ºffli º º º - - - --- º: ºffl -------- --- --------- ºffl - --~~~~ - ºffl --- ------------------- - ºffl º - - ºffl --- ºffl - º - - - º ºffl ºffl - º º - º ºffl ºffl -------- - it. º --- --- - -------------- - º - - ºffl ºffl -- - - ---> - - - -º-º: º --- --- - --~~ º º --- ----- -º-º-º-º: ------------- ºffl º: º #º º ------ - º ------ -- - - --- - º - ############# H - ==# - --- |-- - - - º ------ --- --------- - º - ------- i. º -------- º ºfflº º º i º - º ºffl - - - - º º: --- º: iº -- --- º º: -º-º: --- - ºffl --~~~~ - ---------- ºffl º --~~~~ - - ºffli ºffl - ºfflº - º - º: i. - -- - - - º º --- - # --- - - - º - º - li （ （iiiº º # - - º --- - - --~~~~ ---------------------- º --- --~~ º - - -- ~~~~ H = ==== º iſſiº ºffl - º #. i. i - º - º - - --~~~ --~~~~ - ==His º: -º- -- ºffl E. : #!!!!!!" ; E. **§§ º Rºx # &W J / 5. , B & 4, /74) RACES AND PEOPLES LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE OF ETHNOGRAPHY : . • * * & * 2, .* : A * BY DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D., Professor of Ethnology at the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and of American Archaeology and Linguistics in the University of Penn- sylvania ; President of the American Folk-Lore Society and of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia ; Member of the Anthropological Societies of Berlin and Vienna and of the Ethnographical Societies of Paris and Florence, of the Royal Society of Antiquaries, Copenhagen, the Royal Academy of History of Madrid, the American Philosophical Society, the American Antiquarian Society, Etc., Etc., Eic. PHILADELPHIA DAVID McKAY, PUBLISHER I90 I COPYRIGHT BY D. G. BRINToN. TO HORATIO HALE, PHILOLOGIST TO THE UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITION IN 1838-42, whose MANY AND VALUABLE CONTRIBUTIONS TO LINGUISTICS AND ETHNOGRAPHY PLACE HIM TO-DAY AMONG THE FOREMOST AUTHORITIES ON THESE SCIENCES, THIS VOLUME IS INSCRIBED IN RESPECT AND FRIENDSHIP BY THE AUTHOR, PREFACE. HE lectures which appear in this volume were delivered at the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, in the early months of 1890. They have since been written out, and references added in the foot-notes to a number of works and articles, which will enable the student to pursue his readings on any point in which he may be in- terested. My endeavor has been to present the results of the latest and most accurate researches on the subjects treated; though no one can be better aware than myself that in compressing such an extensive science into so limited a space, I have often necessarily been superficial. It is some excuse for the publication, if one is needed, that I am not aware of any other recent work upon this science written in the English language. Philadelphia, August, 1890. (5) CONTENTS. LECTURE I. THE PHYSICAI, ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. . . . . CONTENTS.—Differences and resemblances in individuals and races the basis of Ethnography. The Bones. Craniology. Its limited value. Long and short skulls. Height of skull. Sutures. Inca bone. The orbital index. The nasal index. The maxillary and facial angles. The cranial capacity. The teeth. The iliac bones. Length of the arms. The flattened tibia. The projecting heel. The heart line. The Color. Its extent; cause ; scale of colors. Color of the eyes. The Hair. Shape in cross section; abundance. The muscular structure; anomalies in ; muscular habits : arrow releases. Steatopygy, Stature and proportion ; the “canon of propor- tion; ” special senses; the color-sense. Ethnic relations of the sexes. Beauty; muscular power; brain capacity; viabil- ity. Correlation of physical traits to vital powers. Tolerance of climate and disease. Causes of the fixation of ethnic traits. Climate; food supply; natural selection ; conscious selection; the physical ideal; sexual preference; abhorrence of incest; exogamous marriages. Causes of variation in types. Changes in environment; migrations; reversion; albinism and melanism; fecundity and sterility. The min- gling of races; me tissage. Physical criteria of racial su- periority. Review of physical elements. (7) CONTENTS. *-. - LECTURE II. THE PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. . . CONTENTS.–The mental differences of races. Ethnic psychology. Cause of psychical development, I. THE ASSOCIATIVE ELEMENTS. I. The Social Instincts: sexual impulse; primitive marriage; conception of love; parental affection; filial and fraternal affection; friendship; ancestral worship; the gens or clan; the tribe; personal loyalty; the social organization; systems of consanguinity; position of woman in the state; ethical standards; modesty. 2. Language : universality of ; primeval speech ; rise of linguistic stocks; their number; grammatical structure; classes of languages ; morphologic scheme; relation of language to thought; significance of language in ethnography. 3. Religion : universality of ; early forms; family and tribal religions; universal or world religions; ethnic study of relig- ions; comparison of Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism ; material and ideal religions; associative influences of relig- ions. 4. The Arts of Life : architecture ; agriculture; domestication of animals; inventions. II. THE DISPERSIVE ELEMENTS : adaptability of man to sur- roundings. I. The Migratory Instincts : love of roaming; early commerce; lines of traffic and migration. 2. The Combative Instincts: primitive condition of war; love of combat; its advantages; heroes; development through conflict. LECTURE III. THE BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES.. CoNTENTs.-The origin of Man. Theories of monogenism and polygenism ; of evolution; heterogenesis. Identities point to one origin. Birthplace of the species. The oldest human relics. Remains of the highest apes. Question of climate. Negative arguments. Darwin's belief that the species origi- PAGE SI 79 CONTENTS. 9 PAGE nated in Africa confirmed ; but with modifications. Quarter- nary geography of Europe and Africa. Northern Africa united with Southern Europe. Former shore lines. The Sahara Sea. The quarternary continents of “Eurafrica” and “Austafrica.” Relics of man in them. Man in pre- glacial times. The Glacial Age. Effect on man. His con- dition and acquirements. Appearance of primitive man. His development into races. Approximate data of this. Localities where it occurred. The “areas of characteriza- tion.” Relations of continents to races. Theory of Lin- naeus; of modern ethnography. The continental areas: Eurafrica; Austafrica; Asia; America. Classification of races. Subdivisions of races; branches; stocks; groups; peoples; tribes ; nations. General ethnographic scheme. Other terms: ethnos and ethnic; culture; civilization. Stadia of culture. LECTURE IV. THE EURAFRICAN RACE ; SOUTH MEDITERRA- NEAN BRANCH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IO3 CoNTENTs.-The White Race. Synonyms. Properly an African Race; relative areas; purest specimens. Types of the White race; Libyo-Teutonic type; Cymric type; Celtic type; Euskaric type. Variability of traits. Primal home of the White Race not in Asia, but in Eurafrica. Early migrations and subdivisions. North Mediterranean and South Mediterranean branches. - A.—THE SOUTH MEDITERRANEAN BRANCH. I. THE HAMITIC STOCK. Relation to Semitic. I. The Libyan . Group. Location. Peoples included. Physical appear- ance. The Libyan blondes; languages. Early history; European affiliations; relations to Iberian tribes: the names Jöeri and Berberi. Government. Migration. The Etrus- cans as Libyans. Later history; present culture. Syrian Hamites and their influence. 2. The Egyptian Group. I O CONTENTS. PAGE Kinship to Libyans. Physical appearance. The stone age in Egypt. Antiquity of Egyptian culture. Its influence. Physical traits. 3. The East African Group. Relations to Egypt. II. THE SEMITIc Stock. First entered Arabia from Africa. / I. The Arabian Group. Early divisions and culture. The Arabs. Physical types; mental temperament; religious idealisms. 2. The Abyssinian Group. Tribes included. Period of migration. Condition. 3. The Chaldean Group. Tribes included. The modern Jew. LECTURE V. THE EURAFRICAN RACE ; NORTH MEDITERRANEAN BRANCH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONTENTS.—A.—THE NORTH MEDITERRANEAN BRANCH. I. THE EUSKARIC STOCK. Basques and their congeners. Phys- ical type. Language. II. THE ARYAC STOCK. Synonyms. Origin of the Aryans. Supposed Asiatic origin now doubted. The Aryac physical type. The prot-Aryac language. Culture of proto-Aryans. The “proto-Aryo-Semitic” tongue. Development of in- flections. Prot-Aryac migrations. Southern and northern streams. Approximate dates. Scheme of Aryac migra- tions. Divisions. I. The Celtic Peoples. Members and location. Physical and mental traits. 2. The Italic Peoples. Ancient and modern members, Physical traits. The modern Romance nations. Mental traits. 3. The Illyric Peoples. Members and physical traits. The Hellenic Peoples. Ancient and modern Greeks. Physical type. Influence of Greek culture. 5. The Lettic Peoples. Posi- tion and language. 6. The Teutonic Peoples. Ancient and modern members. Mental character. Recent progress. 7. The Slavonic Peoples. Ancient and modern members. Physical traits. Recent expansion. Character. Relations to Asiatic Aryans. 8. The Indo-Eranic Peoples. Arrival in Asia. Location. Members. Indian Aryans. Appear- ance. Mental aptitude. I4I CONTENTS. III. THE CAUCASIC STOCK. Its languages. Various groups and members. Physical types. Error of supposing the white race came from the Caucasus. LECTURE VI. THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * g e CoNTENTS.—Former geography of Africa. Area of character- ization of the race. Its early extension. Divisions. I. THE NEGRILLOS. Classical tales of Pygmies. Physical char- acters. Habits. Relationship to Bushmen. Description of Bushmen and Hottentots. II. THE NEGROES. Home of the true negroes. I. The Nilotic Group. 2. The Sudanese Group. 3. The Senegambian Group. 4, The Guinean Group. III. THE NEGROIDs. Physical traits. Early admixtures. 1. The Nubian Group. 2. The Bantu Group. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE RACE. Low intellectual posi- tion. Origin of negroes in the United States. LECTURE VII. THE ASIAN RACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CoNTENTS.—Physical geography of Asia. Physical traits of the Race, Its branches. IT PAGE I73 I95 I. THE SINITIC BRANCH. Subdivisions. I. The Chinese. Origin and early migrations. Psychical elements. Arts. Religions. Philosophers. Late migrations. 2. The Thibetan Group. Character. Physical traits. Tribes. 3. The Indo- Chinese Group. Members. Character and Culture. II. THE SIBIRIC BRANCH, Synonyms. Location. Physical appearance. ‘I. The Tungusic Group. Members. Loca- tion. Character. 2. Mongolic Group. Migrations. 3. The Tataric Group. History. Language. Customs. 4. The Finnic Group. Origin and migrations. Physical traits. I 2 CONTENTS. Boundaries of the Sibiric Peoples. The “Turanian" theories. 5. The Arctic Group. Members. Location. Physical traits. 6. The Japanese Group. Members. Loca- tion. History. Culture. The Koreans. . LECTURE VIII. INSUI, AR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONTENTS.–Variability of islanders and coast peoples. Phys- ical geography of Oceanica. Ethnographic divisions. I. THE NEGRITIC STOCK. Subdivisions. 1. The Negrito Group. Members. Former extension. Physical aspect. Culture. 2. The Papuan Group. Location. Physical PAGE traits. Culture and language. 3. The Melanesian Group. Physical traits. Habits. Languages. Ethnic affinities of Papuas and Melanesians. II. THE MALAYIC STOCK. Location. Subdivisions. Affinities with the Asian Race and original home. I. The Western or Malayan Groups. Physical traits. Character. Extension. Culture. Presence in Hindostan. 2. The Eastern or Polynesian Group. Physical traits. Migrations. Char- acter and culture. Easter Island. III. THE AUSTRALIC STOCK. Affinities between the Aus- tralians and Dravidians. I. The Australian Group. Tas- manians and Australians. Physical traits. Culture. 2. The Dravidian Group. Early extension. Members. Culture. Languages. LECTURE IX. THE AMERICAN RACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CoNTENTs.-Peopling of America. Divisions. I. The Arctic Group. Members. Location. Character. 2. The North Atlantic Group. Tinneh, Algonkins, Iroquois, Dakotas, Muskokis, Caddoes, Shoshonees, etc. 3. The North Pacific Group. Thinkit, Haidahs, Californians, Pueblos. 4. The 247 CONTENTS. Mexican Group. The Aztecs or Nahuas. Other nations. 5. The Inter-Isthmian Group. The Mayas. Their culture. Other tribes. 6. The South Atlantic Group. The Caribs, the Arawaks, the Tupis. Other tribes. 7. The South Pa. cific Group. The Qquichuas or Peruvians. Their culture. Other tribes. LECTURE X. PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. . . . . . sº tº gº tº gº ºn # * * * * * * g º º º CoNTENTs.-I. ETHNOGRAPHIC PROBLEMS. I. The problem of acclimation. Various answers. Europeans in the tropics. Austafricans in cold climates; in warm climates. The Asian race. Tolerance of the American race. Theories of acclimation. Conclusion. 2. The problem of amalgama- tion. Effect on offspring. Mingling of white and black races. Infertility. Mingling of colored races. Influence of early and present social conditions. Is amalgamation desirable As applied to white race; to colored races. 3. The problem of civilization. Urgency of the problem. Influence of civilization on savages. Failure of missionary efforts. Cause of the failure. Suggestions. II. THE DESTINY OF RACEs. . Extinction of races. I. The American race. Are the Indians dying out 2 Conflicting statements. They are perishing. Diminution of insular peoples; causes of fatality. The Austafrican race. The Mongolian race stationary. Wonderful growth of the Eurafrican race. Influence of the Semitic element. The future Aryo-Semitic race. Relation of ethnography to historical and political science. INDEX OF AUTHORS... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INDEX OF SUBJECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3 PAGE 277 MAPS, SCHEMES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Figs. I and 2. Long and short skulls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I Fig. 3. Lines of sutures in the skull. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Fig. 4. Lines and angles of skull measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Fig. 5. Cross-sections of hairs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Fig. 6. Primary arrow-release. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Fig. 7. Mediterranean arrow-release. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Fig. 8. Mongolian arrow-release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Scheme of Principal Physical Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Scheme of Geologic Time during the Age of Man in the Eastern Hemisphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 General Ethnographic Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Scheme of the Eurafrican Race : South Mediterranean Branch. IoA Scheme of the Eurafrican Race: North Mediterranean Branch. I 4o Scheme of Aryac Migration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 53 Scheme of the Austafrican Race. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 74 Scheme of the Asian Race. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I94 Scheme of Insular and Littoral Peoples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22O Outlines of the Eastern Hemisphere in the Early Quarternary... 88 Ethnic Chart of the Eurafrican Race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II 2 Ethnic Chart of Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Ethnic Chart of Eurasia and Asia . . . . . . . . * * * g g g g g tº p * = e º 'º $ e º & 198 Ethnic Chart of Hindostan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Indian Tribes of the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 (15) LECTURES ON ETHNOGRAPHY. LECTURE I. THE PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. CONTENTS.–IDifferences and resemblances in individuals and races the basis of Ethnography. The Bones. Craniology. Its limited value. Long and short skulls. Sutures. Inca bone. The orbital index. The nasal index. The maxillary and facial angles. The cranial capacity. The teeth. The iliac bones. Length of the arms. The flattened tibia. The projecting heel. The heart line. The Color. Its extent; cause ; scale of colors. Color of the eyes. The Hair. Shape in cross section; abundance. The muscular structure; anomalies in ; muscular habits; arrow re- leases. Steatopygy. Stature and proportion; the “canon of pro- portion; ” special senses; the color sense. Ethnic relations of the sexes. Correlation of physical traits to vital powers. Causes of the fixation of ethnic traits. Climate; food supply; natural selection; conscious selection ; the physical ideal; sexual prefer- ence; abhorrence of incest; exogamous marriages. Causes of variation in types. The mingling of races. Physical criteria of racial superiority. Review of physical elements. tº . THAT no two persons are identical in appearance is such a truism that we are apt to overlook its signifi- cance. The parent can rarely be recognized from 2 (17) I8 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETIHINOGRAPHY. the traits of the child, the brother from those of the sister, the family from its members. On the other hand, the individual peculiarities be- come lost in those of the race. It is a common state- ment that to our eyes all Chinamen look alike, or that one cannot distinguish an Indian “buck ’’ from a “squaw.” Yet you recognize very well the one as a Chinaman, the other as an Indian. The traits of the race thus overslaugh the variable characters of the family, the sex or the individual, and maintain them- selves uniform and unalterable in the pure blood of the stock through all experience. This fact is the corner-stone of the science of Eth- nography, whose aim is to study the differences, phys- ical and mental, between men in masses, and ascertain which of these differences are least variable and hence of most value in classifying the human species into its several natural varieties or types. In daily life and current literature the existence of such varieties is fully recognized. The European and African, or White and Black races, are those most familiar to us; but the American Indian and the Mon- golian are not rare, and are recognized also as distinct from each other and ourselves. These common terms for the races are not quite accurate; but they illustrate a tendency to identify the most prominent types of the species with the great continental areas, and in this I shall show that the popular judgment is in accord with scientific reasoning. If an ordinary observer were asked what the traits CRAN IOLOGY. I9 are which fix the racial type in his mind, he would certainly omit many which are highly esteemed by the man of science. He would have nothing to say, for instance, about the internal structures or organs, be- cause they are not visible; but in approaching the sub- ject from a scientific direction, we must lay most stress upon these, as their peculiarities decide the ex- ternal traits which strike the eye. - Nor does the casual observer note the mental or physical differences which exist between the races whom he recognizes; yet these are not less perma- nent and not less important than those which concern the physical economy only. In both these directions the student of ethnography as a science must pursue careful researches. In the present lecture I shall pass in review the physical elements held to be most weighty in the dis- crimination of racial types; and, first, those relating to The Bones.—Most important are the measurements of the skull, that science called craniology, or crani- ometry. Ethnologists who are merely anatomists have made too much of this science. They have applied it to the exclusion of other elements, and have given it a prom- inence which it does not deserve. The shape of the skull is no distinction of race in the individual; only in the mass, in the average of large numbers, has it im- portance. Even here its value is not racial. Within the limits of the same people, as among the Slavoni- ans, for example, the most different skulls are found, 2O |PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. and even the pure-blood natives of some small islands in the Pacific Ocean present widely various forms.” Experiments on the lower animals prove that the skull is easily moulded by trifling causes. Darwin found that he could produce long, or short, or non- symmetrical skulls in rabbits by training. The shape also bears a relation to stature. As a general rule short men have short or rounded heads, tall men have long heads. The longest skulled nation in Europe are the Norwegians, who are also the tallest; the roundest are the Auvergnats, who, of all the Euro- pean whites, are the shortest. Nevertheless, employed cautiously, in large aver- ages, and with a careful regard for all the other ethnic elements, the measurements of the skull are extremely useful as accessory data of comparison. * The cranial indices on one of these islands varied from 70 to 83. The excessive claims of craniometry have been severely but justly rebuked by Moriz Wagner, in his thoughtful work, ZXie Zaitstehung der Artem durch ràum/ic/e Sonderung, s. 528, sq. (Basel, 1889), and more forcibly censured by Waitz, Anthropologie der Maturvölker, Bd. I., ss. 84–88. The French school of anthropologists have been es- pecially one-sided in their devotion to this one element of the science. Among other great naturalists, Charles Darwin was careful to point out the variability of the skull as an anatomical part. (7%e AJescenz of Man, p. 26.) f Darwin, Zhe ZXescent of AZan, p. 56. The anatomical cause of elongated or short skulls is the earlier union of either the transverse or longitudinal sutures, thus forcing the growth to be in the other direction. (L. Holden, Human Osteology, p. 127). Of course, this begins in foetal life; and Pruner Bey had observed children with different forms of the skull born of the same mother. (Oscar Pes- chel, Völkerkunde, s. 80). SHAPE OF SIKULL. 2I Some craniologists have run up these measurements to more than a hundred; but those worth mentioning in this connection are but few. There is, first, the proportion which the length of the head has to its breadth. This makes the distinction between long, medium and broad skulls, “dolicho-cephalic,” “meso- cephalic,” and “brachy-cephalic.” In the medium skull the transverse bears to the longitudinal diameter the proportion of about 8o:IOO. The proportion 75:IOO would make quite a long skull, and 85:IOO quite a broad skull, the extreme variations not exceed- ing 70 :IOO–90:IOO. (Figs. I and 2.) FIGS. I AND 2.—Long and Short Skulls. The Asiatic race or typical Mongolians are gener- ally brachy-cephalic, the Eskimos and African negroes dolicho-cephalic; while the whites of Europe and American Indians present great diversity. The lengthening of the skull may be anteriorly or posteriorly, and this is probably more significant of brain power than its width. In the black race the lengthening is occipital, that is at the rear, indicating a preponderance of the lower mental powers. 22 PIHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETIHNOGRAPHY. The height of the skull is another measurement which is much respected by craniologists; but they are far from agreed as to the points from which the lines shall be drawn, so that it is difficult to compare their results.” The “sutures,” or lines of union be- tween the several bones of the skull, present indica- tions of great value. In the lower races they are much simpler than in the higher, and they become Sº-vºnrºvićvy-N- ; Wººſjö, FIG. 3.-Lines of Sutures in the Skull. obliterated earlier in life; the bones of the skull thus uniting into a compact mass and preventing further expansion of the cavity occupied by the brain.f (Fig. 3.) Occasionally small separated bones are found in these sutures, more frequently in some races than in * See Dr. Emil Schmidt, Anthropologische Methoden, s. 221. This is a valuable handbook for the student of anthropology. f An interesting study of this subject has been made by Dr. F. C. Ribbe, L’Ordre d" Obliteration des Sutures du Crazze dams les Races Iſumaines (Paris, 1885). SHAPE OF THE EYES. 23 Others. One of these, toward the back of the head, occurs so constantly in certain American tribes that it has been named the “ Inca bone.” ” In many savage tribes there are artificial deforma- tions of the skull, which render it useless as a means of comparison. The “Flathead Indians' are an ex- ample, and many Peruvian skulls are thus pressed out of shape. It is singular that this violence to such an important organ does not seem to be attended with any injurious result on the intellectual powers. The orbit of the eyes is another feature which varies in races. The proportion of the short to the long diameter furnishes what is known as the “ orbital in- dex.” The Mongolians present nearest a circular orbit, the proportion being sometimes 93:IOO ; while the lowest range has been found in skulls from ancient French cemeteries, presenting an index of 61:IOO. The latter are technically called “microsemes; ” the former “megasemes,” while the mean are “meso- semes.” In a similar manner the aperture of the nostrils varies and constitutes quite an important element of comparison known as the “nasal index.” Where this aperture is narrow, the nose is thin and prominent; * For a careful paper on this point see Dr. Washington Matthews, in the American Anthropologist, Oct., 1889. f Instead of these terms the Germans use : Chamaekonch = orbital index below 8o MesoA:onch = { % “ 80–85. Pſypsi}onch = § { “ above 85. The French expressions are preferable. *** • ‘’ 24 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. when broad, the nose is large and flat. The former are “leptorhinian,” the latter “platyrhinian,” while the medium size is “mesorhinian.” This division co- incides closely with that of the chief races. Almost all the white race are leptorhinian, the negroes platyr- hinian, the true Asiatics mesorhinian. The Eskimos have the narrowest nasal aperture, the Bushmen the widest. & The projection of the maxillaries, or upper and lower jaws, beyond the line of the face, is a highly significant trait. When well marked it forms the “ prognathic,” when slight the “ orthognathic ’’ type. It is much more observable in the black than in the white race, and is more pronounced in the old than in the young. It is considered to correspond to a stronger development of the merely animal instincts. The relation of the lower to the upper part of the head is measured mainly by two angles, the one the “maxillary,” the other the “facial " angle. The former is the angle subtended by lines drawn from the most projecting portion of the maxillaries to the most prominent points of the forehead above and the chin below. (The angle M G S in the accompanying dia- gram, Fig. 4.) This supplies data for two important elements, the prognathism and the prominence of the chin. The latter is an essential feature of man. None of the lower animals possesses a true chin, while man is never without one. The more acute the max- illary angle, the less of chin is there, and the more prognathic the subject. The averages run as follows: TIHE FA CIAL INDEX. 25 The European white . . . . . . . . . I60°. The African negro . . . . . . . . . . I40°. The Orang-Outang . . . . . . . . . . I IO*. f------- * * * *m amº ame * ------. * * * * * * * * FIG. 4. Lines and angles of skull measurement. The facial angle is that subtended by the same line, from the most prominent point of the upper jaw to the most prominent part of the forehead, and a second line drawn horizontally through the center of the aper- ture of the ear. (The lines M. G., D N.) It ex- presses the relative prominence of the forehead and capacity of the anterior portion of the brain. The 26 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY, more acute this angle, the lower is the brain capacity. The following are its averages: - The European white . . . . 80°. The African negro . . . . 70°. to 75°. The Orang-Outang . . . . 40°. The amount of brain matter contained in a skull is called its “cerebral or cranial capacity.” This is proved by investigation to average less in the dark than in the light races, and in the same race less in the female than in the male sex. Estimated in cubic cen- timetres the extremes are about 1250 cub. cent. in the Australians and Bushmen to I600 cub. cent. in well- developed Europeans. We cannot regard this meas- urement as a constant exponent of intellectual power, as many men with small brains have possessed fine intellects; but as a general feature it certainly is indi- cative of brain weight, and therefore of relative intel- ligence. The average human brain weighs 48 ounces, while that of a large gorilla is not over 20 ounces. The teeth offer several points of difference in races. In the negro they are unusually white and strong, and in nearly all the black people (Australians, Soudanese, Melanesians, etc.), the “wisdom teeth '' are generally furnished with three separate fangs, and are sound, while among whites they have only two fangs, and decay early. The most ancient jaws exhumed in Europe present the former character. The promi- nence of the canine teeth is a peculiarity of some tribes, while in others the canines are not conical, but resenble the incisors. & THE TEETH. 27 The sige of the teeth has also been asserted to be an index of race, and an effort has been made to class- ify peoples into small-toothed (microdonts), medium- toothed (mesodonts), and large-toothed (mega- donts).” But this scheme includes in the first men- tioned class the Polynesians with the Europeans, and in the second the African negro with the Chinese, which looks as if the plan has little value. The milk-teeth have a much closer resemblance to those of the apes than the second dentition, and some naturalists have thought that the forms of the second teeth point often to reversion and are characteristic of races, but this has not been proved. The teeth and the period of dentition have been studied in man with the view to show that certain races more than others retain the dental forms of the lower animals, but the latest investigations go rather to overthrow than to support these theories.; Turning to the other bones of the skeleton, I shall note a few peculiarities said to be ethnic. The skel- eton of a negro usually presents iliac bones more ver- tical than those of a white man, and the basin is nar- rower. This peculiarity is measured by what is called * W. H. Flower, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, Vol. XIV., p. 183. - f The “Lemurian reversion ” in human dentition brought forward some years ago as a racial indication by Professor E. D. Cope has been largely negatived by the later researches of Dr. Harrison Allen. See Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 1890; also, Virchow, Ver/and/ungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft, 1886, s. 4OO, Sq. 28 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. _x -- the “pelvic index,” by which is meant the ratio of the transverse to the longitudinal diameter. The average ratio is about 90 or 95 to IOO. Another trait of a lower osteology is the unusual length of the arms. This is found to depend upon the relative elongation of the fore-arm and its principal bones, the radius and ulna. From comparisons which have been instituted between the negro and the white, it appears that the proportionate length of their arms is as 78 to 72. The long arms are characteristic of the higher apes and the unripe fetus, and belong, therefore, to a lower phase of development than that reached by the white race. There is also a peculiarity among many lower peo- ples in the shape of the shin-bone or tibia. Usually when cut in cross-section, the ends present a triangu- lar surface; but in certain tribes, and in some ancient remains from the caves, the cross-section is elliptical, showing that the tibia has been flattened (platycnemic). This was long regarded as a sign of ethnic inferiority, but of late years the opinion of anatomists has under- gone a change, and they attribute it to the special use of some of the muscles of the leg. The heel-bone, the os calcis or calcaneum, is cur- rently believed to be longer and project further back- ward in the negro than in the white man. There is no doubt of the projection of the heel, and it is typi- cal of the true negro race, but it does not seem to be Owing to the size of the bone, as an examination of a series of calcanea in both races proves. The length- COLOR IN RACES. 29 ening is apparent only, and is due to the smallness of the calf and the slenderness of the main tendon, the “tendon of Achilles,” immediately above the heel.” With the pithecoid forms of the bones is often as- sociated another simian mark. The line in the hand known to chiromancy as the “heart" line, in all races but the negro ceases at the base of the middle finger, but in his race, as in the ape, it often extends quite across the palm. The bones offer the most enduring, but not the most obvious distinctions of races. The latter are unques- tionably those presented by The Color.—This it is which first strikes the eye, and from which the most familiar names of the types have been drawn. The black and white, the yellow, the red and the brown races, are terms far older than the science of ethnography, and have always been employed in its terminology. Why it is that these different hues should indelibly mark whole races, is not entirely explained. The pigment or coloring matter of the skin is deposited from the capillaries on the surface of the dermis or true skin, and beneath the epidermis or scarf skin.j I have seen a negro so badly scalded that the latter was detached in large fragments, and with it came most of his color, leaving the spot a dirty light brown. * L. Holden, A/uman Osteology, pp. 188, 189. f More accurately, the pigment cells in man are in the deeper layer of the rete mucosum. //alpighii. Cf. A. Kölliker, “Ueber die Entste- hung des Pigments in den Oberhautgebilden,” in the Zeitschrift für wissensch. Zoëlogie, Bd. XLV., S. 713 sq. 3O IPHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. The coloration of the negro, however, extends much beyond the skin. It is found in a less degree on all his mucous membrane, in his muscles, and even in the pia mater and the grey substance of his brain. The effort has been made to measure the colors of different peoples by a color scale. One such was de- vised by Broca, presenting over thirty shades, and another by Dr. Radde, in Germany; but on long journeys, or as furnished by different manufacturers, these scales undergo changes in the shades, so that they have not proved of the value anticipated. As to the physiological cause of color, you know that the direct action of the sun on the skin is to stimu- late the capillary action, and lead to an increased deposit of pigment, which we call “tan.” This pigment is largely carbon, a chemical element, princi- pally excreted by the lungs in the form of carbonic oxide. When from any cause, such as a peculiar diet, or a congenital disproportion of lungs to liver, the carbonic oxide is less rapidly thrown off by the former organs, there will be an increased tendency to pig- mentary deposit on the skin. This is visibly the fact in the African blacks, whose livers are larger in pro- portion to their lungs than in any other race.* * This was the result of numerous autopsies during the American civil war. Some dissections reported by M. T. Chudzinski seem to show that the liver of the negro is smaller than that of the white. (Revue d'Anthropologie, 1887, p. 275). But its relative size to the lungs is the question at issue. The comparative splanchnology of the different races has yet to be worked out. COLORS OF SIKIN AND EYES. 3I While all the truly black tribes dwell in or near the tropics, all the arctic dwellers are dark, as the Lapps, Samoyeds and Eskimos ; therefore, it is not climate alone which has to do with the change. The Ameri- cans differ little in color among themselves from what part SOever of the continent they come, and the Mon- golians, though many have lived time immemorial in the cold and temperate zone, are never really white when of unmixed descent. A practical scale for the colors of the skin is the following: I. Black. Dark. 2. Dark brown, reddish undertone. 3. Dark brown, yellowish undertone. Medium } I. Reddish. g 2. Yellowish (olive). I. White, brown undertone (grayish). White. { 2. “ yellow undertone. 3. “ rosy undertone. The color of the eyes should next have attention. Their hue is very characteristic of races and of fam- ilies. Light eyes with dark skins are rare exceptions. Other things equal, they are lighter in men than in women. Extensive statistics have been collected in Europe to ascertain the prevalence of certain colors, and instructive results have been obtained.* The di- vision usually adopted is into dark and light eyes. * Dr. John Beddoe in England, Topinard in France, and Virchow in Cermany, have been especially active in obtaining these statistics. 32 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETI INOGRAPHY. I. Black. ' 2. Brown. Dark eyes. } I. Light brown (hazel). Light eyes. 2. Gray. 3. Blue. The eye must be examined at some little distance so as to catch the total effect. Next in the order of prominence is The Hair.—Indeed, Haeckel and others have based upon its character the main divisions of mankind. That of some races is straight, of others more or less curled. This difference depends upon the shape of the hairs in cross-section. The more closely they assimi- late true cylinders, the straighter they hang; while the flatter they are, the more they approach the appearance of wool. (Fig. 5.) The variation of the two diameters FIG. 5–Cross Sections of Hairs. (transverse and longitudinal) is from 25:IOO to 90 : IOO. The straightest is found among the Malayans and Mongolians; the wooliest among the Hottentots, Pa- puas and African negroes. The white race is inter- mediate, with curly or wavy hair. It is noteworthy that all woolly-haired peoples have also long, narrow heads and protruding jaws. The amount of hair on the face and body is also a R IMUSCULAR ANOMAILIES. 33 point of some moment. As a rule, the American and Mongolian peoples have little, the Europeans and Australians abundance. Crossing of races seems to strengthen its growth, and the Ainos of the Japanese Archipelago, a mixed people, are probably the hairiest of the species. The strongest growth on the head is seen among the Cafusos of Brazil, a hybrid of the In- dian and negro. The Muscular Structure.—The development of the muscular structure offers notable differences in the various races. The blacks, both in Africa and else- where, have the gastrocnemii or calf muscles of the leg very slightly developed; while in both them and the Mongolians the facial muscles have their fibres more closely interwoven than the whites, thus pre- wenting an equal mobility of facial expression. The anomalies of the muscular structure seem about as frequent in one race as in another. The most of them are regressive, imitating the muscles of the apes, imonkeys, and lower mammals. Indeed, a learned anatomist has said that the abnormal anatomy of the muscles supplies all the gaps which separate man from the higher apes, as all the simian characteristics reappear from time to time in his structure.* Certain motions or positions, such as I may call “muscular habits,” are characteristic of extensive groups of tribes. The method of resting is one such. The Japanese squats on his hams, the Australian stands on one leg, supporting himself by a spear or * L. Testut, in Zºomme, 1884, p. 377. 3 34 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. f pole, and so on. The methods of arrow-release have f been profitably studied by Professor E. S. Morse. He finds them so characteristic that he classifies them s FIG. 6.-Primary Arrow-Release. . ethnographically, with reference to savagery and civili- zation, and locality. The three most important are the * primary, the Mediterranean, and the Mongolian re- º º FIG. 7.-Mediterranean Arrow-Release. ! w e tº w leases. The first is that of many savage tribes, the º second was practiced principally by the white race, the last by the Mongolians and their neighbors. (Figs. 6, { 7, 8.) The last two are the most effective, and thus gave superiority in combat. - |HEIGHT AND SYMMETRY. 35 Allied to muscular variation are the peculiar de- posits of fatty tissue in certain portions of the system. The Hottentots are remarkable for the prominence of the gluteal region, imparting to their figure a singular projection posteriorly. It is called “stea- topygy,” and appears to have been, in part at least, a cultivated deformity, regarded among them as a FIG. 8.—Mongolian Arrow-Release. beauty. The thick lips of the negro, and the long and pendent breasts of the Australian women; are other ex- amples of ethnic hypertrophies. Stature and Proportion.—Differences in stature are tribal, but not racial. The smallest peoples known, the Negrillos, the Aetas, the Lapps, belong to different races, as do the tallest, the Patagonians, the Polyne- sians, the Anglo-Americans. The researches of Paolo Riccardi and others prove that stature is correlated with nutrition; the better the food, other things being 36 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. equal, the taller the men.” It is also markedly hereditary ; the stature of children will average that of their parents. - What is called the “canon of proportions ° of the human body varies with the race and the nation. There is indeed an ideal, an artistic canon, which the sculptor or the painter seeks to body forth in his productions; and this seems in close conformity with an extensive average of the proportions of the highest peoples; but it is never found in individuals, and it is essentially unlike in man and woman, in youth and age, in the blonde and brunette.f Nor is the ideal of the artist also that which is consonant with the great- est muscular development or highest powers of en- durance. Special Senses.—It cannot be said that the different races display positive discrepancies in the special senses. Their development appears to depend on cultivation, and all races respond equally to equal training. There is, to be sure, a higher musical sense in the native African than in the native American, but quite as much difference is seen between European nations. . Much has been written of the color-sense as a trait of nations. It has been said that some tribes, some races, appreciate hues more keenly than others; that within historic times marked gains in this respect are * In Archivio per /'Antropologia, 1885. f See Topinard, “Le Canon des Proportions du Corps de l'Homme Européen,” in Kevue d’ Anthropologie, 1889, p. 392. MEN AND WOMEN. 37 noticeable. I think these statements are incorrect. The savage of any race distinguishes precisely the dif- ference of httes when it is to his material interest so to do; but concerns himself not at all about colors which have no effect on his life. He is well acquainted with the colors of the animals he hunts, and has a word for every shade of hue. This proves that his color-sense is as acute as that of civilized people, and merely lacks specific training. Ethnic Relations of the Scares.