Ix.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONs which ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN JULY.
SCORPIO.
THE SCORPION.—This is the eighth sign, and ninth constel-
lation, in the order of the Zodiac. It presents one of the most
interesting groups of stars for the pupil to trace out that is to
be found in the southern hemisphere. It is situated south-
ward and eastward of Libra, and is on the meridian the 10th
of July.
The sun enters this sign on the 23d of October, but does not reach the constella-
tion before the 20th of November. When astronomy was first cultivated in the
East, the two solstices and the two equinoxes took place when the sun was in
Aquarius and Leo, Taurus and Scorpio, respectively.
Scorpio contains, according to Flamsted, forty-four stars,
including one of the 1st magnitude, one of the 2d, and eleven
of the 3d. It is readily distinguished from all others by the
peculiar lustre and the position of its principal stars.
Antares, is the principal star, and is situated in the heart
What is the position of Scorpio, among the signs and constellations of the Zodiacº
How is it situated with respect te Libra, and when is it on our meridian? What are
the number and magnitude of its stars? How is it readily distinguished from all
others? Describe the principal star in this *
1
110 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [JULY.
of the Scorpion, about 192 east of Zubenelgubi, the southern-
most star in the Balance. Antares is the most brilliant star
in that region of the skies, and may be otherwise distinguish-
ed by its remarkably red appearance. Its declination is about
260 S. It comes to the meridian about three hours after
Spica Virginis, or fifty minutes after Corona Borealis, on the
10th of July. It is one of the stars from which the moon’s
distance is reckoned for computing the longitude at sea.
There are four great stars in the heavens, Fomalhaut, Aldebaran, Regulus,
and Antares, which formerly answered to the solstitial and equinoctial points;
and which were much noticed by the astronomers of the East.
About 8.9 northwest of Antares, is a star of the 2d mag-
nitude, in the head of the Scorpion, called Graffias. It is but
one degree north of the earth’s orbit. It may be recognised
by means of a small star, situated about aſ degree northeast
of it, and also by its forming a slight curve with two other
stars of the 3d magnitude, situated below it, each about 3°,
apart. The broad part of the constellation near Graffias, is
powdered with numerous small stars, converging down to a
point at Antares, and resembling in figure a boy’s kite.
As you proceed from Antares, there are ten conspicuous
stars, chiefly of the 3d magnitude, which mark the tail of the
kite, extending down, first in a south, southeasterly direction,
about 17°, thence easterly about 8° further, when they turn,
and advance about 80 towards the north, forming a curve like
a shepherd’s crook, or the bottom part of the letter S. This
crooked line of stars, forming the tail of the Scorpion, is very
conspicuous, and may be easily traced.
The first star, below Antares, which is the last in the back, is of only the 4th
magnitude. It is about 2° southeast of Antares, and is denoted by the Greek.
name of T. *
Epsilon, of the 3d magnitude, is the second star from Antares, and the first in
the tail, . It is situated about 7° below the star T, but inclining a little to the east.
Mu, of the 3d magnitude, is the third star from Antares. It is situated 49 be-
low Epsilon. It may otherwise be known by means of a small star close by it,
on the left.
Zeta, of about the same magnitude, and situated about as far below Mu, is the
fourth star from Antares. Here the line turns suddenly to the east.
Eta, also of the 3d magnitude, is the fifth star from Antares, and about 34°
east of Zeta. -
Theta, of the same magnitude, is the sixth star from Antares, and about 4.9
east of Eta. Here, the line turns again, curving to the north, and terminates in
a couple of stars. -
Iota, is the seventh star from Antares, 3.9 above Theta, curving a little to the
left. It is a star of the 3d magnitude, and may be known by means of a small
star, almost touching it, on the east. ...
Rappa, a star of equal brightness, is less than 2° above Iota, and a little to the
right. -- - | - -
How is Antares otherwise distinguished? What is its declination g What is the
time of its passing the meridian What nautical importance is attached to its position?
Describe Graffias? How may it be recognised? What is the appearance of the constel-
lation between Graffias and Antares? How many conspicuous stars below Antares?
What are their magnitude and general direction? Describe the first star below 4??-
tares. Describe the second star below Antares. Describe the third star, and fell hºo
it may be known. Deseribe the fourth. Describe the fifth. Describe Theta. Describe
Iota. Describe Kappa. *
MAP' v.] . - scorpio. 111
Lesuth, of the 3d magnitude, is the brightest of the two last in the tail, and is
situated about 3° above Kappa, still further to the right. It may readily be
known by Ineans of a smaller star, close by it, on the west.
This, is a very beautiful group of stars, and easily traced
out in the heavens. It furnishes striking evidence of the fa-
cility with which most of the constellations may be so accu-
rately delineated, as to preclude every thing like uncertainty
in the knowledge of their relative situation.
“The heart with lustre of amazing force,
Reſulgent vibrates; faint the other parts,
And ill-defined by stars of meaner note.”
HistoRY.—This sign was anciently represented by various symbols, sometimes
by a snake, and sometimes by a crocodile; but most commonly by the scorpion.
This last syuibol is found on the Mithraic monuments, which is pretty good evi-
dence that these monuments were constructed when the vernal equinox accord-
ed with Taurus.
On both the zodiacs of Dendera, there are rude delineations of this animal;
that on the portico differs considerably from that on the other zodiac, now in
the Louvre.
Scorpio was considered by the ancient astrologers as a sign accursed. The
Egyptians fixed the entrance of the sun into Scorpio as the commencement of
the reign of Typhon, when the Greeks fabled the death of Orion. When the sun
was in Scorpio, in the month of Athyr, as Plutarch informs us, the Egyptians
enclosed the body of their god Osiris in an ark, or chest, and during this cere-
molly a great annual festival was celebrated. Three days after the priests
had enclosed Osiris in the ark, they pretended to have found him again. The
death of Osiris, then, was lamented when the sun in Scorpio descended to the
lower hemisphere, and when he arose at the vermal equinox, then Osiris was
Said to be born anew.
The Egyptians or Chaldeans, who first arranged the Zodiac, might have placed
Scorpio in this part of the heavens to deuote that when the sun enters this sign,
the diseases incident to the fruit season would prevail; since Autumn, which
abounded in fruit, often brought with it a great variety of diseases, and might be
thus fitly represented by that venomous animal, the scorpion, who, as he re-
cedes, wounds with a sting in his tail.
Mars was the tutelary deity of the scorpion, and to this circumstance is owing
all that jargon of the astrologers, who say that there is a great analogy between
the malign influence of the planet Mars, and this sign. To this also is owing the
doctrine of the alchymists, that iron, which metal they call Mars, is under the
dominion of Scorpio ; so that the transmutation of it into gold can be effected
only when the sun is in this sign.
The constellation of the Scorpion is very ancient. Ovid thus mentions it in his
beautiful fable of Phaeton:—
“There is a place above, where Scorpio bent,
In tail and arms surrounds a vast extent :
In a wide circuit of the heavens he shines,
And fills the place of two celestial signs.”
According to Ovid, this is the famous scorpion which sprang out of the earth
at the command of Juno, and stung Orion; of which wound he died. It was in
this way the imperious goddess chose to punish the vanity of the hero and the
hunter, for boasting that there was not on earth any animal which he could not
conquer.
“Words that provok'd the gods once from him fell,
*No beasts so fierce,” said he, “but I can quell;’
When lo! the earth a baleful scorpion sent,
To kill Latona was the dire intent;
Orion saved her, tho’ himself was slain,
But did for that a spacious place obtain
In heaven: ‘to thee my life,” said she, “was dear,
And for thy merit shine illustrious there.’”
Describe Lesuth.
112 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [JULY.
Although both Orion and Scorpio were honoured by the celestials with a
place among the stars, yet their situations were so ordered that when One rose
the other should set, and vice versa ; so that they never appear in the same
hemisphere at the same time.
In the Hebrew zodiac this sign is allotted to Dan, because it is written, “Dan
shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path.”
HERCULES.
Hercules is represented on the map invested with the skin
of the Nemaan Lion, holding a massy club in his right hand,
and the three-headed dog Cerberus in his left.
He occupies a large space in the northern hemisphere,
with one foot resting on the head of Draco, on the north, and
his head nearly touching that of Ophiuchus, on the south.
This constellation extends from 12° to 50° north declimation,
and its mean right ascension is 255°; consequently its centre
is on the meridian about the 21st of July.
It is bounded by Draco on the north, Lyra on the east,
Ophiuchus or the Serpent-Bearer on the south, and the Ser-
pent and the Crown on the west. --
It contains one hundred and thirteen stars, including one
of the 2d, or of between the 2d and 3d magnitudes, nine of the
3d magnitude, and nineteen of the 4th. The principal star
is Ras Algethi, is situated in the head, about 25° southeas:
of Corona Borealis. . It may be readily known by means of
another bright star of equal magnitude, 5° east, southeast of
it called Ras Alhague. Ras Alhague marks the head of
Ophiuchus, and Ras Algethi that of Hercules. These two
stars are always seen together, like the bright pairs in Aries,
Gemini, the Little Dog, &c. They come to our meridian
about the 28th of July, near where the sun does, the last of
April, or the middle Čí August.
About midway between Ras Algethi on the southeast, and Ariadne’s Crown
on the northwest, may be seen Beta and Gamma, two stars of the 3d magnitude,
situated in the west shoulder, about 3° apart. The northernmost of these two
is called Rutilicus.
Those four stars in the shape of a diamond, 8° or 10° southwest of the two
in the shoulder of Hercules, are situated in the head of the serpent.
About 12° E. N. E. of Rutilicus, and 10#9 directly north of Ras Algethi, are
two stars of the 4th magnitude, in the east shoulder. They may be known by
two very minute stars a little above them on the left. The two stars in each
shoulder of Hercules, with Ras Algethi in the head, form a regular triangle.
The left, or east arm of Hercules, which grasps the triple-headed monster
Cerberus, may be traced by means of three or four stars of the 4th Imagnitude,
How is the constellation Hercules represented? What space does it occupy, and
what is its situation in the heavens? What are its declination and right ascension?
en is its centre on the meridian A How is it bounded? What are the number and
magnitude of its stars? Describe the principal star. What do Ras Algethi and Ras
Alhague serve to mark? When are they on our meridian Describe the situa-
tion of Beta and Gamma. What is the northernmost of these two called 2 What four
stars are situated 8° or 10° S. W. of the two in the shoulder? Describe the stars in the
€4st show.lder. Hoºp may these be known 2 What geometrical figure do the stars in
% head and shoulders of Hercules form 2 How may the left arm, of Hercules be trº-
MAP v.] HERCULES, 113
situated in a row 3° and 4° apart, extending from the shoulder, in a northeasterly
direction. That sliiall cluster, situated in a triangular form, about 14° northeast
of Ras Algethi, and 13° east, southeast of the leii shoulder, distinguish the head
of Cerberus.
Eighteen or 20° northeast of the Crown, are four stars of the 3d and 4th mag-
titudes, forming an irregular square, of which the two southern ones are about
4. .# and in a line 6° or 7° south of the two northern ones, which are nearly
** apart.
Pi, in the northeast corner, may be known by means of one or two other small
Stars, close by it, on the east. Eta, in the northwest corner, may be known by
its being in a row with two smaller stars, extending towards the northwest, and
about 4° apart. The stars of the 4th magnitude, just south of the Dragon's head,
point out the left foot and ankle of Hercules.
Several other stars, of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, may be traced out in this
constellation, by reference to the map. -
HistoRY.—This constellation is intended to immortalize the name of Hercules,
the Theban, so celebrated in antiquity for, his heroic valour, and invincible
prowess. According to the ancients, there were many persons of this name. Of
all these, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena is the most celebrated, and to him the
actions of the others have been generally attributed.
The birth of Hercules was attended with many miraculous events. He was
brought up at Tirynthus, or at Thebes, and before he had completed his eighth
month, the jealousy of Juno, who was intent upon his destruction, sent two
snakes to devour him. Not terrified at the sight of the serpents, he boldly seized
thein, and squeezed them to death, while his brother Iphicles alarmed the house
with his frightful shrieks.
He was early instructed in the liberal arts, and scom became the pupil of the
centaur Chiron, under whom he rendered himself the most valiant and accom-
plished of all the heroes of antiquity. In the 18th year of his age, he com-
inenced his arduous and glorious pursuits. He subdued a lion that devoured
the flocks of his supposed father, Amphitryon. After he had destroyed the lion,
he delivered his country from the annual tribute of a hundred oxen, which it
paid to Erginus.
As Hercules, by the will of Jupiter, was subjected to the power of Eurystheus,
and obliged to obey him in every respect, Eurystheus, jealous of his rising fame
and power, ordered him to appear at Mycenae, and perform the labours which,
by priority of birth, he was eulpowered to impose upon him. Hercules refused,
but afterwards consulted the oracle of Apollo, and was told that he must be sub-
servient, for twelve years, to the will of Eurystheus, in compliance with the
commands of Jupiter; and that, after he had achieved the most celebrated la-
bours, he should be reckoned in the number of the gods. So plain an answer
determined him to go to Mycenae, and to bear with tortitude whatever gods or
men should impose upon him. Eurystheus, seeing so great a man totally sub-
iected to him, and apprehensive of so powerful an enemy, commanded him to
achieve a number of enterprises the most difficult and arduous ever known,
generally called the Twelve LABours of HERCULEs. Being furnished with
º armour by the ſavour of the gods, he boldly encountered the imposed
3.00 UTS. *~.
1. He subdued the NemaPan Lion in his den, and invested himself with his
skin. -
2. He destroyed the Lermaean Hydra, with a hundred hissing heads, and dip-
ped his arrows in the gall of the monster to render their wounds incurable.
3. He took alive the stag with golden horns and brazen feet, so famous for its
incredible swiftness, after pursuing it for twelve months, and presented it, un-
hurt, to Eurystheus. r
} 4. He took alive the Erimanthian Boar, and killed the Centaurs who opposed
1:Iſl. --
5. He cleansed the stables of Augias, in which 3000 oxen had been confined
for many years. -
6. He killed the carniverous birds which ravaged the country of Arcadia, and
fed on human flesh.
7. He took alive, and brought into Peloponnesus, the wild bull of Crete, which
no mortal durst look upon. -
How is the head of Cerberus distinguished? There are four stars ºn thi, ºn of nº
£rregular square, in the body.gf Hercules-describe them..., 2nésgripe l'éºtºioſº of
Pé, Describe the situation of Eta. wº point ozct the ºf foot Q). Hercuts.”
y
's
114 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [JULY.
8. He obtained for Eurystheus the mares of Diomedes, which fed on human
flesh, after having given their owner to be first eaten by them.
9. He obtained the girdle of the queen of the Amazons, a formidable nation of
warlike females.
10. He killed the monster Geryon, king of Gades, and brought away his ruli-
Imerous flocks, which fed upon human flesh.
11. He obtained the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides, which
were watched by a dragon.
12. And finally, he brought up to the earth the three-headed dog Cerberus, the
guardian of the entrance to the infernal regions.
According to Dupuis, the twelve labours of Hercules are only a figurative rep-
resentation of the annual course of the Sun through the twelve signs of the Zo-
diac; Hercules being put for the sun, inasmuch as it is the powerful planet which
animates and imparts fecundity to the universe, and whose divinity has been
honoured, in every quarter, by temples and altars, and consecrated in the reli-
gious strains of all nations. - -
Thus Virgil, in the eighth book of his AEmeid, records the deeds of Hercules,
and celebrates his praise —
“The lay records the labours, and the praise,
Arld all the immortal acts of Hercules.
First, how the mighty babe, when swath’d in bands,
The serpents strangled with his infant hands;
Then, as in years and matchless force he grew,
e The OEchalian walls and Trojan overthrew;
Besides a thousand hazards they relate,
Procured by Juno's and Euristheus' hate.
Thy hands, unconquer’d liero, could subdue
The cloud-born Centaurs, and the monster crew;
Northy resistless arm the bull withstood;
Nor he, the roaring terrour of the wood.
The triple porter of the Stygian seat
With lolling tongue lay fawning at thy feet,
And, seized with fear, forgot the mangled meat.
The infernal waters trembled at thy sight:
Thee, god, no face of danger could affright;
Nor huge Typhaeus, nor the unnumber’d snake,
Increased with hissing heads, in Lerna’s lake.”
Besides these arduous labours which the jealousy of Eurystheus imposed upon
him, he also achieved others of his own accord, equally celebrated. Before he
delivered himself up to the king of Mycenae he accompanied the Argonauts to
Colchis. He assisted the gods in their wars against the giants, and it was through
him alone that Jupiter obtained the victory. He conquered Laomedom, and pil-
laged Troy.
At three different times he experienced fifs of insanity. In the second, he slew
the brother of his beloved Iole; in the third he attempted to carry away the sa-
cred tripod from Apollo’s temple at Delphi, for which the oracle told him he
must be sold as a slave. He was sold accordingly to Omphale, queen of Iydia,
who restored him to liberty, and married him. After this he returned to Pelo-
Fº and re-established on the throne of Sparta his friend Tyndarus, who
ad been expelled by Hippocoon. He became enamoured of Dejanira, whom,
- after having overcome all his rivals, he married; but was obliged to leave his
father-in-law's kingdom, because he had inadvertently killed a man with a blow
of his fist. He retired to the court of Ceyx, king of Trachina, and in his way was
stopped by the streams of the Evenus, where he slew the Centaur Nessus, for
presuming to offer indignity to his beloved Dejanira. The Centaur, on expiring,
gave to Dejanira the celebrated tunic which afterwards caused the death of Herº
cules. “This tunic,” said the expiring monster, “has the virtue to recall a hus-
band from unlawful love.” Dejanira, fearing lest Hercules should relapse again
into love for the beautiful Iole, gave him the fatal tunic, which was so infected
with the poison of the Lernaan Hydra, that he had no sooner invested himself
with it, than it began to penetrate his bones, and to boil through all his veins.
He attempted to pull it off, but it was too late.
“As the red iron hisses in the flood,
So boils the venom in his curdling blood.
Now with the greedy flame his entrails glow,
And livid sweats down all his body flow;

MAP v.] - SERPENTARIUS. * 115
The cracking nerves, burnt up, are burst in twain,
The lurking venom melts his swimming brain.”
As the distemper was incurable, he implored the protection of Jupiter, gave
his bow and arrow to Thiloctetes, and erected a largé burning pile on the top of
Mount CEta. He spread on the pile the skin of the Nemasan lion, and laid him-
self down upon it, as on a bed, leaning his head upon his club. Philoctetes set
fire to the pile, and the hero saw himself, on a sudden, surrounded by the most
appalling flames; yet he did not betray any marks of fear or astonishment. Ju-
piter saw him from leaven, and told the surrounding gods, who would have
drenched the pile with tears, while they entreated that he would raise to the
skies the immortal part of a hero who had cleared the earth from so many mon-
sters and tyrants; and thus the thunderer spake —

“Be all your fears forborne :
Th’ CEteam fires do thou, great hero, scorn.
Who vanquish’d all things shall subdue the flame.
That part alone of gross maternal frame
Fire shall devour; while what from me he drew
Shall live immortal, and its force subdue :
That, when he’s dead, I’ll raise to realms above;— •
May all the powers the righteous act approve.”
Ovid's Met. lib. ix.
Accordingly, after the mortal part of Hercules was consumed, as the ancient
poets say, he was carried up to heaven in a chariot drawn by four horses,
“Quem pater omnipotens inter cava nubila raptum,
Quadrijugo curru radiantibus intulit astris.”
“Almighty Jove
In his swift car his honour’d offspring drove;
High o'er the hollow clouds the coursers fly,
And lodge the hero in the starry sky.”
Ovid’s Met. lib,. ix. W. 271.
sERPENTARIUS, VEL OPHIUCHUs.
THE SERPENT-BEARER is also called Æsculapius, or the
god of medicine. He is represented as a man with a venera-
ble beard, having both hands clenched in the folds of a pro-
digious serpent, which is writhing in his grasp.
The constellation occupies a considerable space in the mid-
heaven, directly south of Hercules, and west of Taurus Po-
niatowski. Its centre is very nearly over the equator, oppo-
site to Orion, and comes to the meridian the 26th of July. It
contains seventy-four stars, including one of the 2d magni-
tude, five of the 3d, and ten of the 4th.
The principal star in Serpentarius is called Ras Alhague.
It is of the 2d magnitude, and situated in the head, about 5°
E. S. E. of Ras Algethi, in the head of Hercules. Ras Al-
hague is nearly 13° N. of the equinoctial, while Rho, in the
southern foot, is about 250 south of the equinoctial. These
two stars serve to point out the extent of the constellation
from north to south. Ras Alhague comes to the meridian on
the 28th of July, about 21 minutes after Ras Algethi.
How is the constellation Serpentarius represented? What is its extent, and where
is it situated? When is its centre on the meridian? What are the number and mag-
nitude of its stars? What are the name and position of its principal star? What two
stars mark the extremes of the constellation, north and south & When is Ras Alhague
on the meridian
116 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS, [JULY.
About 10° S. W. of Ras Alhague are two small stars of the 4th magnitude,
Scarcely more than a degree apart. They distinguish the left or west shoulder.
The northern one is marked Iota, and the other Kappa.
Eleven or twelve degrees S. S. E. of Ras Alhague are two other stars of the 3d
magnitude, in the east shoulder, and about 2° apart. The upper one is called
Cheleb, and the lower one Gamma. These stars in the head and shoulders of
Serpentarius, form a triangle, with the vertex in Ras Alhague, and pointing to-
wards the northeast.
About 49 E. of Gamma, is a remarkable cluster of four or
five stars, in the form of the letter W, with the open part to
the north. It very much resembles the Hyades. This beau-
tiful little group marks the face of TAURUs PoniaTowski. The
solstitial colure passes through the equinoctial about 2° E. of
the lower star in the vertex of the W. The letter name of this
star is k. There is something remarkable in its central posi-
tion. It is situated almost exactly in the mid-heavens, being
nearly equidistant from the poles, and midway between the
vernal and autumnal equinoxes. It is, however, about one
and a third degrees nearer the north than the south pole, and
about two degrees nearer the autumnal than the vernal equi-
nox, being about two degrees west of the solstitial colure.
Directly south of the V, at the distance of about 12°, are two very small stars,
about 2° apart, situated in the right hand, where it grasps the serpent. About
halfway between, and nearly in a line with, the two in the hand and the two in
the shoulder, is another star of the 3d magnitude, imarked Zeta, situated in the
Serpent, opposite the right elbow. It may be known by means of a minute star,
just under it. - •. -
Marsic, in the left arm, is a star of the 4th magnitude, about 10° S. W. of Iota
and Cappa. About 7° farther in the same direction are two stars of the 3d mag
nitude, situated in the hand, and a little more than a degree apart. The upper
one of the two, which is about 16° N. of Graffias in Scorpio, is called Yed; the
other is marked Epsilon. These two stars mark the other point in the folds of
the monster where it is grasped by Serpentarius.
The left arm of Serpentarius may be easily traced by means of the two stars
in the shoulder, the one (Marsic) near the elbow, and the two in the hand; all
lying nearly in a line N. N. E. and S. S. W. In the same manner may the right
arm be traced, by stars very similarly situated; that is to say, first by the two
* in the east shoulder, just west of the V, thence 89 in a southerly direction in-
clining a little to the east, by Zeta, (known by a little star right under it,\ and then
by the two small ones in the right hand, situated about 66 below zeta.
About 12° from Antares, in an easterly direction, are two stars in the right
foot, about 29 apart. The largest arra lower of the two, is on the lefthand. It is
of between the 3d and 4th magnitudes, and marked Rho. There are several other
stars in this constellation of the 3d and 4th magnitudes. They may be traced out
from the maps. - -
“Thee, Serpentarius, we behold distinct,
With seventy-four refulgent stars; and one
Graces thy helmet, of the second class:
The Serpent, in thy hand grasp'd, winds his spire
Immense; fewer by ten his figure trace;
Describe the stars in the west shoulder of Serpentarius. What stars distinguish the
east shoulder? How are these two stars denominated? What is the relative position
of the stars in the head and shoulders ? What remarkable cluster of stars in this
neighbourhood? To what constellation does this group belong? How is this cluster
situated with respect to the solstitial colure? What is remarkable in the central posi-
tion of Kappa; , Describe the stars in the right hand of Serpentarius. Describe the
situation of Zétá. Describe Marsic, and the two stars in the left hand. Which of the
two is called Yed, and how is it situated 2 Hoºp may the left dºrm of Serpentarias be
traced 2 How Anay the right 0.7772 be traced 2 Describe the stars in the right foot
Serpentarius. What other stars may be traced owl in this constellation ?

MAP VI.] DRAco. 117
One of the Second rank; ten shun the sight;
And seven, he who bears the monster hides.”—Eudosia.
HISTORY. This constellation was known to the ancients twelve hundred years
before the Christian era. Homer mentions it. It is thus referred to in the As-
tronomicon of Manilius:-
“Next, Ophiuchus, strides the mighty snake,
Untwists his winding folds, and smooths his back,
Extends his bulk, and o'er the slippery scale
His wide-stretch'd hands on either side prevail. 2
The Snake turns back his head, and seems to rage:
That war must last where equal power prevails.”
AEsculapius was the Son of Apollo, by Coromis, and was educated by Chiron
the Centaur, in the art of medicine, in which he became so skilful, that he was
considered the inventor and god of medicine. At the birth of AEsculapius, the
inspired daughter of Chiron uttered, “in sounding verse,” this prophetic strain:
“Hail, great physician of the world, all hail!
Hail, mighty infant, who, in years to come,
Shall heal the nations and defraud the tomb
Swift be thy growth ! thy triumphs unconfined 1
Make kingdoms thicker, and increase mankind:
Thy daring art shall animate the dead,
And draw the thunder on thy guilty head : -
Then shalt thou die, but from the dark abode
Rise up victorious, and be twice a god.”
He accompanied the Argonauts to Colchis, in the capacity of physician. He
is said to have restored many to life, insomuch that Pluto complained to Jupiter,
that his dark dominion was in danger of being depopulated by his art,
AEsculapius was worshipped at Epidaurus, a city of Peloponnesus, and hence
, he is styled by Milton, “the god in Epidaurus.” Being sent for to Rome in the
time of a plague, he assumed the form of a serpent and accompanied the ambas-
sadors, but though thus changed, he was /Esculapius still, in serpente dews,
the deity in a serpent, and under that form he continued to be worshipped at
Rome. The cock and the serpent were sacred to him, especially the latter.
The ancient physicians used them in their prescriptions. -
One of the last acts of Socrates, who is accounted the wisest and best man of
Pagan antiquity, was to offer a cock to Æsculapius. He, and Plato, were both
idolaters; they conformed, and advised others to conform, to the religion of their
country; to gross idolatry and absurd superstition. If the wisest and must learn-
ed were so blind, what must the foolish and ignorant have been?
C H A P T E R X.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN AUGUST.
DRACO.
THE DRAGON.—This constellation, which compasses a
large circuit in the polar regions by its ample folds and con-
tortions, contains many stars which may be easily traced.
From the head of the monster, which is under the foot of
Hercules, there is a complete coil tending eastwardly, about
17o N. of Lyra ; thence he winds down northerly about 149
What is the situation of the constellation Draco} Describe, if you please, the vari-
ous coils of the Dragon.
118 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [AUG.
to the second coil, where he reaches almost to the girdle of
Cepheus, then he loops down somewhat in the shape of the
letter U, and makes a third coil about 150 below the first.
From the third coil he holds a westerly course for about 13°,
then goes directly down, passing between the head of the
Lesser and the tail of the Greater Bear.
This constellation contains eighty stars, including four of
the 2d magnitude, seven of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th.
“The Dragon next, winds like a mighty stream;
Within its ample folds are eighty stars,
Four of the second order. Far he waves
His ample spires, involving either Bear.”
The head of the Dragon is readily distinguished by means
of four stars, 39, 49, and 59 apart, so situated as to form an
irregular square; the two upper ones being the brightest, and
both of the 2d magnitude. The righthand upper one, called
Etamin, has been rendered very noted in modern astronomy
from its connexion with the discovery of a new law in phys-
ical science, called the Aberration of Light. -
The letter name of this star is Gamma, or Gamma Draco-
nis; and by this appellation it is most frequently called. The
other bright star, about 40 from it on the left, is Rastaben.
About 40 W. of Rastaben, a small star may, with close at-
tention, be discerned in the nose of the Dragon, which, with
the irregular square before mentioned, makes a figure some-
what resembling an Italic V, with the point towards the west,
and the open part towards the east. The small star in the
nose, is called Er Rakis.
The two small stars 59 or 6° S. of Rastaben are in the left foot of Hercules.
Rastaben is on the meridian nearly at the same moment
with Ras Alhague. Etanin, 400 N. of it, is on the meridian
about the 4th of August, at the same time with the three
western stars in the face of Taurus Poniatowski, or the V. It
is situated less than 2° west of the solstitial colure, and is
exactly in the zenith of London. Its favourable position has
led English astronomers to watch its appearance, for long
periods, with the most exact and unwearied scrutiny.
In the year 1725, Mr. Molyneux, and Dr. Bradley fitted up a very accurate and
costly instrument, in order to diséover whether the fixed stars had any sensible
parallax, while the earth moved from one extremity of its orbit to the other; or
which is the same, to determine whether the nearest fixed stars are situated at
such an immense distance from the earth, that any star which is seen this night
directly north of us, will, six months hence, when we shall have gone 190 mill-
What is the course of the monster from the third coil? What are the number and
magnitude of the Stars contained in this constellation ? How is the head of the Dragon
distinguished?, Which star is called Etamin, and for what is it noted? By what other
appellation is it generally known? What stars in the head of Draco form the letterſ,
and how is it situated? When is Rastaben on the 'meridian? When is Etamin on the
meridian, and what stars in this region culminate at the same time? How is Rastaben
situated with respect to the solstitial colure, and the Zenith of London.
MAP. VI.] - DRACO. 119
ions of miles to the eastward of the place we are now in, be then seen exactly
north of us still, without changing its position so much as the thickness of a spi.
der’s web.
These observations were subsequently repeated, with but little intermission,
for twenty years, by the most acute observers in Europe, and with telescopes
varying from 12 feet to 36 feet in length. In the meantime, Dr. Bradley had the
honour of announcing to the world the very nice discovery, that the motion of .
light, combined with the progressive motion of the earth in its orbit, causes the
heavenly bodies to be seen in a different position from what they would be, if
#: % were at rest. Thus was established the principle of the Aberration of
ight.
#. principle, or law, now that it is ascertained, seems not only very plain,
but self-evident. For if light be progressive, the position of the telescope, in order
to receive the ray, inust be different from what it would have been, if light had
been instantaneous, or if the earth stood still. Hence the place to which the tel-
escope is directed, will be different from the true place of the object.
The quantity of this aberration is determined by a simple proposition. The
earth describes 59'8" of her orbit in a day =3548’’, and a ray of light comes
from the sum to us in S 13’’ = 493’’ : now 24 hours or 86400" : 493/.3 : 3548’’:
22’; which is the change in the star's place, arising from the cause abovemen-
tioned.
Of the four stars forming Ine Irregular square in the head, the lower and right-
hand one is 549 N. of Etanin. It is called Grumium, and is of the 3d magnitude.
A few degrees E. of the square, Inay be seen, with a little care, eight stars of the
5th magnitude, and one of the 4th, which is marked Omicron, and lies 8° E. of
Grumium. This group is in the first coil of the Dragon. -
The second coil is about 13° below the first, and may be recognised by means
of four stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, so situated as to form a small square,
about half the size of that in the head.
The brightest of them is on the leſt, and is marked Delta. A line drawn from
Rasiaben through Grumium, and produced about 14°, will point it out. A line
drawn from Lyra through Zi Draconis, and produced 10° further, will point out
2eta, a star of the 3d magnitude, situated in the third coil. Zeta may otherwise
be known, by its being nearly in a line with, and midway between, Etamin and
Kochab. From Zeta, the remaining stars in this constellation are easily traced.
Eta, Theta, and Asich, come next; all stars of the 3d magnitude, and at the
distance, severally, of 69, 49, and 5° from Zeta. At Asich, the third star from
Zeta, the tail of the Dragon makes a sudden crook. Thuban, Kappa, and Gian-
sar, follow next, and complete the tail. -
Thuban, is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, 119 from
Asich, in a line with, and about midway between, Mizar and
the southernmost guard in the Little Bear. By nautical men
this star is called the Dragon’s. Tail, and is considered of
much importance at sea. It is otherwise celebrated as being
formerly the north polar star. About 2,300 years before the
Christian era, Thuban was ten times nearer the true pole of
the heavens than Cynosura now is.
Rappa is a star of the 3d magnitude, 10° from Alpha, between Megrez and the
pole. Mizar and Megrez, in the tail of the Great Bear, form, with Thuban and
Kappa, in the tail of the Dragon, a large quadrilateral figure, whose longest side
is from Megrez to Kappa:
Giamsar; the last star in the tail, is between the 3d and 4tſ magnitudes, and 59
from Kappa. The two pointers will also point out Giansar, lying at the distance
of little more than 8° from them, and in the direction of the pole.
Describe the stars in the first coil of Draco. Describe the stars in the second coil.
What is the brightest of this group called, and how may it be pointed out 2 What is
he principal star.of the third coil, and how may it be found 2 How else may Zétá be
known 2 What stars, come next to Zeta, in this constellation ? What stars follow
these ? Describe Thuban. By what other name is this star known, and for what is jt.
celebrated? When was Thuban within ten minutes of the pole?, Describe Kappa.
†What figure do Mizar and Mégrez, in the tail cf the Great Bear, form with Thubart
and Kappa, in the tail of the Dragón 2 Describe the position of Giansar, and tell how
it is pointed Guº. ! -
120 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. |AUG.
“Here the vast Dragon twines
Between the Bears, and like a river winds,
The Bears, that still with fearful caution keep,
Untinged beneath the surface of the deep.”
Warton’s Virgil, G. i.
HISTORY..—Whoever attends to the situation of Draco, surrounding, as it does,
the pole of the Ecliptic, will perceive that its tortuous windings are symbolical
of the oblique course of the stars. Draco also winds round the pole of the world,
as if to indicate, in the symbolical language of Egyptian astronomy, the motion
of the pole of the Equator around the pole of the Ecliptic, produced by the pre-
cession of the heavens. The Egyptian hyeroglyphic for the heavens, was a
serpent, whose scales denoted the stars. When astronomy first began to be cul-
tivated in Chaldea, Draco was the polar constellation.
Mythologisis, however, give various accounts of this constellation; by some
it is represented as the watchful dragon which guarded the golden apples in the
famous garden of the Hesperides, near Mount Atlas in Africa; and was slain by
Hercules. Juno, who presented these apples to Jupiter on the day of their nup-
tials, took Thraco up to heaven, and made a constellation of him, as a reward for
his faithful services. Others maintain, that in the war with the giants, this dragon*
was brought into combat, and opposed to Minerva, who seized it in her hand, and
hurled it, twisted as it was, into the heavens round the axis of the world, before
it had time to unwind its contortions, where it sleeps to this day. Other writers
of antiquity say, that this is the dragon killed by Cadmus, who was ordered by
rus father to go in quest of his sister Europa, whom Jupiter had carried away,
and never to return to Phoenicia without her.

“When now Agenor had his daughter lost,
He sent his son to search on every coast;
And sternly bade him to his arms restore
The darling maid, or see his face no more.”
His search, however, proving fruitless, he consulted the oracle of Apollo, and
was ordered to build a city where he should see a heifer stop in the grass, and
to call the country Boeotia. He saw the heifer according to the oracle, and as he
wished to render thanks to the god by a sacrifice, he sent his companions to
fetch water from a neighbouring grove. The waters were sacred to Mars, and
guarded by a most terrific dragon, who devoured all the messengers. Cadinus,
tired of their sceming delay, went to the place, and saw the monster still feeding
On their ſiesh. -
“Deep in the dreary den, conceal’d from day,
Sacred to Mars, a mighty dragon lay,
Bloated with poison to a monstrous size :
Tire broke in flashes when he glanced his eyes:
*
* Those who attempt to explain the mythology of the ancients, observe that the Hes.
perides were certain persons who had an immense number of flocks; and that the
ambiguous Greek word anxov, melon, which sometimes signifies an apple and some.
times a sheep, gave rise to the fable of the golden apple of these gardens.
The “Hesperian gardens famed of old,” as Milton observes, were so called from
Hesperus Vesper, because placed in the west, under the evening star. . Some suppose
them to have been situated near Mount Atlas, in Africa; others, maintain that they
were the isles about Cape Verd, whose most westerly point is still callel Jesper??!???
§ the Horn of the Hesperides; while others contend, that they were the Canary
Slands.
Atlas, said to have been contemporary with Moses, was king of Mauritania, in the
north part of Africa, and owner of a thousand flocks of every kind. For refusing hos;
pitality to Perseus, he was “hanged into the mountain that still bears his name ; and
which is so high, that the ancients imagined that the heavens rested upoll its summit.
and, consequently, that Atlas supported the world on his shoulders. Virgil has this
idea, where he speaks of “Atlas, whose brawny back supports the skies;” and He-
5iod, verse 785, advances the same notion:—
“Atlas, so hard necessity ordains,
Crect, the ponderous vault of stars sustains.
Not far from the Hosperides he stantls,
Nor from the load retracts his head or hands.” -
From this very ancient and whimsical notion, Atlas is represented by artists, and in
works of mythology, as an old man hearing the world on his shoulders. Hence it is,
that a collection of maps; embracing the whole world, is called an Atlas.
MAP v.] LYRA. . . " 121
His towering crest was glorious to behold,
His shoulders and his sides were scaled with gold;
Three tongues he brandish’d when he charged his foes;
His teeth stood jaggy in three dreadful rows,
The Tyrians in the den for water sought,
And with their urns explored the hollow vault:
From side to side their empty urns rebound,
And rouse the sleeping serpent with their sound.
Straight he bestirs him, and is seen to rise;
And now with dreadful hissings fills the skies,
And darts his forky tongues, and rolls his glaring eyes. *
The Tyrians drop their vessels in the fright,
All pale and trembling at the hideous sight.
Spire above spire uprear'd in air he stood,
And gazing round him, overlook'd the wood:
Then floating on the ground in circles roll’d;
Then leap'd upon them in a mighty fold.
All their endeavours and their hopes are vain;
Some die entangled in the winding train;
Some are devour’d, or feel a loathsome death, -
Swoll’n up with blasts of pestilential breath.”
Cadmus, beholding such a scene, boldly resolved to avenge, or to share ineur
Yate. He therefore attacked the monster with slings and arrows, and, with the
assistance of Minerva, slew him. He then plucked out his teeth, and sowed
them, at the command of Pallas, in a plain, when they suddenly sprung up into
armed men.
“Pallas adest: motaeque jubet supponere terrae
Viperos dentes, populi incrementa futuri.
Paret: et, ut presso sulcum patefecit aratro,
Spargit humi jussos, mortalia semina dentes.
Inde (fide majus) glebae caepere moveri:
Primaque de sulcis acies apparuit hastaº
Tegmina mox capitum picto nutantia cono.
Existunt : crescitaue seges clypeata virorum.”
Ovid's Met. lib. iii. v. 102.
“He sows the teeth at Pallas's command,
And flings the future people from his hand.
The clods grow warm, and crumble where he sows;
And now the pointed spears advance in rows;
Now nodding plumes appear, and shining crests,
Now the broad shoulders and the rising $reasts;
O'er all the field the breathing harvest swarins,
A growing host ! a crop of men and arms P’
Entertaining worse apprehension from the direful offspring than he had done
from the dragon himself, he was about to fly, when they all fell upon each other,
and were all slain in one promiscuous carnage, except five, who assisted Cadmus
to build the city of BGeotia.
*
LYRA.
THE HARP.—This constellation is distinguished by one of
the most brilliant stars in the northern hemisphere. It is sit-
uated directly south of the first coil of Draco, between the
Swan, on the east, and Hercules, on the west; and when on
the meridian, is almost directly over head.
It contains twenty-one stars, including one of the 1st mag-
nitude, two of the 3d, and as many of the 4th.
By what is the constellation of the Harp distinguished 7 Where is it situated? What
are the number and magnitude of its stars?
122 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [AUG.
“There Lyra, for the brightness of her stars,
More than their number eminent; thrice seven
She counts, and one of these illuminates
The heavens far around, blazing imperia.
In the first order.”
This star, of “the first order, blazing with imperial” lustre,
is called Vega, and sometimes Wega; but more frequently
it is called Lyra, after the name of the constellation.
There is no possibility of mistaking this star for any other.
It is situated 143° S. E. of Etanin, and about 30° N. N. E. of
Ras Alhague and Ras Algethi. It may be certainly known
by means of two small, yet conspicuous stars, of the 5th mag-
nitude, situated about 20 apart, on the east of it, and making
with it a beautiful little triangle, with the angular point at
Lyra. -
The northernmost of these two small stars is marked Epsilon, and the South-
ern one, Zeta. About 29 S. E. of Zeta, and in a line with Lyra, is a star of the
4th magnitude, marked Delta, in the middle of the Harp; and 4° or 5° S. of
Delta, are two stars of the 3d magnitude, about 2° apart, in the garland of the
Harp, forming another triangle, whose vértex is in Delta. The star on the east,
is marked Gamma; that on the west, Beta. If a line be drawn from Etamin
through Lyra, and produced 69 farther, it will reach Beta. s *
This is a variable star, changing from the 3d to nearly the 5th magnitude in the
space ºf a week; it is supposed to have spots on its surface, and to turn on its
axis, like our sun. º
Gamma comes to the meridian 21 minutes after Lyra, and precisely at the
same moment with Epsilon, in the tail of the Eagle, 173° S. of it.
The declination of Lyra is about 3839 N.; consequently,
when on the meridian, it is but 2° S. of the zenith of Hart-
ford. It culminates at 9 o'clock, about the 13th of August.
It is as favourably situated to an observatory at Washington,
as Rastaben is to those in the vicinity of London.
Its surpassing brightness has attracted the admiration of
astronomers in all ages. Manilius, who wrote in the age of
Augustus, thus alludes to it:—
“ONE, placed in front above the rest, displays
A vigorous light and darts surprising rays.” -
- Astronomicon, B. i. p. 15.
HISTORY..—It is generally asserted that this is the celestial Lyre which Apollo
or Mercury gave to Orpheus, and upon which he played with such a masterly
hand, that even the most rapid rivers ceased to flow, the wild beasts of the forest
forgot their wildness, and the mountains came to listen to his song.
Of all the nymphs who used to listen to his song, Eurydice was the only one
who made a deep impression on the musician, and their nuptials were celebra-
ted. Their happiness, however, was short. Aristaeus became enamoured of
‘Eurydice, and as she fied from her pursuer, a serpent, lurking in the grass, bit
her foot, and she died of the wound. Orpheus resolved to recover her, or perish
in the attempt. With his lyre in his hand, he entered the infernal regions, and
gained admission to Pluto. The king of hell was charmed with his strains, the
What is the name of the principal star? Describe its position. By what means may
it be certainly known? What are the names of the two small stars forming the base of
the trianglé 2 Describe the star in the midāle of the Harp, and those with which it
Jorms another triangle. How are the stars in the base of this triangle marked on the
map? How else ſmay. Beta be pointed out 2. What is there remarkable in the appear:
ance of this star? When is Gamma on the meridian 2 What is the declination of
Lyra 3 When does it culminate 2 What ancient poet mentions it? *
f
MAP v.] LYRA. 123
wheel of Ixion stopped, the stone of Sisyphus stood still, Tantalus forgot his
thirst, and even the furies relented.
Pluto and Proserpine were moved, and consented to restore him Eurydice,
provided he forbore looking behind him till he had come to the extremest bor-
ders of their dark dominions. The condition was accepted, and Orpheus was
already in sight of the upper regions of the air, when he forgot, and turned back
to look at his long lost Eurydice. He saw her, but she instantly vanished from
his sight. He attempted again to follow her, but was refused admission.
From this time, Orpheus separated himself from the society of mankind, which
so offended the Thracian women, it is said, that they tore his body to pieces, and
threw his head into the Hebrus, still articulating the words Euridice TEurydice ]
as it was carried down the stream into the Ægean sea. Orpheus was one of the
Argonauts, of which celebrated expedition he wrote a poetical account, which is
still extant. After his death, he received divine honours, and his lyre became
one of the constellations.
This fable, or allegory, designed merely to represent the power of music in
the hands of the great master of the science, is similarly described by three of
the most renowned Latin poets. Virgil, in the fourth book of his Georgics, thus
describes the effect of the lyre :—
“E’en to the dark dominions of the night
He took his way, through forests void of light,
And dared amid the trembling ghosts to sing,
And stood before the inexorable king.
The infernal troops like passing shadows glide,
And listening, crowd the sweet musician's side;
Men, matrons, children, and the unmarried maid,
The mighty hero's more majestic shade,
And youth, on funeral piles before their parents laid.
E’en from the depths of hell the damn’d advance;
The infernal mansions, nodding, seem to dance;
The gaping three-mouth’d dog forgets to snarl;
The furies hearken, and their snakes uncurl;
Ixion, seems no more his pain to feel,
But leans attentive on his standing wheel.
All dangers past, at length the lonely bride
In safety goes, with her melodious guide.”
º: and his followers represent Apollo playing upon a harp of seven
strings, by which is meant (as appears from Pliny, b. ii. c. 22—Macrobius i. c.
19, and Censorinus c. ii.) the sun in conjunction with the seven planets; for they
made him the leader of that septemary chorus, and the moderator of nature, and
thought that by his attractive force he acted upon the planets in the harmonical
ratio of their distances. g
The doctrine of celestial harmony, by which was meant the music of the
spheres, was common to all the nations of the East. To this divine music Euri-
pides beautifully alludes:—“Thee I invoke, thou self-created Being, who gave
birth to Nature, and whom light and darkness, and the whole train of globes en-
circle with eternal music.”—So also Shakspeare :- *
“Look, how the floor of heaven
Is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold;
There's not the smallest orb, which thou behold'st,
But in his motion like an angel sings,
Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubim:
Such harmony is in immortal souls;
But, whilst this muddy vesture of decay
Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it.”
The lyre was a famous stringed instrument, much used among the ancients,
said to have been invented by Mercury about the year of the world 2000; though
some ascribe the invention to Jubal. (Genesis iv. 21.) It is universally allowed,
that the lyre was the first instrument of the string kind ever used in Greece.
The different lyres, at various periods of time, had from four to eighteen strings
each. The modern lyre is the Welsh harp The lyre, among painters, is an
attribute of Apollo ºthe Muses. * -*
All poetry, it has been conjectured, was in its origin lyric.; that is: adapted to
recitation or song, with the accompaniment of music and distinguished by the
i
124 .- PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [AUG.
\
as
utraost boldness of thought and expression; being at first employed in celebra.
ting the praises of gods and heroes.
Lesbos was the principal seat of the Lyric Muse; and Terpander, a native of
this island, who flourished about 650 years B. C., is one of the earliest of the
lyric poets whose name we find on record. Sappho, whose misſortunes have
united with her talents to render her name memorable, was born at Mitylene, the
chief city of Lesbos. She was reckoned a tenth muse, and placed without con-
troversy at the head of the female writers in Greece. But Pindar, a native of
Thebes, who flourished about 500 years B. C., is styled the prince of lyric poets.
To him his fellow-citizens erected a monument; and when the Lacedemonians
ravaged Boeotia, and burnt the capital, the following words were written upon
#. door of the poet: ForbBAR. To BURN THis House. It was THE Dwelling of
INT) AR.
SAGIT TARIUS.
THE ARCHER.—This is the ninth sign and the tenth con-
stellation of the Zodiac. It is situated next east of Scorpio,
with a mean declination of 350 S. or 12° below the ecliptic.
The sun enters this sign on the 22d of November, but does
not reach the constellation before the 7th of December.
It occupies a considerable space in the southern hemisphere,
and contains a number of subordinate, though very conspicu-
ous stars. The whole number of its visible stars is sixty-
nine, including five of the 3d magnitude, and ten of the 4th.
It may be readily distinguished by means of five stars of
the 3d and 4th magnitudes, forming a figure resembling a
little short, straight-handled Dipper, turned nearly bottom up-
wards, with the handle to the west, familiarly called the
Milk-Dipper, because it is partly in the Milky-Way.
This little figure is so conspicuous that it cannot easily be
mistaken. It is situated about 33° E. of Antares, and comes
to the meridian a few minutes after Lyra, on the 17th of Au-
gust. Of the four stars forming the bowl of the Dipper, the
two upper ones are only 3° apart, and the lower ones 59.
The two smaller stars forming the handle, and extending westerly about 439,
and the easternmost one in the Bowiefthe Dipper, are all of the 4th magnitude.
The star in the end of the handle, is marked Lambda, and is placed in the bow
of Sagittarius, just within the Milky-Way. Lambda may otherwise be known
by its being nearly in a line with two other stars about 44° apart, extending to-
wards the S. E. It is also equidistant from Phi and Delta, with which it makes
a handsome triangle, with the vertex in Lambda. About 5° above Lambda, and
a little to the west, are two stars close together, in the end of the bow, the bright-
est of which is of the 4th magnitude, and marked Mu. This star serves to point
out the winter solstice, being about 2° N. of the tropic of Capricorn, and less
than one degree east of the solstitial colure. + •
If a line be drawn from Sigma through Phi, and produced about 69 farther to
the west, it will point out Delta, and produced about 39 from Delta, it will point
out Gamma; stars of the 3d magnitude, in the arrow. The lattér is in the point
What is the order in the Zodiac, of Sagittarius? How is it situated? When does
the sun appear to enter this constellation? What are its extent and appearance? What
are the number and magnitude of its stars? How may it be readily distinguished?
What is this figure called, and why? Where is this figure to be found, and when is it
on the meridian? How far apart are the two upper stars in the bowl of the Dipper?
How far apart are the two lower ones? Describé £he stars in the handle. Describe the
Tosition of Lambda. How may Lambda be otherwise known? With what other stars
does it form a handsome triangle? Describe the position of Mu. How may Delta and
Gamma be pointed out?
sº
MAP v.] AQUILA. ET ANTINOUS. 125
* t *
of the arrow, and may be known by means of a small star just above it, on the
right. This star is so nearly on the same meridian with Etanin, in the head of
Draco, that it culminates only two minutes after it.
A few other conspicuous stars in this constellation, forming a variety of geo-
metrical figures, may be easily traced from the inap.
HISTORY..—This constellation, it is said, commemorates the famous Centaur
Chiron, son of Philyra and Saturn, who changed himself into a horse, to elude
the jealous inquiries of his wife Rhea.
Chiron was famous for his knowledge of music, medicine, and shooting. He
taught mankind the use of plants and medicinal herbs; and instructed, in all the
polite arts, the greatest heroes of his age. He taught Æsculapius physic;
Apollo music; and Hercules astronomy; and was tutor to Achilles, Jason, and
zºneas. According to Ovid, he was slain by Hercules, at the river Evenus, for
ºffering indignity to his newly married bride. ;
“Thou monster double shap’d, my right set free—
Swift as his words, the fatal arrow flew;
The Centaur’s back admits the feather'd wood,
And through his breast the barbed weapon stood;
Which, when in anguish, through the flesh he tore,
From both the wounds gush’d forth the spumy gore.”
The arrow which Hercules thus sped at the Centaur, having been dipped in
she blood of the Lernaºan Hydra, rendered the wound incurable, even by the
father of medicine himself, and he begged Jupiter to deprive him of immortality,
if thus he might escape his excruciating pains. Jupiter granted his request, and
translated him to a place among the constellations.
“Midst golden stars he stands refulgent now
And thrusts the scorpion with his bended bow.”
This is the Grecian account of Sagittarius; but as this constellation appears on
the ancient zodiacs of Egypt, Dendera, Esme, and India, it seems conclusive that
the Greeks only borrowed the figure, while they invented the fable. This is
known to be true with respect to very many of the ancient constellations.
Hence the jargon of the conflicting accounts which have descended to us.
AQUILA, ET ANTINOUS.
THE EAGLE, AND ANTINous.--This double constellation is
situated directly south of the Fox and Goose, and between
Taurus Poniatowski on the west, and the ‘Dolphin, on the
east. It contains seventy-one stars, including one of the 1st
magnitude, nine of the 3d, and seven of the 4th. It may be
readily distinguished by the position and superior brilliancy
of its principal star.
Altair, the principal star in the Eagle, is of the 1st, or be-
tween the 1st and 2d magnitudes. It is situated about 149 S.
W. of Dolphin. It may be known by its being the largest
and middle one of the three bright stars which are arranged
in a line bearing N. W. and S. E. The stars on each side
of Altair, are of the 3d magnitude, and distant from it about
2°. This row of stars very much resembles that in the
Guards of the Lesser Bear.

How is Gamma situated with respect to Etaning In what part of the heavens is the
Eagle situated? ...What are the number and magnitude of its stars? How is it distin-
guished? Describe its principal star. How may it be known? What is the magnitude
of the stars on each side of Altair? How far distant from it are they? What row of
...rs does this row resemble? Sie
- 1 1
126 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [AUG.
*
Altair is one of the stars from which the moon’s distance
is taken for computing longitude at sea. Its mean declination
is nearly 83° N., and when on the meridian, it occupies
nearly the same place in the heavens that the sum does at
noon on the 12th day of April. It culminates about 6 minutes
before 9 o'clock, on the last day of August. It rises acrony-
cally about the beginning of June.
Ovid alludes to the rising of this constellation; or, more probably, to that of
the principal star, Altair:-
—“Now view the skies,
And you’ll behold Jove's hook’d-bill bird arise.”
Massey's Fasti.
— “Among thy splendid group
ONE dubious whether of the second RANK,
Or to the FIRST entitled ; but whose claim
Seems to deserve the FIRST.” -*
t Eudosia.
The northernmost star in the lime, next above Altair, is called Tarazed. In
the wing of the Eagle, there is another row composed of three stars, situated 4°
or 5° apart, extending down towards the southwest; the middle one in this line
is the smallest, being only of the 4th magnitude; the next is of the 3d magnitude,
marked Delta, and situated 89 S.W. of Altair,
As you proceed from Delta, there is another line of three stars of the 3d mag-
nitude, between 5° and 6° apart, extending southerly, but curving a little to the
west, which mark the youth Antinous. The northern wing of the Eagle is not
distinguished by any conspicuous stars.
Zeta and Epsilon. of the 3d magnitude, situated in the tail of the Eagle, are
about 29 apart, and 12° N. W. of Altair. The last one in the tail, marked Epsi-
lº # on the same meridian, and culminates the same moment with Gamma, in
the Harl). -
rººpsilon, in the tail of the Eagle, to Theta, in the wrist of Antinous, may
be traced a long line of stars, chiefly of the 3d magnitude, whose letter names
are Theta, Eta, Mu, Zeta, and Epsilon. The direction of this line is from S. E.
to N. W., and its length is about 25°.
Eta is remarkable for its changeable appearance. Its greatest brightness con-
tinues but 40 hours; it then gradually diminishes for 66 hours when its lustre
remains stationary for 30 hours. It then waxes brighter and brighter, until it
appears again as a star of the 3d magnitude. •
From these phenomena, it is inferred that it not only has spots on its surface,
like our sun, but that it also turns on its axis. *
Similar phenomena are observable in Algol, Beta, in the Hare, Delta, in Ce-
pheus, and Omicron, in the Whale, and many others.
“Aquila the next,
Divides the ether with her ardent wing:
Beneath the Swan, nor far from Pégasus,
PoETIC EAGLE.”
HISTORY..—Aquila, or the Eagle, is a constellation usually joined with Antinous.
Aquila, is supposed to have been Merops, a king of the island of Cos, in the Ar-
chipelago, and the husband of Clymerſe, the mother of Phaeton; this monarch
having been transformed into an eagle, and placed among the constellations.
Some have imagined that Aquila was the eagle whose form Jupiter assumed
when he carried away Ganymede; others, that it represents the eagle which
brought nectar to Jupiter while he lay concealed in the cave at Crete, to avoid
Of what importance is this star at sea? What is its declination? What place does
it occupy in the heavens when on the meridian, and when does it culminate? When
does it rise acronycally? Describe the position of Tarazed. Describe the roup of stars
in the wing of the Eagle. Describe the row qf stars which mark the youth Antinous.
What stars tº the ºorthern wing 2. Describe Zeta and Epsilon, Hºhen is Epsilon on
the meridian 2 What long ºne of stars terminates at Epsilon 2 What are the direc-
tion and eatent of this line? Describe the remarkable appearance of Eta. What is
triferred from these phenomena? - …
MAP v.] DELPHINUS. 127
the fury of his father, Saturn. Some of the ancient poets say, that this is the
eagle which furnished Jupiter with weapons in his war with the giants:—
“Trie tow’ring Eagle next doth boldly soar, p
As if the thunder in his claws he bore;
He’s Worthy Jove, since he, a bird, supplies
The heaven with sacred bolts, and arms the skies.”
Manilius.
The eagle is justly styled the “sovereign of birds,” since he is the largest,
strongest, and swiftest of all the feathered tribe that live by prey. Homer calls
the eagle, “the strong sovereign of the plumy race;” Horace styles him—
“The royal bird, to whom the king of heaven
The empire of the feather'd race has given :” t
And Milton denominates the eagle the “Bird of Jove.” Its sight is quick.
strong and piercing, to a proverb: Job xxix. 28, &c.
“'Though strong the hawk, though practis'd well to fly,
An eagle drops her in the lower sky;
An eagle when deserting human sight,
She seeks the sun in her unwearied flight;
Did thy command her yellow pinion liſt
So high in air, and set her on the cliſt
Where ſar above thy world she dwells alone,
And proudly makes the strength of rocks her own;
Thence wide o'er mature takes her dread survey,
And with a glance predestinates her prey !
She feasts her young with blood; and höv'ring o'er
Th’ unslaughter'd host, enjoys the promis'd gore.”
ANTINOUS.
Antin ous is a part of the constellation Aquila, and was invented by Tycho
Brahe. Antinous was a youth of Bithynia, in Asia Minor. So greatly was his
oeath lamented by the emperor Adrian, that he erected a temple to his memory,
an fruilt in honour of him a splendid city, on the banks of the Nile, the ruins of
w” ºn are still visited by travellers with much interest.
/
* C H A P T E R X [.
JIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN SDPTEMBER.
DELPHINUS.
THE Dolphin.—This beautiful little cluster of stars is sit-
uated 139 or 14° N. E. of the Eagle. It consists of eighteen
stars, including five of the 3d magnitude, but none larger. It
is easily distinguished from all others, by means of the four
principal stars in the head, which are so arranged as to form
the figure of a diamond, pointing N. E. and S. W. To many,
this cluster is known by the name of Job’s Coffin; but from
whom, or from what fancy, it first obtained this appellation,
is not known.
Where is the constellation Delphinus situated? What are the number and magni-
tute of its stars? How is this constellation distinguished flom all others? What sin-
gular name is sometimes given to this cluster, and whence was it derived?
128 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [sept.
There is another star of the 2d magnitude, situated in the
body of the Dolphin, about 39 S.W. of the Diamond, and
marked Epsilon. The other four are marked Alpha, Beta,
Gamma, Delta. Between these are several smaller stars, too
small to be seen in presence of the moon.
The mean declination of the Dolphin is about 15° N.
It comes to the meridian the same moment with Deneb
Cygni, and about 50 minutes after Altair, on the 16th of
September. -
“Thee I behold, majestic Cygnus,
On the Inarge dancing of the heavenly sea,
Arion's friend; eighteen thy stars appear—
One telescopic.”
HISTORY..—The Dolphin, according to some mythologists, was made a constel-
lation by Neptune, because one of these beautiful fishes had persuaded the god-
dess Amphitrite, who had made a vow of perpetual celibacy, to become the wife
of that deity; but others maintain, that it is the dolphin which preserved the
"famous lyric poet and musician Arion, who was a native of Lesbos, an island in
the Archipelago.
He went to Italy with Periander, tyrant of Corinth, where he obtained immense
riches by his profession, Wishing to revisit his native country, the sailors of
the ship in which he embarked, resolved to murder him, and get possession of
his wealth. Seeing them immoveable in their resolution, Arion begged permis-
sion to play a tune upon his lute before he should be put to death. The melody
of the instrument attracted a unimber of dolphins around the ship; he immedi-
ately precipitated himself into the sea; when one of them, it is asserted, carried
him safe on his back to Taenarus, a promontory of Laconia, in Peloponnesus;
whence he hastened to the court of Periander, who ordered all the sailors to be
crucified at their return.
“But, (past belief) a dolphin's arched back
Preserved Arion from his destined wrack;
Secure he sits, and with harmonious strains
Requites his bearer ſor his friendly pains.”
When the famous poet Hesiod was murdered in Naupactum, a city of Ætolia,
in Greece, and his body thrown into the sea, some dolphins, it is said, brought
back the floating corpse to the shore, which was immediately recognised by his
friends ; and the assassins being afterwards discovered by thc dogs of the de-
parted bard, were put to death, by intmersion in the same sea.
Taras, said by some to have been the ſounder of Tarentum, now Tarento, in
the south of Italy, was saved from shipwreck by a dolphin; and the inhabitants
of that city preserved the memory of this extraordinary event on their coin.
The natural shape of the dolphin, however, is not incurvated, so that one
might ride upon its back, as the poefs imagined, but almost straight. When it
is first taken from the water, it exhibits a variety of exquisitely beautiful but
evanescent tints of colour, that pass in succession over its body until it dies.
They are an extremely swift-swimming fish, and are capable of living a long
time out of water; in fact, they seem to delight to gambol, and leap out of their
native element,
“Upon the swelling waves the dolphins show
Their bending backs; then swiftly darting go,
And in a thousand wreaths their bodies show.”
CYGNU.S.
THE Swan.—This remarkable constellation is situated in
the Milky-Way, directly E. of Lyra, and nearly on the same
Mention some other stars in the Dolphin, What is the mean declination of the Dol-
phin, and when is it on the meridian? In what part of the heavens is the constellation
Cygnus situated?
MAP v.] CYGNU.S. - 129
meridian with the Dolphin. It is represented on outspread
wings, flying down the Milky-Way, towards the southwest.
The principal stars which mark the wings, the body and
the bill of Cygnus, are so arranged, as to form a large and
regular Cross ; the upright piece lying along the Milky-
Way from N. E. to S. W., while the cross piece, repre-
senting the wings, crosses the other at right angles, from
S. E. to N. W. -
Arided, or Deneb Cygni, in the body of the Swan, is a
star of the 1st magnitude, 240 E. N. E. of Lyra, and 300 di-
rectly N. of the Dolphin. It is the most brilliant star in the
constellation. It is situated at the upper end of the cross,
and comes to the meridian at 9 o'clock, on the 16th of Sep-
tember.
Sadºr, is a star of the 3d magnitude, 6° S. W. of Deneb, situated exactly in the
º or where the upright piece intersects the cross piece, and is about 20°F.
Of Lyra. -
Delta, the principal star in the west wing, or arm of the cross, is situated N.
W. of Sadºr, at the distance of little more than S9, and is of the 3d magnitude.
Beyond Delta, towards the extremity of the wing, are two smaller stars about 5°
apart, and inclining a little obliquely to the north ; the last of which reaches
nearly to the first coil of Draco. These stars mark the west wing; the east wing
may be traced by means of stars very similarly situated.
Giemah, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the east wing, just as far east of Sad’r
in the centre of the cross, as Delta is west of it. This row of three equal stars,
Delta, Sad’r, and Gienah, form the bar of the cross, and are equidistant from
each other, being about 8° apart. Beyond Gienah on the east, at the distance of
69 or 79 there are two other stars of the 3d magnitude; the last of which marks
the extremity of the eastern wing.
The stars in the neck are all too small to be noticed. There is one, however,
in the beak of the Swan, at the foot of the cross, called Allièreo, which is of the
3d magnitude, and can be seen very plainly. It is about 16° S. W. of Sad’r, and
about the same distance S. E. of Lyra, with which it Imakes nearly a right angle.
“In the small space between Sad'r and Albireo,” says Dr. Herschel, “the stars
in the Milky-Way seem to be clustering into two separate divisions; each divi-
sion containing more than one hundred and sirty-five thousand stars.”
Albireo bears northerly from Altair about 20°. Immediately south and south-
east of Albireo, may be seen the Fox and Goose ; and about midway between
Albireo and Altair, there may be traced a line of four or five Iminute stars, called
the ARRow; the head of which is on the S. W., and can be distinguished by
means of two stars situated close together. -
According to the British catalogue, this constellation con-
tains eighty-one stars, including one of the 1st or 2d mag-
nitude, six of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. The author
of the following beautiful lines, says there are one hundred
and seven.
“Thee, silver Swan, who, silent, can o’erpass?
A hundred with seven radiant stars compose
Thy graceful ſorm: amid the lucid stream
How is it represented? What remarkable figure is formed by its principal stars?
Describe the position and appearance of Arided, or Deneb Cygni. When does it cul-
minate at 9 o'clock? Describe the position of Sad"r. Describe Delta. What stars be:
yond Delta? What stars in the east wing 2 What stars form the bar of the cross 2
What stars beyond Gienah on the east 2 Describe the stars in the neck and bill of the
Swan. How is the star in the bill situated with respect to Sad'r and Lyra & º
clusters south and southeast of Albire0? What are the number and magnitude of the
stars in the Swan 3 -
*
130 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [SEPT.
Of the fair Milky-Way distinguish'd; one
Adorns the second order, where she cuts
The waves that follow in her utmost track;
This never hides its fire throughout the night,
And of the rest, the more conspicuous mark -
Her Snowy pinions and refulgent neck.”—Eudosia, b. iv.
Astronomers have discovered three variable stars in the Swan. Chi, situated
in the neck, between Beta and Sad’r, was first observed to vary its brightness,
in 1686. Its periodical changes of light are now ascertained to be completed in
405 days. Sad” is also changeable. Its greatest lustre is somewhat less than that
of a star of the 3d magnitude, and it gradually diminishes till it reaches that of
the 6th. Its changes are far from being regular, and, from present observations,
they do not seem to recur till after a period of ten years or more.
A third variable star was discovered in the head on the 20th of June, 1670, by
Anthelme. It appeared then to be of the 3d magnitude, but was so far diminished
in the following October, as to be scarcely visible. In the beginning of April
1671, it was again seen, and was rather brighter than at first. After sever
changes, it disappeared in March, 1672, and has not been observed since.
These remarkable facts seem to indicate, that there is a brilliant planetary
system in this constellation, which, in some of its revolutions, becomes visible
to Uls.
History.—Mythologists give various accounts of the origin of this constella-
tion. Some suppose it is Orpheus, the celebrated musician, who, on being mur-
dered by the cruel priestess of Bacchus, was changed into a Swan, and placed
near his Harp in the heavens. Others suppose it is the swan into which Jupiter
tº when he deceived Leda, wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta.
Some affirm that it was Cicnus, a son of Neptune, who was so completely invul-
nerable that neither the javelins nor arrows, nor even the blows of Achilles, in
furious combat, could make any impressiqn.
“Headlong he leaps from off his lofty car,
And in close fight on foot renews the war;--
But on his flesh nor wound nor blåbd is seen,
The sword itself is blunted on the skin.”
But when Achilles saw that his darts and blows had no effect on him, he im.
mediately threw him on the ground and smothered him. While he was attempt-
ing to despoil him of his firmour, he was suddenly changed into a swan.
“With eager haste he went to strip the dead;
The vanish’d body from his arms was fled.
His seagod sire, tº immortalize his fame,
Had turn’d it to a bird that bears his name.”
According to Ovid this constellation took its name from Cygnus, a relative of
Phaeton, who deeply lamented the untimely fate of that youth, and the melan-
; end of his sisters, who, standing around his tomb, wept themselves into
poplars.
“Cicnus beheld the nymphs transform’d, allied
To their dead brother on the mortal side,
In friendship and affection nearer bound;
He left the cities, and the realms he own’d,
Through pathless fields, and lonely shores to range;
• And woods made thicker by the sisters’ change,
Whilst here, within the dismal gloom alone,
The melancholy monarch made his moan;
His voice was lessen’d as he tried to speak,
And issued through a long-extended neck:
His hair transforms to down, his fingers meet
In skinny films, and shape his oary feet;
From both his sides the wings and feathers break:
And from his motith proceeds a blunted beak: º
All Cicnus now into a swan was turn’d.”—Ovid's Met. b. ii. ,
What variable stars have astronomers discovered in this constellation? Which ºf
these was first discovered to be variable in 1686 In what period are its periodical
changes of light completed? Describe the appearance of Sadr. Describe the one dia.
covered in 1670. What do these remarkable facts indicate?
MAP v.] CAPRICORNUS. . 131
Virgil, also, in the 10th book of his AEneid, alludes to the same fable:-
“For Cicnus loved unhappy Phaeton,
And sung his loss in poplar groves alone,
Beneath the sister shades to sooth his grief;
Heaven heard his song, and hasten’d his relief;
And changed to Snowy plumes his hoary hair,
* And wing’d his flight to sing aloft in air.” -
Of all the feathered race, there is no bird, perhaps, which makes so beautiful
and majestic an appearance as the swan. ost every poet of eminence has
taken notice of it. The swan has, probably, in all ages, and in every country
where taste and elegance have been cultivated, been considered as the emblem
of poetical dignity, purity, and ease. By the ancients it was consecrated to Apollo
and the Muses; they also entertained a notion that this bird foretold its own end,
and sang more sweetly at the approach of death.
“She, like the swan
Expiring, dies in melody.”—AEschylus.
“So on the silver stream, when death is nigh, . & 8 º'
The mournful swan sings its own elegy.”—Ovid, Tristia.
**
CAPRICORNU.S.
THE GoAT.—This is the tenth sign, and eleventh constel-
lation, in the order of the Zodiac, and is situated south of the
Dolphin, and next east of Sagittarius. Its mean declination
is 200 south, and its mean right ascension, 310°. It is there-
fore on the meridian about the 18th of September. It is to
be observed that the first point of the sign Capricorn, not the
constellation, marks the southern tropic, or winter solstice.
The sun, therefore, arrives at this point of its orbit the 21st
of December, but does not reach the constellation Capricorn
until the 16th of January. •
The sun, having now attained its utmost declination south,
after remaining a few days apparently stationary, begins once
more to retrace its progress northwardly, affording to the
wintry latitudes of the north, a grateful presage of returning
Spring.
At the period of the winter solstice, the sun is vertical to
the tropic of Capricorn, and the southern hemisphere enjoys
the same light and heat which the northern hemisphere en-
joys on the 21st of June, when the sun is vertical to the tropic
of Cancer. It is, at this period, mid-day at the south pole,
and midnight at the north pole.
The whole number of stars in this constellation is fifty-
one ; none of which are very conspicuous. The three largest
are only of the 3d magnitude. There is an equal number
of the 4th. ".
Where is Capricornus situated? What are its mean right ascension and declination?
When is the main body of the constellation on the meridian A When does the Sun enter
the sign, and when the constellation Capricorn? Does the sun ever extend beyond
this point into the southern hemisphere 3 What is the position of the sun with re-
spect to the tropic of Capricorn, at the winter solstice, and what are the seasons in
the two hemispheres? hat are the number and magnitude of the stars in this con-
stellation? d *
132 * PICTURE OF THE HEAVENs. [SEPT.
The head of Capricorn may be recognised by means of
two stars of the 3d magnitude, situated a little more than 20
apart, called Giedi and Dabih. They are 289 from the Dol-
phin, in a southerly direction.
Giedi is the most northern star of the two, and is double.
If a line be drawn from Lyra through Altair, and produced
about 23° farther, it will point out the head of Capricorn.
These two stars come to the meridian the 9th of September,
a few minutes after Sad’r, in Cygni.
A few other stars, of inferior note may be traced out by
reference to the maps. -
The sign of the Goat was called by the ancient oriental-
ists the “Southern gate of the Sun,” as Cancer was denom-
inated the “Northern gate.” The ten stars in the sign Ca-
pricorn, known to the ancients by the name of the “Tower
of Gad,” are probably now in the constellation Aquarius.
HISTORY..—Capricornus is said to be Pan, or Bacchus, who, with some other
deities were feasting near the banks of the Nile, when suddenly the dreadful
giant Typhon came upon thein, and compelled them all to assume a different
shape, in order to escape his fury. Ovid relates,
“How Typhon, ſrom the conquer'd skies, pursued
Their routed godheads to the seven-mouth’d flood:
Forced every gºd, (his fury to escape,)
Some beastly form to take, or earthly shape.
Jove (sings the bard) was chang'd into a ram,
From whence the horns of Lybian Ammon came.
Bacchus (, goat, Apollo was a crow ;
Phoebe a cat; the wiſe of Jove a cow,
Whose hue was whiter than the falling snow
Mercury to a nasty Ibis turned—
While Venus fi om a fish protection craves,
And once more plunges in her native waves.”
On this occasion it is further related that Bacchus, or Pan, led the way and
plunged into the Nile, and that the part of his body which was under the water,
assumed the form of a fish, and the other part that of a goat; and that to pre-
serve the memory of this frolic, Jupiter made him into a constellation, in his
metamorphosed shape.
Some say that this constellation was the goat Amalthea, who supported the in-
fant Jupiter with her milk. To reward her kindness, the father of the gods
placed her among the constellations, and gave one of her horns to the ny uphs
who had taken care of him in his infantile years. This gift was ever after called
the horn of plenty; as it possessed the virtue of imparting to the holder what-
ever she desired.”
The real sense of this fable, divested of poetical embellishment, appears to be
this; that in Crete, some say in Lybia, there was a small territory shaped very
much like a bullock’s horn, and exceedingly fertile, which the king presented
to his daughter Amalthea, whom the poets ſeigned to have been Jupiter's nurse.
“The bounteous Pan,” as he is styled by Milton, was the god of rural scenery,
shepherds, and huntsmen. Virgil thus addresses him:—
* On this account the Latin term Cornucopia, denotes plenty, or abundance of good
things. The word Amalthea, when used figuratively, has also the same meaning.
How may it be recognised? How are Giedi and Dabih situated with respect to the
Dolphin? How are these two stars distinguished from each other, and what is their
position in respect to the Eagle When are they on our meridian? What were the
signs º and Cancer originally called? Where are the ten stars, known to the
ancients by the name of the “Tower of Gad,” now to be found?
MAP II. J - PEGASUS. r #33
‘And thou, the shepherd's tultelary god
Leave, for a while, O Pan thy loved abode.”
The name of Pam is derived from a Greek word signifying all things; and he
was often considered as the great principle of vegetable and animal life. He re-
sided chiefly in Arcadia, in woods and the most rugged mountains. As Pan
usually terrified the inhabitants of the adjacent country, even when he was no-
where to be seen, that kind of fear which often seizes men, and which is only
ideal or imaginary, has received from him the name of Panic. - *
CHAPTER x II.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON
THE MERIDIAN IN OCTOBER.
PEGASUS.
THE FLYING HoRSE-This constellation is represented in
an Inverted posture, with wings. It occupies a large space
in the heavens, between the Swan, the Dolphin and the
Eagle, on the west, and the Northern Fish ánd Andromeda,
on the east. Its mean right ascension is 340°, or it is situa-
ted 20° W. of the prime meridian. It extends from the
equinoctial N. 35°. Its mean length E. and W. is about 40°,
and it is six weeks in passing Our meridian, viz. from the 1st
of October to the 10th of November.
We see but a part of Pegasus, the rest of the animal,
being, as the poets imagined, hid in the clouds.
It is readily distinguished from all other constellations by
means of four remarkable stars, about 15° apart, forming the
figure of a square, called the square of Pegasus. The two
western stars in this square come to the meridian about the
23d of October, and are 13° apart. The northern one, which
is the brightest of three triangular stars in the martingale, is
of the 2d magnitude, and is called Scheat. Its declination is
26% o N. Markab, also of the 2d magnitude, situated in the
bead of the wing, is 13° S. of Scheat, and passes the meri-
dian 11 minutes after it. \ *

* Pales, the female deity corresponding to Pan, was the goddess of sheepfolds and
of pastures among the Romans. Thus Virgil –
&
“Now, sacred Pales, in a lofty strain,
I sing the rural honours of thy reign.”
The shepherds offered to this goddess milk and honey, to gain her protection over
their flocks. She is represented as an old woman, and was worshipped with great
solemnity at Rome. Her festivals which were called Palilia, were celebrated on the
20th of April, the day on which Romulus laid the foundations of the city.
How is Pegasus represented? What-space and position does it occupy in the hea-
vens ! What are the distance and direction of its centre from the prime meridian?
what are its mean length and breadthq . How long is it in passing our meridian!
When does it pass the meridian How is this constellation distinguished from all
others? DCscribe the two Stars Which º the West side of the square?
134 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [oCT.
The two stars which form the eastern side of the square,
come to the meridian about an hour after those in the western.
The northern one has already been described as Alpheratz
in the head of Andromeda, but it also belongs to this constel-
lation, and is 14° E. of Scheat. 14° S. of Alpheratz, is Al-
genib, the last star in the wing, situated 1639 E. of Markab.
Algenib, in Pegasus, Alphératz, in Andromeda, and Caph in Cassiopeia are
situated on the prime meridian, and point out its direction through the pole. For
this reason, they are sometimes called the three guides. They form an arc of
that great circle in the heavens from which the distances of all the heavenly bo-
dies are measured. It is an arc of the equinoctial colure which passes through
the vernal equinox, and which the sun crosses about the 21st of March. It is, in
astronomy, what the meridian of Greenwich is in geography. If the sun, or a
planet, or a star, be said to have so many degrees of right ascension, it Imeans
that the sun or planet has ascended so many degrees from this prime Irieridian.
Eniſ, sometimes called Emir, is a star of the 3d magnitude in the nose of Pe-
gasus, about 20° W. S. W. of Markab, and halfway between it and the 1)olphin,
About # of the distance from Markab towards Eniſ, but a little to the S., there is
a star of the 3d magnitude situated in the neck, whose letter name is Zeta. The
loose cluster directly S. of a line joining Enif and Zeta, forms the head of Pe-
gaSuS.
in this constellation, there are eighty-nine stars visible to
the naked eye, of which three are of the second magnitude
*
and three of the third.
HISTORY.—This, according to fable, is the celebrated horse which sprung from
the blood of Medusa, after Perseus had cut off her head. He received his name
according to Hesiod, from his being born near the sources (ºrh)º, Pege) of the
ocean. According to Ovid, he fixed his residence on Mount Helicon, where by
striking the earth with his foot, he raised.the fabled fountain called Hippocrene.
He became the favourite of the Muses; and being famed by Neptune or Mi-
nerva, he was given to Bellerophon, son of Glaucus, king of Ephyre, to aid him
in conquering the Chimaera, a hideous monster that continually vomited flames.
This monster had three heads, that of a lion, a goat, and a dragon. The fore
parts of its body were those of a lion, the middle those of a goat, and the hinder
those of the dragon. It lived in Lycia, of which the top, on account of its deso-
late wilderness, was the resort of lions, the middle, which was fruitful, was cow-
ered with goats, and at the bottom, the marshy ground abounded with serpents.
Bellerophon was the first who made his habitation upon it.
... Plutarch thinks the Chimaera was the captain of some pirates who adorned
their ship with the images of a lion, a goat, and a dragon.
After the destruction of this monster, Bellerophon attempted to fly up to hea-
ven upon Pegasus; but Jupiter was so displeased at this presumption, that he
sent an insect to sting the horse, which occasioned the melancholy fall of his
rider. Bellerophon fell to the earth, and Pegasus continued his flight up to hea-
ven, and was placed by Jupiter among the constellations.
“Now heav'n his further wand'ring flight confines,
Where, splendid with his num’rous stars, he shines.”
- Ovid's Fast.
&========= /
EQUULUS, VEL EQUISECTIO.
THE LITTLE HORSE, OR THE HORSE’s HEAD.—This Aste-
rism, or small cluster of stars, is situated about 7° W. of
Emif, in the head of Pegasus, and about halfway between it
Describe the two on the east side. What is the name of the star in the N. E. corner
of the square?. In the S. E. corner? In the S. W. corner? In the N. W. corner De-
scribe the position and magnitude of Erzäf. What is the whole number of stars in
; p *: # the magnitude of the principal ones? Describe the situation of the
Yê Llú.16. HOTS6 -
MAP II.] AQUARIUS. 135
and the Dolphin. It is on the meridian at 8 o’clock, on the
11th of October. It contains ten stars, of which the four
principal are only of the 4th magnitude. These may be
readily distinguished by means of the long irregular square
which they form. The two in the nose, are much nearer to-
gether than the two in the eyes; the former being 1° apart,
and the latter 24°. Those in the nose are uppermost, being
40 N. of those in the eyes. This figure also is in an inverted
position. These four stars are situated 100 or 120 S. E. of
the diamond in the Dolphin’s head. Both of these clusters,
are noticeable on account of their figure rather than their
brilliancy. r
History.—This constellation is supposed to be the brother of Pegasus, named
Celeris, given by Mercury to Castor, who was so celebrated for his skill in the
management of horses; others take him to be the celebrated horse which Nep-
tune struck out of the earth with his trident, when he disputed with Minerva for
superiority. The head only of Celeris is visible, and this, also, is represented
in an inverted position.
AQUARIUS.
THE WATER-BEARER.—This constellation is represented
by the figure of a man, pouring out water from an urn. It is
situated in the Zodiac, immediately S. of the equinoctial,
and bounded by the Little Horse, Pegasus, and the Western
Fish on the N., the Whale on the E., the Southern Fish on
the S. and the Goat on the W. It is now the 12th in order,
or last of the Zodiacal constellations; and is the name of the
11th sign in the ecliptic. Its mean declination is 14° S. and
its mean right ascension 335°, or 22 hours, 20 min. ; it being
1 hour and 40 min. W. of the equinoctial colure; its centre
is, therefore, on the meridian the 15th of October.
It contains one hundred and eight stars; of which the four
largest are all of the 3d magnitude.
“His head, his shoulders, and his lucid breast,
Glisten with stars; and where his urn inclines
Rivers of light brighten the wat'ry track.”
The northeastern limit of Aquarius may be readily distin-
guished by means of four stars of the 4th magnitude, in the
hand and handle of the urn, so placed as to form the letter
Y, very plainly to be seen, 15° S. E. of Emif, or 18° S. S.
W. of Markab, in Pegasus; making with the two latter nearly
a right angle.
When is it on the meridian? What is the whole number of its stars? What is the
agnitude of the principal ones? How may the principal stars be distinguished?
ow are the two in the nose distinguished from the two in the eyes? What are their
istance and direction from the Dolphing. On what account are these clusters noticea.
e? How is Aquarius represented? Where is it situated? What is its present order
among the constellations of the Zodiacº What are its right ascension and declination?
What is the whole number of its stars? What is the magnitude of the principal ones?
How may the N.E. limit of Aquarius be readily distinguished? What are the distance
and direction of this letter Y, from Markab and Enif, in Pegasus?
:
136 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. LoGT.
About 44° W. of this figure is El Melik, a star of the 3d magnitude, in the E.
shoulder, and the principal one in this constellation. 10° S. W. of El Melik, is
another star of the same imagnitude, situated in the W. shoulder, called Sades
Sawd.
Ancha of the 4th magnitude, is in the right side, 8° S. of El Melik. 9° E. of
Ancha, is another star of the 4th magnitude, whose letter maine is Lambda.
Scheat, of the 3d magnitude, lying below the knee, is situated 89 S. of Lamb:
da; and 14° S. of Scheat, the brilliant star Fomalhäut,” of between the 1st and
2d magnitudes, terminates the cascade in the mouth of the Southern Fish. This
star is common to both these constellations, and is one of those from which the
lunar distance is computed for ascertaining the longitude at sea. It culminates
at 9 o'clock on the 22d of October.
Fomalhaut,” Deneb Kaitos, and Alpha in the head of the Phºenix, make a large
triangle, whose vertex is in Deneb Kaitos. Those two stars of the 4th magnitude,
situated 49 S. of Sad es Saud, and nearly the same distance from Ancha, are in
the tail of Capricorn. They are about 29 apart. The western one is called
Deneb Algedi.
The rest of the stars in the cascade are quite small; they may be traced from
the letter Y, in the urn, in a southeasterly direction towards the tail of Cetus,
from which the cascade suddenly bends off near Scheat, in an opposite course,
and finally disappears in the mouth of the Southern Fish, 30° S. of Y.
HISTORY..—This constellation is the famous Ganymede, a beautiful youth of
Phrygia, son of Tros, king of Troy, or, according to Lucian, son of Dardanus.
He was taken up to heaven by Jupiter as he was tending his father’s flocks on
Mount Ida, and became the cupbearer of the gods in place of Hebe. There are
various opinions, however, among the ancients respecting its origin. Some Sup-
pose it represents Deucalion, who was placed among the stars after the celebra-
ted deluge of Thessaly, 1500 years beſore the birth of our Saviour; while others
think it designed to commemorate Cecrops, who came from Egypt to Greece,
founded Athens, established science, and introduced the arts of polished life.
The ancient Egyptians supposed the setting or disappearance of Aquarius,
caused the Nile to rise, by the sinking of his urn in the water.—In the Zodiac of
the Hebrews, Aquarius répresents the tribe of Reuben.
PISCIS AUSTRALIS, VEL NOTIUS.
THE SouTHERN FISH.—This constellation is directly S. of
Aquarius, and is represented as a fish drinking the water
which Aquarius pours from his urn. Its mean declination is
31° S. and its mean right ascension and time of passing the
meridian are the same as those of Aquarius, and it is seen on
the meridian at the same time; viz., on the 15th of October.
It contains 24 visible stars, of which one is of the 1st magni-
tude or between the 1st and 2d, two are of the 3d, and five of
the 4th. The first and most beautiful of all is Fomalhaut,
situated in the mouth. This is 14° directly S. of Scheat in
Aquarius, and may be seen passing the meridian low down
in the southern hemisphere, on the 22d and 23d of October.
* Pronounced Fo-ma-lo.
What is the name of the principal star in this constellation? What is its position 2
What star in the W. shoulder? Describe the situation of Ancha. What is the post-
tãor of Scheat and Fomalhaut 2 . To what constellations is Fomalhaut common 2 Of
what nautical importance is it 2 When does it culminate 2 With what other stars
does it form a large triangle? How may you trace the stars in the cascade? Describe
the situation and appearance of the Southern Fish. What are its mean right ascension
and declination? When is it on the meridian? What is the whole number of its stars
What is the magnitude of its principal ones? What are the name and position of the
most brilliant star in the constellation? When and where does it pass the meridian
VARIABLE AND DoublE STARs, &c. 137
Its position in the heavens has been determined with the
É. possible accuracy, to enable navigators to find their
ongitude at sea. -
The mode of doing this cannot be explained here. The problem is one of some
difficulty. It consists in finding the angular distance between some star whose
position is well known, and the moon when she is passing near it; also, the
altitude of each, at the same instant, with good sextants. These data furnish the
elements of a spherical triangle, the solution of which, after various intricate
corrections, is made to result in the longitude of the given place,—See note to
Arieties. In 1714, the British Parliament offered a reward of 10,000 pounds ster-
ling, to any man who should discover a method of determining the longitude
within 19, or 60 geographic miles of the truth; 15,000 pounds to the man who
should find it within 40 miles, and 20,000 pounds, if found within 30 miles. These
rewards in part have been since distributed among eminent mathematicians, in.
Europe, agreeably to the respective merits of their discoveries.
HISTORY.—This constellation is supposed to have taken its name from the
transformation of Venus into the shape of a fish when she fled, terrified at the
horrible advances of the monster Twphon, as we have related in the mythology
of the Fishes.—(See Pisces.) - -
CHAPTE R x III.
WARIABLE AND DOUBLE STARS–CLUSTERS–NEBULHE.
1. WARIABLE STARs.-The periodical variations of brilliancy
to which some of the fixed stars are subject, may be reckoned
among the most remarkable of their phenomena. Several
stars, formerly distinguished by their splendour, have entirely
disappeared; others are now conspicuous which do not seem
to have been visible to the ancient observers; and there are
some which alternately appear and disappear, or, at least, of
which the light undergoes great periodic changes. Some
seem to become gradually more obscure, as Delta in the Great
Bear; others, like Beta in the Whale, to be increasing in
brilliancy. Some stars have all at once blazed forth with:
great splendour, and, after a gradual diminution of their light,
again become extinct. The most remarkable instance of this
kind is that of the star which appeared in 1572, in the time
of Tycho Brahe. It suddenly shone forth, in the constella-
tion Cassiopeia, with a splendour exceeding that of stars of
the first magnitude, even of Jupiter and of Venus, at their
least distances from the earth; and, could be seen, with the
naked eye, on the meridian, in full day ! Its brilliancy gradu-
ally diminished from the time of its first appearance, and at
the end of sixteen months, it entirely disappeared, and has
For what purpose has its position been very accurately determined: Describe the pe-
riodical variations of brilliancy to which some of the fixed stars are subject? Mention
some of the most remarkable instances of such variations, and describe them particu-
larly,
y 12+
3:4::1
138 . DOUBLE STARS.
never been seen since. (See a more particular account of
this phenomenon, page 40.) • *
Another instance of the same kind was observed in 1604,
when a star of the first magnitude suddenly appeared in the
right foot of Ophiuchus. It presented, like the former, all the
phenomena of a prodigious flame, being, at first, of a dazzling
white, then of a reddish yellow, and, lastly, of a leaden pale-
ness; in which its light expired. These instances prove that
the stars are subject to great physical revolutions.—Page 41.
A great number of stars have been observed whose light
seems to undergo a regular periodic increase and diminution.
They are properly called Variable Stars. One in the Whale
has a period of 334 days, and is remarkable for the magni-
tude of its variations. From being a star of the second mag-
nitude, it becomes so dim as to be seen with difficulty through
powerful telescopes. Some are remarkable for the shortness
of the period of their variation. Algol has a period of between
two and three days; Delta Cephei, of 5 days; Beta Lyrae,
of 62-5 days; and Mu Antinoi, of 7 days.
The regular succession of these variations precludes the
supposition of an actual destruction of the stars; neither can
the variations be supposed to arise from a change of distance;
for as the stars invariably retain their apparent places, it would
be necessary to suppose that they approach to, and recede
from the earth in straight lines, which is very improbable.
The most probable supposition is, that the stars revolve, like
the sun and planets, about an axis. “Such a motion,” says
the elder Herschel, “may be as evidently proved, as the diur-
nal motion of the earth. Dark spots, or large portions of the
surface, less luminous than the rest, turned alternately in
certain directions, either towards or from us, will account for
all the phenomena of periodical changes in the lustre of the
stars, so satisfactorily, that we certainly need not look for any
other cause.”
2. DoDELE STARs.—On examining the stars with telescopes
of considerable power, many of them are found to be com-
posed of two or more stars, placed contiguous to each other,
or of which the distance subtends a very minute angle. This
appearance is, probably, in many cases, owing solely to the
optical effect of their position relative to the spectator; for it
is evident that two stars will appear contiguous if they are
What are such stars denominated? Describe the variations of one in the Whale.
What stars are remarkable for the shortness of the period of their variations? Why
may we not suppose that the stars which disappear are actually destroyed? Why may
not the variations arise from a change of distance? What is the most probable suppo-
sition in regard to their cause How does Dr. Herschel explain these phenomena?
On examining the stars with a telescope of considerable power, what other peculiarity
• Go we find? To what Is this appearance, in many cases, owing?
DOUBLE STARS. - 139
placed nearly in the same line of vision, although their real
distance may be immeasurably great. -
There are, however, many instances in which the angle of
position of the two stars varies in such a manner as to indi-
cate a revolution about each other and about a common cen-
tre. In this case they are said to form a Binary System,
performing to each other the office of sun and planet, and are
connected together by laws of gravitation like those which
prevail in the solar system. The recent observations of Sir
John Herschel and Sir James South, have established the
truth of this singular fact, beyond a doubt. Motions have been
detected, so rapid as to become measurable within very short
periods of time; and at certain epochs, the satellite or feebler
star has been observed to disappear, either passing behind or
before the primary, or approaching so near to it that its light
has been absorbed by that of the other.
The most remarkable instance of a regular revolution of
this sort, is that of Mizar, in the tail of the Great Bear; in
which the angular motion is 6 degrees and 24 minutes of a
great circle, annually; so that the two stars complete a revo-
fution about one another in the space of 58+ years. About
eleven twelfths of a complete circuit have been already de-
scribed since its discovery in 1781, the same year in which
the planet Herschel was discovered.
A double star in Ophiuchus presents a similar phenomenon,
and the satellite has a motion in its orbit still more rapid.
Castor, in the Twins,” Gamma Virginis, Zeta in the Crab,
2i Bootis, Delta Serpentis, and that remarkable double star
61 Cygni, together with several others, amounting to 40 in
number, f exhibit the same evidence of a revolution about each
other and about a common centre. But it is to be remem-
bered that these are not the revolutions of bodies of a planet-
ary nature around a solar centre, but of sun around sun–
each, perhaps, accompanied by its train of planets, and their
satellites, closely shrouded from our view by the splendour
of their respective suns, and crowded into a space bearing
hardly a greater proportion to the enormous interval which
separates them, than the distances of the satellites of our plan-
* Page 67. t Herschel's Astronomy, page 391.
Are there, however, any instances where one star revolves with another around a
common centre?, When two stars are thus situated, what system are they said to
form? Why is it thus denominated? What modern astronomers of great celebrity-
have established the truth of this theory? What rates of motion did they detect in
these binary systems? What other interesting phenomena, indicating a mutual revo-
lution, did they discover? What is the most remarkable instance of this fact? ... Men-
tion some other instances. Are these revolving stars of a planetary nature? Of what
nature are they?
140 Double STARs,
ets from their primaries, bear to their distances from the sun
itself. - *
The examination of double stars was first undertaken by the late Sir William
Herschel, with a view to the question of parallax. His attention was, however,
soon arrested by the new and unexpected phenomena which these bodies pre-
sented. Sir William observed of them, in all, 2400. Sir James South and Her-
Schel have given a catalogue of 380 in the Transactions of the Royal Society, for
1824, and South added 458, in 1826. Sir John Herschel, in addition to the above,
published an account of 1000, before he left England for the Cape of Good Hope,
Where he is, at the time we write, pushing his discoveries in the southern hem-
isphere with great perseverance and success. Professor Struve, with the great
º telescope, has given a catalogue of 3,063 of the most remarkable of these
Siłł.T.S.
The object of these catalogues is not merely to fix the place of the star within
such limits as will enable us easily to discover it at any future time, but also to
record a description of the appearance, position, and mutual distances, of the
individual stars composing the system, in order that subsequent observers may
have the means of detecting their connected motions, or any changes which they
may exhibit. Professor Struve has also taken notice of 52 triple stars, among
which No. 11 of the Unicorn, Zeta of Cáncer, and Zi of the Balance, appear to
be termary systems in motion. Quadruple and quintuple stars have likewise
been observed, which also appear to revolve about a common centre of gravity;
in short, every region of the heavens furnishes examples of these curious phe-
In OIGerla,
Colour of the Stars.-Many of the double stars exhibit the
curious and beautiful phenomenon of contrasted colours, or
complimentary tints. In such instances, the larger star is
usually of a ruddy or orange hue, while the smaller one ap-
pears blue or green, probably in virtue of that general law of
optics, which provides, that when the retina is under the in-
fluence of excitement by any bright, coloured light, feebler
º which seen alone would produce no sensation but that
of whiteness, shall for the time appear coloured with the tint
complimentary to that of the brighter. Thus, a yellow colour
predominating in the light of the brighter star, that of the less
bright one, in the same field of view, will appear blue; while,
if the tint of the brighter star verge to crimson, that of the
other will exhibit a tendency to green—or even appear a vivid
green. The former contrast is beautifully exhibited by Iota,
in Cancer; the latter by Almaach, in Andromeda—both fine
double stars. If, however, the coloured star be much the less
bright of the two, it will not materially affect the other. Thus,
for instance, Eta Cassiopeiae exhibits the beautiful combina-
tion of a large white star, and a small one of a rich ruddy
purple. -
It is not easy to conceive what variety of illumination two
suns—a red and a green, or a yellow and a blue one—must
afford to a planet revolving about either; and what charming

What beautiful and curious phenomenon has been observed, as it regards the colour
of double stars? Explain how these colours are usually contrasted. Mention an ex-
ample of this phenomenon. How, if the coloured star be much the less bright of the
two, will the other be affected? Give an instance. What may be the effect of such a
variety of colou" in solar light? - -
CLUSTERS. - i4 |
contrasts and grateful vicissitudes—a red and a green da”,
for instance, alternating with a white one and with darkness
—might arise from the presence or absence of one or the other,
or.both, above the horizon. Insulated stars of a red colour,
almost as deep as that of blood, occur in many parts of the
heavens, but no green or blue star (of any decided hue) has,
ve believe, ever been noticed, unassociated with a companion
brighter than itself. -
CLUSTERs.--When we cast our eyes over the concave sur-
face of the heavens in a clear night, we do not fail to observe
that there are, here and there, groups of stars which seem to
be compressed together more densely than those in the neigh-
bouring parts; forming bright patches and clusters.
There is a group called the Pleiades, in which six or seven
stars may be noticed, if the eye be directed full upon it; and
many more if the eye be turned carelessly aside, while the at-
tention is kept directed” upon the group. Telescopes show
fifty or sixty large stars thus crowded together in a very mod-
erate space, and comparatively insulated from the rest of the
heavens. Rheita affirms that he counted 200 stars in this
small cluster. The constellation, called Coma Berenices, is
another group, more diffused, and consisting of much larger
StarS.
In the constellation Cancer, there is a nebulous cluster of
very minute stars, called Praesepe, or the Beehive, which is
sufficiently luminous to be seen by the naked eye, in the ab-
sence of the moon, and which any ordinary spyglass will re-
solve into separate stars. In the sword-handle of Perseus, also,
is another such spot, crowded with stars. It requires, however,
rather a better telescope to resolve it into individual stars.
These are called Clusters of Stars. Whatever be their
nature, it is certain that other laws of aggregation subsist in
these spots, than those which have determined the scattering
of stars over the general surface of the sky. Many of them,
indeed, are of an exactly round figure, and convey the idea
of a globular space filled full of stars, and constituting, in it-
self, a family or society apart, and subject only to its own
internal laws. -
“It would be a vain task,” says the younger Herschel, “to
* “It is a very remarkable fact,” says Sir John Herschel, “that the centre of the
visual organ is by far less, sensible to feeble impressions of light, than the exterior
portions of the retina.”—Ast. p. 398.
Are individual stars of a deep colour ever found separate from others? What are
clusters of stars? Mention some instance. Describe it. Mention some other instance.
Describe the position and appearance of Praesepe. Describe any other cluster. Which
you may recollect. What are the constitution and figure of such groups? What
£he younger Herschel say of the number of stars which compose these clusters?
142 NEBULE.
attempt to count the stars in one of these globular clusters.
They are not to be reckoned by hundreds ; for it would ap-
ear that many clusters of this description must contain, at
east, ten or twenty thousand stars, compacted and wedged
together in a round space, not more than a tenth part as large
as that which is covered by the moon. *
4. NEBULE.—The Nebulae, so called from their dim, cloudy
appearance, form another class of objects which furnish mat-
ster for curious speculation, and conjecture respecting the for-
mation and structure of the sidereal heavens. When exam-
ined with a telescope of moderate powers, the greater part of
the nebulae are distinctly perceived to be composed of little
stars, imperceptible to the naked eye, because:Son account of
their apparent proximity, the rays of light proceeding from
each are blended together, in such a ‘manner as to produce
only a confused luminous appearance.
In other nebulae, however, no individual stars can be per-
ceived, even through the best telescopes; and the nebulae
exhibit only the appearance of a self-luminous or phosphores-
cent patch of gaseous vapour, though it is possible that even
in this case, the appearance may be owing to a congeries of
stars so minute, or so distant, as not to afford, singly, sufficient
light to make an impression on the eye. $
In some instances a nebula presents the appearance of a
faint luminous atmosphere, of a circular form, and of large
extent, surrounding a central star of considerable brilliancy.
One of the most remarkable nebulae is in the sword-handle
of Orion, . It is formed of little flocky masses, like wisps of
cloud, which seem to adhere to many small stars at its out-
skirts. It is not very unlike the mottling of the sun’s disk,
but of a coarser grain, and with darker intervals. These wisps
of light, however, present no appearance of being composed
of small stars; but in the intervals between them, we fancy
that we see stars, or that, could we strain our sight a little
more, we should see them. These intervals may be compa-
red to openings in the firmament, through which, as through
a window, we seem to get a glimpse of other heavens, and
brighter regions beyond.-Page 58.
Another very remarkable nebula is that in the girdle of An-
dromeda, which, on account of its being visible to the naked
eye, has been known since the earliest ages of astronomy. It
is often mistaken for a comet, by those unacquainted with the


Why are the nebulae so called? Describe the usual appearances of nebulae, as seen
through a telescope. What other appearance do-nebulae'sometimes exhibit? Mention
Some instances of the most remarkable nebulae. Describe the one in the sword-
handle of Orion. Describe the one which is in the girdle of Andromeda. ,
NEBULE. 143
heavens. Marius, who noticed it in 1612, describes its ap-
pearance as that of a candle shining through horn; and the
resemblance is certainly very striking. Its form is a long
oval, increasing, by insensible gradations of brightness, from
the circumference to a central point, which, though very much
brighter than the rest, is not a star, but only a nebula in a
high state of condensation. No power of vision hitherto di-
rected to this nebula has been able to resolve it into the least
appearance of stars. It occupies an area comparatively large
—equal to that of the moon in quadrature.—This º, may
be considered as a type, on a large scale, of a very numerous
class of nebulae, of a round or oval figure, increasing more or
less in density towards the centre.
Annular nebulae also exist, but are among the rarest ob-
jects in the heavens. The most conspicuous of this class, is
to be found exactly halfway between the stars Beta and
Gamma Lyrae, and may be seen with a telescope of moderate
power. It is small, and particularly well defined; appearing
like a flat oval ring. The central opening is not entirely
dark, but is filled with a faint, hazy light, uniformly spread
over it, like a fine gauze stretched over a hoop.
Planetary nebulae are very extraordinary objects. The
have, as their name imports, the appearance of planets, wit
round or slightly oval disks, somewhat mottled, but approach-
ing, in some instances, to the vividness of actual planets.
Some of them, upon the supposition that they are equally dis-
tant from us with the stars, must be of enormous magnitude.
That one, for instance, which is situated in the left hand of
Aquarius, must have a volume vast enough, upon the lowest
computation, to fill the whole orbit of Herschel !
The nebulae furnish an inexhaustible field of speculation
and conjecture. That by far the larger number of them con-
sists of stars, there can be little doubt; and in the intermina-
ble range of system upon system, and firmament upon firma-
ment, which we thus catch a glimpse of the imagination is
bewildered and lost. Sir William Herschel conjectured that
the nebulae might form the materials out of which nature
elaborated new suns and systems, or replenished the wasted
light of older ones. But the little we know of the physical
constitution of these sidereal masses, is altogether #:
to warrant such a conclusion.
Of what class of nebulae may this be considered as a type? What other species of
nebulae exist in the heavens? Describe the most conspicuous of this class. What
other species of nebulae are more rarely found? Describe the appearance of planetary
nebulae. What do we know in regard to their magnitude? How large must the one be
which is situated in the left hand of Aquarius? What did Sir William Herschel Con” .
jecture as to the use of the nebulae? Have we facts sufficient to warrant such a con-
jecture ? -
144 VIA LACTEA, OR [MAP VIII.
C H A P T E R XIV.
VIA LACTEA.
“Throughout the Galaxy's extended line,
Unnumber'd orbs in gay confusion shine:
Where every star that gilds the gloom of night
With the ſaint tremblings of a distant light,
Perhaps illumes sonie system of its own,
With the strong influence of a radiant sun.”—Mrs. Carter
: THERE is a luminous zone or pathway of singular white-
ness, varying from 49 to 209 in width, which passes quite
round the heavens. The Greeks called it GALAxy, on ac-
count of its colour and appearance: the Latins, for the same
reason, called it VIA LACTEA, which, in our tongue, is Milky-
Way.
... Of all the constellations which the heavens exhibit to our
view, this fills the mind with the most indescribable gran-
deur and amazement. When we consider what unnumbered
millions of mighty sums compose this cluster, whose distance
is so vast that the strongest telescope can hardly separate
their mingled twilight into distinct specks, and that the most
contiguous of any two of them may be as far asunder as our
sun is from them, we fall as far short of adequate language
to express our ideas of such immensity, as we do of instru-
ments to measure its boundaries.
It is one of the recent achievements of astronomy that has
resolved the Milky-Way into an infinite number of small
stars, whose confused and feeble lustre occasions that pe-
culiar whiteness which we see in a clear evening, when the
moon is absent. It is also a recent and well accredited doc-
trine of astronomy, that all the stars in the universe are ar-
ranged into clusters, or groups, which are called NEBULE or
STARRY SYSTEMs, each of which consists of many thousands
of stars.' -
The fixed star which we call ouR SUN, belongs, it is said,
to that extensive nebula, the Milky-Way ; and although ap-
parently at such an immeasurable distance from its fellows,
is, doubtless, as near to any one of them, as they are to one
another. . .
Of the number and economy of the stars which compose
this group, we have very little exact knowledge. Dr. Her-
schel informs us that, with his best glasses, he saw and

ºwhat do you understand by the Milky-Way? By what different names is it called?
Arwhy does the contemplation of this constellation fill the mind with ideas of grandeur
and amazement? What causes the whiteness of the Milky Way? Ainto what are all
the stars in the universe arranged? / To what nebula does the §urfbelong, and what
is probably its distance from its fellows? What knowledge have we of the number and
economy of the stars in this group? -
MAP VIII.] , MILKY-WAY. J
145
counted 588 stars in a single spot, without moving his tele-
scope; and as the gradual motion of the earth carried these
out of view and introduced others successively in their places,
while he kept his telescope steadily fixed to one point, “there
passed over his field of vision, in the space of one quarter of
an hour, no less than one hundred and siarteen thousand
stars, and at another time in forty-one minutes, no less than
two hundred and fifty-eight thousand.”
In all parts of the Milky-Way he found the stars unequally
dispersed, and appearing to arrange themselves into separate
clusters. In the small space, for example, between Beta and
Sad’r, in Cygni, the stars seem to be clustering in two di-
visions; each division containing upwards of one hundred
and sixty-five thousand stars.
At other observations, when examining a section of the
Milky-Way, not apparently more than a yard in breadth, and
six in length, he discovered fifty thousand stars, large enough
to be distinctly counted; and he suspected twice as many
more, which, for want of sufficient light in his telescope, he
saw only now and then.
(It appears from numerous observations, that various changes
are taking place among the nebulae—that several nebulae are
formed by the dissolution of larger ones, and that many ne-
bulae of this kind are at present detaching themselves from
the Milky-Way. In that part of it which is in the body of
Scorpio, there is a large opening, about 4° broad, almost
destitute of stars. These changes - seem to indicate that
mighty movements and vast operations are continually going
on in the distant regions of the universe, upon a scale of mag-
nitude and grandeur which baffles the human understanding.
More than two thousand five hundred nebulae have already
been observed ; and, if each of them contains as many stars
as the Milky-Way, several hundreds of millions of stars must
exist, even within that portion of the heavens which lies open
to our observation.
“O what a confluence of ethereal fires,
From urns unnumber'd down the steep of heaven
Streams to a point, and centres on my sight.”
Although the Milky-Way is more or less visible at all
seasons of the year, yet it is seen to the best advantage du-
ring the months of July, August, September, and October.
When Lyra is on, or near the meridian, it may be seen
How many did Dr. Herschel count in a single spot during the space of 15 minutes?
How did he find the stars dispersed, throughout the Milky-Way? Give an example.
Give another instance. /What changes are taking place in the Milky-Way and other
nebulae? What do these changes indicate? How many nebulae have been discovered?
If each of these nebulae contains as many stars as the Milky-Way, how many stars
must exist even in that portion of the heavens which lies, open to ºur observation?
Where and at what period may the Mºvº,be seen to the best advantage?

‘s &
146 ORIGIN OF THE
stretching obliquely over the heavens from northeast to south-
west, gradually moving over the firmamelºt in common with
other constellations.
Its form, breadth and appearance are varicus, in different
parts of its course. In some places it is dense and luminous;
in others, it is scattered and ſaint. Its breadth is often not
more than five degrees; though sometimes it is ten or fifteen
degrees, and even twenty. In some places it assumes a
double path, but for the most part it is single.
It may be traced in the heavens, beginning near the head of Cepheus, about
30° from the north pole, through the constellations Cassiopeia. Perseus, Auriga,
and part of Orion and the ſect of Gemini, where it crosses the Zodiac ; thence
over the equinoctial into the southern Heinis); here, through Monoceros, and the
middle of the ship Argo, where it is utost iunimous, Cinarles's Oak, the Cross, the
feet of the Centaur, and the Altar l; ere it is iivided into two branches, as it
passes over the Zodiac again into the ºthern hºnºsphere. One branch runs
through the tail of Scorpio, the bow of Sagittarius, the shield of Sobieski, the feet
of Antinous, Aquila, Delphinus, the Arrow, and the Śwan. The other branch
passes through the upper part of the tail of Scorpio, the side of Serpentarius,
Taurus Poniatowski, the Goose and the neck of the Swan. where it again unites
with the other branch, and passes on to the i.ead of Ceplieus, the place of its be-
ginning. -
There are several other nebulae in the heavens as large as
the Milky-Way, but riot visible to the maked eye, which may
exhibit the phenomenon of a lucid zone to the planetary
worlds that may be placed within them.”
Some of the pagan philosophers maintained that the Milky-Way was formerly
the sun’s path, and that its present luminous appearance is the track which its
scattered beams leſt visible in the heavens, -
The ancient poets and even philosophers, speak of the Galaxy, or Milky-Way,
as the path which their deities used in the heavens, and which led directly to the
throne of Jupiter. Thus, Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, Book i. :—
“A way there is in heaven’s extended plain,
Which when the skies are clear is seen below,
And mortals, by the maine of Milky, know ;
The groundwork is of stars, through which the road
Lies open to the Thunderer's abode.”
Milton alludes to this, in the following lines:—
“A broad and ample road, whose dust is gold,
And pavement, stars, as stars to thee appear,
Seen in the Galaxy, that Milky-Way,
Which nightly, as a circling zone, thou seest
Powdered with stars.”
CHAPTE R xv.
ORIGIN OF THE CONSTELLATIONS.
THE science of astronomy was cultivated by the Imme-
diate descendants of Adam. Josephus informs us that the

Describe the breadth and appearance of the Milky-Way. How may it be traced in
..he heavens? Are there other nebulae in the heavens as large as the Milky-Way ºf{ow
early was the science of astronomy cultivated? What authority have we for ting
so fºrly a date to the science?
sº
CONSTEL!. ATIONS. - 147
sons of SETH employed themselves in the study of astronomy;
and that they wrote their observations upon two pillars, one
of brick, and the other of stone,” in order to preserve them
against the destruction which ADAM had foretold should come
upon the earth. He also relates, that Abraham argued the
unity and power of God, from the orderly course of things
both at sea and land, in their times and seasons, and from his
observations upon the motions and influences of the sun,
moon, and stars; and that he read lectures in astronomy and
arithmetic to the Egyptians, of which they understood noth-
ing till Abraham brought these sciences from Chaldea to
Egypt; from whence they passed to the Greeks.
(BEROSUs also observes that Abraham was a great and just
man, and famous for his celestial observations; the making
of which was thought to be so necessary to the human wel-
fare, that he assigns it as the principal reason of the Al-
mighty’s prolonging the life of man. This ancient historian
tells us, in his account of the longevity of the antediluvians,
that I’rovidence found it necessary to prolong man’s days, in
order to promote the study and advancement of virtue, and
the improvement of geometry and astronomy, which required,
at least, six hundred years for making and perfecting obser-
vations.f.
When Alexander took Babylon, Calisthenes found that the
most ancient observations existing on record in that city, were
made by the Chaldeans about 1903 years before that period,
which carries us back to the time of the dispersion of mankind
by the confusion of tongues. It was 1500 years after this
that the Babylonians sent to Hezekiah, to inquire about the
shadow’s going back on the dial of Ahaz.” 3.
* It is therefore very probable that the Chaldeans and Egyp-
tians were the original inventors of astronomy; but at what
period of the world they marked out the heavens into constel-
lations, remains in uncertainty. La Place fixes the date
thirteen or fourteen hundred years before the Christian era,
since it was about this period, that Eudoxus constructed the
first celestial sphere upon which the constellations were de-’
Jºsephus affirms, that “he saw himself that of stone to remain in Syria in his
OWI), tin le. -
f Vince's Complete System of Astronomy, Vol. ii. p. 244.
.*What does Josephus relate concerning Abraham's knowledge of astronomy? Who, .
does he say, first introduced this science into Egypt? What other historian of remote
antiquity-speaks of Abraham's attention to this science?, What reason does Berosus
assign for the longevity of the antetliluvians ? a when Alexander took Babylon, what
aucient observations did he find in that city To what period of the world do these
observations carry us back T. How long after this was it that the Babylonians sent to
Hezekiah, to inquire abolit the shadow's going back on the dial of Ahaz º.º.Who, then,
may we conclude, were the original inventors of astronomy, and at whât per e
they arrange the fixed stars into constellations 3 When does La Place ſix the date?
14|S - origiN of THE
lineated.* Sir Isaac Newton was of opinion, that all the old
constellations related to the Argonautic expedition, and that
they were invented to commemorate the heroes and events of
that memorable enterprise. It should be remarked, however,
that while mone of the ancient constellations refer to transac-
tions of a later date, yet we have various accounts of them,
of a much higher antiquity than that event.)
Some of the most learned antiquarians of Europe have
searched every page of heathen mythology, and ransacked all
the legends of poetry and fable for the purpose of rescuing
this subject from that impermeable mist which rests upon it,
and they have only been able to assure us, in general terms,
that they are Chaldean or Egyptian hieroglyphics, intended
to perpetuate by means of an imperishable record, the memory
of the times in which their inventors lived, their religion and
manners, their achievements in the arts, and whatever in their
history, was most worthy of being commemorated. There
was at least, a moral grandeur in this idea; for an event thus
registered, a custom thus canonized, or thus enrolled among
the stars, must needs survive all other traditions of men, and
stand forth in perpetual characters to the end of time.
In arranging the constellations of the Zodiac, for instance,
it would be natural for them, we may imagine, to represent
those stars which rose with the sun in the spring of the year,
by such animals as the shepherds held in the greatest esteem
at that season; accordingly, we find Aries, Taurus, and
Gemini, as the symbols of March, April, and May.
* The usual size of artificial globes, designed to represent the celestial sphere, is
from 9 to 18 inches in diameter. Globes have been recently constructed in Germany,
Which are said to be more splendid and complete than any in the world. The largest
ever 7made are that of Gottorp, two in the library of the late king of France, and one.
in Pembroke college, Cambridge. . .
The globe of Gottorp, now in the Academy of Sciences at Petersburg, is a large
hollow sphere, eleven and a half feet in diameter, containing a table and seats for
twelve H. The inside represents the visible surface of the heavens, bespangled
With gilded stars, ranged in their proper order and magnitude, and by means of a cu-
rious piece of mechanism by which it is put in motion, exhibits the true position of
the stars, at any time, together with their rising and setting. The convex surface, or
Outside of this #. represents the terrestrial sphere.
In 1704, two globes of equal dimensions, it is said, were made for Cardinal d’Estrees,
by Cornelli, a Venitian, and deposited in the king's library at Paris. These, however,
are far inferior in size to one of similar construction, erected at Pembroke college, in
the University of Cambridge, by the late Dr. Long, president of that institution. This
is a hollow sphere, sufficiently capacious to admit thirty persons to sit within it,
Where they can observe the artificial world of stars and planets, revolving over their
#;" Same Order as they are seen in the heavens. This sphere is eighteen feet
What opinion has Sir Isaac Newton advanced upon this subject? Have we however,
any accounts of the constellations, of a higher antiquity than that event? Do any of
the ancient constellations refer to transactions of a later date? What have the most
learned antiquarians of Europe done upon this subject, and of what do they assure us?
How long would the memory of an action, or event, thus registered, be likely to
;ºn afranging the constellations of the Zodiac, how was it natural to represent
Sºº's . . & -
*
*
CONSTE!. LATIONS. - 149
2.
: When the sun enters the sign Cancer, at the summer sol-
sºice, he discontinues his progress towards the north pole, and
: ... ims to return, towards the south pole. This retrograde mo–
: , ) was fitly represented by a Crab, which is said to go back-
*... :: *ds. The sun enters this sign about the 22d of June.
The heat which usually follows in the next month, was
yº presented by the Lion ; an animal remarkable for its fierce-
ress, and which at this season was frequently impelled by
thirst, to leave the sandy desert, and make its appearance on
the banks of the Nile. t
The sun entered the sixth sign about the time of harvest,
which season was therefore represented by a Virgin, or female.
- *==-&
reaper, with an ear of corn in her hand.
At the autumnal equinox, when the sun enters Libra, the .
days and nights are equal all over the world, and seem to ob-
serve an equilibrium or balance. The sign was therefore
represented under the symbol of a pair of Scales.
Autumn, which produces fruit in great abundance, brings
with it a variety of diseases, and on this account was repre-
sented by that venomous animal the Scorpion, which, as he
recedes, wounds with a sting in his tail. The fall of the leaf
was the season for hunting, and the stars which mark the .
sun’s path at this time were represented by a huntsman, or *
archer, with his arrows and weapons of destruction.
The Goat, which delights in climbing and ascending some
mountain or precipice, is the emblem of the winter solstice,
when the sun begins to ascend from the southern tropic, and
gradually to increase in height for the ensuing half year.
Aquarius, or the Water-Bearer, is represented by the figure
of a man pouring out water from an urn, an emblem of the
dreary and uncomfortable season of winter.
The last of the zodiacal constellations was Pisces, or a
couple of fishes, tied back to back, representing the fishing
season. The severity of winter is over; the flocks do not
afford sustenance, but the seas and rivers are open and abound
with fish. }
“Thus monstrous forms, o'er heaven's nocturnal arch,
Seen by the sage, in pomp celestial march;
See Aries there his glittering bow unfold,
And raging Taurus toss his horns of gold;
With bended bow the sullen Archer lowers,
And there Aquarius comes with all his showers; t
what sign was represented under the figure of a Crab, and why? When does,the
gun enter this sign? What animal represented the heat of summer, and why? When
does the sun enter the sixth sign, and how is this season represented? Why was the
sign which the sun enters at the autumnal equinox represented under the symbol of
a Balance? Why were the autumnal signs, Scorpio and Sagittarius, represented as
they are What does the Goat represent? What is signified by the Water-Bearer?
What do the Fishes represent? . -
13%
150 ORIGIN OF THE
Lions and Centaurs, Gorgons, Hydras rise,
And gods and heroes blaze along the skies.”
Whatever may have led to the adoption of these rude names
at first, they are now retained to avoid confusion.
The early Greeks, however, displaced many of the Chal-
dean constellations, and substituted such images in their place
as had a more special reference to their own history. The
Romans, also, pursued the same course with regard to their
history; and hence the contradictory accounts that have de-
scended to later times.
Some, moreover, with a desire to divest the science of the
stars of its pagan jargon and profanity, have been induced to
alter both the names and figures of the constellations. In
doing this, they have committed the opposite fault; that of
blending them with things sacred. The “venerable Bede,”
for example, instead of the profane names and figures of the
twelve constellations of the Zodiac, substituted those of the
twelve apostles. Julius Schillerius, following his example,
completed the reformation in 1627, by giving Scripture names
to all the constellations in the heavens. Weigelius, too, a
celebrated professor of mathematics in the university of Jena,
made a new order of constellations, by converting the firma-
ment into a COELUM HERALDICUM, in which he introduced the
arms of all the princes of Europe. But astronomers, gene-
rally, never approved of these innovations; and for ourselves,
we had as lief the sages and heroes of antiquity should con-
tinue to enjoy their fancied honours in the sky, as to see their
places supplied by the princes of Europe. ... •
The number of the old constellations, including those of
the Zodiac, was only forty-eight. As men advanced in the
knowledge of the stars, they discovered many, but chiefly in
southern latitudes, which were not embraced in the old con-
stellations, and hence arose that mixture of ancient and mod-
ern names which we meet with in modern catalogues.
* The order of the signs is thus described by Dr. Watts —
The Ram, the Bull, the heavenly Twins
And next the Crab, the Lion shines,
The Virgin, and the Scales; -
The Scorpion, Archer, and Sea-Goat,
The Man that holds the Water-Pot,
And Fish, with glittering tails.
Similar to this are the Latin verses:–
Sunt, aries, taurus, genini, cancer, leo, virgo,
Libragºte, &corpius, arcítenens, Caper, amphora, pisces.
Why have attempts been made to change the names and figures of the ancient con-
stellations? What fault has been committed in doing this? What did the venerable
Bede substitute for the profane names and figures of the twelve constellations of the
Zodiacº Who followed his example, and to what extent? What other change was
attempted, and by whom? Have astronomers, generally approved of these innova:
tions? What was the number of the old constellations? Whence is the mixture of
ancient and modern names which We meet with in modern Catalogues? -

CONSTELLATIONS. 151
Astronomers divide the heavens into three parts, called the
northern and southern hemispheres, and the Zodiac. In the
northern hemisphere, astronomers usually reckon thirty-four
constellations; in the Zodiac twelve, and in the southern
hemisphere forty-seven; making, in all, ninety-three. Besides
these, there are a few of inferior note, recently formed, which
are not considered sufficiently important to be particularly
described. - f ... • * ,
About the year 1603, John Bayer, a native of Germany,
invented the convenient system of denoting the stars in each
constellation by the letters of the Greek alphabet, applying
to the largest star the first letter of the alphabet; to the next
largest the second letter, and so on to the last. Where there
are more stars in the constellation than there are Greek let-
ters, the remainder are denoted by the letters of the Roman
alphabet, and sometimes by figures. By this system of no-
tation, it is now as easy to refer to any particular star in the
heavens, as to any particular house in a populous city, by its
street and number. -
Before this practice was adopted, it was customary to de-
note the stars by referring them to their respective situations
in the figure of the constellation to which they severally be-
longed; as the head, the arm, the foot, &c. . *
It is hardly necessary to remark that these figures, which
are all very curiously depicted upon artificial globes and maps,
are, purely, a fanciful invention—answering many convenient
ends, however, for purposes of reference and classification, as
they enable us to designate with facility any particular star,
or cluster of stars; though these clusters very rarely, if ever,
represent the real figures of the object whose names they bear.
And yet it is somewhat remarkable that the name of “Great
Bear,” for instance, should have been given to the very same
constellation by a nation of American aborigines, (the Iro-
quois,) and by the most ancient Arabs of Asia, when there
never had been any communication between them Among
other nations, also, between whom there exists no evidence
of any intercourse, we find the Zodiac divided into the same
number of constellations, and these distinguished by nearly
the same names, representing the twelve months, or seasons
of the year. * * -
The history of this whimsical personification of the stars
carries us back to the earliest times, and introduces us, as we
have seen, to the languages and customs, the religion and
How do astronomers usually divide the heavens, and what is the number of con-
stellations in each division? What convenient system of notation has been invented
for denoting the stars in each constellation? Who invented this system 3 Before this
method was introduced, what was the practice? #
152 NUMBER, DISTANCE, AND º
poetry, the sciences and arts, the tastes, talents, and recºr
genius, of the early nations of the earth. The ancient Atial-
tides and Ethiopians, the Egyptian priests, the magi of Per-
sia, the shepherds of Chaldea, the Bramins of India, the man-
darins of China, the Phoenician navigators, the philosophers
of Greece, and the wandering ‘Arabs, have all added more
or less to these curious absurdities and ingenious inven-
tions, and have thus registered among the stars, as in a sort
of album, some memorial of themselves and of the times in
which they lived. The constellations, or the uncouth figures
by which they are represented, are a faithful picture of the
ruder stages of civilization. They ascend to times of which
no other record exists; and are destined to remain when all
others shall be lost. Fragments of history, curious dates and
documents relating to chronology, geography, and languages,
are here preserved in imperishable characters. The adver-
tures of the gods, and the inventions of men, the exploits of
heroes, and the fancies of poets, are here spread out in the
heavens, and perpetually celebrated before all nations. The
Seven stars, and Orion, present themselves to us, as they
appeared to Amos and Homer: as they appeared to Job, more
than 3000 years ago, when the Almighty demanded of him—
“Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven 2 Canst thou bind
the sweet influences of the PLEIADEs, or loose the bands of
ORION ? Canst thou bring forth MAzzAROTH in his season,
or canst thou guide ARCTURUs with his sons º' Here, too,
are consecrated the lyre of Orpheus, and the ship of the Ar-
gonauts; and, in the same firmament, glitter the mariner's
compass and the telescope of Herschel.
C H A P T E R X I V.
NUMBER, DISTANCE, AND ECONOMY OF THE STARs.
Y THE first conjecture in relation to the distance of the fixed
stafs, is, that they are all placed at an equal distance from the
observer, upon the visible surface of an immense concave
vault, which rests upon the circular boundary of the world,
and which we call the Firmament. 2
We can with the unassisted eye, form no estimate of their.
respective distances; nor has the telescope yet enabled us to
arrive at any exact results on this subject, although it has re-
vealed to us many millions of stars that are as far removed
*What is the first conjecture which we form in relation to the distances of the fixed "
stars? What means have we for ascertaining their number and distance? - *
*... .
Economy of THE STARs. 153
beyond those which are barely visible to the naked eye, as
these are from us. .Viewed through the telescope, the hea-
vens become quite another spectacle—not only to the under-
standing, but to the senses. New worlds burst upon the sight,
and old ones expand to a thousand times their former dimen-
sions. Several of those little stars which but feebly twinkle
on the unassisted eye, become immense globes, with land
and water, mountains and valleys, encompassed by atmos-
pheres, enlightened by moons, and diversified by day and
might, summer and winter. -
Beyond these are other suns, giving light and life to other
systems, not a thousand, or two thousand merely, but multi-
plied without end, and ranged all around us, at immense dis-
tances from each other, attended by ten thousand times ten
thousand worlds, all in rapid motion ; yet calm, regular and
harmonious—all space seems to be illuminated, and every
particle of light a world.)
… It has been computed that one hundred millions of stars
which cannot be discerned by the naked eye, are now visible
through the telescope. And yet all this vast assemblage of
suns and worlds may bear no greater proportion to what lies
heyond the utmost boundaries of human vision, than a drop
of water to the ocean; and, if stricken out of being, would be
no more missed, to an eye that could take in the universe,
than the fall of a single leaf from the forest. 1 r
2. We should therefore learn, (says an eminent divine of the
present century,”) not to look on our earth as the universe of
God, but as a single, insignificant atom of it; that it is only
one of the many mansions which the Supreme Being has
created for the accommodation of his worshippers; and that
he may now be at work in regions more distant than geome-
try ever measured, creating worlds more manifold than num-
bers ever reckoned, displaying his goodness, and spreading
over all, the intimate visitations of his care. e
The immense distance at which the nearest stars are known
to be placed, proves that they are bodies of a prodigious size,
not inferior to our sun, and that they shine, not by reflected rays,
but by, their own native light. It is thérefore concluded, with
good reason, that every fixed star is a sun, no less spacious
than ours, surrounded by a retinue of planetary worlds, which
*AChalmers.
How do the heavens appear through the telescope A What are beyond those little
stars which are scarcely visible to the naked eye?, How many stars are visible
through the telescope? What proportion may this vast assemblage of suns and worlds
bear to what lies beyond the utmost boundaries of human vision?, How should we .
learn from this to regard our own earth? What does the immensedſstance of the stars,
prove in regard to their magnitude and º º
154 NUMBER, DISTANCE, AND .
revolve around it as a centre, and derive from it light and
heat, and the agreeable vicissitudes of day and night.
These vast globes of light, then, could never have been de-
signed merely to diversify the voids of infinite space, nor to
Shed a few glimmering rays on our far distant world, for the
amusement of a few astronomers, who, but for the most pow-
erful telescopes, had never seen the ten thousandth part of
them. We may therefore rationally conclude, that wherever
the All-wise Creator has exerted his creative power, there
also he has placed intelligent beings to adore his goodness.
“Hipparchus, the father of astronomy, first made a catalogue of the fixed
stars. It contained 1022. The accuracy with which the places of these were
recorded, has conferred essential benefit upon the science, and has enabled us
to solve unany celestial phenomena and problems of chronology, which other-
wise had been difficult.
During the 18th century, upwards of 100,000 were catalogued by the various
astronomers of Europe, and their position in the heavens determined with an
exactness that seldom varied a second from the truth ; insolnuch that it has
been justly remarked, that “there is scarcely a star to be seen in the heavens,
whose place and situation is not better known than thal of lilost cities and towns
upon the earth.”
But the stargazers of our times are not idle. Professor Bessell of Konigs-
berg, observed in three years, it is asserted, between 30,000 and 40,000 stars,
comprehended within a zone of 13° on each side of the equator; but even this
great number is but a small portion of the whole number which lie within the
limit of the zone which he examined. To procure a more complete survey, the
academy of Berlin proposed that this same zone should be parcelled out almong
twenty-four observers, and that each should confine himself to an hour of right
ascension, and examine it in minute detail. This plan was adopted; and the 18th
Irour was confided to Professor Inghirami, of Florence, and examined with so
much care, that the positions of 75,000 stars in it, have been deterulined. Pro-
fessor M. Štruve, of the Dorpat university, has examined in person, 130,000 stars,
of which 800 (double ones) were before unknown to science.
The labours of Sir Wm. Herschel were chiefly devoted to exploring the sys-
terms of nebulae and double stars that lie, for the luost part, beyond the reach of
ordinary telescopes. No fewer than two thousand five hundred nebulae were
observed by this indefatigable astronomer, whose places have been conſputed
from his observations, reduced to a common epoch. and arranged into a cata-
logue in order of their right ascension, by his sister Miss CAROLINE HERSCHEL,
a lady so justly celebrated in Europe for her astronomical knowledge and dis-
coveries, but whose name, strange as it is, is seldom mentioned in this country.
Be it remembered, nevertheless, for her ſame, flat she discovered two of the
satellites of the planet which bears her brother’s name, besides a multitude of
COInetS. .
The greatest possible ingenuity and pains have been taken
by astronomers to determine, at least, the approximate dis-
tance of the nearest fixed stars. If they have hitherto been
unable to arrive at any satisfactory result, they have at least,
established a limit beyond which the stars must necessarily
be placed. If they have failed to calculate their true distan-
ces from the earth, it is because they have not the requisite
data. The solution of the problem, if they had the data,
would not be more difficult than to compute the relative dis-
* * : * : *, *, *. =
... What conclusion may be drawn from tà .
have astronomers taken to find thé dištá:
come to? For what reason have tºº.
lem a difficult one? - tº:

ECONOMY OF THE STARS. 155
.."
t
tances of the planets—a thing which any school-boy can do.
In estimating so great a distance as the nearest fixed star,
it is necessary that we employ the longest measure which
astronomy can use. Accordingly, we take the whole diame-
ter of the earth’s orbit, which, in round numbers, is 190 millions
of miles, and endeavour, by a simple process in mathematics,
to ascertain how many measures of this length are contained
in the mighty interval which separates us from the stars.
The method of doing this can be explained to the appre-
hension of the pupil, if he does not shrink from the illustra-
tion, through an idle fear that it is beyond his capacity.
For example; suppose that, with an instrument construct-
ed for the purpose, we should this might take the precise bear-
ing or angular direction from us of some star in the northern
hemisphere, and note it down with the most perfect exact-
Hess, and, having waited just six months, when the earth
shall have arrived at the opposite point of its orbit, 190 mill-
ions of miles east of the place which we now occupy, we
should then repeat our observation upon the same star, and
see how much it had changed its position by our travelling
, so great a distance one side of it. Now it is evident, that if
it changes its apparent position at all, the quantity of the
change will bear some proportion to the distance gone over ;
that is, the nearer the star, the greater the angle; and the
more remote the star, the less the angle. It is to be observed,
that the angle thus found, is called the star's Annual Par-
allaw. Af
But it is ſound by the most eminent astronomers of the
age, and the most perfect instruments ever made, that this
parallax does not exceed the four thousandth part of a de-
gree, or a single second ; so that, if the whole great orbit of
the earth were lighted up into a globe of fire 600 millions of
miles in circumference, it would be seen from the nearest star
only as a twinkling atom ; and to an observer placed at this
distance, our sun, with its whole retinue of planetary worlds,
would occupy a space scarcely exceeding the thickness of a
spider’s web.” If the nearest of the fixed stars are placed at
—t—
* A just idea of the import of this term, will impart a force and sublimity to an ex-
pression of St.James, which no power of words could improve. . It is said, Chapterſ.
verse 17., of Him from whom cometh down every good and perfect gift, that there is
“ovz ayu ºrapaxxºn a ſporn; azroaxixaga.” Literally, There is “neither par-
allay nor shadow of change:” As if the apostle had said–Perallventure, that in tra:
velling millions and millions of miles through the regions of immensity, there may be
a sensible parallax to some of the fixed stars; yet, as to the Father of Lights; view.
him from whatever point of his Empire we may, he is without parallay or shadow
change 1
What measure is employed in estimating .. e distances Of the fixed stars? How,
is it used? What is the angle thus ſºft §§§ is the greatest magnitude of
the annual parallax? ºf , " . . .
\ :

156 NUMBER, DISTANCE, AND
such inconceivable distances in the regions of space, with
what line shall we measure the distance of those which are
a thousand or a million of times as much farther from them,
as these are from us. . e
If the annual parallax of a star were accurately known, it
would be easy to compute its distance by the following rule:
As the sine of the star’s parallax:
Is to radius, or ninety degrees: :
So is the Earth’s distance from the sun:
To the star’s distance from the sun.
If we allow the annual parallax of the nearest star to be
1", the calculation will be,
As 0.000004848.136S=Nat. Sine of 1/7.
Is to 1.0000000000000–Nat. Sine of 90°. -
So is 95,273,868.867748554=Earth’s distance from the sun.
To 19,651,627,683,449=Star’s distance from the sun.
In this calculation we have supposed the earth to be placed at the mean dis-
tance of 24,047 of its own semi-diameters, or 95.273,868.86774S554 miles from the
sun, which makes the star’s distance a very little less than twenty billions of
miles. Dr. Herschel says that Sirius cannot be nearer than 100,000 times the
diameter of the earth’s orbit, or 19,007,788,800,000 of miles.
Biot, who either takes the earth’s distance greater than he lays it down in his
Traité’ Elementaire d’Astronomie Physique, or has made an errour in figures,
makes the distance 20,086,868,036,404. Dr. Brewster makes it 20,159,665,000,000
miles. A mean of these computations, is 20 billions; that is, 20 millions of mill-
ions of miles, to a parallax of I’
Astronomers are generally agreed in the opinion that the annual parallax of
the stars is less than 1", and consequently that the nearest of them is placed at
a much greater distance from us, than these calculation's make it. It was, how-
ever, announced during the last year, that M. D’Assas, a French astronomer,
had satisfactorily established the annual parallax of Keid, (a small star 89 N. of
Ganama. Eridani,) to be 2'', that of Rigel, in Orion to be 1”. 43, and that of Sirius
to be l’’. 24. If these results may be relied on, Keid is but 10 billions, Rigel but
14 billions, and Sirius 16 billions of miles from the earth. This latter distance is,
however, so great that, if Sirius were to fall towards the earth at the rate of a
million of miles a day, it would take it forty three thousand, three hundred years
to reach the earth; or, if the Almighty were now to blof it out of the heavens, its
'brilliance would continue undiminished in our hemisphere for the space of three
years.
The most brilliant stars, till recently, were supposed to be
situated nearest the earth, but later observations prove that
...this opinion is not well founded, since some of the smaller
stars appear to have, not only a greater annual parallax, but
an absolute motiën in space, much greater than those of the
brightest class.
*.