—There are some curious facts in reference to the relative position of the sexes in different peoples. As a rule the expression of sex in form and feature is less in the lower than in the higher races. Travelers frequently refer to the difficulty of distinguishing the men from the women among the American Indians or the Chinese. Inves- tigate the fact, and you will find that it is not that the women are less feminine in appearance, but the men less masculine. In other words, the expression of sex in such peoples is less in man than in woman. This seems to be true also of the highest ideals of man- hood in artistic conception. The Greek Apollo, the traditional Christ, present a feminine type of the male. This was carried to its excess in the Greek Hermaph- rodite. The reason for this approximation to the female in art-ideals is probably the zoological fact that the law of beauty in the human species is the reverse of that in all the other higher mammals, the female sex with us being the handsomer. This also becomes more 38 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETH NOGRAPHY. evident in the comparison of the best developed peoples. On the other hand, the muscular force of the sexes presents the greatest contrast in nations of the highest culture. The average European woman of twenty-five or thirty has one-third less muscular power than the average European man. But among the Afghans, the Patagonians, the Druses and other tribes, the women are as tall and as strong as the men; and in Siam, AS- hanti, Ancient Gaul, and elsewhere, not only the field- laborers but the soldiers were principally women, selected because of their greater physical force and Courage. As the value of mere brute force in a social organi- zation lessens in comparison to mental powers, the condition of woman improves, and her faculties find appropriate play. Her brain capacity, though abso- lutely less, is relatively more than man's. That is, the difference of the whole average weight of woman and man is greater in proportion than the difference of their brain weights. It is believed, also, that the viability or prospect of life in woman is greater in higher than in lower peo- ples, and generally greater than in men. European statistics show that IO6 boys are born to IOO girls: but at twelve years of age the sexes are equal, the boys suffering a greater mortality. At eighty years of age, there are nearly three women living to one man, indicating a superior longevity. , Correlation of Physical Traits to Vital Powers— *.*. DISEASE IN RACES. - 39 The physical traits are correlated to the physiolog- ical functions in such a manner as profoundly to in- fluence the destiny of nations. They enable or dis- able man with reference to the climatic and other conditions of his surroundings. For instance, certain races can support given temperature better than Others. The intense heat and humidity of Central Africa or Southern India are destructive to the pure whites, while the climate north of the fortieth parallel soon exterminates the blacks. The food on which the Australian thrives destroys the digestive powers of the European. Exemption and liability to diseases differ noticeably in races. The white race is more liable to yellow fever, malarial diseases, syphilis, scar- let fever and sunstroke; the colored races to measles, tuberculosis, leprosy, elephantiasis, and pneumonia. Indeed, from the physical point of view, the pure white is weaker than the dark races, worse prepared for the combat of life, with inferior viability. This has been shown by the careful researches of statistic- ians.” But in the white this is more than compensated by the development of the nervous system and the intellectual power. He can bear greater mental strain than any other race, and the activity of his mind sup- plies him with means to overcome the inferiority of his body, and thus places him at the head of the whole species. * An instructive article on this subject is that of Alphonse de Can- dolle, “Les Types brun et blond au point de vue de la Santé,” in the A'evue a’ Anthropologie, May, 1887. - A ſ 4O PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. The tolerance of disease is an obscure but momen- tous element in the comparison of races. It is almost a proverb among the Spanish-American phy- Sicians that “when an Indian falls sick, he dies.” The greater longevity of the European peoples is due to their ability to support disease long and frequently, without succumbing to it. On the other hand, surgical injuries, wounds and cuts, appear to heal more rapidly among Savage peoples.” It is clear that in civilized conditions this is less important than tolerance. The Causes of the Firation of Ethnic Traits.— These causes are mainly related to climate and the food-supply. The former embraces the questions of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure (alti- tude), malarial or zymotic poisons, and the like. All these bear directly upon the relative activity of the great physiological organs, the lungs, heart, liver, skin and kidneys, and to their action we must undoubtedly turn for the origin of the traits I have named. On the food-supply, liquid and Solid, whether mainly animal, fish or vegetable, whether abundant or scanty, whether rich in phosphates and nitrogenous constituents or the reverse, depend the condition of the digestive organs, the nutrition of the individual, and the development of numerous physical idiosyncrasies. Nutrition con- * A number of striking instances have been collected by Waitz, Anthropologie der AWałurvāſ/er, Bd. I... s. 141. Dr. Max Bartels, in the Zeitschrift für AEthnologie, 1888, s. 183, establishes this rule : “The higher the race, the less the tolerance of surgical disease; and in the same race, the lower the culture, the greater the tolerance.” NATURAL AND CON SCIOUS SELECTION. 4I trols the direction of organic development, and it is essentially on arrested or imperfect, in contrast to completed development, that the differences of races depend. These are the physiological and generally unavoid- able influences which went to the fixation of racial types. They are those which placed early man under the dominion of natural, unconscious evolution, like all the lower animals. To them may be added natural selection from accidental variations becoming perma- nent when proving of value in the struggle for exist- ence, as shown in the black hue of equatorial tribes, special muscular development, etc. But I do not look on these as the main agents in the fixation of special traits. No doubt such agencies pri- marily evolved them, but their cultivation and perpe- tuation were distinctly owing to conscious selection in early man. Our species is largely outside the general laws of Organic evolution, and that by virtue of the self-consciousness which is the privilege of it alone among organized beings. This conscious selection was applied in two most potent directions, the one to maintaining the physical ideal, the other toward serual preference. As soon as the purely physical influences mentioned had impressed a tendency toward a certain type on the early community, this was recognized, cultivated and deepened by man's conscious endeavors. Every race, when free from external influence, assigns to its high- est ideal of manly or womanly beauty its special racial 42 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. traits, and seeks to develop these to the utmost. Afri- can travelers tell us that the negroes of the Soudan look with loathing on the white skin of the European ; and in ancient Mexico when children were born of a very light color, as Occasionally happened, they were put to death. On the other hand the earliest records of the white race exalt especially the element of white- ness. The writer of the Song of Solomon celebrates his bride as “fairest among women,” with a neck “like a tower of ivory; ” + and one of the oldest of Irish hero-tales, the Wooing of Emmer, chants the praises of “Tara, the whitest of maidens.”f Though both Greeks and Egyptians were of the dark type of the Mediterranean peoples, their noblest gods, Apollo and Osiris, were represented “fair in hue, and with light or golden hair.”: The persistent admiration of an ideal leads to its constant cultivation by careful preservation and sexual selection. Thus the peoples who have little hair on the face and body, as most Chinese and American In- dians, usually do not like any, and carefully extirpate it. The negroes prefer a flat nose, and a child which develops one of a pointed type has it artificially flat- tened. In Melanesia if a child is born of a lighter hue than is approved by the village, it is assiduously held over the smoke of a fire in order to blacken it. The * Solomon’s Song, Chap. VII., v. 4, etc. f See “The Wooing of Emer,” translated by Kuno Meyer, in Zhe Archaeologica/Journal, Vol. I., p. 68 sq. f C. P. Tiele, Æistory of the AEgyptian Religion, pp. 93, 95, etc. : 2 `ſ THE AVERSION TO INCEST. 43 custom of destroying infants markedly aberrant from the national type is nigh universal in primitive life. Such usages served to fix and perpetuate the racial traits. A yet more powerful factor was serual preference. This worked in a variety of ways. It is well known to stock breeders that the closer animals are bred in-and- in, that is, the nearer the relationship of father and mother, the more prominently the traits of the parents appear in their children and become fixed in the breed. It is evident that in the earliest epoch of the human family, the closest inter-breeding must have prevailed without restriction, as it does in every species of the lower animals. By its influences the racial traits were rapidly strengthened and indelibly impressed. This, however, was long before the dawn of history, for it is a most remarkable fact that never in historic times has a tribe been known that allowed incestuous relations, unless as in ancient Egypt and Persia, for a sacrificial or ceremonial purpose. The lowest Australians, the degraded Utes, look with horror on the union of brother and sister. The general principle of marriage in savage races is that of “exogamy,” marriage out- side the clan or family, the latter being counted in the female line only. This strange but universal abhor- rence has been explained by Darwin as primarily the result of sexual indifference arising between members. of the same household, and the high zest of novelty in that appetite. Whatever the cause, the consequences will easily be seen. The racial traits once fixed in the 44 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETIHNOGRAPHY. period before this abhorrence arose would remain largely stationary afterwards, and by exogamous mar- riages would be rendered uniform Over a wide area. This form of conscious selection has properly been rated as one of the prime factors in the problem of race differentiation.* The apparently miscellaneous and violent union of the sexes in Savage tribes is in fact governed by the most stringent traditional laws, and their confused cohabitations are so only to the mind of the European observer, not to the tribal con- science.f Causes of Variation in Types.—The physical type once fixed by the influences just mentioned remains very stable; yet may fall under the influence of condi- tions which will greatly modify it. Changes in climatic surroundings and of the food supply exert a visible effect. These generally come about by migration, though geologic action has occa- sionally completely altered the climate of a given lo- cality, as at the glacial epoch, which change would have the same effect as migration. How far migration may alter race-types after many generations is not yet defined. The Spanish-Amer- ican of pure white blood, whose ancestors have lived * The most valuable study upon it is that by the late Moriz Wagner, printed in his volume Die Entstehung der Artem durch rāum/ic/he Sonderung (Basel, 1889). f Some excellent remarks on this subject are offered by Elie Reclus, in his discussion of marriage among the Australians, in Rezue d’ Anthropologie, 1887, p. 20, sq. CAUSES OF VARIATION. 45 for three centuries in tropical America, the citizen of the United States who traces his genealogy to the passengers in the Mayflower or the Welcome, have departed extremely little from the standard of the An- dalusian or the Englishman of to-day, though the contrary is often asserted by those who have not per- sonally studied the variants in the countries compared. Conditions of climate and food materially impress the individual, but not the race. The Greeks of Nubia are as dark as Nubians, but let their children return to Greece and the Nubian hue is lost. This is a general truth and holds good of all the slight impressions made upon pure races by unaccustomed environments. Another cause of variation is the recurrence to remote ancestral traits, or the appearance of what seem merely accidental variations, which may be per- petuated. It is not very unusual in pure African negroes and Chinese to observe instances of reddish hair and gray or brown eyes. Those peculiar congenital conditions known as al- binism and melanism may be frequent and are un- questionably transmissible by descent.* The Mingling of Races.—But the mightiest cause in the change of types is intermarriage between races, what the French call métissage. This has taken place from distantly remote epochs, especially along the lines where two races come into contact. In such regions * On the interesting questions of the recurrence of red hair and albinos in various races, consult Richard Andree, AEthnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, ss. 238, 261. (Neue Folge, Leipzig, 1889). 46 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. we always find numerous mixed breeds, leading to a shading of one race into another by imperceptible degrees. The widespread custom of exogamous marriage fostered the blending of types, and it was greatly increased in early days by the institution of human slavery, the habit of selling captives taken in war, the purchase of wives and concubines, and the rule in early conquest that the men of the conquered were killed or sent off, and the women retained as the spoils of the victors. In all ages man has been migratory, and very remote relics of his arts show that war and commerce led to extensive intermixture of races long before history took up the thread of his wanderings. It is noticeable, however, that these prolonged in- terminglings have not produced another race. The nearest approach to it is in the Australians, but these do not refute my statement as we shall see later. Many ethnologists have indeed classed the mixed types as separate races, running the number of the sub- species of the genus homo up to thirty or forty. But this was hasty generalization. I would impress upon you this fact, that since the intermingling of two races does not produce a third face, it is not likely that any of the existing races arose from a fusion of two others. The result of observation shows that after two or three generations the ten- dency in mixed breeds is to recur to one or the other of the original stocks, not to establish a different variety. HIGH AND LOW RACES. 47 Were it not for such constant crossings, we have reason to believe that the race types would resist all environment and retain their traits under all known conditions. It is only where the element of métissage prominently enters that we are unable to assign indi- viduals to one or another race. Such being the case, it is a fair comparison to set one race over against another and deduce the Physical Criteria of Racial Superiority.—We are ac- customed familiarly to speak of “higher ” and “low- er ’’ races, and we are justified in this even from merely physical considerations. These indeed bear intimate relations to mental capacity, and where the body pre- sents many points of arrested or retarded develop- ment, we may be sure that the mind will also. There are two explanations of the presence of the inferior physical traits in certain races of men; the one, that of the evolutionists, that they are reversions or perpetuations of the ape-like (simian, pithecoid) features of the lower animal which was man’s immedi- ate ancestor; the other, that of the special creationists, that they are instances of surviving fetal peculiarities, or else deficiency or excess of development from un- known causes. The following are the principal traits of the kind: Simplicity and early union of cranial sutures. Presence of the frontal process of the temporal bone. Wide nasal aperture, with synostosis of the nasal bones. - 48 PIHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY, Prominence of the jaws. Recession of the chin. Early appearance, size and permanence of the “wis- dom '' teeth. Untisual length of the humerus. Perforation of the humerus. Continuation of the “heart " line across the hand. Obliquity (narrowness) of the pelvis. Deficiency of the calf of the leg. Flattening of the tibia. Elongation of the heel (os calcis). When all or many of these traits are present, the individual approaches physically the type of the an- thropoid apes, and a race presenting many of them is properly called a “lower" race. On the other hand, where they are not present, the race is “higher,” as it maintains in their integrity the special traits of the genus Man, and is true to the type of the species. The adult who retains the more numerous fetal, in- fantile or simian traits, is unquestionably inferior to him whose development has progressed beyond them, nearer to the ideal form of the species, as revealed by a study of the symmetry of the parts of the body, and their relation to the erect stature. Measured by these criteria, the European or white race stands at the head of the list, the African or negro at its foot. The investigations of anthropologists extend much beyond the outlines I have now presented you. All parts of the body have been minutely scanned, meas- & LIST OF PHYSICAL ELEMENTS. 49 ured and weighed, in order to erect a science of the comparative anatomy of the races. Much of value has been discovered ; but nothing absolutely character- istic, nothing which enables us to divide more sharply one race from another than the facts I have given you. It is a question, indeed, whether not too much, but too exclusive attention has not been devoted by many anthropologists to the purely playsical aspects of their science. They have multiplied useless anatomical refinements and a pedantic nomenclature. The more valuable general distinctions and their technical terms I present to you in the following table:— Scheme of Principal Physical Elements. Dolichocephalic, long skulls. Mesocephalic, medium skulls. Brachycephalic, broad skulls. Skull Leptorhine, narrow noses. Mesorhine, medium noses. Platyrhine, flat or broad noses. | Megaseme, round eyes. Nose Mesoseme, medium eyes. Microseme, narrow eyes. Orthognathic, straight or vertical jaws. Mesognathic, medium jaws. Prognathic, projecting jaws. Chamaeprosopic, low or broad face. Mesoprosopic, medium face. Leptoprosopic, narrow or high face. Face Platypellic, broad pelvis. Mesopellic, medium pelvis. Leptopellic, narrow pelvis. Pelvis 5O PIHYSICAL ELEMENTS IN ETHNOGRAPHY. .. Leucochroic, white skin. Xanthochroic, yellow skin. Erythrochroic, reddish skin. Melanochroic, black or dark skin. Color Euthycomic, straight hair. ſº Euplocomic, wavy hair. Hair plocomic, y nau Eriocomic, wooly hair. Lophocomic, bushy hair. LECTURE II. THE PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. CONTENTS.–The mental differences of races. Ethnic psychology. I II Cause of psychical development. . THE Associative ELEMENTS. I. The Social Instincts; sexual impulse; primitive marriage; conception of love; parental affec- tion; filial and fraternal affection; friendship; ancestral worship; the gens or clan ; the tribe ; personal loyalty; the social organiza- tion ; systems of consanguinity; position of woman in the state; ethical standards; modesty. 2. Language; universality of; primeval speech; rise of linguistic stocks; their number; gram- matical structure; classes of languages; morphologic scheme; relation of language to thought ; significance of language in ethnog- raphy. 3. Religion : universality of ; early forms; family and tribal religions; universal or world religions; ethnic study of re- ligions; comparison of Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism; ma- terial and ideal religions; associative influences of religions. 4. The Arts of Life: architecture; agriculture; domestication of animals; inventions. . THE DISPERSIVE ELEMENTS: adaptability of man to surround- ings. I. The Migratory Instincts; love of roaming; early com- merce; lines of traffic and migration. 2. The Combative Instincts: primitive condition of war; love of combat; its advantages; heroes; development through conflict. THE mental differences of races and nations are real and profound.TSome OTThem are just as valuable for ethnic classification as any of the physical elements I ic referred to in the last lecture, although purely phys- al anthropologists are loath to admit this. No One can deny, however, that it is the psychical endowment * : (5I) , 52 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETEINOGRAPHY. 2. of a tribe or a people which decides fatally its luck in the fight of the world. Those, therefore, who would master the highest significance of ethnography in its function as the key to history, will devote to this branch of it their most earnest attention. The study of the general mental peculiarities of a people is called “ethnic psychology.” As a science, it may be treated by various methods, applicable to the different aims of research. For our present purpose, which is to study the growth, migrations and com- minglings of races and peoples, the most suggestive method will be to classify their mental distinctions under the two main headings of Associative and Dis- persive Elements. The predominance of one or the other of these is ever eminently formative in the char- acter and history of a people, and both must be con- stantly considered with reference to their bearings on the progress of a nation toward civilization. The psychical development of men and nations finds its chief explanation, less in the natural surroundings, the climate, soil, and water-currents, as is taught by some philosophers, than in their relations and connec- tions with each other, their friendships, federations and enmities, their intercourse in commerce, love and war. Around these must center the chief studies of ethnographic science, for they contain and present the means for reaching its highest, almost its only aim— the comprehension of the Social and intellectual pro- gress of the species. - > **sº-T TEIE SEXUAL INSTINCT. 53 . I. THE ASSOCIATIVE ELEMENTS. The sense of fellowship, the gregarious instinct, was inherited by our first fathers from their anthropoid ancestors. The “river drift " men, who dwelt on the banks of the Thames and the Somme before the gla- cial epoch, were gathered into small communities, as their remains testify. The most savage tribes, Fueg- ians and Australians, roam about in detached bands. They are not under the control of a chief, but are led to such union by much the same motives as prompt buffaloes to gather in a herd. These fundamental mental elements which impel to association are: I. The Social Instincts. Strongest of them all is the seaſual impulse. The foundation of every community is the bond of the man and woman, and the nature of this bond is the surest test of a community’s position in the scale of culture. It is not likely that miscellaneous collabita- tion, or that slightly modified form of it called “com- munal marriage,” ever existed. No instance of it has been known to history.” In the most brutal tribes the man asserts his right of ownership in the woman. The rare custom of “polyandry,” where a woman has several husbands at once, gives her no general license. It is equally true that the tender sentiments of love * The alleged examples are satisfactorily set aside by Dr. Wilhelm Schneider, Die Awaturvèlker, Bd. II, ss. 425, sqq. (Paderborn, 1886.) 54 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETH NOGRAPHY. appear to be less known to the lowest Savages than they are to beasts and birds. The process of mating is by brute force, marriage is by robbery, and the women are in a wretched slavery. Mutual affection has no existence. Such is the state of affairs among the Australians, the western Eskimos, the Athapascas, the Mosquitos, and many other tribes.” But it is gratifying to find that we have to mount but a step higher in the scale to find the germs of a nobler understanding of the sex relation. In many tribes of but moderate culture, their languages supply us with evidence that the sentiment of love was awake among them, and this is corroborated by the incidents we learn of their domestic life. This I have shown in considerable detail by an analysis of the words for love and affection in the languages of the Algonkins, Nahuas, Mayas, Qquichuas, Tupis and Guaranis, all prominent tribes of the American Indians.# Some of the songs and stories of this race seem to reveal even a capability for romantic love, such as would do credit to a modern novel. This is the more astonishing, as in the African and Mongolian races this ethereal sentiment is practically absent, the ideal- ism of passion being something foreign to those varie- ties of man. * Much of this seeming violence is “ceremonial,” as I have al- ready observed (page 44); but what I wish now to emphasize is that the marriage is without show of affection. . t D. G. Brinton, “The Conception of Love in some American.Lan- guages,” in Essays of an Americanist, p. 4Io, sq. (Philadelphia, 1890.) AFIFECTION AND FRIENDSHIP. 55 The sequel of the sexual impulse is the formation of the family through the development of parental affection. This instinct is as strong in many of the lower animals as in human beings. In primitive con- ditions it is largely confined to the female parent, the father paying but slight attention to the welfare of his offspring. To this, rather than to a doubt of pa- ternity, should we attribute the very common habit in such communities, of reckoning ancestry in the female line only. Akin to this is filial and fraternal affection, leading to a preservation of the family bond through genera- tions, and in spite of local separation. It is surprising how strong is this sentiment even in conditions of low culture. The Polynesians preserved their genealogies through twenty generations; the Haidah Indians of Vancouver's Island boast of fifteen or eighteen. The sentiment of friendship has been supposed by some to be an acquisition of higher culture. Nothing is more erroneous. Dr. Carl Lumholtz tells me he has seen touching examples of it among Australian can- nibals, and the records of travelers are full of instances of devoted affection in members of savage tribes, both toward each other and toward persons of other races. There are established rites in early social conditions, by which a stranger is received into the bond of fel- lowship and the sanctity of friendship.” This is often by a transfer of the blood of the one to the body of the * For numerous examples, see Dr. Wilhelm Schneider's work, Die AWaturzólker, Th. II., ss. 290, 294, etc. 56 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. other, or a symbolic ceremony to that effect, the mean- ing being that the stranger is thus admitted to the rights of kinship in the gens or clan. Springing from this clannish affection is the custom of ancestral wor- ship, which adds a link to the bond of the family. It is so widely spread that Herbert Spencer has endeav- ored to derive from it all other forms of religion. But this is a hasty generalization. The religious Sen- timent had many other primitive forms of expression. Through these various personal affections we reach the development of the family into the gems, the clan or totem, all of whose members, whether by con- sanguinity or adoption, are held to represent one in- terest. The union of several gentes under one control con- stitutes the tribe, which is the first step toward what is properly a state. The tribe passes beyond the ties of affinity by embracing in certain common interests per- sons who are not recognized as allied in blood. Yet it is curious to note that the tribal sentiments are among the very strongest mankind ever exhibits, sur- passing those of family affection. Brutus felt no hesi- tation in sacrificing his son for the common weal. Classical antiquity is full of admonitions and examples to the same effect. So powerful is the devotion of the Polynesians that they have been known when a canoe was capsized where sharks abounded, to form a ring around their chief, and sacrifice themselves one by one to the ravenous fish, that he might escape. This sentiment of personal loyalty has been in his- THEORY OF EARLY SOCIETY. 57 tory the main strength of many a government, and has in it something chivalric and noble, which challenges our admiration; yet it is quite opposed to the prin- ciples of republicanism and the equal rights of individ- uals, and we must condemn it as belonging to a lower stage of evolution than that to which we have arrived. The result of these gregarious instincts is the forma- tion of the social organisation, the bond under which first the primitive horde and later the members of the developed commonwealth consented to live. From first to last, wherever found, Čommunities of men are bound together by ties of consanguinity and affection rather than mere self-interest. Those writers who pretend that society once existed without the idea of kinship, with promiscuity in the sexual relation, and without some recognized controlling power, have failed to produce such an example from actual life. These ties led to the systems of “ consanguinity and affinity '' which recur with singular sameness at a cer- tain stage of culture the world over. They give rise to what is called the totemic or gentile phase of Society, in which its members are organized into “gentes' or clans, “ phratries” or associations of clans, and the tribe, which embraces several such phratries. This theory affected the disposition of property, which be- longed to the clan and not to the individual, and the form of government, which was usually by a council appointed from the various clans. The recognition of the wide prevalence of these ideas in the ancient world has led to profound modifications.of Our views respect- Vºž 58 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETH NOGRAPHY. VV ing its institutions, and a better understanding of many of the events of history.* In social organizations one of the criteria of excel- lence is the position of woman. Upon this depends the life of the family and the development of morality. Those nations which have gained the most enduring conquests in power and culture have conceded to wo- man a prominent place in social life. In ancient Egypt, in Etruria, in republican Rome, women owned prop- erty, and enjoyed equal rights under the law. Where woman is enslaved, as among the Australian tribes, progress is scarcely possible; where she is imprisoned, as in Mohammedan countries, progress may be rapid for a time, but is not permanent. Unusual mental ability in a man is generally inherited from his mother, and a nation which studies to prevent women from ac- quiring an education and from taking an active part in affairs, is preparing the way to engender citizens of inferior minds. Among other ethnic traits, the appreciation of the ethical standard differs notably. Long ago the ob- servant Montaigne commented on the conflicting views of morals in nations, and remarked rather cynic- ally that what was good on one side of a river was deemed wicked on the other. This is especially no- ticeable in the sense of justice, the rights of property, * Our countryman, Lewis H. Morgan, was the first to place this subject in its true light in his work Ancient Society (New York, 1878). He doubtless carried the theory too far in certain directions, but in others it has not yet been sufficiently appreciated by historians. PRIMITIVE ETHICS. 59 and the regard for truth. No Asiatic nation respects truth telling, or can be made to see that it is abstractly desirable when it conflicts with their immediate in- terests. The rights of property are generally con- strued entirely differently to ourselves among nations in the lower grades of culture, because the idea of in- dependent personal ownership does not exist among them. What they have belongs to the clan or the horde, and they merely have the use of it. The basis of ethics in all undeveloped conditions is not general but special; it relates to the tribe and the family, and is in direct conflict with the philosopher Kant's famous “categorical imperative,” which makes the basis the welfare of the whole species. Hence, in primitive culture and survivals there is a dual system of morals, the one of kindness, love, help and peace, applicable to the members of our own clan, tribe or community; the other of robbery, hatred, enmity and murder, to be practiced against all the rest of the world ; and the latter is regarded as quite as much a sacred duty as the former. * Ethics, therefore, while a powerfully associative element in the one direction, becomes dispersive or segregating in others, unless the sense of duty is taught as a universal and not as a class or national conception. The sentiment of rodesty is developed by man in Society, and he alone among animals possesses it. Whatever has been said to the contrary, it is never & 4 5 * See M. Kulischer, “Der Dualismus der Ethik bei den primitiven Völkern,” in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1885, s. 105. 4,” 6O PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. absent. Frequently, indeed, its manifestation is not according to our usages, and is thus Overlooked. Women with us expose their faces, which a Moorish lady would think most indelicate. The Bedawin wo- men consider it immodest to have the back of the head uncovered ; the Siamese think nothing of displaying nude limbs, but on no account would show the uncov- ered sole of the foot. In certain African courts, the men wear long robes while the women appear nude. The necessary functions of the body are everywhere veiled by retirement, and in the most savage tribes, a regard for decency is constantly noted. The second chief associative principle is 2. Language. Unlike the elements of affection which I have been tracing, language is not a legacy from a brute ancestor. It is the peculiar property of the genus Man, and no tribe has ever been known without a developed gram- matical articulate speech, with abundance of expres- sions for all its ideas. The stories of savages so rude that they were forced to eke out their words with gestures, and could not make themselves intelligible in the dark, are fables. The languages of the most barbarous communities are always ample in forms, and often surprisingly flexible, rich and sonorous. We must indeed suppose a time when the speech of primeval man had a feeble, imperfect beginning. “The origin of language " has been a favorite theme for philologists to speculate about, with sparse fruit RISE OF LINGUISTIC STOCKS. 6I for their readers. We can, indeed, picture to our- Selves Something like what it must have been in its very early stages, by studying a number of very simple languages, and noting what parts of the grammar and dictionary they dispense with. Following this plan, I Once undertook to show what might have been the language of man far back in palaeolithic times. It probably had no “parts of speech,” such as nouns, pronouns, prepositions or adjectives; it had no gender, number nor case, no numerals and no conjugations. The different sounds, vowels or consonants, conveyed specific significations, and each phrase was summed up in a single word.* In some such way language began. But remember that this is quite another question from the origin of languages, or, to use the proper term, of linguistic stocks. They are very numerous, and many of com- paratively late birth. Those convolutions of the brain which preside over speech once developed, man did not have to repeat his long and toilSome task of ac- quiring linguistic facility. Children are always origi- nating new words and expressions, and if two or three infants are left much together, they will soon have a tongue of their own, unlike anything they hear around them. Numerous examples of this character have heen collected by Horatio Hale, and upon them he has based an entirely satisfactory theory of the * See “The Earliest Form of Human Speech as revealed by Amer- ican Tongues,” in my Essays of an Americanist, p. 390. (Philadel- phia, 1890). 62 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. source of that multiplicity of languages which we find in various parts of the globe.” In the unstable life of barbarous epochs, very young children were often left without parents or protectors, or wandered off and were lost. Most of them doubtless perished, but those who survived developed a tongue of their own, nearly all whose radicals. would be totally different from those of the language of their parents. Thus in early times numerous dialects, numerous independent tongues, came to be spoken within limited areas by the same ethnic stock. It is a common error to suppose that there was once but one or a few languages, from which all others have been derived. The reverse is the case. Within the historic period, the number of languages has been steadily diminishing. We know of scores which have become extinct, as many American tongues; others, like the Celtic, are in plain process of disappearance. We can almost predict the time when the work and the thought of the world will be carried on in less than half a dozen tongues, if indeed that many sur- vive as really active. * If we take a comprehensive survey of the grammat- ical structure of all known tongues, we are cheered by the discovery that they can be divided into a few great classes or groups. The similarities of each group are not in words or Sounds, but in the plan of “ex- e- * “On the Origin of Language,” in Aroceedings of the A mer. Assoc. for the Adv, of Science, I887, p. 279. MORPHOLOGY OF LANGUAGES. 63 pressing the proposition,” or placing words together in a phrase to convey an idea. This may be accomplished in one of four ways: I. By isolation. The words representing the parts of the phrase may be ranged one after another with- out any change. This is the case in the Chinese and the languages of Farther India. * 2. By agglutination. The principal word in the phrase may have added to it or placed before it a num- ber of syllables expressing the relations to it of the other ideas. Most African and North Asian tongues are agglutinative. - 3. By incorporation. The accessory words are either inserted within the verbal members of the sen- tence, or attached to it in abbreviated forms, so that the phrase has the appearance of one word. Most American languages belong to this type. 4. By inflection. Each word of the sentence indi- cates by its own form its relation to the main proposi- tion. All Aryan and Semitic idioms are more or less inflected. * These distinctions have great ethnographic interest. They almost deserve to be called racial traits. Thus, the inflected languages belonged originally solely to the European race; the isolating languages are still confined wholly to the Sinitic branch of the Asian race; the incorporative languages are found nowhere of such pure type and so numerous as in the American race; while the agglutinative type is that alone which is found in independent examples in every race. 64 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. Scheme of Languages. Chinese, Thibetan, Sifan, Tai. Siamese, Annamite, Burmese, Assamese. ſ I. By reduplication and } Polynesian, Papuan. | prefixes Bantu. I. Isolating } 2. Agglutinative Sibiric tongues, (Ural-altaic), 2. By suffixes ) Basque. Japanese, Korean, IDravidian. Algonkin, Nahuatl. Quichua, Guarani. 2. With analytic tendency. Otomi, Maya, Sahaptin. I. By annexing grammatical elements. Egyptian. 4. *} 2. By inner changes of stem. Libyan, Semitic. 3. By addition of suffixes. Aryac tongues. 3. Incorporative I. With synthetic tendency | The principles on which languages should be com- pared are frequently misunderstood, and this is one of the reasons why the value of linguistics to ethnography has so often been underrated. The first rule which should be observed is to rank grammatical structure far above verbal coincidences. The neglect of this rule will condemn any effort at comparison. For example, there have been writers who have sought to derive the Polynesian, an aggluti- native, from the Sanscrit, an inflected tongue; or an American from a Semitic stock. Such attempts re- veal an ignorance of the nature of language. A second rule is that in tracing the etymology of words, the phonetic laws of the special group to which they belong must be followed. This is an even more frequent source of error than the former. Writers of high reputation will trace variations in African or American or Semitic names by the phonetic laws of º LANGUAGE IN ETH NOGRAPHY. 65 the Aryac dialects—an absurd error, as the phonetic changes are not at all the same in different linguistic stocks. Yet a third rule is to appraise correctly the value of verbal identities. Generally, it is placed too high. All developed tongues include many “loan words,” bor- rowed from a variety of sources. They are not prima facie evidence of ethnic relation ; they have frequently been transmitted through other nations, as is the case with thousands of English words. An absolute verbal identity is always suspicious; or - rather it is of no ethnic value. There must be a series of words in the languages compared of the same or similar meanings, but whose forms have been al- tered by the phonetic laws peculiar to the group, for such lists of words to merit the attention of a scien- tific linguist. The question how far languages can be accepted as indicating the relationships of peoples has been a bone of contention. One principle we may lay down, with unimportant exceptions—No nation has ever willingly adopted a foreign tongue. Whenever such a change has taken place, it has been under stress of sover- eignty, vi coactum, as the lawyers say. Hence in the savage state, where prolonged domination of one tribe by another rarely occurs, language is an excellent ethnic guide, as in America and ancient Europe. Another principle is that in a conflict of tongues, as after conquest, that tongue prevails which belongs to the more cultured people, whether this be conqueror or 5 66 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. conquered. This is well illustrated by the survival of the Romance languages after the inroads of the Teu- tonic hordes at the Fall of the Western Empire. A third maxim in linguistic ethnography is that mi.rture of languages, especially in grammatical struc- ture, indicates mixture of blood. When, for instance, we find the Maltese a dialect partly Arabic, partly Romance, we may correctly infer that the people of the island are descended from both these stocks. This holds good even of loan words, when they are numerous; for though such have no influence on the grammatical structure of a tongue, they testify to some relations between nations, which we may be sure corresponded to others of a sexual nature. The “American citizens of African descent ’’ speak English only ; and though they have been in contact with the white race for but three or four generations, the majority of those now living are related to it by blood, that is, are mulattoes. The mental aptitude of a nation is closely dependent on the type of its idiom. The mind is profoundly in- fluenced by its current modes of vocal expression. When the form of the phrase is such that each idea is kept clear and apart, as it is in nature, and yet its re- lations to other ideas in the phrase and the sentence are properly indicated by the grammatical construction, the intellect is stimulated by wider variety in images and a nicer precision in their outlines and relations. This is the case in the highest degree with the lan- guages of inflection, and it is no mere coincidence that THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT. 67 those peoples who have ever borne the banner in the van of civilization have always spoken inflected tongues. The world will be better off when all others are extinguished, and it is only in deep ignorance of linguistic ethnography that such a language as Volapük—agglutinative in type—could have been of- fered for adoption as a world-language. I have said that alone of all animals, man has artic- ulate speech ; I now add that also alone of all animals, he is capable of 3. Religion. Not only is he capable of it; he has never been known to be devoid of it. All statements that tribes have been discovered without any kind of religion are erroneous. Not one of them has borne the test of close investigation.