What conclusion may be drawn from this fact in regard to the distances of the fixed
stars? If the annual parallax of a star were known, by what simple rule could
you coºpute its distance? If we allow the annual pataifax of the nearest star to be
i’’, what will its distance be? What is a mean of the calculations of different, astron-
omers, ſor a parallgæ of 1* 2 What recent observations indicate à greater parallaº,
to some of the stars? If the parallaº of Sirius be 1” .24, what will be its distance?
How long would it require, passing through this distance, at the rate of a million of
miles a day, to reach the earth, and how long would its light continue, undiminished
to us, were it to be biotted from the heavens? What has been supposed to be the rela-
tive distance of the most brilliant stars from the earth? What do later observations .
prove, in regard to this opinion?
ECONOMY OF THE STARS. 157
*
It has been computed that the light of Sirius, although
twenty thousand million times less than that of our Sun, is,
nevertheless, three hundred and twenty-four times greater than
that of a star of the sixth magnitude. If we suppose the two
stars to be really of the same size; it is easy to show that the
star of the sixth magnitude is fifty-seven and one third times
farther from us than Sirius is, because light diminishes as the
square of the distance of the luminous body increases.
By the same reasoning it may be shown, that if Sirius were placed where the
sun is, it would appear to us to be four times as large as the Sun, and give four
times as much light and heat. It is by no means unreasonable to suppose, that
many of the fixed stars exceed a million of miles in diameter. *
2- We may pretty safely affirm, then, that stars of the sixth
magnitude, are not less than 900 millions of millions of miles
distant from us; or a million of times farther from us than the
planet Saturn, which is scarcely visible to the naked eye.
But the human mind, in its present state, can no more appre-
ciate such distances than it can infinity; for if our earth,
which moves at more than the inconceivable velocity of a mill-
ion and a half of miles a day, were to be hurried from its orbit,
and to take the same rapid flight over this immense tract, it
would not traverse it in sixteen hundred thousand years;
and every ray of light, although it moves at the rate of one
hundred and ninety-three thousand miles in a single second
of time, is more than one hundred and seventy years in com-
ing from the star to us. |
But what is even this, compared with that measureless ex-
tent which the discoveries of the telescope indicate? Ac-
cording to Dr. Herschel, the light of some of the nebulae,
just perceptible through his 40 feet telescope, must have been
a million of ages in coming to the earth; and should any of
them be now destroyed, they would continue to be perceptible
for a million of ages to come.
T}r. Herschel informs us, that the glass which he used, would separate stars
at 497 times the distance of Sirius.
It is one of the wonders of creation that any phenomena
of bodies at such an immense distance from us should be
perceptible by human sight; but it is a part of the Divine
Maker’s plan, that although they do not act physically upon
us, yet they should so far be objects of our perception, as
\
Suppose the light of Sirius to be twenty thousand million times less than that of
our sun, how would it compare with that of a star of the sixth magniflude? If we
suppose the two stars to be of the same size, how much farther off is the star of the
sixth magnitude, than Sirius is? Suppose Sirius to be placed where our Sun is, how?
would its apparent magnitude, and its light and heat compare ºpith those ºf the sun ?
, What may we generally affirm of the distance of stars of the sixth magnitude? Can
the human mind appreciate such distances? What illustrations can you give to show
their immensity 3 What is this distance compared with that of the telescopic stars,
and the nebulae? Why are we able to see bodies at so great a distance?
158 NUMBER, DISTANCF, AND
to expand our ideas of the vastness of the universe, and of
the stupendous extent and operations of his omnipotence.
“With these facts before us,” says an eminent astronomer
Z and divine, “it is most reasonable to conclude, that those ex-
|
pressions in the Mosaic history of Creation, which relates to
the creation of the fixed stars, are not to be understood as
referring to the time when they were brought into existence,
as if they had been created about the same time with our
earth; but as simply declaring the fact, that, at whatever pe-
riod in duration they were created, they derived their exist-
ence from God.”
- “That the stars here mentioned,” (Gen. i. 16.) says a dis-
tinguished commentator,” “were the planets of our system,
and not the fixed stars, seems a just inference from the fact,
that after mentioning them, Moses immediately subjoins,
“And Elohim set them in the firmament of the heaven to
give light upon the earth, and to rule over the day and over
the night; evidently alluding to Venus and Jupiter, which
are alternately dur morning and evening stars, and which
‘give light upon the earth,’ far surpassing in brilliancy any
of the fixed stars.” |
However wast the universe now appears; however numerous the worlds
which may exist within its boundless range, the language of Scripture, and
Scripture alone, is sufficiently comprehensive and sublimé, to express all the
emotions which naturally arise in the mind, when contemplating its structure.
This shows not only the harinomy which subsists between the discoveries of
the Revelation and the discoveries of Science, but also forms by itself, a strong
presutuptive evidence, that the records of the Bible are authentic and diviſie.
We have hitherto described the stars as being immoveable
and at rest; but from a series of observations on double stars,
Dr. Herschel found that a great many of them have changed
their situations with regard to each other; that some perform
revolutions about others, at known and regular periods, and
that the motion of some is direct, while that of others is re-
trograde; and that many of them have dark spots upon their
surface, and turn on their axes, like the sun. I
A. A remarkable change appears to be gradually taking place
* in the relative distances of the stars from each other in the
constellation Hercules. The stars in this region appear to
be spreading farther and farther apart, while those in the
v opposite point of the heavens seem to close nearer and nearer
together in the same manner as, when walking through a
* S. Turner, F. S. A. R. A. S. L., 1832.
*----~ *-* *-* * ~ *—-------
... With these facts before us, what may we reasonably conclude with regard to the
* expressions in the Mosaic history which relate to the creation of the fixed stars?
What is the opinion ºf Mr. Turner in regard to the stars here mentioned?, To what
is the expression, ºſo rule over the day and over the night,” supposed to allude?
, Give some account ºf the real motions of the fixed stars. Awhat remarkable changes
are taking place in the constellation Hercules? t
*
,-
EconoMy of THE STARs. 159
forest, the trees towards which we advance, appear to be
constantly separating, while the distance between those
which we leave behind, is gradually contracting.
2- . From this appearance it is concluded, that the Sun, with
all its retinue of planetary worlds, is moving through the re-
gions of the universe, towards some distant centre, or around
some wide circumference, at the rate of sixty or seventy
thousand miles an hour; and that it is therefore highly prob-
able, if not absolutely certain, that we shall never occupy
that portion of absolute space, through which we are at this
moment passing, during all the succeeding ages of eternity.* I
The author of the CHRISTIAN PHILosopher endeavours to
convey some idea of the boundless extent of the universe,
by the following sublime illustration:-
“Suppose that one of the highest order of intelligences is
endowed with a power of rapid motion superior to that of
light, and with a corresponding degree of intellectual energy;
that he has been flying without intermission, from one pro-
vince of creation to another, for six thousand years, and will
continue the same rapid course for a thousand millions years
to come; it is highly probable, if not absolutely certain, that,
at the end of this vast tour, he would have advanced no far-
ther than the ‘suburbs of creation,’—and that all the magnifi-
cent systems of material and intellectual beings he had sur-
veyed, during his rapid flight, and for such a length of ages,
bear no more oroportion to the whole empire of Omnipotence,
than the smallest grain of sand does to all the particles of
rºatter contained in ten thousand worlds.” / .
Were a seraph, in prosecuting the tour of creation in the
manner now stated, ever to arrive at a limit beyond which
no farther displays of the Divinity could be perceived, the
thought would overwhelm his faculties with unutterable emo-
tions; he would feel that he had now, in some measure,
comprehended all the plans and operations of Omnipotence,
and that no farther manifestation of the Divine glory remain-
ed to be explored. But we may rest assured that this can
never happen in the case of any created intelligence.
There is moreover an argument derivable from the laws of the physical
world, that seems to strengthen, I had almost said, to confirm, this idea of the
Infinity of the material universe. It is this—If the number of stars be finite
and occupy only a part of space, the outward stars would be continually attracted
* Professor Bessel does not fall in with this prevailing opinion.
What conclusion is drawn from this appearance?, Shall we then prºbably ever
occupy that portion of space through which we are now passing, again? -What illus--
tration does the author of the Christian Philosopher give in order to convey some
idea of the boundless exterit of the universe?, Were a scraph ever to arrive at a limit
beyond which no farther displays of the divine glory could be perceived, how would
the idea affect him? Is It probable that such a place exists in the universe, or Within
the scope of any created intelligence 3
160 FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARS.
*
to those within, and in time would unite in one. But if the number be infinite, and
they occupy an infinite space, all parts would be nearly in equilibrio, and coº-
sequently each fixed star, being equally attracted in every direction, would
keep its place.
No wonder, then, that the Psalmist was so affected with
the idea of the immensity of the universe, that he seems
almost afraid lest he should be overlooked amidst the im-
mensity of beings that must needs be under the superintend-
ence of God; or that any finite mortal should exclaim, when
contemplating the heavens—“What is man, that THOU art
mindful of him ſ”
C H A P T E R X W II.
FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARS.
ſº
^ THE phenomenon of shooting stars, as it is called, is com-
mon to all parts of the earth; but is most frequently seen in
tropical regions. The unerring aim, the startling velocity,
and vivid brightness with which they seem to dart athwart
the sky, and as suddenly expire, excite our admiration; and
we often ask, “What can they be?” ” -
2. But frequent as they are, this interesting phenomenon is
not well understood. Some imagine that they are occasioned
by electricity, and others, that they are nothing but luminous
gas. Others again have supposed, that some of them are
luminous bodies which accompany the earth in its revolution
around the sun, and that their return to certain places might
be calculated with as much certainty and exactness as that
of any of the comets. /
Dr. Burney, of Gosport, kept a record of all that he ob-
served in the course of several years. The number which
he noticed in 1819, was 121, and in 1820, he saw 131. Pro-
fessor Green is confident that a much larger number are am-
nually seen in the United States.
Signior Baccaria supposed, they were occasioned by elec-
tricity, and thinks this opinion is confirmed by the following
observations. About an hour after sunset, he and some
friends, that were with him, observed a falling star, directing
its course directly towards them, and apparently growing
larger and larger, but just before it reached them it disap-

A. Where does the phenomenon of falling, or shooting stars occur? What is there to
excite our admiration in this phenomenon?, Is this interesting phenomenon Well ºn.
derstood? What are the different opinions in regard to them? How many shooting
stars did Dr. Burney observe in the years 1819 and 1820? Is it probable that a much
larger number is seen every year in the United States? What did Baccaria suppºse
they were occasioned by, and what observations did he make to strengthen his
Opinion? s
| FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARs. . j6?
peared. On vanishing, their faces, hands, and clothes, with
the earth, and all the neighbouring objects, became suddenly
illuminated with a diffused and lambent light. It was attend-
ed with no noise. During their surprise at this appearance,
a servant informed them, that he had seen a light shine sud-
denly in the garden, and especially upon the streams which
he was throwing to water it.
The Signior also observed a quantity of electric matter col-
lect about his kite, which had very much the appearance of a
falling star. Sometimes he saw a kind of halo accompanying
the kite, as it changed its place, leaving some glimmering of
light in the place it had quitted.
Shooting stars have been supposed by those meteorologists
who refer them to electricity or luminous gas, to prognosticate
changes in the weather, such as rain, wind, &c.; and there
is, perhaps, some truth in this opinion. The duration of the
brilliant tract which they leave behind them, in their motion
through the air, will probably be found to be longer or shorter,
according as watery vapour abounds in the atmosphere.
The motion that this phenomenon betokens high winds, is
of great antiquity. Virgil, in the first book of his Georgics,
expresses the same idea:—
“Saepe ejiam stellas vento impendente widebis
Praecipites cºlo labi; noctisque per umbram
Flammarum longos a tergo albescere tractus.
And oft, before tempestuous winds arise,
The seeming stars fall headlong from the skies,
And shooting through the darkness, gild the night
With sweeping glories and long trails of light.”
The number of shooting stars, observed in a single night,
though variable, is commonly very small. There are, how-
ever, several instances on record of their falling in “showers”
—when every star in the firmament seems loosened from its
sphere, and moving in lawless flight from one end of the
heavens to the other. As early as the year 472, in the month.
of November, a phenomenon of this kind took place near
Constantinople. As Theophanes relates, “The sky appeared
to be on fire,” with the corruscations of the flying meteors.
A shower of stars, exactly similar took place in Canada, between the 3d and
4th of July, 1814, and another at Montreal, in November, 1819. In all these cases,
a residuum, or black dust, was deposited upon the surface of the waters, and upon
the roofs of buildings, and other objects. In the year 1810, “inflamed sub-
stances,” it is said, fell into and around lake Van, in Armenia, which stained the
water of a blood colour, and cleft the earth in various places. On the 5th of
g
What was the appearance upon streams of water? What did he observe at this
time about his kite? What connexion are they supposed to have with meteorology?
What circumstance may we probably find to confirm this idea? Is this notion of very
ancient, or of modern date? What is, usually, the number of shooting stars observed
in a single night? When, and where, occurred the first instance, on record, of their
falling in great numbers? Mention some other instances. What remarkable vestige
was left by these meteoric showers? 14%
162 FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARs.
September, 1819, a like phenomenon was seen in Moravia. History furnishes
many more instances of meteoric showers, depositing a red dust, in some places,
so plentiful as to admit of chylnical analysis.
The commissioner, (Mr. Andrew Ellicott,) who was sent
out by Our government to fix the boundary between the Spanish
possessions in North America and the United States, witness-
ed a very extraordinary flight of shooting stars, which filled
the whole atmosphere from Cape Florida to the West India
Islands. This grand phenomenon took place the 12th of
November, 1799, and is thus described:—“I was called up,”
says Mr. Ellicott, “about 3 o'clock in the morning, to see the
shooting stars, as they are called. The phenomenon was
grand and awful. The whole heavens appeared as if illu-
minated with skyrockets, which disappeared only by the light
of the sun, after daybreak. The meteors, which at any one
instant of time, appeared as numerous as the stars, flew in
all possible directions except from the earth, towards which
they all inclined more or less, and some of them descended
perpendicularly over the vessel we were im, so that I was in
constant expectation of their falling on us.”
Mr. Ellicott further states that his thermometer which had
been at 80° Fahr. for the four days preceding, fell to 56°
about 4 o’clock, A. M., and that nearly at the same time, the
wind changed from the south to the northwest, from whence
it blew with great violence for three days without intermission.
These same appearances were observed, the same night,
at Santa Fe de Bogota, Cumana, Quito, and Peru, in South
America; and as far north as Labrador and Greenland, ex-
tending to Weimar in Germany, being thus visible over an
extent on the globe of 649 of latitude, and 949 of longitude.
The celebrated Humboldt, accompanied by M. Bompland, then in S. America,
thus speaks of the phenomenon:--"Towards the morning of the 13th of No.
vember, 1799, we witnessed a most extraordinary scene of shooting meteors.
Thousands of bolides, and failing stars succeeded each other during four hours.
Their direction was very regular from north to south. From the beginning of
the phenomenon there was not a space in the firmament, equal in extent to
three diameters of the moon, which was not filled, every instant, with b0lides
or falling stars. . All the meteors left luminous traces, or phosphorescent bands
behind them, which lasted seven or eight seconds.”
This phenomenon was witnessed by the Capuchin missionarv at San Fer-
nando de Afiura, a village situated in lat. 7° 53' 12", amidst the savannahs of the
province of Varinas; by the Franciscan monks stationed near the cataracts of ,
the Oronoco, and at Marca, on the banks of the Rio Negro, lat, 29 40' long.
70° 21', and in the west of Brazil, as far as the equator itself; and also at the
city of Porto Cabello, lat. 109 6' 52”, in French Guiana, Popayan, Quito, and
Peru. . It is somewhat surprising that the same appearances, observed in places
so widely separated, amid the vast and lonely deserts of South America, should
have been seen, the same night, in the United States, in Labrador, in Greenland,
*
and at Itterstadt, near Weimar, in Germany
Recite instances of a similar ſcind, in which a red dust has been deposited. Describe
the phenomenon of shooting stars described by Mr. Ellicott, in 1799. Describe the
same phénomenon as seen, in South Aºterica, by Humboldt and others. In what other
garis of the earth, was it witnessed, and by whom 2 t
FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARs. 163
We are told that thirty years before, at the city of Quito,
“There was seen in one part of the sky, above the volcano
of Cayamburo, so great a number of falling stars, that the
mountain was thought to be in flames. This singular sight
lasted more than an hour. The people assembled in the
plain of Exida, where a magnificent view presents itself of
the highest summits of the Cordilleras. A procession was
already on the point of setting out from the convent of St.
Francis, when it was perceived that the blaze on the horizon
was caused by fiery meteors, which ran along the sky in all
directions, at the altitude of 12 or 13 degrees.”
2. But the most sublime phenomenon of shooting stars, of
which the world has furnished any record, was witnessed
throughout the United States on the morning of the 13th of
November, 1833.
The entire extent of this astonishing exhibition has not
been precisely ascertained, but it covered no inconsiderable
portion of the earth’s surface. It has been traced from the
łongitude of 61°, in the Atlantic ocean, to longitude 1000 in
Cºntral Mexico, and from the North American lakes to the
, , est Indies.
it was not seen, however, any where in Europe, nor in South America, nor in
any part of the Pacific ocean yet heard from.
Every where, within the limits abovementioned, the first
appearance was that of fireworks of the most imposing
grandeur, covering the entire vault of heaven with myriads
of fireballs, resembling skyrockets. Their corruscations
were bright, gleaming and incessant, and they fell thick as
the flakes in the early snows of December. To the splen-
dours of this celestial exhibition, the most brilliant skyrockets
and fireworks ..of art, bear less relation than the twinkling of
the most tiny star, to the broad glare of the sun. The whole
heavens seemed in motion, and suggested to some the awful
grandeur of the image employed in the apocalypse, upon
the opening of the sixth seal, when “the stars of heaven
fell unto the earth, even as a fig-tree casteth her untimely
figs, when she is shaken of a mighty wind.” f
One of the most remarkable circumstances attending this
display was, that the meteors all seemed to emanate from one
and the same point, a little southeast of the zenith. Following
the arch of the sky, they ran along with immense velocity,
Describe another phenomenon of a similar kind, seen in South America about thirty
years before...When occurred the most sublime phenomenon of shooting stars of
which the world has any record? How extensively was it witnessed? What was
the first appearance of the phenomenon? What scene in the apocalypse, did itsug-
gest to some? From what point did the meteors appear to emanate?" Describe their
motion. w
j64 FALLING, or shooting STARs.
describing in some instances, an arc of 300 or 40° in a few
seconds.
On more attentive inspection it was seen, that the meteors
exhibited three distinct varieties; the first, consisting of
phosphoric lines, apparently described by a point; the second,
of large fireballs, that at intervals darted along the sky, leav-
ing luminous trains, which occasionally remained in view for
a number of minutes, and, in some cases, for half an hour or
more ; the third, of undefined luminous bodies, which remain-
ed nearly stationary in the heavens for a long time.
Those of the first variety were the most numerous, and
resembled a shower of fiery snow driven with inconceivable
velocity to the north of west. The second kind appeared
more like falling stars—a spectacle which was contemplated
by the more unenlightened beholders with great amazement
and terrour. The trains which they left, were commonly
white, but sometimes were tinged with various prismatic
colours, of great beauty.
, These fireballs were occasionally of enormous size. , Dr.
Smith, of North Carolina, describes one which appeared larg—
er than the full moon rising.” “I was,” says he, “startled
by the splendid light in which the surrounding scene was
exhibited, rendering even small objects quite visible.” The
same ball, or a similar one, seen at New Haven, passed off in a
northwest direction, and exploded a little northward of the
star Capella, leaving, just behind the place of explosion, a
train of peculiar beauty. The line of direction was at first
nearly straight; but it soon began to contract in length, to
dilate in breadth, and to assume the figure of a serpent SCROL-
LING itself up, until it appeared like a luminous cloud of va-
pour, floating gracefully in the air, where it remained in full
view for several minutes. '
2 Of the third variety of meteors, the following are remark-
able examples:—At Poland, Ohio, a luminous body was dis-
tinctly visible in the northeast for more than an hour. It was
very brilliant, in the form of a pruning-hook, and apparently
twenty feet long, and eighteen inches broad. It gradually
* If this body were at the distance of 110 miles, from the observer, it must have had
a diameter of one mile ; if at the distance of 11 miles, its diameter was 528 feet; and
if only one mile off, it must have been 48 feet in diameter. These considerations
leave no doubt, that many of the meteors were bodies of large size.
What other appearances were observed, upon mote attentive inspection? Give a
more particular account of the first variety. Of the second. What do we know in
regard to the size of these fireballs? /How does Dr. Smith describe one seen by him
in North Carolina? What was the appearance of the same or a similar ball, as Seºn
at New Haven? What was there peculiar in the course, and final disappearance of it?
Swppose this meteor was 110 miles distant frºm the place of observation, what mºst
Rašč been its diameter? What, if it were il miles distant? What, if only one mile?
, Mention some examples of the third variety of meteors
FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARs. 165
/
settled towards the horizon, until it disappeared. At Niagara
Falls, a large, luminous body, shaped like a square table,
was seen near the zenith, remaining for some time almost
stationary, emitting large streams of light./ # *
The point from which the meteors seemed to emanate,
was observed by those who fixed its position among the stars,
to be in the constellation Leo; and, according to their concur-
rent testimony, this RADIANT POINT was stationary among the
stars, during the whole period of observation; that is, it did
not move along with the earth, in its diurnal revolution east-
ward, but accompanied the stars in their apparent progress
westward. f
2 A remarkable change of weather from warm to cold, ac-
companied the meteoric shower, or immediately followed it.
In all parts of the United States, this change was remarkable
for its suddenness and intensity. In many places, the day
preceding had been unusually warm for the season, but, be-
fore the next morning, a severe frost ensued, unparalleled, for
the time of year.
In attempting to explain these mysterious phenomena, it is
argued, in the first place, that the meteors had their origin
beyond the limits of our atmosphere; that they of course
did not belong to this earth, but to the regions of space exte-
rior to it.
The reason on which this conclusion is founded is this:—All bodies near the
earth, including the atmosphere itself, have a common motion with the earth
around its axis from west to east; but the radiant point, that indicated the
source from which the meteors emanated, followed the course of the stars
from east to west; therefore, it was independent of the earth’s rotation, and
consequently, at a great distance from it, and beyond the limits of the atmos-
phere. The height of the meteoric cloud, or radiant point, above the earth’s
surface was, according to the mean average of Professor Olmsted’s observa-
tions, not less than 2238 miles. *
That the meteors were constituted of very light, combus-
tible materials, seems to be evident, from their exhibiting the
actual phenomena of combustion, they being consumed, or
converted into smoke, with intense light; and the extreme
tenuity of the substance composing them is inferred from the
fact that they were stopped by the resistance of the air. Had
their quantity of matter been considerable, with so prodigious
a velocity, they would have had sufficient momentum to dash
them upon the earth; where the most disastrous consequences
might have followed.
In What Constellation Was the point from which the meteors seemed to radiatel
What changes were observed in the weather during or soon after this phenomenon?
In attempting to account for these phenomena, what hypothesis has been advanced
in regard to the place where the meteors had their origin? What is the reasoning
which this hypothésis is sustained? How high was the meteoric cloud supposed to 5e
above the earth 2 What do we know in regard to the substance of which the meteors
were composed? What might have been the consequences, if their quantity of matt
had been considerable; " (I quantity £º
166 FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARs.
The momentum of even light bodies of such size, and in such numbers, trav-
ersing the atmosphere with such astonishing velocity, must have produced ex-
tensive derallgements in the atmospheric equilibriuin. Cold air from the upper
regions would be brought down to the earth; the portions of air incumbent
over districts of country remote from each other, being mutually displaced,
would exchange places, the air of the warm latitudes be transferred to colder,
and that of cold latitudes, to warmer regions,
Various hypotheses have been proposed to account for this
wonderful phenomena. The agent which most readily suggests
itself in this, and in many other unexplained natural appear-
ances, is electricity. But no known properties of electricity
are adequate to account for the production of the meteors, for
the motions, or for the trains which they, in many instances,
left behind them. Others, again, have referred their proximate
cause to magnetism, and to phosphoretted hydrogen ; both
of which, however, seem to be utterly insufficient, so far as
their properties are known, to account for so unusual a phe-
IłOH]6. Il O]].
Professor Olmsted, of Yale College, who has taken much
pains to collect facts, and to establish a permanent theory for
the periodical recurrence of such phenomena, came to the
conclusion, that—
The meteors of November 13th, 1833, emanated from a
nebulous body, which was then pursuing its way along with
the earth around the sun ; that this body continues to re-
volve around the sun, in an elliptical orbit—but little in-
clined to the plane of the ecliptic, and having its aphelion
near the orbit of the earth; and finally, that the body
has a period of nearly six months, and that its perihelion
'is a little below the orbit of Mercury.
This theory, at least accommodates itself to the remarkable
fact, that almost all the phenomena of this descrip.’on, which
are known to have happened, have occurred in the two opposite
months of April and November. A similar exhibition of
meteors to that of November, 1833, was observed on the same
day of the week, April 20th, 1803, at Richmond, in Virginia,
Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and at Halifax, in British Amer-
ica. Another was witnessed in the autumn of 1818, in the
North sea, when, in the language of the observers, “all the
surrounding atmosphere was enveloped in one expansive sea
of fire, exhibiting the appearance of another Moscow in
flames.” * *
Exactly one year previous to the great phenomenon of
1833, namely, on the 12th of November, 1832, a similar me-
What effect must the momentum of even light bodies of such size, moving with such
velocity, have had upon the atmosphere 2 Mention some hypotheses which have been
proposed to account for these meteors. Ato what conclusion did Professor Olmsted,
after a long investigation, come, in regati to them? To what remarkable facts in
such phenomena, is this theory adapted? At what other corresponding periods have
Similar phenomena been Observed?
FALLING, or shooting STARs. 167
/
teoric display was seen near Mocha, on the Red sea, by
Capt. Hammond and crew, of the ship Restitution.
A gentleman in South Carolina, thus describes the effect of the phenomenon
of 1833, upon his ignorant blacks:– “I was suddenly awakened by the most dis-
tressing cries that ever fell on my ears. Shrieks of horrour, and cries of
mercy, I could hear from most of the megroes of three plantations, amounting
in all to about six or eight hundred. While earnestly ſistening for the cause,
I heard a faint voice near the door calling my name; I arose, and taking my
sword. stood at the door. At this moment, I heard the same voice still beseech-
ing me to rise, and saying, “O ! my God, the world is on fire P I then opened
the door, and it is difficult to say which excited me most—the awfulness of the
scene, or the distressed cries of the negroes; upwards of one hundred lay
Fº on the ground—some speechless, and some with the bitterest cries.
2’
ut most with their hands raised, imploring God to save the world and them.
The scene was truly awful; for never did rain fall much thicker, than the
meteors fell towards the earth: east, west, north, and south, it was the same !” N
How did the scene of the 13th of November, 1833, affect the minds of the negroes
in South Carolina?
P A R T II.
ºsmºs
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL PHENOMENA OF THE SOLAR SYSTEMI.
Our attention has hitherto been directed to those bodies
which we see scattered every where throughout the whole
celestial concave. These bodies, as has been shown, twinkle
with a reddish and variable light, and appear to have always
the same position with regard to each other. We know
that their number is very great, and that their distance from
us is immeasurable. We are also acquainted with their
comparative brightness and their situation. In a word,
we have before us their few visible appearances, to which
our knowledge of them is well nigh limited; almost all our
reasonings in regard to them being founded on comparatively
few and uncertain analogies. Accordingly, our chief busi-
ness, thus far, has been to detail their number, to describe
their brightness and positions, and to give the names by
which they have been designated.
There now remain to be considered certain other celes-
tial bodies, all of which, from their remarkable appearance
and changes, and some of them from their intimate connec-
tion with the comfort, convenience, and even existence of
man, must have always attracted especial observation, and
been objects of the most intense contemplation and the deep-
est interest. Most of these bodies are situated within the lim-
its of the Zodiac. The most important of them are, the sun,
so superior to all the heavenly bodies for its apparent mag-
nitude, for the light and heat which it imparts, for the mark-
ed effects of its changes of position with regard to the earth;
To what particulars is our knowledge of the fixed stars, those heavenly bodies
which we have heretofore been considering, well nigh confined 3 Where are the
bodies which now remain to be considered, situated 3
A
2 GENERAL PHENOMENA
and the moon, so conspicuous among the bodies which give
light by night, and from her soft and silvery brightness, so
pleasing to behold, remarkable ºot only for changes of posi-
tion; but for the varied phases or appearances which she
presents, as she waxes from her crescent form through all
her different stages of increase to a full orb, and wanes back
again to her former diminished figure.
The partial or total obscuration of these two bodies, which
sometimes occurs, darkness taking place even at mid-day,
and the face of night, before lighted up by the moon’s beams,
being suddenly shaded by their absence, have always been
among the most striking astronomical phenomena, and so
powerful in their influence upon the beholders, as to fill them
with perplexity and fear. If we observe these two bodies,
we shall find, that, besides their apparent diurnal motion
across the heavens, they exhibit other phenomena, which
must be the effect of motion. The sun during one part of
the year, will be seen to rise every day farther and farther
towards the north, to continue longer and longer above
the horizon, to be more and more clevated at mid-day,
until he arrives at a certain limit ; and then, during the other
part, the order is entirely reversed. The moon sometimes is
not seen at all ; and then, when she first becomes visible,
appears in the west, not far from the setting sun, with a slen-
der crescent form ; every night she appears at a greater
distance from the setting sun, increasing in size, until at length
she is found in the east, just as the sun is sinking below the
horizon in the west.
The sun, if his motions be attentively observed, will be
found to have another motion, opposite to his apparent diurnal
motion from east to west. This may be perceived distinct-
ly, if we notice, on any clear evening, any bright star, which
is first visible after sun set, near the place where he sunk
below the horizon. The following evening, the star will
not be visible on account of the approach of the sun, and all
the stars on the east of it, will be successively eclipsed by
gºss---
Which of them are the most important 3 Describe the most obvious phenome-
ua of the sun and moon.
oF THE SOLAR systEM. 3
his rays, until he shall have made a complete apparent revo-
lution in the heavens. These are the most obvious pheno-
mena exhibited by these two bodies.
There are, also, situated within the limits of the Zodiac,
certain other bodies, which, at first view, and on a superficial
examination, are scarcely distinguishable from the fixed
stars. But observed more attentively, they will be seen to
shine with a milder, whiter, and steadier light, and besides be-
ing carried round with the stars, in the apparent revolution of
the great celestial concave, they will seem to change their
places in the concave itself. They have sometimes a sta-
tionary attitude, sometimes appear to be moving from west
to east, and sometimes to be going back again from east to
west; being seen at sunset sometimes in the east, and some-
times in the west, and always apparently changing their po-
sition with regard to the earth, each other, and the other
heavenly bodies. From their wandering, as it were, in this
manner, through the heavens, they were called by the
Greeks, Irèavnrat, planets, which signifies wanderers.
There also sometimes appear in the heavens, bodies of a
very extraordinary aspect, which continue visible for a con-
siderable period, and then disappear from our view; and noth-
ing more is seen of them, it may be for years, when they
again present themselves, and take their place among the
bodies of the celestial sphere. They are distinguished from
the planets by a dull and cloudy appearance, and by a train
of light. As they approach the sun, however, their faint and
nebulous light becomes more and more brilliant, and their
train increases in length, until they arrive at their nearest
point of approximation, when they shine with their greatest
brilliancy. As they recede from the Sun, they gradually
lose their splendour, resume their faint and nebulous appear-
ance, and their train diminishes, until they entirely disappear.
They have no well defined figure, they seem to move in
every possible direction, and are found in every part of the
heavens. From their train, they were called by the Greeks,
counrat, comets, which signifies having long hair.
Describe the most obvious phenomena of the planets. Whence do they derive
their name 3 Describe the comets. Whence is their name derived 3
4. GENERAL PHENOMENA
The causes of these various phenomena must have early
constituted a very natural subject of inquiry. Accordingly,
we shall find, if we examine the history of the science, that "
in very early times there were many speculations upon this
subject, and that different theories were adopted to account
for these celestial appearances.
The Egyptians, Chaldeans, Indians, and Chinese, early possessed many
astronomical facts, many observations of important phenomena, and many
rules and methods of astronomical calculation ; insomuch, it has been ima-
gined, that they had the ruins of a great system of astronomical science,
which, in the earliest ages of the world, had been carried to a great degree
of perfection, and while the principles and the explanations of the pheno-
mena were lost, the isolated, unconnected facts, rules of calculation, and
phenomena themselves, remained. Thus, the Chinese, who, it is generally
agreed, possess the oldest authentic observations on record, have, recorded
in their annals, a conjunction of five planets at the same time, which hap-
pened 2461 years before Christ, or 100 years before the flood. By mathe-
matical calculation, it is ascertained that this conjunction really occurred
at that time. The first observation of a solar eclipse of which the world
has any knowledge, was made by the Chinese, 2128 years before Christ, or
220 years after the deluge. It seems, also, that the Chinese understood the
method of calculating eclipses; for, it is said, that the emperor was so irrita-
ted against the great officers of state for neglecting to predict the eclipse,
that he caused them to be put to death.* The astronomical epoch of the
Chinese, according to Bailly, commenced with Fohi, their first emperor,
who flourished 2952 years before the Christian era, or about 350 years be-
fore the deluge. If it be asked how the knowledge of this antediluvian
astronomy was preserved and transmitted, it is said that the columns on
which it was registered have survived the deluge, and that those of Egypt
are only copies which have become originals, now that the others have been
forgotten. The Indians, also, profess to have many celestial observations
of a very early date. The Chaldeans have been justly celebrated in all
ages for their astronomical observations. When Alexandertook Babylon,
his preceptor, Callisthenes, found a series of Chaldean observations, made
in that city, and extending back with little interruption, through a period of
1903 years preceding that event. This would carry us back to at least 2234
years before the birth of Christ, or to about the time of the dispersion of
mankind by the confusion of tongues. Though it be conceded, that upon
this whole period in the history of the science, the obscurity of very remote
antiquity must necessarily rest, still it will remain evident that the pheno-
mena of the heavenly bodies had been observed with great attention, and
had been a subject of no ordinary interest.
* It is well known that the Chinese have, from time immemorial, con-
sidered Solar Eclipses and Conjunctions of the planets, as prognostics of
importance to the Empire, and that they have been predicted as a matter
of State policy.
What oriental nations early possessed many important astronomical facts,
observations and rules 3 Whence is it supposed that they obtained them 3 Give
some instances.
of THE SOLAR systEM. 5
But however numerous or important were the observations ofcriental an-
tiquity, they were never reduced to the shape and symmetry of a regular
*Greek, in all probability, derived many notions in regard to this
science, and many facts and observations, from Egypt, the great fountain
of ancient learning and wisdom, and many were the speculations and hy-
potheses of their philosophers. In the fabulous period of Grecian history,
Atlas, Hercules, Linus, and Orpheus, are mentioned as persons distinguished
for their knowledge of astronomy, and for the improvements which they
made in the science. But in regard to this period, little is known with
certainty, and it must be considered, as it is termed, fabulous.
The first of the Greek philosophers who taught Astrono-
my, was Thales, of Miletus. He flourished about 640
years before the Christian era. Then followed Anaximan-
der, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Plato.—Some
of the doctrines maintained by these philosophers were, that
the Earth was round, that it had two motions, a diurnal mo-
tion on its axis, and an annual motion around the sun, that the
sun was a globe of fire, that the moon received her light
from the sun, that she was habitable, contained mountains,
seas, &c.; that her eclipses were caused by the earth's
shadow, that the planets were not designed merely to adorn
our heavens, that they were worlds of themselves, and that
the fixed stars were centres of distant systems. Some of
them, however, maintained, that the earth was flat, and
others, that though round, it was at rest in the centre of the
universe.
When that distinguished school of philosophy was estab-
lished at Alexandria, in Egypt, by the munificence of the
sovereigns to whom that portion of Alexander's empire had
fallen, astronomy received a new impulse. It was now, in
the second century after Christ, that the first complete sys-
tem or treatise of astronomy, of which we have any know-
ledge, was formed. All before had been unconnected and
incomplete. Ptolemy, with the opinions of all antiquity,
and of all the philosophers who had preceded him, spread out

Were these facts, however, reduced to a science 3 Whence, is it probable, that
the Grecks derived their first notions of astrongmy 3 What is the name of the
first of the Greek pliilosophers who taught astronomy 3 At what time did he
flourish 3 Whal Greek philosophers after him taught upon the same subject?
Mention some of the doctrines which they maintained. When was the first
complete system of Astronomy written, an; by whom 7
A.
6 GENERAL PHENOMENA
before him, composed a work in thirteen books, called the
Meya»n Xuvraúz, or Great System. Rejecting the doctrine of
Pythagoras, who taught that the sun was the centre of the
universe, and that the earth had a diurnal motion on its
axis and an annual motion around the sun, as contrary to the
evidence of the senses, Ptolemy endeavoured to account for
the celestial phenomena, by supposing the Earth to be the
centre of the universe, and all the heavenly bodies to revolve
around it. He seems to have entertained an idea in regard
to the supposition, that the earth revolved on its axis, similar
to one which some entertain even at the present day, “If."
says he, “there were any motion of the earth common to it
and all other heavenly bodies, it would certainly precede
them all by the excess of its mass being so great ; and ani-
mals and a certain portion of heavy bodies would be left
behind, riding upon the air, and the earth itself would very
soon be completely carried out of the heavens.”
In explaining the celestial phenomena, however, upon his hypothesis, he
met with a difficulty in the apparently stationary attitude and retrograde
motions which he saw the planets sometimes have. To explain this, how-
ever, he supposed the planets to revolve in small circles, which he called
epicycles, which were, at the same time, carried around the earth in larger
circles, which he called deferents, or carrying circles. In following out
his theory, and applying it to the explanation of different phenomena, it
became necessary to add new epicycles, and to have recourse to other ex-
pedients, until the system became unwieldy, cumbrous, and complicated.
This theory, although astronomical observations continued to be made, and
some distinguished astronomers appeared from time to time, was the pre-
vailing theory until the middle of the 15th century. It was not, however,
always received with implicit confidence; nor were its difficulties always
entirely unappreciated. f ...”
Alphonso * king of Castile, who flourished in the 13th century, when
contemplating the doctrine of the epicycles, exclaimed, “Were the universe
thus constructed, if the deity had called me to his councils at the creation
of the world, I could have given him good advice.” He did not, howev-
er, mean any impiety or irreverence, except what was directed against the
system of Ptolemy.
About the middle of the 15th century, Copernicus, a native
of Thorn in Prussia, conceiving a passionate attachment to
the study of astronomy, quitted the profession of medicine
In how many books was it comprised, and what was the work called 3 What
was the system of Ptolemy 3 How did Ptolemy explain the stations and retro-
gradations of the planets 3 How long was the system of Ptolemy the prevailing
system 3 Was it, always received with implicit confidence? Who established
a new system of Astronomy about the middle of the i5th century 4
OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 7
and devoted himself, with the most intense ardour, to the
study of this science. “His mind,” it is said, “had long
been imbued with the idea that simplicity and harmony
should characterize the arrangements of the planetary sys-
tem. In the complication and disorder, which, he saw,
reigned in the hypothesis of Ptolemy, he perceived insu-
perable objections to its being considered as a representa-
tion of nature.
In the opinions of the Egyptian sages, in those of Pytha-
goras, Philolaus, Aristarchus and Nicetas, he recognised his
own earliest conviction that the earth was not the centre of
the universe. His attention was much occupied with the
speculation of Martinus Capella, who placed the Sun be-
tween Mars and the Moon, and made Mercury and Venus
revolve around him as a centre, and with the system of Ap-
pollonius Pergoeus, who made all the planets revolve around
the Sun, while the Sun and Moon were carried around the
Earth in the centre of the universe. -
The examination, however, of these hypotheses, gradual-
ly expelled the difficulties with which the subject was beset,
and after the labour of more than thirty years, he was per-
mitted to see the true system of the universe. The Sun he
considered as immoveable, in the centre of the system,
while the earth revolved around him, between the orbits of
Venus and Mars, and produced by its rotation about its axis
all the diurnal phenomena of the celestial sphere. The
other planets he considered as revolving about the Sun, in
orbits exterior to that of the Earth. (See the Relative Po-
sition of the Planets’ Orbits, Plate I. of the Atlas.)
Thus, the stations and retrogradations of the planetswere
the necessary consequence of their own motions, combin-
ed with that of the Earth about the Sun. He said that
“by long observation, he discovered, that if the motions of
the planets be compared with that of the earth, and be esti-
mated according to the times in which they perform their
revolutions, not only their several appearances would fol-
What led him to doubt the system of Ptolemy 3 How long was he employed
in the examination of different hypotheses before he came to a satisfactory result?
What was the system of Copernicus?
8 GENERAL PHENOMENA
low from this hypothesis, but that it would so connect the or.
der of the planets, their orbits, magnitudes, and distances, and
even the apparent motion of the fixed stars, that it would be
impossible to remove one of these bodies out of its place
without disordering the rest, and even the whole of the uni-
verse also.”
Soon after the death of Copernicus, arose Tycho Brahe,
born at Knudstorp, in Norway, in 1546. Such was the
distinction which he had attained as an astronomer, that
when dissatisfied with his residence in Denmark, he had re-
solved to remove, the king of Denmark, learning his inten-
tions, detained him in the kingdom, by presenting him with
the canonry of Rothschild, with an income of 2000 crowns
per annum. He added to this sum a pension of 1000 crowns,
gave him the island of Huen, and established for him an ob-
servatory, at an expense of about 200,000 crowns. Here
Tycho continued for twenty-one years, to enrich astronomy
with his observations. His observations upon the Moon
were important, and upon the planets, numerous and precisc,
and have formed the data of the present generalizations in
astronomy. He, however, rejected the system of Coperni-
cus ; considering the earth as immoveable in the centre of
the system, while the sun, with all the planets and comets
revolving around him, performed his revolution around the
earth, and, in the course of twenty-four hours, the stars also
revolved about the central body, This theory was not as
simple as that of Copernicus, and involved the absurdity of
making the Sun, planets, &c. revolve around a body compar-
atively insignificant.
Now, near the close of the 15th century, arose two men,
who wrought most important changes in the science, Kep-
ler, and Galileo, the former a German, the latter an
Italian.
What distinguished astronomer, soon after the time of Copernicus, enriched as: .
tronomy with many valuable observations 3 What inducements did the king of
Denmark offer him to remain in the kingdom 4 How long did he continue to
Imake observations in his observatory in the island of Huen 3 How were the
heavenly bodies arranged, in his system : What absurdity did it involve 3
What two illustrious astronomers made several very important discoveries Socn
... after the time of Tycho Brahe 3
OF THE SOLAR SYSTEMI, 9
Previous to Kepler, all investigations proceeded upon the
supposition that the planets moved in circular orbits, which
had been a source of much error. This supposition Kepler
showed to be false. He discovered that their orbits were
ellipses. The orbits of their secondaries or moons he also
found to be the same curve. He next determined the di-
mensions of the orbits of the planets, and found to what
their velocities in their motions through their orbits, and the
times of their revolutions, were proportioned; all truths of
the greatest importance to the science.
While Kepler was making these discoveries of facts, very
essential for the explanation of many phenomena, Galileo
was discovering wonders in the heavens never before seen
by the eye of man. Having improved the telescope, and
applied it to the heavens, he observed mountains and valleys
upon the surface of our moon; satellites or secondaries
were discovered revolving about Jupiter; and Venus, as
Copernicus had predicted, was seen exhibiting all the differ-
ent phases of the moon, waxing and waning as she does,
through various forms. Many minute stars, not visible to
the naked eye, were descried in the milky-way; and the
largest fixed stars, instead of being magnified, appeared to
be small brilliant points, an incontrovertible argument in fa-
vour of their immense distance from us. All his discoveries
served to confirm the Copernican theory, and to show the
absurdity of the hypothesis of Ptolemy.
Although the general arrangement and motions of the
planetary bodies, together with the figure of their orbits,
had been thus determined, the force or power which car-
ries them around in their orbits, was as yet unknown.
The discovery of this was reserved for the illustrious New-
ton.* By reflecting on the nature of gravity—that power
which causes bodies to descend towards the centre of the
earth—since it does not diminish at the greatest distance
* The discovery of Newton was in some measure anticipated by Co-
pernicus, Kepler, and Hooke.
What were the discoveries of Kepler 3 What were the discoveries of Galileo 3
What was the discovery of Newton 3 How was he led to make it?
10 GENERAL PHENOMENA OF THE SOLAR SYSTEMI.
from the centre of the earth to which we can attain, being
as powerful on the loftiest mountains as it is in the deepest
caverns, he was led to imagine that it might extend to the
moon, and that it might be the power which kept her in her
orbit, and caused her to revolve around the earth. He was
next led to suppose that perhaps the same power carried the
primary planets around the sun. By a series of calculations,
he was enabled at length to establish the fact, that the same
force which determines the fall of an apple to the earth, car-
ries the moons in their orbits around the planets, and the plan-
ets and comets in their orbits around the Sun.
To recapitulate briefly; the system, (not hypothesis, for
much of it has been established by mathematical demonstra-
tion,) by which we are now enabled to explain with a beauti-
ful simplicity the different phenomena of the sun, planets,
moons, and comets, is, that the sun is the central body in
the system; that the planets and comets move round him in
elliptical orbits, whose planes are more or less inclined to
each other, with velocities bearing to each other” a cer-
tain ascertained relation, and in times related to their dis-
tances; that the moons, or secondaries, revolve in like man-
ner, about their primaries, and at the same time accompany
hem in their motion around the sun; all meanwhile revolving
on axes of their own ; and that these revolutions in their
orbits, are produced by the mysterious power of attraction.
The particular mode in which this system is applied to the
explanation of the differerent phenomena, will be exhibited
as we proceed to consider, one by one, the several bodies
above mentioned.
These bodies, thus arranged and thus revolving, consti-
tute what is termed the solar system. The planets have
been divided into two classes, primaries and secondaries.
The latter are also termed moons, and sometimes satellites.
* The orbits or paths of the planets were discovered by tracing the
course of the planets by means of the fixed stars.
Recepitulate briefly the system by which we are enabled to explain the differ-
ent celestial phenomena. What is meant by the Solar System 3 Into what two
classs have the planets been divided ? -
THE sun. 11
The primaries are those which revolve about the Sun, as
a centre. The secondaries are those which revolve about
the primaries. There have been discovered eleven prima-
ries; namely, Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Vesta,
Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel; of which,
Mercury is the nearest to the Sun, and the others follow,
in the order in which they are named. Vesta, Juno, Ceres
and Pallas, were discovered by means of the telescope, and,
because they are very small, compared with the others, are
called asteroids. There have been discovered, eighteen
secondaries. Of these, the Earth has one, Jupiter four,
Saturn seven, and Herschel six. All these, except our
Moon, as well as the asteriods, are invisible to the naked
eye.
C H A P T E R II.
THE SUN.
2 The Sun is a vast globe, in the centre of the solar sys-
tem, dispensing light and heat to all the planets, and gov-
erning all their motions.
It is the great parent of vegetable life, giving warmth to
the seasons, and colour to the landscape. Its rays are the
cause of various vicissitudes on the surface of the earth and
in the atmosphere. By their agency, all winds are pro-
duced, and the waters of the Sea are made to circulate in
vapour through the air, and irrigate the land, producing
springs and rivers. 1 -
Define a primary planet. Define a secondary planet. How many primary
planets have been discovered 3 What are their names, and what the order of
their distance from the sun ? Which of them were discovered by means of the
telescope 3 Why are these termed asteroids? How many secondaries have been
discovered 4 How are they distributed among the primaries 3 Which of the
primaries and secondaries are invisible to the naked eye?Af Mention some of the
effects produced by the Sun.
i
ºr
* ...:
ºf
..
.*
12 THE SUN.
We shall by and by show the earth and other planets to be globular.
From analogy we infer that the Sun is also. Besides, were it a mere plane,
it would not contain sufficient matter to produce the effects which it pro-
duces by the force of its attraction. It must therefore be a solid, and if a solid,
it must be globular, otherwise its disc, instead of being circular, would be of
some other figure. It will also be shown, that there is reason to suppose
that it revolves upon an axis, which tends still further to confirm the same
position. That it is the central body of the system, must be supposed,
otherwise we could not explain satisfactorily the various celestial pheno-
mena. The truth of the supposition has been established by mathemati-
cal demonstrations.
2 The Sun is by ſar the largest of the heavenly bodies
whose dimensions have been ascertained. It diameter is
something more than 887 thousand miles. Consequently, it
contains a volume of matter equal to fourteen hundred thou-
sand globes of the size of the Earth. Of a body so vast
in its dimensions, the human mind, with all its efforts, can
form no adequate conception. The whole distance between
the Earth and the Moon would not suffice to embrace one
third of its diameter.' I
Here let the student refer to Plate I. where the Relative Magnitudes of
the Sun and Planets are exhibited. Let him compare the segment of the
Sun's circumſerence; as there represented, with the entire circumſerence of
the Earth. They are both drawn upon the same scale. The segment of
the Sun's circumference, since it is almost a straight line, must be a very
small part of what the whole circumference would be, were it represented
entire, Let the student understand this diagram, and he will be in some
measure able to conceive how like a mere point the Earth is, compared with .
the Sun, and to form in his mind some image of the vast magnitude of the
latter.
/ Were the Sun a hollow sphere, perforated with a thousand
openings to admit the twinkling of the luminous atmosphere
around it—and were a globe as large as the Earth placed
at its centre, with a satellite as large as our moon, and at
the same distance from it as she is from the earth, there
would be present to the eye of aspectator on the interior globe,
a universe as splendid as that which now appears to the
uninstructed eye—a universe as large and extensive as the
What reasons are there for supposing the sun to be globular 2 . How do we
know that it is the central body of the system 3 ºr What is its magnitude compareſ'
with that of the other heavenly bodies whose dimensions have been estimated 3
What is its diameter 3. How much larger is the Sun than the Earth 7 What is
the whole distance between the Earth and the Moon, compared with the diameter
of the Sun ?, Give some illustration to enable us to conceive of the magnitude of
the Sun.
THE SUN. 13
whole creation was conceived to be, in the infancy of astron-
omy. 4 -
The next thing which fills the mind with wonder, is the
distance at which so great a body must be placed, to occupy,
apparently, so small a space in the firmament. The Sun's
mean distance from the Earth, is twelve thousand times the
Earth's diameter, or a little more than 95 millions of miles.
We may derive some faint conception of such a distance,
by considering that the swiftest steamboats, which ply our
waters at the rate of 200 miles a day, would not traverse
it in thirteen hundred y?ars; and, that a cannon ball, flying
night and day, at the rate of 16 miles a minute, would not
reach it in eleven years. I
The Sun, when viewed through a telescope, presents the
appearance of an enormous globe of fire, frequently in a
state of violent agitation or ebullition; dark spots of irregu-
lar form, rarely visible to the naked eye, sometimes pass
over his disc, moving from east to west, in the period of near-
ly fourteen days. -
These spots are usually surrounded by a penumbra, and
that, by a margin of light, more brilliant than that of the
Sun. A spot when first seen on the eastern edge of the
Sun, appears like a line which progressively extends in
breadth, till it reaches the middle, when it begins to contract,
and ultimately disappears, at the western edge. In some
rare instances, the same spots re-appear on the east side,
and are permanent for two or three revolutions. But,
as a general thing, the spots on the Sun are neither perma-
nent nor uniform. Sometimes several small ones unite in-
to a large one; and, again, a large one separates into numer-
ous smaller ones. Some continue several days, weeks, and
even months, together; while others appear and disappear,
in the course of a few hours. Those spots that are formed
gradually, are, for the most part, as gradually dissolved;
What is the distance of the Sun from the Earth 4, a Give some illustration to
enable us to conceive of the distance. What is the appearance of the Sun when
viewed through a telescope 3 In what time do the spots seen on the Sun pass
across the disc 1 In what direction do they move 3 Describe their appearance.
Do the same spots ever re-appear on the east side? Are the spots generally per-
manent and uniform 3 Describe their irregularities 3
B
14 * THE SUN.
whilst those that are suddenly formed, generally vanish as
quickly.
It is the general opinion, that spots on the Sun were
first discovered by Galileo, in the beginning of the year
1611; though Scheiner, Harriot, and Fabricius, observed
them about the same time. During a period of 18 years
from this time, the Sun was never found entirely clear of
spots, excepting a few days in December, 1624; at other
times, there were frequently seen, twenty or thirty at a
time, and in 1625, upwards of fifty were seen at once.
From 1650, to 1670, scarcely any spots were to be seen;
and, from 1676, to 1684, the orb of the Sun presented an un-
spotted disc. Since the beginning of the eighteenth cen-
tury, scarcely a year has passed, in which spots have not
been visible, and frequently in great numbers. In 1799,
Dr. Herschel observed one nearly 30,000 miles in breadth.
*
A single second of angular measure, on the sun's disc, as seen from the
earth, corresponds to 462 miles ; and a circle of this diameter (containing
therefore nearly 220,000 square miles) is the least space which can be dis-
tinctly discerned on the sun as a visible area, even by the most powerful
glasses. Spots have been observed, however, whose linear diameter has
been more than 44,000 miles ; and, if some records are to be trusted, of even
still greater extent.
DR. Dick, in a letter to the author, says, “I have for many years exam-
ined the solar spots with considerable minuteness, and have several times
seen spots which were not less than the one-twenty-fifth part of the sun’s
diameter, which would make them about 22,192 miles in diameter, yet they
were visible neither to the naked eye, nor through an opera glass, mag-
nifying about three times. And, therefore, if any spots have been visible
to the naked eye—which we must believe, unless we refuse respectable
testimony—they could not have been much less than 50,000 miles in di-
BIſleter.
The apparent motion of these spots over the Sun's sur-
face, is continually varying in its direction. Sometimes
they seem to move across it in straight lines, at others in
curve lines. These phenomena may be familiarly illustra-
ted in the following manner.
Who, is it generally supposed, first discovered spots on the Sun ? Who else
observed them about the same time 3 What was the breadth of the one seen by
Dr. Herschel in 17993 In what direction do the spots on the sun appear to
In OVC 3
THE SUNs. 15.
Let EE represent the ecliptic; NS, its north and south poles, M the
point where the spot enters, and m the point where it leaves the Sun's disc.
At the end of November, and the beginning of December, the spot will
appear to move downwards, across the Sun's disc, from left to right, describ-
ing the straight lines M m, Fig. 1; soon after this period, these lines begin
gradually to be inflected towards the north, till about the end of February,
or the beginning of March, when they describe the curve lines repre-
sented in Fig. 2. After the beginning of March, the curvature decreases,
till the latter end of May, or the beginning of June, when they again
describe straight lines tending upwards, as in Fig. 3. By and by these
straight lines begin to be inflected downwards, till about the beginning of
September, when they take the form of a curve, having its convex side
towards the south pole of the Sun, as in Fig. 4.
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
As these phenomena are repeated every year, in the
same order, and belong to all the spots that have been per-
ceived upon the Sun's disc, it is concluded, with good rea-
son, that these spots adhere to the surface of the Sun, and
revolve with it, upon an axis, inclined a little to the plane of
the ecliptic. The apparent revolution of a spot, from any'
particular point of the Sun's disc, to the same point again, is
accomplished in 27 days, 7 hours, 26 minutes, and 24 sec-
onds; but during that time, the spot has, in fact, gone
Illustrate these phenomena by diagrams. What conclusions have been drawn
from these phenomena 3 What is the apparent time occupied by a spot in re-
volving from any particular point of the sun's disc to the same point again?


16 - THE SUN.
through one revolution, together with an arc, equal to that
described by the Sun, in his orbit, in the same time, which
reduces the time of the Sun's actual rotation on his axis, to 25
days, 9 hours, and 36 minutes.
The part of the sun's disc not occupied by spots, is far
from being uniformly bright. Its ground is finely mottled
with an appearance of minute, dark dots, or pores, which,
attentively watched, are found to be in a constant state of
change. /
What the physical organization of the Sun may be, is a
question which astronomy, in its present state, cannot solve.
It seems, however, to be surrounded by an ocean of inex-
haustible flame, with dark spots of enormous size, now and
then floating upon its surface. From these phenomena, Sir
W. Herschel supposed the Sun to be a solid, dark body, sur-
rounded by a vast atmosphere, almost always filled with
luminous clouds, occasionally opening and disclosing the
dark mass within. The speculations of Laplace were dif-
ferent. He imagined the solar orb to be a mass of fire, and
the violent effervescences and explosions seen on its surface,
to be occasioned by the eruption of elastic fluids, formed
in its interior, and the spots to be enormous caverns, like
º
g"
the craters of our volcanoes. Others have conjectured
that these spots are the tops of solar mountains, which are
sometimes left uncovered by the luminous fluid in which they
are immersed. I
Among all the conflicting theories that have been ad-
vanced, respecting the physical constitution of the Sun, there
is none entirely free from objection. The prevailing one
seems tº be, that the lucid matter of the Sun is neither a
liquid stibstance, nor an elastic fluid, but that it consists of
luminous clouds, floating in the Sun's atmosphere, which ex-
tends to a great distance, and that these dark spots are the
opaque body of the Sun, seen through the openings in his
atmosphere. Herschel supposes that the density of the lu-
minous clouds need not be greater than that of our Aurora
What is the actual time occupied by the revolution of the spot, and of course
by the Sun on its axis *H ave we been able to determine what the physical or-
ganization of the sun is? What was the theory of Sir W. Herschel in regard to
this subject? What was that of Laplace 3/what is the prevailing theory 3

MEERCURY. 17
Borealis, to produce the effects with which we are ac-
quainted. : - & *
~ The similarity of the Sun, to the other globes of the sys-
tem, in its supposed solidity, atmosphere, surface diversified
with mountains and valies, and rotation upon its axis, has
led to the conjecture that it is inhabited, like the planets, by
beings whose organs are adapted to their peculiar circum-
stances. Such was the opinion of the late Dr. Herschel,
who observed it unremittingly, with the most powerful tele-
Scopes, for a period of fifteen years. Such, too, was the
opinion of Dr. Elliott, who attributes to it the most delight-
ful scenery; and, as the light of the Sun is eternal, so he
imagined, were its seasons. Hence he infers, that this
luminary offers one of the most blissful habitations for intel-
ligent beings of which we can conceive. 1
M E R C U R Y .
2 MERCURY is the nearest planet to the Sun that has yet
been discovered; and with the exception of the asteroids,
is the smallest. Its diameter is only 2984 miles. Its size
therefore is seventeen times less than that of the Earth. It
would require more than 20 millions of such globes to com-
pose a body equal to the Sun. I
Here the student should refer to the diagrams, exhibiting the relative
magnitudes and distances of the sun and planets, Plate I. And whenever .
this subject recurs in the course of this work, the student should recur to
the figures of this plate, until he is able to form in his mind distinct con-
ceptions of the relative magnitudes and distances of all the planets.
2. It revolyes on its axis from west to east in 24 hours, 5
minutes, and 28 seconds; which makes its day about 10
23 What circumstances have led to the conjecture that the Sun.is inhabited 3
What was the opinion of Dr. Herschel on this point 3 How long had he observed
it unremittingly, and with the most powerful telescopes 3 What was the opinion.
of Dr. Elliot upon the same point?, What is the distance of Mercury from the
Sun ? What is its magnitude compared with that of the other planets 3 What is
its diameter 3 How many such bodies would it require to compose a body equal
to the Sun ?--In what direction does it revolve on its axis, and what time does it
occupy in iſe revolution ? - Sk
B.
18 MERCURY.
minutes longer than ours. It performs its revolution about
the Sun in a few minutes less than 88 days, and at a mean
distance of nearly 37 millions of miles. The length of
Mercury's year, therefore, is equal to about three of our
months. I
The rotation of a planet on its axis, constitutes its day; its revolution
bout the Sun constitutes its year.
Mercury is not only the most dense of all the planets,
but receives from the Sun seven times as much light and
heat as the Earth. The truth of this estimate, of course,
depends upon the supposition that the intensity of solar light
and heat at the planets, varies inversely with their respective
distances from the Sun, according to what we observe on
the Earth.
This law of analogy, did it exist with rigorous identity at
all the planets, would be no argument against their being
inhabited; because we are bound to presume that the All-
wise Creator has attempered every dwelling place in his
empire to the physical constitution of the beings which he
has placed in it.
s ºf From a variety of facts which have been observed in relation to the pro-
duction of caloric, it does not appear probable, that the degree of heat on
the surface of the different planets depends on their respective distances
from the Sun. It is more probable, that it depends chiefly on the distri-
bution of the substance of caloric on the surfaces, and throughout the atmos-
pheres of these bodies, in different quantities, according to the different
situations which they occupy in the solar system; and that these different
quantities of caloric are put into action by the influence of the solar rays,
so as to produce that degree of sensible heat requisite to the wants, and to
the greatest benefit of each of the planets. On this hypothesis, which is
corroborated by a great variety of facts and experiments, there may be no
more sensible heat experienced on the planet Mercury, than on the surface
of Herschel, which is fifty times farther removed from the Sun. I
Owing to the dazzling brightness of Mercury, the swift-
ness of its motion, and its nearness to the Sun, astronomers
In how long time does it perform its revolution about the sun ? What is its
mean distance from the sun ? What, then, is the length of its year, compared
with ours º PWhat measures a planet's day ? What measures its year? A What
is the density of Mercury, compared with that of the other planets? How much
light and heat does it receive, compared with the Earth 3 On what supposition
does the truth of this estimate depend ? If this were really the fact in regard to
the planets, would it be any argument against their being inhabited 2 "On what
does the degree of heat at the different planets probably depend ? Why flave astro-
nomers been able to make but comparatively few discoveries respecting Mercury {
MERCURY, 19
have made but comparatively few discoveries respect-
ing it. …When viewed through a telescope of considerable
magnifying power, it exhibits at different periods, all the,
various phases of the Moon; except that it never appears
quite full, because its enlightened hemisphere is never turned
directly towards the Earth, only when it is behind the Sun,
or so near to it, as to be hidden by the splendour of its
beams. Its enlightened hemisphere being thus always turn-
ed towards the Sun, and the opposite one being always dark,
prove that it is an opaque body, similar to the Earth, shining
only in the light which it receives from the Sun-
y The rotation of Mercury on its axis, was determined from
the daily position of its horns, by M. Schroeter, who not
only discovered spots upon its surface, but several mountains
in its southern hemisphere, one of which, was 10% miles
high :—nearly three times as high as Chimborazo, in South
America.
It is worthy of observation, that the highest mountains which have been
discovered in Mercury, Venus, the Moon, and perhaps we may add the
Earth, are all situated in their southern hemispheres.
During a few days in March and April, August and Sep-
tember, Mercury may be seen for several minutes, in the
morning or evening twilight, when its greatest elongations
happen in those months; in all other parts of its orbit, it is
too near the Sun to be seen by the naked eye. The greatest
distance that it ever departs from the Sun, on either side,
varies from 16° 12", to 28° 48', alternately.
These extreme points in a planet's orbit, are called its elongations. The
point of its greatest elongation is denominated its Aphelion; of its least
elongation, its Perihelion. On the diagram, exhibiting the Relative Po- .
sition of the Planets' Orbits [Plate I.] these points are represented by
little dots in the orbits at the extremities of the right lines which meet
them; the Perihelion points being above the Ecliptic, the Aphelion points
below it.
. . . What is its appearance when viewed through a telescope of considerable mag-
nifying power 3. What circumstances prove that is an opaque body, shining only
with the light of the sun ºr How was the rotation of Mercury on its axis deter-
mined, and by whom 3 What did he discover on its surface 3 What was the
altitude of the highest mountain which he saw 3. In which hemisphere are the
highest mountains which have been discovered in JMercury, Penus, and the JMoon,
situated 3 Does the same fact exist in regard to the earth & During what months
may Mercury be seen for a few days, and in what parts of the day ? Why is it
visible at these times, and not at others? What are the greatest distances which
it departs from the sun, on either side? What is the elongation of a planet 7
What is its .3phelion? What is its Perihelion ?
$20 MERCURY.
Z. The revolution of Mercury about the Sun, like that of all
the planets, is performed from west to east, in an orbit which
is nearly circular. Its apparent motion, as seen from the
earth, is, alternately, from west to east, and from east to west,
nearly in straight lines; sometimes, directly across the face
of the Sun, but at all other times, either a little above, or a
little below it. 1 r
/ Being commonly immersed in the Sun's rays in the
evening, and thus continuing invisible till it emerges from
them in the morning, it appeared to the ancients like two
distinct stars. A long series of observations was requisite,
before they recognised the identity of the star which was
seen to recede from the Sun in the morning with that which
approached it in the evening. But as the one was never
seen until the other disappeared, both were at last found to
be the same planet, which thus oscillated on each side of
the Sun. H
Mercury’s oscillation from west to east, or from east to west,
is really accomplished in just half the time of its revolution,
which is about 44 days; but as the Earth, in the meantime,
follows the Sun in the same direction, the apparent elongations
will be prolonged to between 55 and 65 days.
When Mercury passes directly over the Sun's disc, it is
denominated a Transit. This would happen in every revo-
lution, if the orbit lay in the same plane with the orbit of the
Earth. But it does not ; it cuts the Earth’s orbit in two
opposite points, as the ecliptic does the equator, but at an
angle three times less. I
See diagram, Relative Position of the Planets' Orbits, and their Inclination
to the Plane of the Ecliptic. [Plate I.] The dark lines denote sections in the
planes of the planets' orbits. The dotted lines continued from the darklines
denote the inclination of the orbits to the plane of the Ecliptic, which in
clination is marked in figures on them. Let the student fancy as many
circular pieces of paper, intersecting each other at the several angles of in-
clination marked on this diagram, and he will be enabled to understand more
easily what is meant by the inclination of the planets' orbits.
2. In what direction does Mercury revolve about the Sun ? What is the figure of
its orbit 4 Describe its apparent motion as seen from the Earth. A How did it ap-
pear to the ancients : What was the cause of this appearance #How were these
apparently two distinct stars at last found to be but one 3 What is the actual
period of each elongation of Mercury q What the apparent period? What is the
cause of this difference yWhat does the expression, transit of Mercury, signify 3
Why does it not make a transit at every revolution ?
MERCURY, - 21
It will be perceived on the diagram, that the inclination of Mercury's
orbit to the plane of the ecliptic is 7°9".
2. These points of intersection are called the Nodes of the
orbit. Mercury's ascending node is in the 16th degree of
Taurus; its descending node in the 16th degree of Scorpio.
As the Earth passes these nodes in November and May,
the transits of Mercury must happen, for many ages to come,
in one of these months. I
The next Transit of Mercury will happen on the 7th of November, 1835,
visible in the United States as follows:
Beginning offhe Transit,0h.37"P.M. Duration of the Transit, 5h. 11'
Middle of the Transit, 3 13 Nearest approach of centres, 535"
End of the Transit, 5 48 Latitude S. 540ſ?
The following is a list of all the Transits of Mercury from the time the
first was observed by Gassendi, November 6, 1631, to the end of the present
century.
1631 Nov. 6. 1707 May 5. 1776 Nov. 2 1835 Nov. 7.
1644 Nov. 6. 1710 Nov. 6. 1782 Nov. 12. 1S45 May 8.
1651 Nov. 2. 1723 Nov. 9. 1786 May 3. 1848 Nov. 9.
1661 May 3. 1736 Nov. 10. 1789 Nov. 5. 1861 Nov. 11.
1664 Nov. 4. 1740 Nov. 2. 1799 May 7. 1868 Nov. 4.
1674 May 6. 1743 Nov. 4. 1802 Nov. 8. 1878 May 6.
1677 Nov. 7. 1753 May 5. 1815 Nov. 11. 1881 Nov. 7.
1690 Nov. 9. 1756 Nov. 6. 1822 Nov. 4. 1891 May 9.
1697 Nov. 2. 1769 Nov 9. 1832 May 5. 1894 Nov. 10.
By comparing the mean motion of any of the planets with the mean mo-
tion of the Earth, we may, in like manner, determine the periods in which
these bodies will return to the same points of their orbit, and the same
positions with respect to the Sun. . It is useful to know them, because at the
epochs thus indicated, the hour when the planets rise, set, and pass the me-
ridian, and all the inequalities which affect their motion, with the various
phenomena dependent upon the relative position of the two bodies with re-
spect to the Sun, all recommencing in the same order as before, may hence
be easily predicted. We have only to find a number of sidereal years, in
which the planet completes exactly, or very nearly, a certain number of
revolutions; that is, to find such a number of planetary revolutions, as, when
taken together, shall be exactly equal to one, or any number of revolutions
of the Earth. In the case of Mercury, this ratio will be, as 87.969 is to
365.256. Whence we find, that,
7 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 29 of Mercury;
13 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 54 of Mercury;
33 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 137 of Mercury;
46 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 191 of Mercury.
What are the points where the orbits of the planets intersect the orbit of the
earth called 3 Where is Mercury's ascending Node 4 Where is its descending
node 3. In what months must the transit of Mercury occur for many ages to
come 4 Why must they occur in these months 3 When will the neart transit of
JMercury happen & How can we determine the periods in which the planets will
return to the same points of their orbits, and the same positions in respect to the
Sun ? Why is it useful to know these periods 3 State the method of making the
computation. What will the ratio be in the case of JMercury 2 State the ratio be."
tween the periodical revolutions of the Earth and JMercury.
22 VENUS.
Therefore, transits of Mercury, at the same node, may happen at intervals
of 7, 13, 33, 46, &c. years. Transits of Venus, as well as eclipses of the
Sun and Moon, are calculated upon the same principle.
The sidereal revolution of a planet respects its absolute motion; and is
measured by the time the planet takes to revolve from any fixed star to the
same star again. r"
The synodical revolution of a planet respects its relative motion, and is
measured by the time that a planet occupies in coming back to the same
position with respect to the Earth and the Sun.
Theºsidereal revolution of Mercury, is 87d. 23h. 15m.44s. Its synodical
revolution is found by dividing the whole circumference of 360° by its rela-
tive motion in respect to the Earth. Thus, the mean daily motion of Mercu-
ry is 14732" .555; that of the Earth is 3548".318; and their difference is
11.184".237, being Mercury's relative motion, or what it gains on the Earth
every day. Now by simple proportion, 11.184".237 is to 1 day, as 360° is
to 115d. 21h. 3.25", the period of a synodical revolution of Mercury.
The absolute motion of Mercury in its orbit, is 109,757
miles an hour; that of the Earth, is 68,288 miles: the
difference, 41,469 miles, is the mean relative motion of
Mercury, with respect to the Earth.
W E N U. S.
There are but few persons who have not observed a beau-
tiful star in the west, a little after sun set, called the evening
star. This star is Venus. It is the second planet from the
Sun. It is the brightest star in the firmament, and on this
account easily distinguished from the other planets.
If we observe this planet for several days, we shall find
that it does not remain constantly at the same distance from
the Sun, but that it appears to approach, or recede from him,
at the rate of about three fifths of a degree every day; and
that it is sometimes on the east side of him, and sometimes
on the west, thus continually oscillating backwards and for-
wards between certain limits. f
Jät what intervals then may transits of JMercury at the same mode happen 2
Upon what principle are transits of Venus and eclipses of the Sun and Moon,
calculated? What is the sidereal revolution of a planet 2 What is the synodical
"evolution 3 What is the time of the sidereal revolution of JMercury 3 State the
"method of computing the time of the synodical revolution. Compute the synodi-
cal revolution of Mercury. . What is the rate per hour of the absolute motion of
Mercury in its orbit? Of the Earth q What is the mean relative motion of Mer-
cury with respect to the Earth 3 (What beautiful star sometimes appears in the
west a little after sunset ! What is the comparative distance of Venus from the
i. : What is its comparative brightness? In what direction is its apparent mo-
10H1 • . - -
.
VENUs. 23
, As Venus never departs quite 48° from the Sun, it is
never seen at midnight, nor in opposition to that luminary;
being visible only about three hours after sun-set, and as long
before sun-rise, according as its right ascension is greater
or less than that of the Sun. At first, we behold it only a
few minutes after Sun-set; the next evening we hardly dis-
cover any sensible change in its position; but after a few
days, we perceive that it has fallen considerably behind the
Sun, and that it continues to depart farther and farther from
him setting later and later every evening, until the distance
between it and the Sun, is equal to half the space from the
horizon to the zenith, or about 46°. I
* It now begins to return towards the Sun, making the same
daily progress that it did in separating from him, and to set
earlier and earlier every succeeding evening, until it final-
ly sets with the Sun, and is lost in the splendour of his
light. -
sº few days after the phenomena we have now described,
we perceive, in the morning, near the eastern horizon, a
bright star which was not visible before. This also is
Venus, and now called the morning star. It departs farther
and farther from the Sun, rising a little earlier every day,
until it is seen about 46° west of him, where it appears sta-
tionary for a few days; then it resumes its course towards the
Sun, appearing later and later every morning, until it rises
with the Sun, and we cease to behold it. In a few days,
the evening star again appears in the west, very near the
setting-sun, and the same phenomena are again exhibited.
Such are the visible appearances of Venus. A
/Venus revolves about the Sun from west to east in 2243
days, at the distance of about 68 millions of miles, moving
in her orbit at the rate of 80 thousand miles an hour. She
turns around on her axis once in 23 hours, 21 minutes, and
7 seconds. Thus her day is about 25 minutes shorter than
, Why is it never seen at midnight, nor in opposition to the sun ? At what times
is it visible 3 How long after sun-set is it when we first behold it in the West ?
ictibe its changes of position. In What direction, and in what time, does
üğrevolve about the Sun ? What is her distance from the Sun 4 what is
the rātā per hour of her motion in her orbit 3. In what time does she revolve on
º g/How are the lengths of her day and year, compared with those of the
Earth $ •



24 VENUS.
ours, while her year is equal to 7% of our months, or 32
weeks. I
/The Sun appears twice as large to Venus as he does to
us, and if they are inversely as the distance from him, she
receives twice as much light and heat. Her orbit is within
the orbit of the Earth; for if it were not, she would be seen
as often in opposition to the Sun, as in conjunction with him ;
but she was never seen rising in the east while the Sun was
setting in the west. Nor was she ever seen in quadrature,
or on the meridian, when the Sun was either rising or setting.
Mercury being about 23° from the Sun, and Venus 46°, the
orbit of Venus must be outside of the orbit of Mercury.
The true diameter of Venus is 7621 miles ; but her ap-
parent diameter and brightness are constantly varying, ac-
cording to her distance from the Earth. When Venus and
the Earth are on the same side of the Sun, her distance
from the Earth is only 26 millions of miles; when they are
on opposite sides of the Sun, her distance is 164 millions of
miles. Were the whole of her enlightened hemisphere
turned towards us, when she is nearest, she would exhibit
a light and brilliancy twenty-five times greater than she
generally does, and appear like a small brilliant moon; but,
at that time, her dark hemisphere is turned towards the
Earth.
When Venus approaches nearest to the Earth, her apparent, or observed
diameter, is 61" .2; when most remote, it is only 9".6; now 61" .2-9"
..6=41 nearly; so that she would appear, in the latter case, if then visible,41
times larger than in the former.
When Venus’ right ascension is less than that of the Sun,
she rises before him ; when greater, she appears after his
How much larger does the Sun appear at Venus than he does at the Earth 3
How much more light and heat does she receive from him, than the Earth 3 How
much farther is Venus from the Sun than Mercury 4 On which side of the orbit
of Mercury must her orbit be 3/What is her true diameter 3 In what proportion
do her apparent diameter and frightness constantly vary 3 What is her distance
from the Earth when they are both on the same side of the Sun ? What is it
when they are on opposite sides of the Sun ? Which hemisphere is turned to-
wards the Earth when she is nearest to us? Were her enlightened hemisphere
turned towards us at that time, how would her light and brilliancy be compared
with that which she generally exhibits, and what would be her appearance 3 What
is the length of her apparent diameter when she is nearest to the Earth & What is
it when she is most remote 3 How much larger would she appear, if visible, in
the former case than in the latter 2 In what circumstances does Venus rise before,
and in what set after, the Sun ? f *
VENUS. 25
setting. She continues alternately morning and evening
star, for a period of 292 days, each time. -
,” To those who are but little acquainted with astronomy,
it will seem strange, at first, that Venus should apparently
continue longer on the east or west side of the Sun, than
the whole time of her periodical revolution around him. But
it will be easily understood, when it is considered, that while
Venus moves around the Sun, at the rate of 80 thousand
miles an hour, the Earth, in the meantime, follows at the rate of
68 thousand miles an hour; so that Venus actually gains on the
Earth only 12 thousand miles an hour, or about #9 in a day.'
Now it is evident that both planets will appear to keep on
the same side of the Sun, until Venus has gained half her
orbit, or 180° in advance of the Earth; and this, at a mean
rate, will require 292 days. |
This may be further illustrated thus: Suppose two steamboats, which we
will call the Earth and Venus, set out from the same point, and sail the same
way, around Long Island, whose circumference is estimated at 300 miles;
suppose also, that Venus sails 10 miles an hour, and the Earth, 8 miles. Now
it is obvious that Venus would be 30 hours in sailing quite around the island,
while the Earth, in the same time, would have sailed 240 miles ; being, at
the end of the first circuit, only 60 miles behind Venus. At the end of We-
nus' second circuit, the Earth will be 120 miles behind, but yet on the same
side of the island. . But after Venus shall have performed two complete
circuits and one half of another, she will then be 150 miles in advance of
the Earth, or just half around the island, and on the opposite side. So it is
in respºct to the planets.
Mercury and Venus are called Inferior” planets, because
/their orbits are within the Earth's orbit, or between it and
the Sun. The other planets are denominated “Superior,
because their orbits are without or beyond the orbit of the
Earth. [Plate I.] As the orbits of Mercury and Venus
lie within the Earth's orbit, it is plain, that once in every
* In almost all works on astronomy, Mercury and Venus are denominated
inferior planets, and the others, superior. But as these terms are employed,
not to express the relative size of the planets, but to indicate their situation
with respect to the Earth, it would be better to adopt the terms interior
and exterior.
How long does she continue each time, alternately morning and evening star?
Why does she appear longer on the east ºr west side of the sun than the whºle
time of her periodical revolution around him 3 Give an illustration of this point.
Why are Mercury and Venus called Inferior planets Zwhy are the other planets
termed Superior planets? How often, in every synodical revolution, will each of
these planets be in conjunction on the same side of the sun that the Earth is 3
How often on the opposite side : Explain this.
C
26 VENUS.
synodical revolution, each of these planets will be in con-
junction on the same side of the Sun. In the former case, the
planet is said to be in its inferior conjunction, and in the latter
case, in its superior conjunction; as in the following figure.
CONJUNCTION AND OPPOSITION OF THE PLANETS.
Fig. 5.
º
The period of Venus’ synodical revolution is found in the same manner as
that of Mercury; namely, by dividing the whole circumference of her
orbit by her mean relative motion in a day. Thus, Venus’ absolute mean
daily motion is 1° 36' 7".8, the Earth's is 59'8".3, and their difference
36'59" .5. Divide 3600 by 36'59".5, and it gives 583.920, or nearly 584
days, for Venus' synodical revolution, or the period in which she is twice
in conjunction with the Earth.
2 Venus passes from her inferior to her superior conjunction
in about 292 days. At her inferior conjunction, she is 26
millions of miles from the Earth; at her superior conjunc-
tion, 164 millions of miles.
*
What names distinguish these two species of conjunction? How is the synodi-
cal revolution of Venus found 3 JMake the †ºy long is she in pass-
ing from her inferior to her superior conjunction? How far is she from the
Earth at her inferior conjunction ? How far at her superior 3

t - VENUS. 27
It might be expected that her brilliancy would be propor-
tionally increased, in the one case, and diminished, in the
other; and so it would be, were it not that her enlightened
hemisphere is turned more and more from us, as she ap-
proaches the Earth, and comes more and more into view as
she recedes from it. It is to this cause alone that we must
attribute the uniformity of her splendour as it usually ap-
pears to the naked eye. /
/ Mercury and Venus present to us, successively, the
.various shapes and appearances of the Moon; waxing and
waning through different phases, from the beautiful crescent
to the full rounded orb. This fact shows, that they revolve
around the Sun, and between the Sun and the Earth. Let
the pupil endeavour to explain these phases on any other
supposition, and he will be convinced that the system of
Ptolemy is erroneous, while that of Copernicus is confirmed.
It should be remarked, however, that Venus is never seen when she is
entirely full, except once or twice in a century, when she passes directly
over the Sun's disc. At every other conjunction, she is either behind the
Sun, or so near him as to be hidden by the splendour of his light.* The
diagram on the next page will better iſlustrate the various appearances of
Venus, as she moves around the Sun, than any description of them could do.
Z From her inferior to her superior conjunction, Venus ap-
pears on the west side of the Sun, and is then our morning
star; from her superior to her inferior conjunction she ap-
pears on the east side of the Sun, and is then our evening
star. |
* The eminent astronomer, Thom As DICK, LL.D., well known in this
country, as the author of the Christian Philosopher, Philosophy of a Future
State, &c., in a review of this remark, observes—“This ought not to be
laid down as a general truth. About the year 1813, I made a great variety
of observations on Venus in the day time, by an equatorial instrument, and
found, that she could be seen when only 1° 27' from the Sun's margin, and
consequently may be seen at the moment of her superior conjunction, when
her geocentric latitude, at that time, equals or exceeds 1° 43'. I have some
faint expectations of being able to see Venus in the course of two or three
§: her superior conjunction, if the weather be favourable.”—March
3, 1
Why is not her brilliancy proportionally increased, in the former case, and di-
minished, in the latter 3, What appearances do Mercury and Venus present to us
at different times? What supposition is necessary for the explanation of these
phases? What system do they tend to refute 3 What system do they confirm 3
Iłow often is Venus seen when she is entirely full 2 Why is she not seen at the full
oftenergy. In what part of her orbit does Venus appear on the west side of the sun 3
In what on the east : In what parts is she, alternately, morning, and evening star?
APPEARANCES OF VENUS AS SHE MOVES AROUND THE SUN.
Fig. 6.
Superior Conjunction.
Inferior Conjunction.
§
#

VENUS. 29
Like Mercury, she sometimes seems to be stationary.
Her apparent motion, like his, is sometimes quick; at one
time, direct, and at another, retrograde; vibrating alternately
backwards and forwards, from west to east, and from east
to west. These vibrations appear to extend from 45° to 47°,
on each side of the Sun. *
Consequently she never appears in the eastern horizon, more than three
hours before sun-rise, nor continues longer, in the western horizon, after
sun set. Any star or planet, therefore, however brilliant it may appear,
which is seen earlier or later than this, cannot be Venus.
& In passing from her western to her eastern elongation, her
motion is from west to east, in the order of the signs; it is
thence called direct motion. In passing from her eastern
to her western elongation, her motion with respect to the
Earth, is from east to west, contrary to the order of the signs;
it is thence denominated retrograde motion. Her motion
appears quickest, about the time of her conjunctions; and she
seems stationary, at her elongations. She is brightest about
36 days before and after her inferior conjunction, when her
light is so great as to project a visible shadow in the night,
and sometimes she is visible even at noon-day. |
In the following figure, the outer circle represents the Earth's orbit, and the
inner circle, that of Venus, while she moves around the Sun, in the order
of the letters a, b, c, d, &c. When Venus is at a, she is in her inferior con-
junction, between the Earth and Sun; and is in a situation similar to that
9f the Moon at her change, being then invisible, because her dark hemi-
sphere is towards the Earth. At c, she appears half enlightened to the
Earth, like the Moon in her first quarter: at d, she appears almost full, her
enlightened side being then almost directly towards the Earth ; at e, she
is in her superior conjunction, and would appear quite full, were she not
directly behind the Sun, or so near him as to be hidden by the splendour of
his light: at f she appears to be on the decrease: and at g, only halfen-
lightened, like the Moon in her last quarter: at a, she disappears again be-
tween the Earth and the Sun. In moving from g to c, she seems to go .
backwards in the heavens, because she moves contrary to the order of the
signs. In turning the arc of the circle from retrograde to direct motion, or
frºm direct to retrograde, she appears nearly stationary for a few days; be-
cause, in the former case, she is going almost directly from the Earth, and
in the latter, coming towards it. As she describes a much larger portion
Describe her apparent motion. How far on each side the sun do the vibrations
of Venus extend ? What then is the longest time before sun rise that she appears
in the eastern horizon 3. What the longest time after sun set that she appears 2n
je jestern ?/What is the direction of her motion while she passes from her west-
ºn to her eastern elongation? Why is it called direct motion? What is its direc,
tion as she passes from her eastern to her western elongation ? Why is it called
retrograde 3. When is her apparent motion quickest ? When does she appear
stationary 3 When is she brightest 3 Hºw great is her light at this time 3
C
30 - VENUS, e-
3.
DIRECT AND RETROGRADE MOTION.
Fig. 7.
of her orbit in going from c to g, than from g to c, she appears much longer
direct than retrograde. At a mean rate, her retrogradations are accom-
plished in 42 days.
If the orbit of Venus lay exactly in the plane of the
Earth's orbit, she would pass centrally across the Sun's
disc, like a dark round spot, at every inferior conjunction;
but as one half of her orbit lies about 34° above the eclip-
tic, and the other half as far below it, she will always pass
the Sun a very little above or below it, except when her
inferior conjunction happens in, or near one of her nodes;
in which case, she will make a transit. [Relative position
of the Planet's Orbits’ Plate I–Plane of Venus—Inclina-
tion 3°23'.] ] ***
^ This phenomenon therefore, is of very rare occurrence:
it can happen only twice in a century; because it is only
twice in that time that any number of complete revolutions
of Venus, are just or nearly equal to a certain number of
the Earth's revolutions.
: Why does not Venus pass centrally across the sun's disc at every inferior con-
junction ? In what circumstances will she make a transit across the sun ? ſhow
often can this phenomenon happen? Why can it not happen oftener?

vENUs. 31
The principle which was illustrated in predicting the transits of Mercury,
applies equally well to those of Venus; that is, we must find such sets of
numbers, (representing complete revolutions of the Earth and Venus,) as
shall be to each other in the ratio of their periodical times, or as 365.256 is
to 2247. Thus ; the motion of Venus, in the Julian year, is 2106591ſt. 52;
that of the earth for the same period being 129627" 45, the ratio will be
######".}}. As the two terms of this fraction cannot be reduced by a
common divisor, we must multiply them by such numbers as will make
one a multiple of the other; accordingly, 13 times the denominator will
be nearly equal to 8 times the numerator; and 475 times the denominator
will equal 291 times the numerator.
By combinimg these two periods and their multiples by addition and sub-
traction, we shall obtain the period of all the transits that have ever hap-
pened. Thus; 29.1–8×7=235, another period; and 291—6×8=243, an- ,
other period, and so on. Whence we find that,
8 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 13 of Venus.
235 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 382 of Venus.
243 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 395 of Venus.
251 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 408 of Venus.
291 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 475 of Venus.
Hence a transit of Venus may happen at the same node, after an interval
of 8 years ; but if it do not happen then, it cannot take place again, at the
same node, in less than 235 years. The orbit of Venus crosses the ecliptic
near the middle of Gemini and Sagittarius ; and these points mark the po-
sition of her nodes. At present, her ascending node is in the 14th degree
of Gemini, and her descending node, in the same degree of Sagittarius.
The Earth passes her ascending node in the beginning of
December, and her descending node, in the beginning of
June. Hence, the transits of Venus, for ages to come, will
happen in December and June. AThe first transit ever
known to have been seen by any human being, took place

at the ;Cºndiºg node, December 4th, 1639.” If to this
dº a n = * ,
/. >< This ºenomenon was first witnessed by Horror/ a young gentleman
about 21 years of age, living in an obscure village 15 miks north of Liver-
pool. The tables of Kepler, constructed upon the observations of Tycho
Brahe, indicated a transit of Venus, in 1631, but none was observed.
Horrox, without much assistance from books and instruments, set himself to
inquire into the error of the tables, and found, that such a phenomenon
might be expected to happen in 1639. He repeated his calculations, during
this interval, with all the carefulfiess and enthusiasm of a scholar ambi-
tious of being the first to predict and observe a celeštial phenomenon,
which, from the creation of the world, had never been witnessed. Confi-
dent of the result, he communicated his expected triumph to a confidential
State the method of predicting the transits of Venus. After how long an in-
terval may a transit of Venus happen again at the same node 2 If it do not hap-
pen then, how long a period must elapse before it will occur again at the same
*ode 2 Where does the orbit of Penus cross the ecliptic, and where are her nodes 3
In what months, for ages to come, will the transits of Venus happen, and why?
At which node, and when did the first transit of Venus ever known to have been
^ºsº, take place 3 e
32 VENUS.
date, we add 235 years, we shall have the time of the next
transit at the same node, which will accordingly happen in
1874. There will be another at the same node in 1882,
eight years afterwards. It is not more certain that this phe-
nomenon will recur, than that the event itself will engross
the attention of all the astronomers then living upon the
Earth. It will be anticipated, and provided for, and observ-
ed, in every inhabited quarter of the globe, with an inten-
sity of solicitude which no natural phenomenon, since the
creation, has ever excited. }
2 The reason why a transit of Venus should excite so great
an interest, is, because it may be expected to solve an im-
portant problem in astronomy, which has never yet been
satisfactorily done :—a problem whose solution will make
known to us the magnitudes and masses of all the planets, the
true dimensions of their orbits, their rates of motion around the
Sun, and their respective distances from the Sun, and from
each other. It may be expected, in short, to furnish a uni-
friend residing in Manchester, and desired him to watch for the event, and
to take observations. So anxious was Horrox not to fail of witnessing it
himself, that he commenced his observations the day before it was expect-
ed, and resumed them, at the rising of the Sun, on the morrow. But the
very hour, when his calculations led him to expect the visible appearance
of Venus upon the Sun's disc, was also the appointed hour for the public wor-
ship of GoD on the Sabbath. The delay of a few minutes might deprive
him forever of an opportunity of observing the transit. If its very com-
mencement were not noticed, clouds might intervene and conceal it until
the Sun should set : and nearly a century and a half would elapse before
another opportunity would occur. He had been waiting for the event with
the most ardent anticipation for eight years, and the result promised much
benefit to the science. Notwithstanding all this, Horrow twice suspended his
observations, and twice repaired to the House of God, the Great Author of
the bright worlds he delighted to contemplate. When his duty was thus
performed, and he had returned to his chamber the second time, his love
of science was gratified with full success; and he saw what no mortal eye
had observed befºres! A.
If anything can add interest to this incident, it is the modesty with
which the young astronomer apologizes to the world, for suspending his ob-
servations at all.
* I observed it,” says he, “from sun rise till nine o'clock, again a little
before ten, and lastly at noon, and from one to two o'clock; the rest of the
day being devoted to higher duties, which might not be neglected for these
pastimes.” ... •
.*When will the next two transits occur #Why will the next transit excite a very
great and universal interest ? tº
* *f
WEN US, 33.
versal standard of astronomical measure. Another conside-
ration will render the observation of this transit peculiarly
favorable; and that is, astronomers will be supplied with
better instruments, and more accurate means of observation,
than on any former occasion. I -
So important, says Sir John Herschel, have these observations appear-
ed to astronomers, that at the last transit of Venus, in 1769, expeditions
were fitted out, on the most efficient scale, by the British, French, Russian,
and other governments, to the remotest corners of the globe, for the express
purpose of making them. The celebrated expedition of Captain Cook to
Otaheite, was one of them. The general result of all the observations made
on this most memorable occasion, gives 8" .5776 for the Sun's horizontal
parallax. -
• The phenomena of the seasons, of each of the planets,
like those of the Earth, depend upon the inclination of the
axis of the planet, to the plane of its orbit. The inclination
of the axis of Venus to the plane of her orbit, though not
precisely known, is commonly estimated at 75°; which is
more than three times as great as the inclination of the
Earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic. The north pole of
Venus' axis inclines towards the 20th degree of Aquarius;
the Earth's, towards the beginning of Cancer; consequently,
the northern parts of Venus have summer in the signs where
those of the Earth have winter, and vice versa.
The declination of the Sun on each side of her equator,
must be equal to the inclination of her axis; and if this ex-
tends to 75°, her tropics are only 15° from her poles, and
her polar circles as far from her equator. It follows, also,
that the Sun must change his declination more in one day at
Venus, than in five days on the Earth; and consequently,
that he never-shines vertically on the same places for two
days in succession. This may perhaps be providentially
ordered, to prevent the too great effect of the Sun's heat,
which; on the supposition that it is in inverse proportion to
* Upon what do the phenomena of the seasons of each of the planets depend ?
What is the estimated inclination of the axis of Venus to the plane of her orbit?
How does this inclination compare with that of the Earth's axis to the plane of
the ecliptic 3 What seasons have the northern parts of Venus, when those of the
Earth have winter 3 iow do we know this 3 To what must the declination
of the sun on each side of her equator be equal 3 How far are her tropics from
her poles, and her polar circles from her equator 4 How much more must the
sun change his declination in one day at Venus than on the Earth 3 Why, per-
haps, is this so ordered 3 º 'º
34 VENUS.
the distance, is twice as great on this planet as it is on the
Earth. -
At each pole, the Sun continues half a year” without set-
ting, in summer, and as long without rising, in winter; con-
sequently, the polar inhabitants of Venus, like those of the
earth, have only one day and one night in the year; with
this difference, that the days and nights of Venus are not
quite two thirds as long as ours.
Between her polar circles, which are but 15° from her
equator, there are two winters, two summers, two springs,
and two autumns, every year. But because the Sun stays
for some time near the tropics, and passes so quickly over
the equator, the winters in that zone will be almost twice as
long as the summers. a
TELESCOPIC APPEARANCES OF VENUS.
Fig. 8.
When viewed through a good telescope, Venus exhibits
not only all the moon-like phases of Mercury, but also a va-
riety of inequalities on her surface; dark spots, and bril-
liant shades, hills, and valleys, and elevated mountains. But
on account of the great density of her atmosphere, these in-
equalities are perceived with more difficulty than those up-
on the other planets.
*That is, half of Venus' year; which is 16 weeks.
How many days and nights have her polar inhabitants during the year ! How
long are these days and nights, compared with those of our polar inhabitants 3
How many, and what seasons has Venus between her polar circles? What is the
length of the winters in this zone, compared with that of the summers ? What
appearances, beside her moon-like phases, does Venus exhibit when seen through
a good telescope 3 Why is it more difficult to perceive the inequalities on her
surface than those on the other planets 3 &
*-


...”
t
• THE EARTII. 35
The mountains of Venus, like those of Mercury and the
Moon, are highest in the southern hemisphere. According
to M. Schroeter, a celebrated German astronomer, who
spent more than ten years in observations upon this planet,
sorhe of her mountains rise to the enormous height of from
10 to 22 miles.* The observations of Dr. Herschel do not
indicate so great an altitude; and he thinks, that in general
they are considerably overrated. He estimates the diame-
ter of Venus at 8,649 miles; making her bulk more than
one sixth larger than that of the Earth. Several eminent
astronomers affirm, that they have repeatedly seen Venus
attended by a satellite, and they have given circumstantial de-
tails of its size and appearance, its periodical revolution, and
its distance from her. It is said to resemble our moon in
its phases, its distance, and its magnitude. Other astrono-
mers deny the existence of such a body, because it was
not seen with Venus on the Sun's disc, at the transits of 1761,
and 1769. > t
THE EARTH.
/* The Earth is the place from which all our observations of
the heavenly bodies must necessarily be made. The ap-
parent motions of these bodies being very considerably af.
fected by her figure, motions, and dimensions, the latter
hold an important place in astronomical science. It will
therefore be proper to consider, first, some of the phenomena
by which they have been determined.
If, standing on the sea-shore, in a clear day, we view a
ship leaving the coast, in any direction, the hull or body of
the vessel first disappears; afterwards the rigging becomes
* 1st, 22.05 miles; 2d, 18.97 miles; 3d, 11.44 miles; 4th, 10.84 miles.
In which hemisphere are her mountains highest ? ' What does M. Schroeter
make the altitude of some of the highest ? Is this estimate confirmed by the ob-
servations of Dr. Herschel ? How long is the diameter of Venus, according to
Herschel’s estimate 3 How much larger, then, must she be than the Earth 3
Some astronomers affirm that they have seen Venus attended by a satellite, why
do others deny the existence of such a body?, Why is it important, in an astrono-
mical view, to be acquainted with the figure, dimensions and motions of the
Earth 4 Mention some of the proofs of the convexity of its surface?
36 THE EARTH,
invisible, and lastly, the top of the mast vanishes from our
sight. Those on board the ship, observe that the coast first
sinks below the horizon, then the buildings, and lastly, the
tallest spires, of the city which they are leaving. Now
these phenomena are evidently caused by the convexity of
the water which is between the eye and the object; for,
were the surface of the sea merely an extended plain, the
largest objects would be visible the longest, and the small-
est disappear first. I
CONVExITY OF THE EARTH.
Fig. 9.
Again : navigators have sailed quite around the Earth and
thus proved its convexity.
Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese, was the first who carried this enter-
prise into execution. He embarked from Seville, in Spain, and directed his
course towards the west. After a long voyage, he descried ºf 5 continent
of America. Not finding an opening to enable him to continiſe his course
in a westerly direction, he sailed along the coast towards the south, till,
coming to its southern extremity, he sailed around it, ind found himself in
the great Southern Ocean. He then resumed his course towards the west.
After some time he arrived at the Molucca Islands, in the Eastern Hemis.
phere ; and sailing continually towards the west, he made Europe from the
east; arriving at the place from which he set out.*
The next who circumnavigated the Earth, was Sir Francis I)rake, who
sailed from Plymouth, December 13, 1577, with five small vessels, and ar-
rived at the same place, September 26, 1580. Since that time, the circum-
navigation of the Earth has heen performed by Cavendish, Cordes, Noort,
Sharten, Heremites, Dampier, Woodes, Rogers, Schovten, Roggewin,
* Magellan sailed from Seville, in Spain, August 10, 1519, in the ship
called the Victory, accompanied by four other vessels. In April, 1521, he
was killed in a skirmish with the natives, at the island of Sebu, or Zebu,
sometimes called Matan, one of the Philippines. One of his vessels,
however, arrived at St. Lucar, near Seville, September 7, 1522.
Who first sailed around the earth 2 Describe briefly his voyage. Who next
cºrcumnavigated the earth 2 Describe his voyage. JMention the names of some
of those who have since accomplished this enterprise.

THE EARTHe & 37
*
Lord Anson, Byron, Carteret, Wallis, Bougainville, Cook, King, Clerk,
Vancouver, and many others.
/ These navigators, by sailing in a westerly direction, al-
lowance being made for promontories, &c. arrived at the
country they sailed from. Hence, the Earth must be either
cylindrical or globular. It cannot be cylindrical, because, if
so, the meridian-distances would all be equal to each other,
which is contrary to observation. The figure of the Earth
is, therefore, spherical. & -
The convexity of the Earth, north and south, is proved
by the altitude of the pole, and of the circumpolar stars,
which is found uniformly to increase as we approach them,
while the inclination to the horizon, of the circles described
by all the stars, gradually diminishes. While proceeding
in a southerly direction, the reverse of this takes place.
The altitude of the pole, and of the circumpolar stars, con-
tinually decreases; and all the stars describe circles whose
inclination to the horizon increases with the distance.
Whence we derive this general truth; The altitude of one
pole, and the depression of the other, at any place on the
Earth's surface, is equal to the latitude of that place. I
/ Another proof of the convexity of the earth's surface is,
that the higher the eye is raised, the farther is the view ex-
ºn observer may see the setting-sun from the top
*br any considerable eminence, after he has ceas-
ed to be visible to those below. Aeronauts, who have left
the earth in the night, have not unfrequently “seen him
emerging in brilliant majesty, above an ocean of clouds,”
and then, on descending to the Earth, found all again was
night. t
The curvature of the Earth for one mile is 8 inches; and this curvature
increases with the square of the distance. From this general law, it wiłł
be easy to calculate the distance at which any object whose heightis given,
may be seen, or to determine the height of an object when the distance is
known.
1st. To find the height of the object when the distance is given.
RULE. Find the square of the distance in miles, and take two thirds of that
number for the height in feet.
What may we infer from these facts in regard to the figure of the Earth?
/How is the convexity of her surface proved 4 To what is the convexity propor-
tional 2 State the rule, deduced from this fact, for finding the height of an object,
when its distance from us is given. -
ID
#


38 N. THE EARTIſ,
Ex. 1.-How high must the eye of an observer be raised to see the sur:
face of the ocean, at the distance of three miles 7 Ans. The square of 3
ſt is 9.ft., and # of 9 ſt. is 6 ft. Ex. 2. Suppose a person can just see the
top of a spire over an extended plain of ten miles, how high is the steeple 3
Ans. The square of 10 is 100, and # of 100, is 66%, feet.
2. To find the distance, when the height is given.
RULE. Increase the height in feet one half, and extract the square root, for
the distance, in miles.
Ex. 1–How far can a person see the surface of a plain, whose eye is ele-
vated six feet above it ! Ans. 6, increased by its half is 9, and the square
root of 9 is 3; the distance is then 3 miles. Ex. 2.--To what distance can
a person see a light-house whose height is 96 feet from the level of the
ocean? Ans. 96 increased by its half, is 144, and the square root of 144 is
12; the distance is therefore 12 miles.
3. To find the curvature of the Earth when it exceeds a mile. ,
RULE. Multiply the square of the distance by .000126.
Although it appears from the preceding facts, that the
Earth is spherical, yet it is not a perfect sphere. If it were,
the length of the degrees of latitude, from the equator to the
poles, would be uniformly the same ; but it has been found,
by the most careful measurement, that as we go from the
equator towards the poles, the length increases with the lati-
tude.
These measurements have been made by the most-eminent mathema-
ticians of different countries, and in various places, from the equator to
the arctic circle. They have found that a degree of latitude at the arctic
circle was nine sixteenths of a mile longer than a degree at the equator, and
that the ratio of increase for the intermediate degrees was nearly as the
squares of the sines of the latitude. Thus the theory of Sir Isaac Newton
was confirmed, that the body of the Earth was more rounded
#d convex
between the tropics, but considerably flattened towards the pºes.
Places of Length of a degree &
Observation. Latitude. in English miles. Seſvers.
Peru, Equator. 68.732 "Bouguer.
Pennsylvania,390 12' N. 68.896 Mason and Dixon.
Italy, 43 01 68.998 Boscovich and Lemaire.
France, 46 69.054 Delambre and Mechain.
England, 5] 29 54}ll 69.146 Mudge.
Sweden, 66 20 10 69,292 Swamberg.
These measurements prove the Earth to be an obſate
spheroid, whose longest or equatorial diameter is 7924 miles,
State the rule for finding the distance, when the height is given. State the
ºrule for fiveding the cºrvature of the earth when the distance exceeds a mile. Is the
figure of the Earth an exact sphere 4 Were the Earth a perfect sphere, how
would the length of the degrees of latitude be, compared with each ºther ? How
are they, in fact 4. What is the length of a degree at the Arctic circle, compared
with a degree at the equator, as found by the measurements of different mathema-
ticians ? What have they found to b; the ratio of increase for the intermediate de-
grees 2 . What theory do these facts confirm 2. What is the length of the Earth's
equatorial diameter, as found by these measurements 3 • .
2.

gº? THE EARTH, 39
and polar diameter, 7898 miles. The mean diameter is
therefore, about 7912, and their difference 26 miles. The
French Academy have determined that the mean diameter
of the Earth, from the 45th degree of north latitude, to the
opposite degree of south latitude, is accurately 7912 miles.
If the Earth were an exact sphere, its diameter Fig. 10. .
might be determined by its curvature, from a single A B
measurement. Thus in the adjoining figure, we have AP

A B equal to 1 mile, and B D equal to 8 inches, to
find A E, or B E, which does not sensibly differ from
A E, since B D is only 8 inches. Now it is a propo-
sition of Euclid, (B. 3, prop. 36,) that, when from a *
point without a circle, two lines be drawn, one cutting
and the other touching it, the touching line (BA) is a
mean proportional between the cutting line (BE) and
that part of it (BD) without the circle.
B D : B A :: B A : B E or A E very nearly.
That is, 1 mile being equal to 63360 inches,
8 : 63360 :: 63360 : 50181120 inches, or 7920 miles.
This is very nearly what the most elaborate calculations make the
Earth's equatorial diameter.
/ The Earth, considered as a planet, occupies a favoured
rank in the Solar System. It pleased the All-wise Crea-
tor to assign its position among the heavenly bodies, where
nearly all the sister planets are visible to the naked eye.
It is situated next to Venus, and is the third planet from the
Sun. I
To the scholar who for the first time takes up a book on astronomy, it
will no doubt seem strange to find the Earth classed with the heavenly
bodies. For what can appear more unlike, than the Earth, with her vast
and seemingly immeasurable extent, and the stars, which appear but as
points 2 The Earth is dark and opaque, the celestial bodies are brilliant.
We perceive in it no motion; while in them we observe a continual change
of place, as we view them at different hours of the day or night, or at dif.
ferent seasons of the year.
It moves round the Sun, from west to east, in 365 days,
5 hours, 48 minutes, and 48 seconds ; and turns, the same
way, on its axis in 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds.
What, her polar diameter 3 What is the diſference between the two 3 What is
her mean diameter 3 What have the French academy determined to be the exact
mean diameter from the 45th degree of north latitude to the opposite degree of
south latitude 3 Illustrate the method of finding the diameter of the Earth from
her curvature, on the supposition that her figure is an exact sphere? What is the
length of her diameter as thus found 3 Haw is this, compared with the equatorial
diameter, as found by the most elaborate calculations 32What is the position of
the Earth in the Solar System 3 What revolutions doës it perform, and in what
direction ? What is the time occupied in each of these revolutions 3
40 - THE EARTHe
*
The former is called its annual motion, and causes the vicis-
situdes of the seasons. The latter is called its diurnal mo-
tion, and produces the succession of day and night.
The Earth’s mean distance from the Sun is about 95
millions of miles. It consequently moves in its orbit at the
mean rate of 68 thousand miles an hour. Its equatorial di-
ameter being 7924 miles, it turns on its axis at the rate of
1040 miles an hour.
Thus, the earth on which we stand, and which has serv-
ed for ages as the unshaken foundation of the firmest struc-
tures, is every moment turning swiftly on its centre, and, at
the same time, moving onwards with great rapidity through
the empty space. s
This compound motion is to be understood of the whole
earth, with all that it holds within its substance, or sustains
upon its surface—of the solid mass beneath, of the ocean
which flows around it, of the air that rests upon it, and of
the clouds which float above it in the air.
That the Earth, in common with all the planets, revolves
around the Sun as a centre, is a fact which rests upon the
evidence of our senses, as well as upon the clearest demon-
strations of philosophy. That it revolves, like them, upon
its own axis, is a truth which every rising and setting sun il-
lustrates, and which very many phenomena concur to estab-
lish.
Either the Earth moves around its axis every day, or the
whole universe moves around it in the same time. There is
no third opinion, that can be formed on this point. Either
the Earth must revolve on its axis every 24 hours, to pro-
duce the alternate succession of day and night, or the Sun,
Moon, planets, comets, fixed stars, and the whole frame of
the universe itself, must move around the Earth, in the same
time. To suppose the latter case to be the fact, would be
to cast a reflection on the wisdom of the Supreme Architect,
whose laws are universal harmony. As well might the
w
By what terms are these revolutions distinguished, and what important effects
do they produce 3 What is the Earth’s mean distance from the sun ? What is
the mean rate of its motion in its orbit per hour? What is the rate of its revolu-
tion on its axis per hour ! What are the proofs, that it performs these two re-
volutions 3
THE EARTH. 41
beetle, that in a moment turns on its ball, imagine the heav-
ens and the earth had made a revolution in the same instant.
It is evident, that in proportion to the distance of the ce-
lestial bodies from the Earth, must, on this supposition, be
the rapidity of their movements. The Sun, then, would
move at the rate of more than four hundred thousand miles
in a minute; the nearest stars, at the inconceivable velocity
of 1400 millions of miles in a second ; and the most distant
luminaries, with a degree of swiftness which no numbers
could express—a motion that would shatter the universe to
atoms—and all this, to save the little globe we tread upon,
from turning safely on its axis once in 24 hours.
The idea of the heavens revolving about the Earth, is en-
cumbered with innumerable other difficulties. We will
mention only one more. It is estimated on good authority,
that there are visible, by means of glasses, no less than one
hundred millions of stars, scattered at all possible distances
in the heavens above, beneath, and around us. Now, the
question is—how shall all these machines be so wound up,
as to run exactly to the period of the Earth's rotation, and
all complete their revolutions at the same instant.
In short, there is no more reason to suppose that the heav-
ens revolve around the earth, than there is to suppose that
they revolve around each of the other planets, separately,
and at the same time; since the same apparent revolution is
common to them all, for they all appear to revolve upon
their axes, in different periods.
The rotation of the Earth determines the length of the
day, and may be regarded as one of the most important el-
ements in astronomical science. It serves as a universal
measure of time, and forms the standard of comparison for
the revolutions of the celestial bodies, for all ages, past, and
to come. Theory and observation concur in proving, that
among the innumerable vicissitudes that prevail throughout
creation, the period of the Earth's diurnal rotation, is immu-
table.
The Earth performs one complete revolution on its axis
in 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.09 seconds, of solar time.
What important purposes does the period of the Earth’s rotation serve 3
ID *
'42 - THE EARTH,
This is called a sidereal day, because, in that time, the stars
appear to complete one revolution around the Earth.
But, as the Earth advances almost a degree eastward in
its orbit, in the time that it turns eastward around its axis,
it is plain that just one rotation never brings the same me-
ridian around from the Sun to the Sun again; so that the
Earth requires as much more than one complete revolution
on its axis to complete a solar day, as it has gone forward
in that time. Hence, in every natural or solar day, the
Earth performs one complete revolution on its axis and the
365th part of another revolution. Consequently, in 365
days, the Earth turns 366 times around its axis. And as
every revolution of the Earth on its axis completes a side-
real day, there must be 366 sidereal days in a year. And,
generally, since the rotation of any planet about its axis is
the length of a sidereal day at that planet, the number of
sidereal days will always exceed the number of solar days,
by one, let that number be what it may, one revolution be-
ing always lost in the course of an annual revolution. This
difference between the sidereal and solar days may be il-
lustrated by referring to a watch or clock. When both
hands set out together, at 12 o'clock for instance, the min-
ute hand must travel more than a whole circle before it
will overtake the hour hand, that is, before they will come
into conjunction again. -
In the same manner, if a man travel around the Earth
eastwardly, no matter in what time, he will reckon one day
nore, on his arrival at the place whence he set out, than they
do who remain at rest; while the man who travels around
the Earth westwardly will have one day less. From which
it is manifest, that, if two persons start from the same place
at the same time, but go in contrary directions, the one trav-
elling eastward and the other westward, and each goes com-
pletely around the globe, although they should both arrive
What is a sidereal day? What is a solar day ? What part of a second revolu-
tion does the Earth complete in every solar day 4. How many times, then, does it
turn on its axis in 365 days 3 How many sidereal days are there in a year 3 On
any planet, what is the number of the sidereal days compared with the number
of the solar 3 Illustrate the difference between the sidereal and solar days by
referring to a watch.or clock. Illustrate it by referring to two travellers going .
aroun ("the globe, one eastwardly, and the other westwardly. º
THE EARTH. 43
again at the very same hour at the same place from which
they set out, yet they will disagree two whole days in their
reckoning. Should the day of their return, to the man who
travelled westwardly, be Monday, to the man' who trav-
elled eastwardly, it would be Wednesday; while to those
who remained at the place itself, it would be Tuesday.
Nor is it necessary, in order to produce the gain or loss
of a day, that the journey be performed either on the equa-
tor, or on any parallel of latitude; it is sufficient for the
purpose, that all the meridians of the Earth be passed
through, eastward or westward. The time, also, occupied
in the journey, is equally unimportant; the gain or loss of
a day being the same, whether the Earth be travelled
around in 24 years, or in as many hours.
It is also evident, that if the Earth turned around its axis
but once in a year, and if the revolution was performed the
same way as its revolution around the Sun, there would
be perpetual day on one side of it, and perpetual night o
the other. i
From these facts the pupil will readily comprehend the principles in-
volved in a curious problem which appeared a few years ago: It was grave-
ly reported by an American ship, that, in sailing over the ocean, it chanced
to find sia, Sundays in February. The fact was insisted on, and a solution
demanded. There is nothing absurd in this.-The man who travels around
the Earth eastwardly, will see the Sun go down a little earlier every suc-
ceeding day, than if he had remained at rest; or earlier than they do who
live at the place from which he set out. The faster he travels towards the
rising sun, the sooner will it appear above the horizon in the morning, and
so much sooner will it set in the evening. What he thus gains in time,
will bear the same proportion to a solar day, as the distance travelled does
to the circumference of the Earth.-As the globe is 360 degrees in circum-
ference, the Sun will appear to move over one twenty-fourth part of its
surface, or 14°, every hour, which is 4 minutes to one degree.—Consequent-
ly, the Sun will rise, come to the meridian, and set, 4 minutes sooner, at a
place 19 east of us, than it will with us; at the distance of 29 the Sun will
rise and set 8 minutes sooner; at the distance of 3°, 12 minutes sooner,
and so on. •
Now the man who travels one degree to the cast, the first day, will have
the Sun on his meridian 4 minutes sooner than we do who are at rest; >
and the second day, 8 minutes sooner, and on the third day, 12 minutes
sooner, and so 9n ; each successive day being completed 4 minutes earlier
than the preceding, until he arrives again at the place from which he start-
If the Earth revolved on its axis but once a year, and in the same direction as
it revolves around the sun, what would be the consequence as it regards day and
night? It was gravely reported some years ago by an American ship, that in sail-
ang over the ocean, it found six Sundays in February ; please explain this.
‘A
44 THE EARTH,
*
ed; when this continual gain of 4 minutes a day will have amounted to a
whole day in advance of our time; he having seen the Sun rise and set
once more than we have. Consequently, the day on which he arrives at
home, whatever day of the week it may be, is one day in advance of ours,
and he must needs live that day over again, by calling the next day by the
same name, in order to make the accounts harmonize.
If this should be the last day of February in a bissextile year, it would
also be the same day of the week that the first was, and be six times re-
peated; and if it should happen on Sunday, he would, under these circum-
stances, have six Sundays in February. * *
Again —Whereas the man who travels at the rate of one degree to the
east, will have all his days 4 minutes shorter than ours, so, on the contrary,
the man who travels at the same rate towards the west, will have all his
days 4 minutes longer than ours. When he has finished the circuit of the
Earth, and arrived at the place from which he first set out, he will have
seen the Sun rise and set once less than we have. Consequently, the day
he gets home will be one day after the time at that place: for which reason,
if he arrives at home on Saturday, according to his own account, he will
have to call the next day Monday; Sunday having gone by before he reached
home. Thus, on whatever day of the week January should end, in com-
mon years, he would find the same day repeated only three times in Feb-
ruary. If January ended on Sunday, he would, under these circumstan-
ces, find only three Sundays in February. -
The Earth's motion about its axis being perfectly equa-
ble and uniform in every part of its annual revolution, the
sidereal days are always of the same length, but the solar or
natural days vary very considerably at different times of
the year. This variation is owing to two distinct causes:
the inclination of the Earth’s axis to its orbit, and the ine-
quality of its motion around the Sun. From these two
causes it is, that the time shown by a well regulated clock
and that of a true sun-dial are scarcely ever the same.
The difference between them, which sometimes amounts to
16} minutes, is called the Equation of Time, or the equation
of solar days.
‘I he difference between mean and apparent time, or, in other words, be-
tween Equinoctial and Ecliptic time, may be further shown by Figure 11;
which represents the circles of the sphere. Let it be first premised, that
equinoctial time is clock time; and that ecliptic time is solar or appa-
Tent time. It appears, that from Aries to Cancer, the sun in the ecliptic
comes to the meridian before the equinoctial sun; from Cancer to Libra,
after it ; from Libra to Capricorn, before it; and from Capricorn to Aries,
after it. If we notice what months the sun is in these several quarters, we
shall find, that from the 25th of December to the 16th of April, and from
the 16th of June to the 1st of September, the clock is faster than the sun-
Why are the sidereal days always of the same length 3 What are the causes
of the difference in the length of the solar days? What is meant by the expres:
sion, equation of time 3 Illustrate the difference between mean and apparent
time by reference to Fig.11.
THE EARTH. - 45
dial; and that, from the 16th of April to the 16th of June, and from the
1st of September to the 25th of December, the sun-dial is faster than the
clock. *
EQUATION OF TIME.
Fig. 11.
N
r I
It is a universal fact, that, while none of the planets are
perfect spheres, none of their orbits are perfect circles. .
The planets all revolve about the Sun in ellipses of different
degrees of eccentricity; having the Sun, not in the centre of
the ellipse, but in one of its foci.
The eccentricity of an orbit is the distance from the centre, to either of
the foci. It is equal to half the difference between the two diameters. A
planet in every revolution is therefore once in its aphelion, and once in
its perihelion. In the former case, it is as much farther from the Sun than
it is in the latter, as the longer diameter of the orbit exceeds the less; which
excess is always equal to twice the eccentricity. .
The longer axis of the Earth's orbit is about one sixtieth part longer
than its shorter axis; consequently, the foci of the orbit are 13 millions of
miles from its centre. Now as the Sun remains fixed in the lower focus
of the Earth's orbit, it is easy to perceive that a line, passing centrally
through the Sun at right angles with the longer axis of the orbit, will di-
What is the figure of the orbits of the planets? In what point of the orbits is
the sun situated? . What is the eccentricity of an orbit 3 To what is it always
equal 2 How many times is a planet in its aphelion, and how many in its perihe.
2ion, in every revolution ? How much farther is it from the Sun in the former case
than in the latter? How much longer is the longer azis of the Earth than the
shorter 7 -In which focus of the Earth's orbit is the Sun ?

46 THE EARTH,
..º. into two unequal segments. Precisely thus it is divided by the equi-
7, OCttal.
That portion of the Earth’s orbit which lies above the
Sun, or north of the equinoctial, contains about 184 degrees;
while that portion of it which lies below the Sun, or south
of the equinoctial, contains only 176 degrees. This fact
shows why the Sun continues about 8 days longer on the
north side of the equator in summer, than it does on the
south side in winter. The exact calculation, for the year
1830, is as follows: §
3. d. h. m.
From the vernal equinox to the summer solstice, -92.21 19 & d. h. m.
From the summer solstice to the autumnal equinox, =93 14 1
183, 11, 19.
From the autumnal equinox to the winter solstice, =8917 #; d. h. m.
From the winter solstice to the vernal equinox, = 89 1 13 $ 178, 18, 30.
Difference in favour of the north side, - 7, 16, 49.
The points of the Earth's orbit which correspond to its greatest and least
distances from the Sun, are called, the former the Apogee, and the latter
the Perigee; two Greek words, the former of which signifies from the Earth,
and the latter about the Earth. These points are also designated by the
common name of Apsides. [See these points represented, Plate I.]
The Earth being in its perihelion about the 1st of Janu-
ary, and in its aphelion the 1st of July, we are three millions
of miles nearer the Sun in winter than in midsummer. The
reason why we have not, as might be expected, the hottest
weather when the Earth is nearest the Sun, is, because the
Sun, at that time, having retreated to the southern tropic,
shines so obliquely on the northern hemisphere that its rays
have scarcely half the force of the summer Sun; and con-
tinuing but a short time above the horizon, more cold is ac-
cumulated by night than is dissipated by day. &
As the Earth performs its annual revolution around the
Sun, the position of its axis remains invariably the same ;
always pointing to the North Pole of the heavens, and al-
ways maintaining the same inclination to its orbit. This
seems to be providentially ordered for the benefit of mankind.
How does the equinoctial divide the Earth's orbit 2 Why does the sun remain
longer on the north side of the equator in summer, than it does on the south side
in winter ? What are the Earth's Apogee and Perigee 2 By what common name'
are these two points designated 2 When is the Earth in its Perihelion ? When
in its Aphelion ? Are we fiearer the sun in summer than in winter? How much
nearer are we in winter than in summer ? Why do we not have the hottest wea-
ther when we are nearest the sun ? As the Earth revolves about the sun, what is
the position of its axis 3 º
THE MOON, 47
If the axis of the Earth always pointed to the centre of its
orbit, all external objects would appear to whirl about our
heads in an inexplicable maze. Nothing would appear
permanent. The mariner could no longer direct his course
by the stars, and every index in nature would mislead us.
THE MOON.
There is no object within the scope º ob-
servation which affords greater variety of interesting inves.
tigation than the various phases and motions of the Moon.
From them the astronomer ascertains the form of the Earth,
the vicissitudes of the tides, the causes of eclipses and occul-
tations, the distance of the Sun, and, consequently, the mag-
nitude of the solar system. These phenomena, which are
perfectly obvious to the unassisted eye, served as a standard
of measurement to all nations, until the advancement of
science taught them the advantages of Solar time. It is to
these phenomena that the navigator is indebted for that
precision of knowledge which guides him with well ground-
ed confidence through the pathless Ocean.”
... The Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, and, in general,
all the ancients, used to assemble at the time of new or full
Moon, to discharge the duties of piety and gratitude for her
unwearied attendance on the Earth, and all her manifold
UlSéS. -
When the Moon, after having been in conjunction with
the Sun, emerges from his rays, she first appears in the
evening, a little after sun-set, like a fine luminous crescent,
with its convex side towards the Sun. If we observe her
the next evening, we find her about 13° farther east of the
Sun than on the preceding evening, and her crescent of light
sensibly augmented. Repeating these observations, we per-
ceive that she departs farther and farther from the Sun, as
Should its axis always point to the centre of its orbit, how would external ob-
jects appear to us?, What important purposes does the Moon serve to the astro-
noiner ºr Qſ what importance are her phenomena to the navigator $2What na-
tions used to assemble at the time of the new or of the full moon, to express their
gratitude for her benefits 3 Describe the apparent motion of the Moon and her
phases.
48 THE MOON.
her enlightened surface comes more and more into view, un-
til she arrives at her first quarter, and comes to the meridian
at sun-set. She has then finished half her course from the
new to the full, and half her enlightened hemisphere is turn-
ed towards the Earth. -
After her first quarter, she appears more and more gib-
bous, as she recedes farther and farther from the Sun, until
she has completed just half her revolution around the Earth,
and is seen rising in the east when the Sun is setting in the
west. She then ºresents her enlightened orb full to our
view, and is said to be in opposition ; because she is then on
the opposite side of the Earth with respect to the Sun.
In the first half of her orbit she appears to pass over our
heads through the upper hemisphere; she now descends be-
low the eastern horizon to pass through that part of her or-
bit which lies in the lower hemisphere. - -
After her full, she wanes through the same changes of
appearance as before, but in an inverted order; and we see
her in the morning like a fine thread of light, a little west of
the rising-sun. For the next two or three days she is lost to
our view, rising and setting in conjunction with the Sun;
after which, she passes over, by reason of her daily motion,
to the east side of the Sun, and we behold her again a new
Moon, as before. In changing sides with the Sun she
changes also the direction of her crescent. Before her
conjunction, it was turned to the east; it is now turned to-
wards the west. These different appearances of the Moon
are called her phases. They prove that she shines not by
any light of her own ; if she did, being globular, we should
always see her a round full orb like the Sun.
, The Moon is a satellite to the Earth, about which she re-
volves in an elliptical orbit, in 29 days, 12 hours, 44 min-
utes, and 3 seconds; the time which elapses between one
new moon and another. This is called her synodical revo-
lution. Her revolution from any fixed star to the same star
again, is called her periodic, or sidereal revolution. It is ac-
~ How is it known that the Moon does not shine by her own light 4 About what
does the Moon revolve, and what is the figure of her orbit 32:What is the time of
her revolution from one new Moon to another ? What is thſºrevolution denomi-
i. dZwhat is her periodic or sidereal revolution ? In what time is this accom.
plished ;
THE MOON. * 49
complished in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and 114 sec-
onds; but in this time, the Earth has advanced nearly as
many degrees in her orbit; consequently the Moon, at the
end of one complete revolution, must go as many degrees
farther, before she will come again into the same position
with respect to the Sun and the Earth. I
* The Moon is the nearest of all the heavenly bodies, being
about 30 times the diameter of the Earth, or 240,000 miles
distant from us. Her mean daily motion, in her orbit, is
nearly 14 times as great as the Earth's ; since she not only
accompanies the Earth around the Sun every year, but, in
the meantime, performs nearly 13 revolutions about the
Earth.
Although the apparent motion of the Moon, in her orbit, is greater than *
that of any other heavenly body, since she passes over, at a mean rate, no
less than 130 10' 35" in a day; yet this is to be understood as angular mo-
tion—motion in a small orbit, and therefore embracing a great number of
degrees, and but comparatively few miles.
As the Moon while revolving about the Earth, is carried
with it at the same time around the Sun, her path is ex-
tremely irregular, and very different from what it seems to
be. Like a point in the wheel of a carriage that is moving
over a convex road, the Moon will describe a succession of
epicycloidal curves, which are always concave towards the
Sun; not, very unlike their presentation in the following
figure. s
Let A d b B represent a portion of the Earth's orbit, and a b c de the
lunar orbit. When the Earth is at b, the new moon is at a ; and while the
Earth is moving from b to its position as represented in the figure, the Moon
has moved through half her orbit, from a to c, where she is full ; so while
the Earth is moving from its present position to d, the Moon describes the
other half of her orbit, from c to e, where she is again in conjunction.
To what is the difference of time in these two revolutions owing 3 How great
is the distance of the Moon from the Earth, compared with that of the Öther hea-
venly bodies 4 What is her distance from us? What is her motion in her orbit,
compared with the Earth's 32.Élow many times does she revolve around the
Earth, every year 3 The apparent motion of the JMoon in her orbit is greater
than that of any other heavenly body; is it to be understood that she passes
through a correspondent space 3 Describe the Moon's path 3
E. º
50 THE MOON.
THE MOON's MoTION.
Fig. 12.
… The Moon, though apparently as large as the Sun, is
the smallest of all the heavenly bodies that are visible to the
naked eye. Her diameter is but 2162 miles; consequently
her surface is 13 times less than that of the Earth, and her
bulk 49 times less. It would require 70 millions of such
bodies to equal the volume of the Sun. The reason why
she appears as large as the Sun, when, in truth, she is so
much less, is because she is 400 times nearer to us than the
Sun is. ; ‘. -
The Moon revolves once on her axis exactly in the tim
that she performs her revolution around the Earth. This is
evident from her always presenting the same side to the
Earth; for if she had no rotation upon an axis, every part
of her surface would be presented to a spectator on the
Earth, in the course of her synodical revolution. It follows,
then, that there is but one day and night in her year, contain-
What is her magnitude, compared with that of the other heavenly bodies 3
What is her diameter? How great are her surface and her bulk, compared with
those of the Earth $2Bow many such bodies would it require to equal the yolume
of the sun ? Why does she appear as large as the sun, when in reality she is so
much less?/What is the time of her revolution on her axis, compared with that
of her revolution around the Earth? How is this proved? How many days and
nights then has slie in the course of her synodical revolution 3

THE MOON. 5i
ing, both together, 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 sec-
onds. '
£ As the Moon turns on her axis only as she moves around
the Earth, it is plain that the inhabitants of one half of the
lunar world are totally deprived of the sight of the Earth,
unless they travel to the opposite hemisphere. This we
may presume they will do, were it only to view so sublime
a spectacle; for it is certain that the Earth appears to the
Moon ten times larger than any other body in the universe.
2. As the Moon enlightens the Earth, by reflecting the light
^ of the Sun, so likewise the Earth illuminates the Moon, ex-
hibiting to her the same phases that she does to us, only in a
contrary order. And, as the surface of the Earth is 13
times as large as the surface of the Moon, the Earth, when
full to the Moon, will appear 13 times as large as the full
moon does to us. That side of the Moon, therefore, which
is towards the Earth, may be said to have no darkness at all,
the Earth constantly shining upon it with extraordinary
splendour when the Sun is absent; it therefore enjoys suc-
cessively two weeks of illumination from the Sun, and two
weeks of earth-light from the Earth. The other side of the
Moon has alternately a fortnight's light, and a fortnight's
darkness.
As the Earth revolves on its axis, the several continents,
seas, and islands, appear to the lunar inhabitants like so
many spots, of different forms and brightness, alternately
moving over its surface, being more or less brilliant, as they
are seen through intervening clouds. By these spots, the
lunarians can not only determine the period of the Earth's
rotation, just as we do that of the Sun, but they may also
find the longitude of their places, as we find the latitude of
OUITS,
As the full moon always happens when the Moon is di-
rectly opposite the Sun, all the full moons in our winter,
must happen when the Moon is on the north side of the equi-
noctial, because then the Sun is on the south side of it; con-
What is the length of both united 3/Describe the phenomena of the Earth as
seen by the inhabitants of the Moon. As the earth revolves on its axis, how do
its continents, seas, and islands appear to the lunar inhabitants 3}. For what pur-
poses may these spots serve to the lunarians ? |
52 THE ON,
*
sequently, at the north pole of the Earth, there will be a
fortnight's moon-light and a fortnight’s darkness by turns,
for a period of six months, and the same will be the fact du-
ring the Sun's absence the other six months, at the south
pole.
The Moon's axis being inclined only about 1,” to her
orbit, she can have no sensible diversity of seasons; from
which we may infer, that her atmosphere is mild and uni-
form. The quantity of light which we derive from the Moon
when full, is at least, 300 thousand times less than that of
the Sun.”
When viewed through a good telescope, the Moon pre-
sents a most wonderful and interesting aspect. Besides the
large dark spots, which are visible to the naked eye, we
perceive extensive valleys, shelving rocks, and long ridges
of elevated mountains, projecting their shadows on the
plains below. Single mountains occasionally rise to a great
height, while circular hollows, more than three miles decp,
seem excavated in the plains.
Her mountain scenery bears a striking resemblance to
the towering sublimity and terrific ruggedness of the Alpine
regions, or of the Appenines, after which some of her moun-
tains have been named, and of the Cordilleras of our own
continent. Huge masses of rock rising precipitously from
the plains, lift their peaked summits to an immense height
in the air, while shapeless crags hang over with their pro-
jecting sides, and seem on the eve of being precipitated into
the tremendous chasm below.
Around the base of these frightful eminences, are strewed
numerous loose and unconnected fragments, which time
* This is Mons. Bouquer's inference, from his experiments, as stated by
La Place, in his work, p. 42. The result of Dr. Wollaston's computations
was different. Professor Leslie makes the light of the Moon 150,000
* less than that of the Sun: it was formerly reckoned 100,000 times
€SS.
i
X^* What are the periods of the Moon's presence and absence to the polar inhab-
i
ants tº Explain this,*Why cannot the moon have any sensible diversity of séa-
sons? What then måy we infer to be the character of her atmosphere 3 What is
the quantity of light which she affords when full, compared with that of the Sun ?
Describe the appearance of the Moon when seen through a good telescope. What
mountains of the Earth does her mountain scenery resemble 3 Describe the ap-
pearance of her mountains.
THE MOON, 53
seems to have detached from their parent mass; and when
we examine the rents and ravines which accompany the
overhanging cliffs, the beholder expects every moment that
they are to be torn from their base, and that the process of
destructive separation which he had only contemplated
in its effects, is about to be exhibited before him in all its
reality.
The range of mountains called the Appenines, which
traverse a portion of the Moon's disc from north-east to south-
west, and of which some parts are visible to the naked eye,
rise with a precipitous and craggy front from the level of the
Mare Imbrium, or Sea of showers.” In this extensive
range are several ridges whose summits have a perpendicu-
lar elevation of four miles, and more; and though they
often descend to a much lower-level, they present an inac-
cessible barrier on the north-east, while on the south-west
they sink in gentle declivity to the plains.
There is one remarkable feature in the Moon's surface
which bears no analogy to any thing observable on the
Earth. This is the circular cavities which appear in every
part of her disc. Some of these immense caverns are nearly
four miles deep, and forty miles in diameter. They are
most numerous in the south-western part. As they reflect
the Sun's rays more copiously, they render this part of her
surface more brilliant than any other. They present to
us nearly the same appearance as Our Earth might be
supposed to present to the Moon, if all our great lakes and
seas were dried up.
The number of remarkable spots in the Moon, whose
latitude and longitude have been accurately determined,
exceeds 200. The number of seas and lakes, as they were
formerly considered, whose length and breadth are known,
is between 20 and 30; while the number of peaks and
-*—
* The name of a lunar spot.
On what part of her disc is that range of mountains called the Appenines,
situated 3 Describe it. What remarkable feature in the Moon's surface, bears no
analogy to any thing observable on the Earth's surface 4 Describe their appear-
ance. What is the number of remarkable spots in the Moon's surface, whose
latitude and longitude have been accurately determined 3 What is the number of
seas and lakes, as they were formerly considered 3 Whose dimensions are known 3
E”
54 THE Moon.
mountains, whose perpendicular elevation varies from a
fourth of a mile to five miles in height, and whose bases
are from one to seventy miles in length, is not less than
one hundred and fifty.*
Graphical views of these natural appearances, accompanied with minute
and familiar descriptions, constitute what is called Selenography, from two
Greek words, which mean the same thing in regard to the Moon, as Geog-
raphy does in regard to the Earth.
An idea of some of these scenes may be formed by con-
ceiving a plain of about 100 miles in circumference, encircled
by a range of mountains, of various forms, three miles in
perpendicular height, and having a mountain near the
centre, whose top reaches a mile and a half above the level
of the plain. From the top of this central mountain, the
whole plain, with all its scenery, would be distinctly visible,
and the view would be bounded only by a lofty amphi-
theatre of mountains, rearing their summits to the sky.
( The bright spots of the Moon are the mountainous
regions; while the dark spots are the plains, or more
level parts of her surface. There may be rivers or small
lakes on this planet; but it is generally thought, by astrono-
mers of the present day, that there are no seas or large
collections of water, as was formerly supposed. Some of
these mountains and deep valleys are visible to the naked
eye; and many more are visible through a telescope of but
moderate powers. *,
A telescope which magnifies only 100 times, will show a
spot on the Moon's surface, whose diameter is 1223 yards;
and one which magnifies a thousand times, will enable us
to perceive any enlightened object on her surface whose
* Brewster's Selenography. The best maps of the Moon, hitherto pub-
lished, are those by Schroeter: But the most curious and complete repre-
sentation of the telescopic and natural appearances of the Moon, is to be
seen on Russel's Lunar Globe. See also Selenographia, by C. Blunt.
What is the number of peaks and mountains whose perpendicular elevation
varies from a fourth of a mile to five miles, and whose bases are from one to
seventy miles in length 3 What is Selenography? Give an illustration to enable
us to form some idea of some of these scenes. Which spots are the mountainous
regions, and which the plains? Do astronomers now suppose, as they did for-
merly, that there are large collections of water on the Moon's surface 3 Are
any of her mountains and valleys visible to the naked eye 3 How small a spot on
the Moon's surface can be seen by a telescope which magnifies 100 times?, How
small an enlightened object can be seen by one which magnifies 1000 times?
*
ECLIPSES. 55.
. s:
dimensions are only 122 yards, which does not much exceed
the dimensions of some of our public edifices, as for instance,
the Capitol at Washington, or St. Paul's Cathedral. Pro-
fessor Frauenhofer, of Munich, recently announced that he
had discovered a lunar edifice, resembling a fortification,
together with several lines of road. The celebrated as-
tronomer Schroeter, conjectures the existence of a great
city on the eastside of the Moon, a little north of her equator,
an extensive canal, in another place, and fields of vegeta-
tion, in another. - -
It may be demonstrated from the laws of optics, that
there exists no physical impossibility to the construction of
instruments sufficiently powerful to settle the question of .
the Moon being inhabited. The difficulty which prevent-
ed the great telescope of Herschel from revealing this secret,
was not so much the want of power in the lens, as of light
in the tube, to render objects distinct under such an expan-
sion of the visual rays.
*
so LAR AND LUNAR ECLIPSE s.
Of all the phenomena of the heavens, there are none which
engage the attention of mankind more than eclipses of the
Sun and Moon; and to those who are unacquainted with
astronomy, nothing appears more wonderful than the accu-
racy with which they can be predicted. In the early ages
of antiquity they were regarded as alarming deviations
from the established laws of nature, presaging great public ,
calamities, and other tokens of the Divine displeasure. I
* In China, the prediction and observance of eclipses are made a matter
of state policy; in order to operate upon the fears of the ignorant, and im-
pose on them a superstitious regard for the occult wisdom of their rulers. In
Mexico, the natives fast and afflict themselves, during eclipses, under an
apprehension that the great spirit is in deep sufferance. Some of the
Mention any public edifices which are of nearly the same dimensions. Why
may not a telescope be made by which we can determine the question of the
Moon being inhabited 3,How were eclipses regarded in the early ages of antiquity ?
To achat purpose do #. rulers of Chima make their prediction and obsermance,
subservient 3 How do the natives of Jºſexico demean themselves during an
eclipse 3 Why do they do this 3 -
*s,
56 ECLIPSES.
*
northern tribes of Indians have imagined that the Moon had been wounded
#. i. quarrel; and others, that she was about to be swallowed by a huge
ISI!.
It was by availing himself of these superstitious motions, that Columbus,
when shipwrecked on the island of Jamaica, extricated himself and crew
from a most embarrassing condition. Being driven to great distress for
want of provisions, and the natives refusing him any assistance, when all
hope seemed to be cut off, he bethought himself of their superstition in re-
gard to eclipses. Having assembled the principal men of the Island, he
remonstrated against their inhumanity, as being offensive to the great
spirit; and told them that a great plague was even ready to fall upon
them, and as a token of it, they would that night see the Moon hide her
face in anger, and put on a dreadfully dark and threatening aspect. This
artifice had the desired effect; for the eclipse had no sooner begun, than the
frightened barbarians came running with all kinds of provisions, and
throwing themselves at the feet of Columbus, implored his forgiveness.-
Almagest, Vol. I, 55 c. v. 2.
2 An eclipse of the Sun takes place, when the dark body
of the Moon, passing directly between the Earth and the Sun,
intercepts his light. This can happen only at the instant of
new Moon, or when the Moon is in conjunction; for it is only
then that she passes between us and the Sun.
An eclipse of the Moon takes place when the dark body
of the Earth, coming between her and the Sun, intercepts
his light, and throws a shadow on the Moon. This can
happen only at the time of full Moon, or when the Moon is
in opposition; for it is only then that the Earth is between
her and the Sun.
As every planet belonging to the solar system, both pri-
mary and secondary, derives its light from the Sun, it must
cast a shadow towards that part of the heavens which is op-
posite to the Sun. This shadow is of course nothing but
a privation of light in the space hid from the Sun by the
opaque body, and will always be proportioned to the mag-
nitude of the Sun and planet.
If the Sun and planet were both of the same magnitude,
the form of the shadow cast by the planet, would be that of
a cylinder, and of the same diameter as the Sun or planet.
What motions have some of the northern tribes of Indians entertained in re-
gard to eclipses of the JMoon 3, Relate the anecdote of Columbus extricating hint-
self and his crew from distress by availing himself of the superstitious notions
of the natives of Jamaica in regard to eclipses, What causes eclipses of the Sun ?
What causes eclipses of theſſ ! In what direction does every planet of the
solar system cast a shadow 7 What is this shadow, and to what is it propor-
tional 3 If the sun and planet were both of the same magnitude, what would be
the form of the shadow, and its diameter 4 g
ECLIPSES. 57
If the planet were larger than the Sun, the shadow would
continually diverge, and grow larger and larger; but as the
Sun is much larger than any of the planets, the shadows
which they cast must converge to a point in the form of a
cone; the length of which will be proportional to the size
and distance of the planet from the Sun.
The magnitude of the Sun is such, that the shadow cast by each of the
primary planets always converges to a point before it reaches any other
planet; so that not one of the primary planets can eclipse another. The
shadow of any planet which is accompanied by satellites, may, on certain
occasions, eclipse its satellites; but it is not long enough to eclipse any
other body. The shadow of a satellite or moon, may also, on certain occa- -
sions, fall on the primary, and eclipse it.
When the Sun is at his greatest distance from the Earth,
and the Moon at her least distance, her shadow is suffi-
ciently long to reach the Earth, and extend 19,000 miles
beyond. When the Sun is at his least distance from the
Eärth, and the Moon at her greatest, her shadow will not
reach the Earth's surface by 20,000 miles. So that when
the Sun and Moon are at their mean distances, the cone of
the Moon's shadow will terminate a little before it reaches
the Earth's surface.
In the former case, if a conjunction take place when the
.centre of the Moon comes in a direct line between the
centres of the Sun and Earth, the dark shadow of the Moon
will fall centrally upon the Earth, and cover a circular area
of 175 miles in diameter. To all places lying within this
dark spot, the Sun will be totally eclipsed; as illustrated
by Figure 13. ^,
In consequence of the Earth's motion during the eclipse, this circular
area becomes a continued belt over the earth's surface ; being, at the
broadest, 175 miles wide. This belt is, however, rarely so broad, and often
dwindles to a mere nominal line, without total darkness. .
In March, this line extends itself from S. W. to N. E., and in September,
from N.W. to S. E. In June, the central line is a curve, going, first, to the
N. E., and then to the S. E.; in December, on the contrary, first to the
If the planet were larger than the sun, what would be the form of the shadow 3
But as the sun is much larger than any of the planets, what must be the form of
their shadows, and to what are they proportional 3 Why can no one of the pri-
mary planets eclipse another? Explain how, on certain occasions, they may
eclipse their satellites, and on others, be eclipsed by them. When the sun is at his
greatest distance from the Earth, and the Moon at her least distance, how far
will her stiadow extend ? When the sun is at his least distance, and the Moon
at her greatest ?, When the Sun and Moon are both at their mean distances 3
In the first case, in what circumstances will the Moon's shadow fall centrally on
the Earth, and what will be its figure and diameter 3 How will the sun appear to
all places lying within this dark spot? Pescribe the effect of the Earth’s motion,
during the eclipse upon this circular area. •
58 ar ECLIPSES,
^ *
S. E. and then to the N. E. To all places, within 2000 miles, at least, of
the central line, the eclipse will be visible; and the nearer the place of
observation is to the line, the larger will be the eclipse. In winter, if the
central trace be but a little northward of the equator, and in summer, if it
be 250 N. latitude, the eclipse will be visible all over the northern hemi-
sphere. As a general rule, though liable to many modifications, we may
observe, that places from 200 to 250 miles from the central line, will be 11
digits eclipsed ; from thence to 500 miles, 10 digits; and so on, diminish-
ing one digit in about 250-miles.
E C L I P S E S OF T H E S U N .
Fig. 13.
If, in either of the other cases, a
conjunction take place when the Moon's
centre is directly between the centres
of the Sun and Earth, as before, the
Moon will then be too distant to cover
the entire face of the Sun, and there
will be seen, all around her dark body,
a slender ring of dazzling light.
This may be illustrated by the adjoining fig-
ure. Suppose C D to represent a part of the
Earth's orbit, and the Moon's shadow to termi-
mate at the vertex W. The small space between
ef will represent the breadth of the luminous
ring which will be visible all around the dark
body of the Moon. t
Such was the eclipse of February 12, 1831,
which passed over the southern states from
S. W. to N. E. It was the only annular eclipse
ever visible in the United States. Along the
path of this eclipse, the luminous ring remained
perfect and unbroken for the space of two min-
utes. The next annular eclipse which will be
visible to any considerable portion of the Uni-
ted States, will take place Sept. 18th. 1838.
In either of the other cases, the same circumstances occurring as before, what
will be the appearance of the sun ? Why does not the Moon, in this case, cause
a total eclipse 3. When did the only eclipse of this kind, ever visible in the United
States, happen? Hºw long did the luminous ring, along its path remain un-
broken 3. When will the next annular eclipse, visible to any considerable portion
of the United States, happen 3 -*
#3


ECLIPSES. y 59
From the most elaborate calculations, compared with a long series of ob-
servations, the length of the Moon's shadow in eclipses, and her distance
§: the Sun at the same time, vary within the limits of the following
table :

Length of shadow, Length of shadow in Length Distance in D1Stance
Dist. Of MOOn. Semudlameters. in miles. Semidiameters. In miles.
Least 57.760X3956 = 228,499 55.902X3956 = |221,148
Mean * 58.728×3956 = | 232,328 60.238X3956 = |238,300
Greatest 59.730×3956= |236,292. 63.862×3956 = 1252,638
Thus it appears that the length of the come of the Moon's shadow, in
eclipses, varies from 228,499 to 236,292 miles; being 7,793 miles longer in the
one case, than in the other. The inequality of her distances from the Earth
is much greater ; they vary from 221,148 to 252,638 miles, making a dif-
ference of 31,490 miles.
Although a central eclipse of the Sun can never be total
to any spot on the Earth more than 175 miles broad; yet
the space over which the Sun will be more or less partially
eclipsed, is nearly 5000 miles broad.
The section of the Moon's shadow, or her penumbră, at the Earth's sur-
face in eclipses, is far from being always circular. If the conjunction hap-
pen when the centre of the Moon is a little above or a little below the line
joining the centres of the Earth and Sun, as is most frequently the case,
the shadow will be projected obliquely over the Earth's surface, and thus
cover a much larger space.
To produce a partial eclipse, it is not necessary that the shadow should
reach the Earth; it is sufficient that the apparent distance between the
Sun and Moon be not greater than the sum of their semidiameters.
/ If the Moon performed her revolution in the same path in
which the Sun appears to move ; in other words, if her orbit
lay exactly in the plane of the Earth's orbit, the Sun would
be eclipsed at the time of every new Moon, and the Moon
at the time of every full. But one half of the Moon's orbit
lies about 5° on the north side of the ecliptic, and the other
half as far on the south'side of it; and, consequently, the
Moon's orbit only crosses the Earth's orbit in two opposite
points, called the Moon's nodes. I
What are the limits between which the JMoon's shadow varies in eclipses 3
What is the difference between these two limits 3 What are the limits of her dis-
tances from the Earth 2 What is the difference between them 2 What is the
greatest breadth of any spot on the Earth's surface, to which a central eclipse of
the sun can be total 3 What is the breadth of the greatest space over which the
sun can be more or less partially eclipsed ? Is the penumbra of the JMoon at the
Earth’s surface ºn eclipses always circular 3 In what circumstances will the
shadow be projected oblzquely over the Earth's surface & JMust the shadow reach
the Earth, to produce a partial eclipse 3 What vs the greatest apparent distance
between the Sun and JMoon, within which such a result well take place 3/Why is
not the sum eclipsed at the time of every new Moon, and the Moon at every full 3
60 ECLIPSES,
f When the Moon is in one of these points, or nearly so, at
the time of new Moon, the Sun will be eclipsed. When
she is in one of them, or nearly so, at the time of full Moon,
the Moon will be eclipsed. But at all other new Moons,
the Moon either passes above or below the Sun, as seen
from the Earth ; and, at all other full Moons, she either
passes above or below the Earth's shadow; and consequent-
ly there can be no eclipse. I
/ If the Moon be exactly in one of her nodes at the time of
her change, the Sun will be centrally eclipsed. If she be
14° from her node at the time of her change, the Sun will
appear at the equator to be about 11 digits eclipsed. If
she be 3° from her node at the time of her change, the Sun
will be 10 digits eclipsed, and so on; a digit being the twelfth
part of the Sun's diameter. But when the Moon is about 18°
from her node, she will just touch the outer edge of the Sun,
at the time of her change, without producing any eclipse.
These are called the ecliptic limits. Between these limits,
an eclipse is doubtful, and requires a more exact calcula-
tion. |
The mean ecliptic limit for the Sun is 16#9 on each side of the node ; the
mean ecliptic limit for the Moon is 10#9 on each side of the node. In the
former case, then, there are 33° about each node, making, in all, 66° out of
360°, in which eclipses of the Sun may happen : in the latter case, there
are 21° about each node, making, in all, 429 out of 360°, in which eclipses
of the Moon usually occur. The proportion of the solar, to the lunar
eclipses, therefore, is as 66 to 42, or as 11 to 7. Yet, there are more visible
eclipses of the Moon, at any given place, than of the Sun ; because a lunar
eclipse is visible to a whole hemisphere, a solar eclipse only to a small
portion of it.
/ The greatest possible duration of the annular appearance
of a solar eclipse, is 12 minutes and 24 seconds; and the
greatest possible time during which the Sun can be totally
In what circumstances wiłł an eclipse of the Sun, and in what an eclipse of the
Moon happen? / In what circumstances is the Sun centrally eclipsed ? What is
the ratio between the Moon's distance from her mode, and the number of digits
that the Sun is eclipsed ? What are these limits called ? Will there always be
eclipses when the Moon is within these limits 3 What is the ecliptic limit for the
Sun ? What is it for the JMoon 2 What number of degrees, them, are there about
each mode, and how many out of 360°, in which Solar eclipses can happen? Hoºd
many in which lunar eclipses lisually happen? What then is the proportion of the
solar to the lunar eclipses 2 Why then are there more eclipses of the Moon visible
at any given place than of the Sun ? What is the greatest possible duration of the
annujar appearance of a solar cclipse 3, What is the greatest possible duration of
, a total solar eclipse to any part of the world? -
* ECLIPSES. 61
eclipsed, to any part of the world, is 7 minutes and 58
seconds. The Moon may continue totally eclipsed for one
hour and three quarters. I *.
f Eclipses of the Sun always begin on his western edge,
and end on his eastern; but all eclipses of the Moon com-
mence on her eastern edge, and end on her western.
If the Moon, at the time of her opposition, be exactly in her
node, she will pass through the centre of the Earth’s shadow,
and be totally eclipsed. If, at the time of her opposition,
she be within 6° of her node, she will still pass through the
Earth's shadow, though not centrally, and be totally eclipsed:
but if she be 12° from her node, she will only just touch the
Earth's shadow, and pass it without being eclipsed. '
The duration of lunar eclipses, therefore, depends upon the difference
between the diameter of the Moon and that section of the Earth's shadow
through which she passes. When an eclipse of the Moon is both total and
central, its duration is the longest possible, amounting nearly to 4 hours;
º: . duration of all eclipses not central, varies with her distance from
lile Ilo Cie.
ECLIPSES OF THE MOON,
& ſº a
Fig. 15
º
sº " " ??,
š / Suu \* § #===
£22. s {{ſ}; #.
£24 §§ º:
º
%||\&
The diameter of the Earth's shadow, at the distance of
the Moon, is nearly three times as large as the diameter of the
Moon; and the length of the Earth's shadow is nearly four
times as great as the distance of the Moon; exceeding it in
the same ratio that the diameter of the Earth does the diame-
ter of the Moon, which is as 3.663 to 1.
What is the greatest duration of a total lunar eclipse ºf On which side of the
sun do solar eclipses always begin, and on which do they end ? On which side
of the Moon do lunar eclipses always begin, and on which do they end ? in what
circumstances is the Moon totally eclipsed ? Beyond what distance from her
mode, if she be, will she only touch the Earth's shadow, and not be eclipsed?
On what, then, does the duration of lunar eclipses depend ? In what circumstan-
ces is the duration of the lunar eclipse the longest possible 3 What is the length
of the greatest duration of a lunar eclipse 3 PWith what does the duration of eclip-
ses, not central, vary 3 What is the diameter of the Earth's shadow at the dis-
tance of the Moon 3 What is the length of the Earth's shadow 4 What is their
ratio to each other ? F -



62 ECLIPSES,
f
The length of the Earth's shadow, and its diameter at Diameter Length of
the distance of the Moon, are subject to the variations of the the shad-
exhibited in the following table. * shadow. low in ms.
y Moon at the apogee 5,232
Sun at the perigee | Moor; at her mean distance, 5,762 | 842,217'
Moon at the perigee 6,292
Moon at the apogee 5,270
Sun at his mean distance. | Moon at her mean distance 5,799 | 856,597
Moon at the perigee 6,329
Moon at the apogee 5,306
Sun at the apogee | Moon at her mean distance 5,836 | 871,262
Moon at the perigee 6,365
The first column of figures expresses the diameter of the Earth's shad-
ow at the moon : and as the diameter of the Moon is only 2162 miles, it is
evident that it can always be comprehended by the shadow, which is more
than twice as broad as the disc of the Moon.
The time which elapses between two successive changes
of the Moon is called a Lunation, which, at a mean rate, is
about 294 days. If 12 lunar months were exactly equal
to the 12 solar months, the Moon's nodes would always
occupy the same points in the ecliptic, and all eclipses
would happen in the same months of the year, as is the
case with the transits of Mercury and Venus: but, in 12
lunations, or lunar months, there are only 354 days; and
in this time the Moon has passed through both her nodes,
but has not quite accomplished her revolution around the
Sun: the consequence is, that the Moon's nodes fall back
in the ecliptic at the rate of about 1949 annually; so that
the eclipses happen sooner every year by about 19 days. ,
As the Moon passes from one of her nodes to the other
in 173 days, there is just this period between two succes-
sive eclipses of the Sun, or of the Moon. In whatever time
of the year, then, we have eclipses at cither node, we may
be sure that in 173 days afterwards, we shall have eclipses
at the other node. I
Between what limits does the length of the Earth's shadow, and its diameter at
the distance of the JMoon, vary 2 What is the breadth of the Earth's shadow,
compared with that of the disc of the JMoon & What is a lunation ? How many
days does a lunation embrace 3 Why do not all eclipses happen in the same
months of the year 3 How far do the Moon's modes fall back in the ecliptic annu-
ally, and how much sooner do the eclipses happen every year ! In what time does
the Moon pass from one of her modes to the other q What is the length of the
time which elapses between two successive eclipses of the Sun or the Moon 3
After there have been eclipses at one node, in what time may we be sure that
tiere will be eclipses at the other ?
ECLIPSES, 63
/... As the Moon's nodes fall back, or retrograde in the ecliptic at the rate of
19ło every year, they will complete a backward revolution entirely around
the ecliptic to the same point again, in 18 years, 225 days; in which time
there would always be a regular period of eclipses, if any complete number
of lunations were finished without a remainder. But this never happens;
for if both the Sun and Moon should start from a line of conjunction with
either of the modes in any point of the ecliptic, the Sun would perform 18
annual revolutions and 222° of another, while the Moon would perform
230 lunations, and 85° of another, before the node would come around to the
same point of the ecliptic again: so that the Sun would then be 138° from
the node, and the Moon 85° from the Sun.
f But after 223 lunations, or 18 years, 11 days,” 7 hours, 42 minutes, and
31 seconds, the Sun, Moon, and Earth will return so nearly into the same
position with respect to each other, that there will be a regular return of the
same eclipses for many ages. This grand period was discovered by the
Chaldeans, and by them called Saros. If, therefore, to the mean time of
any eclipse, either of the Sun or Moon, we add the Chaldean period of 18
years and 11 days, we shall have the return of the same eclipse. This
mode of predicting eclipses will hold good for a thousand years. In this
period there are usually 70 eclipses; 41 of the Sun, and 29 of the Moon. ,
* The number of eclipses in any one year, cannot be less
than two, nor more than seven. In the former case, they
will both be of the Sun; and in the latter, there will be five
of the Sun, and two of the Moon—those of the Moon will be
total. There are sometimes six; but the usual number is
four : two of the Sun, and two of the Moon. /
The cause of this variety is thus accounted for. Although the Sun usually
passes by both nodes only once in a year, he may pass the same node again
a little before the end of theyear. In consequence of the retrograde motion
of the Moon's nodes, he will come to either of them 173 days after passing
the other. He may, therefore, return to the same node in about 346 days,
having thus passed one node twice and the other once, making each time, at
each, an eclipse of both the Sun and the Moon, or sia in all. And, since 12
lunations, or 354 days from the first eclipse in the beginning of the year,
leave room for another new Moon before the close of the year, and since .
this new Moon may fall within the ecliptic limit, it is possible for the Sun
to be eclipsed again. Thus there may be seven eclipses in the same year.
* If there are four leap years in this interval, add 11 days ; but if there
are five, add only 10 days.
& In what time do the JMoon's nodes complete a backward revoluion around the
ęcliptic 3 Why is there not always a regular period of eclipses in this time 2 If
the Sun and JMoon should both start from a lime of conjunction with either mode,
how many revolutions would the Sun perform, and how many lunations the JMoon,
before the node would come around to the same point again 3/.After how many luna-
tions will the Sun, JMoon, and Earth return so nearly to the same position with
respect to each other, that there will be a regular returnt of the same eclipses for
many ages 3 What nation discovered this grand period, and what did they call it?
What is the mode of predicting eclipses, with which this fact furnishes us 2 How
many eclipses are there usually in this period?,*What is the least, and what the
greatest number of eclipses in any one year 3 In the former case, what eclipses
will they be 3 What, in the latter 3 What is the usual number of eclipses in a
year, and what eclipses are they 3 Please explain the cause of this variety.
64 MARS. ,
Again : when the Moon changes in either of her nodes, she cannot come
within the lunar ecliptic limit at the next full (though if she be full in one
of her nodes, she may come into the solar ecliptic limit at her next change,)
and in six months afterwards, she will change near the other node ; thus
making only two eclipses.
The following is a list of all the solar eclipses that will be visible in Eu-
rope and America during the remainder of the present century. To those
which will be visible in New-England, the number of digits is annexed.