* The usual mistake has been to sup- pose that this or that belief, this or that moral obser- vance, constitutes religion. In fact, there are plenty of immoral religions, and Some which are atheistic. The notion of a God or gods is not essential to religion; for that matter, some of the most advanced religious teachers assert that such a notion is incompatible with the highest religion. Religion is simply the recog- nition of the Unknown as a controlling element in the * The proof of this is furnished by Gustav Roskof, Das Religions- wesen der Rohester, AWaturzó'Ker (Leipzig, 1880), and Wilhelm Schnei- der, ZOfe AWazurzó//ter, II. Theil (Paderborn, 1886). The asser- tions to the contrary by Herbert Spencer, Sir John Lubbock, and various French writers, arise from a lack of study of the evidence, or a misunderstanding of terms. 68 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETFH NOGRAPHY. destiny of man and the world about him. This we shall find in the cult of every nation, and in the heart of every man. Some nations identified this unknown controlling power with one real or supposed existence, some with another. Those in whom the family sentiment was well developed believed themselves still under the control of their deceased parents, giving rise to “an- cestral worship; ” more frequently the change from light to darkness, day to night, impressed the children of nature, and led to light and sun worship; in some localities the terrific force displayed in the cyclone or the thunder-storm seemed the mightiest revelation of the Unknown, and we have the Lightning and Storm Myths; elsewhere, any odd or strange object, any un- explained motion, was attributed to the divine, the super-natural. The last mentioned mental state gave rise to those low cults called “fetichism ' and ani- mism,” while the former are supposed to be somewhat higher and are distinguished as “polytheisms.” In all of them, the prevailing sentiment is fear of the Un- known; the spirit of worship is propitiatory, the gods being regarded as jealous and inclined to malevolence; the cult is of the nature of sorcery, certain formulas, rites and sacrifices being held to placate or neutralize the ill-will or bad temper of the divinities. In its lowest forms this is called “shamanism; ” in its high- est, it is seen in all dogmatic religions. & In early conditions, each tribe has its own gods, which are not supposed to be superior, except in force, TRIBAL AND WORLD RELIGIONS. 69 to the gods of neighboring tribes. No attempt is made to extend their worship beyond the tribe, and in their images they are liable to be captured, as are their vot- aries. Special prisons for such captive gods were constructed in ancient Rome and Cuzco. These “tribal religions " prevailed everywhere in early historic times. The religion of the ancient Is- raelites, such as we find it portrayed in the Pentateuch, was of this character. In later days, profoundly relig- ious minds of philosophic cast perceived that tribal cults do not satisfy the loftiest aspirations of the relig- ious sentiment. The conceptions of the highest truths must be universal conceptions, and in obedience to this the Universal or World-religions were formed. The earliest of these was preached by Sakya Muni, Prince of Kapilavastu, in India, about 500 B. C. It is known as Buddhism, and has now the largest number of believers of any one faith. The second was that taught by Christ, and the third is Islam, introduced by Mohammed in the seventh century. It is noteworthy that all these world-religions were framed by members of the white race. None has been devised by mem- bers of the other races, for the doctrines advanced by Confutse and Laotse in China are philosophic sys- tems rather than religions. The three World-religions named have rapidly ex- tinguished the various tribal religions, and it is easy to foresee that in a few generations they will virtually embrace the religious sentiments of all mankind. They are all three on the increase, Christianity the 70 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETH NOGRAPHY. most rapidly by the extension of the nations adhering to it, but Mohammedanism can claim in the present century the greater number of proselytes, its fields being in Central Asia, India, and Central Africa. In the ethnographic study of religions for the pur- pose of estimating their influence on the life and character of nations, we must take notice especially of three points: I. The ethical contents of a faith; 2. The philosophic “theory of things ’’ on which it is based (cosmogony, theosophy, etc.), and 3. Its power over the emotions, as upon this rests its practical potency. As currently taught, no one of the three world- religions named is fully adequate on all these points. The cosmogony of Christianity is a series of Assyrian and Hebrew myths contradicted by modern science, and its ethical purity has been often sullied by efforts to place faith in dogmas above the law of conscience. Mohammedanism, a more genuine monotheism than Christianity, in some respects higher in practical mo- rality (temperance, charity, equality), and certainly superior in power over the emotions, is weak in its doctrine of fatalism and in its degradation of woman. Buddhism is tainted by a profound distrust of the value of the individual life, by a false theory of the universe, and by its borrowed doctrine of metempsy- chosis; but rises high in its appeals to the sense of justice and right within the mind. A religion tends to elevate its votaries in the pro- portion that it withdraws their minds from merely MATERIAL VS. IDEAL RELIGIONS. 71 material aims, and sets before them stimulating ideals. This is the distinction between “material '' and “ideal * cults. Where the rites are directed mainly to conjuration, where the prayers are for good luck in life, where the myths are mere stories of exaggerated human shapes, there the faith is material. Such were all the religions of the African blacks and of the East- ern and Northern Asiatic tribes. They have never developed any thing higher. Among the whites, how- ever, and in a less degree among the American Indians, there were mythical ideal figures, ranked among the gods, who embodied grand ideal conceptions of the possible perfectibility of man, and served as examples and models for the religious sentiment.* The associative influence of a religion, whether tribal or universal in theory, is singularly powerful. The Mohammedan who looks toward Mecca, the Christian who turns toward Rome, feels a like bond of sympathy with his fellow worshippers of every race and color, as did the Israelite who wended his way to Jerusalem, or the Nahuatl who travelled to the sacred city of Cholula. The pilgrimages, the Crusades, the ecclesiastical Councils of past ages, have collected nations together under the control of ideas stronger than any which practical life can offer. Other bonds of union are those derived from the practice of fº - * I have endeavored to show this, so far as it applies to native American religions, in my volume, American Hero-Myths (Philadel- phia, 1882). 72 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 4. The Arts of Life. Unquestionably the earliest of these to exert such an influence was the construction of a shelter, in other words architecture. We know that even glacial man had learned enough to make himself a house, though it was probably inferior to that of the muskrat. In early conditions one structure sheltered several fami- lies. Such are called “ communal houses,” and some ethnologists have argued that they are well nigh uni- versal down to a very late day in the evolution of do- mestic architecture. The temple, the fortified refuge, the city with its grouped homes shut in by a common wall of defence—all these illustrate how architecture 1mas ever tended to bring men together, and strengthen their instincts of association. Later in time but wider in its influence in the same direction was the growth of agriculture. This art completely revolutionized the habits of life, and ren- dered possible the advent of civilization. The tribe, dependent on hunting and fishing or on natural pro- ducts for a livelihood, is necessarily migratory and separative in its habits. The tillage of the ground with equal necessity demands a stable residence and a centralization of individuals. The areas of primitive culture, the sites of the earliest cities, were always in situations favorable to agricultural pursuits. Along with the cultivation of food-plants went hand-in-hand the domestication of animals. The horse was trained independently in both Europe and Asia, Some species of the dog in all continents, the ox for THE EINE AND USEFUL ARTS. - 73 draft and the cow for milk principally in Asia, and the camel for the deserts of Arabia and Africa. These humble aids brought together distant tribes, and as- similated their characters. The prosecution of the various special arts, as pot- tery, metal work, textile fabrics, etc., led to the forma- tion of guilds and the association of workers in par- ticular localities favorable to obtaining and utilizing the raw products. Each such conquest of the inven- tive faculties drew men into closer bonds of harmonious labor, and opened for them new avenues of joint in- dustry. The pre-historic past of the race is measured by archaeologists by the rise and extension of new arts, not because of themselves, but because they are indicative of improved social conditions, greater ag- gregations of men, more potent actions in history. The fine arts, in crowning the useful arts with the iridescent glory of the ideal, impart to the handiwork of men that universality of motive which unites all into one brotherhood. The second class of psychic traits are: II. THE DISPERSIVE ELEMENTS. These have been of the utmost moment in the his- tory of the species, and a controlling factor in the records of every people. They are derived from two quite different impulses in human nature; the one, a natural propensity to roam, the other, a predisposition to contest. Both have been favored by the ability of the species 74 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETIHNOGRAPHY. to adapt itself to its surroundings, far surpassing that of any other animal. There is no zone and no altitude offering the necessary food supplies that man does not inhabit. The cat, with its traditional “ nine lives,” perishes in the upper Andes, where men live in popu- lous cities. No one breed of dogs can follow man to all latitudes. His powers of locomotion are equally surprising. He can walk the swift horse to death, and his steady and tireless gait will in the long-run leave every competitor behind. An Indian will track a deer for days and capture it through its utter fatigue. A Tebu thinks little of passing three days under the sun of the Sahara without drinking Such powers as these endow man with the highest migratory faculties of any animal, and give rise to or have been developed from I. The Migratory Instincts. Many species of animals, especially birds, change their habitat with the seasons, the object usually being to obtain a better food supply. So do most hunting and fishing tribes, and for the same reason. Often these periodical journeys extend hundred of miles and embrace the whole tribe. This must also have been the case with primeval man when he occupied the world in “palaeolithic ’’ time. His home was along the shores of seas and the banks of streams. Up and down these natural high- ways he pursued his wanderings, until he had extended his roamings Over most of the habitable land. What prompted him and all savage tribes is not al- PRIMITIVE WANDERINGS. 75 ways the search for food. The desire for a more genial climate, the pressure of foes, and often mere causeless restlessness, act as motive forces in the move- ments of an unstable population. Certain peoples, as the Gypsies, seem endowed with an hereditary instinct v. for vagabondage. The nomadic hordes of the Asiatic steppes and the wastes of the Sahara transmit a rest- lessness to their descendants which in itself is an Ob- stacle to a sedentary life. Such vagrant tribes became the colporteurs and commercial travellers of early society. They invented means or transportation, and conveyed the products of one region to another. Only of late have we learned to appreciate the wide extent of pre-historic commerce. Long before Abraham settled in Ur of the Chaldees (say 2000 B. C.), a well-travelled' commercial road stretched from the cities of Mesopotamia, through Egypt to the Pillars of Hercules, and thence into Eu- rope.* When Hendrick Hudson sailed into the bay of New York, the commercial relations of the tribes who lived on its shores had already extended to the coast of the Pacific.f These lines of early traffic were also the lines of the * See my Essay, 7%e Cradle of the Semites (Philadelphia, 1890), and Sir Daniel Wilson, “Trade and Commerce in the Stone Age,” in 7% ans. Woyal Soc. Canada, 18S9. f This is shown not only by the presence of artefacts and shells from the Pacific in old graves on the Atlantic coast, but by the well-pre- served traditions of the Eastern tribes. See my Assays of an Amer- icanist, p. 188 (Philadelphia, 1890). v’ 76 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETEIN OGRAPHY. migrations of nations. They were fixed by the phys- ical geography of regions, and have rightly attracted the careful attention of ethnographers. Along them, nation has blended into nation, race fused with race. The conviction that early man was not sedentary, but mobile, by nature a migratory species, wandering widely over the face of the earth, is one which has been brought home to the ethnologist by the science of pre- historic archaeology, and it is full of significance. 2. The Combative Instinct. The philosopher Hobbes taught that the natural condition of man in society is one of perpetual warfare with his neighbors. This grim theory is sadly attested by a study of savage life. The wretched Fuegians, the miserable Australians, with really nothing worth living for, let alone dying for, fall to cutting each other's throats the moment that tribe encounters tribe. So it has been in all ages, so it has been in all stages of culture. The warrior, the hero, is the one who wins the hearts of women by his fame, and the devotion of men by his prowess. Civilization helps not at all. In no century of the world’s history have such destruc- tive battles been fought as in the nineteenth ; at no former period have the powers of the earth collected such gigantic armies and navies as to-day. This love of combat at once separates and unites nations. To destroy the common foe, the bonds of national or tribal unity are drawn the tighter; and the aversion to the enemy tends to the preservation of the ethnic type. . * BENEFITS OF WAR. 77 In spite of the countless miseries which follow in its train, war has probably been the highest stimulus to racial progress. It is the most potent excitant known of all the faculties. The intense instinct of self-pres- ervation will prompt to an intellectual energy which nothing else can awake. The grandest works of im- agination, the immortal outbursts of the poets, from Homer to Whitman, have been under the stimulus of the war-cry ringing in their ears. The world-conquerors : na the holy wars, Alexander and Napoleon, the Crusades and the Mohammedan in- vasions, have been landmarks in history, a destruction of the effete, an introduction of the new and the viable. Guizot's bold statement that in the decisive battles of the world it has been, not the strongest battalions, but the truest idea which has conquered, may be a pro- found ethnologic truth. Certain it is that in weighing the psychical elements of man's nature and their influ- ence on the past history of the species, we must assign to his combative instincts a most prominent place as stimulants, and we must recognize, amid all the mis- eries which they have brought upon him, the part they have played in his development. That they have al- ways resulted in promoting the “survival of the fittest,” it is hard to believe, and there is much to make us doubt; but that a great deal of the unfit has thus been destroyed, we may reasonably accept. What has been true always, is true to-day. It is force, might, which forever exercises “the right of em- inent domain;” and this principle is as necessary as it 78 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. is indestructible. Proudhon was logical, when, in his treatise on War and Peace, he placed war and the duty of waging war at the basis of all society, and de- fended it as the necessary condition of civilization, in- asmuch as it alone is the highest form of judicial ac- tion, the last appeal of the oppressed. Never, we may be sure, will the human species be ready or willing to forego this, the greatest of all their privileges. LECTURE III. THE BEGINNINGS AND SUBI) IVISIONS OF RACES. CONTENTS.—The origin of Man. Theories of monogenism and poly- genism; of evolution ; heterogenesis. Identities point to one origin. Birthplace of the species. The oldest human relics. Re- mains of the highest apes. Question of climate. Negative argu- ments. Darwin's belief that the species originated in Africa con- firmed ; but with modifications. Quaternary geography of Europe and Africa. Northern Africa united with Southern Europe. Former shore lines. The Sahara Sea. The quaternary continents of “Eurafrica,” and “Austafrica.” Relics of man in them. Man in pre-glacial times. The Glacial Age. Effect on man. Scheme of geologic time during the Age of Man. His development into races. Approximate date of this. Localities where it occurred. The “areas of characterization.” Relations of continents to races. Theory of Linnaeus; of modern ethnography. Classifica- tion of races. General ethnographic scheme. Sub-divisions of races; branches; stocks; groups; peoples; tribes; nations. Other terms; ethnos and ethnic ; culture; civilization. Stadia of Culture. IN the rapid survey contained in the previous lec- tures you have seen in how many points the races differ. No wonder that the question has often been seriously mooted by scientific men, Could they all have been derived from one common ancestral stock 2 This is the old debate about “the unity of the human race,”. still surviving under the more learned terms of mono- genism or polygenism. As to that other question, whether man came into (79) 8O BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. being as such by a gradual development, evolution, or transformation, from some lower mammal, this may be regarded as the only hypothesis now known to science, and must, therefore, be accepted, at least provisionally, until some better is proposed. It is the only theory consistent with man's place in the zoölogical world, and is borne out by numerous anatomical analogies, which have been referred to in my first lecture. In fact, we are driven to it by necessity. No other origin of species than by transformation of earlier forms has been suggested, even by those who reject it. I do not speak of specific creation, for that supposi- tion does not belong to science, but to an obscurant mysticism, which is the negative of all true knowledge. But within the limits of the transformation theory there is more than one method by which varying forms are produced, and one of these may prove appli- cable to man, in whose earliest remains we have so far found no positive indications of a lower physical char- acter than he now has.” So far, the “missing link ‘’ is as much out of sight as ever it was ; so far, man ap- pears to have been always what he is to-day. º May he not, as a species, have come into being through a short series of well-marked varieties, each * Such at any rate is the opinion expressed last year (1889) by the most celebrated living anthropologic anatomist, Professor Virchow, in an address before the German Anthropological Association. (Cor- respondenz Blatt der Deutschen Anthrop. Gesel/., Sept., 1889, s. 96.) Except for the weight of his great name, I should hesitate to say as much ; and as it is, I entertain some doubts as to the accuracy of the statement. . THE UNITY OF THE SPECIES. 8I produced by what is called “ heterogenesis,” that is, the birth of children unlike their parents? All chil- dren are unlike their parents, more or less; and though at present this unlikeness is strictly within the limits of the several races, it is the opinion of some who have studied the matter, that in earlier geologic epochs changes in organic forms were more rapid and more profound than at present. I am aware that this suggestion of heterogenesis looks like a return to the ancient doctrine called gene- natio equivoca, which, in its old form, is certainly obso- lete. But there is no question that in many existing plants and animals we find singular evidence that from a given form another may arise, widely different in structure, and perpetuate itself indefinitely. I am con- vinced that the importance of these facts has never been properly appreciated by students of the origin of species, and of the origin of men in particular. This, or any hypothesis of evolution, renders the supposition quite needless that the various races had distinct ancestral origins. Any evolutionist who ac- cepts the view that man is but a differentiation from Some anthropoid ape, is straining at a gnat after swal- lowing the camel, if he hesitates to believe that the comparatively slight differences between the races may not have originated from like influences. Further- more, the resemblances between the various races are altogether too numerous and exact to render it likely that they could have been acquired through several an- cestries running back to various lower zoological 6 82 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. forms; a consideration greatly strengthened by the fact that man is the only species of his genus, and there is even no genus of his class closely related to himself. The chances that such a perfected animal should have been twice or oftener developed from the apes, monkeys or lemurs—his nearest cousins—are so Small that we must dismiss the supposition. It seems to me, indeed, that any one who will patiently study the parallelisms of growth in the arts and Sciences, in poetry and objects of utility, through- out the various races of men, cannot doubt of their psychical identity. Still more, if he will acquaint him- self with the modern science of Folk-lore, and will note how the very same tales, customs, proverbs, su- perstitions, games, habits, and SO On, recur spontane- ously in tribes severed by thousands of leagues, he will not think it possible that creatures so wholly identical could have been produced by independent lines of evolution. The Birthplace of the Species.—Accepting the theories therefore of the evolutionists and the mono- genists as the most plausible in the present state of science, it is quite proper to inquire where primeval man first appeared, and what were his social condi- tions and personal appearance. To some it may seem premature to put such ques- tions. They are needlessly timid. It is never too Soon to propound any question in Science; always too soon to declare that any has been finally and irrevo- cably answered. TEIE BIRT FIDLACE OF MAN. 83 Beginning our search for the birthplace of the spe- cies, we may consider that it will be indicated by the cumulative evidence of three conditions. We may look for it, (I) where the oldest relics of man or his industries have been found ; (2) where the remains of the highest of the lower mammals, especially the man- like apes, have been exhumed, as it is assumed that man himself descended from some such form ; and (3) where we know from palaeontologic evidence a climate prevailed suited to man's unprotected early conditions. The first of these lines of investigation leads us to the science of “pre-historic archaeology.” We shall discover that a study of this branch of learning is in- dispensable not only in this connection, but to solve many other questions in ethnography. Here its an- swer is unexpected. We have been taught by long tradition and venerable documents to look for the first home of primeval man “somewhere in Asia,” as Pro- fessor Max Müller generously puts it. He is inclined to think that from the highlands of that continent the tribes dispersed in various directions, some going to the extreme north, and then southward into Europe. Others would have it that the species itself came into life in the boreal regions, in that epoch when a mild climate prevailed there. Such dreams meet no countenance from pre-historic archaeology. The oldest remains of man’s arts, the first rude flints which he shaped into utensils and weapons, have not been discovered in Asia, and do not occur at all in the northern latitudes of either continent. 84 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. They have been exhumed from the late tertiary or early quaternary deposits of southern England, of France, of the Iberian peninsula, and of the valleys of the Atlas in northern Africa. They have been searched for most diligently but in vain in Scandinavia, Ger- many, Russia, Siberia, and Canada. Not any of the older types of so-called “palaeolithic" implements havé been reported in early deposits in those countries.” But in the “river drift " of the Thames, the Somme, the Garonne, and the Tagus, quantities of rough stone implements have been disinterred, proving that in a remote epoch, at a time when the hippopotamus and rhinoceros, the African elephant and the extinct apes, found a congenial home near the present sites of LOn- don, Paris and Lisbon, man also was there. These relics, especially those found in Portugal, Central Spain and Southern France, are the very oldest proofs of the presence of man on the earth yet brought to light. Where, now, do we find the remains of the highest of the lower animals? By a remarkable coincidence, in the same region. Of all the anthropoid apes yet known to the palaeontologist, that most closely simu- lating man is the so-called Dryopithecus fontami, whose bones have been disinterred in the upper valleys of the Garonne, in Southern France. Its height was * This is the result of the most recent researches. See Prof. J. N. Woldrich's paper, “Ueber die palaeolithische Zeit Mittel-Europas,” in the Correspondenz-Blatt der Deutschen Gesel/. fir Anthropologie, 1889, p. 1 Io, sq. Also Verhand, der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell, 1884, s. 530, for the absence of the old stone age in Siberia, a fact which also tells heavily against the first peopling of America from that region. WHERE MAN BEGAN. 85 about that of a man, its teeth strongly resembled those of the Australians, and its food was chiefly vegetables and fruits. Other remains of a similar character have been found in Italy.” It is well known to geologists that the apes and monkeys or Simiadae were abundant and highly de- veloped in Southern Europe in the pliocene and early pleistocene, just the time, as near as we can fix it, that man first appeared there. These facts answer the third of our inquiries—that for a climate suitable to man in an unprotected early condition, when he had to con- tend with the elements and the parsimony of nature, ill-provided as he is with many of the natural advan- tages possessed by other animals. At that date South- ern Europe and Northern Africa were under what are called sub-tropical conditions, possessing a climate not wholly tropical, but yet singularly mild and equable. This we know from the remains, both animal and veg- etable, preserved in the deposits of that epoch. A series of negative arguments strengthens this conclusion. Where we find no remains of apes or monkeys of the higher class, we cannot place the scene of man’s ancestral evolution. This excludes America, where no tailless and no narrow-nosed (cata- rhine) monkeys and no large apes have been found; it excludes Australia, and all portions of the Old World north of the Alps and the Himalayas. In view of such facts, Darwin reached the conclu- * G. de Mortillet, Ze Préhistorique Antiquité de l'Aſomme, p. 120. (Paris, 1883.) A. Gaudry, Ze Dryopitheque (Paris, 1890). 86 REGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. sion that it is most probable that our earliest progen- itors lived on the African continent. There to this day we find on the one hand the human beings most closely allied to the lower animals, and the two species of these, the gorilla and the chimpanzee, now man's nearest relations among the brutes.” Darwin was disturbed in this conclusion by the presence of the large apes to whom I have referred in Southern Europe in late tertiary times. This, how- ever, merely requires a modification in his conclusion, the general tenor of which, to the effect that man was first developed in the warm regions of the western or Atlantic portion of the Old World, somewhere within the present or ancient area of Africa, and not in Asia, has been steadily strengthened since the great evolu- tionist wrote his remarkable work on the Descent of Man. Quaternary Geography of Europe and Africa.- The modification which I refer to is the obvious fact that since the late tertiary epoch, and especially dur- ing and after the glacial epoch, some material changes have taken place in the physical geography of Europe and Africa. To these I must now ask your particular attention, as they controlled not only the scene of man's origin, but the lines of his early migrations. When primal man, with no weapon or tool but one chipped from a stone flake, roamed over France, Eng- land and the Iberian peninsula, along with the rhino- ceros, the hippopotamus and the elephant, the coast * Darwin, The Descent of Man, p. 155. (New York, 1883). ANCIENT EUROPEAN GEOGRAPIHY. 87 lines of Europe and North Africa were quite unlike those of to-day. England and Ireland were united to the mainland, and neither the Straits of Dover nor St. George's Channel had been furrowed by the waves. Huge forests, such as can yet be traced near Cromer, covered the plains which are now the bottom of the German Ocean. In the broad shallow sea to the north, the mountainous regions of Scandinavia rose as islands, and between them and the Ural Mountains its waters spread uninterruptedly. To the south, Northern Africa was united to South- ern Europe by two wide land-bridges, one at the Straits of Gibraltar, one connecting Tunis with Sicily and It- aly. The eastern portion of the Mediterranean was a contracted fresh-water lake, pouring its waters into a broad stream which connected the Atlantic with the Indian Oceans. This stream covered most of the present desert of the Sahara, the delta of Egypt, and a large portion of Arabia and Southern Asia. Its north- ern beach extended along the southern base of the Atlas Mountains from the River Dra on the Atlantic to the Gulf of Gabes in the Mediterranean ; thence northward between Malta and Sicily to the Straits of Otranto; by the Ionian islands easterly till it inter- sected the present coast-line near the mouth of the Orontes; northeasterly to about Diarbekir, whence it trended south and east along the foot of the Zagros mountains to the Persian Gulf. From that point it followed the present coast-line to the mouth of the Indus, and thence pursued the base of the great north- 88 IBEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. ern mountain range to the mouth of the Ganges, cov- ering the north of Hindustan, while the southern elevations of that spacious peninsula, as well as a large part of southern and western Arabia, rose as extensive irregular islands above the water. Toward them the mainland of equatorial Africa extended much nearer than at present. It included in its area the island of Madagascar, and reached far beyond into the Indian Ocean. Toward the north, peninsulas and chains of islands, now the summits of the plateaus and moun- tains of the central Sahara, reached nearly or quite to the present shore-line of the Mediterranean, about Tripolis.” - This disposition of the water left two great land areas in the old world, probably not actually united though separated only by narrow straits, one betweºn the modern Tripolis and Tunis, and another on the northern Syrian coast. I represent these areas on the accompanying map, not indeed minutely, but approx- imately. The general accuracy of the contours delineated are now fully recognized by geologists They are at- tested by the remaining beach-lines of this primitive ocean, by the geographical distribution of its contem- porary fauna and flora, and by the proofs of elevation and submergence along the shores and in the bottom of the adjacent seas and Oceans. The “great sink ’’ of the western Sahara, the vast “Schotts,” or shallow salt- * For the details of these features, see the work of E. Suess, Das Antlitz der Ærde, Bd. I., s. 371, 768, etc. (Leipzig, 1885.) /: -> 98 ºd ‘dđO ·x?Iv NHOILyn?) xTºv(II EI HJ, NI GIHOIHāSIINGIH NYHEILSVGI GIHAL HO SANITLOO Š Q• // IZ 7 2 0 4 // ±7 / \ •----~• -***_----*- •* �* *„** .*; *（）/;(/^ . . . \， �/« ſº «'.� �*• \/; ） ;... •→,^ *4}•* •„~~~ ·? ſtrº.^,, º• ^\<\، /\ ----|}Ñ\J.^-} （~~~~~ _': -« »•~）; *** Ž;„”;y º.-> ，:«: -----^ .*（.---- ;“; „--~~- į &' : '...?' -} →w• ! •**. --· & -3yN -！“ =aº==ėse，2% EURAFRICA AND AUSTAFRICA. 89 water ponds south of the Atlas, the salt Dead Sea at the bottom of a profound depression, prove that the drying up of the ancient ocean is scarcely yet complete. So familiar have these ancient continental areas be- come to geological students that they have been named like a newly-discovered island or cape. The northern continent has been called Eurasia, compounded of the words Europe and Asia, and the southern Indo-Africa, from a supposed union of India and Africa.” * Neither of these names is quite acceptable. The former leaves out of account the connection of Europe with Africa, which is of the first importance in the study of early man; and the latter assumes a geo- graphic union between India and Africa, which is not likely to have existed in the period of man's life on earth. I prefer the two names which I have inserted on the map; Eurafrica, indicating the connection be- tween Europe and Africa, and Austafrica, designating the whole of the continent south of the ancient divid- ing sea. The name Asia should be confined to the Central Asian plateau and the regions watered by the countless streams which flow from it toward the north, east and south. * On the recent connection of North Africa with Europe, see A. R. Wallace, 7%e Geographical Distribution of Animals, Vol. I., pp. 38, 39; De Mortillet, Ze Prehistorique Antiquité de / Homme, p. 225. “Even in post-tertiary times,” writes Huxley (Physiography, p. 308), “Africa was united to Europe at the Straits of Gibraltar and across by Malta and Sicily, The Sahara is an old sea bottom, which was below water at a comparatively recent period.” “The Atlas moun- tains,” remarks Suess, “belong to the intricate orographic system of Europe.” (ZOas Antlitz der Ærde, Bd. I., S. 462.) 90 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. Relics of Man.—Such was the configuration of land in the Eastern hemisphere when man first appeared. We know he was there at that time. I have referred to his rude stone (palaeolithic) implements exhumed from the river-drift of the Thames and the Somme, a deposit which dates from a time when the hippopota- mus bathed in those rivers; still older seem some rough implements discovered in gravel layers near Madrid, Spain, deposited by some large river in early quater- nary times. The worked flints near Lisbon were man- ufactured when a wide fresh-water lake existed where now not a trace of it is visible on the surface, and ac- cording to some archaeologists, are the most ancient manufactured products yet discovered.* - In numerous parts of North Africa, as near Tlem- cen in the province of Oran, and in Tunisia, the oldest forms of stone implements have been found in place beneath massive layers of quaternary travertin, and in some of the most barren portions of the Libyan desert, now utterly sterile, the travertin contains abun- dant remains of leaves and grasses, along with chipped flints, proving that at the recession of this diluvial sea not only was the vegetation luxuriant, but man was then on the spot, as a hunter and fisher.; *Emile Cartailhac Les Ages Préſistoriques de l’ F’spagne et du A ortugal, pp. 24–30 (Paris, 1886). f Comp. Dr. Bleicher and Sir John Lubbock in the Journal of the Anthropological /nstitute, Vol. X., p. 318; Dr. R. Collignon in Bul- letin de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris, 1886, p. 676, sq. # See the article of C. Zittel, “Sur les silex taillés trouvés dans le desert Libyque,” in Congrès /nternat. d’Azut/ropologie et d' Archéolo- gie, 1874, pp. 78, etc. TEIE GLA CIAL AGE. 9I h Not less certain is it that he was a most ancient oc- cupant of Austafrica. Chert implements of the true “river-drift" type have been discovered “in place" in quaternary stratified gravels near Thebes, and else- where in the Nile valley; and in the diamond field of the Cape of Good Hope, palaeolithic forms have been exhumed from diluvial strata forty or fifty feet below the surface of the soil.” From similar evidence we know that man spread widely over the habitable earth in that remote time. It is known to archaeologists as the earliest period of the Stone Age, and the implements attributed to it are singularly alike in size and form. They seem to indi- cate a race of beings who were unprogressive, lacking perchance the stimulus of necessity in their mild clim- ate and with their few needs. The Glacial Age.—But a wonderful change took place in their conditions of life. Slowly, from some yet unexplained cause, mighty ice-sheets, thousands of feet in thickness, gathered around the poles, and collected on the flanks of the northern mountains. With silent but irresistible might they advanced over land and sea, crushing beneath them all animal and vegetable life, changing the perennial summer of Eur- africa to an Arctic winter, or at best to an Alpine climate. The tropical animals fled, the plants perished, and under the enormous weight of the ice-mass, the * See W. D. Gooch, “The Stone Age of South Africa,” in Jour- mal of the Anthropological Institute, 1881, p. 173, sq., and various later reports and discussions in the same periodical. 92 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACEs. X j ocean bottom in the north was depressed a thousand feet or more. This in turn brought about material os- cillations in the land levels to the south. The bed of the Mediterranean sank, that of the Sahara Sea slightly rose, leaving the latter little more than a swamp, while the former assumed the shape which we now see. These alterations in the land areas and climatic con- ditions exerted the profoundest influence on the des- tiny of man. When with the increasing cold thesother animals native to warm regions had fled or perished, he remained to encounter with undaunted mind the rigors of the boreal climate. Instead of depressing or extinguishing him, these very obstacles seem to have been the spurs to his intellectual progress. Men were still in the lower stages of culture, with no knowledge of metal, not capable of polishing stones, without a domestic animal or trace of agriculture. Yet everywhere these artisans possessed skill and sentiments far above that of the highest anthropoid ape described by the zoölogist. They knew the use of fire, they constructed shelters, they dwelt together in bands, they possessed some means of navigating streams, they ate both vegetable and animal food, they decorated themselves with colored earth and orna- ments, they wielded a club, they twisted fibres into ropes and strings, if occasion required they fastened together skins for clothing. All this is proved by a careful study of what tools and implements they have left us. Development into Races.—Whatever may have been WHEN RACES DEGAN. 93 the physical type of men at their beginning, in culture they were upon the same level for a long while after they had dispersed over the globe. When, where and how did they develop into the several distinct races that we now know P We can answer these questions, not fully, but to SO1]le extent. Man developed into certain strongly marked sub- species or races long before the dawn of history. More than six thousand years ago the racial traits of the black, the white, and the yellow races, and even of their subdivisions, were as pronounced and as inef- faceable as they are to-day. This we know from the representations on the Egyptian monuments of the third and sixth dynasties, from the comparative study of ancient skulls, and from the uniform testimony of the earliest writings, wherever we find them. This permanent fixation of traits, this profound im- pression of peculiar features, was probably no rapid process, but a very slow one. It took place between the close of the glacial epoch and the proto-historic period. This interim gives time enough ; at the lowest calculation, it was twenty thousand years, while others have placed it at a hundred thousand. The division of the species into races unquestionably was completed long before the present geologic period, and under con- ditions widely diverse from those now existing.” * This opinion was long ago expressed by the distinguished geol- ogist, d' Omalius d’ Halloy : “Tout nous porte à croire que les dif- ferences que presente le gezre humain remontent à un ordre de 94 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. As within these wide limits of time we can reply to the question when the races became such, so within similar broad boundaries of space we can answer where their peculiar types were developed. At the dawn of history, all the clearly marked sub- species of man bore distinct relations in number and distribution to the great continental areas into which the habitable land of the globe is divided. Nearly the whole of Europe and its geographical appendix, North Africa, were in the possession of the white race; the true negro type was limited to Central and Southern Africa and its appended islands; the yellow or Mon- golian type was scarcely found outside of Asia; and the American sub-species was absolutely confined to that continent. * - The “Areas of Characterication.”—In claiming that each sub-species had its origin and developed its phys- ical pecularities in the land areas here assigned to it, the ethnographer is supported by the unanimous ver- dict of modern zoölogical science. “Whatever be the cause,” writes the Rev. Samuel Haughton, “the dis- tribution of fauna shows clearly that forces have been at work, developing in each great continent animal forms peculiar to itself, and differing from the animal forms developed by other continents.” “ choses antérieur à l'état actuel du globe terrestre.” Des Races Hu- maines, p. II (Paris, 1845). This is also the result of recent studies. See Prof. Edward S. Morse, on “Man in the Tertiaries,” in the American AWaturalist, 1884, p. IO Io. * Lectures on Physical Geography, p. 273. (London, 188o.) AREAS OF CHARACTERIZATION. 95 In ethnography, those geographical areas whose physical conditions have left a durable impress on their human inhabitants have been called either "geo- graphical provinces” (Bastian) or “areas of charac- terization " (de Quatrefages). I prefer and shall adopt the latter as more indicative of the meaning of the term. It signifies that like physio-geographical conditions prevailing over a given area inhabited for many generations by the same peoples have impressed upon them certain traits, physical and psychical, which have become hereditary and continue indeterminately, even under changed conditions of existence. This general law is the recognized basis of modern scientific ethnography.” It is open to numerous limi- tations, and its application must never be made with- out the consideration of accessory and modifying cir- cumstances. For instance, certain areas are much more potent than others in the influence they exert on man: some act more powerfully on his mind than on his body, or the reverse; some peoples are more sus- ceptible to physical influences of a given class than others; and the length of time required is variable. * See A. Bastian, Zur Zehre von deſt Geographischen Prozimzey, (Berlin, 1886); A. De Quatrefages, A/?stoire Generale des Races Aſht- maines, p. 333, (Paris, 1889); Dr. Thomas Achelis, ZXe AEmſwick- e/ung der Modernen Z://nologie, s. 65, (Berlin, 1889). Agassiz was the first to announce (in 1850) that the different races of man are dis- tributed over the world in the same zoölogical provinces as those in- habited by distinct species and genera of mammals. This fact is coming more and more to be the accepted axiom for the study of racial development. (Compare Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 169). $3, % Scheme of Geologic Time during the Age of Man in the Eastern Hemisphere. Quaternary, Diluvial Or Pleistocene Epoch. \. Present Alluvial Epoch. ſ I. Pre-glacial. | | Or { | Europe connected with Africa. Temperature mild. African elephant in England. Tropical animals abundant. ſ Europe severed from Africa. Temperature low. Reindeer in France. Arctic animals abundant, 2. Glacial. Continents assume presentforms. Temperature rising. Temperate zones established. 3. Post-glacial. I. Pre-historic. Wild animals not diminished. o - & § & º * * * * i wild animals slain or tamed. 3. Historic. modified by man. All lower animals subjugated. .d Geographic conditions undisturbed. ſ \ ſ -: l l Geographic conditions greatly } Man homogeneous. Industry palaeolithic with simple implements. Migrations extensive. Language rudimentary. Man dividing into races. Industry palaeolithic with com- pound implements. Cave dwellings. Migrations lim- ited ; races in fixed areas. Races completely established. Industry neolithic. Beginning of sedentary life. Languages developed in classes. Races develop into contact. Industry of stone and copper. Conditions altered by agriculture. Great migrations begin. Industry of bronze and iron. Extensive mingling of races. Development of nations. PROPOSED CLASSIFICATION. 97 According to the analogy of other organic beings, man would have been more impressible to his sur- roundings in the early history of his existence as a species, the young, either as an individual or a genus, being more plastic than the old. Furthermore, in his then condition of culture, or absence of culture, he had less to oppose to the assaults of his environment. Classification of Races.—It is not possible in the present status of the science of man to point out pre- cisely how the various conditions of the great conti- mental areas reacted on the homogeneous primitive type to develop the races as we know them. The same difficulty encounters us with other animals and with plants. We know, however, that at the dawn of history each of these areas was peopled by nations re- sembling each other much more than they resembled nations of any of the other areas. -T In addition to the great continents there were many lesser regions, peninsulas and islands, usually on the borders of the main areas of characterization, where intermingling of types was sure to arise, and other types be formed, who in turn received some particular impress from their environment. These considerations prompt me to offer the follow- ing as the most appropriate scheme in the present con- dition of science for the subdivision of the species Man into its several races or varieties. I. THE EURAFRICAN RACE.-Traits.-Color white, Hair wavy, nose narrow, jaws straight, skull variable, languages inflectional, religions ideal. 7 98 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACEs. II. THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE.-Traits.—Color black, hair woolly, nose flat, jaws protruding, skull long, languages agglutinative, religions material. III. THE ASIAN RACE.—Traits.-Color yellowish or brownish, hair straight, nose flat or medium, jaws straight, skull broad and high, languages isolating or agglutinative, religions material. IV. THE AMERICAN RACE.—Traits.-Color cop- pery, hair straight, nose narrow, jaws straight, skull variable, languages incorporating, religions ideal. V. INSULAR OR LITORAL PEOPLES.—Traits.-Color dark, hair lank or wavy, languages agglutinative. In this scheme the more prominent and permanent traits are named first. While individuals of pure blood can easily be found in all the races who do not correspond in all particulars to these descriptions, I do not hesitate to assert that ninety-five per cent. of the whole of the pure blood of any of the races here classi- fied will correspond to the standards given. Subdivisions of Races.—The further subdivisions of ethnography follow to some extent the important doctrine of the “ areas of characterization,” that is, they are geographical; but as the classification of men advances in minuteness, other considerations become paramount, notably, language and government. These elements allow us to subdivide a race into its ôranches; a branch into its stocks; a stock into its groups, and these again into tribes, peoples, or nations. Classified in this manner, the human species presents the subdivisions shown on the adjacent scheme: 35 GENERAL ETH NOGRAPHIC SCHEME. 99 General Ethnographic Scheme. A’ace. Tražts. Brazzches. Stocks. Groups or Peoples. 1. Libyan. I 1. Hamitic. 2. Egyptian. ! - - - 3. East African. Color white. sºit. 1. Arabian. E fri rr ' |2. Semitic. 2. Abyssynian. º: **|Hair wavy. 3. Chaldean. Call. - II r. Euskaric. 1. Euskarian. Nose narrow. (raat, 2. Aryac. Indo-Germanic or - North Mºir Celtindic peoples. erranean. 3. Caucasic. Peoples of the Cau- CâSils. I 1. Central African.|Dwarfs of the Congo. .. 2. South African. Bushmen, Hottentots. Cºlack or Negrillo. [.. Kºi...i. Nubian. A u stafri all K. II 2. Soudanese. T -- . . . 4. 3. Senegambian. Căll. Hair frizzly. Negro. 4. Guinean. Nose broad. III. 1. Bantu. Caffres and Congo Negroid. tribes. I 1. Chinese. Chinese. sinii 2. Thibetan. Natives of Thibet. Cº. ºlow S1111tle. l 3. Indo-Chinese, Burmese, Siamese. r & ſ 1. Tungusic, Manchus, Tungus. Asian. g º 2. Mongolic. Mongols, Kalmucks. Hair straight. II. | 3. Tataric. Turks, Čossacks. s Sibiric. 4. Finnic. Finns, Magyars. Nose medium. i 5. Arctic, Chukchis, Ainos. U.|6. Japanic. Japanese, Koreans. 1. Arctic, Eskimos. I. 2. Atlantic. Tinneh, Algonkins Color coppery. Northern. fi Iroquois. y & -> * 3. Pacific. Chinooks, Kolosh,etc. American. H.ºight II. } 1. Mexican. Nahuas, Tarascos. y. Central. 2. Isthmian. Mayas, Chapanecs. Nose medium. III | I. Atlantic. Cº.; A raw a ks, g e up1S. • Southern. 2. Pacific. Chibehas, Qquichuas. Color dark. T } 1. Negrito. Mincopies, Aetas. ‘. . 2. Papuan. New Guineans. hºr Hair wavy or Negritic. 3. Melanesian. Feejeeans, etc. Litoral frizzly. II. . } 1. Malayan. Malays, Tagalas. Peoples. • Malayic. 2. Polynesian. Pacific Islanders. P* |Nose medium III. } 1. Australian. Australians. Ol' Ilar row. Australic. 2. Dravidian. Dravidas, Mundas. That these distinctions may be plain I append defi- nitions of the ethnographic terms employed. * 3 • IOO BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACEs. . Race.—A variety or sub-species of the species Man, presenting a number of distinct and permanent (he- reditary) traits of the character above described. Branch.—A portion of a race separated geographi- cally, linguistically, or otherwise, from other portions of the race. Stock.-A portion of a branch united by some prominent trait, especially language, offering pre- Sumptive evidence of demonstrable relationship. The individual elements of a stock are its peoples. A group consists of a number of these peoples who are connected together by a closer tie, geographical, linguistic, or physical, than that which unites the mem- bers of the stock. A tribe is a body of men collected under one gov- ernment. They are presumably of the same race and dialect. A nation, on the other hand, is a body of Hien under one government, frequently of different languages and races. Its members have no presumed relationship further than that they belong to the same species. There are some other terms the precise meaning of which should be defined before we proceed, the more so as there is not that uniformity in their use among ethnographers which were desirable. - This very word ethnos, with its adjective ethnic, is an example. What is an ethnos? I know no better word for it in English than a people, as I have already explained this word, one of the elements of a stock all whose members, there is reason to believe, have a de- * * *... a. *s * * * .* ...* e- a- ar. MEANING OF TERMS. IOI monstrable relationship. Thus we should speak of the Aryan stock, made up of the Latin, Greek, Celtic and other peoples. The relationship among the mem- bers of a people is closer than that between the mem- bers of a stock. People corresponds to the Old Eng- lish folk (German Volk), but folk in the modern English scientific terms “folk-lore,” “folk-medicine,” has acquired a different signification. Culture and civilisation are other terms not always ºvºv 2 correctly employed. The former is the broader, the r generic word. All forms of human society show more or less culture; but civilization is a certain stage of culture, and a rather high one, when men unite under settled governments to form a state or common- wealth (civitas) with acknowledged individual rights (civis). This presupposes a knowledge of various arts and developed mental powers. . Much attention was paid by older writers to dividing V J. the progress of culture into a number of stages or stadia. One of these, an American author, Lewis H. Morgan, suggested an elaborate scheme according to which the periods of man's development should cor- respond with historical conditions of culture, and these he divided into lower, middle and upper states of savagery, barbarism, and civilization, each character- ized by the introduction of some new art. The problem is far too complicated to admit of any such mechanical solution. The possession of a given art, as the bow and arrow, or smelting iron, does not liſt a people, nor is it an indication of their culture. IO2 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. Peoples low in one point are high in others; they de- velop along different lines, with scarcely a common measure, and their place in a general scheme must be determined by an exhaustive investigation of all their powers and conquests, and perhaps a comparison with Some other standards than those which we have been brought up to consider the best. LECTURE IV. THE EURAFRICAN RACE ; SOUTH MEDITERRANEAN BRANCH. CONTENTS.–The White Race. Synonyms. Properly an African I. Race ; relative areas; purest specimens. Types of the White Race; Eibyo-Teutonic type; Cymric type; Celtic type; Euscaric type. Variability of traits. Primal home of the White Race not in Asia, but in Eurafrica. Early migrations and subdivisions. North Mediterranean and South Mediterranean Branches. A.—THE SOUTH MEDITERRANEAN BRANCH. THE HAMITIC STOCK, Relation to Semitic. I. The Libyan Group. Location. Peoples included. Physical appearance. The Libyan blondes : languages. Early history ; European affiliations; relations to Iberian tribes; the names Zºeri and Berberi. Govern- ment. Migration. The Etruscans as Libyans. Later history; present culture. Syrian Hamites and their influence. 2. The Egyptian Group. Kinship to Libyans. Physical appearance. The stone age in Egypt. Antiquity of Egyptian culture. Its influence. Physical traits. 3. The East African Group. Relations to Egypt. II. THE SEMITIC Stock. — First entered Arabia from Africa. 1. The Arabian Group. Early divisions and culture. The Arabs. Physical types; mental temperament; religious idealism. 2. The Abyssinian Group. Tribes included. Period of migration. Con- dition. 3. The Chaldean Group. Tribes included. The modern Jew. - THE leading race in all history has been the White Race. It is proper therefore that it should have our chief attention in the study of the distribution of (IO3) £ ; i Scheme of the European Race : South Mediterranean Branch. ſ I. -- | II. Semitic Stock. | 2. 3 ſ AWumidians, Getulians, Zibyans, Maurianians, Guanches, Berbers, Rifians, Zouaves, Kabyles, Tuareks, Tibbus, Ghadumes, Mzabites, Ghanatas, AEtruscans, Amorites, l Assyrians, Hittites. (?) I. Hamitic Stock. “ a 2. . Libyan Group. (Extinct peoples in italics.) Egyptian Group. Copts, Fellaheen. . East African Group. Gallas, Somalis, Danakils, Bedjas, Bilins, Afars, Khamirs. Arabian Group. Aimyarites, Sabeans, AWabotheans, Arabs, Bedawin, Ehkilis. Abyssinian Group. Amharnis, Tigris, Tigrinas, Gheez, Ethiopians, Harraras. Chaldean Group. Israelites, Arameans, Samaritans. | WHERE THE WHITES LIVED. IO5 the species. By some writers it is called the Cau- casian, by others the Japetic, and by others again the European race—all inaccurate terms, for the race never originated in the Caucasus, never descended from the mythical Japetus or Japheth, and when first it appeared on the horizon of history, its most exten- sive possessions and the seats of its highest culture were not in Europe, nor yet in Asia, but in Africa. This statement may astonish you, and I know no writer who has properly emphasized the fact that the white race is geographically and historically an African race. I have calculated with some care the area of its control of the three continents when their inhabitants first became known. The results are these: The white race then possessed: * In Asia . . . . 2,500,000 square miles. In Europe . . . . 3,OOO,OOO “ § { & Q. In Africa . . . 3,500,000 & & & & These figures vindicate for the race the title I have given it—Eurafrican. More than this: the purest and finest physical speci- mens of the white race always have been and still are * This calculation includes in Asia the Arabian peninsula, Syria, the Iranic regions, most of Asia Minor and the Caucasus; but ex- cludes Hindostan, the occupation of which by the Aryans is within the historic period. In Africa it embraces the tract from the At- lantic to the Red Sea, and from the Mediterranean to the Sudan, nearly all of which was held by the Hamitic peoples when we first learn about it. In Europe it includes the whole continent south of a line drawn from the mouth of the Volga, through St. Petersburg to the Atlantic. - - IO6 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. found native to African soil; and the leading nations of the race, those who have most contributed to its glory, and to the advance of the civilization of the world, either have resided in Africa or can be traced to it as their ancestral home. Types of the White Race.—Let us first define the characteristics, physical and mental, of the white race. In One of its pronounced types, the individuals are blondes, tall in stature, the eyes blue or grey, the hair yellow or reddish and wavy, the beard full, the nose narrow and prominent (leptorhin), the chin well de- fined, the jaws straight (orthognathic), the skull long (dolichocephalic) or medium, the eyes narrow (micro- semes), the supra-orbital ridges rather prominent, the face moderately oval. This is the typical appearance of the ancient Goths, Teutons and Scandinavians, and of the modern Swedes and Germans. It was also that of the ancient Libyans, and is still preserved in the greatest purity among their descendants in Morocco and Algiers; hence I shall call it the Libyo-Teutonic type. A second type is also tall in stature, but red-haired, freckled complexion, the face and forehead broad, the cheek bones prominent, the eyes nearly circular (megasemes), the jaws and mouth projecting (progna- thic), the skulls broad and high (brachycephalic- hypsistenocephalic), the chin Square and firm. This is the type we see preserved in some of the Highland Scotch clans, and in the “Tuatha de Dan- ann " of Ireland, recalling the large-limbed and red- CELTIC TYPES. Ioy haired “Caledonians '' of Tacitus, and those ancient Britons who, under Queen Boadicea, withstood so valiantly the Roman legions. The Gauls or Cimbri of Belgium and northern France were of this type, and hence it has been called the “Cymric" type. But there is a second Celtic type, also of vast anti- quity, claimed by some to be the only pure form. In it the skull is also broad—broader than the former variety; but the stature is undersized, the hair and eyes dark-brown, the complexion brunette, the orbits rounded, the forehead full. Modern representatives of this type are the dark clans of the Highlanders, the Irish west of the river Shannon, the Manx, the Welsh, the Bretons of France, the Auvergnats, the Walloons of Belgium and the Ladins of eastern Switzerland. The most ancient known seats of these dark Celts were in extreme western Europe and the isles adja- cent. This location points them out as one of the oldest peoples in Europe, whether their presence is explained by immigration or autochthonous descent. Part of their possessions in early historic times was in the Iberian peninsula, along the Cantabrian mountains in northern Spain. Here they were in immediate con- tact with members of the white race of a different type, the Euscarians or Basques. In them the stature is medium, the form symmetri- cal, hair and eyes are dark but rarely black, the com- plexion dark and sallow, the face oval, and the skull long, the length being in the posterior (occipital) region. Although the last mentioned is an important IO8 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. distinction between the Celtic and the Euskaric skull, there is unquestionably a closer resemblance physi- cally between the Celts and Basques, who speak totally diverse tongues, than between the Celts and Cymri, whose tongue was the same. In these four typical groups from the extreme west of Europe we find sharp contrasts within limited areas, among peoples some of whom are unquestionably consanguine. Two of the groups, the Teutonic and Cymric, belong in color and hai and stature to the blonde type, but differ profoundly in shape of skull and facial bones; the two others belong to the brunette type, but differ equally in Osseous. character. In general physical traits the Celtic differs less from the Euskaric than from the Cymric type, as was recog- nized by the historian Tacitus. These facts bring out an ethnic principle of im- portance—the variability of traits within the racial limits—and this becomes more marked as the race is higher in the scale of organic development. No race remains closer to its type than the Austafrican, none departs from it so constantly as the Eurafrican. Wherever we find the unmixed white race we find its blonde and brunette varieties, its prognathic and Orthognathic jaws, its long-skulled and broad-skulled beads.” To establish genealogic schemes exclusively * One of the leading European students of anatomical racial type is Dr. J. Kollmann, of Basle. He claims that there are four funda- mental skull types in that continent : I. Narrow faced, brachycephalic. CRADLE OF THE RACE. IO9 upon these differences, as has been the work of SO many living anthropologists, is to build houses of cards. These contrasts are presented to us daily. The researches of Virchow, De Candolle, Kollmann, and many others, prove that in the same city, in the same family, the children to-day are born brunettes or blondes, dark or light eyed, to some degree broad or narrow skulled, with but partial reference to their parents' peculiarities. The aberrant types are usually about twenty per cent. of the whole. It seems gener- ally to have been so in the unmixed white race wher- ever located. • All such variations, however, remain strictly within the racial lines, and are not approximations to other races. Each race retains to-day the characteristics of its earliest representatives, so far as we know them. Primal Home of the White Race.—Where should we look for these earliest representatives, for the primal home of the Eurafrican race? The usual answer has been “in Asia,” but now that answer is rejected by all the younger and most earnest ethnologists. 2. Narrow faced, dolichocephalic. 3. Broad faced, brachycephalic. 4. Broad faced, dolichocephalic. These forms he believes have been steadily perpetuated and have undergone no change, except by intermarrying; they bear no rela- tion to intellectual ability, and they recur in nations of the same lan- guage, customs and history. “Ethnic unity in Europe rests not upon racial identity, but racial (anatomical) diversity. Verhand, der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1889, s. 332.) I IO THE EURAFRICAN RACE. A steady stream of information has of late been con- tributed by the sciences of linguistics, palaeontology, pre-historic archaeology and racial anatomy, sufficient to convince even the skeptical that not Asia, but the western water-shed of the Eastern Continent, was the area of characterization which developed this race with its marked physical traits and singular mental endow- ments. In the previous lecture I have shown you that man himself probably came into being as such within the limits of that region which I have described as Eurafrica; and as its conditions were such as to foster his transformation from some inferior primate, so they continued, though profoundly altered, to favor his growth, as they still do continue to-day. It is by no mere accident or result of political manoeuvres that western Europe has for two thousand years produced the mightiest nations and greatest minds of the earth. The discussion of the precise locality where in Eu- rope the primitive man developed into the white race has occupied many learned pens in the last score of years. But by nearly all of them the discussion has been limited to the birthplace of merely the Aryan linguistic stock—an unfortunate narrowness of view, which has prevented a comprehensive grasp of the question at issue.” * A more appropriate view was taken by Canon Isaac Taylor at the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1889. He defended the thesis that the human race origi- nated in Europe and bifurcated into the Asian and African branches. (See AVature, 1889, No. 40, p. 632.) ORIGIN OF WHITE RACE. III The Aryan peoples present by no means the only, nor yet the purest types of the white race. I have seen quite as noble blondes among the Kabyles of the Djurjura as in Denmark, quite as handsome brunettes among the Basques of the Pyrenees as among the Celts of France or the Italians. A broad construction of the question must include all these, and in this spirit I approach it. We must search for the first abode, the primitive “ area of characterization * of the white race: I. Where its most ancient residence and greatest numbers were in earliest historic times. 2. Where the prehistoric remains prolong that resi- dence most remotely back. 3. Where the earliest forms of linguistic structure continue to exist in large communities. 4. Where its purest types are retained in consider- able numbers. - 5. Where the climatic conditions are favorable to the physical traits of the race. If we can select a locality in which all of these argu- ments unite, the cumulative evidence is so powerful that we may consider the question settled. I have already shown that at the dawn of history the white race possessed either in Europe or Africa a far larger area than in Asia, and possessed it prac- tically exclusively. The most recent researches in the pile dwellings of the Swiss lakes and the plain of the Po show that the same race inhabited them from the classic period of Greece to far back in the stone age. II 2 TIHE EURAFRICAN RACE. The most ancient shell-heaps or kitchen-middens on the shores of Portugal contain skulls of the pecu- liar type of the Basques of to-day. The hiatus or gap which was once supposed to exist between palaeolithic and neolithic culture in France has been bridged over by numerous observations, showing that the same race continued to live and grow there.” As for language, every linguist recognizes the agglutinative type of the Basque, and the semi-agglutinative character of the Berber as more antique forms than the inflectional caste of Aryan or Semitic tongues. Nowhere else do white tribes speak an agglutinative tongue, except a few in the Caucasus, where we know they settled at a comparatively recent period. The purest types of the whites in any large number have always been found in Western Europe and North- western Africa. There the blondes were represented by the Suevi, the Goths, the Vandals, the Cymri, the Berbers; the brunettes by the Euskarians, the Celts, and the native Italic tribes. In the Orient, the Parsees, the high-caste Brahmins, the Siagosch of the Hindu Kusch, and some Caucasian tribes, have by close inter- marriage retained in a measure the traits of the race; but confessedly not in the same distinctness as the nations of Western Europe; nor do the Semitic peo- ples of Asia present the purity of the type with any- thing like the distinctness of the descendants of the Libyans in the valleys of the Atlas. Finally, we do not * For a recent summary of the evidence on this point consult Isaac Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, p. 129, sq. (London, 1890.) & II ºd ‘dđo"GIOV ȘI NVOIH （IvanGI SIHI, JO J. Hv HO OINHIȚI -7N.！ä， sºff/&// ? //Ķ ��eae, SZ//@%$\\！ }}````\___| ~È (№ſſº\ %šz，s\\ |-S 27O è/ €)\，7 \ } „@ ffºs@{@z,· %（~g¿№š £ | }zº Zº ºo/,/ză - X.23/ºſº L^ày%>-ģ）;*/ &s |-）*****~^£570*·：§§ſý%§§ ~ſíſºț¢Ř ±§ź¿ $¢º |ºs§à\，/*ĒĻ,N¿?$∞§§2º…№aeVÀ№ Àà?}} Ø)Są，--★ → EARLY MIGRATIONS. II.3 anywhere in Asia find the physical conditions favor- able to the development of the white race—the moist, cool, cloudy climate, the extensive shady forests cover- ing broad areas of low elevation, with absence of malaria and diminished demand on the chylopoietic Organs. Early Migrations and Subdivisions.—It is not neces- sary to suppose that the different peoples of the race developed themselves from one central point. The contrary is more probable. Beginning at the extreme West of Europe, and its appendix North Africa, the race pursued an easterly course, divided by the great intervening sea of the Mediterranean into two sections, which for conveni- ence I designate as the “ North Mediterranean " and the “South Mediterranean * branches, though it will be seen that these geographical limits are not to be taken absolutely. The North Mediterranean branch embraces as its most important member the Indo-Germanic peoples. When first heard of in history, this stock extended along the shores and islands of Europe from Cape Finisterre to the Gulf of Finland, occupying all of Central Europe and much of Asia Minor, the regions of Modern Persia, and at a later date the southern vales of the Himalayas. Its northern limits have al- ways been in contiguity with the Asian or Yellow race. Stretch a line on the map from Singapore to St. Petersburg, continue it to the Atlantic, and you have roughly the ethnic boundary which has ever sep- arated the races, and does so to-day. 8 II.4. THE EURAFRICAN RACE. In western Europe, south of the Aryac was the Euskaric stock, occupying central Spain, central and southern France, portions of Italy, and various islands in the Mediterranean. As speaking a language of a different family from the prevailing inflectional type of the race, it is spoken of as “allophyllic.” It does not stand alone in this respect. Some of the white Caucasian tribes speak similar agglutinative tongues, and it is supposed by some that the ancient Pictish, Illyrian, Lycian, Van, and Etruscan were of similar character. Probably many such languages obtained which are now extinct. The South Mediterranean Branch consists of two related stocks, which have been called the Hamitic and . the Semitic. These names are not objectionable, in so far as they indicate a distant genealogic unity, still re- cognizable, between the two branches; but should not in any way be accepted as acknowledging as historic facts the myth of the Deluge and their origin in Asia. The reverse is true. The migrations of both stocks have been from west to east, and the two great branches of the White Race entering Asia, the one by the Bosphorus and the second by the Isthmus of Suez, encountered each other after thousands of years of separation in the region where the venerable myth locates their point of departure. A. THE SOUTH MEDITERRANEAN BRANCH. I shall begin my survey of the race and its distribu- tion with the South Mediterranean branch, as that . 3 THE LIBY ANS. II5 which has been the more important of the two in his tory, controlling by far the greater territory, and de- veloping the earlier and more potent civilizations. It has ever been, and still is, the leader in intellectual acumen, and the monuments of its achievements, both in the realms of thought and action, remain unrivalled in the world. With great propriety, therefore, it claims our first attention. I. THE HAMITIC STOCK. The affinity between the Hamitic and Semitic stocks is distinctly shown by their physical traits and the character of their languages. The latter statement, which was long in doubt, has now been acknowledged by the most competent students, such as Friedrich Müller and A. H. Sayce.* - 1 * Within their own lines the Hamites are divided into three groups, the Libyan, the Egyptian and the East African groups, each distinguished by physical and linguistic differences. - I. The Libyan Group. Of these the Libyan group Occupies the region fur- thest to the west, and presents the purest type of the stock. From time immemorial it has occupied the land from the Nile Valley to the Atlantic, and from the * See Freidrich Müller, Grundriss der Sărachwässenschaft, Bd. III., s. 224–5; Sayce, Science of Zanguage, Vol. II., page 178. The latter uses the expression that between the old Egyptian, the Libyan, and the Semitic tongues “the grammatical agreement is most striking.” II6 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. Mediterranean to the Soudan. In the classical geo- graphies its tribes are referred to as Numidians, Liby- ans, Mauritanians and Getulians, and at present they are known as Berbers, Rifians, and Shilhas in Morocco, the Tuariks and Tibbus of the desert, the Kabyles and Zouaves in Algeria, the Ghadames, Serkus, Mzabites of the south, the Senegas of Senegal, and many others. The Guanches, who once inhabited Teneriffe, and are now extinct, belonged to the Rifian tribes of this stock,” and the rulers of the once powerful empire of Ghanata, which for centuries before the rise of Moham- medanism controlled the valley of the Upper Niger, were allied to the Moroccan family.f Arab historians of the seventh century tell us that at that time the Berbers were “the lords of Maghreb (Africa), from the Arabian Gulf to the western Ocean, and from the middle sea to the Soudan.” + The physical appearance of the Libyan peoples dis- tinctly marks them as members of the White Race, often of uncommonly pure blood. As the race else- * On the Guanches, consult the various works of Sabin Berthelot, Dr. Verneau, and later J. Harris Stone in Proceedings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1888, p. 851. The last- mentioned dwells on the many similarities of their arts to those of the Egyptians. f Barth is of opinion that the Berbers conquered the Sahara, not from blacks, but “from the sub-Libyan race, the Leucaethiopes of the ancients, with whom they intermarried ” (Travels in Africa, Vol. I., 340). This is, I think, the correct opinion, and not that the Sahara was occupied by the negroes. i Ritter, Ærdéunde, Bd. I., S. 561. THE LIBYAN BLONDES. 117 where, they present the blonde and brunette type, the latter predominant, but the former extremely well marked. Among the Kabyles in Algeria, I have seen many fine specimens of blondes, with yellow hair, light eyes, auburn beard, and tall stature. An Eng- lish traveller who visited last year some remote vil- lages in the mountains of Morocco, describes their inhabitants as “for the most part fair, with blue eyes and yellow beards, perfectly built and exceedingly handsome men.”’’ This has been from the earliest times the characteristic of the Libyans, and there is abundant evidence that it was more general in former centuries than it is now. The Guanches of Teneriffe are described by the first voyagers as unusually tall and fair, their yellow.hair reaching below their waists.f The Greek poet Callimachus, who was librarian of the famous library at Alexandria two hundred and fifty years before the Christian era, applies the same adjective fav00s, blonde or auburn, to the Libyan women, which Strabo and other Greeks do to the Goths and blonde Celts of Germany.; * Walter B. Harris, in Proceedings of the Royal Geographical So- ciety, I889, p. 490. f For numerous authorities, see Sabin Berthelot, Baſſ/e/ima de la So- ciété d’Aºt/mo/ogie, 1845, p. 12 I, sq., and his Antiquités Canariennes (Paris, 1879). f The early Greek geographer known as Scylax, also speaks of the Libyan men as blondes, and very handsome. For a recent and able discussion of this subject, consult F. Borsari, Geografica A'zhnologica e Storica del/a 7% iſo/ifama, p. 23, sq. (Naples, 1888.) The French writers Broca, Faidherbe, etc., have also written copiously on the Libyan blondes. I I8 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. Long before this, again, in monuments of the XIXth dynasty of Egypt, the Libyans are painted as of a pro- nounced blonde type, with light eyes and skins, and are mentioned by a term which signifies fair or blonde.* The extended researches of ethnologists on this point have accumulated a mass of facts proving that the ancient Libyans were in appearance strikingly similar to the North Germans and Scandinavians, hav- ing a fair skin, yellow or auburn hair, blue or grey eyes, full blonde beards, the face medium, the skull dolichocephalic, the orbital ridges prominent, the chin square and firm, forehead vertical or slightly retreating, the stature tall, and the body powerful.i. This identity of type impressed me very rinuch among the Kabyles, and I note that the German eth- nologist, Quedlinfeldt, who was among the Berbers in Morocco lately, writes of them : “I very often met in- dividuals with flaxen hair and blue eyes, who in face and form corresponded perfectly to the ordinary type of our North German people.” . For this reason, I give it the name of the “Libyo-Teutonic ’’ type. * The Tahenmu. Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt, Vol. II. p. 292. f As distinguished from the Arab, Pruner Bey described the Ka- byle as “of higher stature, cerebral and facial cranium broader, fore- head more vertical, eyebrows less arched, jaws more orthognathic.” My own studies in Algeria lead me to recognize the correctness of these distinctions. Dr. R. Collignon describes what he thinks is the most ancient Tunisian type as tall, dolichocephalic (73), mesorrhinic (75), narrow face, forehead and chin retreating. He says of the blonde element in Tunisia that it is “assez rare, mais un peu par- tout.” Bu//. de la Soc. d’ Anthropologie de Paris, 1886, pp. 620, 621. # Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1888, S. II 5, PROTO-SEMITIC LANGUAGES. IIQ In the pure-blooded clans who still dwell in the fastnesses of the Atlas and the Djurdjura, this antique type is that which is general; but in the valleys, in the desert and in Tunisia the type is darker, having been corrupted by admixture with negro, Arabic and other stocks.” The fact which I wish especially to impress on you is that nowhere do we find a purer type of the white race than in northern Africa, and that this was recognized by the earliest writers and records as that especially belonging to this stock. The languages spoken by the various Libyan peo- ples prove on examination to be dialects of one tongue, all so much alike that a few days’ practice will enable the speaker of any one of them to express himself in another. In its grammatical formation, it is inflec- tional with agglutinative tendencies. Its radicals are made up of consonants, the indications of time and place being formed by changes in the vowel sounds. In this respect it resembles the Semitic tongues, but differs from them in having radicals of one, two, three, or four consonants, while they have usually those of three consonants only. In many other respects it pre- sents analogies to the Semitic dialects, of such a na- ture that these latter seem to have developed them- selves out of conditions of speech as represented by the Libyan. Hence some writers have called it and its allied tongues “proto-Semitic languages.” It * Yet Barth mentions that in the western Sahara one of the most powerful of the Berber tribes was called Auróghen, the yellow, or the gold-colored. 7%avels in Africa, vol. i., pp. 230, 339. . I2O THE EURAFRICAN RACE. stands in distinct relation to the Coptic or ancient Egyptian, and to some East African dialects. The Libyans have possessed from time immemorial the country in which we find them. They are its indigenous inhabitants—all others, as Carthaginians, negroes and Arabs, being demonstrably intruders. Can we obtain any clue to their monuments in pre- historic times by the aid of archaeology and linguist- ics? Some able students have thought they could, and have brought forward some singular surmises. There is a series of structures of huge stones, called dolmens, menhirs and cromlechs, extending over northern and central France, southern England, north- ern Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Algiers, and central Tunisia. They are much alike, and seem to have been constructed by some one people in very ancient times. The skulls in them are often long, like those of the Libyans and Teutons. Hence several French writers have suggested that the ancestors of the white Libyans moved from central Europe into Morocco, along the line of these megalithic structures.* In spite of a good deal of severe criticism, there re- mains much in favor of the view that these remains mark a route by which some neolithic people extended their conquests. But it seems to me the trend of mi- gration was in the other direction, toward the east, * See Broca, “Sur les blondes, et les monuments megalithiques de l'Afrique du Nord,” in Revue d'Anthropologie, 1876; and Faidherbe, Collection Complete d’ Anscriptions AVumidiques, Introduction. (Paris, 1870.) I3ERBERS AND IBERIANS. T2 I and not from it. The white race began as such dur- ing the glacial epoch; it could scarcely have developed Inorth of the Pyrenees, for the climate was so cold that the reindeer, which to-day cannot breed in Stockholm, found a suitable home in the valley of the Garonne. The Iberian peninsula and the Atlas at that time pos- sessed climatic conditions about like those of Great Britain to-day. In that peninsula, at that time connected with Mo- rocco by a land bridge at the straits of Gibraltar, are the oldest forms of languages spoken by the race, the Euskaric dialects. There is reason to believe that at the dawn of history these occupied the centre of the peninsula; north of them, in the Cantabrian moun- tains and along the shores of the Bay of Biscay, were the Celtiberians, the rearguard of the migratory hordes of Aryans; and along the southern shores and in North Africa extended the tribes whose direct descendants are the Libyan peoples. The name Iberi, Iberians applied by the ancients to the inhabitants of the east- ern and southern shores of Spain, testifies to this. It means in the Libyan tongue freemen, and in the plural form berberi or Berbers, is that by which the old Egyptians knew them, and which from the same root is their own favorite designation to-day.” * In offering this new derivation of the much discussed name Berberi or Barbari, one must remember that it has always been the name of a powerful tribe in Morocco, the Brebres; that it was what the ancient Egyptians called them (Herodotus); and that it is to- day a pure Libyan word. Zöerru, is from the verbal root ibra, they I22 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. That the Iberians were Hamites, and not Basques, has long been suspected, and is plainly the opinion to be derived from the statements of the ancients and the presence of Libyan proper names in the south of Spain.” are free; ibarðar, they come forth (Newman, Zibyan Vocabulary, pp. 40, 133). The plural in the Hamitic group was originally formed by repetition (F. Müller, Sºrac/wissensc/a/7, Bd. III., s. 240). Hence Berberi may mean either “ those who came forth,” i.e., emigrants, or those who go where they list, i.e., freemen. This is also the meaning of amós/tag/, the generic name of the Touaregs (Barth, Travels in Africa, vol. v., page 555). Barth, a high authority, be- lieves that the same word ber is the radical of the names Bernu, Berdoa, Berauni, etc. The legendary ancestors of the Moroccan Berbers (Brebres) was Ber, in which, says Barth, “ we recognize the name Afer,” the f and & being interchangeable in these dialects. From “Afer '' we have “Africa ’’ (7%raze/s, vol. i., p. 224). One of the principal gods of ancient Libya and of the Guanches was Abóra, or Ibru. See my article “On Etruscan and Libyan Names’’ in Pro- ceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Feb., 1890. One of the Pindaric fragments recites a Libyan tradition to the effect that the first man, Iarbas, sprang from the sun-heated soil, and chose for food the sweet acorns of the tree (Lenormant, 7%e Beginnings of Aſſistory, p. 48). In “Iarbas' we can scarcely fail in recognizing the same root bar, the change being by the familiar process of reversal. # Early in this century, Bory de St. Vincent maintained the identity of the Iberians and Berbers (Essai Geologique, Paris, 1805). Hum- boldt argued that there was but one language in old Spain beside the Celtic, in spite of the direct assertion of Strabo to the contrary, and the well-known fact that many Celtiberic inscriptions cannot be read either in Celtic or Basque (Priſung der (Vutersuchungen, etc., § 39). The Roman geographer, Rufus Festus Avienus, offers the impor- tant correction that the Iberi derived their name, not from the Ebro, as is usually stated, but from a stream close to Gibraltar on the At- lantic side. LIBY AN GOVERNMENT. I23 When the Berber chieftain Tarik crossed the straits in the seventh century, and gave to the great rock his name (Gibraltar, Djebel-el-Tarik), he was but return- ing to seize anew the land from which his ancestors had been driven by Carthaginians and Romans. From the remotest times the Libyans have had the same form of government—village communities, united by loose bonds into federations. The Egyp- tians referred to them as “the Nine Bows,” or Bands,” the Romans as the “Quinquigentes,” the Five Peo- ples, the Arabs as “Qabail " or Kabyles, Confeder- ates. These confederations were sufficiently power- ful, even so far back as I4OO years before Christ, to put in the field an army of 30,000 or more men for an attack on Egypt; and that the general culture of their country was quite high is shown by the character of the spoils obtained by the Egyptians—horses, chariots, vessels of brass, silver, copper and gold, Swords, cuir- asses, razors, etc.; “At Iberus inde manat amnis et locos Foecundat undá : plurimi ex ipso ferunt Dictos Iberos, non ab illo flumine Quod inquietos Vasconas praelabitur.” —Ora Maritimaa. The two names show that it was a momen gențile, and that the tribe so known extended along the Southern coast. It has been recently asserted that many north African place-names occur in Spain (Revista de Anthropologia, Madrid, 1876, quoted by Fligier). * The Coptic word is AWa-pa-ut, Bunsen, Egypt's Place in History, Vol. III, p. 137. # This war is recorded in the celebrated “inscription of Meneph- I24 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. At that date the nations of the North Mediterra- mean branch were yet in the stone age, and the sites of Greece and Rome were the homes of savages.* It is probable that this defeat of the Libyans by the armies of Rhamses gave a serious shock to their progress, by disintegrating their growing state. It appears that about this time there were various colo- nies which migrated to sites on the northern shores of the Mediterranean. One of these I have believed to be the Etruscans, who settled on the west coast of Italy about I OO years before our era. They were tall blondes, dolichocephalic, speaking an un-Aryan language, and by their traditions came by sea from the south.