Year. |Month Day & hour. Digits] Year. Month Day and Hour. Digits
1834, Nov. 30 1 22 P. M. 1039 || 1869, Aug. || 7 5 21 A.M. 10}
1836, May 15 725 A. M. 8+ || 1870, Dec. 22 6 0 A.M.
1838, Sept. 18 327 P. M.11 || 1873, May 26 3 0 A.M.
1841, July 18 10 0 A. M. 1874, Oct. 10 4 0 A.M.
1842, July | 8 0 0 Mer. 1875, Sept. 29 5 56 A.M. 11;
1844, Dec. 9 346 P.M.2 ſº || 1876, Már, 25 4 11 P.M. 33
1845, May | 6 4.55 A. M. 4} || 1878, July 29 456 P.M. 7}
1846, Apr. 25 11 15 A. M. 64 || 1879, July 19 2 0 A.M.
1847, Oct. 9 1 0 A. M. 1880, Dec. 31 730 A.M. 5; .
1848, Mar. 5 750 A. M. 6; 1882, May 17 1 0 A.M.
1851, July 28 748 A. M. 33 || 1885, Mar. 16 0 35 A.M. 6;
1854, May 26 426 P. M.11} || 1886, Aug. 29 6 30 A.M. 0}
1858, Mar. 15 614 A. M. 13 || 1887, Aug. 18 10 0 P.M.
1859, July 29 532 P. M. 2% || 1890, June 17 3 Q A. M.
1860, July 18 723 A. M. 64 || 1891, June | 6 0 Q Mer.
1861, Dec. 31 730 A. M. 4 || 1892, Oct. 20 0 19 P.M., 8,
1863, May. |17 1 0 P. M. 1895, Mar. 26 4 0 A.M.
1865, Oct. 19 9 10 A. M. 33 || 1896, Aug. || 9 Q Q Mer:
1866, Oct. 8 11 12 A. M. Gº || 1897, July 29 2 5 A.M. 4;
1867, Mar. 6 3 0 A. M. 1899, June || 8 0 Q Mer.
1868, Feb. 23 10 0 A. M. 1900, May 28 8 9 A.M. 11

The eclipses of 1838, 1854, 1869, 1875, and 1900, will be very large. In
those of 1845, 1858, 1861, 1873, 1875, and 1880, the Sun will rise eclipsed.
In that of 1844, the Sun will set eclipsed. Those of 1838, 1854, and 1875,
will be annular. The scholar can continue this table, or extend it back-
wards, by adding or subtracting the Chaldean period of 18 years, 11 days,
7 hours, 54 minutes, and 31 seconds.
*
M A R. S.
Mars is the first of the exterior planets, its orbit lying
immediately without, or beyond, that of the Earth, while
those of Mercury and Venus are within. - -
Mars appears to the naked eye, of a fine ruddy com-
plexion; resembling, in colour, and apparent magnitude,
the star Antares, or Aldebaran, near which it frequently
What is the position of Mars in the solar system 7 Describe its appearance to
the naked eye.
ty
MARSo 65
passes. It exhibits its greatest brilliancy about the time
that it rises when the Sun sets, and sets when the Sun
rises; because it is then nearest the Earth. It is least
brilliant when it rises and sets with the Sun; for then it is
five times farther removed from us than in the former case.
• Its distance from the Earth at its nearest approach is about
50 millions of miles. Its greatest distance from us is about
240 millions of miles. In the former case, it appears
nearly 25 times larger than in the latter. When it rises
before the Sun, it is our morning star; when it sets after
the Sun, it is our evening star. *
The distance of all the planets from the Earth, whether they be interior
or exterior planets, varies within the limits of the diameters of their orbits;
for when a planet is in that point of its orbit which is nearest the Earth, it
is evidently nearer by the whole diameter of its orbit, than when it is in
the opposite point, on the other side of its orbit. The apparent diameter of
the planet will also vary for the same reason, and to the same degree.
Mars is sometimes seen in opposition to the Sun, and
sometimes in superior conjunction with him; sometimes
gibbous, but never horned. In inferior conjunction, it is
never seen to pass over the Sun's disc, like Mercury and
Venus. This proves not only that its orbit is eaterior to
the Earth's orbit, but that it is an opaque body, shining only -
by the reflection of the Sun. I
The motion of Mars through the constellations of the
Zodiac, is but little more than half as great as that of the
Earth; it being generally about 57 days in passing over
one sign, which is at the rate of a little more than half a
degree each day. Thus if we know what constellation
Mars enters to day, we may conclude that two months hence
it will be in the next constellation; four months hence, in the
next ; six months, in the next, and so on.
Mars performs his revolution around the Sun in 1 year
When does it exhibit its greatest brilliancy 3 Why is it most brilliant at this
time 3, What are its least and greatest distances from us? How much larger
does it appear in the former case, than in the latter 3 Within what limits does
the distance of all the planets from the Earth, vary 2 JWith what does the apparent
diameter of a planet, vary 3 What moon-like phases has Mars? What does the
fact that it never assumes the crescent form at it its inferior conjunction, prove,
in regard to its situation ? How do we know it to be opaque 7, What is the rate
of its motion through the constellations of the zodiac, compared with that of the
Earth 3 How long is it in passing over one sign 3. At what rate per day is this 3
How, then, if we know in what constellation it is at any one time, may we de-
termine in what constellation it will be at any subsequent time ! In what time
does it perform its revolution around the º: º
*
66 . MARS.
and 10, months, at the distance of 145 millions of miles;
moving in its orbit at the mean rate of 55 thousand miles
an hour. Its diurnal rotation on its axis is performed in
24 hours, 39 minutes, and 21; seconds; which makes its
day about 44 minutes longer than ours. ; -
Its mean sidereal revolution is performed in 686.9796458 solar days; of
in 686 days, 23 hours, 30 minutes, 41.4 seconds. Its synodical revolution is
performed in 779.936 solar days; or in 779 days, 22 hours, 27 minutes, and
50 seconds.
Its form is that of an oblate spheroid, whose polar diame-
ter is to its equatorial, as 15 is to 16, nearly. Its mean
diameter is 4222 miles. Its bulk, therefore, is 7 times less
than that of the Earth ; and being 50 millions of miles
farther from the Sun, it receives from him only half as much
light and heat.
The inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit, is about
2839. Consequently, its seasons must be very similar to
those of the Earth. Indeed, the analogy between Mars and
the Earth is greater than the analogy between the Earth
and any other planet of the solar system. Their diurnal
motion, and of coursé the length of their days and nights are
nearly the same; the obliquity of their celiptics, on which
the seasons depend, are not very different; and, of all the
superior planets, the distance of Mars from the Sun is by far
the nearest to that of the Earth; nor is the length of itſº
year greatly different from ours, when compared with the
years of Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel. I
/ To a spectator on this planet, the Earth will appear al-
ternately, as a morning and evening star ; and will exhibit
all the phases of the Moon, just as Mercury and Venus do
to us; and sometimes, like them, will appear to pass over
the Sun's disc like a dark round spot. Our Moon will never
What is its distance from the Sun ? What is the mean rate of its motion in its
orbit per hour ! In what time does it perform its revolution on its axis 3 What,
then, is the length of its day, compared with that of the Earth 3 In what time
does it perform its mean sidereal revolution ? In what time, its synodical revo-
3ution ? What are its form and dimensions : What, them, is its bulk, compared
with the Earth's, and how much less light and heat does it receive from the sun 4
What is the inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit?, How are its seasons,
compared with those of the Earth 3 In what particulars is there a greater analo-
gy between Mars and the Earth, than between the Earth and any other planet in
º: solar system */ What must be the appearance of the Earth to a spectator at
ars 3
MARs' 67
appear more than a quarter of a degree from the Earth,
although her distance from it is 240,000 miles. If Mars
be attended by a satellite, it is too small to be seen by the
most powerful telescopes. I
When it is considered that Vesta, the smallest of the asteroids, which is
once and a half times the distance of Mars from us, and only 269 miles in
diameter, is perceivable in the open space, and that without the presence of
amore conspicuous body to point it out, we may reasonably conclude that
Mars is without a moon.
The progress of Mars in the heavens, and indeed of all the superior pla-
nets, will, like Mercury and Venus, sometimes appear direct, sometimes
retrograde ; and sometimes he will seem stationary. When a superior
planet first becomes visible in the morning, west of the Sun, a little after
Its conjunction, its motion is direct, and also most rapid. When it is first
seen cast of the Sun, in the evening, soon after its opposition, its motion is
retrograde. These retrograde movements and stations, as they appear to a
spectator from the Earth, are common to all the planets, and demonstrate
the truth of the Copernican system. tº-
t The telescopic phenomena of Mars afford peculiar in-
terest to astronomers. They behold its disc diversified
with numerous irregular and variable spots, and ornamented
with zones and belts of varying brilliance, that form, and
disappear, by turns. Zones of intense brightness are to be
seen in its polar regions, subject, however, to gradual
changes. That of the southern pole is much the most bril-
liant. Dr. Herschel supposes that they are produced by
the reflection of the Sun's light from the frozen regions, and
that the melting of these masses of polar ice is the cause of
the variation in their magnitude and appearance.
He was the more confirmed in these opinions by observ-
ing, that after the exposure of the luminous zone about the
north pole to a summer of eight months, it was considerably
decreased, while that on the south pole, which had been in
total darkness during eight months, had considerably in-
creased.
He observed, farther, that when this spot was most lu-
minous, the disc of Mars did not appear exactly round, and
that the bright part of its southern limb seemed to be swollen
or arched out beyond the proper curve. /
What is the greatest distance from the Earth at which our Moon will appear to
him to be 3 Why may we reasonably conclude that JMars has no satellite 2 De-
scribe the progress of JMars through the heavens 2 What system, do these ré -
grade movements and stations, cummon to all the planets as seen from the Eart

st rve to establish 3./What are the telescopic phenomena of Mars? How does Dr. º.
- J&
Herschel account fol thein 3 *
68 THE ASTEROIDS.
TELESCOPIC APPEARANCES OF MARS,
Fig. 16.
The extraordinary height and density of the atmosphere
of Mars, are supposed to be the cause of the remarkable
redness of its light. s
It has been found by experiment, that when a beam of
white light passes through any medium, its colour inclines
to red, in proportion to the density of the medium, and the
space through which it has travelled. Thus the morning
and evening clouds are beautifully tinged with red; the Sun,
Moon, and stars, appear of the same colour when near the
horizon; and every luminous object, seen through a mist,
is of a ruddy hue. -
This phenomenon may be thus explained;—The momentum of the red,
or least refrangible rays, being greater than that of the violet, or most refran-
gible rays, the former will make their way through the resisting medium,
while the latter are either reflected or absorbed. The colour of the beam,
therefore, when it reaches the eye, must partake of the colour of the least
refrangible rays, and this colour must increase with the distance. The dim
light, therefore, by which Mars is illuminated, having to pass twice through
its atmosphere before it reaches the Earth, must be deprived of a great pro-
portion of its violet rays, and consequently then be red. Dr. Brewstersup-
poses that the difference of colour among the other planets, and even the
; stars, is owing to the different heights and densities of their atmos-
pneres.
THE ASTEROIDS, OR TELESCOPIC PLANETS.
Ascending higher in the solar system, we find, between
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, a cluster of four small plan-
ets, which present a variety of anomalies that distinguish
How may the remarkable redness of the light of Mars be accounted for 3

THE ASTEROIDS, 69
them from all the older planets of the system. Their names
are Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas. They were all dis-
covered about the beginning of the present century.
f #. dates of their discovery, and the names of their discoverers, are as
011OWS :
Ceres, January 1, 1801, by M. Piazzi, of Palermo.
Pallas, March 28, 1802, by M. Olbers, of Bremen.
Juno, September 1, 1804, by M. Harding, of Bremen.
Vesta, March 29, 1807, by M. Olbers, of Bremen.
The scientific Bode* entertained the opinion, that the plane-
tary distances, above Mercury, formed a geometrical series,
each exterior orbit being double the distance of its next
interior one, from the Sun; a fact which obtains with re-
markable exactness between Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel.
But this law seemed to be interrupted between Mars and
Jupiter. Hence he inferred, that there was a planet want-
ing in that interval; which is now happily supplied by the
discovery of the four star form planets, occupying the very
space where the unexplained vacancy presented a strong
objection to his theory.
These bodies are much smaller in size than the older
planets—they all revolve at nearly the the same distances
from the Sun, and perform their revolutions in nearly the
same periods,--their orbits are much more eccentric, and
have a much greater inclination to the ecliptic,+and what
is altogether singular, except in the case of comets—all cross
each other; so that there is even a possibility that two of
* According to him, the distances of the planets may be expressed near-
ly as follows:–the Earth's distance from the Sun being 10.
Mercury 4 - !ºls 4–H3X2* = 28
Venus 44–3X1 = 7 Jupiter 4–H3X2* = 52
The Earth - 4+3X2 = 10|Saturn 4+3×2* = 100
Mars 4+3×2* = 16|Herschel 4-H 3X26 = 196
Comparing these values with the actual mean distances of the planets
from the Sun, we cannot but remark the near agreement, and can scarcely
hesitate to pronounce that the respective distances of the planets from the
Sun, were assigned according to a law, although we are entirely ignorant
of the exact law, and of the reason for that law.—Brinkley's Elements,
p. 89
What new planets have been discovered within the present century q Where
are they situated 3 What are the dates of their discovery, and the names of their
discoverers ? Why did Bode infer that there was a planet wanting between Mars
and Jupiter 3 In what particulars do these new planets differ from the older
planets? How is it possible that two qf them should ever come into collision 3
70 THE ASTEROIDS.
these bodies, may, sometime, in the course of their revolu-
tions, come into collision.
The orbit of Vesta is so eccentric, that she is sometimes
farther from the Sun than either Ceres, Pallas, or Juno,
although her mean distance is many millions of miles less
than theirs. The orbit of Vesta crosses the orbits of all the
other three, in two opposite points.
The student should here refer to the Figures, Plate I. of the Atlas, and veri-
fy such of these particulars as are there represented. It would be well for the
teacher to require him to observe particularly the positions of their orbits, and to
state their different degrees of inclination to the plane of the ecliptic.
From these and other circumstances, many eminent as-
tronomers are of opinion, that these four planets are the
fragments of a large celestial body which once revolved
between Mars and Jupiter, and which burst asunder by
some tremendous convulsion, or some external violence.
The discovery of Ceres by Piazzi, on the first day of the
present century, drew the attention of all the astronomers
of the age to that region of the sky, and every inch of it
was minutely explored. The consequence was, that, in
the year following, Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, announced
to the world, the discovery of Pallas, situated not many
degress from Ceres, and very much resembling it in size.
From this discovery, Dr. Olbers first conceived the idea
that these bodies might be the fragments of a former world;
and if so, that other portions of it might be found either in the
same neighbourhood, or else, having diverged from the same
point, “they ought to have two common points of reunion, or
two nodes in opposite regions of the heavens through which
all the planetary fragments must sooner or later pass. ”
One of these nodes he found to be, in the constellation
Virgo, and the opposite one, in the Whale; and it is a re-
markable coincidence that it was in the neighbourhood of
the latter constellation that Mr. Harding discovered the
rºº
—ar-
How is it that Vesta is sometimes farther from 1he sun than either Ceres, Pal-
las or Juno, when her mean distance is many millions of miles less than theirs?
What is the position of her orbit with regard to their orbits 3 What theory in
regard to the origin of these planets have some astronomers derived from these
and some other circumstances? Who first conceived this idea 3 How came he
to have this idea 3 Where did he imagine other fragments might be ſound 3 In
what constellations did he find these nodes to be 3 Where were Juno and Vesta
actually found 3
THE ASTEROIDS. 71
planet Juno. In order therefore to detect the remaining
fragments, if any existed, Dr. Olbers examined, three times
every year, all the small stars in Virgo and the Whale;
and it was actually in the constellation Virgo, that he dis.
covered the planet Vesta. Some astronomers think it not
unlikely that other fragments of a similar description may
hereafter be discovered. Dr. Brewster attributes the fall
of meteoric stones to the smaller fragments of these bodies
happening to come within the sphere of the Earth's at-
traction.
Meteoric stones, or what are generally termed aerolites, are stones which
sometimes fall from the upper regions of the atmosphere, upon the Earth.
The substance of which they are composed, is, for the most part, metallic;
but the ore of which it consists is not to be found in the same constituent
proportions in any known substance upon the Earth. Their fall is general-
ly preceded by a luminous appearance, a hissing noise, and a loud explo-
sion; and, when found immediately after their descent, they are always
hot, and usually covered with a black crust indicating a state of exterior
fusion.
Their size differs from that of small fragments, of inconsiderable weight,
to that of the most ponderous masses. Some have been found to weigh
from 300 pounds to several tons; and they have descended to the Earth
with a force sufficient to bury them many feet under the surface.
Some have supposed that they are projected from volcanoes in the
Moon; others, that they proceed from volcanoes on the Earth; while oth-
ers imagine that they are generated in the regions of the atmosphere ; but
the truthis, probably, not yet ascertained. In some instances, these stones
have penetratad through the roofs of houses, and proved destructive to the
inhabitants.
If we carefully compute the force of gravity in the Moon, we shall find,
that if a body were projected from her surface with a momentum that
would cause it to move at the rate of 8,200 feet in the first second of time,
and in the direction of a line joining the centres of the Earth and Moon, it
would not fall again to the surface of the Moon; but would become a sa-
tellite to the Earth. Such an impulse might, indeed, cause it, even after
many revolutions, to fall to the Earth. The fall, therefore, of these stones,
from the air, may be accounted for in this manner.
Mr. Hatte, calculates, that even a velocity of 6000 feet in a second, would
be sufficient to carry a body projected from the surface of the Moon beyond
the power of her attraction. If so, a projectile force three times greater
than that of a cannon, would carry a body from the Moon beyond the point
of equal attraction, and cause it to reach the Earth. A force equal to this
is often exerted by our volcanoes, and by subterraneous steam. Hence,
How did Dr. Olbers discover Vesta ? To what does Dr. Brewster attribute the
fall of meteoric stones 3 What is meant by the expression, meteoric stones 2 Of
what substance are they composed ?. In what respect do they differ from any me-
tallic substances known upon the Earth & What indications generally precede
WWEFfºſſ? TTENTE Sãìà7FETHEVFOTúTÉ after their desceniz What is their
magnitude 3 What theories have been adopted to account for their origin 3 Ez-
plain how it is not impossible that they may come from the JMoon.

72 THE ASTEROIDS.
there is no impossibility in the supposition of their coming from the Moon :
but yet I think the theory of aerial consolidation the more plausible.
Vesta appears, however, like a star of the 5th or 6th
magnitude, shining with a pure steady radiance, and is the
only one of the asteroids which can be discerned by the
naked eye.
JUNo, the next planet in order after Vesta, revolves
around the Sun in 4 years, 4% months, at the mean distance
of 254 millions of miles, moving in her orbit at the rate of
41 thousand miles an hour. Her diameter is estimated at
1393 miles. This would make her magnitude 183 times less
than the Earth's. The light and heat which she receives
from the Sun is seven times less than that received by the
Earth. .
The eccentricity of her orbit is so great, that her great-
est, distance from the Sun is nearly double her least distance;
so that, when she is in her perihelion, she is nearer the Sun
by 130 millions of miles, than when she is in her aphelion.
This great eccentricity has a corresponding effect upon
her rate of motion; for being so much nearer, and there-
fore so much more powerfully attracted by the Sun at one
time than at another, she moves through that half of her
orbit which is nearest the Sun, in one half of the time that
she occupies in completing the other half.
According to Schroeter, the diameter of Juno is 1425 miles; and she is
surrounded by an atmosphere more dense than that of any of the other
planets. Schroeter also remarks, that the variation in her brilliancy is
chiefly owing to certain changes in the density of her atmosphere; at the
same time he thinks it not improbable that these changes may arise from
a diurnal revolution on her axis.
CEREs, the next planet in order after Juno, revolves about
the Sun in 4 years 74 months, at the mean distance of 263;
Describe the appearance of Vesta. What is the next planet in order after Ves-
ta? In what time does she complete her revolution around the sun ? What is her
mean distance from him 3 What the rate of her motion per hour ! What is the
length of her diameter 3 How much less, then, is her magnitude, than that of the
Earth 4 How much light and heat does she receive from the sun, compared with
those received by the Earth 3 How much greater is her greatest distance from
the sun, than her least distance 3 How much less time does she occupy in moving
through that half of her orbit which is nearest to the sun, than she does in moving
through that half which is farthest from him 3 What is her diameter, according
to Schroeter 3 Jäccording to the same astronomer, what is the density of her at-
mosphere, compared with that of the other planets 3 To what does he attribute the
variation in her brilliancy & What is the next planet in order after Juno 3 In
what time does she complete her revolution about the sun ? What is her mean
distance from him 3
THE ASTEROIDS, 73
millions of miles, moving in her orbit at the rate of 41
thousand miles an hour. Her diameter is estimated at 1582
miles, which makes her magnitude 125 times less than the
Earth's. The intensity of the light and heat which she re-
ceives from the Sun, is about 7# times less than that of those
received by the Earth.
Ceres shines with a ruddy colour, and appears to be only
about the size of a star of the 8th magnitude. Consequent-
ly she is never seen by the naked eye. She is surrounded
by a species of cloudy or nebulous light, which gives her
somewhat the appearance of a comet, forming, according to
Schroeter, an atmosphere 675 miles in height.
Ceres, as has been said, was the first discovered of the Asteroids. At
her discovery, astronomers congratulated themselves upon the harmony of
the system being restored. They had long wanted a planet to fill up the
great void between Mars and Jupiter, in order to make the system complete
in their own eyes; but the successive discoveries of Pallas and Juno again
introduced confusiou, and presented a difficulty which they were unable to
solve, till Dr. Olbers suggested the idea that these small anomalous bodies
were merely the fragments of alarger planet, which had been exploded by
some mighty convulsion. Among the most able and decided advocates of
this hypothesis, is Dr. Brewster, of Edinburgh.
PALLAs, the next planet in order after Ceres, performs her
revolution around the Sun in 4 years, 73 months, at the
mean distance of 264 millions of miles, moving in her orbit
at the rate of 41 thousand miles an hour. Her diameter
is estimated at 2025 miles, which is but little less than that
of our Moon. It is a singular, and very remarkable pheno-
menon in the solar system, that two planets, (Ceres and
Pallas) nearly of the same size, should be situated at equal
distances from the Sun, revolve about him in the same
period, and in orbits that intersect each other. The dif.
ference in the respective distances of Ceres and Pallas is
What is the rate of her motion per hour ! What is her diameter 3 How great
is her magnitude, compared with that of the Earth q What is the intensity of the
light and heat which she receives from the sun, compared with that of those re-
ceived by the Earth 3 Describe her appearance. How high, according to Schroe-
ter, is the atmosphere formed by this nebulous light 3 Why did astronomers con-
gratulate themselves at the discovery of this planet & What again introduced
Confusion and difficulty into their system 3 How were they at length enabled to
solve the difficulty 3 What planet is the next in order after Ceres? In what
time does she complete her revolution around the sun ? What is her mean dis-
tance from him 3 %. the rate of her motion in her orbit per hour ! What is
her diameter 3. How great is it compared with the diameter of the Moon 3 What is
the difference between the respective distances of Ceres and Pallas from the Sun ?
G
74 JUPITER,
less than a million of miles. The difference in their side-
real revolutions, according to some astronomers, is but a
single day !
The calculation of the latitude and longitnde of the asteroids, is a labour
of extreme difficulty, requiring more than 400 equations to reduce their
anomalous perturbations to the true place. This arises from the want of
auxiliary tables, and from the fact that the elements of the star form planets,
are very imperfectly determined. Whether any of the asteroids have aro-
tation on their axis, remains to be ascertained.
J U P IT E R .
/ Jupiter is the largest of all the planets belonging to the
solar system. It may be readily distinguished from the
fixed stars, by its peculiar splendour and magnitude; ap-
pearing to the naked eye almost as resplendent as Venus,
although it is more than seven times her distance from the
Sun.
When his right ascension is less than that of the Sun, he
is our morning star, and appears in the eastern hemis-
phere before the Sun rises; when greater, he is our
evening star, and lingers in the western hemisphere after
the Sun sets.
Nothing can be easier than to trace Jupiter among the
constellations of the zodiac; for in whatever constellation
he is seen to-day, one year hence he will be seen equally
advanced in the meat constellation; two years hence, in the
next ; three years hence, in the next, and so on; being
just a year, at a mean rate, in passing over one constel-
lation.
. The exact mean motion of Jupiter in its orbit, is about one-twelfth of a
degree in a day; which amounts to only 30°20'32" in a year.
For 12 years to come, he will, at a mean rate, pass
through the constellations of the zodiac, as follows: I
What is the difference between the times of their sidereal revolutions 4 Why is
the calculation of the latitude and longitude of the asteroids a labour of extreme
difficulty 3 Have any of the asteroids a rotation on their azes 2 hich is
the largest planet of the solar system ºf How may Jupiter be readily distinguish-
ed from the fixed stars 3 ſow much frther is he from the Sun than Venus? In
what case is he our morning star, and in what, our evening 3 How may he be
traged; among the cqnstellations of the Zodiac 4. In what constellation will he be,
each year, for twelgøyears to come 4
JUPITER, #5

1834 || Aries. 1838 | Leo. 1842 | Sagittarius.
1835 | Taurus. | 1839 Virgo. 1843 | Capricornus.
1836 || Gemini. 1840 | Libra. 1844 Aquarius.
1837 | Cancer. 1841 Scorpio. 1845 || Pisces.
/ Jupiter is the next planet in the solar system above the
asteroids, and performs his annual revolution around the
Sun in nearly 12 of our years, at the mean distance of 495
millions of miles; moving in his orbit at the rate of 30,000
miles an hour.
The exact period of Jupiter's sidereal revolution is 11 years, 10 months,
17 days, 14 hours, 21 minutes, 25% seconds. His exact mean distance from
the Sun is 495,533,837 miles ; consequently, the exact rate of his motion in
his orbit, is 29,943 miles per hour.
He revolves on an axis, which is perpendicular to the
plane of his orbit, in 9 hours, 55 minutes, and 50 seconds;
so that his year contains 10,471 days and nights; each
about 5 hours iong. -
His form is that of an oblate spheroid, whose polar diame-
ter is to its equatorial, as 13 to 14. He is therefore consid.
erably more flattened at the poles, than any of the other
planets except Saturn. This is caused by his rapid rotation
on his axis; for it is a universal law that the equatorial
parts of every body, revolving on an axis, will be swollen
out, in proportion to the density of the body, and the rapidi-
ty of its motion,
The difference between the polar and equatorial diameters of Jupiter,
exceeds 6000 miles. The difference between the polar and equatorial di-
ameters of the Earth, is only 26 miles. Jupiter, even on the most careless
view through a good telescope, appears to be oval ; the longer diameter
being parallel to the direction of his belts, which are also parallel to the
ecliptic.
By this rapid whirl on his axis, his equatorial inhabitants
f What is his position in the solar system 3 What is his mean distance from the
gun? What is the rate per hour of his motion in his orbit What is the exact
Period of his sidereal revolution ? What is his exact mean distance from the
sun ? What the exact rate per hour of his motion in his orbit 2 What is the po-
sition of his axis with respeet to the plane of his orbit 3 How many days and
nights does his year eontain 3. How long are they, each 3 What is his form 3
What is the ratio between his polar and equatorial diameters ? What is the cause
of his being more flattened at the poles than any of the other planets 3 What is
the difference between his polar and equatorial diameters & What does his for ºt
appear to be, through a good telescope; What is the direction of his longer di-
azzeter?
76 JUPITER,
are carried around at the rate of 26,554 miles an hour ;
which is 1600 miles farther than the equatorial inhabitants
of the Earth are carried, by its diurnal motion, in twenty-
four hours. *
The true mean diameter of Jupiter is 86,255 miles: which
is nearly 11 times greater than the Earth's. His volume
is therefore about thirteen hundred times larger than that
of the Earth. [Compare his magnitude with that of the
Earth. Plate I.] On account of his great distance from
tha Sun, the degree of light and heat which he receives
from it, is 27 times less than that received by the Earth.
When Jupiter is in conjunction, he rises, sets, and comes to the meridian
with the Sun; but is never observed to make a transit, or pass over the
Sun's disc; when in opposition, he rises when the Sunsets, sets when the
Sun rises, and comes to the meridian at midnight, which never happens in
the case of an interior planet. This proves that Jupiter revolves in an orbit
which is exterior to that of the Earth.
As the variety in the seasons of a planet, and in the length
of its days and nights depend upon the inclination of its axis
to the plane of its orbit, and as the axis of Jupiter has no
inclination, there can be no difference in his seasons, on
the same parallels of latitude, nor any variation in the
length of his days and nights. It is not to be understood,
however, that one uniform season prevails from his equator
to his poles; but that the same paralleſs of latitude on each
side of his equator, uniformly enjoy the same season, what-
ever season it may be.
About his equatorial regions there is perpetual summer;
and at his poles everlasting winter; but yet equal day and
equal night at each. This arrangement seems to have been
kindly ordered by the beneficent Creator; for had his axis
been inclined to his orbit, like that of the Earth, his polar
winters would bave been alternately a dreadful night of
of six years darkness.
At what rate per hour are his equatorial inhabitants carried by his motion on
his axis 3 How much farther is this than the equatorial inhabitants of the Earth
are carried in 24 hours ? What is Jupiter's true mean diameter ? . How much
greater is it than the Earth's What is his volume, compared with the Earth's 3
What is the degree of light and heat which he receives from the sun, compared
with that received by the Earth 3 How do we know that Jupiter’s orbit is exte:
zior to that of the Earth 3 What is the arrangement of Jupiter's seasons, and of
his days and nights 3 Had his axis been inclined to the piane of his orbit, like
that of our Earth, how long would his polar nights have been 3
JUPITERe - 77
TELESCOPIC APPEARANCES OF JUPITER,
- Fig. 17.
, Jupiter when viewed through a telescope, appears to be
surrounded by a number of luminous zones, usually termed
belts, that frequently extend quite around him. These
belts are parallel not only to each other, but, in general,
to his equator, which is also nearly parallel to the ecliptic.
They are subject, however, to considerable variation, both
in breadth and number. Sometimes eight have been seen
at once; sometimes only one, but more usually three. Dr.
Herschel once perceived his whole disc covered with small
belts. - -
Sometimes these belts continue for months at a time with
little or no variation, and sometimes a new belt has been seen
to form in a few hours. Sometimes they are interrupted
in their length; and at other times, they appear to spread
in width, and run into each other, until their breadth exceeds
5,000 miles.
Bright and dark spots are also frequently to be seen in
the belts, which usually disappear with the belts themselves,
though not always, for Cassini observed that one occupied
the same position more than 40 years. Of the cause of
these variable appearances, but little is known. They are
generally supposed to be nothing more than atmospherical
phenºmena, resulting from, or combined with the rapid mo-
tion of the planet upon its axis. I
Different opinions have been entertained by astronomers respecting the
cause of these belts and spots. By some they have been regarded as clouds,
or as openings in the atmosphere of the planet, while others imagine that
they are of a more permanent nature, and are the marks of great physical
, Describe Jupiter's appearance, as seen through a telescope. What is supposed
o be the cause of these phenomena 3 {º - . ‘. + .
G

78 JUPITER,
revolutions, which are perpetually agitating and changing the surface of
the planet. The first of these opinions sufficiently explains the variations
in the form and magnitude of the spots, and the parallelism of the belts.
The spot first observed by Cassini, in 1665, which has both disappeared
and re-appeared in the same form and position for the space of 43 years,
could not possibly be occasioned by any atmospherical variations, but seems
evidently to be connected with the surface of the planet. The form of the
belt, according to some astronomers, may be accounted for by supposing
that the atmosphere reflects more light than the body of the planet, and
that the clouds which float in it, being thrown into parallel strata by the
rapidity of its diurnal motion, form regular interstices, through which are
seen its opaque body, or any of the permanent spots which may come
within the range of the opening.
2 Jupiter is also attended by four satellites or moons, some
of which are visible to him every hour of the night; exhib-
iting, on a small scale, and in short periods, most of the phe-
nomena of the solar system. When viewed through a tele-
scope, these satellites present a most interesting and beau-
tiful appearance. The first satellite, or that nearest the
planet, is 259,000 miles distant from its centre, and revolves
around it in 424 hours; and appears, at the surface of Jupi-
ter, four times larger than our moon does to us. His second
satellite, being both smaller and farther distant, appears
about the size of ours; the third somewhat less; and the
fourth, which is more than a million of miles from him, and
takes 16; days to revolve around him, appears only about one
third the diameter of our moon.
These satellites suffer frequent eclipses from passing
through Jupiter's shadow, in the same manner as our moon
is eclipsed in passing through the Earth's shadow. The
three nearest satellites fall into his shadow, and are eclips-
ed in every revolution; but the orbit of the fourth is so
much inclined, that it passes by its opposition to him, two
years in six, without falling into his shadow. By means of
these eclipses, astronomers have not only discovered that
light is 8 minutes and 13 seconds in coming to us from the
Relate some of the different opinions entertained by astronomers on this sub-
ject./ How many satellites has Jupiter 3 How often are they visible to him 7
What is the distance from him of his first or nearest satellite 3 "What is the time
of its revolution 3 What is its apparent magnitude at the surface of Jupiter, com-
pared with the magnitude of the Moon, as seen by us? What are the apparent
magnitudes of his other satellites, as seen at his surface, compared with that of
the Moon as seen at the Earth 3 What is the distance of his fourth satellite from
him 4 What is the time of its revolution ºf How often are his three nearest satel-
litcs eclipsed? How often his fourth 4 "Why is it not eclipsed as often as the
others? "What important purposes have these eclipses served to astronomers ?
JUPITER, - 79
Sun, but are also enabled to determine the longitude of pla-
ces on the Earth with greater facility and exactness than
by any other methods yet known. 1
It was long since found, by the most careful observations, that when the
Earth is in that part of her orbit which is nearest to Jupiter, the eclipses
appear to happen 8'13" sooner than the tables predict; and when
in that part of her orbit which is farthest from him, 8' 13" later than the
tables predict; making a total difference in time, of 16'26". From the
mean of 6000 eclipses observed by Delambre, this disagreement between
observation and calculation, was satisfactorily settled at 8 13", while both
were considered equally correct. Now when the eclipses happen sooner
than the tables, Jupiteris at his nearest to approach the Earth—when later,
at his greatest distance; so that the difference in his distances from the
Earth, in the two cases, is the whole diameter of the Earth's orbit, or about
190 millions of miles. Hence, it is concluded that light is not instantane-
oùs, but that it occupies 16'26" in passing across the Earth's orbit, or 8'13"
in coming from the Sun to the Earth; being nearly 12 millions of miles a
Iminute.
The revolutions of the satellites about Jupiter are pre-
cisely similar to the revolutions of the planets about the
Sun. In this respect they are an epitome of the solar sys-
tem, exhibiting, on a smaller scale, the various changes that
take place among the planetary worlds.
Jupiter, when seen from his nearest satellite, appears a
thousand times larger than our moon does to us, exhibiting,
on a scale of inconceivable magnificence, the varying forms
of a crescent, a half moon, a gibbous phase, and a full moon,
every 42 hours.
The apparent diameters of Jupiter's satellites, their mean distances from
him, and their periodical revolutions, are exhibited in the following table.

Satellites. | Revolution. fº. Mean Dist.
First. IJ.TISD.T.Sm.TI.7667|T259,000T
Second. 3 13 14 1. 189 414,000
Third. 7 3 43 1. 050 647,000
Fourth. 16 16 32 - 0. 550 1,164,000
State the method by which the progressive motion of light, and the time which
it occupies in coming to us from the sun were discovered. In what respect are
Jupiter's satellites an epitome of the solar system 3. What is Jupiter's appearance;
as seen from his nearest satellite 3 What are the diameters, anean distances, and
times of the revolution of his satellites ?
*
80 SATURN.
S A T U R. N.
* Saturn is situated between the orbits of Jupiter and Her.
schel, and is the most remote planet from the Earth of any
that are visible to the naked eye. It may be easily distin-
guished from the fixed stars by its pale, feeble, and steady
light. It resembles the star Fomalhaut, both in colour and
size, differing from it only in the steadiness and uniformity
of its light.
From the slowness of its motion in its orbit, the pupil,
throughout the period of his whole life, may trace its appa-
rent course among the stars, without any danger of mistake.
Having once found when it enters a particular constella-
tion, he may easily remember where he is to look for it in
any subsequent year; because, at a mean rate, it is just 2%
years in passing over a single sign or constellation.
Saturn's mean daily motion among the stars is only about
2', the thirtieth part of a degree. I
Saturn entered the constellation Virgo about the beginning of 1833, and
continued in it until the middle of the year 1835, when he passed into Li-
bra. He will continue in that constellation until 1838; and so on ; occu-
#; about 23 years in each constellation, or nearly 30 years in one revo-
ution.
His orbit is 909 millions of miles from the Sun; being
nearly twice the distance of Jupiter's. His diameter is about
82,000 miles; his volume therefore is eleven hundred times
greater than the Earth's. Moving in his orbit at the rate
of 22,000 miles an hour, he requires 294 years to complete
his circuit around the Sun: but his diurnal rotation on his
axis is accomplished in 104 hours. His year, therefore, is
nearly thirty times as long as ours, while his day is shorter
2. Where, in the solar system, is Saturn situated ? How may it be distinguished
from the fixed stars 4 What star does it resemble? In what respects is it like it,
and in what is it different from it? How may his place among the stars be readi-
ly found 3 What is about the rate of his mean daily motion among the stars?
When did Saturn enter the constellation Virgo, and how tong did he continue in
it 3 What constellation did he enter next, and how long will he continue in it?
How long time does he occupy in passing through each constellation, and what
is the length of his year 3, What is his distance from the sun ? How much greater
is this than Jupiter's distance 7 What is his diameter 3 How much greater is his
volume than that of the Earth 3 What is the rate per hour of his motion in his
orbit 3 in what time is his diurnal motion on his axis performed 3
SATURN, 81
by more than one half. His year contains about 25,150 of
its own days, which are equal to 10,759 of our days. |
2. The surface of Saturn, like that of Jupiter, is diversified
with belts and dark spots. Dr. Herschel sometimes per-
ceived five belts on his surface; three of which were dark,
and two bright. The dark belts have a yellowish tinge, and
generally cover a broader zone of the planet than those of
Jupiter.
To the inhabitants of Saturn, the Sun appears 90 times
less than he appears to the Earth; and they receive from
him only one ninetieth part as much light and heat. But
it is computed that even the ninetieth part of the Sun's light
exceeds the illuminating power of 3,000 full moons, which
would be abundantly sufficient for all the purposes of life.
SATURN. f
* 2. The telescopic appearance
||of Saturn is unparalleled. It
is even more interesting than
|Jupiter, with all his moons
||and belts. That which emi-
|nently distinguished this plan-
|et from every other in the
system, is a magnificent zone
or ring, like a rain-bow a
thousand times expanded; en-
. ~ - circling it with perpetual light.
The light of the ring is more brilliant than the planet it-
self. It turns around its centre of motion in the same time
that Saturn turns on its axis. When viewed with a good
telescope, it is found to consist of two concentric rings, di-
vided by a dark band.
By the laws of mechanics, it is impossible that the body of the rings
should retain its position by the adhesion of the particles alone; it must ne-
cessarily revolve with a velocity that will generate centrifugal force suffi-
How many of his own days does his year contain, and how many of ours ?
/What is the appearance of his surface to us ; How many belts did Dr. Herschel
perceive on his surface 3 Describe them. How much less does the sun appear to
the inhabitants of Saturn than to us? What degree of light and heat does he re-
ceive [rom the sun, compared with that received by the Earth 4 To the light of
how many full moons is this degree of light equal 3, Describe the telescopic ap-
pearance of Saturn ? Why should we judge, previous to observation, that these
rings must revolve around him 3












82 SATURN.
cient to balance the attraction of Saturn. Observation confirms the truth
of these principles, showing that the rings rotate about the planet in 10}
hours, which is considerably less than the time a satellite would take to re-
volve about it at the same distance. Their plane is inclined to the ecliptic
in an angle of 319. In consequence of this obliquity of position, they al-
ways appear elliptical to us, but with an eccentricity so variable as to ap-
pear, occasionally, like a straight line drawn across the planet; in which
case they are visible only by the aid of superior instruments. Such was
their position in April, 1833; for the Sun was then passing from their south
to their north side. The rings intersect the ecliptic in two opposite points,
which may be called their nodes. These points are in longitude 170°, and
350 degrees. When, therefore, Saturn is in either of these points, his rings
will be invisible to us. On the contrary, when his longitude is 80°, or 260°,
the rings may be seen to the greatest advantage. As the edge of the rings
SATURN’s RINGs.
Fig. 19.

arº
goº,
H.

TT2
ºſ **** 3{}


Does observation confirm this opinion 3 In what time do the rings revolve
about the planet 3 Is this a greater or less time than a satellite at the same dis-
tance would require to revolve about it 3 Why do the rings always appear ellip-
tical to us 3 To what extent does the eccentricity of the rings vary & What is
the position of the rings with regard to the ecliptic 3. What is the longitude of
these nodes 3 In what position of Saturn, then, will the rings be invisible to
tes, and in what position will they be seen to the best advantage 3
SATURN, 83
will present itself to the Sun twice in each revolution of the planet, it is ob-
vious that the disappearance of them will occur once in about 15 years ;
subject, however, to the variation dependent on the position of the Earth
at that time.
The preceding diagrams are a very good representation of the form and
position of the rings as they appear to a spectator during one complete
revolution of Saturn through the signs of the ecliptic.
By reference to the figure, it will be seen, that when Saturn is in either of
the first six signs, the Sun shines on the south side of the rings; and that
while he is in either of the last six signs, upon their north side.
The following are the dates during the ensuing revolutions of the planet,
when its mean heliocentric longitude is such that the rings will (if the Earth
be favourably situated,) either be invisible, or seen to the greatest advan-
tage.
1833 April. | 200 of Virgo. Invisible.
1838 July. 200 of Scorpio. North side illuminated.
1847 Dec. 20° of Aquarius. Invisible.
1855 April. 200 of Gemini. South side illuminated.
1863 Nov. 200 of Virgo. Invisible.
z: The distance between Saturn and his inner ring, is only
21,000 miles; being less than a tenth part of the distance of
our Moon from the Earth. The breadth of the dark band,
or the interval between the rings, is hardly 3,000 miles.—
The breadth of the inner ring is 20,000 miles. Being only
about the same distance from Saturn, it will present to his
inhabitants a luminous zone, arching the whole concave
vault from one hemisphere to the other with a broad girdle
of light.
The most obvious use of this double ring is, to reflect
light upon the planet in the absence of the Sun; what other
purposes it may be intended to subserve, is to us unknown.
The sun, as has been shown, illuminates one side of it during
15 years, or one half of the period of the planet's revolution;
and, during the next 15 years, the other side is enlightened
in its turn, (
/ Twice in the course of 30 years, there is a short interval
of time when neither side is enlightened, and when, of course,
it ceases to be visible;—namely, at the time when the sun
How often will the disappearance of the rings occur & Explain this. In
what signs, if the planet be, will the sun shine on the south side of the rings,
and in what, on the north side 3 / What is the distance between Saturn and his
inner ring? How great is this, compared with the distance of our Moon from the
Earth 3 "What is the distance between the two rings 3 What is the breadth of
the inner ring 4 What must be its appearance at Saturn ? What is the most
obvious use of this double ring 3 How long a time does the sun enlighten each
side of it alternately 3, How often, and in what circumstances, is neither side en-
lightened, and the ring, of course, invisible?
84 SATURNs
ceases to shine on one side, and is about to shine on the
other.” It revolves around its axis, and consequently,
around Saturn, in 104 hours, which is at the rate of a thou-
sand miles in a minute or 58 times swifter than the revolu-
tion of the Earth's equator.
When viewed from the middle zone of the planet, in the
absence of the Sun, the rings will appear like vast luminous
arches, extending along the canopy of heaven, from the
eastern to the western horizon, exceeding in breadth a hun-
dred times the apparent diameter of our Moon. /
/ Besides the rings, Saturn is attended by seven satellites,
which revolve about him at different periods and distances,
and reciprocally reflect the Sun's rays on each other and
on the planet. The rings and moons illuminate the nights
of Saturn; the moons and Saturn enlighten the rings, and
the planet and rings reflect the Sun's beams on the satel-
lites. r
The fourth of these satellites (in the order of their distance) was first
discovered by Huygens, on the 25th of March, 1655, and, in honour of the
discoverer, was called the Huygenian Satellite. This satellite, being the
largest of all, is seen without much difficulty. Cassini discovered the 1st,
2d, 3d, and 5th satellites between October, 1671, and March, 1684. ... Dr.
Herschel discovered the 6th and 7th in 1789. These are nearer to Saºurn
than any of the rest, though, to avoid confusion, they are named in the
order of their discovery.
The sixth and seventh are the smallest of the whole; the
first and second are the next smallest; the third is greater
than the first and second; the fourth is the largest of them
all; and the fifth surpasses the rest in brightness.
Their respective distances from their primary, vary from
half the distance of our Moon, to two millions of miles.
* This happens, as we have already shown, when Saturn is either in the
20th degree of Pisces, or the 20th degree of Virgo. When he is between
these points, or in the 20th degree either of Gemini or of Sagittarius, his
ring appears most open to us, and more in the form of an oval whose long-
est diameter is to the shortest, as 9 to 4.
In what time does the ring complete its revolution on its axis, and of course,
around the planet 3 What is the rate per minute, of its motion ? How rapid is this,
compared with the motion of the Earth's equator 3 What would he the appear-
ance of the rings, if viewed from the middle zone of the planet, in the absence of
the sun ?/ How many moºns has Saturn ? How are Saturn, his rings and satel-
lites, severally, enlightened 3 What are the dates of their discovery, and the
mames of their discoverers ? What are their comparative magnitudes, dis-
tances, and times of revolution ? g
SATURN, 85
Their periodic revolutions vary from 1 day to 79 days.
The orbits of the six inner satellites, that is, the 1st, 2d, 3d,
4th, 6th, and 7th, all lie in the plane of Saturn's rings, and
revolve around their outer edge; while the 5th satellite de-
viates so far from the plane of the rings, as sometimes to be
seen through the opening between them and the planet.,
Laplace imagines that the accumulation of matter at Saturn's equator re-
tains the orbits of the first six satellites in the plane of the equator, in the
same manner as it retains the rings in that plane. It has been satisfactorily
ascertained that Saturn has a greater accumulation of matter about his
equator, and consequently that he is more flattened at the poles, than Jupi-
ter, though the velocity of the equatorial parts of the former is much less
than that of the latter. This is sufficiently accounted for by the fact, that
the rings of Saturn lie in the plane of his equator, and act more powerfully
upon those parts of his surface than upon any other ; and thus, while they
aid in diminishing the gravity of these parts, also aid the centrifugal ſorce
in flattening the poles of the planet. Indeed, had Saturn never revolved
upon his axis, the action of the rings would, of itself, have been sufficient
to give him the form of an oblate spheroid.
The theory of the satellites of Saturn is less perfect than
that of the satellites of Jupiter. The difficulty of observing
their eclipses, and of measuring their elongations from their
primary, have prevented astronomers from determining,
with their usual precision, their mean distances and revo-
lutions.
* We may remark, with the Christian Philosopher, that
there is no planet in the solar system, whose firmament
presents such a variety of splendid and magnificent objects
as that of Saturn.
The various aspects of the seven moons, one rising above
the horizon, while another is setting, and a third, approach-
ing to the meridian ; one entering into an eclipse, and an-
other emerging from one; one ºppearing as a crescent, and
another with a gibbous phase ; and sometimes the whole
of them shining in the same hemisphere, in one bright as-
semblage 1 The majestic motion of the rings, at one time
illuminating the sky with their splendour, and eclipsing the
stars; at another, casting a deep shade over certain regions
of the planet, and unveiling to view the wonders of the
What is the position of their orbits with respect to the rings of Saturn ? What
does Laplace imagine, retains the orbits of Saturn's first sia satellites in the
plane of his equator 3 Why are astronomers less acquainted with the mean dis-
tances and revolutions of Saturn's satellites, than with those of Jupiter 3 /De-
scribe the firmament of Saturn, as illuminated by his rings and satellites.
- H
86 HERSCHEL,
starry firmament, are scenes worthy of the majesty of the
Divine Being to unfold, and of rational creatures to con-
template.
Such displays of Wisdom and Omnipotence, lead us to
conclude that the numerous splendid objects connected with
this planet, were not created merely to shed their lustre on
naked rocks and barren sands; but that an immense popu-
lation of intelligent beings is placed in those regions, to
enjoy the bounty, and adore the goodness, of their great
Creator. I
The ſollowing table exhibits the apparent and mean distances of the sa-
tellites from their primary, and the times of their periodical revolution.
Their distances in miles were computed from their observed micrometer
distances; the diameter of Saturn's equator being considered equal to 80,000
miles.


Satel- Periodic Distance in Distance in
lites. revolution. diameters. miles.
1 0d. 22h, 38m. 1.540 123,200
2 1 8 53 1.976 158,080
3 H 21 18 2.447 195,720
4 2 17 45 3.134 250,720
5 4 12 25 4,377 350,160
6 15 22 41 10.143 811,400
7 79 7 55 29,577 2,366,160
H E R SC H E L .
Herschel is the most distant planet from the Sun that has
yet been discovered. To the naked eye, it appears like a
star of only the 6th or 7th magnitude, and of a pale, bluish
white; but it can seldom be seen, except in a very fine,
clear night, and in the absence of the Moon.
As it moves over but one degree of its orbit in 85 days,
it will be seven years in passing over one sign or constella-
tion. At present,” its mean right ascension is 3324°, and
its declination 154° S. It is therefore in the tail of Capri-
corn, making a small triangle with Deneb and Delta Alged.
* Beginning of the year 1834,
What is the relative distance of the planet Herschel from the sun ? What is
its appearance to the naked eye? In what circumstances, can it be seen 3 What
is the rate of its motion in its orbit 3 What is its present position 3
HERSCHEL. ge * 87
When first seen by Dr. Herschel, in 1781, it was in the
foot of Gemini; so that it has not yet completed two thirds of
a revolution since it was first discovered to be a planet. I
It is remarkable that this body was observed as far back as 1690. It
was seen three times by Flamstead, once by Bradley, once by Mayer, and
eleven times by Lemonnier, who registered it among the stars; but not
one of them suspected it to be a planet. g -
The inequalities in the motions of Jupiter and Saturn,
which could not be accounted for from the mutual attrac-
tions of these planets, led astronomers to suppose that there
existed another planet beyond the orbit of Saturn, by whose
action these irregularities were produced. This conjecture
was confirmed March 13th, 1781; when Dr. Herschel dis-
covered the motions of this body, and thus proved it to be a
planet.
Herschel is attended by six moons or satellites, which
revolve about him in different periods, and at various dis-
tances. Four of them were discovered by Dr. Herschel,
and two by his sisters, Miss Caroline Herschel. It is possi-
ble that others remain yet to be discovered. I *
His orbit is 1828 millions of miles from the Sun; being *
more than twice the distance of Saturn's. His sidereal
revolution is performed in 84 years and 1 month ; he mov-
ing in his orbit at a rate of 15,600 miles an hour. He is
supposed to have a rotation on his axis, in common with the
other planets; but astronomers have not yet been able to
obtain any occular proof of such a motion.
His diameter is estimated at 34,000 miles; which would
make his volume more than 80 times larger than the Earth's.
To his inhabitants, the Sun appears only the ### part as large
What was its position when first discovered to be a planet 3 How much, then,
of its revolution, has been completed, since it was first discovered 3 At how ear-
ly a date was this body observed in the heavens & Who observed it, before it
was discovered to be a planet 3 How many times was it seen by them, respec-
tively 2 What did they consider it to be 32 What led astronomers to suppose
that there existed another planet beyond Saturn ? When and by whom was
Herschel discovered to be a planet 3 How many moons has it 3 By whom were
Herschel's satellites discovered 3 What is the distance of Herschel's orbit from
the sun ? How much greater is this distance than that of Saturn's 4 in what
time is his sidereal revolution performed 3 What is the rate per hour of his ino-
tion in his orbit? Has he a rotation on his axis 3 What is his diameter esti-
ma:ed to be 3 How much larger would this make his volume than the Earth’s
is ? How much less does the Sun appear to be to the inhabitants of Herschel, than,
he does to us?
88 COMETS.
as he does to us; and of course they receive from him
only that small proportion of light and heat. It may be
shown, however, that the ## part of the Sun's light ex-
ceeds the illuminating power of 800 full Moons. This add-
ed to the light they must receive from their six satellites,
will render their days and nights far from being cheerless.
/ Such was the celestial system with which our Earth was
associated at its creation, distinct from the rest of the starry
hosts. Whatever may be the comparative antiquity of our
globe, and the myriads of radiant bodies which nightly gem
the immense vault above us, it is most reasonable to conclude,
that the Sun, Earth, and planets, differ little in the date of
their origin. *
This fact, at least, seems to be philosophically certain,
that all the bodies which compose our solar system must
have been placed at one and the same time in that arrange-
ment, and in those positions in which we now behold them;
because all maintain their present stations, and motions, and
distances, by their mutual action on each other. Neither
could be where they are, nor move as they do, nor subsist
as we see them, unless they were all co-existing. The
presence of each is essential to the system which they con-
stitute—the Sun to them, they to the Sun, and all to each
other. This fact is a strong indication that their formation
was simultaneous. I
C O M ET. S.
/ Comets, whether viewed as ephemeral meteors, or as
substantial bodies, forming a part of the Solar system, are
objects of no ordinary interest.
When, with uninstructed gaze, we look upwards, to the
clear sky of evening, and behold, among the multitudes of
heavenly bodies, one, blazing with its long train of light,
and rushing onward towards the centre of our system, We
What degree of light and heat do they receive from him, compared with that
received by the Earth 3 To the light of how many full moons is this degree of
light equal 3, What reason have we to suppose, that the different bodies of the
solar system were created at the same time ! / What feelings does the contemplar
tion of comets naturally excite 3 -
•
comers, 89
insensibly shrink back as if in the presence of a supernatu.
ral being.
But when, with the eye of astronomy, we follow it through
its perihelion, and trace it far off, beyond the utmost verge
of the solar system, till it is lost in the infinity of space, not
to return for centuries, we are deeply impressed with a
sense of that power which could create and set in motion
such bodies. 1
Comets are distinguished from the other heavenly bodies,
by their appearance and motion. The appearance of the
planets is globular, and their motion around the Sun is near-
ly in the same plane, and from west by south, to east; but
the comets have a variety of forms, and their orbits are not
confined to any particular part of the heavens; nor do they
observe any one general direction. *
The orbits of the planets approach nearly to circles,
while those of the comets are very elongated ellipses. A.
wire hoop, for example, will represent the orbit of a planet.
If two opposite sides of the same hoop, be extended, so that
it shall be long and narrow, it will then represent the orbit
of a comet. The Sun is always in one of the foci, or near
to one end of the comet's orbit. --
There is, however, a practical difficulty of a peculiar natures which em-
barrasses the solution of the question as to the form of the cometary orbits.
It so happens that the only part of the course of a comet which can ever
be visible, is a portion throughout which the ellipse, the parabola, and hy-
perbola, so closely resemble each other, that no observations can be obtain-
ed with sufficient accuracy to enable us to distinguish them. In fact, the
observed path of any comet, while visible, may belong either to an ellipse,
parabola, or hyperbola.
That part which is usually brighter, or more opaque,
than the other portions of the comet, is called the nucleus.
This is surrounded by an envelope, which has a cloudy, or
hairy appearance. These two parts constitute the body,
and, in many instances, the whole of the comet.
Most of them, however, are attended by a long train,
called the tail; though some are without this appendage,
and as seen by the naked eye, are not easily distinguished
at E t—
How are comels distinguished from the other heavenly bodies? Describe their
appearance and motion. Of what three parts may comets be considered to be
composed? Describe these parts several;
H
*
90 COMETS,
from the planets. Others, again, have no apparent nucleus
and seem to be only globular masses of vapour.
Nothing is known with certainty of the composition of
these bodies. The envelope appears to be nothing more
than vapour, becoming more luminous and transparent when
approaching the Sun. As the comets pass between us and
the fixed stars, their envelopes and tails are so thin, that
stars of very small magnitudes may be seen through them.
Some comets, having no nucleus, are transparent throughout
their whole extent. *
The nucleus of a comet sometimes appears opaque, and it
then resembles a planet. Astronomers, however, are not
agreed upon this point. Some affirm that the nucleus is
always transparent, and that comets are in fact nothing
but a mass of vapour, or less condensed at the centre.
By others it is maintained that the nucleus is sometimes:
solid and opaque. It seems probable, however, that there
are three classes of comets; viz.: 1st. Those which have
no nucleus, being transparent throughout their whole ex-
tent; 2d. Those which have a transparent nucleus; and,
3d. Those having a nucleus which is solid and opaque.
A comet, when at a distance from the Sun, viewed
through a good telescope, has the appearance of a dense
vapour surrounding the nucleus, and somtimes flowing far
into the regions of space. As it approaches the Sun, its
light becomes more brilliant, till it reaches its perihelion,
when its light is more dazzling than that of any other celes-
tial body, the Sun excepted. In this part of its orbit are
seen to the best advantage the phenomena of this wonderful
body, which has, from remote antiquity, been the spectre
of alarm and terrour. -
The luminous train of a comet usually follows it, as it
approaches the Sun, and goes before it, when the comet
recedes from the Sun; sometimes the tail is considerably
curved towards the region to which the comet is tending,
Have all comets these three parts : What apparent differences may be per-
ceived in the composition of different comets? into what classes, with reference
to their composijon, may comets be divided ? Describe the different appearances
of comets at different distances from the sun. In what part of their orbit are
their phenomena seen to the best advantage % What is usually the direction of
the luminous train ſt
conſets. 91
and in some instances, it has been observed to form a right
angle with a line drawn from the Sun through the centre
of the comet. The tail of the comet of 1744, formed near-
ly a quarter of a circle; that of 1689 was curved like a
Turkish sabre. Sometimes the same comet has severał
tails. That of 1744 had, at one time, no less than sia,
which appeared and, disappeared in a few days. The
comet of 1823 had, for several days, two tails; one ex-
tending towards the Sun, and the other in the opposite
direction. . %
Comets, in passing among and near the planets, are
materially drawn aside from their courses, and in some
cases have their orbits entirely changed. This is remarka-
bly true in regard to Jupiter, which seems by some strange
fatality to be constantly in their way, and to serve as a per-
petual stumbling block to them.
“The remarkable comet of 1770, which was found by Lexell to revolve in
a moderate ellipse, in a period of about five years, actually got entangle
among the satellites of Jupiter, and thrown out of its orbit by the attrac-
tions of that planet,” and has not been heard of since.—Herschel, p. 310.
By this extraordinary rencontre, the motions of Jupiter's satellites suffer-
ed not the least perceptible derangement;--a sufficient proof of the aeriform
nature of the compet’s mass.
It is clear from observation that comets contain very
little matter. For they produce little or no effect on the
motion of the planets when passing near those bodies; it is
said that a comet, in 1454, eclipsed the moon; so that it
must have been very near the Earth; yet no sensible effect
was observed to be produced by this cause, upon the mo,
tion of the Earth or the Moon.
The observations of philosophers upon comets, have as
yet detected nothing of their nature, Tycho Brahe and
Appian supposed their tails to be produced by the rays of
the Sun, transmitted through the nucleus, which they sup-
What was the direction of the tail of the comet of 1744? Of that of 1689?
How many tails had the comet of 1744 at one time, and how long did they con-
tinue to appear ! How many had that of 1823, and what was their direction 4
When comets pass near planets, how does the attraction of the planets affect
them In regard to what planet is this remarkably true 7 JMention an example
of comets being so affected. What fact connected with this case proves the aeri-
form nature of the comet's mass 3 How is it clear from observaſion that comets
contain very little matter & What were the opinions of ‘I’ycho Brahe, Appian,
ºu", Sir Isaac Newton, and Dr. Hamilton, in regard to the tails of
temketS -
*
92 {{}METS,
posed to be transparent, and to operate as a lens. Kepler
thought they were occasioned by the atmosphere of the
comet, driven off by the impulse of the Sun's rays. This
opinion, with some modification, was also maintained by
Euler. Sir Isaac Newton conjectured, that they were a
thin vapour, rising from the heated nucleus, as smoke as-
cends from the Earth; while Dr. Hamilton supposed them
to be streams of electricity.
“That the luminous part of a comet,” says Sir John Herschel, “is some-
thing in the nature of a smoke, fog, or cloud, suspended in a transparent
atmosphere, is evident from a fact which has been often noticed, viz. that
the portion of the tail where it comes up to, and surrounds the head, is yet
separated from it by an interval less luminous ; as we often see one layer
of clouds laid over another with a considerable clear space between them.”
And again—“It follows that these can only be regarded as great masses of
thin vapour, susceptible of being penetrated through their whole substance
‘by the sunbeams.”
Comets have always been considered by the ignorant and
superstitious, as the harbingers of war, pestilence and fam-
ine. Nor has this opinion been, even to this day, confined
to the unlearned. It was once universal. And when we
examine the dimensions and appearances of some of these
bodies, we cease to wonder that they produced universal
alarm.
(According to the testimony of the early writers, a comet
which could be seen in day light with the naked eye, made
its appearance 43 years before the birth of our Saviour.
This date was just after the death of Caesar, and by the Ro-
mans, the comet was believed to be his metamorphosed
soul, armed with fire and vengeance. This comet is again
mentioned as appearing in 1106, and then resembling the
Sun in brightness, being of a great size, and having an im-
mense tail.
In the year 1402, a comet was seen, so brilliant as to be
discerned at noon-day. *
2& In 1456, a large comet made its appearance. It spread
a wider terrotſr than was ever known before. The be-
lief was very general, among all classes, that the comet
What was the opinion of Sir John Herschel, and on what fewnded 32. How
have coinets been regarded by the ignoritnt and superstitious 3 Mention some of the
most remarkable comets which have appeared ſº, Describe thena severally, and
relate in what manner they were severally regarded,
conſers. 93
would destroy the Earth, and that the Day of Judgment was
at hand 3.
This comet appeared again in the years 1531, 1607, 1682, 1758, and is
now approaching the Sun with accelerated velocity. It will pass its §.
rihelion in November, 1835, and every 75+ years thereafter. We now [Oc-
tober, 1835, see this self same comet, so often expelled the Church of Rome,
returning to re-assert his claim to a fellowship with the solar family.
At the time of the appearance of this comet, the Turks
extended their victorious arms across the Hellespont, and
seemed destined to overrun all Europe. This added not a
little to the general gloom. Under all these impressions,
the people seemed totally regardless of the present, and
anxious only for the future. The Romish Church held at
this time unbounded sway over the lives, and fortunes, and
consciences of men. To prepare the world for its expected
doom, Pope Calixtus III. ordered the Ave Maria to be re-
peated three times a day, instead of two. He ordered the
church bells to be rung at noon, which was the origin of
that practice, so universal in Christian churches. To the
Ave Maria, the prayer was added—“Lord, save us from
the Devil, the Turk, and the Comet:” and once, each day,
these three obnoxious personages suffered a regular excom-
Iſlūn 108tlon. -
The pope and clergy, exhibiting such fear, it is not a
matter of wonder that it became the ruling passion of the
multitude. The churches and convents were crowded for
confession of sins; and treasures uncounted were poured
into the Apostolic chamber. *
The comet, after suffering some months of daily cursing
and excommunication, began to show signs of retreat, and
soon disappeared from those eyes in which it found no fa-
vour. Joy and tranquillity soon returned to the faithful sub-
jects of the pope, but not so their money and lands.
The people, however, became satisfied that their lives, and
the safety of the world, had been cheaply purchased. The
pope, who had achieved so signal a victory over the mon-
ster of the sky, had checked the progress of the Turk, and
kept, for the present, his Satanic majesty at a safe distance;
while the Church of Rome, retaining her unbounded wealth,
What is the periodic time of this comet f
94 UOMETS.
was enabled to continue that influence over her followers,
which she retains, in part, to this day.
The comet of 1680 would have been still more alarm-
ing than that of 1456, had not science robbed it of its ter-
rours, and history pointed to the signal failure of its prede-
cessor. This comet was of the largest size, and had a
tail whose enormous length was more than ninety six mil-
Jions of miles.
At its greatest distance, it is 13,000 millions of miles
from the Sun; and at its nearest approach, only 574,000 miles
from his centre;” or about 130,000 miles from his surface.
In that part of its orbit which is nearest the Sun, it flies
with the amazing swiftness of 1,000,000 miles in an hour,
and the Sun, as seen from it, appears 27,000 times larger than
it appears to us; consequently, it is then exposed to a heat
27,000 times greater than the solar heat at the Earth. This
intensity of heat exceeds, several thousand times, that of
red-hot iron, and indeed all the degrees of heat that we are
able to produce. A simple mass of vapour, exposed to a
* In Brewster's edition of Ferguson, this distance is stated as only
49,000 miles. This is evidently a misake; for if the comet approached
the Sun's centre within 49,000 miles, it would penetrate 390,000 miles be-
low the surface | Taking Ferguson's own elements for computing the
perihelion distance, the result will be 494,460 miles. The mistake may
be accºunted for by supposing that the cypher had been omitted in the co-
py, and the period pointed off one figure farther 10 the left. Yet, with this
alteration, it would still be incorrect; because the Earth's mean distance
from the Sun, which is the integer of this calculation, is assumed at
32,000,000 of miles.—The ratio of the comet's perihelion distance from the
Sun, to the Earth's mean distance, as given by M. Pingre', is as 0.00603 to
1. This multiplied into 95,273,869, gives 574,500 miles for the comet's pe-
rihelion distance from the Sun's centre; from which, if we subtract his
semi-diameter, 443,840, we shall have 130,660 miles, the distance of the
comet from the surface of the Sun. -
Again, if we divide the Earth's mean distance from the sun, by the
comet's perihelion distance, we shall find that the latter is only the Fºrth
part of the Earth's distance. Now the square of 166 is 27,556; and this
expresses the number of times that the Sun appears larger to the comet, in
the above situation, than it does to the Earth. SQUIRE makes it 34,596
times larger.
Aécording tº Newton, the velocity is 880,000 miles per hour. More re-
cent discoveries indicate a velocity of 1,240,108 miles per hour. -
What is the degree of solar heat to which the comet of 1680 is exposed, when
in its perihelion, coinpared to that experienced at the Earth What is the in-
tensity of such a degree of heaf, compared with that of red hot iron, or with any
degree of heat which we are able to produce 3
COMETS, 95.
thousandth part of such a heat, would be at once dissipated
in space—a pretty strong indication that, however volatile
are the elements of which comets are composed, they are,
nevertheless, capable of enduring an inconceivable intensity
of both heat and eold.
This is the comet which, according to the reveries of
Dr. Whiston and others, deluged the work in the time of
Noah. Whiston was the friend and successor of Newton:
but, anxious to know more than is revealed, he passed the
bounds of Sober philosophy, and presumed not only to fix
the residence of the damned, but also the nature of their
punishment. According to his theory, a comet was the
awful prison-house in which, as it wheeled from the remotest
regions of darkness and cold into the very vicinity of the
Sun, hurrying its wretched tenants to the extremes of per ,
ishing cold and devouring fire, the Almighty was to dis-
pense the severities of his justice.
Such theories may be ingenious, but they have no basis
of facts to rest upon. They more properly belong to the
chimeras of Astrology than to the science of Astronomy.
When we are told by philosophers of great caution and
high reputation, that the fiery train of the comet, just allud-
ed to, extended from the horizon' to the zenith; and that
that of 1744 had, at one time, six tails, each 6,000,000 of
miles long, and that another, which appeared soon after,
had one 40,000,000 of miles long, and when we consider
also the inconceivable velocity with which they speed their
flight through the solar system, we may cease to wonder,
if, in the darker ages, they have been regarded as evil
“OII]6. IłS, . - f
But these idle phantasies are not peculiar to any age or
country. Even in our own times, the beautiful comet of
1811, the most splendid one of modern times, was generally
considered among the superstitious, as the dread harbinger
of the war which was declared in the following spring. It
What inference may be derived from this fact in regard to the composition of
comets 3 What were the reveries of Dr. Whiston and others in regard to this
comet? What facts ought to make us cease to wonder that comets were in dark-
er ages considered as harbingers ºf evil 3 Have these phantasies however, been
confined to the darker ages 3 Of what event was the comet of 1811 considered, in
“our country, to be the harbinger? -
96 . COMETS.
is well known that an indefinite apprehension of a more
dreadful catastrophe lately pervaded both continents, in an-
ticipation of Biela’s comet of 1832. w
The nucleus of the comet of 1811, according to observa-
tions made near Boston, was 2,617 miles in diameter, cor-
responding nearly to the size of the moon. The brilliancy
with which it shone, was equal to one tenth of that of
the Moon. The envelope, or aeriform covering, sur-
rounding the nucleus, was 24,000 miles thick, about five
hundred times as thick as the atmosphere which encircles
the Earth; making the diameter of the comet, including
its envelope, 50,617 miles. It had a very luminous tail,
whose greatest length was one hundred millions of miles.
This comet moved, in its perihelion, with an almost inconceivable ve-
locity—fifteen hundred times greater than that of a ball bursting from the
mouth of a cannon. According to Regiomontanus, the comet of 1472 .
moved over an arc of 1200 in one day. Brydone observed a comet
at Palermo in 1770, which passed through 50° of a great circle in the
heavens in 24 hours; a motion 50 times swiſter than the motion of the
Earth in its orhii, which is 68,000 miles an hour. Another comet, which
appeared in 1759 passed over 41° in the same time. The conjecture of Dr.
Halley therefore seems highly probable, that if a body of such a size,
having any considerable density, and mºving with such a velocity, were
to strike our Earth, it would instantly reduce it to chaos, mingling its ele-
ments in ruin. - -
The transient effect of a comet passing near the Earth, could scarcely
amount to any great convulsion, says Dr. Brewster; but if the Earth were
actually to receive a shock from one of these bodies, the consequences
would be awful. A new direction would be given to its rotary motion,
and it would revolve around a new axis. The seas, forsaking their beds,
would be hurried, by their centrifugal force, to the new equatorial regions:
islands and continents, the abodes of men and animals, would be covered
by the universal rush of the waters to the new equator, and every vestige
of human industry and genius would be at once destroyed.
The chances against such an event, however, are so very
numerous, that there is no reason to dread its occurrence.
The French Government, not long since, called the atten-
tion of some of her ablest mathematicians and astronomers
to the solution of this problem; that is, to determine, upon
mathematical principles, how many chances of collision the
Earth was earposed to. After a mature examination they re-
I}escribe this comet. Give some examples of the velocity of comets. What
would probably be the effect upon the Earth, should a comet strike it 2 What
does Dr. Brewster say would be the effect of a comet passing near the Earth 3
But if the Earth were actually to receive a shock from a comet, what does he say
would be the results? How did the French mathematicians and astronomers find
the chances of collision between the Earth and comets to standſ?
COMETS, - 97
ported,—“We have found that, of 281,000,000 of chances,
there is only one unfavourable-there exists but one which
can produce a collison between the two bodies.”
“Admitting, then,” say they, “for a moment, that the comets which may
strike the Earth with their nucleuses, would annihilate the whole hu-
man race; the danger of death to each individual, resulting from the ap-
pearance of an unknown comet, would be exactly equal to the risk he would
run, if in an urn there was only one single white ball among a total num-
ber of 281,000,000 balls, and that his condemnation to death would be the
inevitable consequence of the white ball being produced at the first draw-
ing.”
See a “TRACT on CoMETs,” by M. Arago, Astronomer of the Board of
Longitude, and of the Royal Observatory of Paris, and his colleague, M.
Damoiseau, a profound mathematician, who occupies the first rank among
the Astronomers of the age. The translator of this interesting little work,
(Colonel Charles Gold, of the Royal Artillery, G. B.,) has committed several
inexcusable blunders in converting the French measures into English mea-
sures. The unit measure of M. Arago and Damoiseau is the French post
league, of 3898 metres,-equal to 2,422 English miles: whereas the trans;
lator has uniformly considered the French league, like the English, equal
to 3 miles; hence he is invariably wrong. Although the tails of comets
may not have any uniiorm standard of length, so that an errour of
twenty or thirty millions of miles, more or less, would not be likely to be
noticed by common observers; yet, such a glaring mistatement as the
following would appear quite too gross:—“The mean rate of the Earth's
progress in its orbit is 674,000 leagues, or 2,022,000 miles daily.”
We have before stated that comets, unlike the planets,
observe no one direction in their orbits, but approach to, and
recede from their great centre of attraction, in every possi-
ble direction. Nothing can be more sublime, or better
calculated to fill the mind with profound astonishment, than
to contemplate the revolution of comets, while in that part
of their orbits which comes within the sphere of the tele-
scope. Some seem to come up from the immeasurable
depths below the ecliptic, and, having doubled the heavens'
mighty cape, again plunge downward with their fiery trains,
“On the long travel of a thousand years.”
. Others appear to come down from the zenith of the uni-
verse to double their perihelion about the Sun, and then re-
ascend far above all human vision. •
Others are dashing through the solar system in all possi-
What, then, on the supposition that a stroke of a comrt would annihilate the
whole human race, is the dunger of death to each individual, resulting from the
ğranº of an unknown comet 'Z What is the direction of coinets in their or-
bits? - -
I
98 comETs.
ble directions, and apparently without any undisturbed or
undisturbing path prescribed by Him who guides and sus-
tains them all. 1 -
Until within a few years, it was universally believed that
the periods of their revolution must necessarily be of prodi-
gious length; but within a few years, two comets have
been discovered, whose revolutions are performed, compa-
ratively, within our own neighbourhood. To distinguish them
from the more remote, they are denominated the comets of
a short period. The first was discovered in the constella-
tion Aquarius, by two French Astronomers, in the year
1786. The same comet was again observed by Miss Caro-
line Herschel, in the constellation Cygnus, in 1795, and
again in 1805. In 1818, Professor Encke determined the
dimensions of its orbit, and the period of its sidereal revolu-
tion; for which reason it has been called “Encke's Comet.”
This comet performs its revolution around the Sun in about
3 years and 4 months,” in an elliptical orbit which lies wholly
within the orbit of Jupiter. Its mean distance from the Sun
is 212 millions of miles; the eccentricity of its orbit is 179
millions of miles; consequently it is 358 millions of miles
nearer the Sun in its perihelion, than it is in its aphelion.
It was visible throughout the United States in 1825, when
it presented a fine appearance. It was also observed at its
next return in 1828; but its last return to its perihelion, on
the 6th of May, 1832, was invisible in the United States,
on account of its great southern declination.
The second “Comet of a short period,” was observed
in 1772; and was seen again in 1805. It was not until
its re-appearance in 1826, that astronomers were able to
* Owing to the disturbing influences of the surrounding planets, the pe-
riodic return of this comet, like that of all others, is liable to be hastened
or retarded several days. Its period varies from about 1203 to 1212 days.
What has been until within a few years, the universal opinion in regard to the
length of the times of their revolution ? Why does not the same opinion prevail
now 3 What are these two comets denominated 3 Relate the history of the
discovery of the first. Why is it called Encke's comet? What is the time of the
revolution of Encke's comet? What is the form of its orbit, and what its posi-
tion with regard to the orbit of Jupiter 3 What is this comet's mean distance
from the sun ? What is the eccentricity of its orbit 3 How much nearer the
sun, then, is the comet when in its perihelion than when in its aphelion ? In what
years has this comet been seen in the United States? Why was it not visible in
the United States at the time of its return in 1832 q Relate the history of the dis-
cbvery of the second comet of a short period.
COMETS. 99
determine the elements of its orbit, and the exact period of
its revolution. This was successfully accomplished by M.
Biela of Josephstadt; hence it is called, Biela’s Comet.
According to observations made upon it in 1805, by the cele-
brated Dr. Olbers, its diameter, including its envelope, is
42,280 miles. It is a curious fact, that the path of Bie-
la’s comet passes very near to that of the Earth; so near,
that at the moment the centre of the comet is at the point
nearest to the Earth’s path, the matter of the comet extends
beyond that path, and includes a portion within it. Thus, if
the earth were at that point of its orbit which is nearest to
the path of the comet at the same moment that the comet
should be at that point of its orbit which is nearest to the
path of the earth, the earth would be enveloped in the nebu-
lous atmosphere of the comet. *
With respect to the effect which might be produced upon
our atmosphere by such a circumstance, it is impossible to
offer any thing but the most vague conjecture. Sir John
Herschel was able to distinguish stars as minute as the 16th
or 17th magnitude through the body of the comet! Hence it
seems reasonable to infer, that the nebulous matter of which
it is composed, must be infinitely more attenuated than our
atmosphere; so that for every particle of cometary matter
which we should inhale, we should inspire millions of par-
ticles of atmospheric air.
This is the comet which was to come into collision with
the earth and to blot it out from the Solar System. In re-
turning to its perihelion, November 26th, 1832, it was com-
puted that it would cross the Earth’s orbit at a distance of
only 18,500 miles. It is evident that if the Earth had been
in that part of her orbit at the same time with the comet,
our atmosphere would have mingled with the atmosphere of
the comet, and the two bodies, perhaps, have come in contact.
But the comet passed the Earth’s orbit on the 29th of Oc.
tober, in the 8th degree oſ Sagittarius, afid the Earth did
Why is it called Biela’s Comet? What, according to the observations of Dr.
Olbers in 1805, was the diameter of Biela's coinet, including the envelope 3 How
near does the path of Biela's comet lie to that of the Eartli , What would be
the effect upon our atmosphere should the nebulous atmosphere of the comet en-
velope it? ... What reason have we to suppose that it is more attenuated than
our atmosphere? It was predicted that this comet would come into collision with
the Earth; what were the grounds of probability that such an event would take
place, and why did it not 3
f
100 comets.
not arrive at that point until the 30th of November, which
was 32 days afterwards.
If we multiply the number of hours in 32 days, by 68,000
(the velocity of the Earth per hour,) we shall find that
the Earth was more than 52,000,000 miles behind the comet
when it crossed her orbit. Its nearest approach to the
Earth, at any time, was about 51 millions of miles; its near-
est approach to the Sun, was about 83 millions of miles. Its
mean distance from the Sun, or half the longest axis of its
orbit, is 337 millions of miles. Its eccentricity is 253 mil-
lions of miles; consequently, it is 507 millions of miles
nearer the Sun in its perihelion than it is in its aphelion.
The period of its sidereal revolution is 2,460 days, or about
63 years. -
Although the comets of Encke and Biela are objects of very great inter-
est, yet their short periods, the limited space within which their motion is
circumscribed, and consequently the very slight disturbance which they
sustain from the attraction of the planets, render them of less interest to
physical astronomy than those of longer periods.
They do not, like them, rush from the invisible and inaccessible depths
of space, and, after sweeping our system, depart to distances with the con-
ception of which the imagination itself is confounded. They possess none
of that grandeur which is connected with whatever appears to break
through the fixed order of the universe. It is reserved for the comet of
Halley alone to afford the proudest triumph to those powers of calculation
by which we are enabled to follow it in the depths of space, two thousand
millions of miles beyond the extreme verge of the solar system; and, not-
withstanding disturbances which render each succeeding period ofits return
different from the last, to foretel that return with precision.
The following representation of the entire orbit of Biela’s
comet, was obtained from the Astronomer Royal of the
Greenwich Observatory. It shows not only the space and
position it occupies in the solar system, but the points where
its orbit intersects all the planetary orbits through which it
passes. By this, it is seen that its perihelion lies between
the orbits of the Earth and Venus, while its aphelion extends
a little beyond that of Jupiter.
What was its nearest approach to the Earth at any time ! What its nearest
approach to the Sun ? What its mean distance from the sun ? What its eccen"
tricity ? What, then, is the difference between its perihelion and aphelion dis-
tances 3 What is the period of its sidereal revolution ? Why are the comets of
Encke and Biela objects of less interest to physical astronomy than those of
longer periods 3 What is the situation of the orbit of Biela’s Comet in the solar
system : - -
COMETS, # 101
Fig. 20.
º f ::
º: sº
§ §§
º ...~~ - §§
ºft
f
* sº
*. - orbit “ſº
:
$
%
**
*::
&
*
&
& *4
Jan.1
sewºº ºf
$9.7
*>
* 36%
gº is * \. *...*.
- <! -
* # * *
.* § *
5. .* 3.
I*

102 sº t;öMETS,
This diagram not only exhibits the course of the comet
at its last return, but also denotes its future positions on the
first day of every year during its next revolution. It is also
apparent that it will return to its perihelion again in the
autumn of 1839, but not so immediately in our vicinity as
to be the proper cause of alarm. To be able to predict the
very day and circumstances of the return of such a bodi-
less and eccentric wanderer, after the lapse of so many
years, evinces a perfection of the astronomical calculus that
may justly challenge our admiration.
“The re-appearance of this comet,” says Herschel,
“whose return in 1832 was made the subject of elaborate
calculations by mathematicians of the first eminence, did
not disappoint the expectation of astronomers. It is hardly
possible to imagine any thing more striking than the ap-
pearance, after the lapse of nearly seven years, of such an
all but imperceptible cloud or wisp of vapour, true, however,
to its predicted time and place, and obeying laws like those
which regulate the planets.”
- Herschel, whose Observatory is at Slough, England, observed the daily
progress of this comet from the 24th of September, until its disappearance,
compared its- actual position from day to day with its calculated po-
sition, and found them to agree within four or five minutes of time in right
ascension, and within a few seconds of declination. Its position, them, as
represented on a planisphere which the author prepared for his pupils, and
afterwards published, was true to within a less space than one third of its
projected diameter. Like some others that have been observed, this comet
has no luminous train by which it can be easily recognized by the naked
eye, except when it is very near the Sun. This is the reason why it was
not more generally observed at its late return. -
Although this comet is usually denominated “Biela's comet,” yet it
seems that M. Gambart, director of the Observatory at Marseilles, is equally
entitled to the honour of identifying it with the comet of 1772, and of 1805,
He discovered it only 10 days after Biela, and immediately set about calcu-
lating its elements from his own observations, which are thought to equal,
if they do not surpass, in point of accuracy, those of every other as-
tronorder.
Up to the beginning of the 17th century, no correct no.
tions had been entertained in respect to the paths of comets.
Kepler's first conjecture was that they moved in straight
When will this comet return again 3 How much did its actual position front
day to day, as observed by Herschel, differ from its calculated position 3. Why
was it not more *...", observed at its late return ? What astronomer besides
Biela identified it with the comet of 1772 and 18052 What were the opinions of
* in regard to the paths of comets, up to the beginning of the 17th
century
COMETS• 103
lines; but as that did not agree with observation, he next
concluded that they were parabolic curves, having the Sun
near the vertex, and running indefinitely into the regions of
space at both extremities. There was nothing in the ob-
servations of the earlier astronomers to fix their identity, or
to lead him to suspect that any one of them had ever been
seen before ; much less that they formed a part of the solar
system, revolving about the Sun in elliptical orbits that re-
turned into themselves. - -
This grand discovery was reserved for one of the most
industrious and sagacious astronomers that ever lived—this
was Dr. Halley, the contemporary and friend of Newton.
When the comet of 1682 made its appearance, he set him.
self about observing it with great care, and found there was
a wonderful resemblance between it and three other comets
that he found recorded, the comets of 1456, of 1531, and
1607. The times of their appearance had been nearly at
equal and regular intervals; their perihelion distances were
nearly the same ; and he finally proved them to be one and
the same comet, performing its circuit around the Sun in a
period varying a little from 76 years. This is therefore
called Halley's comet. It is the very same comet that filled
the eastern world with so much consternation in 1456, and
became an object of such abhorrence to the Apostolic Fa-
thers.
Of all the comets which have been observed since the
Christian era, only three have had their elements so well
determined that astronomers are able to fix the period of
their revolution and to predict the time and circumstances
of their appearance. These three are Encke's, whose last
revolution about the Sun was performed in 1212 days;
Biela's, whose period was 2461 days, and Halley's, which is
now accomplishing its broad circuit in about 2800 days.
Encke's and Halley's will return to their perihelion the
present year (1835) and Biela's in 1839.
What were Kepler's opinions on this subject? Who first discovered the iden-
tity of comets? Itelate the manner by which he came to this discovery. How
raany of all the comets observed since the Christian era, have had their elements
so well determined, that astronomers are able to fix; le period of their revolu-
tions, aud to predict the time and circumstances of th ºr appearance? What
comets are these? In what time do they accomplish their rSvobºtions? When
will they, severally, return to their perihelkon? - -
104 COI ºf ETS,
Halley's comet, true to its predicted time and place, is now (Oct. 1835)
visible in the evening sky. But we behold none of those phenomena which
threw our ancestors of the middle ages into agonies of superstitious terrour.
We see not the cometa horrendae magnitudinis, as it appeared in 1305, nor
that tail of enormous length which, in 1456, extended over two-thirds of
the interval between the horizon and the zenith, nor even a star as brilliant
as was the same comet in 1682, with its tail of 30°.
Its mean distance from the Sun is 1,713,700,000 miles; the eccentricity of
its orbit is 1,658,000,000 miles; consequently it is 3,316,000,000 miles far-
ther from the Sun in its aphelion than it is in its perihelion. In the latter
case, its distance from him is only 55,700,000 miles; but in the former, it is
3,371,700,000 miles. Therefore, though its aphelion distance be great, its
mean distance is less than that of Herschel; and great as is the aphelion
distance, it is but a very small fraction less than one five-thousandth part of
that distance from the Sun, beyond which the very nearest of the fixed
stars must be situated ; and, as the determination of their distance is nega-
tive and not positive, the nearest of them may be at twice or ten times that
distance.
The number of comets which have been observed since the Christian
era, amounts to 700. Scarcely a year has passed without the observation
of one or two. And since multitudes of them must escape observation, by
reason of their traversing that part of the heavens which is above the hori-
zon in the day time, their whole number is probably many thousands.
Comets so circumstanced, can only become visible by the rare coincidence
of a total eclipse of the Sun—a coincidence which happened, as related by
Seneca, 60 years before Christ, when a large comet was actually observed
very near time Sun.
But \}. Arago reasons in the following manner, with respect to the num-
ber of comets —The number of ascertained comets, which, at their least
distances, pass within the orbit of Mercury, is thirty. Assuming that the
comets are uniformly distributed throughout the solar system, there will
be 117,649 times as many comets included within the orbit of Herschel, as
there are within the orbit of Mercury. But as there are 30 within the orbit
of Mercury, there must be 3,529,470 within the orbit of Herschel !
Of 97 comets whose elements have been calculated by astronomers, 24
passed between the Sun and the orbit of Mercury; 33 between the orbits of
Mercury and Venus; 21 between the orbits of Venus and the Earth ; 15
between the orbits of Ceres and Jupiter. Forty-nine of these comets move
from east to west, and 48 in the opposite direction.
The total number of distinct comets, whose paths during the visible
part of their course had been ascertained, up the year 1832, was one hun-
dred and thirty-seven.
What regions these bodies visit, when they pass beyond
the limits of our view; upon what errands they come, when
*-
What comet is now (Oct. 1835,) visible & What are the mean, and the aphelion
and perihelion distances of Haley's comet from the Sun ? What part of the dis-
tance beyond which the nearest of the jized stars must be placed, is its aphelion
distance & What is the number of comets which have been observed since the
Christian era 3 Why must some of them escape observation ? How great is,
probably, their actual number 3 In what case alone can comets which traverse
the horizon in the day time, become visible 3 JMention an instance of a comet thus
becoming visible 3 What is the reasoning of JM. Arago in regard to the number
of comets & Describe the track among the orbits of the planets, of the 97
comets whose elements have been calculated by astronomers. In what direction,
do they move & What, up to the year 1832, was the whole number of distinct comets.
whose path, during the visible part of their coarse, has been determined 3
LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATIONs 105
they again revisit the central, parts of our system; what
is the difference between their physical constitution and that
of the Sun and planets; and what important ends they are
destined to accomplish, in the economy of the universe, are
inquiries which naturally arise in the mind, but which sur-
pass the limited powers of the human understanding at pre-
sent to determine.
C H A P T E R III.
of THE FORCES BY WHICH THE PLANETs ARE RETAINED IN
THEIR () RBITS,
Having described the real and apparent motions of the
bodies which compose the solar system, it may be interest-
ing next to show, that these motions, however varied or com-
plex they may seem, all result from one simple principle, or
law, namely, the
LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION,
It is said, that Sir Isaac Newton, when he was drawing
to a close the demonstration of the great truth, that gravity
is the cause which keeps the heavenly bodies in their orbits,
*
t
was so much agitated with the magnitude and importance of
the discovery he was about to make, that he was unable to
proceed, and desired a friend to finish what the intensity of
his feelings did not allow him to do. By gravitation is meant,
that universal law of attraction by which every particle of
matter in the system has a tendency to every other particle.
This attraction, or tendency of bodies towards each other,
is in proportion to the quantity of matter they contain. The
earth, being immensely large in comparison with all other
substances in its vicinity, destroys the effect of this attrac-
tion between smaller bodies by bringing them all to itself.
The attraction of gravitation is reciprocal. All bodies not
only attract other bodies, but are themselves attracted, and
By what principle, or law, are the planets retained in their orbits 4 Who dis-
covered this great truth, and how was he affected in view of it 4 What is meant
by gravitation ? To what is it proportioned 3 Give some example. How is it
known that the attraction of gravitation is reciprocal ?
l
!
|.
|
!
106 LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION, 4
both according to their respective quantities of matter.
The Sun the largest body in our system, attracts the earth
and all the ether planets, while they in turn attract the Sun.
The earth, also, attracts the moon, and she in turn at-
tracts the earth. A ball when thrown upwards ſrom the
earth, brought again to its surface: the earth's attraction
not only counterbalancing that of the ball, but also producing
a motion of the ball towards itself.
This disposition, or tendency, towards, the earth, is mani.
fested in whatever falls, whether it be a pebble from the
hand, an apple from a tree, or an avalanche from a moun-
tain. All terrestial bodies, not excepting the waters of the
ocean, gravitate towards the centre of the earth, and it is
by the same power that animals on all parts of the globe
stand with their feet pointing to its centre.
The power of terrestial gravitation is greatest at the earth's
surface, whence it decreases both upwards and downwards;
but not both ways in the same proportion. It decreases
upwards as the square of the distance from the earth's centre
increases; so that at a distance from the centre, equal to
twice the semi-diameter of the earth, the gravitating force
would be only one fourth of what it is at the surface. But
below the surface, it decreases in the direct ratio of the dis-
tance from the centre ; so that at a distance of half a semi-
diameter from the centre, the gravitating force is but half
what it is at the surface.
Weight and Gravity, in this case, are synonymous terms.
We say a piece of lead weighs a pound, or 16 ounces; but if
by any meansit could be raised 4000 miles above the surface
of the earth, which is about the distance of the surface from
the centre, and consequently equal to two semi-diameters of
the earth above its centre, it would weigh only one fourth of
a pound, or four ounces; and if the same weight could be
raised to an elevation of 12,000 miles above the surface, or
four semi-diameters above the centre of the earth, it would
there weigh only one sixteenth of a pound, or one ounce.
Give some examples to illustrate this principle. Where is the power of terres-
trial gravitation the greatest From this point, does the power decrease equally,
both upwards and dowowards 3 What is the law of decrease upwards & Give an
example. What is the law of decrease downwards 2 Give an example. What is
the relation between weight and gravity ? Illustrate it by some examples.
LAW of UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. 107
The same body, at the centre of the earth, being equally
attracted in every direction, would be without weight; at
1000 miles from the centre it would weigh one fourth of a
pound; at 2000 miles, one half of a pound; at 3000 miles,
three fourths of a pound ; and at 4000 miles, or at the sur-
face, one pound. Af
It is a universal law of attraction, that its power decreases as the square of
the distance increases. The converse of this is also true, viz. The powerin-
creases, as the square of the distance decreases. Giving to this law the form
of a practical rule, it will stand thus: \
The gravity of bodies above the stirface of the earth, decreases in a duplicate
ratio, (or as the squares of their distances) in semi-diameters of the earth, from
the earth's centre. That is, when the gravity is increasing, multiply the
weight by the square of the distance ; but when the gravity is decreasing,
divide the weight by the square of the distance.
Suppose a body weighs 40 pounds at 2000 miles above the earth's sur-
face, what would it weigh at the surface, estimating the earth's semi-diam-
ter at 4000 miles 7 From the centre to the given height, is lä semi-diame-
ters: the square of 1%, or 1.5 is 2.25, which, multiplied into the weight,
(40,) gives 90 pounds, the answer.
Suppose a body which weighs 256 pounds upon the surface of the earth,
be raised to the distance of the moon, (240,000 miles,) what would be its
weight Thus, 4000 )240,000(60 semi-diameters, the square of which is
3600. As the gravity, in this case, is decreasing, divide the weight by the
square of the distance, and it will give 3600256(1-16th of a pound, or
1 ounce,
2. To find to what height a given weight must be raised to lose a certain
portion of its weight.
RULE.—Divide the weight at the surface, by the required weight, and extract
the square root of the quotient. Ex. A boy weighs 100 pounds, how high
must he be carried to weigh but 4 pounds 7 Thus, 100 divided by 4, gives
25, the square root of which is 5 semi-diameters, or 20,000 miles above the
Centre.
Bodies of equal magnitude do not always contain equal
quantities of matter; a ball of cork, of equal bulk with one
of lead, contains less matter because it is more porous. The
Sun, though fourteen hundred thousand times larger than
the earth, being much less dense, contains a quantity of
What, then, is the general law in regard to the increase and decrease of at-
traction ? How may this law be eacpressed, in the form of a practical rule 2
Suppose, for ezample, the semi-diameter of the earth be estimated, in round num-
bers, at 4000 miles, and that a body, elevated 2000 miles above its surface, should
weigh 40 pounds, what would the same body weigh, if brought to the earth's sur-
face 3 Suppose a body which weighs 256 pourids upon the surface of the earth, he
'raised to the distance of the moon, what would be its weight at such an elevation 3
[The pupil should be required to give the calculation, as well as the answer.]. By
what rule can we determine the height to which a body must be raised, in order to
its losing a certain portion of its weight & Give an ºple, Do bodies of the
same magnitude always contain equal quantities of matter? What are the com-
parative bulks and densities of the sun and the earth? zº
f
108 LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
matter only 355,000 times as great, and hence attracts the
earth with a force only 355,000 times greater than that
with which the earth attracts the Sun.
The quantity of matter in the Sun is 780 times greater
than that of all the planets and satellites belonging to the
Solar System ; consequently their whole united force of at-
traction is 780 times less upon the Sun, than that of the
Sun upon them. *
The Centre of Gravity of a body, is that point in which
its whole weight is concentrated, and upon which it would
rest, if freely suspended. If two weights, one of ten pounds,
the other of one pound, be connected together by a rod
eleven feet long, nicely poised on a centre, and then be thrown
into a free rotary motion, the heaviest will move in a circle
with a radius of one foot, and the lightest will describe a cir-
cle with a radius of ten feet: the centre around which they
move is their common centre of gravity. See the Figure.
Thus the Sun and planets move around an imaginary
point as a centre, always perserving an equilibrium.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY,
Fig. 21.
If there were but one body in the universe, provided it
were of uniform density, the centre of it would be the centre
of gravity towards which all the surrounding portions would
uniformly tend, and they would thereby balance each other.
Thus the centre of gravity, and the body itself, would forev-
er remain at rest. It would neither move up nor down;
there being no other body to draw it in any direction.
Bow great is the quantity of matter in the sun, compared with that of all the plan-
ets belonging to the solar system 3 What is the centre of gravity of a body ? .
Give an example. How does this illustration apply to planetary motion? If .
there were but one single body in the universe, where would the centre of gravity
be q What motion would the body have 3

ATTRACTIVE AND PROJECTILE FORCES. 109
In this case, the terms up and down would have no meaning
except as applied to the body itself, to express the direction
of the surface from the centre. -
Were the earth the only body revolving about the Sun,
as the Sun's quantity of matter is 355,000 times as great as
that of the earth, the Sun would revolve in a circle equal
only to the three hundred and fifty five thousandth part of
the earth’s distance from it: but as the planets in their seve-
ral orbits vary their positions, the centre of gravity is not
always at the same distance from the Sun.
The quantity of matter in the Sun so far exceeds that of
all the planets together, that were they all on one side of him,
he would never be more than his own diameter from the
common centre of gravity; the Sun is therefore justly con-
sidered as the centre of the system.
The quantity of matter in the earth being about 80 times
as great as that of the moon, their common centre of gravity
is 80 times nearer the former than the latter, which is about
3000 miles from the earth’s centre.
The secondary planets are governed by the same laws
as their primaries, and both together move around a com-
mon centre of gravity.
Every system in the universe is supposed to revolve, in
like manner, around one common centre. -
ATTRACTIVE AND PROJECTILE FORCES.
All simple motion is naturally rectilinear; that is, all
- bodies put in motion would continue to go forward in straight
lines, as long as they met with no resistance or diverting
force. -
On the other hand, the Sun, from its immense size, would,
What would the terms wip and down, in such case, mean 3 If the earth were
the only body revolving about the sun, what would be their relative distances
from their common centre of gravity? If, instead of the earth alone, the earth
with all the planets and satellites of the system were on one side, and the sun
alone on the other, at what distange from their common centre of gravity must
the sum be, to balance them all 3 Where is the centre of gravity between the earth
and unoon? How do you know this 3 By what laws are the secondary planets
governed, and the other systems of the universe? What is meant by all simple
inotion being rectilinear 3 - t g
* PC
110 ATTRACTIVE AND PROJECTILE FORCES.
by the power of attraction, draw all the planets to him, if
his attractive force were not counterbalanced by the primi-
tive impulse of the planetary bodies to move in straight lines.
The attractive power of a body drawing another body
towards the centre, is “denominated Centripetal force; and
the tendency of a revolving body to fly from the centre in
a tangent line, is called the Projectile or Centrifugal force.
The joint action of these two central forces gives the planets
a circular motion, and retains them in their orbits as they
revolve, the primaries about the Sun, and the secondaries
about their primaries.
The degree of the Sun's attractive power at each particu-
lar planet, whatever be its distance, is uniformly equal to
the centrifugal force of the planet. The nearer any plan-
et is to the Sun, the more strongly is it attracted by him ;
the farther any planet is from the Sun, the less is it at-
tracted by him ; therefore, those planets which are the near-
er to the Sun must move the faster in their orbits, in order
thereby to acquire centrifugal forces equal to the power of
the Sun's attraction; and those which are the farther from
the Sun must move the slower, in order that they may not
have too great a degree of centrifugal force, for the weaker
attraction of the Sun at those distances.
The discovery of these great truths, by Kepler and New-
ton, established the UNIVERSAL LAW of PLANETARY MOTION:
which may be stated as follows:
1. Every planet moves in its orbit with a velocity vary-
ing every instant, in consequence of two forces; one tending
to the centre of the Sun, and the other in the direction of a tan-
gent to its orbit, arising from the primitive impulse given
at the time it was launched into space. The former is call-
ed its Centripetal, the latter, its Centrifugal force. Should
the centrifugal force cease, the planet would fall to the Sun
by its gravity; were the Sun not to attract it, it would fly
off from its orbit in a straight line.
*--
Why does not the sun, by its great attraction, bring all bodies to its surface 3
Explain what is meant by centripetal and centrifugal forces. What results from
the joint action of these two forces? To what is the sun’s attractive power at
each particular planet equal 4 Explain this more fully. By whom was the unl-
versal law of planetary motion established 4 Repeat the law.
ATTRACTIVE AND PROJECTILE FORCES. 111
. . 2. By the time a planet has reached its aphelion, Ör that
point of its orbit which is farthest from the Sun, his attrac-
tion has overcome its velocity, and draws it towards him
with such an accelerated motion, that it at last overcomes
the Sun's attraction, and shoots past him; then gradually
decreasing in velocity, it arives at the perihelion, when the
Sun's attraction again prevails.
3. However ponderous or light, large or small, near or
remote, the planets may be, their motion is always such
that imaginary lines joining their centres to the Sun, pass
over equal areas in equal times: and this is true not only
with respect to the areas described every hour by the same
planet, but the agreement holds, with rigid exactness, be-
tween the areas described in the same time, by all the plan.
ets and comets belonging to the Solar System.
From the foregoing principles, it follows, that the force of gravity, and
the centrifugal force, are mutual opposing powers—each continually acting
against the other. Thus, the weight of bodies, on the earth's equator, is
diminished by the centrifugal force of her diurnal rotation, in the propor- .
tion of one pound forevery 290 pounds: that is, had the earth no motion
on her axis, all bodies on the equator would weigh one two hundred and
eighty-ninth part more than they now do. \
Ori the contrary, if her diurnal motion was accelerated, the centrifugal
force would be proportionally increased, and the weight of bodies at the
equator would be, in the same ratio, diminished. Should the earth revolve
upon its axis, with a velocity which would make the day but 84 minutes
long, instead of 24 hours, the centrifugal force would counterbalance that
of gravity, and all bodies would then be absolutely destitute of weight ;
and if the centrifugal force were further augmented, (the earth revolving
in less time than 84 minutes,) gravitation would be completely overpower-
ed, and all fluids and loose substances near the equator would fly off from
the surface. f
The weight of bodies, then, upon the earth, or any other planet having
a motion around its axis, depends jointly upon the mass of the planet, and
its diurnal velocity. A body weighing one pound upon the equator of the
earth, would weigh, if removed to the equator of the Sun, 27.9 lbs. Of
Mercury, 1.03 lbs. Of Venus, 0.98 lbs. Of the Moon. § lb. Of Mars,
# lb. Of Jupiter, 2.716 lbs. Of Saturn, 1.01 lbs.
How is the weight of bodies on the earth's equator affected by its diurnal rota-
tion ? What would be the effect if the diurnal motion of the earth were accele-
ºrated? What would be the consequence if the earth revolved about its azis in
84 minutes, or in less time 2
112 PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, &C.
C H A P T E R IV.
PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES—OBLIQUITY OF THE
ECLIPTIC.
/ Of all the motions which are going forward in the Solar
System, there is none, which it is important to notice, more
difficult to comprehend, or to explain, than the PRECESSION
OF THE EQUINOXEs, as it is termed.
The equinoxes, as we have learned, are the two opposite
points in the earth's orbit, where it crosses the equator.
The first is in Aries; the other, in Libra. By the preces-
sion of the equinoxes is meant, that the intersection of the
equator with the ecliptic is not always in the same point:—
in other words, that the Sun, in its apparent annual course,
does not cross the equinoctial, Spring and Autumn, exactly
n the same points, but every year a little behind those of the
preceding year.
This annual falling back of the equinoctial points, is call-
ed by astronomers, with reference to the motion of the
heavens, the Precession of the Equinoaces; but it would bet-
ter accord with fact as well as the apprehension of the learner,
to call it, as it is, the Recession of the Equinoxes: for the equi-
noctial points do actually recede upon the ecliptic, at the
rate of about 50+" of a degree every year. It is the name
only, and not the position, of the equinoxes which remains
permanent. Wherever the Sun crosses the equinoctial in
the spring, there is the vernal equinox; and wherever he
crosses it in the fall, there is the autumnal equinox; and these
points are constantly moving to the west. I
What are the equinoxes? What is meant by the precession of the equinoxes? )
Why is it called precession of the equinoxes, and what would be a better term º
ºuinoala points are continually moving; how, then, is their position de-
Iłę tº
PRECESSION OF THE EQUINóXEs, &c. 113
$
To render this subject fa- Fig. 22.
miliar, we will suppose two
carriage roads, extending
quite around the earth: one,
representing the equator,
running due east and west;
and the other, representing
the ecliptic, running nearly
in the same direction as the
former, yet so as to cross it
with a small angle, (say of
23}o,) both at the point
where we now stand, for in- "
stance, and in the nadir,
exactly opposite; let there
also be another road, to
represent the prime meridi-
an, running north and south,
and crossing the first at
right angles, in the com-
mon point of intersection,
as in the annexed figure. -
Let a carriage now start from this point of intersection, not in the road
leading directly east, but along that of the ecliptic, which leaves the for-
mer a little to the north, and let a person be placed to watch when the car-
riage comes around again, after having made the circuit of the earth, and see
whether the carriage will cross the equinoctial road again precisely in the
same track as when it left the goal. Though the person stood exactly in the
former track, he need not fear being run over, for the carriage will cross
the road 100 rods west of him, that is, 100 rods west of the meridian on
which he stood. It is to be observed, that 100 rods on the equator is equal
to 50+ seconds of a degree.
If the carriage still continue to go around the earth, it will, on com-
pleting its second circuit, cross the equinoctial path 200 rods west of the
meridian whence it first set out; on the third cricuit, 300 rods west; on
the fourth circuit, 400 rods, and so on, continually. After 713 circuits,
l
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!
Ezzāzoatial
the point of intersection would be one degree west of its place at the com-
mencement of the route. At this rate it would be easy to determine how
many complete circuits the carriage must perform before this continual
falling back of the intersecting point would have retreated over every de-
gree of the orbit, until it reached again the point from whence it first de-
parted. The application of this illustration will be manifest, when we con
sider, further, that -
2The Sun revolves from one equniox to the same equinox
again, in 365d. 5h. 48’47.”81. This constitutes the natu-
ral, or tropical year, because, in this period, one revolution
Give, at length, a familiar illustration by which this subject may be under-
stood. Suppose the carriage continues its circuits around the earth, where would
at cross the equinoctial the 2d, 3d and 4th times, &c. & After how many circuits
would this falling back of the equinoctial points amount to one degree, on the
eclipticº, in what time does the sun revolve from one equinox to the same equi-
nox again? What is this period called 3
f K*
f

114 PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXEs, &c.
of the seasons is exactly completed. But it is, mean-
while, to be borne in mind, that the equinox itself, during
this period, has not kept its position among the stars, but
has deserted its place and fallen back a little way to meet
the Sun; whereby the Sun has arrived at the equinox before
he has arrived at the same position among the stars from
which he departed the year before; and consequently, must
perform as much more than barely a tropical révolution, to
reach that point again.
To pass over this interval, which completes the Sun's side-
real revolution, takes (20', 22°,94) about 22 minutes and 23
seconds longer.” By adding 22 minutes and 23 seconds to
the time of a tropical revolution, we obtain 365d. 6h. 9m.
103s, for the length of a sidereal revolution; or the time
in which the Sun revolves from one fixed star to the same
star again. I
2. As the Sun describes the whole ecliptic, or 360° in a tro-
pical year, he moves over 59'84" of a degree every day, at
mean rate, which is equal to 50:” of a degree in 20 min-
utes and 23 seconds of time; consequently he will arrive at
the same equinox or solstice when he is 50}” of a degree
short of the same star or fixed point in the heavens, from
which he set out the year before. So that, with respect to
the fixed stars, the Sun and equinoctial points fall back, as
it were, 1° in 713 years. This will make the stars appear
to have gone forwärd 19, with respect to the signs in the
ecliptic, in that time: for it must be observed, that the same
signs always keep in the same points of the ecliptic, with-
out regard to the place of the constellations. Hence it be-
comes necessary to have new plates engraved for celes-
tial globes and maps, at least once in 50 years, in order to .
exhibit truly the altered position of the stars. At the pres-
ent rate of motion, the recession of the equinoxes, as it should
Why is it so called 4 Does the equinox remain stationary during this period ºf
What results from this? How long does it take the Sun to pass over the interval
through which the equinox has thus retreated 3 What is the length of a sidereal
revolution, and how is it determined 3,-What portion of the ecliptic does the Sun
describe, at a mean rate, every day ? What portion does it describe in 20
minutes and 23 seconds 3 If the sun and equinoctial points fall back in the eclip-
tic 50+" of a degree every year, how many years before this regression will
amount to a degree? How will this affect the appearance of the stars 4 What
practical inconvenience results from this fact 3
PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, &c. " 115
be called, or the precession of the stars, amounts to 30°, or
one whole sign, in 2140 years. I
MOTION OF THE STARS.
Fig. 23. ,
To explain this by a figure : Supose the sun to have been in conjunc-
tion with a fixed star at S, in the first degree of Taurus, (the second sign of
the ecliptic,) 340 years before the birth of our Saviour, or about the 17th
year of Alexander the Great; then having made 2140 revolutions through
the ecliptic, he would be found again at the end of so many sidereal years
at S ; but at the end of so many Julian years, he would be found at J,
and at the end of so many tropical years, which would bring it down to
the beginning of the present century, he would be found at T, in the first
degree of Aries, which has receded back from S. to T in that time by the
precession of the equinoctial points Aries and Libra. The are S T would
be equal to the amount of the precession (for precession we must still call
it) of the equinox in 2140 years, at the rate of 50,” 23572 of a degree, or 20
minutes and 23 seconds of time annually, as above stated.
, From the constant retrogradation of the equinoctial points,
and with them of all the signs of the ecliptic, it follows that the
longitude of the stars must continually increase. The same
cause affects also their right ascension and declination.
Hence, those stars which, in the infancy of astronomy, were
in the sign Aries, we now find in Taurus; and those which
were in Taurus, we now find in Gemini, and so on. Hence
In what period of time does the precession of the stars amount to 300, or one
whole sign? Explain this by a diagram, How does the retrogradation of the
equinoctial points affect the longitude of the stars ? Does the same cause extend
to their right ascension and declination also 3

116 PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, &C.
likewise it is, that the star which rose or set at any particu-
lar time of the year, in the times of Hesiod, Eudoxus, Virgil,
Pliny, and others, by no means, answers at this time to their
descriptions.l. f
Hesiod, in his Opera et Dies, lib. ii. verse 185, says:
When from the solstice sixty wintry days
\\ Their turns have finish'd, mark, with glitt'ring rays,
From Ocean's sacred flood, Arcturus rise,
Then first to gild the dusky evening skies.
But Arcturus now rises acronycally in latitude 37° 45' N. the latitude of
Hesiod, and nearly that of Richmond, in Virginia, about 100 days after
the winter solstice. Supposing Hesiod to be correct, there is a difference
of 40 days, arising from the precession of the equinoxes since the days of
Hesiod. Now as there is no record extant of the exact period of the world
when this poet flourished, letus see to what result astronomy will lead us.
As the Sun moves through about 390 of the ecliptic in 40 days, the win-
ter solstice, in the time of Hesiod, was in the 9th degree of Aquarius. Now
estimating the precession of the equinoxes at 504" in a year ; we shall have
50}" : 1 year: ; 39C 2794 years since the time 6f Hesiod; if we subtract
from this our presentera, 1836, it will give 958 years before Christ. Lem-
priere, in his Classical Dictionary, says Hesiod lived 907 years before
Christ. See a similar calculation for the time of Thales, page 54, Part I.
The retrograde movement of the equinoxes, and the an-
nual extent of it, were determined by comparing the longitude
of the same stars, at different intervals of time. The most
careful and unwearied attention was requisite in order to
determine the cause and extent of this motion;–a motion
so very slow as scarcely to be perceived in an age, and Oc-
cupying not less than 25,000 years in a single revolution.
It has not yet completed one quarter of its first circuit in the
heavens since the creation. -
Thus observation has not only determined the abso-
lute motion of the equinoctial points, but measured its limit;
it has also shown that this motion, like the causes which pro-
duce it, is not uniform in itself: but that it is constantly ac-
celerated by a slow arithmetical increase of 1 of a degree
in 4,100 years.—A quantity which, though totally inappre-
ciable for short periods of time, becomes sensible after a
How is this rendered apparent 3 JMention an example. History does not ena-
ble us to fia: the precise age of the world in which Hesiod flourished ; what light
does astronomy shed wipon this question 2 By what means was the retrograda-
tion of the equinoxes determined 3 Why was it difficult to determine the cause
and extent of this motion ? Not to specify particular cases, what has observation
at length determined, with respect to the limit and uniformity of this backward
movement of the equinoctial points 3
PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXEs, &c. 117
lapse of ages. For example: The retrogradation of the
equinoctial points is now greater by nearly ," than it was
in the time of Hipparchus, the first who observed this mo-
tion; consequently, the mean tropical year is shorter now by
about 12 seconds than it was then. For, since the retro-
gradation of the equinoxes is now every year greater than
it was then, the Sun has, each year, a space of nearly #"
less to pass through in the ecliptic, in order to reach the plane
of the equator, Now the Sun is 12 seconds of time in pas-
sing over #" of space.
At present, the equinoctial points move backwards, or
from east to west along the path of the ecliptic at the rate of
1° in 713 years, or one whole sign, in 2140 years. Con-
tinuing at this rate, they will fall back through the whole
of the 12 signs of the ecliptic in 25,680 years, and thus re-
turn to the same position among the stars, as in the beginning. -
But in determining the period of a complete revolution
of the equinoctial points, it must be borne in mind that the
motion itself is continually increasing ; so that the last quar-
ter of the revolution is accomplished several hundred years
sooner than the first quarter, Making due allowance for
this accelerated progress, the revolution of the equinoxes is
completed in 25,000 years; or, more exactly, in 24,992 years.
Were the motion of the equinoctial points uniform ; that
is, did they pass through equal portions of the ecliptic in equal
times, they would accomplish their first quarter, or pass
through the first three signs of the ecliptic in 6,250 years.
But they are 6,575 years in passing through the first quar-
ter; about 220 years less in passing through the second
quarter; 220 less in passing through the third, and so on. A
The immediate consequence of the precession of the equi-
noxes, as we have already observed, is a continually pro-
gressive increase of longitude in all the heavenly bodies.
Give an example. Why should the tropical year, on this account, be shorter
now than it was then 3 What is the present rate of motion of the equinoctial
points In what time, continuing at the same rate, will they fall back through
the twelve signs of the ecliptic 3, In determining the exact period of a complete
revolution of the equinoctial poiſts, what important circumstance must be borne
in mind 3 Making due allowance for their accelerated progress, in what time is
a revolution of the equinoxes completed ? Is this motion as quick in the first
quarter of their revolution as in the last 3 What is the time, and difference, of
describing each quarter 3, What is the immediate consequence of the precession .
of the equinoxes upon the position of the heavenly bodies 3
118 PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, &C.
For the vernal equinox being the initial point of longitude,
as well as of right ascension, a retreat of this point on the
ecliptic tells upon the longitudes of all alike, whether at rest
or in motion, and produces, so far as its amount extends, the
appearance of a motion in longitude common to them all,
as if the whole heavens had a slow rotation around the poles
of the ecliptic in the long period above méntioned, similar to
what they have in every twenty-four hours around the poles
of the equinoctial. As the Sun loses one day in the year
on the stars, by his direct motion in longitude; so the equi-
nox gains one day on them, in 25,000 years, by its retrógrade
Imotlon. l
The cause of this motion was unknown, until Newton
proved that it was a necessary consequence of the rotation
of the earth, combined with its elliptical figure, and the un-
equal attraction of the Sun and Moon on its polar and equa-
torial regions. There being more matter about the earth's,
equator than at the poles, the former is more strongly at-
tracted than the latter, which causes a slight gyratory or
wabbling motion of the poles of the earth around those of
the ecliptic, like the pin of a top about its centre of motion,
when it spins a little obliquely to the base.
/. The precession of the equinoxes, thus explained, consists,
in a real motion of the pole of the heavens among the stars,
in a small circle around the pole of the ecliptic as a centre,
keeping constantly at its present distance of nearly 23#’
from it, in a direction from east to west, and with a velocity
so very slow as to require 25,000 years to complete the cir-
cle. During this revolution it is evident that the pole will
point successively to every part of the small circle in the
heavens which it thus describes. Now this cannot happen,
without producing corresponding changes in the apparent
diurnal motion of the sphere, and in the aspect which the
heavens müst present at remote periods of time.
Explain how this takes place. How does this resemble the annual loss of a
sidereal, day by the sun ? What is the cause of this motion ? - Admitting this ex-
planation, in what does the precession of the equinoxes really consist 3 To what
point in the heavens will the pole of the earth be directed, during the revolution 3
How must this affect the diurnal motion and aspect of the heavens, in remote
ages 3 • . \
-- PRECESSION OF THE EQUINoxEs, &c. 119
% The visible effect of such a motion on the aspect of the
eavens, is seen in the apparent approach of some stars and
constellations to the celestial pole, and the recession of others.
The bright star of the Lesser Bear, which we call the pole
star, has not always been, nor will always continue to be,
our polar star. At the time of the construction of the ear-
liest catalogues, this star was 12° from the pole; it is now
only 1° 34' from it, and it will approach to within half a
degree of it; after which it will again recede, and slowly
give place to others, which will succeed it in its proxi-
mity to the pole. I * -
The pole, as above considered, is to be understood, merely, as the van-
ishing point of the earth's axis; or that point in the concave sphere which
is always opposite the terrestrial pole, and which consequently must move
as that moves.
The precession of the stars in respect to the equinoxes,
is less apparent the greater their distance from the ecliptic ;
for whereas a star in the zodiac will appear to sweep the
whole circumference of the heavens, in an equinoctial year,
a star situated within the polar circle will describe only a
very small circle in that period and by so much the less,
as it approaches the pole. The north pole of the earth
being elevated 23° 274 towards the tropic of Cancer, the
circumpolar stars will be successively, at the least distance
from it, when their longitude is 3 signs, or 90°. The posi-
tion of the north polar star in 1836, will be in the 17° of Tau-
rus; when it arrives at the first degree of Cancer, which it
will do in about 250 years, it will be at its nearest possible
approach to the pole—namely, 29' 55". About 2900 years
before the commencement of the Christian era, Alpha Dra-
conis, the third star in the Dragon's tail, was in the first de-
gree of Cancer, and only 10’ from the pole; consequently
it was then the pole star. After the lapse of 11,600 years,
the star Lyra, the brightest in the northern hemisphere, will
Wherein will the effects of such a motion be particularly visible % Give an
instance. When you speak of the Pol, E as in motion, what is to be understood by
that term * Is the precession of the stars, with respect to the equinoxes, equally
apparent in every part of the heavens? At what longitude do the circumpolar
stars approach nearest the pole 3 What is the position, at present, of the north
polar star, and when will it make its nearest possible approach to the true pole of
the heavens ! At what period has any other star been the polar star 3 When
will the star Lyra, which is more than 500 from it, be the north polar star 3
120 --- OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC.
**
occupy the position of a pole star, being then about 5° from
the pole; whereas now its north polar distance is upwards
of 51°. --
The mean average precession from the creation (4004 B.C.) to the Year
1800, is 49". 51455; consequently the equinoctial points have receded since
the creation, 2 s. 1498' 27". The longitude of the star Beta Arietis, Was, in
1820, 319 27, 28, : Meton, a famous mathematician of Athens, who flour-
ished 430 years before Christ, says this star, in his time, was in the ver-
mal equinox. If he is correct, then 31° 27' 28" divided by 2250 years, the
elapsed time, will give 50} iſ for the precession. Something, however,
must be allowed for the imperfection of the instruments used at that day,
and even until the sixteenth century.
Since all the stars complete half a revolution about the
axis of the ecliptic in about 12500 years, if the North Star
be at its nearest approach to the pole 250 years hence, it
will, 12,500 years afterwards, be at its greatest possible
distance from it, or about 47° above it:-That is, the star
itself will remain immoveable in its present position, but the
pole of the earth will then point as much below the pole of
the ecliptic, as now it points above. This will have the
effect, apparently, of elevating the present polar star to twice
its present altitude, or 47°. Wherefore, at the expiration
of half the equinoctial year, that point in the heavens which
is now 19 18' north of the zenith of Hartford, will be the
place of the north pole, and all those places which are situa-
ted 1° 18′ north of Hartford, will then have the present pole
of the heavens in their Zenith. I
OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC.
The distance between the equinoctial and either tropic, meas-
ured on the meridian, is called the Obliquity of the Ecliptic: or
this obliquity may be defined as the angle formed by the inter-
section of the celestial equator with the ecliptic. 2 Hitherto,
we have considered these great primary circles in the heav-
ens, as never varying their position in space, nor with re-
What was the mean annual precession from the creation to the year 1800, and
How much did it amount to in that period & When was Beta Arietis in the equi-
noz, and what is its longitude now? /When will our present north star he at its
least, and when at its greatest distance from the pole 3 In this case, is it meant
that the star itself will move, or the pole 3 In what manner 3 What, theſi, must
be the apparent effect 3 Illustrate these phenomena by a diagram. What is the
obliquity of the ecliptic 3f In what light have we hitherto €onsidered the great
circles of the heavens 3
.*
oRLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC. 121
spect to each other. But it is a remarkable and well ascer-
tained fact, that both are in a state of constant change. We
have seen that the plane of the earth's equator is constantly
drawn out of place by the unequal attraction of the Sun and
Moon acting in different directions upon the unequal masses
of matter at the equator and the poles; whereby the inter-
section of the equator with the ecliptic is constantly retro-
grading—thus producing the precession of the equinoaces. I
/* The displacement of the ecliptic, on the contrary, is pro-
duced chiefly by the action of the planets, particularly of
Jupiter and Venus, on the earth; by virtue of which the
plane of the earth's orbit is drawn nearer to those of these
two planets, and consequently, nearer to the plane of the
equinoctial. The tendency of this attraction of the planets,
therefore, is to diminish the angle which the plane of the
equator makes with that of the ecliptic, bringing the two
planes nearer together; and if the earth had no motion of
rotation, it would, in time, cause the two planes to coincide.
But in consequence of the rotary motion of the earth, the
inclination of these planes to each other remains very nearly
the same ; its annual diminution being scarcely more than
three fourths of one second of a degree in a year. I
The obliquity of the ecliptic, at the commencement of the present cen-
tury, was, according to Baily, 23° 27' 564", subject to a yearly diminu-
tion of 0." 4755. According to Bessel, it was 23° 27' 54".32, with an an-
nual diminution of 0". 46. This diminution, however, is subject to a slight
semiannual variation, from the same causes which produce the displace-
ment of the plane of the ecliptic, in precession.
2. The attraction of the Sun and moon, also, unites with that
of the planets, at certain seasons, to augment the diminution
of the obliquity, and at other times, to lessen it. On this
account the obliquity itself is subject to a periodical varia-
tion; for the attractive power of the moon, which tends to
produce a change in the obliquity of the ecliptic, is variable,
But what is the fact " . By what cause is the displacement of the equinoctial,
or the plane of the earth's equator effected 3/ How is the displacement of the
plane of the ecliptic effected . If the planetary attraction tends constantiy to
draw the planes of the equinoctial and ecliptic nearer together, what is to pre-
vent them from coinciding in one and the same plane 3 How much is the distance
or angle between then diminished every year 3 What was the obliquity of the
ecliptic, or the quantity of this angle, at the commencement of the present cºntury 2
Is the annual diminution of the obliquity subject to any variation 2 From
zphat cause 2 ...What effect has the attraction of the Sun and Moon on this ob-
liquity ?
L
122 - obliquity OE THE £CLIPTIC.
while the diurnal motion of the earth, which tends to pre-
vent the change from taking place, is constant. Hence
the earth, which is so nicely poised on her centre, bows a
little to the influence of the moon, and rises again, alternate-
ly, like the gentle oscillations of a balance. This curious
phenomenon, is called Nutation. I -
In consequence of the yearly diminution of the obliquity
of the ecliptic, the tropics are slowly and steadily approach-
ing the equinoctial, at the rate of little more than three
fourths of a second every year; so that the sun does not
now come so far north of the equator in summer, nor de-
cline so far south in winter, by nearly a degree, as it must
have done at the creation.
The most obvious effect of this diminution of the obliqui-
ty of the ecliptic, is to equalize the length of our days and
nights; but it has an effect also to change the position of
the stars near the tropics. Those which were formerly
situated north of the ecliptic, near the summer solstice, are
now found to be still farther north, and farther from the
plane of the ecliptic. On the contrary, those which, accord-
ing to the testimony of the ancient astronomers, were situ-
ated south of the ecliptic, near the summer solstice, have ap-
proached this plane, insomuch that some are now either
situated within it, or just on the north side of it. Similar
changes, have taken place with respect to those stars situ-
ated near the winter solstice. All the stars, indeed, parti-
cipate more or less in this motion, but less, in proportion to
their proximity to the equinoctial. -
It is important, however, to observe, that this diminution
will not always continue. A time will arrive when this
motion, growing less and less, will at length entirely cease,
and the obliquity will, apparently, remain constant for a
time; after which it will gradually increase again, and con-
tinue to diverge by the same yearly increment as it before
What results from this alternate and opposite influence 3 By what token
does the Earth show her respect to this influence of the Moon : What is this
phenomenon called ? What is the consequence of the yearly diminution of the
obliquity of the ecliptic in respect to the position of the tropics, and the declination
of the sun ? What other obvious effects result from this diminution? How does
it affect the declination ºf the stars near the solstices ! Do all the stars partake,
more or less, in this motion ? / Will this diminution of the obliquity always con-
tinue !
THE TIDES, 123
had diminished. This alternate decrease and increase will
constitute an endless oscillation, comprehended between cer-
tain fixed limits. Theory has not yet enabled us to determine
precisely what these limits are, but it may be demonstrated from
the constitution of our globe, that such limits exist, and that
they are very restricted, probably not exceeding 2°42'. If
we consider theeffect of this ever varying attribute in the sys-
tem of the universe, it may be affirmed that the plane of the
ecliptic never has coincided with the plane of the equator,
and never will coincide with it. Such a coincidence, could
it happen, would produce upon the earth perpetual spring. |
C H A P T E R V.
THE TIDES,
/ The oceans, and all the seas, are observed to be incessant-
ly agitated for certain periods of time, first from the east
towards the west, and then again from the west towards the
east. In this motion, which lasts about six hours, the sea
gradually swells; so that entering the mouths of rivers, it
drives back the waters towards their source. After a con-
tinual flow of six hours, the seas seem to rest for about a
quarter of an hour; they then begin to ebb, or retire back
again from west to east for six hours more ; and the rivers
again resume their natural courses. Then after a seem-
ing pause of a quarter of an hour, the seas again begin to
flow, as before and thus alternately. This regular alternate
motion of the sea constitutes the tides, of which there are two
in something less than twenty five hours. (
The ancients considered the ebbing and flowing of the tides as one of
the greatest mysteries in nature, and were utterly at a loss to account for
them. Galileo and Descartes, and particularly Kepler, made some suc-
cessful advances towards ascertaining the cause; but Sir Isaac Newton
was the first who clearly showed what were the chief agents in producing
these motions.
What are the limits of its alternate variation ? What would be the consequence,
in respect to the seasons, should the plane of the ecliptic ever coincide with the
plane of the equator? What is the method used by astronomers for determining
the obliquity of the ecliptic 3-What regular motion is observed in the great body of
waters upon the globe 3 what periods of time is this alternate ebbing and
flowing accomplished ? What is it called 3 How were these phenomen a regard-
ed by the ancients & Who ascertained their true cause 3
124 THE TIDES.
2 The cause of the tides, is the attraction of the Sun and
moon, but chiefly of the moon, upon the waters of the
ocean. In virtue of gravitation, the moon, by her attrac-
tion, draws, or raises the water towards her; but because
the power of attraction diminishes as the squares of the dis-
tance increases, the waters on the opposite side of the earth,
are not so much attracted as they are on the side nearest
the moon. -
That the Moon, says Sir John Herschel, should, by her attraction, heap
up the waters of the ocean under her, seems to most persons very natural :
but that the same cause should, at the same time, heap them up on the oppo-
site side, seems, to many, palpably absurd. Yet nothing is more true, nor
indeed more evident, when we consider that it is not by her whole attrac-
tion, but by the differences of her attractions at the opposite surfaces and at
the centre, that the waters are raised.
. That the tides are dependent upon some known and determinate laws,
is evident from the exact time of high water being previously given in every
ephemeris, and in many of the common almanacks.
The moon comes every day later to the meridian than on the day pre-
ceding, and her exact time is known by calculation; and the tides in any
and every place, will be found to follow the same rule ; happening exact-
ly so much later every day as the moon comes later to the meridian. From
this exact conformity to the motions of the moon, we are induced to look
to her as the cause ; and to infer that those phenomena are occasioned
principally by the moon's attraction.
If the earth were at rest, and there were no attractive in-
fluence from either the Sun or moon, it is obvious from the
THE TIDES,
Fig. 24. Fig. 25.
º
Ó
\ %
\)
º 22%
$ 3
principles of gravitation, that the waters in the ocean would
be truly spherical; (as represented by Fig. 24) but daily
What is the cause of the tides 4 How does the attraction of the Sun and Moon
produce tides upon both sides of the earth at the same time ! What is Sir John
Berschel's remark wipon this theory 3 How is it known that the tides are governed
by any ascertained law 3. What coincidence is observed between the meridian
passage of the JMoom, and the time of high water 3 What conclusion may we
derive from this coincidence 3 If the earth were at rest, and under no influence
from the attraction of the Sun or Moon, what shape would the waters assume 3
*



THE TIT) ES. 125
observation proves that they are in a state of continual agi-
tation. *.
If the earth and moon were without motion, and the earth
covered all over with water, the attraction of the moon would
raise it up in a heap, in that part of the ocean to which the
moon is vertical, as in Figure 25, and there it would, pro-
bably, always continue; but by the rotation of the earth
upon its axis, each part of its surface to which the moon is
vertical is presented to the action of the moon: wherefore,
as the quantity of water on the whole earth remains the
same, when the waters are elevated on the side of the earth
under the moon, and on the opposite side also, it is evident
they must recede from the intermediate points, and thus the
attraction of the moon produce high water at two opposite
places, and low water at two opposite places, on the earth,
at the same time, as represented by Figure 26. I
This is evident from the figure. The waters cannot rise in one place,
without falling in another; and therefore they must fall as low in the hori-
zon, at C and D, as they rise in the zenith and nadir, at A. and B. Fig. 27.
THE TIDES.
Fig. 27.
\ || {C} .
Nº.4, zººt &
* ) s º É.
º \º
It has already been shown, under the article gravitation,
that the earth and moon would fall towards each other, by
/ Suppose the attractive power of the Moon upon the Earth to be as it is, and
neither the Earth or Moon to have any motion, what would be the result 3 How
would this condition of things be affected by the Earth's rotation ? If the Earth
and the Moon mutually attract each other with so much force, what prevents
their coming together ? But centrifugal force results only from circular motion,
does the Earth then circulate around the moon to acquire the centrifugal force by
which it is kept from falling upon the Moon? [.Ams. The Earth does not circu-
late around the moon, but around the common centre of gravity between it and
the Moon.] Where is this centre situated, and in what time does the Earth re-
volve about it? [..Ans. The centre of gravity, between the Earth and Moon, is
about 3000 miles from the Earth's centre, around which it revolves every lunar
month, or as often as the Moon revolves around the Earth.]
L* *







126 THE TIDES.
the power of their mutual attraction, if there were no centri-
fugal force to prevent them ; and that the moon would fall
as much faster towards the earth than the earth would fall
towards the moon, as the quantity of matter in the earth is
greater than the quantity of matter in the moon. The same
law determines also the size of their respective orbits around
their common centre of gravity.
It fellows then, as we have seen, that the moon does not revolve, strict-
ly speaking, around the earth as a centre, but around a point between them,
which is 80 times nearer the earth than the moon, and consequently is situ-
ated about 3000 miles from the earth's centre. It has also been shown,
that all bodies moving in circles acquire a centrifugal force proportioned
to their respective masses and velocity. From these facts, some philo-
sophers account for high water on the side of the earth opposite to the
moon, in the following manner:
As the earth and moon move around their common centre of gravity, that
part of the earth which is at any time turned from the moon, being about
7000 miles ſarther from the centre of gravity, than the side next the moon,
would have a greater centrifugal force than the side meat her. At the earth's
centre, the centrifugal force will balance the attractive force; therefore as
much water is thrown off by the centrifugal force on the side which is
turned from the moon, as is raised on the side next her by her attraction.
From the universal law, that the force of gravity dimin-
ishes as the square of the distance increases, it results, that
the attractive power of the moon decreases in intensity at
every step of the descent from the Zenith to the nadir; and
consequently that the waters on the zenith, being more at-
tracted by the moon than the earth is at its centre, move
faster towards the moon than the earth’s centre does: And
as the centre of the earth moves faster towards the moon
than the waters about the nadir do, the waters will be, as it
were, left behind, and thus, with respect to the centre, they
will be raised.
The reason why the earth and waters of our globe do not seem to be
affected equally by the moon's attraction, is, that the earthy substance of
the globe, being firmly united, does not yield to any difference of the moon's
attractive force ; insomuch that its upper and lower surface must move
equally fast towards the moon; whereas the waters, cohering together but
very lightly, yield to the different degrees of the moon's attractive force, at .
different distances from her.
The length of a lunar day, that is, of the interval from
From the fact of the Earth's motion, as in the case described, how do some phi-
Iosophers account for high water on the side of the Earth, opposite to the JMoon 2
How is this phenomenon otherwise explained, by the laws of gravity, merely 4
Are the Earth and waters of the globe affected equally, by the Moon's attraction?
#Why not ? ~-, .
THE TIDE3, 127
|
one meridian passage of the moon to another, being, at a
mean rate, 24 hours, 48 minutes and 44 seconds, the inter-
val between the flux and the reflux of the sea is not at a
mean rate, precisely six hours, but twelve minutes and
eleven seconds more, so that the time of high water does not
happen at the same hour, but is about 49 minutes later every
day. &
The earth revolves on its axis in about twenty-four hours;
if the moon, therefore, were stationary, the same part of our
globe would return beneath it, and there would be two tides
every twenty four hours; but while the earth is turning once
upon its axis, the moon has gone forward 13° in her orbit—
which takes forty nine minutes more before the same meri-
dian is brought again directly under the moon. And hence
every succeeding day the time of high water will be forty-
nine minutes later than the preceding.
For example:—Suppose at any place it be high water at 3 o'clock in the
afiernoon, upon the day of new moon; the following day it will be high
water about 49 minutes after 3; the day after, about 38 miuutes after 4;
and so on, till the next new moon. The exact daily mean retardation of
the tides is thus determined:
The mean motion of the moon, in a solar day, is 13°.17639639
The mean motion of the sun, in a solar day, is 0 .98564722
*-*
*s-e
Now, as 15° is to 60 minutes, so is 129.19074917 to 48'44".
The tides, though constant, are not equal ; they are
greatest when the moon is in conjunction with, or opposition
to, the Sun; and least when in quadrature. The former are
called Spring Tides; the latter, Neap Tides. The spring
tides are highest, when the sun and moon are near the equa-
tor, and the moon at her least distance from the earth.
The neap tides are lowest, when the moon in her first and
second quarters is at her greatest distance from the earth.
The general theory of the tides is this: When the moon
is nearest the earth, her attraction is strongest, and the tides
are the highest : when she is farthest from the earth, her
attraction is least, and the tides are the lowest. I
What is the average interval between the flux and reflux of the sca 3, What
is the length of a lunar day, and of the interval of the flux and reflux of the sea 3
How is this daily retardation of ſhe tides accounted for 3 Give an examplex-Are
the tides uniformly high 3 When, and on what account do they differ? What
are these extreme tides called 3 When are the spring tides highest ? When are
the neap tides lowest ? "
128 THE TIDEs.
From the above theory, it might be supposed that the tides
would be the highest when the moon was on the meridian.
But it is found that in open seas, where the water flows
freely, the moon has generally passed the north or south
meridian about three hours, when it is high water. The
reason is, that the force by which the moon raises the tide
continues to act, and consequently the waters continue to
rise, after she has passed the meridian.
For the same reason, the highest tides, which are pro-
duced by the conjunction and opposition of the Sun and
Moon, do not happen on the days of the full and change ;
neither do the lowest tides happen on the days of their
quadratures.—But the greatest spring tides commonly hap-
pen three days after the new and full moons; and the least
neap tides three days after the first and third quarters.
The sun and moon, by reason of the elliptical form of their orbits, are al-
ternately nearer to and farther from the earth, than their mean distances.
In consequence of this, the efficacy of the sun will fluctuate between the
extremes 19 and 21, taking 20 for its mean value, and between 43 and 59
for that of the moon. Taking into account this cause of difference, the
highest spring tide will be to the lowest meap as 59-–21 is to 43–19, or as
80 to 24, or 10 to 3. The relative mean influence is as 51 to 20, or as 5 to
2, nearly.—Herschel’s Astr. p. 339.
Though the tides, in open seas, are at the highest about
three hours after the moon has passed the meridian, yet the
waters in their passage through shoals and channels, and by,
striking against capes and headlands, are so retarded that,
to different places, the tides happen at all distances of the
moon from the meridian; consequently at all hours of the
lunar day. -
In small collections of water, the moon acts at the same
time on every part; diminishing the gravity of the whole
mass. On this account there are no sensible tides in lakes,
they being generally so small that when the moon is verti-
cal, it attracts every part alike ; and by rendering all the
waters equally light, no part of them can be raised higher than
What is the general theory upon this subject 3 Does it necessarily result from
this theory, that the tide is highest when the moon is on the meridian 3 What
reason is assigned for this? What similar fact is accounted for upon the same
principle % What is the comparative force of the solar and lunar attraction
vpon the earth 3 To What is owing the great difference in the time of high water
at places lying under the same meridian 3 Why are there no tides upon lakes,
and small collections of Water?
THE SEASONs. 129
another. The Mediterranean and Baltic Seas have very
small elevations, partly for this reason, and partly because
the inlets by which they communicate with the ocean are so
narrow, that they cannot, in so short a time, either receive
or discharge enough, sensibly to raise or sink their surfaces.
Of all the causes of difference in the height of tides at dif.
ferent places, by far the greatest is local situation. In
wide-mouthed rivers, opening in the direction of the stream
of the tides, and whose channels are growing gradually
narrower, the water is accumulated by the contracting
banks, until in some instances it rises to the height of 20,
30, and even 50 feet.
Air being lighter than water, and the surface of the at-
mosphere being nearer to the moon than the surface of the
sea, it cannot be doubted but that the moon raises much
higher tides in the atmosphere than in the sea. According
to Sir John Herschel these tides are, by very delicate ob-
servations, rendered not only sensible, but measurable. ,
Upon the supposition that the waters on the surface of the moon are of
the same specific gravity as our own, we might easily determine the height
to which the earth would raise a lunar tide, by the known principle, that
the attraction of one of these bodies on the other's surface is directly as its
quantity of matter, and inversely as its diameter. By making the calcula-
tion, we shall find the attractive power of the earth upon the moon to be
21.777 times greater than that of the moon upon the earth.
C. H. A. P. T. E. R. V. I.
THE SEASONs—DIFFERENT LENGTHS OF THE DAYS AND NIGHTS.
The vicissitudes of the seasons and the unequal lengths
of the days and nights, are occasioned by the annual revo-
lution of the earth around the Sun, with its axis inclined to
the plane of its orbit. -
The temperature of any part of the earth's surface depends
mainly, if not entirely, upon its exposure to the Sun's rays.
To what cause, more than to all others, is the different height of tides owing 4
Explain this. Is it probable that the moon exerts any influence of attraction on
the atmosphere 3 Why is it probable 3 Are the atmospheric tides sufficiently
sensible to be appreciated ? How much greater is the attractive power of the
earth upon the moon, than that of the moon upon the earth 2 What occasions
the vicissitudes of the seasons, and the unequal lengths of the days and nights?
Jpon what does the temperature at different places depend ?
H30 THE SEASONS.
Whenever the Sun is above the horizon of any place, that
place is receiving heat; when the Sun is below the horizon
it is parting with it, by a process which is called radiation.
The quantities of heat thus received and imparted in the
course of the year, must balance each other at every place,
or the equilibrium of temperature, would not be supported.
Whenever, then, the Sun remains more than twelve hours
above the horizon of any place, and less beneath, the gen-
eral temperature of that place will be above the mean state ;
when the reverse takes place, the temperature, for the same
reason, will be below the mean state. Now the continuance
of the Sun above the horizon of any place, depends entirely
upon his declination, or altitude at noon. About the 20th
of March, when the Sun is in the vernal equinox, and con-
sequently has no declination, he rises at six in the morning
and sets at six in the evening; the day and night are then
equal, and as the Sun continues as long above our horizon
as below it, his influence must be nearly the same at the
same latitudes, in both hemispheres.
From the 20th of March to the 21st of June, the days
grow longer, and the nights shorter, in the northern hemis-
phere the temperature inereases, and we pass from spring
to mid-summer; while the reverse of this takes place in the
southern hemisphere. From the 21st of June to the 23d of
September, the days and nights again approach to equality,
and the excess of temperature in the northern hemis-
phere above the mean state, grows less, as also its -ofect in
the southern ; so that, when the Sun arrives at the autumnal
equinox, the mean temperature is again restored. From
the 23d of September until the 21st of December, our nights
grow longer and the days shorter, and the cold increases as
before it diminished, while we pass from autumn to mid-
Under what circumstances do the same places change their temperature ? Are
the quantities of heat, received and imparted, every year, always equal at the
same places 3 Why is it so q When is the temperature of a place above, and
when is it below its mean state 4 Upon what does the continuance of the Sun
above the horizon of any place, depend ? When is the sun as long above our
horizon as below it ! . During what season of the year is the temperature in-
creasing 3 What, at the same time, takes place in regard to the temperature, in
the southern hemisphere 3 During what portion of the year is the temperature
decreasing? For what reason 3 During what portion of the year is the cold
increasing 3 Why is it so 3 &
THE SEASONS. 131
winter, in the northern hemisphere, and the inhabitants of
the southern hemisphere from spring to mid-summer. From
the 21st of December to the 20th of March, the cold relaxes
as the days grow longer, and we pass from the dreariness of
winter to the mildness of spring, when the seasons are com-
pleted, and the mean temperature is again restored. The
same vicissitudes transpire, at the same time, in the southern
hemisphere, but in a contrary order.—Thus are produced
the four seasons of the year.
But I have stated not the only, nor; perhaps, the most
efficient cause in producing the heat of summer and the cold
of winter. If, to the inhabitants of the equator, the Sun were
to remain 16 hours below their horizon, and only 8 hours
above it, for every day of the year, it is certain they would
never experience the rigours of our winter; since it can be
demonstrated, that as much heat falls upon the same area
from a vertical Sun in 8 hours, as would fall from him at
an angle of 60°, in 16 hours.
Now as the Sun's rays fall most obliquely when the days
are shortest, and most directly when the days are longest, these
two causes, namely, the duration and intensity of the solar
heat, conspire together in producing the temperature of the
different seasons. The reason why we have not the hottest
temperature when the days are longest, and the coldest tem-
perature when the days are shortest, but in each case, about
a month afterwards, appears to be that a body once heated,
does not grow cold instantaneously, but gradually, and so
of the contrary- Hence as long as more heat cornes from
the Sun by day than is lost by night, the heat will increase,
and vice versa.
What change of seasons, then, takes place, in the northern and southern hemis-
phere ? What other changes complete the seasons of the year ! Whence is it
evident that the unequal lengths of the days and nights are not the only, mor
perhaps the most efficient cause of the heat of summer, and the cold of winter ?
What two causes conspire to produce the greatest vicissitudes of heat and cold 3
Why, then, do we not have the hottest weather when the days are longest, and
the contrary 3
132 THE SEASONS.
BEGINNING AND LENGTH OF THE SEASONs.
h. m. s.
Sun enters W5 (Winter begins) 1833, Dec 21st, 72546 M. T. Wash.
( & { % Sp (Spring & 4 1834, March 20th,856 38 “ (, ;
“ “s gö (Summer “ “ June 21st, 6 3 9 “ & £
“ “ -o- (Autumn “ “ Sept 22d, 1958 31 “ £ 6
“ “ y? (Winter “ “ Dec. 21st, 13 21 57 “ § {
d. h. m., S.
Sun in the Winter Signs & e g 89 1 30 52
“ “ Spring e & ë . 92 21 631
** * * Summer & § tº e 93 13 55 22
“ “ Autumn . e ſº . 89 17 23 26
“ north of Equator (Spring and Summer) 186 11 153
“ south { % (Winter and Autumn) 178 1854 18
smºsºmºmºsºs
Longest north of the equator, . * 7 16 7 35
Length of the tropical year, beginning at
the winter solstice 1833, and ending at X 365 556 11
the winter solstice 1834,
Mean or average length of the tropical year, 365 5.48 48
The north pole of the Earth is denominated the elevated
pole, because it is always about 234° above a perpendicular
to the plane of the equator, and the south pole is denomina-
ted the depressed pole, because it is about the same distance
below such perpendicular.
As the Sun cannot shine on more than one half the Earth’s
surface at a time, it is plain, that when the Earth is moving
through that portion of its orbit which lies above the Sun, the
elevated pole is in the dark. This requires six months, that
is, until the Earth arrives at the equinox, when the elevated
pole emerges into the light, and the depressed pole is turned
away from the Sun for the same period. Consequently,
there are six months day, and six months night, alternately,
at the poles.
When the Sun appears to us to be in one part of the eclip-
tic, the Earth, as seen from the Sun, appears in the point di-
ametrically opposite. Thus, when the Sun appears in the
vernal equinox at the first point of Aries, the Earth is actu-
ally in the opposite equinox at Libra. The days and nights
are then equal all over the world.
t
why is the north pole denominated the elevated pole 3 Why is the south pole
denominated the depressed pole 3 Why are there six months day and six months
night, alternately, at the poles 2 What is always the relative position of the Sun
and earth in the ecliptic 3 Give an example.
THE SEASONS. 133
&
As the Sun appears to move up from the vernal equinox
to the summer solstice, the Earth actually moves from the
autumnal equinox down to the winter solstice. The days
now lengthen in the northern hemisphere, and shorten in the
southern. The Sun is now over the north pole, where it is
mid-day, and opposite the south pole, where it is midnight.
As the Sun descends from the summer solstice towards the
autumnal equinox, the earth ascends from the winter solstice
towards the vernal equinox. The summer days in the north-
ern hemisphere having waxed shorter and shorter, now be-
come again of equal length in both hemispheres.
While the Sun appears to move from the autumnal equi-
nox down to the winter solstice, the Earth passes up from
the vernal equinox to the summer solstice; the south pole
comes into the light, the winter days continually shorten in
the northern hemisphere, and the summer days as regularly
increase in length in the southern hemisphere.
While the Sun appears again to ascend from its winter
solstice to the vernal equinox, the Earth descends from the
summer solstice to the autumnal equinox. The summer
days now shorten in the southern hemisphere, and the winter
days lengthen in the northern hemisphere.
When the Sun passes the vernal equinox, it rises to the
arctic or elevated pole, and sets to the antarctic pole. When
the Sun arrives at the Summer Solstice, it is noon at the north
pole, and midnight at the south pole. When the Sun passes
the autumnal equinox, it sets to the north pole, and rises to
the south pole. When the Sun arrives at the winter solstice,
it is midnight at the north pole, and noon at the south pole;
and when the Sun comes again to the vernal equinox, it clo-
ses the day at the South pole, and lights up the morning at
the north pole.
When do the days lengthen in the northern hemisphere, and shorten in the
southern ? When is it mid-day at the north pole, and mid-night at the south 3
When do the summer days in the northern hemisphere grow shorter and shorter 7
When do they become of equal length in both hemispheres? When do the win-
ter days shorten in the northern hemisphere, and the summer days lengthen in the
southern ? When do the summer days shorten in the southern hemisphere, and
the winter days lengthen in the northern ? When does the sun rise to the
north pole, and set to the south ? When is it noon at the north pole, and mid-
night at the south pole 3 When does the sun set at the north pole, and rise to the
south 3 When is it mid-night at the north pole, and noon at the south ?
M
I 34 THE SEASONS.
By the word pole, in the above description, is meant all
the zone included in each polar circle. It is evident that
those who live precisely on the arctic circle, or in latitude
66° 324' N, will see the Sun just half risen, for the space of
six months; while those at the antarctic pole will see it just
half set for the same time. This would be rigidly true, if
the position of the Sun were not affected by the refraction of
the atmosphere, causing it to appear a little higher in each
hemisphere, than it really is.
THE SEASONS–UNEQUAL LENGTHS OF DAYS AND NIGHTS.
Fig. 28.
The above cut represents the inclination of the earth's axis to its orbit in
every one of the twelve signs of the ecliptic, and consequently for each
month in the year. The sun enters the sign Aries, or the vernal equinox, on
the 20th of March, when the earth's axis inclines neither towards the sun, nor
from it, but sideways to it; so that the sun then shines equally upon; the
earth from pole to pole, and the days and nights are every where equal.
-This is the beginning of the astronomical year; it is also the beginning of
day at the north pole, which is just coming into light, and the end of day
at the south pole, which is just going into darkness.
By the earth's orbitual progress, the sun appears to enter the second sign,
Taurus, on the 20th of April, when the north pole, N, has sensibly advan-
ced into the light, while the south pole, S, has been declining from it; where-
What curious phenomenon is witnessed by those who live precisely on the po-
ar circles 7