* - The Libyans were at times partially under the do- minion of the kings of Egypt, and many of them en- tered the Egyptian armies as mercenaries. They al- lowed the Phenicians peaceably to found the great city tah,” of the XIXth dynasty. See Records of the Past, Vol. IV; Brûgsch Bey, History of Ægypt, Vol. II, p. 129, and the more recent studies of these inscriptions by Dr. Max Müller, in the Proceedings of the Society for Biblical Archaeology, Vol. VI. * As further showing the ancient culture of the Libyans, I may note that they constructed stone dwellings before their conquest by the Romans. For extracts showing this, see A’evue des deux Mondes, IDec., 1865. - f The evidence to this effect I have marshalled in two papers read before the American Philosophical Society: “On the Ethnic Affini- ties of the Ancient Etruscans '' (Proceedings of the Amer. A/i/. Soc., Oct., 1889), and “A Comparison of Etruscan and Libyan Names (Ibid., Feb., 1890). T.YBIAN INDEPENDENCE. I25 of Carthage on their shores, and from these early col- onists they learned the art of writing. The alphabet which is still preserved among some of their hordes is derived from the Punic letters.” When Carthage fell, Rome seized the mastery of the coasts and pro- ductive valleys, but her legions never penetrated to the inland fastnesses. When the great empire tot- tered to its fall, Goths and Vandals poured across and over the straits of Gibraltar to found an ephemeral empire in Africa; but these cavalry soldiers, know- ing to fight only on horseback, scarcely touched the confines of the Libyan mountain homes. Even the Arabs, sweeping resistlessly across their land in the beginning of the eighth century, failed to penctrate many of these fastnesses. To this day no Arab dares venture into the land of the Rifian Berbers, and many a tribe of the Djurjura keeps its customs and its blood unaltered by the Koranic laws, or the Semitic in- truders, or the Code Napoleon of the French invaders. The ancient elements of their culture are still largely retained. Among the Kabyle and Touareg tribes of to-day, in spite of the liberty authorized by Islam, monogamy is the almost invariable rule, the women are not only respected, but generally possess most of the property, and prostitution is unknown. They are, moreover, usually the learned class, and most of the “tifinar’ manuscripts come from the hands of these * The most scholarly analysis of this curious alphabet, called the tiftnagh or tiſinar, will be found in Prof. Halevy's Essai d' Apigra- £hie Libyque (Paris, 1875). VV/ I26 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. fair scribes.* As to the general character of the Ber- bers of Morocco, we may take Sir Joseph Hooker's word when he tells us that they are “decidedly supe- rior in intelligence, industry and general activity to their neighbors.” # The wander-loving Libyan tribes pursued other journeys far to the east. Following the coast of the Mediterranean, they formed settlements on the Syrian shore, and extended their possessions into the Mesopo- tamian valley, and north into the mountain vales of Asia Minor. The Phenicians and Canaanites, the Amorites, who were blonde Berbers of true Libyan type, the Hittites, and the old Assyrians, who were the builders of Babylon and Nineveh, were of Hamitic stock, as is shown by the accordance of the ancient biblical statement with modern linguistic and archae- ological research.i. * See Duveyrier, Zes Zouaregs du Mord, p. 339; H. Bissuell, Zes Zouaregs de l'Ouest, pp. Ioë, I I 5 (Alger., 1888), etc. f Hooker and Ball, Zour in Morocco, p. 86. f To Prof. A. H. Sayce is, I think, due the honor of showing that the pre-Semitic white race of Palestine was of the Libyan stock. See AWature, 1888, p. 321. He had previously pointed out that the two forms of tenses of the Libyan verb “correspond most remarkably with Assyrian forms” (/ntroduction to the Science of Language, Vol. II., p. 180). Rawlinson, in his Story of Phenicia (N. Y., 1889), adopts the view that the early Phenicians were Hamites. The epochal dis- covery of Halevy, now accepted by Delitzsch and other Assyriolo- gists, that the “second "column of the cuneiform inscription is merely a Hamito-Semitic dialect in another character, finally destroys the “Turanian" hypothesis, and restores the ancient Assyrians to the Eurafrican race. ANCIENT EGYPT. 127 From these culture-centres of the Hamitic stock flowed the mighty stream of human progress back along the southern shores of the Mediterranean to Cy- rene and Carthage, and along its northern shores to Cyprus, Greece, Italy and beyond; while the Accadian and Summerian learning, preserved for all time in the cuneiform writing, made its beneficient influence felt far into India and China, and reacted beneficially on the older wisdom of Egypt, from which it had at first largely drawn its inspiration. 2. The Egyptian Group. From this all too hasty survey of this most ancient people we must turn to another, akin to it, which has played an important, yes, the most important part in the culture-history of our species. I refer to the an- cient Egyptians. They belonged to the Hamitic stock, but wandering eastward from its primal seats cer- tainly more than ten thousand years before our era, had possessed themselves of the Nile valley from the mouth of the stream quite up to and beyond the first Cataract. Their kinship to the Libyans is proved by numer- ous linguistic identities between the ancient Coptic and the Libyan dialects, and by their physical appear- ance. In color they are yellowish-white, passing to a reddish-brown though the women who are not ex- posed to the sun would pass in Europe as merely dark brunettes. In the bony structure, the skull, the face, and the proportions, they assimilate entirely with I 28 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. the white race and the Libyan type. This has been shown by the researches of Virchow and others.” The ancient Egyptian is represented to-day by the modern Fellah or field-laborer of the Nile. The type has been very well preserved, for though the riches of this wonderful valley have attracted myriads of foreigners in peace and war from the earliest times, all have suffered greatly in longevity and fertility com- pared to the native population. This type is of medium stature, the limbs and body symmetrical and delicately moulded ; the skull is long, the face Oval, the hair dark and straight, or slightly curly; the eyes are brown and small, the nose straight, the lips rather full, the mouth small, the chin not prominent, the beard scanty. In all respects, in the pure Copt we must recognize a delicate, thorough-bred member of the Eurafrican race, in spite of his reddish-brown hue. These traits are to be explained by the narrow limits of the Nile valley, shut in by trackless deserts from the rest of the world. Here for thousands of years lived this stock, closely intermarrying, and under climatic con- ditions of singular uniformity. Whether they were the first inhabitants of the val– ley has not been ascertained. Certain it is that at a * Virchow, after close studies in Egypt, expressed himself very positively that the affinities of the old Egyptian stock were “with the Hamites, with the Berbers and Kabyles, the peoples who from the remotest times have inhabited the regions of the Atlas.” See his address in the Correspondenz Blatt der deutschen Celel/schaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschächte, 1888, p. 1 Io. THE STONE AGE IN EGYPT. I29 period long before the date we usually assign to Egyp- tian civilization, a people dwelt on the Nile ignorant of any implements but those of rough stone. Their relics have been found in the stratified gravels of the hills, and on the summits of the arid plateaus.* I know no reason, however, to suppose that the tribes of the Egyptian stone age were other than the ancestors of those who were brought under the control of the founder of the first dynasty, the historic king Mena. This was about 40OO B. C. But previous to him the ancient Egyptian priests claimed some 25,OOO years of occupation under various gods and demi-gods; and the general accuracy of their claim I am not prepared to dispute.f Certainly the culture of lower Egypt must have been at a high level for thousands of years before the date of Mena, or he could never have estab- lished the state which we know he did. From all that archaeology has yet taught us, we must place the be- ginnings of Egyptian civilization earlier than that in the valley of the Yang tse Kiang, earlier by far than * On the stone age in Egypt, see General Pitt-Rivers, in Journa/ of the Anthropological /nstitute, 1881, p. 387, sq.; and especially the exhaustive article by Dr. Virchow in Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell., 1888, p. 345, sq. As early as 1881 Prof. Henry W. Haynes of Boston announced his discovery of palaeolithic stone im- plements in Upper Egypt. (Mems. of the Amer. Acad, of Arts and Sciences, Vol. X., p. 357.) The latest contributions to the subject is by W. Reiss, Funde aus der Steinzeit Aegyptens (Berlin, 1890). f M. G. de Lapouge goes quite as far. He writes (A’evue d’ Azz- thropologie, 1887, p. 308), “L’ Egypte s'est civilisée pendant notre quaternaire, et son plus grand developpement a coincide avec notre epoque néolithique.” I 30 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. \ \ \\ Ny\ any other on the globe. Its streams have permeated all the lands to which the Eurafrican race have ex- tended ; fecund as the waters of its own Nile, its ele- ments have nourished and developed the best intel- lectual powers of the race through all subsequent ages; to it we owe the seeds of our arts, the germs of our sciences, the forms of our religion, the schemes of our literatures, and the inestimable boon of our written language. Look where you will among the most an- cient remains of the Old World culture, you find the impress of Egypt's 1..and and mind—in Etruscan tombs, in Guanche mummy caves, in treasure houses of Mycenae, in Cypriote vaults, in Assyrian Inounds, under Carthagenian foundations.” The species Man owes nowhere else such gratitude as to these African nations of the Eurafrican race. - The Egyptian presents the best known and com- plete type of the psychical traits of the Hamitic stock. Unideal, laborious, utilitarian, he was devoted to mate- rial progress and the gross animal enjoyments of life. His preferred employment was agriculture, his favor- ite art the huge in architecture, his religion was a polytheism with numberless images and pictures, his pleasures were those of the appetite, his hopes of im- mortality were bound up with the preservation of the present body. * “Jusqu' a cette heure,” writes A. L. Delattre, in the Bulletin des Antiquités Africaines, 1885, p. 242, “les pieces archéologiques de notre collection de Carthage, qui remontent incontestablement à la période primitive de l’histoire de cette ville fameuse, ont toutes le cachet egyptien prononcé.” THE MIXED HAMITIC PEOPLES. I31 3. 3. The East African Group. The singular uniformity of the Egyptian type does not allow us to divide it into several branches, and on account of its segregated position, it does not seem to have had much intercourse with the east African group of the Hamitic stock, living to the south of it. At present this east African group of the Hamites includes the Bedjas and Bilins between the Nile and the Red Sea, the Afars or Danakils near the mouth of the Red Sea, Gallas and Somalis between the gulf of Aden and the Indian ocean, and the adjacent tribes of the Agaouas, Adals, Khamirs, and others. In ap- pearance these peoples are usually reddish brown in color, with dark wavy hair, of moderate stature and symmetrical form, the face oval and the skull moder- ately long, the nose aquiline and the chin well shaped, and heavier built than the Egyptians. Their life is principally nomadic, living in tents of skin, and governed by chiefs who rule over small communities. The descent is reckoned and property passes on the female side. Some are Mahommedans, but hold the faith lightly, and like the Kabyles, attach more mportance to the customs of their clan than to the precepts of the Prophet. In many parts they betray admixture with the Negro tribes to whom they are neighbors, and from whom they have always ob- tained slaves. Thus the Danakils are described as sooty black, with scanty beards, thin calves, and thick lips, but with features and hair in other respects quite European, I32 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. their faces rarely prognathic, and their bodies symmet- rical.” The Somalis are lighter in color, but like the Danakils, do not cultivate the soil nor establish fixed abodes. II. THE SEMITIC STOCK. Owing to the unreasoning acceptance of myths as history, it is generally believed that the Semites origi- nated in Asia. From what I have already said, you will appreciate that such an opinion is quite inconsist- ent with modern research. We may, at the most, con- cede that the peculiar form of their language and cer- tain physical traits were developed during their long residence in the peninsula of Arabia, where history first finds them. But that they entered Arabia in re- mote pre-historic times from Africa, and not from Asia, is now acknowledged by an increasing number of learned and unprejudiced writers.; There is a difference of opinion whether this immi- gration was by the way of the Isthmus of Suez or the Straits of Bab el Mandeb, but the course of their wan- derings in Arabia seems to have been from north to * Dr. L. Faurot, in Revue d’ Fthnographie, 1887, p. 57. f See my essay on this subject, 7%e Cradle of the Semites (Phila- delphia, 1890); also the able paper of G. Bertin, “On the Origin of the Semites,” in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 1882, p. 423, sq., and the speculations of R. G. Haliburton, in Proceedings of the British Assoc. for the Adv. of Science, 1887, p. 907. An excellent summary of the argument that the Semites came from Africa will be found in Gifford Palgrave's article on Arabia in the AEncyclopedia Britazzzzica. . HIMYARITIC CULTURE. I33 south, the Ethiopian Semites being distinctly emi- grants from the other side of the Red Sea. Hence the probability is that the ancestors of the ancient Arabians wandered from the Libyan plateau, or the eastern Atlas, through the Delta into the region of the Sinaitic mountains, whence they spread south and east, forming several distinct groups.” I. The Arabian Group. The first of these included the Arabians proper. At a very early period they became divided into a north- ern and southern portion, the former represented by the Ishmaelites and Bedawins, the latter by the an- cient Himyarites, Sabeans and Nabotheans, and the modern Ehkili and kindred clans. The Himyaritic nations had important cities, and possessed a written literature at least 700 B. C., and probably much earlier. The Queen of Sheba, who paid a memorable visit to King Solomon, came from one of these cities, and her journey is strong testimony to the admiration for learning which prevailed in her land, and which she so evidently fostered. At that time, and for centuries afterwards, there were few parts of the world more favored than the * The important Berber folk of the Mzabites in Southern Algiers are said strongly to resemble Semites, presenting “a reunion of the secondary characteristics of the Jews and Arabs.” Revue d'Anthro- fologie, 1886, p. 353. f The late investigations of E. Glaser in Southern Arabia have brought many hundreds of these inscriptions to our knowledge. I34. THE EURAFRICAN RACE. southern portions of the peninsula. It was known as “Arabia felix,” Araby the Blest, and was famed for its abundant products, its spices and perfumes, and the wealth and luxury of its inhabitants. Some change of climate apparently, and the inroads of the Ishmael- itic hordes, quite destroyed this happy condition about the fifth century, A. D. The Himyaritic language disappeared, the cities were laid waste, many of the people migrated to Africa or sank into despised out- casts, as the present Ehkili of the Hadramaut. In this manner the whole of the great peninsula fell un- der the control of the true Arab. It is he who preserves in his language the oldest and purest form of Semitic speech, and in mind and body its most pronounced mental and physical type. He is rather tall (I.65), his face oval, the nose straight or aquiline, the features sometimes singularly noble and prepossessing, the skull long (index 73°--75°), the complexion ruddy rather than brown, when due al- lowance is made for the tan, and the hair slightly wavy or straight. Crisp hair is looked upon with disap- proval, as indicating mixed and ignoble blood.” In tem- perament the Arab is abstemious, and his powers of physical endurance are phenomenal. His mental tem- perament is that of an idealist; he has added nothing to the grand creations of plastic art, nothing to inven- tions of utility in life, nothing to the marvels of archi- * Doughty, Zºrave/s in Arabia Deserta, Vol. I., p. 102. About five per cent. of the Arabs of the Peninsula of Sinai are pure blondes. See Revue d’ Anthropologie, 1886, p. 351. s} SEMITIC INFLUENCE. I35 tecture or the beauties that appeal to the senses; he cares neither for history nor the drama. In his dreams ne conquers the world, and it falls at his feet; in fact, his greatest states have been ephemeral bubbles. Yet his dreams have been realized. The Semite has conquered the world, and it is at his feet. Twice have arisen among his people majestic forms, before whom all civilized nations bow, Jesus and Mahomet. The religious idealism which led the Semite in the days of Moses to reject the images of stone and wood and proclaim that God is one, overawed in its later expressions the whole of the white race, and now ex- tends its sway to the farthest seas. Though the Aryan to-day may dislike the Semite and doubt of the God whom he preached, let him not forget that the first vivid impression of such a great idea came from the Semitic stock. If in his marts, his diplomacy and his learned professions, he finds the Semites still pressing him aside, let him remember that this is the people whose destiny seems to be to own no country, but to rule all. 2. The Abyssinian Group Of tribes is evidently descended from fugitives from the Arabian peninsula. The Ethiopians, or Geez (a word meaning emigrants), speak a dialect the near- est related to the Himyaritic of the inscriptions. It has a literature and an ancient alphabet of its own. The Tigre, the Massawa, the Amhara, and, further to the South, the Harrari, are Semitic dialects, more or less akin to the Ethiopic. I36 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. The period when this migration took place is not precisely known, but it was at a calculable period be- fore the beginning of our era. Quite likely it was about the time of the dissolution of the Joktanide monarchy in the Hadramaut. There can be no ques- tion but that the course of migration at this point was from Arabia into Africa. The Tigre is the predominant nation of North Abyssinia, the Amhara in the south of that region. The Harrari extends into the land of the Somalis. All these are of Himyaritic descent, but near them are a number of later Arab tribes who speak dialects of the modern Arabic. These are the Jalin about Khartoum, and others near Senaar and Baqqara, west of the Nile. There are also many Jews, who have inhabited the country from the early centuries of our €1°31. An infusion of negro blood is visible in much of the population. Their color is dark brown, the hair is crisp, and the features are negroid. Where this mingling is absent, the color is a light or bright brown, the face oval, the nose thin, lips not at all thick, and the hair wavy and straight. In other words, the features are truly European, framed in a brown setting. The Abyssinians proper have always been an agri- cultural, pastoral and manufacturing people. The soil is fertile and the climate temperate, but there are no large rivers, and communication is difficult. The crops are barley, dates, millet, Sugar-cane, etc. : ABYSSINIAN CHRISTIANITY. I37 Formerly the country was under one ruler, who was called the Grand Negus. The late “Negus,” Theo- doras, could put in the field over fifty thousand fight- ing men, and made himself so obnoxious to Europeans that the English sent an expedition against him in 1868, and he perished under the ruins of his capital, Magdala. - From the fourth century the principal religion in Abyssinia has been Christianity, but in a corrupt form, mixed with the ancient heathen observances, such as ceremonies at the rise of certain stars, and veneration of holy stones and springs. The clergy are numer- Otis, estimated at about 72,OOO, and exert a leading influence in the state. There are many monks and nuns living in cloisters, and possessing extensive holdings. The church service is conducted with an effort at pomp, and there is a considerable sacred literature, of very little value. The influence of the religious teaching on the people is scarcely visible except in making them fanatical, superstitious and averse to enlightenment. Abyssinia thus presents the picture of a country which for more than 1500 years has been a Christian state, and where Christianity has wholly failed to render the people moral, intelligent or pure. 3. The Chaldean Group. The third group of the Semites was the Chaldean, including the Syrians and Arameans, the later As- Syrians and Babylonians, the Israelites, Samaritans I38 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. and Jews. All these were from early times deeply tinged with other blood. The Syrians and Chaldeans removed first from the Arabian peninsula, and their dialects depart the furthest from the pure stock. Abraham, the traditional ancestor of the Israelites, left northeastern Arabia for Mesopotamia about 2000 B. C., to dwell in “Ur of the Chaldees,” a city near the mouth of the Euphrates. Already the Chaldees had secured from the older Hamitic settlers a portion of Mesopotamia, and gradually extended their con- quests. Many of the Syrians united with the Hamitic resi- dents on the coast, so that the Phoenicians became largely Semitized. All these nations were in constant intercourse with the highly developed civilization of Egypt, as is shown by the Mosaic books, and from that source derived most of the germs of their intellectual growth. In spite of their love of travel and commerce, in spite of their dispersion over the earth, this group has retained a striking individuality. Many ethnog- raphers charge it against the Jews that the presence ſ of blondes among them, and of brachycephalic heads, proves a crossing of the blood. This is not the case. . The Semitic stock is a markedly white type of the ºrk- As race, and in all ages fair complexion, light eyes and g hair, have been admired as especially beautiful. This 2. # is repeatedly referred to in the Hebrew Scriptures, and ſº is shown by observation among these people at the º & 2 7 ..e.” ſ ae y present day.* * The statistics in Central Europe show that among the Jews THE MODERN JEW. I39 The physical type of the Jew is well known and unmistakable; wavy hair, dark or blonde, full beard, eyes soft, nose prominent, rather heavy, with an accen- tuated and peculiar outline, lips full, face Oval, skull medium or long. Nor are his mental traits less fa- miliar; a pliant, supple disposition, a distaste for phys- ical labor or the toil of the goº. or soldier; defi- (1. ciency in personal courage; Subtlety in monetary A- transactions; quickness in applying social or individ- ual weaknesses to his own benefit; industry in intellec- tual pursuits; love of display and of position; strong devotion to family ties. This is the Jew as we know him in the tussle of modern life, a character prominent in all European and American cities, without a nationality, in conflict with the prevailing religion, suspected and disliked, but wielding an influence out of all proportion to the numerical strength of his people. It may be regarded as continuing in his person that remarkable intellectual superiority which the South Mediterranean Branch of the white race has from the earliest time exerted on the history of man. there, about I 5 per cent. are true blondes, 25 per cent. brunettes, and the remainder intermediate. The blondes are generally dolicho- cephalic, the brunettes brachycephalic or medium, See Dr. Fligier, “Zur ſº der Semiten,” in Mitthiel. der Wiener Anthrop. Gesel/gºd, IX, S. I 55, sq. & v., cº-º-º- ~e ºf a 27. | Scheme of the Eurafrican Race.—AVorth Mediterranean Branch. I. Euscaric Stock. I. k H Stock. . Italic group. } . Slavonic . Indo-Eranic (Tribes in ita/ics are extinct.) Euscaldonac, Basques, Sard's, Siculi, Aguitanians, AEicts (?), Euscaric group. } Ziguriants (?), Cantabrians. Gauſs, Highland Scotch, Irish, Welsh, Manx, Bretons, Ce/. Celtic group. i tiberians, Cymri, Zatins, Umbrians, Oscans, Sabines, Italians, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Roumanians, Wallachians. 3. Illyric group. . //lyrians, Albanians, 7%racians, /a/yges (?). 4. Hellenic group. . Pelasgi, Aºygiants, Zydiazes, A/acedonians, Greeks. II. Aryac Stock. 5. 6 . Teutonic Lettic group. . Letts, Lithuanians, O/d Prussians. Goths, Vazzdals, A'razz/ºs, Angles, Saxons, Suezzi, Scandina- group. } vians, Germans, Danes, Dutch, English, Anglo-Americans. | Russians, Poles, Czechs, Servians, Croatians, Wends, Bul- group. \ garians, Montenegrins. }* Persians, Bačárians, Hindoos, Kafirs, Dards, group. Beluchis, Hunzas, Gypsies. . Lesghic group. . Avars, Laks, Udes, Kurins. III. Caucasic 2. 3. Kistic group. . Tush, Karaboulaks. l4. Circassic group. . Circassians, Abkhasians. Georgic group. . Georgians, Mingrelians, Lazs. 5 LECTURE V. THE EURAFRICAN RACE : NORTH MEDITERRANEAN BRANCIH. CONTENTS.—B.—THE NORTH MEDITERRANEAN BRANCH. I. THE EUSKARIC STOCK. Basques and their congeners. Physical type. Language. II. THE ARYAC STOCK. Synonyms. Origin of the Aryans. Sup- posed Asiatic origin now doubted. The Aryac physical type. The proto-Aryac language. Culture of proto-Aryans. The “prot- Aryo-Semitic” tongue. Development of inflections. Proto-Aryac migrations. Southern and northern streams. Approximate dates. Scheme of Aryac migrations. Divisions. 1. The Celtic Peoples. Members and location. Physical and mental traits. 2. The Italic Peoples. Ancient and modern members. Physical traits. The modern Romance nations. Mental traits. 3. The Illyric Peoples. Members and physical traits. 4. The Hellenic Peoples. Ancient and modern Greeks. Physical type. Influence of Greek culture. 5. Lettic Peoples. Position and language. 6. The Teutonic Peoples. Ancient and modern members. Mental character. Recent progress. 7. The Slavonic Peoples. Ancient and modern Members. Physical traits. Recent expansion, Character. Rela- tions to Asiatic Aryans. 8. The Indo-Eranic Peoples. Arrival in Asia. Location. Members. Indian Aryans. Appearance. Mental aptitude. III. THE CAUCASIC STOCK. Its languages. Various groups and members. Physical types. Error of supposing that the white race came from the Caucasus. IN my previous lectures I have shown with as much detail as my time permits, that the original home of the white race was in that portion of the Atlantic (I4I) I42 THE EURATRICAN RACE. seaboard which I have called Eurafrica, and which includes the present areas of northwestern Africa and southwestern Europe. From this region, I have pointed out, the race divided into two branches, the one moving eastward, South of the Mediterranean sea, the other in the same direction, north of this separating stream. To-day we shall consider the ethnic history of the latter. B. THE NORTH MEDITERRANEAN BRANCH. Unlike the South Mediterranean Branch, whose languages present everywhere some degree of resem- blance, sufficient to predicate for them a remote com- mon Origin, the North Mediterranean Branch includes several stocks fundamentally diverse. They are the Euskaric, the Aryac, and the Caucasic stocks. The second of these is by far the most extended and important; but, as I have previously observed, it does not bear the impress of the highest antiquity, nor yet is its location that where we should look for the most ancient members of this branch. Both these conditions are fulfilled by I. The Euskaric Stock. At present this contains but One group, the Basques, residing in the valleys of the Pyrenees, on both the Spanish and French frontiers. There is little doubt from the linguistic studies of Humboldt and from the researches of archaeologists that the Basques once ex- tended widely throughout the present area of Spain TRAITS OF THE BASQUES. I43 and Portugal; but I am not inclined to identify them with the Iberians of the classical geographers, for rea- sons given in my last lecture. There is a great deal of evidence that in proto-historic times they occupied central and southern France, portions of Italy, Cor- sica, Sardinia, perhaps Sicily, and some southern tracts of England. Many believe that the ancient Aquitan- ians and Ligurians, the Picts and Cantabrians, were of this stock, as well as the pre-Aryac tribes of Greece.* I described in my last lecture the Basques as repre- sentatives of one of the dark types of the white race, with a peculiarly shaped skull, elongated posteriorly.'ſ The face is oval, the chin pointed and weak. The general aspect indeed of a Basque cranium conveys the impression of a feeble character, and such the history of the people shows them to have been. They never contributed anything to the advance of the race, and from their earliest appearance in history have been retiring before the pressure of sturdier nation- alities. At present they do not number over three hundred thousand, and in a few generations will be merged in the neighboring Spaniards and French. The Basque language belongs to one of those * Compare Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, p. 98, and Paul Broca, Sur / Origine et la Repartition de la Zangue Basque, Paris (1875). Broca recognized the autochthony of the Basque in Spain, and con- sidered their language the oldest in Europe. t Called by the French craniologists téte de Zięvre. IXe Quatrefages identified certain skulls from kitchen-middens in Portugal as of this form, indicating that the Euskaric peoples once extended that far west. Hist, Gen. des Äaces Humaines, p. 478. I44. THE EURAFRICAN RACE. primitive forms of human speech such as we find among the Negroes of Central Africa, or the savage tribes of Siberia. It is of that type called agglutina- tive and polysynthetic, and in some points has the in- corporative tendency of American tongues. It is the speech of a people whose ideas remained confined to objective material relations. According to the latest students, it is absolutely without connection with any of the so-called Turanian (Ural-Altaic) languages, and is equally remote from the Hamitic group.” I now turn to 2. The Aryac Stock of peoples and languages. It is sometimes called the “Indo-European,” or “ Indo-Germanic,” or “Celt- Indic "f stock, and embraces the principal historic nations of Europe, and in Asia the Armenians, Per- sians and Hindostanees. Origin of the Aryans.—No ethnographic question of late years has led to keener discussion than the origin and affinities of these peoples. The theory derived from the Hebrew myth of the Deluge; that they migrated into Europe from Asia, was long ac- * See on this point the detailed comparisons in Heinrich Winkler's Oral-altaische Völker und Sprachen, ss, 155–167, and elsewhere. The attempted identifications of Basques and Berbers by Dr. Tubino (Los Aborigines Zöericos, Madrid, 1876) is therefore a failure. f I should prefer the term “Celtindic’ to either of the others. “Aryan,” or Aryac, suggested by Prof. Max Müller from a Sanscrit root, signifies “noble,” “superior.” It is open to several objections, but I have adopted it on account of its popularity. BIRTHPLACE OF ARYANS. I45 cepted without question, and seemed to be strength- ened by the discovery that Sanscrit, the classical lan- guage of India, and Zend, the ancient tongue of Per- sia, are related to Greek, Latin and German. But reflection and extended observation led to other results. It was perceived that the majority of the Aryac peoples had lived in Europe from the remotest historic times, and only a small minority in Asia; that some of the Aryac tongues of Europe retain more ancient forms than either Sanscrit or Zend ; that the oldest traditions point to migrations from Europe into Asia, and not the reverse; that these traditions are supported by the Indian Aryans, who distinctly claim that their ancestors migrated from the north into India, and by the Persians, whose sacred book, the Avesta, declares they were not the original owners of Iran, and finally by an examination of the arts of the pre-historic Europeans,” and an exhaustive analysis of the words common to all the dialects of Aryac speech, which indicate that the ancestral tribe must have lived in geographic surroundings not to be found in the Aryac districts of Asia, but answering in all points to the regions of central or western Europe. I constantly see it stated in works on ethnology and linguistics that the scientist who first advanced * The European bronze age, for instance, was not introduced by the Indo-Aryac peoples, as their early art-forms in bronze are quite distinct, and their alloy different, the Asian bronze being a zinc, the European a tin alloy. See on this R. Virchow in the Correspondenz- Alatt der deutchen Gesel/. fir Anthropolºgie, 1889, S. 94. IO I46 TFIE EURAFRICAN RACE. this opinion was the Englishman, Dr. Robert G. Latham. Nothing is more erroneous. For a score of years before he introduced it to the English public, this view had been repeatedly and ably defended by the eminent Belgian naturalist, d'Omalius d’Halloy. He lost no opportunity of showing that the ancestors of the modern Europeans did not come from Asia, but belonged originally to the continent they now in- Thabit.* Since his first promulgation of this theory in 1839, the evidence in its favor has been slowly but steadily accumulating, until now it numbers among its adher- ents practically all the ethnologists of the day who do not feel committed by their previous writings, or by their creeds, to the Asian hypothesis. Among the English writers who have recently treated the subject with marked ability and much more fullness than is possible for me at present, I mention Canon Isaac * See d’ Halloy's articles in the Bulletins de l'Academie Royale de Belgique, beginning with Vol. VI (1839); especially in 1848 his “Ob- servations sur la Distribution ancienne des peuples de la race blanche.” Dr. Iatham first stated this view in an Appendix, dated 1859, to an article on “The original extent of the Slavonic area.” See his Opuscula, pp. 127–28 (London, 1860). I observe that Dr. John Beddoe, in his last address before the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain this year, 1890, repeats the statement : “The first anthropologist of note who took up the notion of the European origin of the Aryans was Dr. Robert Latham ” (/our. Anthroſ. Inst., 1890, p. 491). On the contrary, d'Halloy, in the “Observations”. above quoted (p. 9), urges that the “Indo-Germanic” languages point to a kinship of those who speak them, and that they always have been in Europe, and did not come from Asia. g i THE ARYAC TYPE. I47 Taylor and Professor A. W. Sayce; in Germany, O. Schrader, Karl Penka, Theodor Pösche, L. Geiger, and in France, M. de Lapouge, etc. I shall not enter into a recital of these arguments, for I believe the debate is so nearly terminated that the conclusion may be accepted that the Aryac peo- ples originated in Western Europe and migrated east- erly. This you will observe is in accord with the gen- eral theory of the origin and distribution of the white race which I laid before you, and is a potent argu- ment in its support. The Aryac Physical Type.—When we endeavor to fix more precisely the home of that tribe which was the lineal Aryac progenitor, several considerations must be carefully weighed. The physical types of the Aryac people differ markedly, as I stated in my last lecture, and some writers (Penka, Lapouge, etc.) have claimed that the Teutonic, the tall blonde type, is peculiar to the Aryans, and must have been the orig- inal character. But it is found with just as great pur- ity among the Libyans of Africa, so that the assump- tion is vain. It is an undeniable fact that at the earliest period, both in Europe and Asia, the majority of Aryan- speaking peoples were brunettes, and it is also a fact that in the population of Europe to-day there is a tendency to revert to that type. When a blonde and a brunette intermarry, ten per cent. more children will take after the brunette.* There is a probability, there- * A. De Candolle, A’evue d’ Anthropologie, 1887, p. 265, sq. This I48 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. fore, that the original Aryac tribe was a mixture of blondes and brunettes, with a majority of the latter, and also that the form of its skulls was variable, some long, some broad.* / ºf: 2k.tcº....… ººk haraº" This would indicate a mixed descent, and such, no doubt, it owned. It is absurd to suppose the contrary. (…, The type of the proto-Aryac language is one which Originates not early, but late in the history of human speech. The process of grammatical inflection is the < highest stage of linguistic evolution. It is the result * of a slow growth, in which the material elements of language are transformed into formal elements, and the “grammatical categories,” or parts of speech, gradu- ally assume logical distinctness and independent ex- pression. We can watch this growth in its imperfect form in the Nahuatl of Mexico and the Berber of Mo- rocco; and when we see it completed, as in the Arabic or Latin, we may be sure it is a comparatively late fruit of the human intellect. The expressions common to all Aryac languages reveal a primitive Social condi- tion to correspond with this. It was above that of savagery. These common ancestors had domesticated dogs, cattle, and perhaps sheep; nomadic at times, they at some seasons tilled the soil; they were ac- - º:2' is ingeniously explained on the mechanical theory of mixing colors by d' Halloy. Obs, sur la Z)istrib. de la Race Blanche, p. 11. (Brux- elles, 1848.) Compare also R, Virchow, Die Verbreitung des blondem zezid des bruzzettezz 7%us in Miffel.euroſa, who attributes the increase § of brunette's to a reversion to “Celtic or pre-Celtic ancestry.” * This opinion has also been defended by Fligier, Zur praehistor- ischen Ethnºlogie /talients, p. 55. OLDEST ARY AC DIALECTS. I49 quainted with copper, and brewed mead from honey; they had probably even invented a wagon, and milked their cows, and they certainly lived on or near the sea- shore, and used boats. The conclusion is that the original inflected Aryac tongue arose from the coalescing of two or more un- inflected agglutinative or semi-incorporative tongues, the mingling of the speeches being accompanied, as always, by a mingling of blood and of physical traits. This explains the fact that has puzzled so many eth- nologists, that there is no fixed Aryac type. Where should we look for this intermingling to have taken place? From the arguments already advanced you would naturally say, somewhere on the western coast of Europe. This is supported by an unexpected piece of evi- dence of a strong character. The system of conso- nants is undoubtedly the most persistent part of a lan- guage, and there is no question but that the Celtic and Lithuanian, of all the Aryac tongues, have kept most closely to the primitive system of consonants once com- mon to them all.” The Lithuanian is spoken by a limited community on the coast of the Baltic sea, while the Celtic, in proto-historic times, occupied the whole of Great Britain and northern Belgium, France and Spain. In the two latter areas it was from imme- morial time in close connection with the Euskaric (Basque), and perhaps the Libyan (Berber) groups, and it is possible that in comparatively late (neolithic) * Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, p. 259. I5O THE EURAFRICAN RACE. times the Aryac with its inflections might have been developed from these partly agglutinative languages. This suggestion is not so hazardous as it may seem. William von Humboldt, one of the ablest linguists of this century, suggested that the Basques and the Celts, the Ligurians and the Gauls, in spite of the contrasted structure of their languages, may have sprung from the same ethnic trunk, and derived their languages from a common source.* Other scholars of eminence, such as Delitzsch, As- coli, Raumer, Schultze and Abel, have pointed out numerous affinities between the Hamito-Semitic, Liby- an, Old Coptic and Assyrian tongues, and the oldest Aryac forms, and have argued for the existence of a fundamental “proto-Ayro-Semitic” speech which ex- isted before the separation of the white race into its northern and southern branches. There is evidence that this very ancient tongue was of the “isolating ” character, with a tendency to agglutination by suffixes. It is now recognized that inflection did not exist in the primitive Aryac dialects, but was gradually devel- oped by means of such suffixes added to the stem, by different processes in the different dialects, many of ---—-s-s * See his remarkable essay, published in 1821, entitled Pruſung der Unſersuch uſageſ, iiffer die {/rbezvo/izzer Aſispatients zermitt/esſ der Pas/ischen Sfrache, § 47. f In his latest work, Dr. Abel avers that the old Egyptian and Indo-European stocks have as many radicals in common as the idioms of the latter have among themselves. Agyptisch-Auropaeische Sprachzerwandtschaft, S. 58 (Leipzig, 1890). EARLY ARYAC ROVINGS. I5I which are in activity to-day.” These inflective pro- ceses bear closer resemblance to the Libyan, which has suffixes, and the old Egyptian, than to pure Semi- tic tongues, which leads to the suggestion, again, that the separation of the race was in the west rather than the east. Proto-Aryac Migrations.—Leaving these specula- tions as to the origin of the Aryac stock, let us sketch its probable migrations, as indicated by linguistic re- search. It appears to have divided early into two main streams, the one occupying central and southern Europe, the other moving eastward on a northerly route, the two meeting as they neared the Bosphorus. The central stream was of Celtic affinities. Its tribes having possessed themselves of the coast line from Cape Finisterre to the mouth of the Rhine and the islands of Great Britain, passed up the valleys of the Rhine and its affluents into southern Germany, the valleys of Switzerland and the Tyrol, quite to the Danube. Its easternmost tribes were probably the Dacians. - The Aryac Italic peoples, the Umbrians, the Oscans, the Latins, were the first offshoot of this southern mi- gration; not that they were directly descended from the Celts, but that they sprang from the same division of the primitive Aryac stock. This is still so clear that I remember Matthew Arnold in his lectures on * See Karl Brugman, Comparafive Grammar of the Zndo-Germanic Languages, Vol. I., pp. I 3, 14; Wharton, Æðma Začina, Introduc- tion. I52 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. poetry quotes sentences from ancient Irish which are also intelligible Latin. A second offshoot was the Illyrians, who peopled the northern and eastern shores of the Adriatic, the ancestors of the modern Albanians. A third was the Hellenic people, organized later than the Latins, and imbued with elements quite for- eign to these. The northern stream was the Letto-Slavic, whose primitive home was on the shores of the German Ocean north of the mouth of the Rhine, and in the region which extends thence to the Gulf of Finland. Its members presented the physical traits of the Libyo- Teutonic type, contrasting in this to the traits of the central and southern stream, who were of the dark type of the race. The Cymric type seems to have been a mingling of the two, and was found at or near the boundaries between them. At a comparatively late period—certainly after the beginning of the bronze age, as we know from their languages—the Teutonic tribes separated from the Letto-Slavs, and moved into Central and South Ger- many, where they remained. Numerous Salvonic hordes, however, pushed eastward, some passing to the north of the Black and Caspian Seas, where they formed the ancient Sarmatians, others approaching the Hellespont, where they mingled with Celtic and other elements to make the Thracian and other peo- ples. - Passing into Asia across the Hellespont and Bos- ARYAC WANDERINGS. - I53 phorus, or along the coast in their vessels, or pursuing the shores of the Caspian, numerous Aryac colonies from the vanguard of the eastern emigrants wandered into Asia. The Indo-Eranians that is, the ancient Persians and Sanscrit speaking tribes, entered first and progressed farthest, settling in Iran, and Occupying the land between the Caspian Sea and the Indian Ocean. Later came the Phrygians and Armenians, who had formerly lived in Thrace, crossing the Bosphorus and establishing themselves in Asia Minor. The dates of these occurrences can be fixed only ap- proximately. The Armenian migration was later than 7OO B. C., as previous to that date the Valas, a people of non-Aryac speech, occupied the region later known as Armenia. The Brahmans crossed the Hindu- Kusch into India, about 1500--2Ooo B. C., and the Per- sians possessed themselves of Iran at least a thousand years earlier. Scheme of Aryac Migration. Auropean. Asian. º ſ Letto-Lithuanians. Northern | Teutons. Peoples { | Phrygians. * * * > (Blondes). | Slavonians. Cappadociazis. Primitive | e e | 7% racians. Armenians. Ayans. AJacians. A/edes. (Western Hellenes. Iranians. Europe.) Southern J Indi ndians. Peoples. ~~ B J//yrians. (Brunettes). Italians. ! Celts. (The names in italics are of extinct peoples.) I54 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. We must not suppose that the languages of these peoples developed one out of the other. That is not the way languages grow. It was by contact in vari- ous centres with various dialects and wholly different linguistic stocks that the speech of these nomads was altered. They did not journey always in one direc- tion, but to and fro, now rapidly advancing, now re- treating, now long stationary, ever through war, com- merce and marriage adding new elements to their speech, each tribe developing its dialect with independ- ent material and on different grammatical principles. We are now prepared to study the historic and modern representatives of this important stock. - I. The Celtic Peoples. The Celtic peoples of the present day form a decay- ing group, which in a few generations will wholly dis- appear. Two thousand years ago they were the most important Aryac stock in central and western Europe. Their sole representatives now are the Highland Scotch, the Irish, the Manx, the Welsh, and the na- tives of Brittany in France. In all these localities the Celtic speech is losing ground before English or French. In Ireland about 900,000 persons can speak Irish, but not more than 150,000 are ignorant of Eng- lish. These Celtic groups form two dialects, one spoken in Scotland, Ireland and the Isle of Man, known as Gaelic, the other common to Wäles, Brittany, and in the last century to Cornwall, called Armorican or CELTIC TRAITS. I55 Cymric. The Irish possessed a sparse literature go- ing back to the eighth century, and the Welsh to the twelfth, while the oldest Scotch or Breton songs date at the furthest from the fourteenth century, in spite of assertions to the contrary. To this day the Celtic peoples present the same con- trast of physical type that they did to the Romans. Some of the Scotch clans, many of the Irish, most of the Welsh and Bretons, are of moderate stature, dark eyes and hair, and brunette complexion, while the re- mainder are tall, raw-boned, red-haired, with florid, freckled skins and tawny beards. Their mental traits are quite as conspicuous; tur- bulent, boastful, alert, courageous, but deficient in caution, persistence and self-control, they never have streceeded in forming an independent state, and are a dangerous element in the body politic of a free coun- try. In religion they are fanatic and bigoted, ready to swear in the words of their master, rather than to exercise independent judgment. France is three-fifths of Celtic descent, and this explains much in its history and the character of its inhabitants. 