THE SEASONs. 135
by the days become longer than the nights in the Northern Hemisphere,
and shorter in the Southern.
On the 21st of May, the sun appears to enter the sign Gemini, when the
north pole, N. has advanced considerably further into the light, while the
south pole, S, has proportionally declined from it; the summer days are
now waxing longer in the Northern Hemisphere, and the nights shorter.
The 21st of June, when the sun enters the sign Cancer, is the first day of
summer, in the astronomical year, and the longest day in the Northern
Hemisphere. The north pole now has its greatest inclination to the sun,
the light of which, as is shown by the boundary of light and darkness, in the
figure, extends to the utmost verge of the Arctic Circle; the whole of which
is included in the enlightened hemisphere of the earth, and enjoys, at this,
season, constant day during the complete revolution of the earth on its axis.
The whole of the Northern Frigid Zone is now in the circle of perpetualil-
lumination. -
On the 23d of July, the sun enters the sign Leo, and as the line of the
earth's axis always continues parallel to itself, the boundary of light and
darkness begins to approach nearer to the poles, and the length of the day,
in the Northern Hemisphere, which had arrived at its maximum, begins
gradually to decrease. On the 23d of August, the sun enters the sign
Virgo, increasing the appearances mentioned in Leo.
On the 23d of September, the sun enters Libra, the first of the autumnal
signs, when the earth's axis, having the same inclination as it had in the
opposite sign, Aries, is turned neither from the sun, nor towards it, but ob-
liquely to it, so that the sun again now shines equally upon the whole of
the earth's surface from pole to pole. The days and nights are once more
of equal length throughout the world. *
On the 23d of October, the sun enters the sign Scorpio ; the days visibly
decrease in length in the Northern Hemisphere, and increase in the South-
€IIl.
On the 22d of November, the sun enters the sign Sagittarius, the last of
the autumnal signs, at which time the boundary of light and darkness is at
a considerable distance from the north pole, while the south pole has pro-
portionally advanced into the light; the length of the day continues to in-
crease in the Southern Hemisphere, and to decrease in the Northern.
On the 21st of December, which is the period of the winter solstice, the
sun enters the sign Capricorn. At this time, the north pole of the earth's
axis is turned from the sun, into perpetual"darkness; while the south pole,
in its turn, is brought into the light of the sun, whereby the whole Antarctic
region comes into the circle of perpetual illumination. It is now that the
Southern Hemisphere enjoys all those advantages with which the Northern
Hemisphere was favoured on the 21st of June ; while the Northern Hem-
isphere, in its turn, undergoes the dreariness of winter, with short days and
long nights. In this manner, the vicissitudes of the seasons, and the un-
equal lengths of day and night are accomplished.
*
136 HARVEST MOON.
C H A P T E R W II.
HARVEST Moon—HoRIZONTAL MOON.
2. The daily progress of the moon in her orbit, from west
to east, causes her to rise, at a mean rate, 48 minutes
and 44 seconds later every day than on the preceding.
But in places of considerable latitude, a remarkable devia-
tion from this rule takes place, especially about the time of
harvest, when the full moon rises to us for several nights
together, only from 18 to 25 minutes later in one day, than
on that immediately preceding. From the benefit which
her light affords, in lengthening out the day, when the hus-
bandmen are gathering in the fruits of the earth, the full
moon, under these circumstances, has acquired the name of
Blarvest Moon. I f
It is believed that this fact was observed by persons engaged in agricul-
ture, at a much earlier period than that in which it was noticed by astrono-
mers. The former ascribed it to the goodness of the Delty; not doubting
but that he had so ordered it for their advantage.
About the equator, the moon rises throughout the year
with nearly the equal intervals of 483 minutes; and there
the harvest moon is unknown. t
At the polar circles, the autumnal full moon, from her first
to her third quarter, rises as the Sun sets; and at the poles,
where the Sun is absent during one half of the year, the
winter full moons, from the first to the third quarter, shine
constantly without setting. I
By this, it is not meant, that the moon continues full from her first to her
third quarter; but that she never sets to the North Polar regions, when, at
this season of the year, she is within 90° of that point in her orbit where
she is at her full. In other words: as the sun illumines the south pole
during one half of its yearly revolution, so the moon, being opposite to the
sun at her full, must illumine the opposite pole, during half of her revolution
about the earth. The phenomena of the harvest moon may be thus exem-
plified by means of the globe: *
What is the mean difference of time in the daily rising of the moon 3 Under
what circumstänces is there a material deviation from this rule 4×Whence the
name of Harvest JMoon 3 By whom was this phenomenon first observed, and to
what did they attribute it 3 ºr Why is the harvest moon unknown at the equator 3
How is it at the polar cº, and the poles 4 What is meant by the full moon's
shining from the first to the third quarter 2 How may the phenomena be exempli-
fied by means of the artificial globe 2 -
HARVEST MOON. ' 137
!
Rectify the globe to the latitude of the place, put a patch or piece of wa-
fer in the ecliptic, on the point Aries, and mark every 120 preceding and,
following that point, to the number often or twelve marks on each side
of it; bring the equinoctial point marked by the wafer to the eastern edge
of the horizon, and set, the index to 12; turn the globe westward till the
other marks successively come to the horizon, and observe the hours passed
over by the index; the intervals of time between the marks coming to the
horizon, will show the diurnal difference of time between the moon’s rising.
If these marks be brought to the western edge of the horizon in the same
manner, it will show the diurnal difference between the moon's setting.
From this problem it will also appear, that, when there is the least dif:
ference between the times of the moon's rising, there will be the greatest
difference between the times of her setting, and the contrary.
The reason why you mark every 129 is, that the moon gains 120 11'
on the apparent course of the sun every day, and these marks serve to
denote the place of the moon from day to day. It is true, this process sup-
poses that the moon revolves in the plane of the ecliptic, which is not the
case; yet her orbit so nearly coincides with the ecliptic, (differing only
5°9' from it,) that they may, for the convenience of illustration, be consid-
ered as coinciding; that is, we may take the ecliptic for the representative
of the moon’s orbit. * a
The different lengths of the lunar night, at different lati-
tudes, is owing to the different angles made by the horizon
and different parts of the moon’s orbit; or in other words
by the moon’s orbit lying sometimes more oblique to the
horizon than at others. In the latitude of London, for ex- .
ample, as much of the ecliptic rises about Pisces and Aries
in two hours as the moon goes through in six days; there-
fore while the moonisinthese signs she differs but two hours in
rising for six days together; that is, one day with another, she
rises about 20 minutes later every day than on the preceding.
/* The parts or signs of the ecliptic ‘which rise with the
smallest angles, set with the greatest; and those which rise
with the greatest, set with the least. And whenever this
angle is least, a greater portion of the ecliptic rises in equal
times than when the angle is larger. Therefore, when the
moon is in those signs which rise or set with the smallest an-
gles, she rises or sets with the least difference of time ; but
when she is in those signs which rise or set with the great-
est angles; she rises or sets with the greatest difference of
time. I 3.
Why do you mark every 120 of the ecliptic in this problem 2 What does this
process of illustration suppose, which is not true, and why is it adopted 3. To
what is the different lengths of the lunar night, in different latitudes, owing 4
Give an example. ~How do those parts of the ecliptic set, which rise with the
smallest angles, and the contrary 3 What results from this in regard to the moon 3
* -
M"
138 HARVEST Moon.
-
Let the globe, for example, be rectified to the latitude of New York,
.40°42' 40", with Cancer on the meridian, and Libra rising in the east. In
this position, the ecliptic has a high elevation, making an angle with the
horizon, of 72%9.
But let the globe be turned half round on its axis, till Capricorn comes
to the meridian, and Aries rises in the east, then the ecliptic will have a
low elevation above the horizon, making an angle with it of only 25*.
This angle is 47° less than the former angle, and is equal to the distance
between the tropics.
2. In northern latitudes, the smallest angle made by the
ecliptic and horizon, is when Aries rises; at which time
Libra sets; the greatest, is when Libra rises and Aries sets.
The ecliptic rises fastest about Aries, and slowest about
Libra. Though Pisces and Aries make an angle of only
254° with the horizon when they rise, to those who live in
the latitude of New York, yet the same signs, when they
set, make an angle of 724°. The daily difference of the
moon’s rising, when in these signs, is, in, New England,
about 22 minutes; but when she is in the opposite signs,
Virgo, and Libra, the daily difference of her rising is al-
most four times as great, being about one hour and a
quarter.
As the moon can never be full but when she is opposite
to the Sun, and the Sun is never in Virgo or Libra except
in our autumnal months, September and October, it is evident
that the moon is never full in the opposite signs, Pisces, and
Aries, except in those two months. We can therefore have
only two full moons in a year, which rise, for a week togeth-
er, very near the time of sun-set.—The former of these is
called the Harvest Moon, and the latter, the Hunter’s Moon.
Although there can be but two full moons in the year
that rise with so little variation of time, yet the phenomenon
of the moon’s rising for a week together so nearly at the
same time, occurs every month, in some part of her course
or the other. I
In Winter, the signs Pisces and Aries rise about noon; hence the rising
of the moon is not then regarded nor perceived.
Bow may this be illustrated on the globe 3 in northern latinudes, what signs
rise and set with the least angles 3 What with the greatest ? What parts of the
ecliptic rise fastest, and which slowest ? Give an example. / What is the daily
difference of the moon’s rising and setting, in these sigus, in the latitude of New
York AHow many full moons in a year, which rise with so little difference of
time 3 Why are not these phenomena observed in the same signs, in Winter,
Spring, and Summer?
N a
HORIZONTAL MOON. 139
In Spring, these signs rise with the sun, because he is then, in them; and
as the moon changes while passing through the same sign with the sun, its
must then be the change, and hence invisible.
In Summer, they rise about midnight, when the moon is in her third
quarter. On account of her rising so late, and giving but little light, her
rising passes unobserved.
2 To the inhabitants at the equator, the north and south
4
#
poles appear in the horizon; and therefore the ecliptic makes
the same angle southward with the horizon when Aries rises,
as it does northward when Libra rises; consequently she
rises and sets not only with angles nearly equal, but at equal
intervals of time, all the year round : Hence, there is no
harvest moon at the equator. The farther any place is from
the equator, if it be not beyond the polar circles, the angle
which the ecliptic makes with the horizon gradually dimin-
ishes when Pisces and Aries rise. I
2 Although in northern latitudes, the autumnal full moons
are in Pisces and Aries; yet in southern latitudes it is just
the reverse, because the seasons are so:—for Virgo and
Libra rise at as small angles with the horizon in southern
latitudes, as Pisces and Aries do in the northern ; and there-
fore the harvest moons are just as regular on one side of the
equator as on the other.
At the polar circles, the full moon neither rises in summer,
nor sets in winter. For the winter full moon being as high
in the ecliptic as the summer Sun, she must continue, while
passing through the northern signs, above the horizon; and
the summer full moon being as low in the ecliptic as the win-
ter Sun, can no more rise, when passing through the southern
signs, than he does. $
THE HORIZONTAL MOON.—The great apparent magnitude
of the Moon, and indeed of the Sun, at rising and setting, is
a phenomenon which has greatly enbarrassed almost all
who have endeavoured to account for it. According to the
ordinary laws of vision, they should appear to be least when
nearest the horizon, being then farthest from the eye; and
Explain why there is no harvest moon at the equator. The farther any place
is from the equator, how is the angle between the ecliptic and the horizon, when
Pisces and Aries rise $2 Do the harvest moons happen as regularly, and in the
same months, on the south side of the equator, as on the north 2 Why does not
the full moon rise in summer, nor set in winter, to the inhabitants of the polar
circles? / According to the ordinary laws of vision, how ought the magnitudes of
the sun and moon to appear, when they are nearest the horizon 3
*
140 REFRACTION."
yet the reverse of this is found to be true. The apparent
diameter of the moon, when viewed in the horizon by the
naked eye, is two or three times larger than when at the
altitude of thirty or forty degrees; and yet when measured
by an instrument her diameter is not increased at all. )
Both the sun and the moon subtend a greater angle when on the meridi-
an, than they do in the horizon, because they are then actually nearer the
place of the spectator, by the whole semi-diameter of the earth.
This apparent increase of magnitude in the horizontal
moon, is chiefly an optical illusion, produced by the concav-
ity of the heavens appearing to the eye to be a less portion
of a spherical surface than a hemisphere. The eye is ac-
customed to estimate the distance between any two objects
in the heavens by the quantity of sky that appears to lie be-
tween them; as upon the earth we estimate it by the quan-
fity of ground that lies between them. Now when the sun
or moon are just emerging above the eastern horizon, or
sinking beneath the western, the distance of the intervening
landscape over which they are seen, contributes, together with
the réfraction of the atmosphere, to exaggerate our estimate
of their real magnitudes.
C H A P T E R V III.
REFRACTION.—TWILIGHT.
The rays of light in passing out of one medium into another
of a different density, deviate from a straight course; and if
the density of the latter medium continually increases, the
rays of light in passing through it, will deviate more and more
from a right line, towards a curve, in passing to the eye
of an observer. From this cause all the heavenly bodies,
except when in the Zenith, appear higher than they really
What is the fact 3 How much larger does the moon appear to the naked eye,
when in the horizon, than. when at the altitude of thirty or forty degrees?
Where, in reality, do the sun and moon subtend the largest angle 2 Why is it so 3
How is the apparent increase of magnitude in the horizontal moon, accounted
for ? How are the rays of light affected in passing out of one medium into
another, of a different density ? How, if the density of the latter medium con-
tinually increase? What astronomical phenomenon results from this cause 3
REFRACTIox. 141
are. This bending of the rays of light, giving to the heaven-
ly bodies an apparent elevation above their true places, is
called Refraction. -
It is in consequence of the refracting power of the atmos-
phere that all heavenly bodies are seen for a short time before
they rise in the horizon, and also after they have sunk below
at. At some periods of the year the Sun appears 5 minutes
longer, morning and evening, and about 34 minutes longer
every day, at a mean rate, than he would do were there
no refraction. The average amount of refraction for an
object half way between the horizon and the zenith, or at
an apparent altitude of 45°, is but one sixtieth of a degree,
a quantity hardly sensible to the naked eye; but at the visi-
ble horizon it amounts to 33° of a degree, which is rather
more than the greatest apparent diameter of either the Sun
or the Moon.
Hence it follows, that when we see the lower edge of the
sun or moon just apparently resting on the horizon, their whole
disc is in reality below it, and would be entirely out of sight
and concealed by the convexity of the earth, but for the bend-
ing, which the rays of light have undergone in their passage
through the air to the observer's eye.
The following general notions of its amount, and law of
variation, should be borne in mind : -
1. In the zenith there is no refraction ; a celestial object,
situated directly over head, is seen in its true position, as if
there were no atmosphere.
2. In descending from the zenith to the horizon, the refrac-
tion continually increases; objects near the horizon appear-
ing more elevated by it than those &f a higher altitude.
3. The rate of its increase is nearly in proportion to the
apparent angular distance of the object from the zenith.
But this rule, which is not far from the truth, at moderate
zenith distances, ceases to give correct results in the vicinity
What is this bending of the rays of light out of their course called 4 What
effect does refraction have upon the apparent rising and setting of the heavenly
bodies? How much longer do we see the sun, morning and evening, than we
should, if there were no refraction ? What is the average amount of refraction
for an object half way between the horizon and the zenith ? What is it at the
lıorizon 4 What interesting facts result from this truth 3 What is the first general
law of atmospheric refraction ? What is the second general law 3 What is the
third 1
142 RE FRACTION.
t
of the horizon, where the law becomes much more compli-
cated in its expression.
The effects of refraction must be familiar to every person who has seen
a walking stick partially plunged into a river, or other collection of water.
While the stick is held upright, it appears straight, as usual, because there
is no refraction in this position: but if it be ever so little inclined, the re-
fraction takes place, and the stick appears bent; if the inclination be in-
creased, the refraction is also increased.
Another easy and familiar illustration of the effect of refraction may be
thus obtained:—Put any small object, as a piece of money, into an empty
basin, as near the centre as possible, and retire to such a distance as just to
lose sight of the object. Let an assistant then pour water into the basin, and
the object will soon appear. Retire again till it is no lenger seen; let more
water be added, and it will again reappear. The experiment may be re-
peated till the basin is full. The edge of the basin may be supposed to
represent the horizon; the water, the atmosphere; and the piece of money,
the sun, or other object which is thus made to appear by the power of re-
fraction, when otherwise it would be invisible.
It follows from this, that one obvious effect of refraction
must be to shorten the duration of night and darkness, by
prolonging the apparent stay of the sun and moon above
the horizon. But even after they appear to have set, the in-
fluence of the atmosphere still continues to send us a portion
of their light; not, indeed, by direct transmission, but by
reflection : for as the body of the Sun is brought into view
by the refracting power of the atmosphere, when he is 33
minutes below the horizon, so his light is reflected upon the
earth when he is 18° below the horizon. This constitutes
Twilight, called also Crepusculum.
In the morning, when the Sun arrives at 18° below the
horizon, his rays pass over our heads into the higher region
of the atmosphere, and are thence reflected, or as it were,
bent down to the earth. The day is then said to dawn, and
the light gradually increases until the Sun appears above
the horizon: this is called Morning Twilight, or Aurora,
which thc heathens personified as a goddess. They assigned
to her the office of opening the Gates of the East, to introduce
the chariot of Apollo or Phaebus.
JMention a familiar instance of refraction often seen in water. JMention some
familiar experiment, to illustrate refraction, and show its application to astro-
nomy 2 How does this principle affect the duration of nocturnal darkness 3 By
what principle is it that the atmosphere sends us a portion of the solar light, for
a considerable time before the sum rises, and after it has set ! What is Twilight 7
How is it occasioned 3
REFRACTION, a 143
In the evening, after sun-set, the rays of the sun continue
to illuminate the atmosphere, till he sinks 18° below the hori-
zon, and a similar effect, called the Evening Tuilight, is pro-
duced, only in an inverse progression, for the twilight now
gradually becomes ſainter till it is lost in dark night.
The quantity of reflection and the duration of twilight are
much influenced by the changes which are perpetually tak-
ing place with respect to the heat and cold, the dryness
or moisture, &c. of the atmosphere. The height of the at-
mosphere, also, has an influence in determining the duration
of twilight: Thus in winter, when the air is condensed with
cold, and the atmosphere upon that account lower, the twi-
light will be shorter; and in summer, when the limits of the
atmosphere are extended by the rarefaction and dilation of
the air of which it consists, the duration of the twilight will
be longer. And for the same reason, the morning twilight,
(the air being at that time condensed and contracted by the
cold of the preceding night,) will be shorter than the eve-
ning twilight, when the air is more dilated and expanded.
It is entirely owing to the reflecting power of the atmos-
phere that the heavens appear bright in the day time. For
without such a power, only that part of the heavens would
be luminous in which the Sun is placed ; and, if we should
turn our backs to the Sun, the whole heavens would appear
as dark as in the night, and the stars, even at noon day, would
be seen as clear as in the nocturnal sky.
In regions of the earth situated towards the poles, the
Sun, during their summer months, is never more than 18°
below the horizon; consequently their twilight continues
during the whole night. This appears to be one of the bene-
ficent allotments of the Deity, for mitigating the darkness of
polar nights.
A remarkable phenomenon of this kind was observed by the Dutch navi-
gators who wintered in Nova Zembla, in the year 1596. After enduring a
continual night of three months, they were agreeably surprised to find that
*
How is the Evening Twilight produced 3 By what are the quantity of reflec-
tion, and the duration of twilight, considerably influenced 3 Why is twilight
shorter in winter? Why longer in summer ? Why is the morning twilight
, shorter than the evening twilight 3. To what is it entirely owing, that the heavens
appear bright in the day time How would the heavens appear, if it were not
for this power 4 What are the duration and advantages of twilight in high lati-
tudes 3 Relate a remarkable phenomenon of this kind
144 AlJRORA BOREALIS,
the sun began to rise seventeen days sooner than according to computation!
The observed altitude of the pole, at the place, (says Dr. Smith,) being only
76°, it is impossible to account for the phenomenon, otherwise, than by sup-
posing an extraordinary reſraction of the sun's rays. Kepler computes that
the sun was almost 5° below the horizon when he first appeared ; and
ºnly, that the refraction of his rays was about 10 times greater than
With U18.
M. De Saussure, when on the top of Mount Blanc, which is elevated
1500 yards above the level of the sea, and where the atmosphere must be
more rare than on the surface of the earth, says, that the moon shone with
the brightest splendour in the midst of a sky as black as ebony.
C H A P T E R IX.
AURO RA. IBOREALIS,
The sublime and beautiful phenomena presented by the
Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, as they are called,
have been in all ages a source of admiration and wonder
alike to the peasant and the philosopher. In the regions of
the north, they are regarded by the ignorant with supersti-
tious dread, as harbingers of evil; while all agree in placing
them among the unexplained wonders of nature.
- These lights, or meteoric coruscations, are more brilliant
in the Arctic regions, appearing mostly in the winter season
and in frosty weather. They commonly appear at twilight
near the horizon, and sometimes continue in that state for
several hours without any sensible motion ; after which
they send forth streams of stronger light, shooting with
great velocity up to the zenith, emulating, not unfrequently,
the lightning in vividness and the rainbow in colouring; and
again, silently rising in a compact majestic arch of steady
white light, apparently durable and immoveable, and yet so
evanescent, that while the beholder looks upon it, it is gone.
At other times, they cover the whole hemisphere with
their flickering and fantastical coruscations. On these oc-
casions their motions are amazingly quick, and they aston-
ish the spectator with rapid changes of form. They break
out in places where none were seen before, skimming brisk-
How are the phenomena of the Aurora Borealis regarded by the ignorant? In
what do all agree, respecting them? Where are these appearances most fre-
quent and brilliant 3 Describe the times and manner of their appearance.
AURORA BOREALIS. #45
iy along the heavens; then they are suddenly extinguished,
leaving behind a uniform dusky track, which, again, is bril-
liantly illuminated in the same manner, and as suddenly left
a dull black. Some nights they assume the appearance of
vast columns; exhibiting on one side tints of the deepest
yellow, and on the other, melting away till they become un-
distinguishable from the surrounding sky. They have gen-
erally a strong tremulous motion from end to end, which
continues till the whole vanishes,
Maupertuis relates, that in Lapland, “the sky was some-
times tinged with so deep a red that the constellation Orion
looked as though it were dipped in blood, and that the peo-
ple fancied they saw armies engaged, fiery chariots, and a
thousand prodigies.” Gmelin relates, that “in Siberia, on the
confines of the icy sea, the spectral forms appear like rushing
armies; and that the hissing crackling noises of those aerial
fire-works so terrify the dogs and the hunters that they fall
prostrate on the ground, and will not move, while the raging
host is passing.”
Herguelen describes “the night, between Iceland and the
Ferro Islands, as brilliant as the day,”—the heavens being
on fire with flames of red and white light, changing to col-
umns and arches, and at length confounded in a brilliant chaos
of cones, pyramids, radii, sheaves, arrows, and globes of fire.
But the evidence of Capt. Parry is of more value than
that of the earlier travellers, as he examined the pheno-
mena under the most favourable circumstances, during a
period of twenty seven consecutive months, and because his
observations are uninfluenced by imagination. He speaks
of the shifting figures, the spires and pyramids, the majestic
arches, and the sparkling bands and stars which appeared
within the artic circle, as surpassing his powers of descrip-
tion. They are indeed sufficient to enlist the superstitious
feelings of any people not fortified by religion and philoso-
phy.
Fºr 1. -
Describe their appearance in Lapland as related by Maupertuis, and its effect
upon the inhabitants. Describe its appearance between Iceland and the Ferro
Island, as related by Kerguelen. Whose testimony on this subject is of more value
than that of former travellers? Why? How does he describe the scenes he
witnessed during the polar nights? - -
N
146 AURORA BOREALIS.
The colours of the polar lights, are of various tints. The
rays or beams are steel gray, yellowish gray, pea green,
celandine green, gold yellow, violet blue, purple, sometimes
rose red, crimson red, blood red, greenish red, orange red,
and lake red. The arches are sometimes nearly black, pas-
sing into violet blue, gray, gold yellow, or white bounded
by an edge of yellow. The lustre of these lights varies in
kind as well as intensity. Sometimes it is pearly, some-
times imperfectly vitreous, sometimes metallic. Its degree
of intensity varies from a very faint radiance to a light near-
equalling that of the moon.
Many theories have been proposed to account for this
wonderful phenomenon, but there seems to be none which is
entirely satisfactory. One of the first conjectures on record
attributes it to inflammable vapours ascending from the earth
into the polar atmosphere and there ignited by electricity.
Dr. Halley objects to this hypothesis, that the cause was in-
adequate to produce the effect. He was of opinion that the
poles of the earth were in some way connected with the au-
rora; that the earth was hollow, having within it a mag-
netic sphere, and that the magnetic effluvia, in passing
from the north to the south, might become visible in the
northern hemisphere. -
That the aurora borealis is, to some extent, a magnetical
phenomenon, is thought, even by others, to be pretty clearly
established by the following considerations.
1. It has been observed, that when the aurora appears
near the northern horizon in the form of an arch, the middle
of it is not in the direction of the true north, but in that of
the magnetic needle at the place of observation; and that
when the arch rises towards the zenith, it constantly crosses
the heavens at right angles, not to the true magnetic meridian.
2. When the beams of the aurora shootup so as to pass the
zenith, which is sometimes the case, the point of their con-
vergence is in the direction of the prolongation of the dip-
ping needle at the place of observation.
Describe the colours of the Aurora light. What is one of the earliest theories
advanced to explain this phenomenon 3 How did Dr. Hally propose to account for
it 3 What observations have led pretty generally to the conclusion, that the
northern lights are to some extent a magnetical phenomenon 3
AURORA BoneALIs. 147
ar
3. It has also been observed, that during the appearance
of an active and brilliant aurora, the magnetic needle of..
ten becomes restless, varies sometimes several degrees,
and does not resume its former position until after several
hours.
From these facts, it has been generally inferred that the
aurora is in some way connected with the magnetism of
the earth; and that the simultaneous appearance of the
meteor, and the disturbance of the needle, are either rela-
ted as cause and effect, or as the common result of some more
general and unknown cause. Dr. Young, in his lectures,
is very certain that the phenomenon in question is intimate-
ly connected with electro-magnetism, and ascribes the light
of the aurora to the illuminated agency of electricity upon
the magnetical substance.
It may be remarked, in support of the electro-magnetic theory, that in
magnetism, the agency oſelectricity is now clearly established; and they
are shown to stand to each other in the relation of effect and cause, at least
in as far as that all the phenomena of magnetism are producible by elec-
tricity; but no electric phenomena have ever been hitherto-produced by
magnetism.
Sir John Herschel also attributes the appearance of the
aurora to the agency of electricity. This wonderful agent,
says he, which we see in intense activity in lightning, and
in a feebler and more diffused form traversing the upper
regions of the atmosphere in the northern lights, is present,
probably, in immense abundance in every form of matter
which surrounds us, but becomes sensible, only when dis-
turbed by excitements of peculiar kinds.
To these theories Professor Silliman objects, that while
some are improbable, others are in adequate to account for
the phenomena. He himself concludes, that the aurora
borealis is caused by a gaseous vapour of extreme levity,
tenuity, and transparency ; susceptible of motion from the
slightest breath that stirs the air, and refracting to an ex-
traordinary degree, the rays of solar light.*
* Journal of Science, Vol. xix. p. 247.
What is the is the opinion of Dr. Young in regard to their cause 3 What con-
sideration may be adduced in farther support of the electro-magnetic theory 3 To
what does Sir John Herschel ascribe the aurora 3 What are his observations up
on the subject 3 What is Professor Silliman's theory upon this sugject 3
148 PARALLAX CF THE HEAVENLY BODIES.
- C H A P T E R X.
PARALLAX OF THE IIEAVENLY, BoDIEs.
Parallax is the difference between the altitude of any
celestial object, seen from the earth’s surface, and the alti-
tude of the same object, seen at the same time from the
earth's centre; or, it is the angle under which the semi-
diameter of the earth would appear, as seen from the
object. -
The true place of a celestial body, is that point of the
heavens in which it would be seen by an eye placed at the
centre of the earth. The apparent place is that point of
the heavens where the body is seen from the surface of
the earth. The parallax of a heavenly body is greatest,
when in the horizon; and is called the horizontal parallaa.
Parallax decreases, as the body ascends toward the zenith,
at which place it is nothing. -
The nearer a heavenly body is to the earth, the greater
is its parallax ; hence the moon has the greatest parallax
of all the heavenly bodies, while the fixed stars, from their
immense distance, have no parallax ;* the semi-diameter of
the earth, at such a distance being no more than a point.
As the effect of parallax on a heavenly body, is to depress
it below its true place, it must necessarily affect its right as-
eension and declination, its latitude and longitude. On this
account, the parallax of the Sun and moon must be added
to their apparent altitude, in order to obtain their true al-
titude. -
The true altitude of the sun and moon, except when in the zenith, is al-
ways affected, more or less, both by parallax and refraction, but always
in a contrary manner. Hence the mariner, in finding the latitude at sea,
always adds the parallax, and subtracts the refraction, to and from the
* See chapter XIV. on the number and distance of the stars.
What is parallax % What is the true place of a celestial body ? What is:
the apparent place 3 Where is the parallax of a heavenly body the greatest?
What is this parallax called 3 How does the parallax of a body vary, with its
altitude 3 How is it affected by distance 2 Give an example. What, then, are the
necessary effects of parallax on the appearance of a heavenly body? How, thens
can we obtain the true altitude of the sun or moon 3 Do parallaz and refrae- .
tion affect the altitude alike 3 Give an example. {
FARALLAX OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES. 149
sun's observed altitude, in order to obtain the true altitude, and thence the
latitude.
The principles of parallax are of great importance to as-
tronomy, as they enable us to determine the distances of
the heavenly bodies from the earth, the magnitudes of the
planets, and the dimensions of their orbits.
The Sun's horizontal parallax being accurately known,
the earth’s distance from the Sun becomes known ; and the
earth’s distance from the Sun being known, that of all the
planets may be known also, because we know the exact
periods of their sidereal revolutions, which, by the law of
Kepler, are invariably proportioned to their respective dis-
tances. Hence, the first great desideratum in astronomy,
where measure and magnitude are concerned, is the deter-
mination of the true parallax.
Why are the principles of parallax of great importance to astronomy? ... If the
sun's parallax be known, how mily the distances of all the planets be known
also 4 What inference may be derived from this in regard to the importance of
parallax :
N*
150 PROBLEMŠ.
C H A P T E R XI.
P R O B L E M S A N D T A B L E S.
PROBLEM I.
TO CONVERT DEGREES, &C, INTO TIME.
RULE. -
1. Divide the degrees by 15 for hours; and multiply the
remainder, if any, by 4 for minutes.
2. Divide the odd minutes and seconds in the same man-
ner by 15 for minutes, seconds, &c. and multiply each re-
mainder by 4, for the next lower denomination.
ExAMPLE I.—Convert 32° 34'45" into time.
Thus: 32° -- 15 – 2 h, 8'
34 -- 15 = 2 16”
Ans. 32° 34'45"— 2h. 10' 19'' the time.
ExAMPLE 2.—If it is 12 o'clock at this place, what is the
time 20° east of us?
Thus, fifteen in 20°, once, and five over; the once is 1
hour, and the 5 multiplied by 4, gives 20 minutes : the
time is then 1 hour and 20 minutes past 12.
ExAMPLE 3.--—The longitude of Hartford is 72° 50' west
of Greenwich ; what time is it at Greenwich when it is 12
o'clock at Hartford 7
Ans. 4 h. 51 min. 20 sec.
ExAMPLE 4.—When it is 12 o'clock at Greenwich, what
is the time at Hartford 4 Ans. 7h. 8m. 40 sec. A. M.
NotE.—Table VIII. is designed to facilitate calculations of this kind.
The degrees being placed in one column, and the corresponding time in
another, it needs no explanation, except to observe that degrees in the left
hand columns may be considered as so many minutes, instead of degrees;
in which case, the corresponding time in the adjoining column, must be
read as minutes and seconds, instead of hours and minutes. In like man-
ner, the degrees in the left hand column may be read as seconds, and the
corresponding time, as seconds and thirds. -
ExAMPLE.-Find, by the table, the time corresponding to 32° 34'45".
Thus: Against 32° is 2 h. 8 min.
66 34ſ tº 2 16 sec.
&6 45// 66 3
Answer as above, 2h. 10 m. 19 s.
FROBLEMS, 151
PROBLEM II.
TO CONVERT TIME INTO DEGREEs, &c.
RULE.
Multiply the hours by 15, and to the product add one
fourth of the minutes, seconds, &c., observing that every
minute of time makes #9, and every second of time, '.
ExAMPLE 1.-In 2 hours, 10 minutes, and 19 seconds,
how many degrees 7
Thus : 2 h. 10 m. 19 s.
15
i 30°
Add 10 quarters, or 4 of the min. 2 30’
Add 19 quarters, or of the sec. 4 45"
Ans. 320 34' 45.”
This problem is readily solved by means of Table IX, without the la-
bour of calculation;
Thus: 2 hours = 300
10 minutes = 2 30’
19 seconds = 4 25//
Ans. 32O 34! 45/1
Ex. 2.--When it is 12 o'clock at Hartford, it is 4 hours,
51 minutes, and 20 seconds past noon at Greenwich ; how
many degrees is Hartford west of Greenwich
Thus: 15 times 4 is 60—added to 4 of 51, is 72° 45",
and this increased by + of 20, is 72°50'. Ans.
Ex. 3.-A Liverpool packet, after sailing several days
from New York, finds the time by the Sun 2 hours and 40
minutes later than by the ship's Chronometer: how far has
the ship progressed on her way?
Ex. 4.—A vessel leaves Boston, and having been tossed
about in foul weather for some days, finds, that when it is
12 o'clock by the Sun, it is only 11 o'clock and 50 minutes
by the watch; is the vessel east, or west of Boston; and how
many degrees?
Ex. 5.-The moment of greatest darkness during the an-
152 PROBLEMS.
nular eclipse of 1831, took place at New Haven, 10 minutes
after 1 o'clock. Agentleman reports that it happened precise-
ly at 1, where he observed it; and another, that it was 5 min-
utes after 1 where he saw it: Quere. How far east or west,
were these gentlemen from each other, and how many de-
grees from New Haven?
PROBLEM III.
TO FIND WHAT STARS ARE ON THE MERIDIAN AT NINE o'cLoCK
IN THE EVENING OF ANY GIVEN DAY,
RULE.
Look for the given day of the month, at the bottom of the
Maps, and all the stars having the same degree of right as-
cension will be on the meridian at that time.
ExAMPLE 1.-What stars will be on the meridian at 9 o'
clock, the 19th of January 7
Solution.—On Plate III. I find that the principal stars
standing over against the 19th of January, are Rigel and
Capella. -
Ex. 2.-What stars are on the meridian the 20th of De-
cember 7 Ans. Menkar and Algol.
PROBLEM IV.
ANY STAR BEING GIVEN, To FIND WITEN IT CULMINATES.
RULE.
Find the star's right ascension in the table, or by the map,
(on the equinoctial,) and the day of the month at the top or
bottom of the map will be the day on which it culminates at
9 o'clock.
ExAMPLE 1.-At what time is the bright star Sirius on the
Meridian?
Solution.—I find by the Table, and by the Map, that the
right ascension of Sirius is 6 hours and about 38 minutes;–
and the time corresponding to this, at the bottom of the Map,
is the 11th of February.
PROBLEMS, 153
Ex. 2.-At what time is Alpheratz, in the head of Andro-
meda, on the meridian 1 Ans. The 9th of November.
PROBLEM V.
THE RIGHT ASCENSION AND DECLINATION OF A PLANET BEING
GIVEN, TO FIND ITS PLACE GN THE MAP.
RULE.
Find the right ascension and declination of the planet on
the Map, and that will be its place for the given day.
ExAMPLE 1.-Venus’ right ascension on the 1st of January,
1833, was 21 hours, 30 minutes, and her declination 16#9
south ; required her situation on the Map"
Solution.—On the right hand of the Plate II. I count off
163% from the equinoctial, on the marginal scale south, and
from that point, 30 minutes to the left, or just half the dis-
tance between the XXI. and XXII. meridian of right ascen-
sion, and find that Venus, that day, is within two degrees of
Delta Capricorni, near the constellation Aquarius, in the zo-
diac.
NotE.—It is to be remembered, that the planets will always be found
within the limits of the zodiac, as represented in the maps. By means of
Table VII, the pupil can find at any time, the situations of all the visible
planets, on the maps; and this will enable him to determine their position
in the heavens, without a chance of mistake. By this means, too, he can
draw for himself, the path of the planets from month to month, and trace
their course among the stars. This is a pleasant and useful exercise, and
is practised extensively in some academies. . The pupil draws the map in
the first place, or such a portion of it as to include the zodiacal constella-
tions; then, having dotted the pósition of the planets from day to day, as
indicated in Table VII., their path is easily traced with a pen or pencil.
Ex. 2.-Mars’ right ascension on the 13th of March, 1833,
is 5 hours, 1 minute, and his declination 24}* north; requir-
ed his situation on the Map.
Solution.—I find the fiſth hour line or meridian of right as-
cension on Plate III. and counting upwards from the equinoc-
tial 243°, I find that Mars is between the horns of Taurus,
and about 5° S. W. df Beta Aurigae. *
Ex. 3.-Required the position of Jupiter and Saturn on the
13th of February, and the 25th of May.
154 PROBLEMS,
When the right ascension and declination of the planets are not given,
they are to be sought in Table VII.
PROBLEM WI.
TO FIND AT WHAT MOMENT ANY STAR WILL PASS THE MERIDIAN
ON A. GIVEN IDAY,
RULE.
Subtract the right ascension of the sun from the star's right
ascension, found in the tables; observing to add 24 hours to
the star's right ascension, if less than the sun's, and the dif-
ference will show how many hours the star culminates after
the sun.
ExAMPLE 1.-At what time will Procyon pass the meridi-
an the 24th of February
Solution.—R. A. of Procyon 7h. 30m. 33s.--24h.
31 30' 33"
R. A. of Sun, 24th of Febr. 22 29 I
Ans. 9 1 32
That is, 1m. 32s. past 9 o'clock in the evening.
Ex. 2.-At what time will Denebola pass the meridian on
the first of April?
Solution.—R. A. of Denebola is 11h. 40' 32"
R. A. of Sun, April 1, 0 41 25
Ans. 10 59 7
That is, at 59 minutes, 7 seconds past 10 in the evening.
Ex. 3.—At what time on the first day of each month, from
January to July, will Alcyone, or the Pleiades, pass the me-
ridian." *
Ex. 4. At what time will the Dog Star, or Sirius, culmi-
mate on the first day of January, February, and March?
Ex. 5. How much earlier will Spica Virginis pass the
meridian on the 4th of July, than on the 15th of May ?—
Ans. 3 hours, 25 minutes.
PROBLEMS, 155
PROBLEM VII.
TO FIND WHAT STARS WILL BE ON OR NEAREST THE MERIDIAN
AT ANY GIVEN TIME,
RULE.
Add the given hour to the Sun's right ascension, found in
Table III., and the sum will be the right ascension of theme-
ridian, or mid-heaven; and then find in Table II. what star's
right ascension corresponds with, or comes nearest to it, and
that will be the star required.
ExAMPLE. I.--What star will be nearest the meridian at
9 o'clock in the evening of the 1st of September 7
Solution.—Sun's right ascension 1st September,
10h 40' 30"
Add the time from noon 9 0 0
Right ascension of the meridian 19h 40' 30"
Now all the stars in the heavens which have this right as-
cension, will be on the meridian at that time : On looking
into Table II, the right ascension of Altair, in the Eagle,
will be found to be 19h. 40m. ; consequently Altair is on
the meridian at the time proposed ; and Delta, in the Swan,
is less than two minutes past the meridian.
Ex. 2.-Walking out in a bright evening on the 4th of Sep-
tember, I saw a very brilliant star almost directly over
head; I looked on my watch, and it wanted 20 minutes of
8; required the name of the star 7
Solution —Suns’ declination 4th of September,
10h 51' 22”
Add the time from noon 7 40 0
Gives R. A. of Lyra, nearly is 31 22
Ex. 3.-About 84 minutes after 8 in the evening of the 11th
of February, I observed a bright star on the meridian, a lit-
tle north of the equinoctial, and 1 minute before 9, a still
brighter one, further south; required the names of the stars?
156 PROBLEMS,
PROBLEM VIII.
To FIND WHAT STARs will, CULMINATE AT 9 o'cLock IN THE
EVENING OF ANY DAY IN THE YEAR.
RULE.
Against the day of the month in Table IV., find the right
ascension of the mid-heaven, and all those stars in Table II.
which have the same, or nearly the same right ascension,
will culminate at 9 P. M. of the given day.
ExAMPLE 1.—What star will culminate at 9 in the evening
of the 26th of March
Solution.—I find the right ascension of the meridian, at 9
o'clock in the evening of the 26th of March, is 9h 19' 37";
and on looking into Table II., I find the right ascension of
Alphard in the heart of Hydra, is 9h 19' 23". The star is
Alphard.
Ex. 2.-What star will culminate at 9 in the evening of
the 28th of June? Ans. Aphacca.
PROBLEM IX.
To FIND THE SUN's LoNGITUDE OR PLACE IN THE ECLIPTIC,
ON ANY GIVEN DAY,
RULE.
On the lower scale, at the bottom of the Planisphere,
(Plate VIII.) look for the given day of the month; then the
sign and degree corresponding to it on the scale immediate-
ly above it, will show the sun's place in the ecliptic.
ExAMPLE 1.-Required the sun's longitude, or place in
the ecliptic, the 16th of September.
Solution.—Over the given day of the month, September
16th, stands 5 signs and 23 degrees, nearly, which is the
sun's place in the ecliptic at noon on that day; that is, the
sun is about 23 degrees in the sign Virgo.
N. B. If the 5 signs be multiplied by 30, and the 23 degrees be added to
it, it will give the longitude in degrees, 173.
PROBLEMS, * 157
Ex. 2.-Required the sun's place in the ecliptic at noon,
on the 10th of March.
PROBLEM X.
Given THE SUN's LONGITUDE, or PLACE IN THE ECLIPTIC,
TO FIND HIS RIGHT ASCENSION, AND DECLINATION.
RULE.
Find the Sun's place in the ecliptic (the curved line which
runs through the body of the planisphere) and with a pair of
compasses take the nearest distance between it and the near-
est meridian, or hour circle, which being applied to the grad-
fuated scales at the top or bottom of the planisphere, (measur-
ing from the same hour circle,) will show the sun's right as-
cension. Then take the shortest distance between the sun’s
place in the ecliptic and the nearest part of the equinoctial,
and apply it to either the east or west marginal scales, and it
will give the sun's declination:
ExAMPLE 1.-The sun's longitude, September 16th, 1833,
is 5 signs, 23 degrees, nearly ; required his right ascension,
and declination.
Solution.—The distance between the sun's place in the
ecliptic and the nearest hour circle being taken in the com-
passes, and applied to either the top or bottom graduated
scales, shows the right ascension to be about l l hours 35
minutes: and the distance between the sun's place in the
ecliptic, and the nearest part of the equinoctial being applied
to either the east or west marginal scales, shows the decli-
nation to be about 2°45' which is to be called north, bécause
the sun is to the northward of the equinoctial : hence the Sun's
right ascension, on the given day at noon, is about 11 hours
35 minutes, and his declination 2° 45' N.
Ex. 2.-The sun’s longitude, March 10th, 1833, is 11
signs, 19 degrees, nearly ; required his right ascension and
declination ?
Ans. R. A. 23 h. 21 min. Decl. 4°11' nearly.
O
158 PROBLEMIS.
PROBLEM XI.
TO FIND THE RIGHT ASCENSION OF THE MERIDIAN AT ANY
GIVEN TIME,
RULE.
|
Find the sun's place in the ecliptic by problem IX. and his
right ascention by problem X., to the eastward of which,
count off the given time from noon, and it will show the right
ascension of the meridian, or mid-heaven.
ExAMPLE 1.-Required the right ascension of the meridi-
an 9 hours 25 minutes past noon, September 16th, 1833.
Solution.—By problems IX. and X., the sun's right ascen-
sion at noon of the given day, is 11 hours 35 minutes; to the
eastward of which, 9 hours and 25 minutes (the given time)
being counted off, shows the right ascension of the meridian
to be about 21 hours.
Ex. 2.-Required the right ascension of the meridian at
6 hours past noon, March 10th, 1833.7
Solution.—By problems IX. and X. the sun's right ascension
at noon of the given day, is 23 hours and 21 minutes; to the
eastward of which, the given time, 6 hours being counted off,
shows the right ascension of the meridian to be about 5 hours
21 minutes.
REMARK.—In this example, it may be necessary to observe, that where
the eastern, or left hand extremity of the planisphere leaves off, the west-
ern, or right hand extremity begins; therefore, in counting off the given
time on the top or bottom graduated scales, the reckoning is to be trans-
ferred from the left, and completed on the right, as if the two outside edges
of the planisphere were joined together.
PROBLEM XII.
TO FIND WHAT STARS WILL BE oN or NEAR THE MERIDIAN
AT ANY GIVEN TIME.
RULE.
Find the right ascension of the meridian by Problem XI.
over which lay a ruler, and draw a pencil line along its
PROBLEMS, 159
*
edge from the top to the bottom of the planisphere, and it
will show all the stars that are on or near the meridian.
ExAMPLE 1.-Required what stars will be on or near the
meridian at 9 hours 25 minutes past noon, Sept. 16th, 1833?
Solution.—The right ascension of the meridian by Problem
XI. is 21 hours: this hour circle, or the line which passes
up and down through the planisphere, shows that no star
will be directly on the meridian at the given time; but that
Alderamin will be a little to the east, and Deneb Cygni,
a little to the west of it; also Zeta Cygni, and Gamma and
Alpha in the Little Horse, very near it on the east.
PROBLEM XIII.
To FIND THE EARTH's MEAN DISTANCE FRO 1 THE
SUN, -
RULE. -
As the Sun's horizontal parallax is to radius, so is the
semi-diameter of the earth to its distance from the Sun.
By Logarithms.-As tangent of the sun's horizontal par-
allax is to radius, so is the Earth's semi-diameter to her
mean distance from the Sun.
8".5776:206264.8 :: 3962 : 95,273,869 miles.
By Logarithms.
As tangent of Sun's horizontaſparallax, 87.5776 = 5.6189407
Is to radius, or 90°, = 10.0000000
So is the Earth's semidiameter, 3962, - 3.5979145
To the Earth’s distance, 95,273,869 = 7.9789738
PROBLEM XIV.
TO FIND THE DISTANCE OF ANY PLANET FROM THE SUN,
THAT OF THE EARTII BEING KNOWN.
RULE.
Divide the square of the planet's sidereal revolution round
the Sun, by the square of the Earth's sidereal revolution,
and multiply the cube root of the quotient by the Earth's
mean distance from the Sun. f
160 PROBLEMIS.
By Logarithms.--From twice the logarithm of the plan-
et's sidereal revolution, subtract twice the logarithm of the
Earth's sidereal revolution, and to one third of the remain-
der, add the logarithm of the Earth's mean distance from
the Sun.
ExAMPLE.—Required Mercury's mean distance from the Sun, that of the
Earth being 95,273,869 miles. g
Mercury's sidereal revolution is 87.969.258 days, or 7600543".89.12: The
Earth's sidereal revolution is 365.256374417 days, or
3155S 15 1".5 7600543.9
31558151/.5 7600543.9
sºmsºmºsº
995916962096952.25 by which divide 57768267575827.21 . . . .
and the quotient will be 0.052005106713292, the cube root of which is
0.3870977, and this multiplied by 94,881,891, gives 36,727,607 miles, for
Mercury's distance from tha sun. This problem may be performed by lo-
garithms in as many minutes as the former method requires hours.
Mercury's Sid. Rev. 7600543".9 log. = 6.8808447 × 2 13.7616894.
Earth's Sid. Rev. 31558151" log. = 7.4991302 × 2 14.9982604.
+)-27634290
1.5878097
Add. log. of the Earth's mean distance, 7.9789738
Mercury's distance, 36,880,422. Ans. 7,5667535
lf the pupil have not already learned the use of logarithms, this problem
will satisfy him of their unspeakable advantage over all other modes of
computation. By reviewing the above calculation, he will perceive that
instead of multiplying 31558151".5 by itself, he need only multiply its loga-
rithms by two 1 and, instead of extracting the cube root of 0.058005106713292,
he need only divide its ogarithm by three ſ and, instead of multiplying
0.3870977 by 95,273,869, he need only add their logarithms together. He
need not think himself a dull scholar, iſ by the former method he come to
the true result in five hours; nor remarkably quick, if by the latter he
come to it in five minutes.
PROBLEM XV.
TO FIND THE HOURLY MOTION OF A PLANET IN ITS ORBIT,
RULE.
Multiply the planet's mean distance from the Sun by 6,
2831853, and divide the product by the time of the planet's
sidereal revolution, expressed in hours, and the decimals of
an hour. -
By Logarithms.—Add 0,7981799 to the logarithm of the
planet's mean distance from the Sun, and from the sum sub-
PROBLEMS, 161
tract the logarithm of the planet's revolution expressed in
hours.
ExAMPLE.—Required the Earth's hourly motion in its orbit.
Log. of Earth's distance = 7.9789738+0.7981799 = 8.7771537
Subtract log. of Earth's revolution 3.9428090
Gives Earth's horary motion, 68,288 miles, = 4.8343447
PROBLEM XVI.
TO FIND THE HOURLY MOTION OF A PLANET ON ITS AXIS.
#
RULE.
Multiply the diameter of the given planet by 3.14159,
and divide the product by the period of its diurnal rotation.
By Logarithms.-Add 4.0534524 to the logarithm of the
planet's diameter, and from the sum subtract the logarithm
of its diurnal rotation, expressed in seconds.
Earth's diameter, 7924 log. = - 3.8989.445
Add log. of 3600"—H log. of 3.14159 = 4.0534524
7.9523969
Subtract log. diurnal rotation, 23 h. 56/4”.09 = 4.9353263
Ans. 1040.09 miles = 3.0170706
PROBLEM XVII.
TO FIND THE RELATIVE MAGNITUDE OF THE PLANETS.
RULE.
Divide the cube of the diameter of the larger planet, by
the cube of the diameter of the less. *.
By Logarithms.--From three times the logarithm of the
larger, subtract three times the logarithm of the less.
Exºris-How much does the size of the Earth exceed that of the
Moon
Earth's diameter, 7912 log. 3,898.2863X3 = 11.6948589
Moon's diameter, 2160 log. 3,3343376 × 3 = 10.0030128
The Earth exceeds the Moon, 49.1865 times. Ans. 1.6918461
In this example, 97.12 miles is assumed as the mean between the Earth's
jºrial and polar diameter; the former being 7924, and the latter 7898
(8º,
o”
162 PROBLEMS,
PROBLEM XVIII.
TO FIND THE PROPORTION OF SOLAR LIGHT AND HEAT AT
- EACH OF THE PLANETS,
RULE.
Divide the square of the planet's greater distance from
the Sun, by the square of the less.-Or, subtract twice the
logarithm of the greater distance, from twice the logarithm
of the less. i
ExAMPLE.—How much greater is the sun's light and
heat at Mercury, than at the Earth
Log. of Earth's distance 7.9789738X2 – 15.9599476
— of Mercury's 7,5667959x2 = 15,1335918
Ans. 6.6736 timés greater = 0.8243558,
PROBLEM XIX.
To FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE PLANETs,
RULE. '
Multiply the diameter of the planet by 3.14159; or, add:
the logarithm of the planet's diameter to 0.4971499.
PROBLEM XX.
TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE PLANETARY
RBITS,
RULE.
Multiply the planet's mean distance from the sun, by 6,
2831858: or, to the logarithm of the planet's mean dis-
tance, add 0.7981799, and the sum will be the logarithm of
the answer.
PROBLEMs. 163
PROBLEM XXI.
TO FIND IN WII.A.T TIME ANY OF THE PLANETS WOULD FALL
TO THE SUN IF LEFT TO THE FORCE OF GRAVITATION
ALONE •
RULE.
Multiply the time of the planet's sidereal revolution, by
0.176776; the result will be the answer.
By Logarithms.—From the logarithm of the planet's si-
dereal revolution, subtract 0.7525750, and the remainder
will be the logarithm of the answer, in the same denomina-
tion as the sidereal revolution.
Required the times, respectively, in which the several planets would fall
to the sun by the force of gravity. *

Planets would fall to Days. H. M. S. Logarithms.
the Sun.
Mercury, , 15 13 13 16 6.1282686
Venus, 39 17 19 22 6.53554.24
Earth, 64 13 38 55 6.7465357
Mars, 121 10 36 3 7.0208817
Jupiter, 765 21 33 35 7.8206849
Saturn, 1901 23 24 4 8.2157186
Herschel, 5424 16 52 I 8.6708897
Moon to the Earth, 4 19 54 57 5,6204459

Tabular Elements of the Solar System.
Sidereal Revolu- f - -
Nºne tgº.ºn LOgarithms. Trºom piº, s, Relative distances. Logarithms.
Mercury, 87.969,258U1.944330,930.294 36,880,422.349075877.566795,885867| 0.387099031323.1.587822,083445
Venus, 224.70078692.351604,479472 68,914,654.842454897.838311,585319|| 0.723332175563|1.859337,782897
Earth, 365,25637442,562597,805126 95,273,868,867748557,978973,802422, 1.000000000000|0.090000,000000
Mars, 686,97964582.836943,867587] 145,168,094.8928147118.161871,177396 1.5236926621960.182897,374974
Vesta, 1325,74310003.12.2459,408208 225,016,762.147146008.352214,871143| 2.3617888600640.373.241,068721
Juno, 1592,66080003.202123,345262. 254,287,002.55155636|8.405324,162513 2.6690.10984581|0.426350,360091
Ceres, 1681.39310003.225669,267668. 263,646,156.30912 1768.421021,444117| 2.7672451999.940.442047,641695
Pallas, 1686.5388000|3:226996.342519, 264,183,786.59075400|8.421906,160684 2.7728881983140.442932,358262
Jupiter, 4332.5848.2123.636747,074052 495,533,836.870429508 695073,315039| 5.201.1516143870.716099,5126.17
Saturn, 10759,2198.1744.031780,779676 908,717,975.0652681618,958429,118755 9.537956061.453 0.979455,316333
Herschel, 30686.82082964,486951,895561|1827,580,558.254995.259.261876,52937.919.182390512469 1282902,726957
Names of the Planets, &c., º*; * Resºlame. ºº Comparative Volumes. *. ºlon 1. ºt.
/ //
Sun, 32 1.8000 112,02434 887,681 1405844.16195
Mercury, 6.4600 .37656 2,984 .05339 109,757 §§§
Venus, 16.5000 .96181 7,621 .88974 80,293 1.91128
Earth, 17, 1552 1.00000 7,924 1.00000 68,288 1.00000
Mars, 8.1400 .53278 4,222 ..15123 55,322 —2.32164
Vesta, .5824 .03395 ,269 .00004 44,435 —5.57805
Juno, ve * & * 1.0158 .17580 1,393 ; .00543 41,799 —7.12362
Ceres, . e e e 3.4250 . .19964 1,582 .00796 41,051 r—7.65764
Pallas, . tº e tº 4.8740 .25429 2,025 .01669 41,009 –7.86800
Jupiter, 3 6.7400 10.88530 86,255 1289.81000 29,943 –27.05197
Saturn, 2 57.4400 10.34320 81,954 1106.5400 ) 22,111 –90,97260
Herschel, 1 14.4000 4.33688 34,363 81.57020 15,592 —367.97400
TABLE I.
Containing the names of the Constellations, the number and magnitude
of the Stars in each, and the days on which they come to the merid-
ian at 9 o'clock in the evening.


3–
Q) - Magnitudes.
º -
5|Month. & Constellations. R. A. º; §:
z ſº 1 |2|3|4|5|| 6
1 Jan. 4:Eridanus, 62O |10o S. 84 - 1 || 1 || 1 ſ 27|20; 57
2. 6; Reticulus, 62 62 S.: 10 || 0 || 0 || 2: 3| 2 | 5
3 9:Taurus, 65 |16 N. 141 || 1 || 1 || 4 || 8|23
4 11; Brandenburgh Sceptre, 67 || 15 S. 3
5 12; Praxiteles, 68 |40 S. 16 - 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 4 || 18
6 12; Camelopard, 68 |70 N.: 58 0 || 0 || 0 || 6 ||25 || 42
7 18: Auriga, 75 |45 N. 66 : 1 || 1 || 0 || 9 |20) 26
8 18 Sword Fish, 75 |62 S. 6 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 4 || 24
Q išions Mense, 76 |72 S. 30 * 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 30
10 23;Lepus, the Hare, S0 | 18 S. 19 || 0 || 0 || 3| 7 || 3 || 13
11 23. Orion, 80 || 0 78 #2 || 4 || 315||18 || 36
12 26: Painter's Horse, 84 |55 S. 8 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 39
13 #Noah's Dove, S5 |35 S. 10 ; 0 || 1 || 1 || 2 || 4 || 53
14 Feb. 16% Canis Major, 105 |20 S.; 31 1 || 4 || 2 || 7 || 7 || 36
15 §ſº. 110 || 0 || 31 : 0 || 0 || 0 | 7 || 7 | 12
16 23 Gemini, 111 |32 N. 85 - 1 || 2 || 4 || 7 |13| 27
17 23:The Lynx, 111 #50 N.; 44 0 || 0 || 0 || 3 ||5|| 25
18 27; Argo Navis, 115 50 S. 64 || 2 || 4 || 9|12|37 |2S9
19|March. 4 Canis Minor, 120 5 N. 14 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 3 || 9
20 12; Flying Fish, 127 |68 S. 8 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 6 || 8
21 13 Cancer, 128 20 N. 83 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 3 || 8 || 11
2.2 15 Mariner's Compass, ...}0 |30 S. 4 - 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 2 || 13
23 25; Hydra, 139 || 8 S. 60 || 0 || 1 || 0 |13||16| 45
24|April. l{Séxtans, 145 || 0 41 - 0 || 0 || 0 || 6 || 36
25 6;Leo Minor, 150 |35 N.; 53 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 5 ||10| 39
26 6; Leo Major, 150 | 15 N. 95 || 2 || 2 || 6′15||12| 47
27 6}Air Pump, 150 |32 S. 3 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 2 | 18
28 9;Ursa Major, 153 |60 N. 87 I | 3 || 7 |13|31 || 37
29 16: Robur Carroli, 159 |50 S. 12
33 26;Crater, the Cup, 168 || 15 S.; 31 || 0 || 0 || 0 ||10| 9 || 14
34|May, 3;Chameleon, 175 |78 S. 10 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 6 || 35
35 I l;The Cross, 183 |60 S. 5 || 1 || 2 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 12
36 13:Conna Berenices, 185 (26 N. 43 || 0 || 0 || 0|13||13| 17
37 13:Corvus, the Crow, lS5 | 15 S. 9 || 0 || 0 || 3 || 2 || 2 | 2
38 135southern Fly, 185 |68 S. 5 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 4 || 0 || 17
39 ;39r Caroli, 191 |39 N. 3
40 23:Virgo, 195 || 5 N.: 110 || 1 || 0 || 6|10|16| 71
41 28 Asterion et Chara, 200 |40 N. 25 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 7 || 15
28;Centaurus, * 200 |50 S. 35 || 2 || 1 || 6|10|14|100
42|June. 9}Bootes, 212 20 N. 54 || 1 || 0 || 7|10|18 || 30
43 19:Compasses, 222 |64 S. 4 || 0 || 0 : 0 1 || 1 || 8
44| 21 Mons Maenalus, 225 || 5 N., 11
45 |ºilbra, 226 || 8 S. 51 || 0 || 1 || 3|12| 4 || 27
46 26. Lupus, the Wolf, 230 |45 S.L. 24 || 0 || 0 || 3| 3|18 || 29
47|July. lºorona Borealis, 235 |30 N. 21 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 5 || 9 || 5
48l IHUrsa Minor, 235 |75 NH 24 10 || 1 || 2 }|. 4
TABLE I.—Continued.
Month.
cº
ſº
Constellations.
|
July.
;Sept.
August.
l:The Serpen
*ś. i. t,
8|Euclid's Square,
10|Scorpio,
18}Bird of Paradise,
21 Ara, the Altar,
21;Hercules,
26 Serpentarius,
5:Draco,
ãºrus,
10|Scutum Sobieski,
iſſau. Poniatowski,
13:Corona Australis,
13;Telescopium,
fgifyra. the Harp,
21 Sagittarius,
29;Antinous,
1}Sagitta,
l;Aquila,
6°Fox and Goose,
9. The Peacock,
15;Delphinus,
18°Cygnus,
18°Capricorn,
18 Hadley’s Quadran.
23 Microscopium,
23:The Indian,
24: Equulus,
10.The Crane,
15 Aquarius,
15|Southern Fish,
13; ſhe Lizard,
18:Cepheus,
20; Pegasus,
9|American Goose,
Officina Sculptoria.
Pisces, w
20|Phoenix,
22|Cassiopeia,
231Andromeda,
§ #. r
riangulum,
6|Hydrus,
Aries,
10 Triangulum Min.
17|Horologium,
17|Musca,
19|Chemical Furnace,
|
21Caput Medusae,
23|Perseus,
R. A. th: of Magnitudes.
“nation. Stars. — --
1 | 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6
235°100 N. 64 || 0 || 1 || 9 5 340
238 (65 S. 5 || 0 || 1 || 2 || 0 1 16
242 |45 S. 12 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 3 25
244 (26 S. 44 || 1 || 1 || ||10| 429
252 75 S.; 11 || 0 || 0 | Q Q 216
255 |55 S. 9 - 0 || 0 || 3 || 3| 130
255 32 N. 113 jū|I|S|1335|46
260 |13 N.S. 74 ; 0 || 1 || 5 ||10| 9j42
270 |66 N.; SO | 0 || 4 || 7 |12|25!32
271 |22 N. |
275 10 S. |
275 || 7 N. 16 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 3 1/12
278 |40 S. 12 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 5 10
278 |40 S. 9 || 0 || 0 || 0 3| 6′30
283 38 N.; 21 || 1 || 0 |2|2|,612
5 |35 S. 69 0 | 0 || 5|10|12.59
292 ()
295 (18 N. 18 0 || 0 || 0 || 4 || 0 15
295 || 8 N. 71 | 1 || 0 || 9 || 7 || 1438
300 25 N. 35 || 0 || 0 || 0 5||1321
302 |68 S.; 14 § 0 || 1 || 2 3 480
308 |15 N. 18 0 || 0 || 5 || 2:11
308 |42 N.: 81 : 0 || 1 || 6′ 11||16' 49
310 |20 S. 51 | 0 || 0 || 3| 3| 7 || 4
310 0 & #3 || || || 9 º'
315 (35 S. 10 : 0 || 0 || 0 0 1 12
315 $55 S. 12 : 0 || 0 || || 1 || 2:34
316 || 5 Nº. 10 || 0 || 0 || 0 4|| 1 | 5
330 |45 §.; 13 ; 0 || 1 || 2 2' 6'41
335 ||14 S.; 108 || 0 || 0 || 4 || 7 ||38.59
335 30 S.; 24 : 1 || 0 || 2 5| 9:19
336 43 N. 16 0 || 0 || 0 3| 7 || 7
33S 65 N. -
340 14 N. 89 iſ |3|3| 9,145)
§ 66 s: , ; 0 || 0 || || 2 553
3 |3S $.; 12 : 0 || 0 || 0} {} 529
5 10 Nº. 113 : Q |Q|13 #2863
10 50 S.; 13 : 0 || 1 || 1 || 3i 763
12 60 N.; ; ; 0 || 0 § 3 ;
14 34 Nº. 66 : 0 || 3 || 2:12:15:34
25 | 12 S.: 97 0 || 2 || 7 |13'11}66
27 |32 N.H 16 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 3 || 7
28 |68 S.: 10 || 0 || 0 || 2 3 2.38
30 22 N. 66 || 0 || 1 || || 2 | 6|22
2 28 N. 5
40 |60 S. 12 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 239
40 |27 N.; 4 ; 0 || 0 || 1 || 2 | 1
42: 30 S. 14 : 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 | 243
4 |40 N.
3 4.5 N, 59 ſolz" 410,1431

TABLE II.
Exhibiting the Right Ascension and Declination of the principal
Fixed Stars, and the time of their coming to the Meridian.
Those to which S is annexed are in South declination; the others are in North
declination.

3. Names of the Stars. # Alºn. Declination. º:º #
H. M, S. O Af //
1|e Persei, 3 || 3 47 8 |39 31 37 Jan.' | 1
2|), Eridani, 3 || 3 50 15 |13 59 4S. 2
3% Eridani, 3| 4 3 31 7 16 32S. 5
4|s Tauri, 3| 4 13 53 |18 8, 18 8
5|& Tauri, Aldebaran, | 1 || 4 26 21 |16 10 4 10.
# º Capell ; 4 39 35 5 18 - OS. 13
4|a. Aurigae, Capella, 5 4 22 45 49 10 19
34 Orionis, Rigel, 1 || 5 6 31 || 8 23 55S. 20
93 Tauri, El Nath, 2 || 5 15 44 |28 27 39 22
10|n Orionis, 3 || 5 15 36 2 33 17S. 22
11|y Orionis, Bellatrix, 2 || 5 16 11 || 6 11 32 22
# Leporis, Nº. 3 || 5 21 22 |20 53 46S. 23
Orionis, Mintaka, 2 39S. 24
14|2 Leporis, Arneb, 3 ; . . 1% ; § 24
13| Orionis, Anilam, 2 || 5 27 AA || 1 18 49S. 25.
10%. Tauri, , , , 3 5 27 53 |21 2 7 25
17& Orionis, Alnitak, 2 || 3 33 30 || 2 2 6s. 26
182 Columbae, Phaet, 2 || 5 33 9 |34 10 2S. 26.
192: Orionis, Saiph, 3 5 39 29 || 9 44 2S. 27
2013 Columbae, 3 || 5 45 6 |35 50 12S. 29
212. Orionis, Betelguese 1 || 5 46 8 7 22 6 29
22,33Aurigae, Menkalina 2 5 47 17 |44 55 24 29
23m Geminorum, Tejat;|3.4| 6 4 54 |22 23 1 | Feb. 3
24A, Geminorum, 3 || 6 12 54 |22 35 48 4.
25% Canis Majoris, 3| 6 14 4 |29 59 36S. 5.
268 Ca. Maj., Mirzam, 2 | 6 15 23 |17 52 41S. 5
27|2 Navis, Canopus, 1 || 6 20 15 |52 36 23S. 6
33 y Gemino, Alhena, 3| 6 28 4 |16 32 18 8.
292 Canis Maj., Sirius, 1 || 6 37 47 |16 29 27S 11
30s, Canis Maj.,Adhara, 3 || 6 53 IA 28 44 55S 15.
31|& Geminorum. 3| 6 53 53 |20 48 36 15
#33 C. Maj., Muliphen, 3| 6 56 26 |15 23 20s 16.
333 C. Majoris, Wesen, 2 || 7 1 17 |26 7 53s 17
343 Gemino, Wasat, 3 || 7 10 T3 |22 17 6 19
35 ºr Argo Navis, 3| 7 11 7 ||36 48 7S 19
36|| C. Maj., Aludra, {2| 7 17 16 |28 58 50s 21
37|2 Gemino, Castor, 2 || 7 23 56 |32 I.4 52 23
38|a. C. Minor, Procyon, 1 || 7 30 33 || 5 38 55 24
39|x Ar. Navis, Markab, 3 || 7 32 17 |26 26 22S. 25
40% Gemino., Pollux, 12 || 7 35 5 |28 25 28 26
TABLE II.-Continued.


—k
amº-º-º:
* | 8p || Right • . •
C S$ 4 ~ *
2. Names of the Stars. i., § Ascension. Declination. º: º
*. **sº H. M. s. 9 J A z *.
41% Argo Navis, 3| 7 42 24 26 35S. Feb.
42 & Argo Navis, Naos. 2 7 57 44 39 32 3S. Mar.
435, Argo Navis, 2| 8 4 23 46 50 438.
44° Argo Navis, 2.3| 8 19 5 58 58 33S.
45 d' Argo Navis, 2.3| 8 40 7 54 5 43S.
464 Ursae Majoris, 3| 8 47 47 48 41 50
472 Cancri, Acubens, 3.4 8 49 45 12 3) .9
º Argo Navis, 23| 9 || 51 42 45 40s.
49% A. N., Maia Placid. 1| 9 12 57 69 I 54S.
502. Argo Navis, 2.3| 9 16 59 54 17 53S.
512 Hydra, Alphard, 2| 9 19 23 || 7 56 14S.
526 Ursae Majoris, 3| 9 21 47 53 26 45
53's Leonis, 3| 9 36 22 24 32 26 -
544, Leonis, Rasal Asad. 3| 9 42 56 26 47 32 |April.
55, Leonis, 3.4| 9 58 13 17 34 34
56 a Leonis Regulus, || 9 59 28 12 46 52
573. Ursae Majoris, 3| 10 6 58 43 44 49
585 Leonis, Aldhafara, 3| 10 7 23 24 14 53
595, Leonis, Al Gieba, 2.3| 10 10 45 20 41 16
60. U. M., El Phekrah, 3| 10 11 55 42 20 15
61|& Leonis Minoris, 3| 10 28 47 32 50 39
62.9 Argo Navis, 2.3| 10 37 12 63 31 14S.
63% Argo Navis, 2| 10 38 36 58 48 34S.
64 & Crateris, Alkes, 3.4 10 51 35 |17 24 36S.
65.8 Ursae Maj., Merak, 2 10 51 42 57 I6 35
66|a. Ursae Maj., Dubhe, 2 10 53 21 62 39 3
674 Leonis, Zozma, 3| 11 5 13 |21 27 32
68|9 Leonis, ... 3| 11 5 39 |16 20 39
69|x Draconis, Giansar, 3| 11 20 17 |70 15 3
702 Leonis, Denebola, g|II ao 32 1530 22 Timay
713 Virginis, Zavijava, 3| II 42 0 || 2 42 43
72× U. Maj., Phach'd, 2 II 45 I 54 37 25
733 Centauri, 2.3| 11 59 44 49 30 15S.
744 Crucis, 3| 12 6 21 57 32 4S.
75|J Ursae M., Megrez., 3| 12 7 7. 57 58 46
767 Corvi, 3| 12 7 38 16 36 42.S.
77|3 Crucis, 1| 12 17 23 (62 10 26S.
784 Corvi, Algorab, 3| 12 21 38 |15 34 49S.
792 Crucis, 2| 12 21 56 |56 10 22.S.
80% Corvi, 3| 12 25 39 |22 28 9S.

TABLE II.—Continued.


ę 89 ] Righl ;.,..,;.,., |On thel >,
3. Names of the Stars. $ Ascension. Declination. Merid. §
H. MI. 8 O. * a /
81|x Draconis, 312 26 23 170 42 38 | May. [15
825 Centauri, 2.3] 12 32 23 [48 2 23S. 16
835, Virginis, 3|12 33 37 | 0 31 55S. 17
84|3 Crucis, 2I12 38 3 |58 46 27S 18
85], Ur. Májoris, Alioth, 2/12 46 27 157 52 5 20
86|J Virginis, 3] 12 47 12 ] 4 18 31 20
87|. Cor-Caroli, 3| 12 47 57 [39 13 21 20
88|s Vir., Vindemiatrix, 3, 12 56 36 [11 51 32 22
89|y Hydræ, 3, 13 9 42 122 17 9S 26
9Q- Céntauri, 3] 13 10 48 [35 49 49S 26
91]: Virginis, Spica, 1| 13 16 24 [10 17 10S 27
92]< Ursæ Maj., Mizar, | 2|13 17 11 [55 17 59 28
93|3 Virginfs, 3| 13 25 36 | 0 15 43 30
94[* Centauri, 2.3113 29 20 [52 32 20S 31
95|n U. M., Benetnasch, 213 40 57 [50 8 58 | June. | 2
96|< Centauri, 3|13 45 11 [46 27 37S 3
97{h Bootis, 3| 13 46 32 | 19 14 39 4
98|Â Centauri, ^ || 12] 13 52 8 159 33 36S 5
99]* Draconis, Thubam, | 3| 13 59 52 [65 10 31 7
100* Bootis, Arcturus, 1| 14 8 3 [20 3 21 8
101[m Centauri, 2.3] 14 24 54 |41 25 0S 13
1021} Bootis, Segimus, 3] 14 25 17 [39 2 32 13
1031* Centauri, 1.2 14 28 58 [60 9 28S 14
104[* Lupi, 3| 14 30 46 146 39 47S 14
105|*e Bootis, Mirac, 3, 14 37 41 [27 47 2 16
106]* Libræ, Zubenesch, | 2.314 41 27 | 15 20 29S 17
10713 U. Mino., Kochah, | 3| 14 51 16 [74 50 17 19
10814 Bootis, Nekkar, 3114 55 12 [41 3 18 90
109]Â Libræ, Zubenelg, || 2.315 8 2 || 8 45 41S 23
110J Serpentis, 3| 15 26 32 | 11 6 14 28
111[a. C. Bor., Alphacca, | 2|15 27 37 [27 16 55 28
112|i Serpentis, Unuk, 2| 15 36 3 | 6 57 24 30
113]Â Serpentis, 3|15 38 29 [16 57 7 | July. | 1
114]s Serpentis, 3|15 42 36 59 7 2
1151), Serpentis, 3115 48 26 (16 12 59 3
116jzr Scorpii, 3|15 48 4 125 37 11S 3
11713 Scorpii, ' 3115 50 28 [22 8 18S 4
1Í8|Â Scorpii, 2|15 55 44 | 19 20 28S 5
119'6 Draconis, '3115 58 37 159 0 32 6
TABLE II—Continued

d #9 Right s ... wº ! -,
;: | Names of the Stars. = |Ascension. Declination. º º fi
H. M. S. O J A /
1204 Ophiu, Yed, or Jed. 316 5 36 || 3 15 18S. July. 7
121|s Ophiuchi, 3|16 9 39 || 4 16 37S. 8
122|) Hercules, 3.16 14 23 |19 33 1 9
123;& Scorpii, Antares, 1|16 19 10 |26 3 7S. 11
124|h Draconis, 316 2.1 12 |61 53 38 11
1254 Hercules, Rutilicus, 316 23 22 21 57 36 12
126 & Ophiuchi, 316 27 45 ||10 13 15S. 13
1273. Triang. Australis, 2.316 31 3 |68 42 23S. 14
128 & Herculis, 3|I6 34 59 |31 54 39 15
129; Scorpii, 3|16 39 4 |33 58 40S. * | 16
1304 I. Scorpii, 3|16 40 8 ||37 45 14S. 16
ižić scorpii, 3|16 42 52 |41 3 33S. 17
132 : Herculis, 3|16 54 14 |31 10 40 19
133'n Ophiuchi, 2.3' 17 0 50 15 30 35S. 21
1342 er., Ras Algethi, 2.317 7 2 ||14 35 17 23
135'ſ Herculis, 3|17 8 20 25 2 43 23
136 & Draconis, 317 8 23 65 55 12 23
1373, Arae, 3|17 18 57 49 43 54S. 24
1385 Scorpii, Lesath, [2.317 22 58 $6 58 24S. 27
1396 Scorpii, 3.17 25 20 |42 62 55S. 27
1402, Ophiu, Ras Alhag. 2.17 28 11 12 41 20 28
141 g Ophiuchi, Cheleb, 3|17 35 36 || 4 38 40 30
142 y Ophiuchi, 3|17 39 56 2 46 42 31
1437, Draconis, Rastaben, 2.317 52 44 |51 30 42 Aug. 3
144), 2 Sagittarii, 3|17 55 5 30 24 40S. 4
1454 Sagittarii, 3|18 || 0 1 |29 53 28S. 8
146, Sagittarii, 2.318 12 48 |34 27 14S. 8
1472. Lyrae, Vega, 1|18 26 11 38 38 () 12
1484 Ursae Minoris, 318 28 6 86 35 47 12
1492 Lyrae, .. 2.3|18 43 55 33 10 33 17
150% Sagittarii, 2|18 44 58 (26 29 42S. 17
1519 Serpentis, Alga, 3|18 47 36 || 3 59 20 18
1524 Lyrae, 3|18 49 6 |36 41 28 18
1533 Sagittarii, 3|18 52 1 |30 6 40S. 19
1547. Lyrae, Jugum., 3|18 52 11 |32 27 47 19
155|s Aquilae, 3|18, 52 26 ||14 50 4 19
1568 A., Deneb el Okab, 318 57 44 13 37 20 20
1577 Sagittarii, 3|18 59 54 |21 16 56S. 21
1582 Sagittarii, 3.4|19 12 19 |40 55 9S. 24
1593 Draconis, 3|19 12 29 |67 21 59 | 24

TABLE II.-Continued.

2.
sºme mºm-
On the
161
170
1S0
* 89 | Right • tº >,
d | Names of the Stars. ; Ascension. º Merid.];
* H. M, S O A A p
# , ºilº, 3|19 17 5 || 2 46 57 Aug. 26
|b Vulpeculae, 3.419 21 20 24 20 5 27
162/3 Cygni, Albireo, 3|19 24 17 27 36 51 28
163 y Aquilae, Tarazed, 319 38 19 10 12 48 31
1644 Cygni, 3|19 40 0 |44 43 25 | Sept. 1
1652 Aquilae, Altair, 1.2|19 42 38 || 8 26 2 1
166% Aquilae, Alshain, 3|19 47 7 || 5 59 47 3
1676 Aquilae, 320 2 38 || 1 18 39S. 7
1682. 1 Capri., Dshabeh, 320 8 23 |13 1 59S. 9
łºż 2 Capricorni, 320 8 47 13 3 16S. 9
g Capricorni, Dabih, 320 11 48 |15 18 15S. 10
IIlja Pavonis, 1.220 12 23 |57 15 42S. 10
1721), Cygni, Sa'dr, 3|20 16 11 39 43 32 11
173's Delphini, 3|20 25 32 10 44 29 13
1743 Delphini, Rotanen, | 3:20 29 29 |13 59 53 15
1752. Delphini, Scalovin, 320 31 53 |15 59 32 15
176; Delphini, 3|20 35 29 |14 28 53 16
177|2 Cygni, Deneb, 1,220 35 45 |44. 41 15 16
1787 Delphini, 320 38 29 |15 31 47 17
lſº Cygni, Gienah, 320 39 16 |33 20 16 17
& Cygni, 3|21 5 22 |29 32 45 25
1812. Cephei, Alderamin, 321 14 35 (61 52 45 27
1824 Aquarii, 3|21 22 46 || 6 18 9S 29
183|g Cephei, Alphirk, 3|21 26 28 69 49 43 || Oct. 2
184|y Capricorni, 3.21 30 45 17 24 48S. 3
185, Pegasi, Emif, 2.3|21 35 32 || 9 6 47 4
1863 Capricorni, 3|21 37 49 |16 52 33S. 9
187|2 Aquarii, 3|21 57 12 || 1 7 33S. 9
1883. Gruis, 221 57 40 47 45 38S. 11
1893. Cephéi, 3|22 5 5 57 22 59 13
1902. Aquarii, 3|22 12 38 || 2 13 40S. 16
1913 Piscis Australis, 3|22 21 50 |33 11 44S. 18
1924, Piscis Australis, 3|22 31 49 27 54 48S. 19
1933 Pegasi, 3|22 33 36 || 9 57 49 22
1913 Aquarii, scheat, #33 45 43 26 12 3is. 23
1952 Pisc. Aust.,Fomalh. 122 48 24 30 30 18S. 24
1984 Pegasi, Scheat, 2122 55 32 127 10 27 25
197, Pegasi, Markab, T22 56 27 |14 1837 | Nov. 3
TABLE II.--Continued.


c - bſ) Right g a - P-
: | Names of the Stars. : Asjon. Declination. º:; Ä
H. M. S. O ’’
1987 Cephei, Er Rai, 323 32 16 76 41 52 || Nov. 10
1991. Andromedae, Alph., 223 59 46 28 IO 9 10
2008 Cassiopeiae, Châph 3.24 0 36 58 13 47 11
2013. Pegasi, Algenib, 3| 0 4 39 ||14 15 22 14
2028 Hydrus, 3| 0 15 56 |78 12 7S. 14
203.” Phoenicis, 2.3| 0 18 1 |43 12 12S. 17
204° Andromedae, 3| 0 30 36 |29 56 0 17
205 & Cassiop., Schedir, 3| 0 31 5 55 37 13 18
206 & Ceti, Deneb Kaitós, 2 0 35 12 18 54 17S. 21
207 y Cassiopeia, 3| 0 46 41 |59 48 41 24
208.2 U. M. Alruccabah, 2.3] 1 0 19 |88 25 7 24
209 & Andro., Miraeh, 2 1 0 45 |34 44 10 28
210'ſ Cassio, Ruchbah, 3 1 14 57 (59 21 54 || Dec. 2
211|a. Eradani, Achernar, 1] 1 31 21 |58 12 37S. 4
212° Cassiopeiae, 3| 1 42 11 |62 50 42 4
213& Ceti, Baton Kaitos, 3] 1 43 35 |11 9 36S. 5
2143 Arietis, 3| 1 45 45 (20 59 30 7
2152 Piscium, El Rischa, 3 I 53 38 || 1 57 19 7
216?' Andro, Almaach, 2 1 53 54 41 31 32 8
2172. Arietis, or El Nath, 2 1 57 47 |22 40 11 11
2180 Ceti, Mira, 2] 2 10 36 || 3 43 59S. 15
2193 Ceti, 3| 2 30 38 || 0 23 15S. 15
2204 Ceti, 3| 2 31 31 |I2 34 49S; 16
221), Ceti, 3| 2 34 38 || 2 31 57 20
222), Persei, 3| 2 52 13 |52 50 46 20
223. Ceti, Menkar, 2| 2 53 33 3 25 54 21
224|3 Persei, Algol, var. 2 56 52 |40 18 30 23
225. Fornax Chemica, 3| 3 5 20 |29 39 50S. 23
2263 Eridani, 3| 3 7 31 || 9 26 31S. 25
227& Persei, Algeneb, 2 3 12 26 |49 15 38 27
2281* Eridani, 3| 3 25 32 10 1 26S. 29
2294 Persei, 3| 3 31 4 |47 14 54 30
2304 Eridani, 8] 3 35 31 ||10 20 16S. 30
231|| Pleiades, Alcyone, 3| 3 37 34 (23 35 4
232|& Persei, 3| 3 44 0 |31 23 26 || Jan. | 1
TABLE III.
Exhibiting the Sun's Right Ascension, in Time, for every day in the
year.
# January. [February. | March. April. May. June #
h. m. s. h. m. s.ſh In. S. h. m. s. h. m. s. h. m. s.
1 | 18 46 21|20 58 43 22 47 51 0 41 25|| 2 32 36|| 4 35 14 || 1
2 | 18 50 46|21 2 47 22 51 35| 0 45 3| 2 36 25 4 39 19 || 2
3 18 55 1121 6 50 22 55 19| 0 48 42. 2 40 14|| 4 43 25 3
4 18 59 35:21 10 53 22 59 3| 0 52 20, 2, 44 4| 4 47 31 4
5 | 19 3 59|2]. 14 54 23 2 46|| 0 55 59] 2 47 55 4 51 38 5
6 19 8 2221 18 55 23 6 28 0 59 57; 2 51 46|| 4 55 45 || 6
7 | 19 12 45|21 22 55 23 10 10| 1 3 16] 2 55 37| 4 59 52 || 7
8 19 17 7|21 26 54 23 13 52| 1 6 56; 2 59 30|| 5 3 59 || 8
9 || 19 21 20:21 30 53 23 17 33| 1 10 35' 3 3 22 5 8 7 || 9
10 |19 25 50.21 34 50 23 21 14|| 14 15, 3 T 16|-5 12 15; 10
II | 19 30 1121 384723 24 34 1 17 55 3 11 10 5 1624 11
12 19 34 31.21 42 4323 28 35. 1 21 35. 3 15 4 5 20 32 12
13 | 19 38 50'21 46 38 23 32 14| 1 25 15| 3 19 0| 5 24 41 || 13
J4 || 19 43 921 50 33 23 35 54. 1 28 56| 3 22 55| 5 28 50 | 14
13 |1947 272, 54.2123 33 34|| 32 38 326 52 5 32 53| 13
}{3 19 51 4521 58 20 23 43 13; 1 36 19| 3 30 49| 5 37 9 || 16
if |16 fig ºilº 3 13.23 46 52 1 40 Ti 334 46 5 4i 18, 17
iš |36 o 1833 6 433 30 3i i 43 44; 3 33 4 5 45 28 iá
19 20 4 33:22 9 55 23 54 9| 1 47 26, 3 42 43| 5 49 37 19
20 8 48.22 13 45 23 57 48] 1 51 10| 3 46 42 5 53 47| 20
21 |20 13 222 17.35 0 1 26, 1 54 53| 3 50 42 5 57 57| 21
33 |30 in 1533 3: 34 0 5 A 1 5s 37 3 54 42 6 3 7| 22
23 20 21 27, 22 25 13 0 8 43| 2 2 22 3 58 44, 6 6 16 23
24 20 25 39'22 29 1 0 12 21| 2 6 7| 4 2 45| 6 10 26 24
25 |20 29 5022 3248 0 1559 2 9 53| 4 - 6 47| 6 14 35 | 25
26 |20 34 0.22 36 35 0 19 37 2 13 39| 4 10 49 6 1844, 26
27 |20 38 922 40 21, 0 23 15] 2 17 25 4 14 52. 6 22 54| 27
28 20 42 18:22 44 6 0 26 53] 2 21 12 4 18 56|| 6 27 3| 28
29 |20 46 25 0 30 31|| 2 24 59| 4 23 O 6 31 11 || 29
30 |20 50 32 0 34 9| 2 28 47| 4 27 4|| 6 35 20 || 30
31 20 54 38 0 37 47 4 31 8 31
{
TABLE III.-Continued.



#
J
ul
y.
Sept.
Oct.
ſ
Nov.
T}ec.
h
;
i
|
i
i
;
:
}
I
::
h. m. s.
10 40 30
10 44 8
10 47 45
10 51 22
10 54 59
10 58 36
11 2 12
11 5 48
11 9 24
13 0
16 36
20 12
23 48
27 23
30 59
34 34
38 10
41 45
45 21
48 56
52 32
56 8
59 43
12 3 19
12 6 55
12 10 31
12 14 7
12 17 44
12 21 21
12 24 57
h. m. s.
12 28 35
12 32 12
12 35 50
12 39 28
12 43 6
12 46 45
12 50 24
12 54 4
12 57 44
13 I 24
13 5 5
13 847
13 12 29
13 16 12
13 19 55
13 23 38
13 27 23
13 31 8
13 34 53
13 38 39
13 42 26
13 46 13
13 50 1
13 53 50
13 57 39
14. 1 29
14 5 20
14 9 12
14 13 4
14 16 57
14 20 51
h. m. s.
14 24 45
14 28 41
14 32 37
14 36 34
14 40 32
14 44 30
14 48 30
14 52 30
14 56 31
15 0 34
15 4 37
15 8 41
15 12 45
15 16 51
15 20 57
15 25 5
15 29 13
15 33 22
15 37 32
15 41 42
15 45 54
15
15
15
16
16
54 19
58 33
2 47
7, 2
16 11 18
16 15 35
16 19 52
16 24 10
h. m. s.
16 28 29
16 32 48
16 37 8
16 41 29
16 45 50
16 50 12
16 54 34
16 58 57
17 3 20
17 7. 44
17 12 9
17 I6 33
17 20 58
17 25 24
17 29 49
17 34 15
17 38 41
17 43 8
17 47 34
17 52 1
17 56 27
50 6, 18 0 54
18 5 21
18 9 47
18 14 14
18 18 40
18 23 7
18 27 33
18 31 59
18 36 24
18 40 50
TABLE IV.
snowing the Right Ascension of the Mid-Heaven at 9 o'clock in the
evening, for every day in the year.

#
February. | March. May. June.
h. m. s. h. m. s. h. m. s. h. m. s. h. in. s. h. In. s.
3 46 21| 5 58 4° 7' 47 51| 9 41 25||11 32 36||13 35 14
3 50 46 6. 2 47 7 51 35 9 45 3|11 36 25||13 39 19
3 55 11 || 6 6 50 7 55 19| 9 48 42|11 40 14|13 43 25
3 59 35| 6 10 53| 7 59 3| 9 52 2011 44 4|13 47 31
4 3 59| 6 14 54 8. 2 46, 9 55 59|11 47 55||13 51 38
4 8 221 6 18 55, 8 6 28| 9 59 57|11 51 46||13 55 45
4 12 45| 6 22 55| 8 10 1010 3 16||11 55 37|13 59 52
4 17 7| 6 26 54 8 13 52|10 G 56||11 59 30|14 3 59
4 21 29| 6 30 53| 8 17 3310 10 35||12 3 22|14 8 7
4 25 50| 6 34 50| 8 21 14|10 14 15||12 7 16|14 12 15
4 30 11 6 38 47| 8 24 54|10 17 55|12 II 10|14 16 24
4 34 31|| 6 42 43| 8 28 3510 21 35||12 15 4|14 20 32
4 38 50 646 38 8 32 1410 25 1512 19 014 24 41
4 43 9| 6 50 33 8 35 54|10 28 56|12 22 55|14 28 50
4 47 27 6 54 27, 8 39 3410 32 38||12 26 52|14 32 59
4 51 45| 6 58 20 8 43 13|10 36 19|12 30 49|14 37 9
4 56 1| 7 2 12| 8 46 52|10 40 1 12 34 46|14. 41 18
5 0 18 7 6 4| 8 50 3110 43 4412 38 44|14 45 28
5 4 33| 7 9 55 8 54 910 47 26|12 42 43|14 49 37
5 8 48 7 13 45| 8 57 48|10 51 10|12 46 42|14 53 47
5 13 2. 7 17 35 9. 1 26|10 54 53|12 50 42|14 57 57
5 17 15|| 7 21 24 9 5 4|10 58 37|12 54 42|15 2 7
5 21 27| 7 25 13. 9 8 4311 2 2212 58 44; 15 6 16
5 25 39| 7 29 Iſ 9 12 21|11 6 7|13 2 45||15 10 26
5 29 50], 7 32 48, 9 15 59|11 9 53||13 6 47|15 14 35
5 34 0|| 7 36 35 9 19 37|11 13 39||13 10 49|15, 18 44
5 38 9| 7 40 21| 9 23 15||11 17 25||13 1.4 52|15 22 54
5 42 18; 7 44 6 9 26 53||11 21 12||13 18 56|15 27 3
5 46 25 9 30 31||11 24 59||13 23 0|I5 31 11
5 50 32 9 34 911 28 47|13 27 415 35 20
5 54 38 9 37 47 13 31
3.
àsee-
!
TABLE IV.-Continued.


July. August. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec
h. m. s. h. m. s. h. m. s. h. m. s. h. m. s. h. m. s.
15 39 2817 44 22|19 40 30|21 28 3523 24 45] 1 28 29
15 43 36||17 48 15|19 44 8121 32 1223 28 41|| 1 32 48
15 47 44|17 52 7|19 47 4521 35 50.23 32 37] 1 37 8
15 51 52.17 55 59|19 51 22|21 39 28.23 36 34|| 1 41 29
15 55 59 17 59 50 19 54 59|21. 43 6:23 40 32| 1 45 50
16 0 618 3 40|19 58 36|21 46 45'23 44 30| 1 50 12
16 4 12|18 7 30|20 2 1221 50 24.23 48 30|| 1 54 34
ić 8 1818 li 1926 5 4521 54 423 52 30 1 5857
16. 12 24|18 15 820 9 24|21 57 44; 23 56 31 2 3 20
16 16 3018 18 56.20 13 0122 1 24 () 0 34] 2 7 44
16 20 35||18 22 44120 16 36|22 5 5| 0 4 37 2 12 9
16 24 39.18 26 31120 20 1222 8 47| 0 8 41| 2 16 33
16 28 43|18 30 18:20 23 4822 12 29| 0 12 45] 2 20 58
16 32 47|18 34 420 27 23.22 16 12| 0 16 51] 2 25 24
16 36 50|18 37 49|20 30 59|22 19 55| 0 20 57| 2 29 49
1640 #31: 4) #3, #4 #: ; ; ; ; ; ; ; };
1644 53184; 1920 38 1932 : 23 9 : 13] 23: 41
1648 57.1849 320 41 45223.1 & 0 33 23, 243 8
1652 58.1852 4620 45 21:234 33 Q 37 33 24, 34
16 56 5919 56 2920 485622 3839| 0 41 42 252 1
17 O 59'19 0 12.20 52 3222 42 26; 045 54| 2 56 27
17 4.59.19 3 #420 56 822 46 13 Q 50 G| 3 0 64
17 85813 .7 3320 59 4322 50 1 0 34 13. 3 # 21
In 12 5619 II 1621 3 1922 53 50 0 58 33 3 947
17 16 5419 14 5721 6 5522 57 39| 1 2 47| 3 14 14
17 20 52.19 1837,21 10 3123 l 29, 1 7 2. 3 1840
17 24 4819 22 1721 14 723 5 20 1 11 18 323 7
17 28 44|19 25 56.21 17 4423 9 12 1 15 35 3 27 33
if 32 391929 3521 21 2123 13 4 i 1952 33i 59
17 36 34|19 33 1421 24 57|23 16 57| 1 24 10| 3 36 24
17 40 28|19 36 52 23 20 51 3 40 50
TABLE V.
Exhibiting the Sun's Declination for every day in the year.
3
January. February. March. April. May. June.
o 1 tº o 1 tº o it o 11 |o trio 1 tr
23 I 52 17 8 57| 7 39 11| 4 27 37|15 0 2222 1 44
22 56 45 16 51 46|| 7 16 22 4 50 4315 18 26|22 9 49
22 51 10 16 34 18, 6 53 27| 5 13 4415 36 1622 17 30
22 45 8 16 16 32 6 30 26|| 5 36 39|15 53 50|22 24 48
22 38 39 15 58 29| 6 7 20 5 59 28|16 11 8|22 31 43
22 31 43,1540 11| 5 44 9| 6 22 1116 28 102238 14
22 24 20, 15 21 36|| 5 20 53| 6 44 48|16 44 56|22 44 21
22 16 31||15 2 46|| 4 57 34|| 7 7 17|17 1 25|22 50 4
22 8 1614 43 (40|| 4 34 10| 7 29 40|17 17 37|22 55 23
21 59 34.14 24 20, 4 10 43| 7 51 54|17 33 32|23 0 19
21 50 27|14 4 45| 3 47 13| 8 || 4 || 17 49 10|23 4 50
21 40 55||13 44 56| 3 23 40|| 8 36 018 4 30|23 8 56
21 30 57|13 24 54|| 3 () 5, 8 57 50|18 19 31|23 12 39
21 20 34|13 439 2 36 28 9 19 3218 34 1423 15 56
21 9 47|12 44 11| 2 12 49 9 41 4|18 48 39|23 18 50
20 58 3512 23 30 1 49 9|10 2 27|19 2 4523 21 18
20 47 0|12 2 38|| 1 25 27|10 23 40|19 16 31|23 23 22
20 35 0|11 41 34|| 1 || 45|10 44 44|19 29 58|23 25 1
20 22 37|11 20 19| 0 38 311 5 36||19 43 623 26 15
20 9 51|10 58 53|S. 14 21|11 26 1819 55 5323 27 5
19 56 43|10 37 17||N. 9 2011 46 48|20 8 2023 27 30
19 43 1210 15 $1 0 33 112 7 820 20 26|23 27 29
19 29 19| 9 53 36|| 0 56 41|12 27 15|20 32 1223 27 4
19 15 4| 9 31 31|| 1 20 18|12 47 1020 43 36|23 26 15
19 O 28| 9 9 19| 1 43 54|13 6 5220 54 40.23 25 0
18 45 31|| 8 46 58] 2 7 28|13 26 21|21 5 21|23 23 21
18 30 14|| 8 24 59| 2 30 58|13 45 37|21 15 41|23 21 17
18 14 37 8 1 53| 2.54 2614 4 40|21 25 38|23 18 48
17 58 40 3 17 5014 23 2821 35 1423 15 55
17 42 24 3 41 10|14 42 221 44 27|23 12 38
in 35 50 | 4 4 26 21 53 17
*sº
I9 88 L 8& ſº º, . f'I gº 8 |39. I& 8II Ig
08 gy II & 99 LG Iggi g; gig ºf 6 9ſ 9 6 9.98 81 03
63 06 gl §3 #9 L& 1686 86 gl;0ſ 81 & 0I 8& 6 & 09 8I 63
83 |66 8I £& L& LI I& 6I g £I'9I gº I (93 6ſ 6 (06 W 6L 83
Ló |0I I& £698 9 I& 3 g; 31.39 Ig I Ig 0I 0I69 LI 6I L&
93 g6 3 & 1399 0388 & &I Ló 8 I 96 Ig QISI Ig 6|| 93
g3 8 gº £3 6ſ 8V 06 39 I & I gº 0 |&I &g OIGI iſ 6|| 93
W3 f6 96 gº 0f 18 03 I IW II.98 16 'S Sæ &I II.69 99 61 ſº
£3 |g| 13 $391 6I 0& 69 61 II Gº I_N |&I & IIQ3 6. Q3|83
& 38 L& 8& 83 9 0& Ly 89 0I £I 93 0 |Lö 89 II:03 I& 03 &
Ić ſº 13 $3.6L 89 6Ifg L& 0198 87 0 |08 £I Žili g; 03 it,
06 |Lſ 96 86'L'ſ 68 6Izg g| 01.8g II I & 83 &I.06 W 03 06
6I &W 93 g6 tº gº 6III tº 6 81 g8 I I 89 &I.8L 99 03| 6I
8I |6 Wö £30ſ, II 6II& & 6 |98 89 I (83 &I £I.99 9 I& 8I
A.I. L & 83 g L9 8I & OL 6 |I9 13 & 8; Ig £I, II 91. I& LI
9I 88 61 & 0I &W 8L91 SW 8 (8 gy & g; 0g £Ig 96 I& 91
9I |0ſ, 91 83 99 93 81,3 9& 8 £I 8 g 88 6 ſyl L& 98. I&| 9 |
Fi ji gi ſã ia, ii Šilip # 8 |5i ig # 5 §g #iº ºf iz ří
£1 ||6 || 3 ||39. I ſº I k ſº; º; $ 39W Ijº $9 Ig|8.
§I 0.9 $3 #1 66 lºſ QV 81 L S. LI V ºg V. GIG9 I, §§ 31
II II () 83 gift & LI'0 99 9 |II 07 ſ. L3 & 9 II 0I & II
QI |gg #9 33 gº 9 LI, GI g8 9 69 & 9 |f 0ſ, gL 07 LI & 01
6 |&I 67 & 87 Sf 9H '93 OH 9 Iſ 93 g 9& L9 GI 99 ſº &&| 6
8 |& gy & 96 Ig 9108 Li g 8I 87 g (36 pi 91.6% Ig & 8
L |9& 98 & 9ſ 8L 9L 08 ſº g 67 0I 9 |8& Ig 91.8L 88 & L
9 |I& 63 & 6p 99 g|I L3 I g jī £8, 9 |89 Lj, 91 jº, ſº 3& 9
9 |I9 I& & L8 L8 GI 0& 88 W 38 99 9 |9|I W LI 9 09 & 9
# |gg £I & 6 6I g| 6 g º ży LI L LI 0& LI gö 99 & W.
8 |f 8 9 && L& 0 91 99 IQ 8 87 68 L & 98 LI 6I 0 8& 8
3 |97 99 I& 08 If f [ Op. 83 g ſº I 8 (09. Ig LI 67 ? 83 &
I liºg Lí Iaş 61 & #I & Q 8. §§ 8& 8 07 9 8L 99 8 8&| I
11 o 'u o 1, 1 o'u i olu , o lju i o
t; t;
& ‘990ſ ‘AON ‘10O ºdos "snæny ‘ĀInſ &
s-ºr-g
Tonuſuo'O—"A GT3 WJ,


TABLE VI.
Exhiº the Sun's mean place in the Ecliptic, or its Longitude,
together with the Right Ascension, for every day in the year.
January. February. March. April.
tº,
& | Long. R. A. | Long | R. A. | Long. | R. A. Long. R. A.
O / o / o f : O / ſ o / o f | O /
1|280 39|281 35.312 13314 41 27,341 58;11 16 10 21
2281. 41|282 41313 14|315 42 28'342 54.12 15 11 16
3|282 42|283 48.314 14|316 42 28.343 50|13 14 12 10
4|283 43|284 54315 15317 43 28,344 46/14 13,13 5
5,284 44286 0316 16318 43.344 28.345 4115 12".4 0
6|285 45,287 5317 17|319 44 28,346 37.16 11 14 54
7|286 4.6288 11:318 17|320 46 28,347 32.17 1915 49
8287 48|289 17319 18321 44 28,348 28:18 916 44
9.288 49|290 22.320 19322 43 27|349 23.19 817 39
10|289 50291 28.321 19323 43 27,350 1820 6,18 34
11290 51292 33.322 20324 41 27351 1321 519 29
12291 52'293 38.323 21325 40 27|352 922 20 24
13292 53.294 43,324 21326 40 27|353 423 3;21 19
14|293 54|295 47;325 22|327 38 26,353 5924. 122 14
15|294 55|296 52.326 22,328 37 26,354 5325 00:23 9
16295 57|297 56;327 23,329 35 26,355 48:25 59|24 5
17|296 58|299 0328 23330 33 25.356 43:26 57.25 0
18297 59|300 4329 24331 31 25.357 3827 56|25 56
19299 0301 S1330 24332 29 24358 3228 5426 51
20|300 1302 12331 25.333 27 24|359 2729 53|27 47
21|301 2.303 15,332 25334 24 24 0 22.30 51|28 43
22|302 3|304. 19.333 26||335 21, 1 23i 1 1631 50|29 39
23|303 ||305 22:334 26||336 18, 2 22| 2 1032 48|30 35
24|304 5|306 25.335 26,337 15, 3 22| 3 533 47|31 32
25.305 6|307 27:336 27|338 12] 4 21 4 0.34 45|32 28
26|306 7|308 30,337 27|339 9 5 21| 4 54:35 43|33 25
27|307 8|309 32.338 27|340 5, 6 20 5 49.36 42|34 21
28|308 9|310 34,339 27.341 2 7 19| 6 42.37 40|35 18
29|309 10|311 36 8 18 7 3838 3836 15
30|310 11|312 38 9 18| 8 32.39 36||37 13
31|311 121313 39 10 17| 9 27

69'ſ
89 I
A.9 I
99.I
Q9I
#9 I
89 I
39 I
IGI
09 I
09 I
67I
Sf I
Ajº I
97III
Gf I
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68T
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88.I
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AT
03
63
fº,
M.3
63
38
98.
09: 86
Siſ. A6
97 96
Q6
#6
86
36
I6
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88
A.8
98
Q8
f'8
88
38
I8
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6/,
SA
A4.
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f/
8/.
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I/
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Aſ 19
97 99
Gjº 99
jº j9
£iº. 89
Číž 39
Číž I9
If 09
If 69
If 89
If A19
If 99
If gº
If pg
If 3G
37 39
Číž Ig
j/i7 Og
gî 67
97 87
/j/ 1j,
67 97
39 fºr
fºg gif
99 &#
69. If
I If
8. Of
38 I
I8I
/ O
A.8 63I
07 83I
/ O
/ O
/ O
09 69
Sj, 89
/ O
| O
9 69
6 88
/ O
/9I
99T
GQI
fºg I
89 I
39 I
IGI
09 I
6i/I
Síºſ
Alf I
97.I
G#I
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giff'ſ
37I
If I
07I
68I
88.I
/8. I
98.I
G8I
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6 6&I
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II A&I
ČI 9&I
8I G3||99 33 I
j/I jøI|89 I&T
fºL 8&II I&I
3&I 8 0&I
GI I&I 9 6 II
0&I6 SII
6IIII / II
SI If I 9TI
A.II/I GII
9II:03 PII
QII;33 81 I
#TI;92 3TT
8II;8& III
3III.8 OII
III;88 60I
0II;98 80I
60I '68 A.0I
SOI iój, 90T
AOI jºſ, G0I
90I 'Aj, f() I
g0I.0g 80I
f0I '89 30 I
30I '99 IOI
TOT 69 00I.
Číž L&I
Gf 93.T
87 G&I
09 ſºl
89 83 I
A 86
0I L6
8T 96
GI G6
SI jºb
I& 86
jø 36
96. I6
63 06
38 68
g8 88
J.8 18
Of 98
£f CS
97 WS
Sf 88
IG 38
fºg IS
99 08
69 6/,
& 6A,
j, 8/.
A. A.A.
OI 9/.
&I g/,
GI jº/
8T 8/.
03 &A.
I8
88
68
Číž
83 69|| 8
08 89
88 /9
98 99
S8 99
Of #9
gi/ 89
gi/ 39
Alſº T08
09 09
39 69
j9 89
A.9 /9
69 99
I 99
8 99
9 fg
8 89
0I - 39
&T IQ
j/I 09:
9I 6?
6I Sf
I3 Aj,
8& 97
g3 Qī,
A3, pp.
63 8.7
I8 &#7
00I
39 66
I 00I
j, 66
83 IA.
93 0/,
33 If
j9. Of
l O
W "H
‘fluor]
‘Y H
‘āuo I
‘W "H
‘fluori
‘V "I
‘fluorſ
F
+smány
‘ĀInſ
‘aunſ
‘Āb WI
‘ponuſuo O—'IA GT3 W.L

September.
TABLE VI.-Continued.

October.
November.
—-º
December.
**,
Ǻ
Ø
fong.
R. A. | Long.
R. A.
Long.
R. A. Long.
R. A.
1
2
3
A.
5
6
}
s
9.
10.
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
O /
158 30
159 28
160 26
161 24
162 22
163 20
164. 19
165 17
166 15
167 14
168 12
169 11
170
171
172
173
174.
175
176
17659
177 5S
178 57
179 56
180 54
1S1 53
182 52
183 51
184 50
185 49
18648
i
31
Ú ſ
187 47
188 46
189 45
19044
191 43
192 43
193 42
194 41
195 40
168 15,196 40
169 9:197 39
170 3;19839
170 57;19938
171 51:200 3S
172 45.201 37
17339;202 37
174 32.203 36
175 26:204 36
176 20:205 36
177 14:206 35
178 spot 35
179 25208 35
179 ; 35
180 50 210 35
181 44:211 35
182 383212 34
183 32:213 34
18426.214 34
185 20215 34
186 14,216 34
217 34
O /
160 8
161 2
161 55
162 51
163 45
164 39
165 33
166 27
167 21
O
187
188
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
/
9
3
57
52
47
41
36
31
26
21
16
12
7
3
59
55
51
47
43
40
36
33
30
27
25
22
20
18
16
14
O
218
219
220
221
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246 49
247 50
13
ſ
34
35
35
35
35
35
36
36
36
37
37
37
3S
3S
39
39
40
41
41
42
43
43
44
45
45
46
47
48
O f
248 50
249 51
250 52
251 53
252 54
253 55
254 56
255 57
256 5S
257 59
258 0
260 1.
261 2.
262 3
O f
216 11
217 10
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227 10
22S 11
229 13
O /
247 7
248 12
249 17
250 22
251 2S
252 33
253 39
254 44
255 50
256 55
258 2
259 S
200 15
261 21
262 27
263 34
264 40
265 47
266 54
268 0
269 7
270 14
263
264
230 14
231 16
23: 18.2%
233 201266
234 23,267
235 26:268 10
236 285269 11
237 31270 12
*:::::::7, 14.74%
239 38:272 15272 27
240 42.273 16273 34
341 1637; 17374 10
242 50.275 1827547
243 54276 19,276 53
i
246 2:278 22279 6
244 # 21|278 0
279 23.280 13
TABLE VII.
Exhibiting the Right Ascension and Declination of the Planets, and the
time of their passing the Meridian, for 1833

ſae , •●© ®©
§ 5#№|№$ $2$3 | $? º ??? | ?!?;： $$3 | $3«> Qº
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--ºŌ-№ == --！= = = ====№ræ， æ， æ， ， ， ! ！=+ *-+ +-+ +-+ +---+
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të 9 ?483838383 §§$3|$3<> <> º© © © © © | <> Ç © +-+ +-+ | +-+ +-+ +-+ +-+ +-+ | +--+ +-+ +-+ +---+ +-+
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pº º ai || ...）
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% 5Eº}\;\?$$§§§§$ | $$$$$ | Ģ$$$2$ [$3$5$ºTĘĘĢĢĒ
£žAººººº ! ººººº ! ºoºººoºoº | cv cw cx cx - || — • •şş | 33333
�
tà- ºs w = * *rº）{© ----5Țčo do Tuº QQ o <* \，
Ė Į Ė ė į§§§§§§|（385¿|×do sº????? | §§§§
§ Q
§ 1º Hºš 1 o ºſ Eºº | ~~~*~= | & => 233 | $5$$$$ | $$$$$$$ | :：:：:::::::：
Œ œ •*&&>∞
ģ Ķ ķ ļ gā，8&G，ſae||ºs§3º | §§§3 - ſº | ºſ@№ ſº | sc * ~șeș
• • • • • •(N）©
să o 7 | -33333$3 | $3<><> <> — | — — ^ Gº cº | coco co <** | <ºco co co co | co co co co co
saeci | − 323 | - -323 | -º-ºgrſº | ~~$33，3 || ~ ~$32,3 || ~ ~ ºg
ºsqļuoJN|‘ÁJenuer| Árenaqeq |‘UI™OJEJN*[[Jdy|'KeyN|ºoump
TABLE VII. for 1833–Continued.

ģ ţ|×23:22|ק 2º 33 | $;$2：$3$ | ????????
żſì，A+++ ºsºCNR CNQ CNR ſ-º ;-+ | +---+ C o C> C >&&&&& ! 55588 || 822:23
ģ Į į Ķ Ķ Ļ ĻĒģ33|$5$Ēģ|$3$5$ |ºſſ||ºſſ|$£§§§
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TABLE VII. for 1836.

*m-.:*=m.*s---i
#
—
#
sº-
-
#
tº-º-º-º-º:i
VENUs. MARs. | JUPITER. SATURN.
& R.as- Dec. Pass R.as-1 Dec-Pass R.as.' Dec-Pass lit.as. Dec- Pass
#| cen-|lina- Merl cen-|lina. | Merl cen-lina. | Mercen-lina. | Mer.
ſº | Sion. tion. sion. |tion. sion.tion. sion, ſtion.
| , h, m, 2 ... h. m.ſh. m. |8 ||h. m.ºh. m. 9 ºh m. h. m. | Q ' |h. m.
| lº's 2, 17 1 37:18 31 24 5.23 49 6 48.23 4, 12 514 9|10 31, 19 25
5 '20 38|20 8 1 42H1S 44/23 55.23 47; 6 45 23 7:11 47|14 1010 35il.9 11
| 10,2i 4| 18 29 l 48:19 123 36.23 44, 6 42 23 11 | 11 24|14 ll 10 41 18 52
lä (21 29, 16 37 1 5319 17|23 11.23 41; 6 40 23 14|11 214 12|10 4518 34
20 21 53| 14 33 1 5819 34|22 39|23 38; 6 37 23 1710 4014 1310 48.18 15
25 22 17|12 20 2 2:19 50/22 123 35 6 3523 2010 17|14 14 10 5] 17 56
| 1 22 50 9 O 2 7120 1320 5723 30, 6 3223 23, 9 47:14 1510 53 17 29
5 '23 S. 7 1 2 9:20 26|:20 16:23 2ſ. 6 30 23 25; 9 30114 15|10 53.17 14
10 23 30 4 27 2 12:20 43|19 1923 23} 6 QS 23 27, 9 S14 15|10 53, 16 54
15 '23 54| 1 51 2 1420 58:18 1723 201 6 27 23 28, 8.48#14 1510 52 16 35
20 0 15 0 46 2 1721 14|17 1023 16. 6 26 23 29 S 27:14 15|10 50 16 15
25 0 37 3 23 2 19:21 30|15 5S23 11; 626 23 30 S 714 1510 47.15 55
| 1 , ; ; ; 33.3 gº ºff ###########
| 5 || 1 16 8 1 2 23:21 57|1339|23 # , ; ; 31, 7 32;14 1410 41 15 18
iſ 1 38; 10 30 226,22 13||12 17|22 59; 6 26 23 31 7 12#14 13|10 36 14 58
15 2 1 12 52 2 28.22 2S10 5322 54 § 27 23 3! 6 54;14 1310 30 1438
30 323iš s 23:333ſ; 35.33 g; 5 33 333i: ; #4 iglió † 13 if
25 2 46; 17 14 2 34:22 57 7 5822 44 6 2923 30 6 17:14 1010 IS 13 56
1 #### 2 39:23, 1754s.237; 6:32.23 49 sºlº gro s 1327
# 3 372; i3 2 433 33 4 3:33 33; 6 #23 & 5 §ii Šid 3 iſ ſo
| 10 4 1:23 44 2 46.23 43 3 |#####3; 5 20:14 6|| 9 54 12 49
15 4 25'24 0 2 50:23 57| 1 27|22 22: 6 3923 24, 5 3314 5: 9 46 12 28
30' 44; 25 0, 3 #| || 3 || |&#| || 423: 44; 3 35 tº 7
25 5 i; 25.45 2 59 0 26 1 3922 11; 6 4523 19 4 30:14 2 9 31 11 40
| I 5 41'26 19| 3 3| 0 43| 3 30|22 4; 6 49 23 15 4 10:14 0 9 22 11 20
5, 6 0 36 ºs, 3 6; 0 54|4 4321 59; 6 52 93 11: 3 58:13 50 '9 16 11 4
| 6 22 26 27, 3 9; 1 8| 6 |2|21 54 6 55 33 7 3 42:13 5s' 9 9 10 43
15 6 44, 26 10 3 11j 1 22 7 40|21 48; 6 50 2.3 × 325;13 53 9 2 10 22
20 7 6.25 40 3.13; 1 36|| 9 521 43, 7 3 22 57 3 ºi:; 55 & 56 10 |
25, 7252: 5S 3 13 1 5010 2821 37; 7 72? 51 2 5 #13 54' S 51 9 40
I 7 51.23 41 3 11; 2 1012 1021 29, 7 13:33 41, 2 33:13 53, S 45 Q 11
5 8 4.22 49) 3 8, 2 22|13 2021 25; 7 17:32 35 2 21:13 32' S 42 S 55
15 # 133 35' 333333i: 335i ºff gig & 3 #3 iſ $ 33 sº
|; 8 31.20 25 2.56; 2 5015 4121 14 7 26'22 19, 1 50:13 51; S 37 S 14
20 8 4119 9 2 46; 3 5|16 46|21 9 7 30 22 9, 1 35.13 51} S 36 7 54
|25 | $45|17 54 2 34; 319||1747|21 4; 7 35.22 0 1 2013 50 S 36, 7 34
4t
08 Oz Sg g|6; Iſø g|ſiggſ'Og 6 [gſ glºſſ g|I Qūīg 13'8I 816, 91.93| p
SP 0309 &I SW WI3 g|AI 91 & 6 iſ 91.88 g|0, Qij63 Iºlº 9||13 g|Q&| 3
§ 3; gi'ſ fiſä gići již ö |&I jić Giſig 5"|#: izſä Filo gi đi 3
iz iz; †i iſ filă şiţă şi ſă ă ă ăiº gig 5 & igg gigg ji ji 5.
IV 12 tº 81; IP VI & 91.9 91 & 6 [09 9169 Glſº 6 j91 (34. IIgſ ºl. 3
gg Iz|9í £I: 0p #II68 9||9 9||& 6 I, ZI |&I 9||9|P 6 (£I [38& 6|#9 &I|l
9I &|5 &I 18 #II& II (9 91 & 6 (SI ZI/8 9118 6 (OI I&AQ 9 |!& 81|9&| 2
38 &|99 &I|98 #III& ZI8 9||zz 6 Ig ZI/O LI Ig 6 ºz I&SP # 9 £I|03 || 3
15 & 8, 3||: Eſſº AIK. Qillº (; ; 4 || 4 ||...} : (; 13% º ż ż|#| 3
8 ga|38 &I}08 WISg ZIZI 91.6L 6 if g ZI 99 Al 9| 6 |& I&|88 0 |I& &I |0|I| E.
98 &|03 &I|8& PI(91 SI & 9IISI 6 ſq SI(93 819, 6 II I&||8 || |0 &I| 9 || 3
68 ga|II &Ij93 FIO3 SI/639||9|| 6 |#I SI Ig SI/69 8 70 I&A £ |&W II | I |
2. 0 |gg II]& #Igg SITE 91181 6 1838||98 6||37 8 Sº Q3.97 g (31 II Gº || –
g3 0 |&# IIIQ3 plºt 61|Ig 9L|II 6 A8 SI (9 O&|98 8 [19 0308 A 39 0I 03|| 3:
&P 0 |Ig IISE FIG& 6L6 LIS 6 (9p SL93 0&|#38 (99 0&|_96 ||38 0I|9|| 5
69 0 |6i II |9| #19F 61|fl LIG 6 33 819. Ig|&I 8 93 03|8& QI &I QI |QI | H.
ZL I [A II |f| WI3 0& 93, ZIſø 6 8 6L|#8 I&|I 8 |gg 0&|6? II |&g 6 || 9 || H
18 I SG 0I |&I fig I Oz/3 AIO 6 iOI 6I|99 I&#39 Z （99 03|If &f 98 6 I
&g I ºf OI/6 flºg 0&|&g ZIgg 8 F8I 61|gg & 28 A 193 049; £I|g| 6 |9&| 4
0I & |38 0112 flig O&A SI &g 8 93 619; 3:33 l 149 0398 p1938 |03 || 3
ZZ & |I& OI(9 FIZ 12. I& SISF 8 |88 61|P &|&I / 10 I&#9 #1 |68 S GI 3
ºf 3 ji jilí iſ: izā; siń ś ºf ŠišI & 63 g iſ fºlii gić Š Qi 5.
{: £ |0 Olſº, fi :63 12:03 SI |OW S '09 6 III.8 &|QP 9 [OI Iz|AI GI (OI 8 || 9 |, . .
ZI g |Ig 6 |0 flig Izz 6i Zg S Ig 61|28 & 98 9 ||9|I jail g|I|0 8 I | *
£f g (88 6 |SG £1.3T az 33 6T | Ig S &f £2 g|I 9 (09 Iz, SG FISP / | 93
I # 63 6 |Zg £IS3 &|Z8 6L I3 S 3|0} &|| 9 |## 3|8& #18; 4 |Q&| ?
6I # 0& 6 ſig &Iff ag|&g 6Iſø, S ££ 9&AW g (3 &#91 #I|If Z | g I GE
S$ 5 |&I 6 |fſ, 8LI69 & S & &|& g （2 &pg £I|## 1 || 0I | ?
99 p. 9 6 |{{# 8If I gº, 8 #9 &|6I g {6} &#98 g|I9 A. | 9 || ".
II g 0 6 (39 £IQ3 £2. 8 09 33 / 9 @I 8&ſjö, 81 |69 / I
86 g |&g 8 Ig gilly & 8 £I & If f {0 #&|I& £I [ZI 8 || G3
Ag G |Af, 8 || Ig £Ig 0 4. If I&|&g # 93 0 |98 £I 63 8 || 03 || |
9I 9 |8; 8 |09 £IH03 0 A. P. Ig|SI 12, I | 3 ||Q| 8 |9|| 5.
98 9 |0; 8 |03 £Igg 0 A. & 038 £ ſº I ºf #I (8; 8 |OI | 3:
gg 9 |88 8 |03 £IOg 0 A. G8 6L|Sp 8 (8g I (68 g| |&g 8 |g | -
0I / 1988 |09 EIK, I 1. fº SI /8 € $1 & 63 9L 83 S I
‘UI u. & O *UI ‘ū 'UI 'u 'u Z O ‘UI ‘ū *UI 'u z O *UI ‘U
'uog uois 'uouſ’uois 'uog uops tº :
‘IoIN | -euſſ-uao Tºroſ -euil-uao Haw -euil-uad | 3 || 3
Ssed I-990 1-Seºissed I- -oad J-seºſ ssed|-oaq |-se’ſ] * | B.
tº
‘Nam LWS | '83.IIanſ | “savy'ſ | ‘SſlN3A
‘ponuſ]UOO–988I IOJ IIA GHTI3 WJL




TABLE VIII.
seconds of the equator, or of
right ascension, into hours, mi:
nutes, and seconds, of sidereal
TABLE IX.
... To change degrees, minutes, and To change hours, minutes, and
Seconds, of sidereal time, into
degrees, minutes, and seconds,
of the equator, or right ascen-
time. - Sion.
Degl H. M. |Deg. H. M.] § | 3 # 1 gl § |Min. D. M. Min. D. M.
Mi. M.S. Ali. M.S. ºf 3 # 1 = | f | Sec.- M.S. Sec. M.S.
Sec. S. Th. Sec. S. Th. § fr; 2. i. § Th. S. Th. | Th. S. Th.
1 || 0 4 || 31 2 4 70 4 4G 1' 15 || 1 || 0 15 31 || 7 45
2 || 0 8 |32 |2 8 80 5 20; 2. 30 || 2 || 0 30 |32 || 8 0
3 || 0 12 || 33 2 12; 90 (; ( ; 3i 45 || 3 || 0 45 || 33 || 8 15
4 || 0 16 || 34 |2 16 100 (; 4 4| 60 || 4 || 1 0 || 34 || 8 30
5 () 20 35 (2 20 i 10| 7 20; 5 75 || 5 || 1 15 35 | 8 45
6 || 0 24 || 36 |2 24 120 8 0 6 90 || 6 || 1 30 || 36 9 ()
7 | () 28 37 2 28||130| 8 40 T 105 || 7 || 1 45 37 9 15
8 0 32 38 (2 32) 140|| 9 20 S. 120 | 8 || 2 0 || 38 || 9 30
9 || 0 36 || 39 2 36150/10 ( 9, 135 | 9 || 2 15 39 9 45
10 || 0 40 | 40 |2 40|160 10 4010 150 | 10 2 30 40 10 0
11 () 44 41 |2 44|170|11 2011| 165 || 1 || || 2 45 || 41 || 10 15
12 || 0 48 42 |2 48|180 12 0.12 180 | 12 || 3 () 42 || 10 30
13 () 52 43 2 52 190|12 4013, 195 13 3 15 43 10 45
14 || 0 56 44 (2 56|200||13 2014 210 || 14 || 3 30 44 || 1 || 0
15 || 1 0 || 45 3 021014 () 15, 225 | 15 || 3 45 || 45 || 11 15
16 || 1 4 46 3 422014 40.16| 240 | 16 || 4 0 || 46 | 11 30
J7 || 1 8 47 3 8:230; 15 2017, 255 17 | 4 15 47 11 45
18 || 1 12 || 48 3 1:2:24016 0:18, 270 IS 4 36 48 || 12 0
19 || 1 16 || 49 |3 16|250|16 40;19| 285 | 19 || 4 45 || 49 | 12 15
20 || 1 20 50 3 2026017 20:20 300 20 | 5 0 || 50 | 12 30
21 || 1 24 || 51 3 24|27018 0.21] 315 21 || 5 15 51 | 12 45
22 || 1 28 52 3 2S28018 4022. 330 22 || 5 30 52 13 0
23 || 1 32 53 3 32.290/19 20:23| 345 || 23 5 45 53 || 13 15
24 || 1 36 || 54 |3 36 300120 0.24, 360 24 || 6 () 54 || 13 30
25 || 1 40 55 3 40 31020 40,25 375 || 25 | 6 15 55 | 13 45
25 | 1.44 56 |3 44|32021 20.26; 390 26 || 6 30 56 14 0
27 | 1 48 57 3 48,330 22 027 405 27 | 6 45 57 || 14 15
28 || 1 52 58 3 52|340.22 40 28 420 28 || 7 0 || 58 || 14 30
29 | 1.56 59 |3 56.350.23 2029 435 | 29 || 7 15 59 1445
30 || 2 0 | 60 |4 0 360.24 030. 450 ! 30 | 730 l 60



15 0
TABLE X1.
TABLE X. hº
Showing how many miles make a degree of lon-É Of the Climates be-
gitude, in every degree of latitude. tween the Equator
- and the Polar Uir-
Deg. Geo. Eng. Deg. Geo. Eng. Deg. Geo. I. Eng cles. -
fºlmis, Māšîă Mities.|Mººsiº Miſés Miſés
1 |3%iºl 3, #43|#313||13%|##, E glasígs;
2 || 53.96 || 59.03 ||32 |50.8 |58.5l 63 ||38|17|32.40% #2 º'éâ53;
3 59.92 | 68.97 33 50.32 57.87 63 27.24 || 31.33 #F * ºn #: £5:8:
4 59.85 | 68.90 34 || 49.74 || 57.20. 64 26.30 30.24 : * E. "#####
§ ºf j || 3 || 4:1; 56.5i | 65||25.35|35.15% | T *
6 59.67 | 68.62 36 || 48.54 || 55.81 66 24.40 28.06 d. m.h. Im.ld. m.
7 || 59.55 | 68.48 . 37 47.92 || 55.10 - 67 || 23.45|26.96 1 || 834; 12 30 || 8 34
S 59.42 | 68.31 || 38 || 47.2S 54.37 || 68 22.48 25.85 2 1644 1300|| 8 10
9 59.26 | 68.15 39 46.63 |53.62 69 || 21.50 | 24.73 3 24 12. 1330) 728
10 59.09 || 67.95 || 40 || 45.96 52.85 70 20.52 23.60 4 3048. 1400; 636
11 || 58.89 67.73 41 || 45.28 52.07 || 71 || 19.53 22.47 5 3631, 1430) 543
12 58.69 | 67.48 || 42 44,59 || 51.27 || 72 | 18.54 21.32 6 4124 15 00 4 53
13 || 58.46 || 67.21 - 43 || 43.SS 50.46 - 73 || 17.54 20.17 7 |4532, 15 30 4 8
14 58.22 | 66.95 || 44 || 43.16 |49.63 || 74 | 16.54 | 19.02 8 |49 - 2 16 00|| 3:30
15 57.95 | 66.65 ° 45 || 42.43 || 48.78 || 75 15.53 17.86 9 |51 59 1630 || 257
16 || 57.67 | 66.31 : 46 || 41.6S |47.93 || 76 || 14.52 | 16.70 10 #5430 17 00 231
17 | 57.3S 65.98 - 47 | 40.92 || 47.06 || 77 13.50 15.52 11 #563S 17 30 2 8
1S 57.06 || 65.62 || 48 || 40.15 || 46.16 78 12.48 || 14.35 12 [5827, 1800 1 49
19 56.73 || 65.24 49 || 39.36 || 45.26 79 || 11.45| 13.17 13 5959. IS 30 1 32
20 56.3S 64.84 || 50 || 38.57 44.35 80 || 10.42 11.98 14 61.18 19 00 1 19
21 56.01 || 64.42 51 || 37.76 43.42 81 | 9.38|| 10.79 15 6226, 1930 1 8
22 55.63 63.97 || 52 || 36.94 42.48 || 82 | 8.35 | 9.59 16 |6322 2000 56
23 55.23 63.51 53° 36.11 |41.53 83 || 7.31 | 841 17 64.10 20 30 48
24 54.81 | 63.03 - 54 || 35.27 | 40.56 84 || 6.27 | 7.21 18 |6450 2100 40
25 54.38 || 62.53 55 34.41 |39.5 85 5.22 || 6.00 19 |6522 21 30 32
£6 53.93 62.02 || 56 || 33.53 ||3858 - 86 4, 18 || 4.81 20 6548 2200 26
27 | 53.46 || 61.48 || 57 || 32.68 |37.58 87 || 3.14 || 3.61 21 |66 5, 22 30 17
2S 52.97 || 60.93 58 31.79 |36.57 88 2.09| 2.41%. 22 |6621 23 00 16
29 52.48 || 60.35 || 59 || 30.90 || 35.54 ± 89 | 1.05 | 1.21 23 |6629| 23 30 3
30 || 51.96 59.75" 60 || 30.00 || 34.50 - 90 || 000 || 0.00 24 |6632 24 00 3
TABLE XII.
Of the Climates between the Polar Circles and the Poles.
|Where the] Breadths Where the Breadths
Cliº. Ends in "º" “ºfº” ...G. Bºls in "lºnges: “ºf the
mates.| Lat. jºi. climates. Imates. Lat: | day is |climates.
d m. | d. m. d. m. . Iſl. d. d. m.
25 || 67 J8 30 or 1. 46 28 77 40 || 120 or 4 4 35
26 69 30 | 60 2. 2 15 29 || S2 50 | 150 5 || 5 19
27 | 73 5 || 90 3. 3 32 30 90 00 | 180 6 || 7 l





TABLE XIII.
Showing the Latitude and Longitude of some of the principal places in
the United States, &c., with their Distance from the city of Wash-
ington.
The Longitudes are reckoned from Greenwich.
The Capitals (seats of Government) of the States and Territories are
designated by Italic letters.
Albany (Capitol), . .
Alexandria, . . .
Annapolis, e
Auburn, tº tº
Augusta, . º º º
Augusta (State House),
Baltimore (Battle Monument),
Bangor (Court House),
Barnstable (Old Court House) N
Batavia, º º Y.
Beaufort, º º - S. C.
Boston (State House), . Mass.
Bristol (Hotel), . - - . I.
* Brooklyn (Navy Yard), N. Y.
Brunswick (College), Me.
Buffalo, . . . . . . N. Y.
Cambridge (Harvard Hall), . Mass.
Camden, º ſº g g S. C
Canandaigua, . e - . N Y
Cape Cod (Light-House), Mass.
Charleston (College), . S. C.
Charlestown (Navy Yard), . Mass.
Cincinnati, . . . Ohio.
Columbia, . . S. C.
Columbus, * * * Ohio.
Concord (State House), N. H.
Dedham (Court House), . Mass.
Detroit, - - º Mich.
Donaldsonville, - - . Ia.
Dorchester (Ast. Observatory), Mass.
Dover, e & g Del.
Dover, * - - - . N. H.
Easton (Court House) 3 McI.
Eastport, º Me.
Edenton, º º N. C.
Exeter, . - º º N. H.
Frankfort, . Ky.
Fredericksburg, . Va.
Frederickton, e e N. B
{...” - - §4.
orgetown, . . * * * *
Gloucester, Mass
Greenfield, Mass
Magerstown, Md.
*N*fax, & & tº tº N. S
Latitude Longitude, West, Dist. from
North, in degrees. in time. Wash'n.
O / // O Y ºf h.m. S. miles,
42 39 3| 73 44 49 |4 54 59.3 *.
38 49 77 4 5 8 16 6
39 0 76 43 5 6 52 37
42 55 76 28 5 5 52 339
33 28 81 54 5 27 36 580
44 18 43| 69 50 4 39 20 595
39 17 13| 76 37 50 |5 6 31.3 : 38
44 47 50| 68 47 4 35 8 661
41 42 9| 70 16 4 41 4 466
42 59 7S 13 5 12 52 370
32 25 80 41 5 22 44 629
42 21 15| 71 4 9 |4 44 16.6 432
41 39 58| 71 19 4 45 36 409
40 41 50 73 59 30 |4 55 5S 227
43 53 0) 69 55 ° j 4 39 40.1 568
53 78 55 5 15 40 376
42 22 15| 71 7 25 |4 44 29.7 431
17 80 30 5 22 12 467
2, 54 77 17 5 9 S 336
42 2 16| 70 4 4 40 16 507
32 47 0 80 () 52 5 20 3.5 544
42 22 71 3 33 |4 44 14.2 433
39 6 84 22 5 37 28 497
33 57 81 7 5 24 2S 500
39 47 83 3 5 32 12 396
43 12 29| 71 29 4 45 56 474
42 L6 71 11 4 44 44 422
42 24 82 58 5 31 52 526
30 3 91 2 6 4 8 1278
42 19 15| 71 4 15 4 44 17 432
39 10 75 30 5 2 0 114
43 13 70 54 4 43 36 490
38 46 10| 76 8 5 4 32 80
44 54 66 56 4 27 44 778
36 0 77 7 5 28 28 284
42 58 70 55 4 43 40 474
38 14 84 40 5 38 40 551
38 34 77 38 5 10 32 56
46 3 66 45 4 27 0
39 24 77 18 5 9 12 43
33 21 79 17 5 17 8 482
, 42 36 70 40 4 42 40 462
42 37 72 36 4 50 24 396
39 37 77 35 5 10 20 68
44 39 201 63 36 40 |4 14 27 936

TABLE XIII.-Continued.
-, *

Latitude Longitude, West, Dist. from .
North. in degrees. in time. Wash'n.
o " " o ' ' ' |h.m. s. miles.
Hallowell, . . . Me. 44 17 69 50 4 39 30 593
Harrisburgh, Pa. 40 16 76 50 5 7. 20 110 ;
Hartford, . Conii. 41 46 72 50 4 51 20 335
Hudson, . Y. 42 14 73 46 4 55 4 345
Huntsville, Ala. |34 36 86 57 5 47 48 726
Indianapolis, Ind. 39 55 86 5 5 44 20 573
Jackson, M’pi. 32 23 90 8 6 0 32 1035
Jºfferson, M’ri. 38 36 92 8 6 8 32 980
Kennebunk, ſº Me. 43 25 70 32 4 42 8 518
Kingston, U. C. 44 8 76 40 5 6 40 456
Knoxville, Tenn. 35 59 83 54 5 35 36 516
Lancaster, Pa. 40 2 36|| 76 20 33 |5 5 22.2 109
Lexington, Ky. 38 6 84 18 5 37 12 534
Little Rock, Ark, 34 40 | 92 12 6 8 48 || 1068
Lockport, . - N. Y. 43 11 78 46 |5 15 4 403
Louisville, . . . . Ky. 38 85 30 5 42 0 590
Lowell (St. Ann's Church), . Mass. 42 38 45| 71 18 45 4 45 15 439
Lynchburgh, g • a. 37 36 79 22 5 17 28 198
Lynn, - Mass. 42 2S 70 57 4 43 48 441
Marblehead, Mass. 42 30 70 52 4 43 28 450
Middletown, o Conn. 41 34 72 39 450 36 325
Milledgeville, a. [33 7 83 20 5 33 20 642
Mobile, Ala. 30 40 88 11 5 52 44 1033
Montpelier, . . . . Vt. 44 17 72 36 4 50 24 524
Monomoy Point Light, . Mass. 41 32 58 70 1 31 4 40 6.1 500
Montreaſ, ..' . tº L. C. 45 31 73 35 4 54 20 601
Nantucket (Town Hall), . Mass. 41 16 32 70 7 42 |4 40 30.8 500
Nashville, . - s Tenn. 36 9 30 86 49 3 |5 47 16.2 714
Natchez (Castle), . M’pi. 31 34 91 24 42 |6 5 38.S. 1146
Newark, º º º . . N.J. 40 45 74 10 4 56 40 215
New Bedford (Mariners' Ch.), Mass. 41 38 7| 70 56 0 |4 43 44 429
Newbern, - . N. C. 35 77 5 5 8 20 337
Newburgh, - & . N. Y. 41 31 74 1 4 56 4 282
Newburyport (2d Pres. Ch.), Mass. 42 4S 20 70 52 0 |4 43 28 466
Newcastle, - . Del. 39 40 75 33 5 2 8 103
New Haven (Co Conn. 41 17 5S] 72 57 46 |4 51 51.1 301
New London, . Conn. 41 22 72 9 4 48 36 354
New Orleans (City), 3. 29 57 45 90 6 49' |6 0 27.3 1203
Newport, . º - - R. I.- 41 29 71 21 14 |4 45 24.9 403
New York (City Hall), . N. Y. 40 42 40 74 l 8 |4 56 4.5 226
Norfolk (Farine ‘’s Bank), . Va. 36 50 50 76 1S 47 |5 5 15.1 217
Northampton (Mansion House), Mass. 42 IS 55| 72 40 4 50 40 376
Norwich, . - - Conn. 41 33 2 7 4 48 28 362
Pensacola, - sº Fa. 30 28 | S7 12 5 48 48 1050
Petersburgh, . - - . Va. 37 13 54. 77' 20 5 9 20 144
Philadelphia (Independence H.), Pa. 39 56 59 75 10 59 is 0 43.9 136
Pittsburgh, . . . . Pa. 40 32 30 8 5 20 32 223
Pittsfield, (1st Cong. Church), Mass. 42 26 59| 73 17 30 |4 53 10 3S0
Plattsburgh, . º . . N. Y. 44 42 73 26 4 53 44 539
Plymouth (Court House), Mass. 41 57 12| 70 42 30 |4 42 50 439
Portland (Town House), * Me. 43 39 26|| 70 20 30 |4 41 22 542
Portsmouth (Court House), N. H.143 4 54|| 70 45 4 43 0 491
Poughkeepsie, . N. Y.41 41 73 55 4 55 40 301
Princeton, N. J. |40 22 74 35 4 58 20 177
TABLE XIII. —Continued.

Providence (Old Col.), .
Quebec (Castle), e
Raleigh, . . . . .
Fichmond (Capitol), .
Rochester (R’r House), .
Sable § º
Sackett's Harbour, . .
Saco, . . . .
St. Augustine, . . .
St. Louis, & º tº
Salem (E. I. M. Hall),
Savannah, . . . . .
Schenectady
Springfield Čourt House), e º
allahassee, . º e
Taunton (Court House),
Toronto (York), . *
Trenton, . . . . .
Troy, tº º º º
Tuscaloosa, . . . .
University of Virginia, .
Utica (Dutch Church
Vandalia, e - tº
Vevay, . o tº tº
Vincennes, e º o
WASHINGTON, (Capitol),
Washington, . . . . .
Wheeling, . . .
Wilmington, . . º
Wilmington,
worcester Ant. Hall), . .
York, , e tº tº
York, &
Latitudel, Longitude, west,
Dist. from
North. in degrees.| in time. Wash'n.
9 * * | O ' ' |h.m. s. miles.
. |41 49 25 71 25 56 |4 45 43.7 394
. |46 47 17| 70 56 31 |4 43 46.1 781
35 47 78 48 5 15 12 286
37.32 17| 77 26 28 5 9 49.9 122
43 S 17 51 5 11 24 361
24 50 81 15 5 25 0 .
43 55 75 57 5 3 48 407
43 31 70 26 4 41 44 528
29 48 30| 81 35 5 26 20 841
8 36 89 36 5 58 24 856
42 31 19| 70 54 4 43 36 446
32 2 81 3 5 24 12 662
42 48 73 55 4 55 40 391
..]42 5 58|| 72 36 4 50 24 357
30 28 84 36 5 38 24 896
41 54 9| 71 50 4 44 20 415
43 33 79 20 5 17 20 500
40 14 74 39 4 58 36 166
42 44 73 40 4 54 40 383
33 12 87 42 5 50 48 858
38 2 3| 78 31 29 |5 14 5.9 124
..]43 6 49| 75 13 5 0 52 383
38 50 89 2 5 56 8 781
38 46 84 59 5 39 56 556
38 43 87 25 5 49 40 1693
..]38 52 54|| 77 1 48 |5 8 7.2
31 36 91 20 6 5 20 146
40 7 80 42 5 22 48 264
39 41 75 28 5 1 52 108
. 34 11 78 10 5 12 40 416
. |42 16 9| 71 49 0 |4 47 16 394
43 10 70 40 4 42 40 500
39 58 76 40 5 6 40 87
UNy
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-
GEOGRAPHY, AND HISTORY OF
- THE WORLD.
F. J. H U Nº I Nº TO N, H A R T FORD,
Pºlishes tº keeps tºy fºr sale, the above popular little Manual of
Geography, contaº º Maps and Seven ºve. Engravings, Also,
PETER PARLEY'S
Pºº Pº Riº C. To D OF TELLING ABOUT THE
Tºº Tºº WORLD TO CHILDREN,
tº sº dº gºings, and designed as a Companion to Par-
º ºg
he ºl exceedingly favorable notites which have been given
it, ſº llº tºy, the pºlisher selects the follºwing. The no
ice suº ºr by the author or himself. and came tº him wholly
uncº. º -
- -
From the Missionary Herald.
Pºlº's GEOGRAPHY IN MODERN GREEK:
By the fºllºwing extract of a letter from a gentleman in Greece, the Rev. Mr.
Tººle, the Missiºnary, it appears that the popular ºography ºf Mr. Parley
it ºut ºduced intº that cºuntry -
“We ºr Parley's Geography translatº, but lºve nº put it tº
press ºf the cuts ſº it. Thereº scarvey tº a pººr boºk
on the sººt ºf Greece, if we had all the cuts for the costumes of thºrent
nations peºhºt this little bººk has passed tº sººn editiºns in ºne
year in the tº states of America, and it well dºseves is good tenºtion.
Will nºt ºlºrſ, or sºme friend, prºcure ſo us º' thºse ºuts ºf Mººr.
º | ºlºs) would ºke a dºtiºn of them, I shºuld ſº
tº ºvºº him to mºnths in the Cººk.
wº at ºilºtºsh for him mºre than ºrdinary ºe and
ºf inºcº -
º, a . to learn tº at the ºr "as gºy ºffº tº mºle
ºn aſ tº ºuts and plates, and that tº sºy be transmitted
Malta. - -
|
-
ººgº
ºfas ºntº
º º º
THE MALTºº SCHOOL ºn
rºyº is nº ºn 132 ºngºings tº ºrigiºlº
tº fºllowing mºps and charts, and is the mºtº
now published.
- - - Coºtents of the Aºs
I. New-England States; 2 Middle States, Mºlºd,
ºrn States; 4, Yº estern States; 5. United States tº Nº.
America; 8 Atlantic Ocean, its sºlsº sº. º -
11, Asia; 12, Pacific Ocean, its Islands and ºst |
phere; 14 Eastern Hºsphºre; 15 Nºrthern . -
Hemisphºtº; 17. Height of the principal Mºntains ºn 8, Lºh
o, the principal Rivers ºn the Glºbe; 19 Chaº ºne Cºpº
Extent of Oceans, Continents, Cºuntries, slands, sº sº; 30 ſº
lar Views of Extent, Population, Cana's Indian ºs ºs, Mºssº
y Stations, &c.; 21. Picture of the World.
*