2. The Italic Peoples. The principal Aryac tribes who possessed them- selves of the Italian peninsula were the Umbrians in the north, and the Samnites (or Oscans) and Latins in the south. They conquered in time the Etruscans, Ligurians, Volscians and others of non-Aryac lineage, and laid the foundation for the mighty Aryac Empire I56 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. of Rome, destined to command the world, and to in- troduce the Latin tongue as the dominant speech of Southern Europe. From the Latin speaking Roman colonies have sprung the Romance languages of modern times and the existing “Latin peoples.” These include the modern Italian, the French, the Spanish, the Portu- guese, the Roumanian, the Wallachian, and the Lad- inish in Switzerland, besides a number of dialects. Through the conquests of the European Romance na- tions, their tongues have gained the ascendency over the whole continent of America south of the United States, over a large part of Canada and North Africa, and over many islands. To-day, the speech of impe- rial Rome, more or less modified, prevails over an area five times as great as that of the empire in the zenith of its glory. Like the language, the physical type of the ancient Italic peoples indicated their near relationship to the dark Celts. The Latin and Umbrian skulls were short or rounded (brachycephalic), the stature medium, the hair dark and curly, the eyes brown or black, the nose aquiline, the complexion brunette. In later genera- tions this type was modified by mixture with the blonde or long-skulled Etruscans, and the numerous foreigners who came to live in Rome; but to this day it is that which prevails throughout the peninsula. None of the Romance nations can boast of much purity of descent. After the fall of the Western Em- pire (476 A. D.), hordes of Germans poured into TRAITs OF THE LATIN NATIONS. I57 Italy; they also overran France and Spain, while Arabs and Berbers occupied for generations nearly the whole of the Iberian peninsula, the island of Sicily, and portions of France. The Roumanians are partly Slavonic, and the Portuguese have Celtic and Basque blood. * In spite of these admixtures, the Romance peoples have retained many of the mental features of the old Romans. In government they display the same ac- knowledgment of authority, love' of system and bu- reaucratic forms of administration, which made the Roman municipium the wonder of the world; in reli- gion, they cultivate the same respect for external show and material rites rather than for the ideal as- pects of faith; and in literature, it is only in later days that they have declared independence from the models of classicism, which too long fettered their best minds. The ancient Romans had little idealism. They achieved nothing in poetry, philosophy or the plastic arts. It was owing to the Hellenic and Semitic influ- ence that, under the Empire, Rome became the centre of artistic, as of all other training. These acquired qualities have been transmitted to the Romance na- tions, and it is to them we owe nearly all that is best in art down to the beginning of the present century. The sentiment of symmetry is native to them, and one has but to compare either the scientific works or the public buildings of France with those of Germany during the last five-and-twenty years to be convinced 158 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. how the sense of form is present in the former and de- fective in the latter. 3. The Illyric Peoples. The ancient Illyrians were the ancestors of the modern Albanians, a people numbering in all nearly two million souls, occupying a portion of western Turkey, bordering on the Adriatic Sea, about 40° north latitude. They are scarcely more than semi- civilized, and neither in ancient nor modern times have they taken any prominent part in the history of Europe. Their language undoubtedly belongs to the Aryac stock, and has various affinities with Greek and Latin, but is a long-separated and almost isolated frag- ment of Aryac speech. The national name they give themselves is Skypetars, which means mountaineers. They are also known as Arnauts. The physical type of the Albanians is mixed, those to the south being chiefly blondes, to the north bru- nettes; their skulls are generally long, their stature tall, their bodies muscular. Some of them are Mo- hammedans, others Roman Catholics, while others belong to the Greek church. In disposition they are turbulent and warlike, caring little for the amenities of civilization. The nearest related groups to the Illyrians are be- lieved to have been the Thracians, who were a blonde people, the Dacians, who were largely Celtic, and the Macedonians. Some recent writers have arrued that the ancient Japyges were Illyrians, and had occupied THE ANCIENT GREEKS. I59 most of the peninsula of Italy previous to the arrival of the Latins; * but this question remains obscure. 4. The Hellenic Peoples. It is acknowledged even by those who maintain the Asiatic origin of the Aryans that the Greeks entered the peninsula and the adjacent isles of the Ionian and Egean seas from a northwesterly direction. It has been also argued “from the unmixed character of their language" that they found the region uninhab- ited, # but there are reasons for believing that it was sparsely populated by a non-Aryac people of the Eus- caric physical type. The separation of the Greeks from the southern Ar- yac stream took place somewhere in the valley of the Danube, whence a portion of the original Hellenes moved down the Adriatic into the Morea, and other bands known as Carians, Leleges, Phrygians, etc., passed into Asia Minor. § Even the island of Cyprus, * See Tr. Fligier, Zur praehistorischen Ethnologie //a/İems (Wein, 1877). There is a markedly brachycephalic type among the Alba- nians, quite dissimilar from the Greek. I incline to believe it is Celtic. See Dr. Raphael Zampa, “Anthropologie Illyrienne,” in the Revue d’ Anthropologie, 1886, p. 625, sq. f See Max Duncker, History of Greece, Vol. I, p. 11. f /bid., pp. I 3, 142. || Taylor, Origin of the Aryams, p. 98. § The Phrygian was about as closely related to the Greek as Gothic to middle High German. See Curtius, History of Greece, Vol. I, p. 43, who acknowledges that the testimony of antiquity is in favor of the easterly migration of the Hellenic peoples, but denies the fact because it is in conflict with his Asiatic hypothesis. I6o THE EURAFRICAN RACE. close to the Syrian shore, appears to have supported a Greek population previous to its occupancy by the Egyptians and Semitic peoples.” The Greek language has strong affinities to the an- cient Persian and Sanscrit, showing conclusively that the Aryac tribes whose descendants developed these tongues dwelt in eastern Europe between the Slavonic peoples on the north and the proto-Hellenes on the South. At a later date, that is, about 1500 B.C., num- erous Phenician colonists occupied the shores of Greece, constructing the so-called “Cyclopean '' walls, and leaving a lasting impression, both on the language and culture of the Aryac population.f Greek civili- zation undoubtedly derived its early inspiration from Semitic and Hamitic sources, and nearly thirty per cent. of the Greek roots are non-Aryac, proving a large admixture of foreign thought and blood at some remote epoch. - The ancient Greek physical type was rather Slavonic than Celtic. The skull was long (about 76), the fore- head high, the nose narrow and straight (the “Gre- cian nose ’’), the face oval and Orthognathic, the com- plexion fair, the hair blonde or chestnut, and the eyes blue or grey. The highest bodily symmetry of the * The Cypriote Greeks used a remarkable syllabic alphabet of great antiquity. R. H. Lang, Cyprus, pp. 8, 12 (London, 1878). f On this important subject see Max Duncker, Z/istory of Greece, Vol. I, Chap. IV, “The Phenicians in Hellas; ” and H. Schliemann, Tiryns, pp. 28, 57, etc. f Hovelacque et Hervé, Precis d’Aziz/ropologie, p. 573. GRECIAN TRAITS. I6I human species was reached among them, and its pro- portions were perpetuated for all time in the noble products of Greek plastic art. The modern Greeks have undergone extensive com- mingling with Slavonians, Turks, Bulgarians, etc., so that the ancient type is no longer common, and the population is generally darker in complexion, and the skull more globular than in classic ages. At a very remote epoch the Hellenic peoples occu- pied southern Italy (Magna Grecia), Sicily, portions of Southern France and the regions on both shores of the Hellespont, their easternmost colonies extending quite into Syria. During the middle ages the estab- lishment of the capital of the eastern empire at Con- stantinople, gave to Greek a position in the east equal to that of Latin in the west. Crushed out, first by the Romans and next by Mongolian nordes, within this century the Hellenic peoples are rapidly regaining a prominent position. Their settlements in Asia Minor are displacing the Turks, and in all the cities of the Levant they form one of the most active elements of the population. - In certain mental endowments, the Hellenic peoples won a position far ahead of all others. The sense of artistic form was possessed by them in a superlative degree; for the highest philosophic thought they showed an aptitude unparalleled in the annals of the race; in mathematics and mechanics, in poetry and the drama, in architecture and in literature, they created models of such perfection that the later generations II 2 s * A * * * gº 162 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. i of other nations have been content to do little more than imitate them. To this day that culture which is properly called the highest, must be based on a long and loving study of Greek art and thought. 5. The Lettic Peoples. The Letts and Lithuanians, dwelling on the shores of the Baltic Sea, partly in Prussia and partly in Russia, are unimportant peoples politically, and indeed every way but ethnographically. In this respect, how- ever, they deserve particular attention, because in the opinion of a number of modern writers they “ have the best claim to represent the primitive Aryac race.” This claim is based on the structure of their language, which seems to preserve characteristics of an exceed- ingly primitive type, such for instance as a dual num- ber, numerous oblique cases, an archaic phonology; † and also on their physical appearance, being tall lolondes, with blue eyes, and moderately long skulls (about 78°). Both in appearance and language they are a connecting link between the Slavonic and Teu- tonic peoples. The westernmost dialect of the group, the “old Prussian,” now extinct, was spoken west of the Vistula, and perhaps extended to the coast of the German Ocean. Their total number at present is not Over 2,OOO,OOO. * This is the opinion of Penka, Schrader, Taylor, etc. f “The Lithuanian language has more antique features by far than any other now spoken dialect of the whole great (Aryac) fam- ily.” W. D. Whitney, Oriental and Zinguistic Studies, Vol. II, p. 228. * - THE BLONDE NORTHMEN. I63 6. The Teutonic Peoples Separated from the Letto-Slavonians about the begin- ning of the Age of Bronze (see above p. 152), and ex- tended themselves toward central and southern Ger- many, north into Scandinavia, and west along the shores of the North Sea. Their most celebrated an- cient tribes were the Goths and Vandals, the Angles and Saxons, the Danes and Norsemen, the Franks and Alemanni, the Lombards and the Burgundians. The modern nations which with more or less justice are classed as of Teutonic descent, are the German speaking population of the German and Austrian em- pires, the States of Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Holland, western Switzerland and England. It is needless to say that there is little purity of d t in most of these lands; the highest is believed to be in Scandinavia. There we find still in the ascendant the tall and muscular frame, the fair hair and complexion, the blue eyes and full blonde beards which the Greek and Roman writers agree in attributing to the dreaded northern barbarians. The skull is long, the tempera- ment lymphatic, and the complete growth attained later than in the Celtic stock.” The mental character of the Teuton is somewhat sluggish and material, but is directed by clear in- sight and unconquerable pertinacity. His conquests, * In North Germany the present percentage of blondes is 42; in the German empire, 32 ; in Austria, 20; in Switzerland, II. (Vir- chow, ZXie Verbreitung des blonden und des brunetten Zypus in Mit- te/europa.) 164 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. whether on the field of battle or in the arena of the intellect, have been attained by deliberate calculation and dogged obstinacy. His clear judgment refuses to be controlled by the mere dicta of authority. In the fourth century the Goths attached themselves to the great Arian heresy, and a thousand years later their descendants were the first to throw off the yoke of the Roman church. The profoundest metaphysician of modern times, Emmanuel Kant, was a Teuton; but ... 4 his avowed purpose was to prove the futility of all . . metaphysical speculation. The poets and dramatists …' of the Teutonic nations,’ Shakespeare, Schiller,- 61% Goethe, were the first to break definitely with the jº. sical models, and vindicate the freedom of the artist. Within the last century, the extension of this group ~# over the globe has left all others far behind. The - German, the Englishman and the Anglo-American now control the politics of the world, and their con- tributions to every department of literature, science and the arts have been the main stimuli of the marvel- > lous progress of the nineteenth centruy. 7. The Slavonic Peoples. s In the early historic period there stretched a line of kindred agricultural and nomadic tribes from the Baltic to the Black and Caspian seas, forming the northern outposts of the Aryac stock, in immediate contiguity with the Mongolian race. They were the `A Scythians, Sarmatians, Massagetes, etc. Their lan- Nº. guages belonged to what is called the Slavonic group, SLAVONIC PEOPLES. I65 and had a marked family likeness; but the physical traits of the various tribes were then, as now, very various, and the most that can be said is that the ma- jority were blondes, with flaxen hair, full beards and a tendency to dolichocephaly.* These tribes were the ancestors of the numerous Slavonic peoples of the present day, the Russiars, Ruthenians, Poles, the Wends in Prussia, the Czechs of Bohemia, the Bulgarians and Servians, the Monte- negrins, Dalmatians and Croatians. All these, and some smaller communities, speak to-day Slavic dia- lects, though they are by no means all of pure Slavic descent. There has been a constant intermingling with the Mongolians, easily recognizable in physical traits and mental character. Though early brought into contact with civilization, the Slavonic peoples have been the last of all the Aryans to appreciate its greatest benefits. Within a century, however, their progress has been phenomenal, and, except the Eng- lish people, no other nation within that period has extended so widely the domain of enlightened govern- mental control over half-savage tribes. The con– quests of the Russians in northern and central Asia have always been attended with beneficent results for * On the extreme diversity of skull-forms among the modern Rus- sians see A’evue d’Azzt/roftologie, 1889, p. 99. The race of the “Kur- gans,” or ancient tombs, which are supposed to date back to the ninth or tenth century, had usually long skulls; but about 20 per cent. are short. Hervé is quite right in his statement, “Il n'y a pas un type général slave, il n'y a même pas un type slave du nord et un type slave du sud.” Précis d’ Anthropologie, p. 564. I66 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. the conquered people, and nothing but the Selfish jeal- ousy of other European governments has prevented these conquests from being far more extensive and far more fruitful of good to mankind. - The Russian is laborious, submissive, dreamy, un- practical. The individual is lost in the community, the mir, a communistic village association of great antiquity. His religion is the merest formality, re- lieved by outbreaks of fanaticism. Russian literature, which has lately become the vogue in other nations, is introspective and unhealthful, oriental in its spirit, occidental in its cravings, The ancient Slavonic tribes had close relations with the Eranic peoples, the Medes and Persians. The connecting link seems to have been the Sigyni and Agathyrsi tribes, who dwelt south of the Carpathians, in what is now Transylvania. Both of these claimed relationship to the Medes, and when they were con- quered by the Celtic Dacians, many of them followed their cousin in Asia. They were not without culture, and Herodotus speaks of them as loving luxury, and decorating themselves with gold. Ornaments of this metal, worked with creditable skill, are found in their graves, along with polished stone, implements and fragments of pottery.* 8. The Indo-Eramic Peoples. w The colony of the Aryans which pushed its way * Cf. Gesa Kuun, “L’ Origine des Nationalités de la Transylvanie,” in Rezue d’ Ethnographic, 1888, pp. 232, sqq. ERANIC MIGRATIONS. 167 furthest to the east was the Indo-Eranic. Its various dialects prove conclusively that its ancestral tribe, when on European soil, occupied a position between the Slavonic and Hellenic peoples, probably between the Danube and the Egean Sea. Its latest contingent, the Armenian people, was a branch of the Thracian Briges, and occupied their territory in Asia Minor about 700 B. C. The main migration preceded them at least two thousand years, and divided into two branches, one establishing its chief power between the Caspian Sea and the Indian Ocean, the other crossing the Hindu-Kusch range and gradually obtaining the chief control of Hindostan. The former includes the Eranic, the latter the Indic groups of the Aryac stock. The ancient representatives of the Eranic peoples were the old Bastrians and Persians. In the language of the former, sometimes called Zend, their sacred book, the Zend-avesta, was written probably about 500 B. C., and in the latter many cuneiform inscriptions are preserved, dating somewhat later. Their modern descendants are the Persians and Parsees, the tribes of Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Kurdistan, and Luristan, and the Ossetes, who dwell in the vales of the central Caucasus.* Most of these are Mohammedans in religion, and in a backward condition of civilization. Their physical appearance * Omalius d’Halloy has called attention to the statement of Potocki, Voyages, p. 167, that the Ossetes, by their own traditions, came from southeastern Russia, on the river Don. They are gen- erally blondes of the brachycephalic Slavonic type, I68 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. speaks of frequent intermixtures with Mongolic and Semitic elements. gº The ordinary rural population of Persia are called the Tadchiks. They are diligent agriculturists, and devoted likewise to commercial pursuits. In the lat- ter capacity they are often met from Constantinople to China. Their language is usually the modern Per- sian, an Aryac dialect which has departed from the original inflectional standard almost as much as the modern English. Those who live in Kaschgar, how- ever, speak Turkish, while retaining the physical traits of their Aryac ancestry. Modern Persian has developed an interesting litera- ture, consisting chiefly of poetry and works of imag- ination. - The Afghans and Beluchis are the nearest related to the Indian stock. Their dialects are derived from the Sanscrit, and in appearance they resemble the Indo-Aryans rather than the Persian. The assertion of some ethnographers that they are of Semitic affini- ties has been disproved. They are, however, mixed with Semitic and Dravidian blood. Although histori- cally established about their present locality since the days of Alexander the Great, they retain faint tradi- tions that their ancestors came from the west, which has led some to suppose them of Syrian extraction.* In religion they are generally fanatical Mohammedans, and their nationality is a loose federation of independ- ent clans. * Cf. Louis Rousselet, Zes Aſghans, in K'ezue d’ Anthropologie, 1888, p., 412. EAST INDIAN PEOPLES. 169 The Indic branch of this colony entered Hindostan as late as 2000--1500 B. C. Its language was then as closely akin to the Bactrian as, say, Italian and French are to-day. Its member, were roving herdsmen, and first occupied the valleys of the Punjaub, driving be- fore them the Dravidas, a non-Aryac folk, who had occupied the land. The priestly class of these colo- nists were called Brahmans, their dialect Sanscrit, and in this we have preserved from that remote epoch many religious chants called the Rig Veda, committed to writing probably about 500 B. C. The original tongue soon split up into many dialects, as the Pali, the Prakrit and the modern Hindoostantee. The population of the Indian peninsula to-day, who speak these dialects and are more or less of Aryac blood, numbers nearly a hundred million. They in- clude the Rajpoots, the Djats, the Hindoos, the Hunzas, and numerous other tribes and castes. The ubiquitous gipsies or Romany are a wandering branch of these who left India as late as the twelfth or thir– teenth century, and have been roving over Europe ever since. The earliest Indo-Aryans had undoubtedly retained many pure Aryac traits. They were of medium height, oval faces, handsome regular features, sym- metrical in body, the skull dolichocephalic (about 77), the complexion brunette but not brown, the eyes hazel, the hair wavy. This is the type of the highest Brah- mans to-day, and throughout all their history they have exercised the utmost care to preserve it intact. 17o TEHE EURAFRICAN RACE. The institution of castes was undoubtedly established with this object in view, the word for “caste,” varna, in Sanscrit meaning “color.” The mental aptitudes of the Indic immigrants are seen to advantage in their rapid conquest of Hindo- stan, in the civilization they developed, and in the vast literature which they created.* While in art and phi- losophy inferior to the Greeks, they succeeded in one point far beyond any other Aryac people, that is, in the formation of two of the most successful religions of the world, Brahmanism and Buddhism. The for- mer, a pure pantheism, has been established nearly 4OOO years, and still can claim votaries; the latter, theoretically an atheism, to-day has more believers than any other cult. III. THE CAUCASIC STOCK. The defiles and fastnesses of the Caucasus have been time out of mind harbors of refuge for the defeated tribes of the neighboring regions. Isolated in their secluded homes, in ceaseless warfare with their neigh- bors, an astonishing diversity of type and language arose. When the Romans undertook to explore these mountains, they had to call in the aid of seventy inter- preters! It is not surprising, therefore, that we find communities there to-day, tribes apparently of Aryac * Sanscrit civilization extended throughout most of Farther India and Malasia, and at one time had one of its chief seats in Cambodia, where the ruins of magnificent palaces decorated with subjects from the Ramayana attest its presence. See Abel Bergaigne, “Sur l’His- toire Ancienne du Cambodge,” in Revue d’Aºthnographie, 1885, p. 477, SQ- CAUCASIAN BEAUTIES. I7I lineage, speaking agglutinative languages, and others, of Mongolic appearance, quite unconnected with any Mongolic tongue. Divided as far as possible by lin- guistic resemblances, the Caucasian peoples may be placed under four groups: I. The Lesghic, which includes the Avars, and peo- ple of Daghestan. 2. The Circassic, in which fall the Circasians proper, and others. 3. The Kistic, and 4. The Georgic, the principal members of which are the Georgians and Mingrelians. The physical types vary greatly, but it is well known that the brunette beauties of Georgia have long been accounted among the handsomest women of the race, and many of the men are remarkably noble in feature. Intellectually, however, they have never taken a high rank. Of them all, the Georgian tribes have the oldest culture, the traditions reaching as far back as I2OO B. C., and some trustworthy data as far as 700 B. C. They were among the early converts to Christianity, and about the beginning of this century voluntarily accepted the sovereignty of Russia.” The Georgian girls have long been celebrated for their beauty, and merit their renown; but they age very rapidly. The Circassian women are also cele- brated, but are less perfect beauties. Both have black * A. F. Rittich, ZXie Zthnographie Russlands, p. 2. (4to, Gotha, 1878.) 172 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. eyes and dark hair, the complexion a brunette some- times to brownness. The Circassian girls were those who principally supplied the harems of Constanti- nople. They went willingly, and their families saw nothing shameful in such a transaction. - Their traits and geographical location have gained for the Caucasians the credit of being the oldest as well as the purest type of the white race, which in- deed has been often called the “Caucasian * race. Recent archaeological researches, however, have shown that the Caucasus was not inhabited until the close of the neolithic period.” An examination of the geological condition of these mountains proves that they were covered with glaciers until a late period, especially on the southern slope, and no vestige of human occupation previous to the neolithic period has been found in this alleged cradle of the human race, and pretended place of origin of Some of our domestic animals.f * “Everything goes to prove,” writes de Quatrefages, “that the Caucasus was not a center of emigration, but of immigration by various peoples at a comparatively late date. (Histoire Generale des Races. Aftemaines, p. 475.) The researches of Rudolph Virchow result in showing that these mountains were peopled at about the begin- ning of the age of bronze. f This is the result of the observations of Ernest Chantre, who spent years in personal investigations throughout the Caucasus. (A’echerches Anthropologiques dams le Caucase, quoted in Revue d’” Anthropologie, 1888, p. 48o.) Virchow reached the same conclusion from his osteologic studies (Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie, 1887, p. 97.) It is high time therefore to stop talking about the “Caucasian * I31Cé. LECTURE VI. THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. CoNTENTS.–Former geography of Africa. Area of characterization of the race. Its early extension. Divisions. I. THE NEGRILLOs. Classical tales of Pygmies. Physical charac- ters. Habits. Relationship to Bushmen. Description of Bush- men and Hottentots. - II. THE NEGROES. Home of the true negroes. 1. The Nilotic Group. 2. The Sudanese Group. 3. The Senegambian Group. 4. The Guinean group. III. THE NEGROIDS. Physical traits. Early admixtures. I. The Nubian Group. 2. The Bantu group. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE RACE. Low intellectual position. Origin of negroes in the United States; in Arabia. WE have seen that the African continent at the period of its first Occupancy was divided by the sea (now desert) of the Sahara into two unequal por- tions, the northern being properly an appendix of Europe. The southern portion began at the Medi- terranean on the north, where the tertiary plateau of Tripoli rises above the sea, included the valley of the Nile above the Delta, and the remainder of the conti- nent as it now is, together with the island of Madagas- car, with which it was then connected by a land bridge. As the Sahara sea evaporated to become a desert, its (173) I. I. Negrillo Branch. | II. Negro Branch. : III. Negroid Branch. 2. . Guinean Group. Scheme of the Austafrican Race. Akkas, Tikkitikkis, Obongos, Dokos, Vouatoaus, torial Group. Equatorial Group Aºmos of Madagascar. South African Group. Bushmen, Hottentots, Namaquas, Quaquas. . Nilotic Group. Shillaks, Dinkas, Bongos, Kiks, Baris, Nuers. . Sudanese Group. Haussas, Battas, Bornus, Kanoris, Ngurus, Akras. . Senegambian Group. Serrerus, Banyums, Wolofs, Foys. Ashantis, Dahomis, Fantis, Yorubas, Mandingoes, } Weis, Krus. . Nubian Group. |Nº. Barabras, Dongolowis, Pouls, Tumalis, Nyam Nyams, Monbuttus. Caffirs, Zulus, Bechuanas, Sakalavas, Damas, Herre- ros, Suahelis, Ovambos, Bassutos, Barolongs, Ben- . Bantu Group. i gas, Duallas, Wagandas. § GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. I75 vast tracts and also the lower Nile valley and the eastern coast nearly to the Equator were occupied by the Hamitic stock of the white race. The remainder of the continent was in the possession of the Aust- african or black race. This race is divisible into three quite different types or branches, resembling each other in possessing a very dark skin, black eyes, woolly hair, a prognathic face, and generally a dolichocephalic skull, but differ- ing widely in many minor traits. These types are the Negrillos, the Negroes, and the Negroids. The general characteristics of the Austafrican race are the most positively marked of any of the varieties of our species, and as it is certainly the lowest in zoölogical analogies, by some writers it has been considered the oldest of all. This reasoning is erroneous. The black race developed quite locally, under the influence of intense heat and humidity. Its original habitat must have been where alone its purest representatives have always been permanently resid- ing, that is, on the lowlands of western central Africa, between the equator and 12° north latitude, and from lake Tchad to the Atlantic. The hot and moist de- pression watered by the great river Niger, may be named as the probable “ area of characterization " of the distinctive physical type of this race. How far from this center was its maximum exten- sion has been valiously estimated. There is no evidence that the blacks ever occupied the lower Nile valley, the area of ancient Egypt. On the oldest 176 THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. monuments they are represented as slaves, and the Egyptian type discloses no sign of admixture with Negro blood. They occupied at one time the south- ern oases of the Sahara, but their dominion never extended as far north as Fezzan. The presence of Negro colonies and mixed breeds which is visible in the northern oases, is owing to the importation of the Soudanese as slaves, and also to the extensive migra- tions they are still in the habit of making. I learned when visiting some of these oases, that many black families are constantly moving from one to another in pursuit of their various callings. It is an historical fact that from the beginning of the Christian era at least, and probably much longer, the whole of the southern Sahara and the northern portion of the Niger valley have been under the ab- solute control of the Berbers, members of the Eur- african race. They founded in those lands the ex- tensive monarchies of Ghanata and Melle, which main- tained their supremacy through many centuries. On the east it is not likely that the Negroes ever gained prolonged control east of the White Nile. That portion of the continent between this river and the Arabian gulf has been held by the same peoples since the time the ancient Egyptians sent their trading ships to “the land Punt,” the name under which they knew it; and these peoples were not of the Aust- african type or race. The general tendency of migration in central as in Southern Africa, so far as it can be traced in historic & C/S tº: sº * . gº Ş. Bºašeſs §§ % } a ſymbukroo gº ºff ºf OEs Fº wº-y ** 222 ºve- *...*&^% º A \o E: º sº 2. Sº- s ſº *śºkº ( \\ ſº Jé' : Fº--ºx 3 : T …, ſº- sº... .º.º.º. r. º.º.º. 3:3. THE BUSH MEN. I79 Of their religion we have no knowledge further than that they have an extreme dread of strange ob- jects, lest some malignant influence lurk in them. In the south of Africa we find another group of tribes, the Bushmen and Hottentots, also of small stature, and in many respects resembling the Akkas. They are equally far removed from the true negroes, and it is the opinion of some very competent observ- ers, notably the German travelers, Schweinfurth and Fritsch, that all these dwarf tribes belong to the same stock.” The objection to this chiefly is that the Bush- men are often dolichocephalic, but so also are some of the Akkas, and at any rate this consideration is not alone of sufficient weight to be decisive. There is little doubt but that this dwarf stock extended over Madagascar, where they were known as Quimos or Kimos, and are believed still to exist in the southern part of the island.; The Bushmen are much better known than the Akkas. They dwell in and around the great Kalihari desert, usually in a half-famished condition, and on the lowest social scale. They are wandering hunters, making use of the bow and arrow, and are not canni- bals. The Hottentots are a mixture of the Bushmen and * Dr. K. Schweinfurth, Zhe Heart of Africa, vol. i., p. 139; and Fritsch, Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft, 1887, S. I95. # Leclerc, “Les Pygmées à Madagascar,” in Revue d’ Ethnographie, 1887, p. 323. I8O THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. the Negroid-Bantu tribes in their vicinity. They are taller than the Bushmen, better nourished, and lead a pastoral life, possessing herds of cows and fixed habi- tations. Their language is remarkable for the number of its “inspirates,” or “click” sounds, to form which One must draw in the breath, similar to some we use in urging horses. In form it is agglutinative. In these respects and in others, it resembles the dialects of the Bushmen, and those who are competent to speak on the subject believe that both can be traced to a common source.* The Hottentot is rather a hopeless case for civiliz- ing efforts. He hates profoundly work, either physical or mental, and is passionately fond of rum and tobacco, or failing the latter, he will stupefy himself by smok- ing the wild hemp. He is too indolent to attempt agriculture, and is content to live on milk, raw roots, and the product of the chase. Some of the English travellers, on the other hand, say the Hottentots have as much wit as their neigh- bors, the Dutch boors! Certain it is that before they were oppressed by the whites; they possessed herds of cows, goats and sheep, dressed hides, dug wells, manufactured pottery, in some places tilled the ground and built fixed villages or kraals. The oft-repeated assertion that they are destitute of religion is, like all such, utterly false. On the con- trary, they have quite a developed mythology, perform rites and say prayers. Their principal deity is Tsuni- * Theodore Hahn, in Revue d’ Anthropologie, 1887, p. 272. THE LAND OF THE BLACKS. I8I goam, to whom they appeal as “the father of all things ’’ and “our master.” At the rise of certain stars they hold festivals in honor of the gods of light, and they believe the spirits of the dead wander about and should be placated.* Their cult, indeed, compares favorably with that of classic Greece. II. THE NEGROES. The true Negroes of Africa are confined to what the Arabs call Beled es Sudan, the Land of the Blacks, the Sudan, and adjacent parts. It is therefore an error to look on that continent as mainly inhabited by negroes. At least a third of it has always been prin- cipally peopled by the whites, and another third by tribes not of pure negro stock. The true negro type, such as I have described it in my first lecture (see page 48), is scarcely seen in resident tribes south of the Equator or north of the tropic of Cancer. Within that limit they may be divided for purposes of study into four groups, the Nilotic, the Sudanese, the Sene- gambian and the Guinean. 1. The Nilotic Group. These begin with the Changallas, east of Sennaar, in the Egyptian Sudan, betwen the IOth and 15th degree of fiorth latitude. To the south of them along the White Nile are the Dinkas, the Chilluks, the Nuers, Kiks, Baris, and other tribes. These are * See M. Ploix, “Les Hottentots et leur Religion,” in A'ezzee d” Anthropologie, 1887, p. 27 I, sq. I82 THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. wholly black and in a rudimentary stage of culture, depending chiefly on hunting and fishing. They go naked, the women at most wearing little aprons. Some of them are cannibals, and all are of Savage dispositions. As a rule they are tall and powerful, and brave in war. The Nuers are spoken of as of fine physical traits, and building handsome and durable houses. Their bows and arrows, and the helmets of their warriors, resemble those depicted on ancient Egyptian monu- ments. It is probable that they are of mixed blood, their hair being less woolly than that of their neigh- bors. The Baris, who live on the White Nile, are de- scribed as an intelligent people. They cultivate millet and tobacco, understand the reduction of iron and copper from the ores found in their country, and are skilful merchants, making long voyages to exchange their wares. 2. The Sudanese Group. The Central Sudan is the site of the most important negro states, the monarchies of Bornu, Bagirmi and Wadai. The two former are in the fruitful depressions which surround Lake Tchad, a large fresh water sea in the center of one of the most delightful tropical basins in the world. The natives are known as Ka- noris, Kanembus, Marghis, Haussas, Biddumas, etc. They are true negroes, very black, and of strong body. Further to the west commences the watershed of the Niger, the great river of Central Africa, describing : THE NIGER BASIN. 183 in its course a vast Semicircle more than two thou- sand miles in length. On its banks are numerous kingdoms and Some cities of magnitude, as Sansandig, with 30,000 inhabitants, and the better known Tim- buctoo, with 20,000. Many of their houses are built of sun-dried bricks, and an active commerce is carried on. But it must be added that these houses and this commerce have been created by the Arabs, Tauregs, and mixed races, not by the negroes themselves. These are principally tillers of the soil, hunters, fishers and warriors. They nominally govern the states of Gando, Sokoto, Fellata and others, but Arab influence is visible everywhere, and the beneficent results of the introduction of the Mahommedan religion in this part of Africa is strongly attested even by English trav- ellers. The Haussas, the Todas, and the Tibbus, tribes near the border of the desert, are principally of negro blood, but with a visible strain of Hamitic descent in them. The last mentioned, indeed, should properly be classed with the Berber stock. At 3. The Senegambian Group. The country south of the Senegal river to the coast of Sierra Leone is known as Senegambia, or the west- ern Sudan. It is claimed by the French, who own the shadow of a sway there. The tribes near the coast are the Sereres, the Wolofs, the Baniums, and many others, all in a low stage of culture. To the east is the important nation of the Mandingoes, occupying an 184 THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. extensive territory adjoining western Guinea on the south, and stretching east to the heights near Tim- buctoo. The Wolofs present a pure type of the Negro race, perfectly homogeneous, and, according to Dr. Tau- tain, it is impossible to find among them a single phys- ical character hinting at an admixture of any other blood. Their faces are prognathic, and the women have the projecting gluteal region, so marked a trait in the Austafrican. Their language is agglutinative, and is an independent stock. Most of the Wolofs are Mohammedans, and in social organization they main- tain a rigid system of castes, based principally on Oc- cupation.* The principal divisions of the Mande or Mandingo nation are the Mallinki, the Soninki, and the Bambaras. They are not so pure in blood as the Wolofs, many among them having regular features, light complex- ions, and straighter hair. These traits are doubtless owing to their long contact with the Arabs and the Berbers, the latter of whom have controlled their country more or less for two thousand years. They are active in commerce, and cultivate the soil, the men working with the women in the fields. 4. The Guinean Group. Most of the tribes of the coast of Guinea are in a condition of Savagery, and have deteriorated by their * Dr. L. Tautain, “Sur l’ Ethnographie du Sénégal, in Revue d” Althnographie, 1885, p. 61, sq. { THE GUIN EA COAST. 185 contact with the whites. The petty kingdoms of Ashanti, Fanti, and Dahomey are heard of from time to time in our newspapers as the scene of some partic- ularly bloody rite or massacre. For generations this was the central point of the slave trade, and the en- couragement it gave to devastating wars led to the destruction of all progress. It is here, on what is called the Pepper Coast, that we established the Re- public of Liberia, where about 20,000 negroes from the United States are carrying out a moderately suc- cessful experiment of returning to their native conti- Inent. III. THE NEGROIDS. A large portion of the African continent is occu- pied by tribes of dark hue, but lacking some of the most prominent traits of the true negro. These are the “Negroids,” who are probably the products of a long and close fusion of the Negro with the Hamitic and Semitic types. Their color is not black, but a dark, reddish, coppery brown; the hair is crisp and frizzly, but not woolly; the nose is straight and better formed than that of the negro; the lips are thick, the skull long, and the peculiar odor of the negro is absent. ! We find these traits in two groups, both of which unquestionably had their historic origin along the Nile, above the first cataract, and in the region drained by its tributaries—in other words, the local- ity where for ten thousand years or more the Hamites and the Negroes have been in constant contact. I86 THE AUSTAIFRICAN RACE. We can only speculate on the numberless wars and marriages, on the extensive slave trade and commer- cial intercourse which throughout this period have blended the races into so many intermediate types that it becomes impossible in many cases to say with which a given tribe should be classified. To add to the confusion, a large Semitic element was added at two epochs, one when the Abyssinian branch of the Semites moved across from Arabia to occupy Abys- sinia, the other when, under the impulsion of the fan- aticism of Islam, the Arabs followed up the Nile in their proselyting campaigns. The latter event began in the seventh century of our era and has continued ever since. The former probably began in earnest in the height of the power of the Himyaritic states of southern Arabia, which we may roughly put at seven centuries before Christ. A century or two later than this, negro tribes from the Sudan overran the decaying cities of the upper Nile and established a temporary control along its banks; and the emperor Diocletian induced many of them to settle as far north as Assuan.* These various influ- ences combined to produce the numerous mixed types which one sees along the Nile, rendering its ethnog- raphy peculiarly obscure. Under the pressure of increasing population and external inroads, these mixed peoples divided into two groups, one, the Nubian, remaining in the original district, the other, the Bantu, removing to the south and southwest. | ... * See Th. Waitz, Anthropologie der Maturvæer, Bd. II, ss. 476–8. NATIONS OF THE UPPER NILE. 187 1. The Nubian Group Includes the Nubas proper, who are partly a mixed people, while some of them are pure negroes from Kordofan ; the Barabras, who dwell on both sides of the Nile between the first and second cataracts; the Fundjas and Bertas, further south; and the Monbut- tus and Nyam Nyams, or Sandehs, near Lake Victoria Nyanza, besides many tribes of less note. Most of them are more or less agricultural, and live in small villages. Their clothing is very slight, and many tattoo the skin. The Sandeh and Monbuttu are can- nibals, and even eat those who die of disease. Never- theless, they have a knowledge of metals, and are skilful iron-smiths. - The physical appearance of most of these tribes differs equally from the Arab and the negro. They are generally of medium stature with thin limbs and flat feet. The hair is crisp, but not woolly, and the color varies from a black to a white brown. The beard is meagre and the skin hairless. The features are not of the negro cast, but assimilate rather those of the European. Most of them are agriculturists in a small way. They raise the “caffre corn " and millet, and make some efforts to irrigate their fields where it is neces- sary. Their dwellings are wretched huts, and their arts are of the rudest. Not many centuries ago there was a large number of so-called Christians among them, but their religion seems to have left little impression on their character. I88 THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. At present they are professedly Mohammedans, but really either fetichists or indifferent. Their morals are not well-spoken of, though it is also said that the class with whom travellers usually come into contact are flot favorable specimens of the population—as is apt to be the case everywhere. The Puls, or Fellahs, and the Fans, who live to the west in the Sudan, removed to the regions they now occupy from the Nile valley, and belong to the Ne- groid type. They have made extensive conquests in the vast unexplored country between Timbuctoo and the equator. Abstaining from alcohol and tobacco, condemning music and dancing, and blindly adhering to the precepts of the Koran, they are unpopular among their negro neighbors, but have brought many of them under subjection. Their occupations are both pastoral and agricultural, while as commercial trav- ellers, and wandering smiths, they roam from one end of the Sudan to the other. They weave cotton cloth, tan and dye leather, and work it into various articles of use which are widely celebrated for their excellence, and in times past were among the most extensive slave dealers of Central Africa. - The languages of this group belong to four diverse linguistic stocks, all of the agglutinative character. It has been called the equatorial family of central Africa. They are usually agreeable to the ear, the verbs are simple, and the syntax not complicated.” - * See Dr. Frederich Müller, ZXie Zyuatoriale Sørach-Fame?/ie iſz Central Afrika, Wien, 1889. THE PASTORAL NEGROIDS. 189 1. The Bantu Group Occupies nearly the whole of Africa south of the equator, except the territory of the Bushmen and Hottentots. It includes the Suahelis, the Mazimbas and the Caffres on the east coast, the Sakalavas of Madagascar, the Bechuanas west of the Caffres, the Zulus, and nearly all the numerous tribes of the Congo basin, the Angola and Zambesi rivers.” Their ancestors at one period resided to the north- east, probably somewhere in Ethiopia, where a pro- longed fusion of Hamitic blood with the genuine Negro produced their physical type. They are usu- ally tall and well built, the color is a dark coppery brown, the head is long (74), the hair is frizzly, and the nose rather straight. All the Caffre people are pastoral in habits, and have large herds of cows. Agriculture is practised on a limited scale. Their temperament is turbulent and warlike, and many of them are cannibals. Their social organization is military, but slavery is unusual. Singular to say, they do not know the bow and arrow, their weapons being the war-club and a lance called an assegai. Their religion is a fetichism, and polygamy is universal. On the whole, they are on a higher level of culture than the Negroes of the Sudan. All the Bantu tribes are mono-glottic, that is, they speak dialects traceable to one original stem. These have a * The word bantu in that language means “people " or “men.” It is preferable to “Caffres,” which is sometimes applied to the group, and which is an Arabic term meaning “infidels.” I90 THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. peculiar alliteration, and form their words by means of prefixes of elements placed before the root, this being their special method of agglutination. It is di- vided into three principal dialects, and is the most widely extended of any of the African linguistic stocks, except the Libyan. The vast basin of the Congo river, including over two million square miles, is now mostly included in the “Congo Independent State.” Its native inhabi- tants are connected by language with the Negroids of the Bantu group, and several of them retain traditions of their immigration into the districts they now inhabit. The Waganda, for instance, report that their ancestors came from the northeast, the Watuta and Masiti from near the Zambesi river. Many of them are of a light, bright brown, and are devoid of the peculiar odor of the true negro. All the tribes from Lake Tan- ganyika to the Atlantic speak dialects manifestly akin. They are divided into independent nations, some of large extent, and are subject to chiefs, who rule with despotic power. Their religion is fetichistic, and though they generally are agricultural, and possess a certain degree of culture, cannibalism is or was fre- quent among them. Slavery also existed in some of its most deplorable forms, and up to a very recent date, if not still, there was a regular trade in young slaves to be fattened, killed and eaten on certain sol- emn occasions. General Observations on the Race.—Although the INTELLECT OF THE AFRICAN. I9I true Negroes occupied but a small portion of the Afri- can continent, the infusion of their blood into their Hamitic and Semitic neighbors, resulting in the Ne- groid type, was to such a degree that these mixed stocks became assimilated in character much more to the black than to the white race, and were brought ap- proximately to the mental level of the former. Neither the Negroes nor the Negroids ever carried Out a conquest of lands occupied by the Hamites or Semites. We have vague histories of bloody wars on a large scale among themselves, and the erection of apparently powerful monarchies, but which soon fell to pieces.” The low intellectual position of the Austafrican race is revealed by the facts that in no part of the continent did its members devise the erection of walls of stone; that they domesticated no animal, and developed no important food-plant; that their religions never rose above fetichism, their governments above despotism, their marriage relations above polygamy. It is true that many of them practise agriculture and the pas- toral life, but it is significant that the plants which they especially cultivate, the “durra " or sorghum, millet, rice, yams, manioc, and tobacco, were introduced from Asia, Europe or America.” Their cattle and sheep are descended from the ancient stocks domesticated by the Egyptians, and differ from those represented on the * These traditions are briefly presented by de Quatrefages, Aſist. Gen. des A'aces Aſumaines, pp. 37 I, Sqq. * Grandel, Ethnography, p. 335. I92 THE AUSTAIFRICAN RACE. early monuments of Assyria and India. The brick- built cities of the Sudan were constructed under Arab influence, and the ruins of stone towers and walls in the gold-bearing districts of South Africa show clear traces of Semitic workmanship.” The knowledge of smelting and forging iron is of ancient date through- out Africa, and they can temper steel with skill, but the art of the smith is regarded as degrading, and their long acquaintance with this most useful of met- als has not lifted them from a condition of barbarism.f In many of the useful arts they reveal considerable skill. The weaving of grass into mats and cloth, the tanning and working of leather, the preparation of salt and soap, dyeing and pottery, are Occupations which are wide spread. The true negroes are passionately fond of music, singing and dancing, and the invention of one instrument, the marimba, which is played by beating wooden keys with a stick, is attributed to them. The tendency of the negro race in Africa is that which we observe among negro children in the public schools of the United States. Their powers develop quite as rapidly as those of white children up to a cer- tain point, up to the age of thirteen or fourteen; but then there comes a diminution, often a cessation, of * These are found in Bechuana land at Zimbabye. See John Mac- kenzie, Austral Africa, Vol. I., p. 35 (London, 1887.) t Except the Bushman and Hottentots and Negrillos, all the Afri- can tribes seem to have long known the working of iron. See Dr. F. Delisle, “Sur la Fabrication du fer dans l'Afrique Equatoriale,” in the Revue d’ Ethnographie. 1884, p. 465, x NEGROES IN AMERICA. I93 their mental development. The physical overslaughs the psychical, and they turn away from the pursuit of culture. They are unwilling to undertake, they are unequal to, the more arduous intellectual tasks. I have already remarked that the Austafricans never of their own volition made any serious inroad into the territory of the white race. Yet there are to-day prob- ably more than twenty millions of them, including the mulattoes, living among the whites, seven millions of whom are in the United States. This extraordinary condition is the result of the enormous deportation of the blacks as slaves, which has been going on for thou- Sands of years. The origin of the negroes in the United States may be traced partly by the physical appearance, partly by the few words of their mother tongues which have survived the acquisition by them of the English lan- guage. These words are generally connected with the Mande stem of tongues spoken by the Mandingoes and their neighbors, whom I have already referred to as dwelling in Senegambia and the Western Sudan.* They were a nation of some importance, and having early become in great part adherents of the Moham- medan faith, established the monarchy of Melli, which in the thirteenth century extended from Timbuctoo to the coast, and forced many of the subjected tribes to learn the Mande tongue. * On the geographical domain of the Mandingoes, see a careful note by Dr. Toutain in the A’evue d' Athnographie, 1886, p. 515. 13 Scheme of the Asian Race. 1. Chinese Group. Chinese, I. Sinitic Branch. { 2. Thibetan. Thibetans, Ladakis, Nepalese, Bhotanese. {* Siamese, Annamese, Cambodians, Cochin-Chi- 3. Indo-Chinese Group. nese, Tonkinese. 1. Tungusic Gröup. Tungus, Manchus. 2. Mongolic Group. Mongols, Kalmucks. e } Turcomans, Yakouts, Turks (Osmanli), Usbeck, Kirghis, 3. Tartaric Group. Cossacks, Huns. II. Sibiric Branch. !” Lapps, Esthonians, Ugrians, Magyars, Mordvins, Samoyeds, Ostyaks, Voguls, Livonians, Karelians. ſº Koraks, Kamschatkans, Namollos, Ghiliaks, Ainos. - l6. Japanese Group. Japanese, Koreans. 4. Finnic Group. 5. Arctic Group. A "^ L. § LECTURE VII. THE ASIAN RACE. CONTENTS.–Physical geography of Asia. Physical traits of the Race. Its branches. I. THE SINITIC BRANCH. Sub-divisions. 1. The Chinese, Origin and early migrations. Psychical elements. Arts. Religions. Philosophers. Late migrations. 2. The Thibetan Group. Char- acter. Physical traits. Tribes, 3. The Indo-Chinese Group. Members. Character and culture. II. THE SIBIRIC BRANCH. Synonyms. Location. Physical ap- pearance. I. The Tungusic Group. Members. Location. Char- acter. 2. Mongolic Group. Migrations. 3. The Tartaric Group. History. Language. Customs. 4. The Finnic Group. Origin and migrations. Physical traits. Boundaries of the Siberic Peo- ples. The “Turanian " theories. 5. The Arctic Group. Mem- bers. Location. Physical traits. 6. The Japanese Group. Mem- bers. Location. History. Culture. The Koreans. IF you observe the relief of the continent of Asia, you will note that from the lofty plateau of Pamir, called by the orientals “The Roof of the World,” two tremendous mountain chains diverge, the one to the northeast, finally reaching the sea of Ochotsk, the other to the southeast, meeting the southern Ocean on the west of the bay of Bengal. The region between them is one of high and arid table lands, intersected by mountain ranges, and giving birth to streams which flow in circuitous courses to the eastern Sea. (195) I96 THE ASIAN RACE. Along the coast the land sinks to alluvial plains, and north of this triangle, the endless forests, steppes, and “tundras '' of Siberia and Turkestan continue to the Arctic sea. The region thus described is the continent of Asia in the proper geological and zoölogical sense; the val- leys of the Oxus, of Mesopotamia, and the land to the west of them, properly belong to Europe, and in fact, are included by naturalists in that continent, under the name “Eurasia.” Asia proper is thus divided into two contrasted geographical areas, that of the table-lands and moun- tains on the south, and that of the plains on the north. These features have been decisive in directing the mi- grations of its inhabitants, and to some extent in mod- ifying their traits. The vast majority, however, are distinctly recognizable members of one race, which has been variously termed the Asiatic, the Mongolian, Or the Yellow race. Physical Traits of the Asian Race.—As the last mentioned adjective intimates, the prevailing color is yellowish, tending in different regions toward a brown or white, but never reaching the clear white of the western European. The hair is straight, coarse and black, abundant on the head, scanty on the face, al- most absent on the body. The stature is medium or undersized, the legs thin, and the muscular power in- ferior to that of the Eurafrican race. The skull has a tendency to the globular form (meso- or brachyceph- * Cf. A. R. Wallace, Geographical Distribution of Animals. 98.I ºd ºđđoºvTsy GNV v IsvºŁngſ GIO L’HVHO OIN HÆGT $ º ſº ºs 7a//// d { {{ $s«»,e^• DIVISIONS OF ASIAN RACE. I97 alic), the face is round, the cheek bones prominent, the nose flat at the bridge and depressed at the ex- tremity, the eyes are small and black, and the lids do not open fully at the inner angle, giving the peculiar appearance known as the oblique or Mongolian eye. This last trait is not uncommon in the children of Europeans, but it is generally outgrown. It is in the adult an arrest of muscular development, although in Some instances it seems related to the bony confirma- tion of the Orbit.* Subdivisions.—These are the general traits of the Asian race, recurring more or less prominently wherever its members of pure descent are found. It is divisible, however, into two branches, correspond- ing roughly with the two geographical divisions of the continent to which I have alluded. The first of these branches. I call the Sinitic, from the old Greek form of the word China, the other the Sibiric, an adjective from the proper orthography of the name Siberia (Sibiria). These branches are contrasted not only in geographical location, but quite as much so in language. The Sinitic peoples speak isolating, tonic, monosyllabic languages, while the tongues of the Sibi- ric population are polysyllabic and agglutinative. I. THE SINITIC BRANCH. This branch includes the people of the Chinese em- pire and Farther India. They are separable into three groups:— * This is Mantegazza's opinion, Archivio per l’Antropologia, 1888, p. I2I, Sq. . I98 THE ASIAN RACE. I. The Chinese proper; 2. The Thibetans; and 3. The Indo-Chinese of Siam, Anam, Burmah, and Cochin China. The languages of all these have peculiar features and such affinities that they all point to one ancestral stock. I. The Chinese. The population of China as we know it at present is the result of a fusion of a number of tribes of con- nected lineage. Those who claim the purest blood relate that somewhere about five thousand years ago their ancestors came from the vicinity of the Kuen-lun mountains, east of the Plateau of Pamir, and follow- ing the head waters of the Hoang-ho and Yang-tse- Kiang entered the northwestern province of China, Shen-si. Here they found a savage people, the Lolo and the Miaotse, whom they subjected or drove out, and pursuing the river valleys, reached the fertile low- lands along the coast. Their authentic annals begin about 2350 B. C. Even then they had attained a re- spectable stage of civilization, being a stable popula- tion, devoted to agriculture, acquainted with bronze, possessing domestic animals, and constructors of cities. The hoariest traditions speak of the cultivation of the “six field fruits,” which were three kinds of millet, barley, rice, and beans. The sorghum, wheat, and oats now common in parts of China are of compara- tively recent introduction. ORIGIN OF CHINESE ARTS. I99 It is interesting to inquire whether these ancient arts possessed by the Chinese were self-developed, or were borrowed in part from the Eurafrican peoples of Iran or Mesopotamia. The former opinion is that defended hy Peschel and some other ethnographers. They claim that the culture of the Chinese was developed independently in the secluded and fertile valleys of their great rivers, and owed nothing to the evolution of other civilizations until commerce and travel brought them together within historic times. The in- dividual character of Chinese ancient culture speaks strongly for this view ; certainly the Chinese system of writing is one based entirely on their range and method of thought; their domestic animals are of va- rieties formerly unknown in western Asia ; and the growth of many undoubted local industries, silk for instance, for which they were celebrated in the days of the prophet Ezekiel, prove an ancient capacity for self- development not inferior to the Eurafrican race. On the other hand, their astronomical system, which was in use 2300 B.C., is practically identical with that of the Arabs and Indo-Aryans, and points for its ori- gin to the Chaldees of Babylonia. In later days, that is, since the beginning of our era, undoubtedly much that has been looked upon as the outcrop of Chinese culture is due to the Indo-Aryans. My own conclu- sion is that in all important elements the ancient Chi- nese civilization was a home product, a spontaneous growth of an intellectually gifted people, but one whose capacity of development was limited, and that 2OO THE ASIAN RACE. © later generations were satisfied to borrow and appro- priate from the nations with whom commerce brought them into contact. This insufficiency of development is the weak point of Chinese character, and is strikingly illustrated by the little use they made of important discoveries. They were acquainted as early as I21 A. D. with the power of the magnet to point to the north; but the needle was never used in navigation, but only as a toy. They manufactured powder long before the Euro- peans, but only to put it in fire-crackers. They in- vented printing with movable type in the eleventh century, but never adopted it in their printing offices. They have domesticated cattle for thousands of years, but do not milk the cows nor make butter. Paper money has been in circulation for centuries, but the scales and weight still decide the value of gold and silver, coins of these precious metals being unknown. Their technical skill in the arts is astonishing, but the inspiration of the beautiful is wholly absent. These historic facts disclose the psychical elements of Chinese character. Its fundamental traits are so- briety, industry, common sense, practicality. The Chinaman regards solely what is visibly useful, mate- rially beneficial. His arts and sciences, his poems and dramas, his religions and philosophies, all revolve around the needs and pleasures of his daily life. Such terms as altruism, the ideal, the universal, have for him no sort of meaning, and an explanation of them he would look upon as we do on the emptiest s \-S, RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 2OI subtleties of the schoolmen—a chimera bombinans in vacuo. Such an action as the martyr dying to atone for the sins of others he could understand only as the action of a deranged mind. Their mental character is well shown in their reli- gions. Originally, the Chinese combined a simple worship of the powers of nature with that of the spirits of their ancestors. The principal deity was Tien, the Heaven or Sky, in union with whom was the Earth, and from this union all nature proceeded. This nat- ural and sexual dualism extended through all things. The affairs of life are governed by countless demons and spirits, whose tempers should be propitiated by offerings and prayers. Days and seasons are auspi- cious or the reverse, and most of the rites at present in use are divinatory rather than devotional. The Buddhist religion was introduced into China about two centuries before Christ, and was officially re- cognized as a state cult by the Emperor Ming-ti in the year 65 A. D. Its spirit is, however, quite differ- ent from the Buddhism of Ceylon, as it has degener- ated into a polytheism, a worship of the Bodhisattvas, or saints who have reached the highest stage of perfec- tion, and might enter Nirvana, but do not, out of com- passion for men. In general, it may be said that the phi- losophical and moral principles taught in the Buddhis- tic classics are not known and would not be admitted as representing their faith by Chinese Buddhists.” * D’Escayrac de Lauture, Memoires sur la Chine, Religion, p. 64 (Paris, 1877). - 2O2 THE ASIAN RACE. The teachings of the celebrated philosopher, Confu- cius (Con-fu-tse), which are a substitute for religion among the most intelligent Chinese, are in reality wholly agnostic. He declined to express himself on any question relating to the gods or the possible after life of the soul, asserting that the practical interests of this life and the duties of a man to his family and the state are numerous enough and clear enough to Occupy one's whole time. When asked for some model or code of such duties, he replied by the sententious ex- pression “When you are chopping out an axe-handle, the model is near you,” meaning that it is in the hand, and that in a similar manner in practical life we al- ways have the rule of right action in our own mind, if we choose to look for it. The Second great philosopher of China was Lao-tse, who lived in the generation following Confucius (about 500 B. C.). His doctrine was pantheistic and obscure, and his writings are considered the most diffi- cult to decipher of all the old Chinese classics. Nor can his doctrine be called a religion. It was rather a mystical speculation on the universe. All-Being, he taught, is born of Not-Being, and existence, therefore, is an illusion. Practically, all religions are looked upon as equally true. The Confucian will frequent the Buddhist tem- ples, and the Buddhist priest will perform rites in the “house of reason,” as the Confucian holy place is termed; or he will distribute tracts for the Christian missionaries. The government is absolutely neutral RELIGIONS IN CHINA. 2O3 in all religious questions, and the persecutions which have been carried on against the Christian mission- aries have not been the promptings of fanaticism, but dislike of foreigners and suspicion of their intentions. The official documents of the Chinese government speak with equal contempt of every form of religion, and the rulers would never dream of interfering in any such question.* Many of the Chinese are Mohammedans, Islam hav- ing been introduced by sea and land within the first century of the Hegira. The Chinese converts learn to repeat the Koran in Arabic, as it has not been trans- lated into their tongue; but few understand much of it. Their rites and doctrines are learned by the ver- bal instruction of their religious teachers. The Chi- nese Mohammedans, however, recognize as their chief ruler the Khalif or Sultan, and not the Emperor at Pekin, and hence the bloody revolutions which have from time to time broken out among them. Christianity was introduced by the Nestorians in the eighth century, and now may be freely taught in any part of the realm. It has, however, had little success. There are perhaps half a million Roman Catholic and Protestant members. They belong to the lowest classes, and can occupy no official position, owing to the conflict of their dogmas with the teachings of Con- fucius and the agnostic principles of the government. Within the last generation or two the Chinese have * D'Escayrac de Lauture, Memoires sur la Chine, Religion, pp. 18–20 (Paris, 1877). 2O4. THE ASIAN RACE. displayed an unwonted desire for emigration. They have swept down in hundreds of thousands on the islands of Malasia, Australia, the Sandwich Islands, Mexico, and the United States. We have as a nation felt so impotent before them that, in open contradic- tion to the principles of our government we have closed our ports to them, and warned them from our shores. This feeble and ignoble policy is a disgrace to us. Far better to admit them, and to train earnest men among us in the Chinese language and customs, so that these foreigners could be brought to a knowledge of the superiority of our religions and institutions, and thus be united with us in the advancement of mankind. 2. The Thibetan Group. The mountain-ringed land of Thibet is an arid region from IO,OOO to 20,000 feet in height, thickly inhabited by a people whose principal interests in life are religious. It is the centre of northern Buddhism, and at the holy city of Lhasa the living incarnation of the founder of that cult is supposed to live. In the numerous monasteries, some on almost inaccessible mountain sides, tens of thousands of monks pass their lives in religious exercises. They are vowed to celi- bacy, and throughout the land it is looked upon as a distinct degradation to marry. The natural result is that the relations of the sexes are relaxed, and their morals debased. Polygamy is not uncommon, and in Thibet, more than anywhere else, we find the peculiar institution of polyandry, where a woman has two, FARTHER INDIA. 2O5 three or four recognized husbands. It is usual for several brothers thus to have the same wife. The women are small but well made, and exercise an unusual control in the affairs of life. The physical traits of both sexes are Mongolian, though the eyes are rarely oblique. The culture is rather low, the Thibetan not being an ardent agriculturist, but prefer- ring the pastoral life. He milks his cows and makes butter, which with hides and fleece, leather and some local fabrics, are his principal articles of trade. In the Himalayan valleys to the south are several nations in which the Asian blood dominates, such as the Ladakis of Cashmere, the Nepalese, the inhabi- tants of Bhotan and numerous others. They are gen- erally mixed with Dravidian or Aryac blood, but speak dialects of the Sinitic type. 3. The ſmdo-Chinese Group. The regions we call Farther India and Cochin China are at present inhabited by peoples speaking tonic, monosyllabic languages, who are, however, generally of mixed descent. Some of them have crimpled hair and a dark complexion, suggesting the presence of some Nigritic blood; others have features more Aryac than Mongolian, hinting at an ancient fusion of Hin- doostanee strains. These form the modern nations of |Rirma, Siam, Annam, Cambodia, Tonkin, and Cochin China. * * The Birmans have a well marked round head (about 83°), oblique eyes, prominent cheek bones, and 2O6 THE ASIAN RACE. are of medium stature and sturdy. Their color is a brownish yellow or olive. In religion they are Budd- hists, but they are by no means celebrated for honesty and morality. By a curious freak of fashion, the dress of the women is open in front, but it is the height of immodesty to show the naked foot. The Siamese call themselves “Thai,” under which designation come also the Laos. They are a mild mannered people, without much energy, but willing to be taught. The Annamese and Tonkinese are somewhat su- perior in culture to their neighbors, and of well marked Asiatic physiognomy. The Cambodians, called Khmers, are a mixed people, descended partly from Mongolian ancestry, partly from Dravidian and Aryac conquerors who occupied their country about the third century, and left behind remarkable vestiges of their presence in ruins of vast temples and stone- built pal- a CéS. * - II. THE SIBIRIC BRANCH. The branch of the Asian race which I have called the Sibiric, as geographically designating its pre- historic home, has also been called the Turanian, the Ural-Altaic, the Finno-Ugric, the Mongolic, etc. Its geographical location is north of the Altai range, and the Caspian and Black seas, and from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean. The languages of all its members are polysyllabic and agglutinative, contrasting as much with the Sinitic stock on the one hand as with § THE SIBIRIC TYPE. 2O7 the Aryac on the other. In physical appearance in- dividuals of reasonably pure descent present good specimens of the Asian type, the skull brachycephalic, the face round, the nose flat at the root, the eye small and black, the hair straight and coarse, the color yel- lowish. They are divided into many tribes, most of whom were until recently addicted to a wandering pastoral life, and though on the lower levels of culture and without coherent social bonds, they have at times loomed up as the most powerful and pretentious fig- ures in the history of the world. Furthest to the east is I. The Tungusic Group, Which occupies the coast from the northern boundary of China to Kamschatka, and westward to the Yenis- sei river. It embraces the Manchus and the Tun- gus. The former, a bold hardy people, possessed themselves of the throne of China early in the seven- teenth century, and continue to rule it by a military despotism, adapted with consummate skill to the pe- culiarities of Chinese character. This has led to an extensive fusion of Sinitic blood among the Manchus, and also an improvement in their social status. They have become Buddhists, and their language is losing ground before the Chinese. - The Tungus to the north of them, inhabiting a vast district of forest, swamp and mountain, east of the Yenissei river, are of ruder life. They depend for subsistence on the chase and on their large herds 2O8 THE ASIAN RACE. of reindeer. In religion they adhere to the worship of the powers of nature, and are under the control of their priests or “shamans.” They present a well marked Asiatic type, a brachycephalic skull (81°), round face and oblique eyes, the hair coarse and straight, the beard scanty. In stature they are of medium height, strongly built, and the senses of sight and hearing unusually keen. Like most nations dwelling in or near the Arctic zone, the disposition of the Tungus is decidedly cheer- ful and affable. He is hospitable to strangers, and honorable in his dealings. In habits, however, he has no notion of cleanliness, and the Tatar name applied to him—tongus, hog-expresses what his not over-nice neighbors think of his mode of life. The tribes were subjected to the Russian domina- tion about 1650, and have been gradually improving their condition. A portion of them called Lamuts. reside on the sea of Ochotsk, and have fixed villages with houses built in the Russian style.* 2. The Mongolic Group had their original home in Mongolia, a vast arid coun- try south of the Altai range, and west of Manchuria. Before the Christian era they had extended north be- yond the mountains and occupied the land around Lake Baikal, whence they proceeded easterly, and un- der the name of Kalmucks have settled quite to the * A. F. Rittich, Die Ethnographie Russlands, ss, 20–24. * .* . 3. MONGOL CONQUERORS. 209 river Volga. Few c.f them are agriculturists, it being their preference to wander over the pastures with their flocks. Their religion is a debased form of Buddhism grafted on their ancient fetichism. In physical type they are true Asiatics, and are of a restless, warlike disposition. In the extended region which they inhabit, stretch- ing over seventy degrees of longitude, they have had space to multiply until their numbers once became a menace to all other nations of the Eurasian continent. Under Genghis Khan, in the beginning of the thir- teenth century, they poured down in countless hordes on the cultivated nations of Asia and Europe, and in a few years established a monarchy, the then greatest in the world. About a century later his descendant, the sanguinary Tamerlane, swept Asia from the Indian Ocean to the Arctic circle; and at the close of yet an- other century Baber, of the same redoubted lineage, founded the empire of the Great Mogul (Mongol) in India, extending from the Indus to the Ganges. Based, however, on despotism, barbarism and fanaticism, these gigantic states disappeared in a few generations, leaving scarcely a trace of their existence except the ruins of the higher civilizations which they had destroyed. - 3. The Tataric Group. Derived its name from the Chinese word ta-ta, and is incorrectly written Tartar. Another Chinese name applied to them was Tu-kiu, from which is derived our word “Turk.” I4. 2 IO THE ASIAN RACE. The earliest home of the Tatars or Turks was in Turkestan, north of the Plateau of Pamir and in the immediate vicinity of the Persian Aryans. Long be- fore the beginning of the Christian era their preda- tory bands had repeatedly invaded the territory of the Aryans and the Semites, and quite down to two cen- turies ago the states which they had founded were looked upon with dread by the mightiest potentates of Europe. The Chinese annals speak of their inroads into that empire more than 200 years before our era. At the period of the migration of nations which accompanied the dismemberment and fall of the RO- man Empire, the Tatars appeared frequently in Eu- rope, always as ruthless devastators. Attila, “the scourge of God,” with his bands of Huns, the Avari, and the Bulgari, who followed in his wake, the Turco- mans and the Cossacks, and finally the Osmanli Turks whose descendants now govern European and Asiatic Turkey, and whose Sultan is the political head of the Mohammedan world, all belong in this group. It is needless to say that in these rovings they have undergone much admixture. The modern Turk has more of the blood of the Semite and the Circassian in his veins than of his Tartar ancestors; but his language has maintained a singular purity, and the Tartar hun- ter, the Jakout, in the delta of the Lena on the frozen Ocean, finds no difficulty in understanding its ordinary expressions. The Jakout speaks indeed the purest and most ancient form of the idiom, “The Sanscrit of the Tatar,” as it has been called by Friedrich Müller. COSSA CIKS AND TATARS. 2 II The peculiarity of this language is that it has a law of vocalic harmony, by which the various suffixes added to the root change the vowels they contain in accordance with the vowel of the root. It has not Only a pleasing sound, but superior flexibility and an unusual capacity to express fine shades of meaning. It is, however, losing ground both in Europe and Asia, as are all the agglutinative languages. - Next to the Turks, the Cossacks and Kirghis Tatars are prominent members of the stock. They are closely related, being branches of the same dialectic family. The former wander over the steppes between the Sea of Aral and the main chain of the Altai. It is not known when they occupied this region, but it was within historic times, and they drove from it a people of higher civilization, acquainted with the use of bronze and brass, and dwellers in cities.* The Kir- ghis themselves build no houses, but dwell in felt tents called “yourts.” They did not cultivate the soil, de- riving their food from their flocks and herds, but of late years have begun a careless agriculture. In re- ligion they profess Mohammedanism, but in reality they cling to their ancient Shamanistic superstitions. 4. The Finnic Group Has lived for certainly two thousand years or more in Northern Europe. Tt is mentioned by Tacitus, and its traditions as well as its dialects support this antiquity. * Nicholas Seeland, “Les Kirghis,” in Revue d’ Anthropologie, 1886, p. 27. 2I2 THE ASIAN RACE. That it ever extended, as many theorists pretend, into Central or Southern Europe, may now be dismissed as an obsolete hypothesis, disproved by craniological studies and a closer scrutiny of the alleged linguistic resemblances which have been urged. The probabil- ity is that the Finns and Lapps had the same ancestors as the Samoyeds of Northern Siberia, who once lived on the upper streams of the Yenissei in the Sajanic mountains and around Lake Baikal. The Laplanders are said still to retail, some reminiscence of the migra- tion, and the verbal affinities of the Finnic and Samo- yedic demonstrate an early relationship.” The eastern members of the group are the Ugrians in the government of Tobolsk, some tribes on the Volga, and the Permians on the Kama river (an afflu- ent of the Volga). The Magyars of Hungary are a branch of the Ugrians who possessed themselves of the land in the ninth century, and who still retain their language, not remote from the Finnish. The present Finnland was first occupied by the Lapps or Laplanders, who were driven northward and westward by bands continually arriving from the east. The Finns, who call themselves “Suomi,” which is the same as the initial syllables of “Samo-yed,” are subdivided into the Esthonians and Livonians on the Baltic, south of the Gulf of Finland, the Tavastes, Karelians, and others to the north. The physical type of the members of the Finnic * The best recent authority is Dr. Heinrich Winkler, Urala/taische Völker und Sprachen. (Berlin, 1884.) I'IN NS AND LAPPS. 2I3 group has given rise to much discussion. Many indi- viduals are blondes, with light hair and eyes, and with dolichocephalic skulls. Such are especially numerous among the Esthonians, Karelians, and Tavastes. But it must be remembered that for two or three thousand years these tribes have been in contact with the blonde and dolichocephalic type of the Aryans, represented by the ancient Teutonic and Slavonic groups (see Lect. V). It is not in the least surprising therefore to find the Finnic group everywhere deeply infused with Aryac blood. Even the remote Lapps are no exception. Nominally there are 25,000 or more of them. But Prince Roland Bonaparte says as the re- sult of his recent observations among them, “Pure Lapps no longer exist;” and when this is true of that isolated people, how much more is it of the tribes in closer proximity to the Eurafrican race? We may conclude with Professor Keane that the genuine traits of the Finnic group are “fundamentally and typically Mongolic,” i. e., Sibiric.; There is no reason to suppose that any of the Sibi- ric peoples extended southerly in Asia or Europe much beyond their present boundaries. It has been a mania with many ethnographers, especially linguistic eth- nographers, to discover “ Turanian ’’ peoples and di- alects in numerous parts of southern and central Eu- rope. They would have it that the Basques, the Etrus- * AVote on the Zaffs of Finnmark, p. 8. (Paris, 1886.) * A. H. Keane, Journal of the Anthropological /ustitute, Vol. XV., p. 218. 2I4. THE ASIAN RACE. cans, the Ligurians, ihe Pelasgians, were “Turanian;” that the prehistoric inhabitants of Palestine, the Hitt- ites, and the Shepherd Kings of Egypt, were also of this ilk. They are like those other ethnographers who find “Mongoloid "indications everywhere, in America, in Polynesia, even among the Bushmen of South Africa. As Friedrich Müller says of these writers, “Mongolian * is a sack into which everything is crammed by them. There is no true science in catch- ing at superficial resemblances or exalting remote an- alogies while fixed distinctions are disregarded. 5. The Arctic Group. In northeastern Siberia, close to the Arctic circle, and occupying the territory between the Pacific and Arctic Oceans, dwell a number of tribes in a condition of barbarism. Their languages are in general form of the Sibiric type; their physical traits vary, indicating frequent admixture. In color they are rather dark, and the skull is generally slightly dolichocephalic. Of these the Chukchis occupy the extreme north- east of the continent. Nordenskjold, who saw much of them, considers them the mixed descendants of va- rious tribes, driven from more hospitable regions to the south.* Some of them have a marked Mongolic as- pect, but the majority differ from that type. They are yellowish-brown in color, prominent nose, tall in stature, and well built. They are active hunters and * N. A. E. de Nordenskjold, in Revue d’ F’thmographie, 1884, p. 402; also A. F. Rittich, ZXie Zthnographie Russland s. I2 (Gotha, 1878). EAST CAPE PEOPLE. 2I5 fishermen. The Namollos are a sedentary branch of the Chukchis, and both are related to the Koraks and Kamschatkans. The Namollos live along the Arctic coast, near East Cape, while the Koraks live to the south. “Kora " means “reindeer,” and they are es- sentially the reindeer people, that useful animal being their chief wealth. Close to East Cape, and south- ward along the coast of Behring sea, are Eskimo tribes. They have lived there from the first discovery of the coast, and doubtless long before. Indeed, as far as tradition goes, the movements of the Eskimos have been from America into Asia, and not the reverse, un- til they were driven back by the advancing Chukchis.” The Kamschatkans to the south are of small stature, but strongly formed. They live upon fish, and are skillful in the use of dogs for sleds. They number only about 2000 Souls, and are disappearing. The Ghiliaks live near the mouth of the Amoor river and on the Saghalin islands. They are a mixed people, the cephalic index varying from 74 to 85; some of them have abundant beards, which is very rare among the pure Asiatics.i. - * I have followed in this obscure subject W. H. Dall, “On the so- called Chukchi and Namoilo People of Eastern Siberia " in the American Maturalist, 1881, p. 857. Rittich says, erroneously, that the Namollos are not related to the Chukchis. (Die Ethnographie Russland, s. 15.) The relationship of the Chukchi, Korak and Kamschatkan is demonstrated by Heinrich Winkler, Uralaltáische Völker und Sprachen, s. 120. f J. Deniker, Les Ghiliaks d'affrès les derniers Atenseignements, pp. 5, 17. (Paris, 1884.) 216 THE ASIAN RACE. The Aleutians, who occupy the long chain of islands reaching from Kamschatka to Alaska, are of medium height, flat nose, black eyes and hair, and meso- cephalic. They belong to the American, not to the Asian race. Most of these peoples speak tongues differing widely among themselves, but of the agglutinative type. They are in no way related to the American languages, and are equally remote from the Mongolian. 6. The Japanese Group. The Japanese cannot claim purity of descent. Their complexion and frequent crisp or wavy hair indicate that their Asian origin has been modified by other blood. They were not the earliest inhabitants of the archipelago they occupy, but moved into it probably about a thousand years before the Christian era.” The immigrants seem from some linguistic evidence to have come from Manchuria or Mongolia, and to have found upon the islands a different people, the Ainos (properly Ainu) remarkable for their heavy beards and hairy persons. These have now been driven to the northernmost portion of the archipelago, where about I2OO of them still reside. It was long thought that the languages of the Ainos and Japanese have some affinities, but except in loan words and a general phonetic resemblance, this has now been dis- * The date of the foundation of the Japanese ecclesiastical empire is put at 660 B.C. D'Escayrac de Lauture, Za Chine et les Chinois, Vol. I, p. 17. JAPANESE TRAITS. 3. 217 proved. The Ainos seem physically related to the Ghiliaks, and came from the north and west. They are supposed to have been the first occupants of the Kurile islands. Like other mixed peoples, the Japanese vary so much in height, form of skull, hue and bodily propor- tion, that it is impracticable to set up any fixed type for them, further than to say that their general Asiatic aspect is usually unmistakable to the trained eye.* In mental qualities they are gifted, being intelligent, artistic, brave, kind, and honorable, fully alive to the benefits of a high civilization, and able to accept with profit all that the western world has to offer.; They are monogamists, and the position of woman has al- ways been respected among them. The prevailing religion is the Shintoism or worship of the powers of nature, but Buddhism, introduced in the 7th century, has also many votaries. At heart, however, they are an irreligious people, like the Chinese, and are un- concerned about the ideal and the mystical. Many of their arts, like that of writing, were at first learned from the Chinese; but they have improved upon them, and given them other directions, as in the develop- ment of their phonetic from the Chinese syllabic alphabet. * For details, see Hovelacque et Hervé, Precis d’ Anthropologie, p. 468–470. - t An admirable analysis of the physical traits of the Japanese will be found in the Journal of Speculative Philosophy, Vol. VI., written by Benjamin Smith Lyman, long a resident among them. 2I8 THE ASIAN RACE. Japanese art has attracted in recent years the ad- miration of the European world, and many motives in it have been accepted by our lovers of decorative effects. It is indeed wonderful in its technical finish, and its theory of composition has novelties which are worthy of imitation, but it is devoid of that something which we call the ideal; and its canon of proportion of the human body has never been developed to approach the classical models. There is an extensive literature in the Japanese tongue. Most of it deals with practical subjects, and even the poetry is usually didactic in spirit. The Koreans seem originally to have come from the same stock as the ancestors of the Japanese. They are of more positive Asiatic type, and are a mixed people, the ruling class (the Kaoli) having conquered the peninsula in the second century before our era. They closely resemble the LOOchoo islanders, and doubtless are consanguine with them. Their indus- tries are similar to those of Japan, which country, indeed, obtained many of its arts from China by way of the Korean peninsula. - LECTURE VIII. INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. CONTENTs.-Variability of islanders and coast peoples. Physical geography of Oceanica. Ethnographic divisions. I. THE NEGRITIC STOCK. Subdivisions. I. The Negritic Group. Members. Former extension. Physical aspect. Culture. 2. The Papuan Group. Location. Physical traits. Culture and lan- guage. 3. The Melanesian Group. Physical traits. Habits. Languages. Ethnic affinities of Papuas and Melanesians. II. THE MALAYIC STOCK. Location. Subdivisions. Affinities with the Asian Race and original home. I. The Western or Malayan Group. Physical traits. Character. Extension. Cul- ture. Presence in Hindostan. 2. The Eastern or Polynesian Group. Physical traits. Migrations. Character and culture. Easter Island. - III. THE AUSTRALIC STOCK. Affinities between the Australians and Dravidians. I. The Australian Group. Tasmanians and Australians. Physical traits. Culture. 2. The Dravidian Group. Early extension. Members. Culture. Languages. BEFORE proceeding to the ethnography of the Amer- ican continent, I would have you take a rapid survey of the inhabitants of that extensive archipelago whose islands are thickly dotted in the Indian and Pacific oceans, and ascertain as far as may be the relation- ship in which they stand to the population of the ad- jacent coasts. It was Darwin's theory that the distant progenitor of man was an amphibious marine animal, and cer- (219) II. Malayic Stock. | Scheme of Insular aud. Littoral Peoples. Mincopies, Aetas, Schobaengs, Mantras, Semangs, Sa- Natives of Feejee Islands, New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, New Hebrides, etc. Malays, Sumatrese, Javanese, Battaks, Dayaks, Macas- I. Malayan Group. sars, Tagalas, H * , Tagalas, Hovas (of Madagascar). 2. Polynesian Group. Polynesians, Micronesians, Maoris. I. Negritic Stock. | III. Australic Stock. } | kaies. 2. Papuan Group. Papuas, New Guineans. 1. Negrito Group. 3. Melanesian Group. } 1. Australian Group. Tasmanians, Australians. {". Tamuls, Telugus, Canarese, Malayalas, Todas, 2. Dravidian group. Khonds, Mundas, Santals, Kohls, Bhillas. § EFFECTS OF ISLANDS. 22T tainly from earliest times he has had a predilection for water-ways and the sea-coast. The lines of these have always directed his wanderings, and it is not surprising therefore that nowhere do we find the physical types of the race so confusingly amalgamated as in the insular littoral peoples. Not only is transit easier in these localities, but on islands especially there is a more rapid intermingling and a closer interbreeding than is apt to occur in continental areas. This not only blends types, but it has another effect. It is well known from observation on the lower animals that s11ch close unions result in the formation of more plastic organisms, liable to present wide variations, and to develop into contrasting characters.” This holds good also of mental products. For instance, you might suppose that the dialects of the same island Or the same small archipelago would offer very slight differences. The reverse is the case. In the same area the dialects of an island differ far more than on the mainland. This is a fact well known to linguists, and is parallel to the physical variations.# The ethno- grapher, therefore, is prepared to attach less impor- tance to corporeal and linguistic differences in insular than in continental peoples. * This subject has been presented with great amplitude of illus- tration by the late Moritz Wagner. See Die Entstehung der Artem durch ràum/ic/e Sonderung, Basel, 1889. f Dr. Finsch, for instance, mentions that on the little island of Tanna, in Melanesia, nearly every village has a dialect unintelligible to its neighbors. Anthrop. Ergebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, s. 38. (Berlin, 1884.) 222 IN SULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. Physical Geography of Oceanica.-The island world of the Indian and Pacific Oceans is divided geologi- cally into two regions, Australasia and Polynesia. The former, as its name denotes, is really a South- easterly prolongation of the continent of Asia, and was united to it in late tertiary times. The huge islands of Sumatra, Java and Borneo are separated from the Malayan and Siamese peninsulas by chan- nels scarcely a couple of hundred feet deep; and from these a chain of islands extends uninterruptedly to the semi-continent of Australia. All these islands are of tertiary formation, and the subsidence which separated them from the main took place at the close of that geologic epoch. * The Polynesian islands, on the other hand, are of recent construction. They are submarine towers of coral, erected on the crests of sunken mountain ranges rising on the floor of a profoundly deep sea. Never- theless the flora and fauna of Polynesia resemble that of Australasia in its strongly Asiatic character. The islands of the Indian Ocean present some sin- gular anomalies. Ceylon, though so close to the In-. dian peninsula, is not a geological fragment of it; while Madagascar, though four thousand miles away, was unquestionably once a part of Southern Hindostan.* This, however, was in remote eocene tertiary times, and long before man appeared. The hypothesis, there- * This lost continent is sometimes called Gondwana land, from the recurrence of the Gondwana formation in Hindostan, Madagas- car, and the east coast of Africa. See Suess, ZXas Azutlitz der Ærde, Bd. ii. ANCIENT LEM URIA. 223 fore, advanced by Haeckel and favored by Peschel and other ethnographers, that the Indian Ocean was once filled by the continent “ Lemuria,” and that there man appeared on the globe, must be dismissed so far as man is concerned, as in conflict with more accurate observations. Yet one must acknowledge that it has some plausi- bility from the present ethnography of the islands and coasts of the Indian Ocean. There is a general con- sensus of opinion that the earliest occupants of these regions were an undersized black race, resembling in many respects the negrillos of Austafrica. Upon these was superimposed an Asiatic stock represented by the modern Malays; and the union of these two strains gave rise to the anomalous tribes which occupy South- ern Hindostan, Australia, and some of the islands. This historic scheme, which has a great deal in its favor, permits me to classify the great island-world and its adjacent mainland into three ethnographic categories as represented on the diagram. Of these the most ancient is I. THE NEGRITIC STOCK. This embraces three subdivisions, (I) the Negritos, (2) the Papuas, (3) the Melanesians. 1. The Negrito Group. The Negritos may be called the western branch of the stock. It is noteworthy that they are located nearer to Africa, and that they more distinctly resemble the 224 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. Negrillo stock of that continent than do the Papuas. To them belong the natives of the Andaman Islands known as Mincopies, the Semangs, Mantras, and Sa- kaies of Malacca, the Aetas of the Philippine Islands, and the Schobaengs of the Nicobar Isles.” It is highly probable that they inhabited a large part of Southern Hindostan, perhaps before it was united to the Him- alayan highlands (see p. 88), and some have been re- ported in Formosa. They are believed to have been the original posses- sors of Borneo, Java, Sumatra and the Celebes Islands, as well as parts of Indo-China; but except in some mixed tribes, as the Mois of the latter region, their stock has disappeared from those localities. It is noteworthy that not a trace of their blood has been found in Asia north of the Hindu Cush and Himalaya ranges.f. Some writers have thought that they pro- ceeded along the eastern islands as far north as the Japanese archipelago, and would explain some of the present physical traits of its inhabitants by an ancient infusion of Negritic blood. In physical aspect they are of small stature, not more than one-fourth of the adult males reaching five * The word ača is Malayan, and means “black.” There is some doubt about the Semangs, as some of them are fair. See /ourna/ of the Anthrofological Institute, 1886, p. 429, and compare F. de Castelnau in the Revue de philologie et d' ethnographie, 1876, p. I74, Sq. f The Susians in the lower valley of the Euphrates show in color and hair an infusion of Negro blood, but this is attributable to the introduction of slaves into that region from Africa. (Cf. Revue d” Anthropologie, 1888, p. 79.) THE NIEGRITOS. 225 feet in height; their color is black, hair woolly, nearly beardless, and the body smooth. The nose is flat, the face moderately prognathic, and the skull generally globular (mesocephalic index 80°--81°), but on the Philippines and in Indo-China rather dolichocephalic. Their forms are symmetrical, though they are thin- legged, without calves; their movements agile and graceful.” - - They are averse to culture, and depend on hunting and fishing. As weapons, they know the bow and arrow, the lance, and the sarbacane or blow-pipe, but have not acquired the art of chipping stone. When they use that material, they split it by exposure to fire. They are timid and distrustful of strangers, and they well may be, as they have been pursued remorselessly by slave-catching pirates, and were constantly exposed to the brutal aggressions of their stronger neighbors. The portrait presented of their tribal customs is rather pleasing. The social organization is based on the family, the heads of which elect the tribal chieftain, and their respect for the dead amounts to a religion. Beyond the ancestral worship they have few rites, though some ceremonies are performed to appease the evil spirits, and others at the time of full moon and thunderstorms, and at births and deaths. Among their myths is one relating to a mythical great serpent, * For an excellent study of the Andaman islanders, see E. H. Man, in Journal of Anthropological Institute, Vol. XII., etc. F. Blumen- tritt describes the Negritos of the Philippines with head and features thoroughly Negro like. (AEthnographie der Philippinem, s. 5, Gotha, 1882.) - I5 226 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. who seems to be a beneficent deity, pointing out to them where game abounds, and where the bees have deposited wild honey. They are monogamous, and neither steal nor buy their wives, the lover arranging the matter with his chosen One, and then sending a present to her father. They have learned the luxury of tobacco, and prize it highly, but for alcoholic bever- ages they have no longing. As they are migratory, their house building is limited to shelters of light ma– terials, and for clothing a breech-cloth is sufficient.* In so many respects, geographical as well as phys- ical, do these dwarfish blacks stand between the Negro peoples of Austafrica and Australasia that we are not surprised at the conclusion suggested by Prof. W. H. Flower, that they may be “the primitive type from which the African Negroes on the one hand, and the Melanesians on the other, may have sprung.” f 2. The Papuan Group Is found in its purity on the great island of New * Dr. J. Montano, in A'evue d'Anthropologie, 1886, p. 691 ; F. Blu- mentritt, AEthnographie der Philippinen, s. 7. (Gotha, 1882.) The description applies principally to the Negritos of these islands, where they number about 10,000 persons. f Flower, “On the Osteology and Affinities of the Natives of the Andaman Islands,” in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 1880, p. 132. The same position is taken by James Dallas, in the Pro- ceedings of the British AWaturalists’ Society, 1884. He argues that the Negritos, Papuas and African Negroes belong to one family, the “Melanochroic,” which in view of the continuity and isolation of the region it occupies must originally have been a unit. THE PAPUAS. 227 Guinea and the chains east and west of it, but even there it discloses considerable diversity. In color the Papuas vary from a coal black to a dark brown, their hair is woolly, and there is considerable on the body and face, stature medium, legs thin. Their lips are thick, and the nostrils broad, but the nose is high and curved. Yet the best observers agree that they vary extremely in physiognomy, and that in New Guinea, tribes of equally pure blood have the skull sometimes broad, sometimes long. These variations we may attribute to the influence of insular conditions, or to some intermixture of blood.* - The Papuas belong to the lowest stages of culture. Some of their tribes do not know the bow and arrow, and few of them have any pottery. Their languages are agglutinating, but have this peculiarity, that the modifications of the root are generally by prefixes in- stead of suffixes, in this respect reminding one of the African rather than the Sibiric families of tongues. Their territory includes parts of the New Hebrides, the Loyalty Isles, New Caledonia, Viti, and a variety of smaller groups. These islanders are usually of mixed type, and are known as “Melanesians.” The natives of the Feejee Islands are an excellent specimen * See A. B. Meyer, in Mittheilungen der Wiener Anthropologischem Gesel/schaft, 1874; and A. R. Wallace, Australasia, pp. 452–456. The great diversity in color, hair, etc., is commented on by Dr. O. Finsch, Anthropologische AErgebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, p. 34. The difference is sometimes by villages, some being quite fair and called “white Papuas,” though of pure blood ostensibly. 228 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. of these, and their archipelago forms the dividing line between the Papuan and Polynesian groups.” 3. The Melanesian Group. The Melanesians, of all the islanders, present in individual cases the strongest likeness to the equatorial African Negro; yet among these there is that prevail- ing variability of type so frequent in insular peoples. Their color passes from the black of the typical Negro to the yellow of the Malayan; their hair, generally frizzly, may be quite straight and of any hue from black to blonde. These variations are in individuals or families, and are not owing to mixed blood.j Unlike the Polynesians, the Melanesians are agricul- tural in habits, and sedentary. They build artistically decorated houses, are acquainted with the bow and arrow, occasionally make pottery, and construct shapely canoes, though not given to long voyages. The women are modest and chaste, and their religion is principally a form of ancestral worship. The languages of these islanders betray their com- pound origin. In form and in the pronominal ele- * See Rev. L. Ella, “A Comparison of the Malayan and Papuan Races of Polynesia,” in Proceedings of the Austra/asian Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. I. (1888), p. 484, sq. The author writes from 26 years’ intercourse with the various islanders. He claims that the Papuas “have distinctly African resemblances, habits, customs, languages, and religions.” f These singular facts are fully supported by the studies of Dr. O. Finsch, Anthropologische AErgebnisse einer A’eise in der Sudsee, s. 34; SQ- THE MELAN ESIANS. 229 ments they stand related to the Malayan and Poly- Inesian idioms, and in structure approach sometimes the richness of the former. In the Viti, for example, both prefixes and suffixes are employed, and the possessive is added to the noun. The root words are monosyllables or dissyllables, and drawn from the Papuan idioms, and the phonetics are much richer than the Polynesian. These facts go to show that the Melanesians are physically and linguistically a mixed people, a com- pound of the woolly-haired black Papuas, whom we may suppose to have been the aborigines of Melanesia, with the smooth-haired, light-colored Malays, who reached the archipelago as adventurers and immi- grants. As their tongues form, as it were, the second stratum of structure when compared with the Poly- nesian dialects, we can go a step further and say that the ethnic formation of the Melanesian islanders oc- curred subsequently to the construction of the Poly- nesian physical type and languages.” The ethnic relationship of the various adjoining islanders to the Papuas has been studied by many observers, but its solution has not yet been reached. The Papuas themselves impressed Hale as partly Malayan—“a hybrid race,” + and Virchow calls atten- tion to the fact that a broad zone of wavy-haired peo- * See Fr. Müller, Grundriss der Sºrachwissenschaft, Bd. II., Ab. II., S. I60. f Horatio Hale, Æthnog. and Philol. of the U. S. Axploring Æx- fed., p. 44. 23O INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. ples intervene between the Papuas and the pure Malays, shading off into the Australians on the one hand and the Veddahs of Ceylon on the other.” This is very significant of the ethnic origin of the inhabi- tants of Australasia. It is borne out by an examination of the Papuan languages. These are quite dissimilar among them- selves, and appear to have been derived from a number of independent linguistic stocks. While these were originally distinct from the Malayan, it is a recog- nized fact that all the Papuan, and still more all the Melanesian dialects, have absorbed extensively from Malayan and Polynesian sources, and we are certain, therefore, that a similar absorption of Malayan blood has taken place.i. II. THE MALAYIC STOCK Is by far the most important group of peoples with whom we have to do in the area we are now study- ing. Many ethnologists, indeed, set it up as a dis- tinct race, the “Malayan " or “Brown "race, and claim for it an importance not less than any of the darker varieties of the species. It bears, however, the marks of an origin too recent, and presents Asian analogies too clearly, for it to be regarded otherwise than as a branch of the Asian race, descended like it from some ancestral tribe in that great continent. Its dispersion * In the Ver/and, der Berliner Anthrop. Gesel/., 1889, s. 162. f See Friedrich Müller, Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. I., Ab. II., S. 30 Bd. II., Ab, II., s. 160. THE MALAYIC STOCK. 23I has been extraordinary. Its members are found almost continuously on the land areas from Madagascar to Easter Island, a distance nearly two-thirds of the cir- cumference of the globe; everywhere they speak dia- lects with such affinities that we must assume for all one parent stem, and their separation must have taken place not so very long ago to have permitted such a monoglottic trait as this. The stock is divided at present into two groups, the western or Malayan peoples, and the eastern or Poly- nesian peoples. There has been some discussion about the original identity of these, but we may consider it now proved by both physical, linguistic and traditional evidence.* The original home of the parent stem has also excited some controversy, but this too may be taken as settled. There is no reasonable doubt but that the Malays came from the southeastern regions of Asia, from the peninsula of Farther India, and thence spread south, east and west over the whole of the island world. Their first occupation of Sumatra and Java has been estimated to have occurred not later than IOOO B. C., and probably was a thousand years earlier, or about the time that the Aryans entered Northern India. The relationship of the Malayic with the other Asian stocks has not yet been made out. Physically they * M. O. Beauregard has compared 120 common words and numerals in dialects from Madagascar to Easter Island, and proves that all are affined to the pure Malay, though with many verbal admixtures from other sources. Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie, 1886, pp. 52O-527. 232 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. stand near to the Sinitic peoples of small stature and roundish heads of southeastern Asia.” The oldest form of their language, however, was not monosyllabic and tonic, but was dissyllabic. Structurally, it was largely of the “isolating ” type, the relations of the members of the proposition being expressed by loose words, as is still the case in some of the Polynesian dialects. This is scarcely recognizable in the devel- oped Malayan and Tagala idioms where there is a richly varied structure by suffixes, prefixes and in- fixes; but the building up of these grammatical re- sources can be traced back from the simple original tongue, or Ursprache, I have mentioned. We cannot be far wrong, therefore, in associating in some remote past the ancestral Malays, with their isolating, dissyl- labic speech, yellowish-brown complexion, short skulls and small stature, with the Indo-Chinese group of the Sinitic branch of the Asian race. 1. The Western or Malayan Group. The purest type of the true Malays is seen in Ma- lacca, Sumatra and Java. They are of medium or slightly under size, the complexion from olive to brown. The hair is black, straight and lank, and the beard is scanty. The eyes are black, often slightly * “On ne peut guère mettre en doute que les vrais Malais appar- tiennent au groupe des races à petite taille et à tête plus ou moins ronde de l'Asie.” Hovelacque et Hervé, Précis d’ Anthropologie, p. 470. t See Friedrich Müller, Grundriss Aer Sprac/wissenschaft, Bd. II., Ab. II., s. 1–3. i THE TRUE MALAY. 233 oblique, the nose straight and rather prominent, the mouth large, and the chin well developed. The skull is short (brachycephalic), and the muscular force less than the European average. This type is found among the Malayans of Malacca and Sumatra, the Javanese, the Madurese and Tagalas. It has changed slightly by foreign intermixture among the Battaks of Sumatra, the Dayaks of Borneo, the Alfures and the Bugis. But the supposition that these are so remote that they cannot properly be classed with the Malays is an exaggeration of some recent ethnographers, and is not approved by the best author- ities.* The chief differences are that the Battak type is larger and stronger than the average Malay, the skull is more oval, the hair finer in texture and lighter in color. In character the Malays are energetic, quick of per- ception, genial in demeanor, but unscrupulous, cruel and revengeful. Veracity is unknown, and the love of gain is far stronger than any other passion or affection. This thirst for gold made the Malay the daring navi- gator he early became. As merchant, pirate or ex- plorer, and generally as all three in one, he pushed his crafts far and wide over the tropical seas through twelve thousand miles of extent. On the extreme west he reached and colonized Mad- agascar. The Hovas there, undoubtedly of Malay blood, number about 800,000 in a population of five * Compare Fr. Ratzel, Vö/Kerkunde, Bd. II., s. 371. Dr. Hamy and Mr. Keane have questioned the relationship of the Battaks. 234 INSULAR AND LITTORAL I’EOPLES. and a half millions, the remainder being Negroids of various degrees of fusion. In spite of this dispropor- tion, the Hovas are the recognized masters of the island. Their language stands in closest relation to that of the Battaks of Sumatra. In physical appear- ance they have a striking likeness to the Polynesians, so close, indeed, that the one may readily be mistaken for the other.” On the great islands near the Malaccan peninsula there are tribes in different stages of culture. Those on the highest plane are the Javanese, whose ancient language, the Kavi, is preserved in their sacred books. The Battaks of Northern Sumatra are an agricultural people, who have not accepted Islam, and belong to the old stock of the Asian immigrants. They are still to some extent cannibals, a convict condemned to death being eaten by the community. The Dayaks of Borneo are not less truculent, being cannibals and famous “head hunters ”—that is, their highest trophy of war and proof of manhood is to bring home the head of a slain enemy. Some of them are agriculturists, Others sea robbers. Their dwellings are of the com- munal character, and their religion an idolatry, the figures of the gods being carved in wood. The Macassars of the Celebes and the Tagalas of the Philippines are Malays of milder habits, and possess commercial importance and literary culture. In these islanders there is a mixed class called Alfures, * Dr. O. Finsch, Anthropologische AErgebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, s. I. (Berlin, I884.) i ; . ;. THE POLYNESIANS. 235 who have attracted some attention as differing from the prevalent type, but they are of no ethnographic importance. The Malays probably established various colonies in Southern India. The natives at Travancore and the Sinhalese of Ceylon bear a strongly Malayan aspect. But the latter speak a dialect largely Aryac, and the Veddahs in the interior of the island have a much lower cephalic index than the Malay (about 72), and their language is derived about one-half from Aryac and the rest from Dravidian (Tamil) sources.” 2. The Eastern or Polynesian Group. Some ethnographers would make the Polynesians and Micronesians a different race from the Malays; but the farthest that one can go in this direction is to admit that they reveal some strain of another blood. This is evident in their physical appearance. They are uncommonly tall, symmetrical and handsome, a stature over six feet not being unusual among them. Their features are regular, their color a light brown. Their hair is black, smooth and glossy, sometimes with a curl or crisp in it, which betrays a touch of Papuan blood. All the Polynesian languages have some affinities to the Malayan, and the Polynesian traditions unanimously refer to the west for the home of their ancestors. We are able, indeed, by carefully * A Thompson, “On the Osteology of the Veddahs,” in Journal of the Anthropological Znstitute, 1889. “Veddah" in Sanscrit means “ hunter.” 236 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. analyzing these traditions, to trace with considerable accuracy both the route they followed to the Oceanic isles and the respective dates when they settled them. Thus, the first station of their ancestors on leaving the western group, was the small island of Buru or Boru, between Celebes and New Guinea. Here they encountered the Papuas, some of whom still dwell in the interior, while the coast people are fair.” Leaving Boru, they passed to the north of New Guinea, col- onizing the Caroline and Solomon Islands, but the vanguard pressing forward to take possession of Savai in the Samoan group and Tonga to its South. These two islands formed a second centre of distribution Over the western Pacific. The Maoris of New Zea- land moved from Tonga—“holy Tonga " as they call it in their songs—about six hundred years ago. The Society islanders migrated from Savai, and they in turn sent forth the population of the Marquesas, the Sandwich Islands and Easter Island. The separation of the Polynesians from the western Malays must have taken place about the beginning of our era. This length of time permits the best adjust- ment of their several traditions, and is not so long as to render it difficult to explain the similarity of their dia- lects and usages.; * On the inhabitants of Boru, see G. W. Earl, AVative races of the Andian Archipelago, p. 185. f Other Hypotheses about the Polynesians are that they are an autochthonous race developed in New Zealand (Lesson et Martinet, Aes Polynésiens, Paris, 1884); that they came from America; that they are of Aryac descent (Fornander). PACIFIC ISLANDERS. 237 The disposition of the Polynesian is an improvement on that of the Malay. He is more to be trusted, and is more affable. In culture he is backward. Pottery is scarcely known, agriculture is not carried on, canni- balism was nigh universal, polygamy was prevalent, and the relation of the sexes was exceedingly loose, especially among the unmarried. The islanders, as may be expected, are singularly skilful navigators and build excellent canoes. They do not hesitate to undertake voyages of five or six hundred miles, and are such excellent swimmers that if the boat capsizes they are in no danger of drowning. Their weapons were the lance, the sling and club, but they were not acquainted with the bow and arrow. Their religion, until the introduction of Christian- ity, was a frank polytheism. The deeds of the gods are related in long chants, which also contain many historic references.” The word “taboo " comes from Polynesia, and means “sacred,” “holy.” All objects which the priests declared “taboo" were considered to be consecrated to the supernatural powers, and to touch them was to incur sure death. They were ac- customed to set apart enclosures which were “taboo,” and served as temples, and the images of the gods, in wood or stone, rudelv carved, were there erected. The migrations of the Polynesians have been closely studied by Horatio Hale, Æthnography and Philology of the U. S. Exploring Axpedition, pp. 116–196 (1847). Many later writers have pursued the subject. - * The sacred legends and rites of the Polynesians have been col- lected by Bastian, Anselgruppen in Oceanien (Berlin, 1883), and other writers. - 238 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. Although their houses were generally of brush and leaves, on several of the islands they constructed stone edifices. Such are found upon the Caroline islands, on sacred Tonga, on Pitcairn, and on Easter island, the last mentioned have excited particular attention, and have given rise to various foolish theories about a previous race of high culture, and about relationship to the civi- lized American nations of Peru and Central America. It is enough to say that nothing on Easter island is . peculiar to its culture. There are stone platforms with rude stone images on them thirty or forty feet high ; there are the foundations of stone houses; there are remains of a primitive ideographic writing. All these occur also on the other islands I have named, and the natives of Rapa-nui, as the island is called by the Tahitians, have nothing in their language or arts to distinguish them from other Polynesians. The pre- historic colossal structures on Ponape, Lalla and others of the Caroline group, are of basalt, and testify to a creditable ambition and skill on the part of the builders; but careful investigations prove that they are “without any doubt" to be attributed to the an- cestors of the present inhabitants.” III. THE AUSTRALIC STOCK. Under the heading of the Australic branch, I would class together the primitive inhabitants of the peninsula of Hindostan and of the semi-continent of Australia. * Dr. O. Finsch, Azathropologische Ergebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, S. I9. AUSTRALIANS AND DRAVIDIANS. 239 The collocation may seem hazardous, but it has its reasons. The physical traits of the two are not re- mote. In both the hair is black and curly, showing Negritic blood, the skull is medium or long, the lips are full, the nose not prominent, the color brown, and there is a beard. The relationship of the Australians to some of the hill tribes of central India has been re- ferred to as possible by the naturalist Wallace, and the linguist Caldwell finds Australian analogies in the Dravidian tongues, and points out that both are of the agglutinative type, and with family resemblances.” The suggestion seems close at hand that the Austral- ian is a compound of the Negritic stock of Australasia with the Malay, the Dravidian perhaps with the Ma- lay, and also with some other Asian people. The Eng- lish ethnologist, C. Staniland Wake, has advanced an almost equivalent theory to the effect that a straight- haired stock combined with the Australasian Negrito to form the Australians, but this straight-haired people he would attach to the “Caucasian º' (Eurafrican) race, for which there is little or no evidence.: * De Quatrefages found the Australian sub-type of skull reappear- ing among the Dravidians, and he goes so far as to add, “The affinity of the Australian and Dravidian languages is now universally ad- mitted.” Azisz. Gen. des K’aces //umaines, p. 333. He quotes the authority of Maury; but Fr. Müller thinks the analogies “too weak” to be convincing. (Grzeńdriss der Sørach wissenschaft. Bd. II., s. 95–98.) f Dr. Friedrich Ratzel acknowledges the probable inroads of Malays in southern India, but condemns classing the Dravidas with the Australians. Vö/Kerkunde, Bd. III., S. 41 I (Leipzig, 1888). f Wake, “The Papuans and Polynesians,” in Jour. of the Anthrop. Anstitute, Nov., 1882. 24O INSUILAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. I. The Australian Group Occupies the whole semi-continent of Australia and the island of Tasmania south of it. The last of the Tasmanians perished some years ago, and Carl Lum- holtz, one of the most recent of Australian explorers, calculates the survivors of the native inhabitants of that continent at not over 30,000 individuals of pure blood. - - Their appearance differs considerably, although it is generally conceded that they speak related idioms, and originally came from one lineage and language. The Tasmanians had quite frizzly or woolly hair, and ac- cording to reliable observers correspond closely in habits and appearance to the Papuas.” Among the Australians of the north and northeast coast this re- semblance is still accentuated, and no wonder, when the islands in Torres straits, one in sight of the other, form natural stepping stones from New Guinea to Australia. On the west coast the hair is straighter, and the signs of Malay blood are obvious. The color varies from dark to light brown, and the beard is gen- erally full, the body being also well supplied with hair. † * This is the positive statement of Geo. W. Earl, who had seen Tas- manians. (AVative Races of the Indian Archiſelago, p. 188. Iondon, 1853.) It is contradicted by Dr. Hamy, in the Crania Fºhmica, for no other reason, apparently, than that it does not fit his theories. * “The cast of the face is between the African and Malay types.” H. Hale, Æthnography and Philology of the U. S. Axploring Æxpe- dition, p. 107. Mr. Hale describes their hair as “long, fine and wavy, like that of Europeans,” the color usually a dark brown, AUSTRALIAN CULTURE. 241 The culture status of the Australians is generally put at the very lowest. Their roving tribes are with- out government, they do not till the ground, they go naked, and do not know the bow and arrow. Their weapons are the spear and the boomerang, a crooked club which they throw at the object. The story that it returns to the thrower is only true of some used in sport (Lumholtz). Marriage among them is by rob- bery or purchase, and the women are treated with de- liberate cruelty. Cannibalism in its most revolting form is usual, and the sick are deserted. Their relig- ion is a low fetichism, and they have no idols nor forms of worship. Certain rites, as fasting, sacrific- ing, and solemn dancing, clearly have reference to the supposed supernatural powers. In some parts, however, they draw figures of animals with charcoal on the sides of caves, and manufacture rude stone carvings.” They chip flakes into spear-points, and are skilful in making fire from friction, in catching animals and other simple arts. Their songs are numerous, and are chanted in correct time. The corroborees, or dances, constitute their principal religious and social festivals. These are usually cele- brated at night, by the light of great fires, and accom- panied by a horrible clangor, which passes for music, produced from drums, flutes, and a sort of tambou- rine. The chants relate to adventures in war and * Edwin N. Curr, Zhe Australian Race, Vol. III., p. 675 (Lon. don, 1887). * 242 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. love, in boasting recitals, and in descriptions of an- cestral power. The initiation of the young of both sexes into the duties of adult life is always accom- panied with some solemnities, such as fasting, incising the flesh in lines so as to leave prominent Scars, cutting the hair, breaking one or more teeth, and with local mutilations of a painful and shocking character. As usual among the primitive peoples, sickness and death are regarded, not as natural events, but as the maleficent action of evil spirits or living enemies. When ill, therefore, the services of the priest or magi- cian is called in to counteract the sorcery and to name the adversary who sets it on foot. These adepts employ the same Shamanistic practices, rubbing, blow- ing, sucking, howling, which are popular with them everywhere, and if these fail, at least at death they can suggest who the hidden enemy has been, and thus furnish a pretext for the avenger of blood to start forth on his murderous mission. In some parts the dead are burned; in others, the flesh is scraped from the bones, or the body is exposed until they are cleaned by the ants and other animals, and then they are carefully collected and placed in an Ossuary ; or again, the body is buried in the hut where the death took place, this is torn down and thrown on the grave, and the place is deserted. The spirits of the dead are supposed to haunt the place where the body is left, and as a rule to exercise an evil influence on the living. Food is occasionally placed on the grave, and some ceremonies of mourning are repeated 1MESSAGE STICIS. 243 for eleven months; usually, the survivors refrain from repeating the name of the deceased, even if it is a word of common use.” Rudimentary as was their culture, it is interesting to notice that they had developed the conception of writing. They were accustomed to send information, and even describe events, by incising peculiarly formed notches, lines and figures on pieces of wood, called “message sticks.” These would be sent by runners for hundreds of miles, and could be read by the re- cipient through the conventional meanings assigned to the characters...} 2. The Dravidian Group. I have already given you a description of the gen- eral appearance of the Dravidas or Dravidians. There is some physical resemblance among them all, but here the similarity ceases, as they vary greatly in culture and language. They are held to have been the pre-Aryac population of India, and one of their tribes, the Brahui, is found north of the mountains, in Beloochistan. When the Aryans entered India, about two thousand years before our era, they either subjugated, destroyed or drove to the south these earlier possessors of the soil. They either became the lowest caste in the Aryac states, the “sudras,” or they *—Elisée Reclus, “Contributions à la Sociologie des Australiens,” in Revue d'Anthropologie, 1887. f For abundant authorities see A. Bastian, Zuse/gruppen in Ocean- iem, ss. 121, 122 (Berlin, 1883). 244 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. fled to the swamps and hills. Their total number at present is about 50,000,000. Linguistically they are divisible into two distinct groups, the lyravidas proper, and the Mundas. To the former belong the Tamuls, the Telugus, the Can- arese, the M layalas, the Todas, the Khonds, and other tribes of less importance. The skin of all these is brown, the hair curly, the head tending to dolicho- cephaly. The Todas of the Neilghery hills are re- garded as of unusually pure blood. They are tall, with full beards and prominent noses, the hair black and bushy. Undoubtedly many of the Dravidas par- take of Aryac blood through the long domination of that stock. Most of the Dravida nations are cultured, possess- ing a written language and a literature. They are pastoral and agricultural in habits, and usually the women are well treated, and enjoy a certain degree of freedom. Monogamy is the prevalent custom, but polyandry (see p. 53) is frequent, and infanticide, par- ticularly of female children, is looked upon with ap- proval. Their religion is a nature-worship of a low order, consisting principally of conjurations against evil spirits and divination by sorcerers. The Munda tribes include the Kohls, the Santals, the Bhillas and others, dwelling on the highlands of the interior, northwest of Calcutta. They are hunting and agricultural peoples, having a better reputation among the Europeans than their Hindoo neighbors. The physical type among them is variable, natives of ; y” ! *. -º-! :#; . R A J P O O TS ETHNIC CHART of HINDOSTAN. Opp. p. 244 DRAVIDIAN TON GUES. 245 the same village differing in color and hair, in- dicating frequent crossings with the Aryac and other foreign stock. The languages of the Dravidians, though of the type called agglutinative, have no demonstrative con- nection with those of the Sibiric (Altaic) stock, and the efforts to connect them historically are visionary. The original roots are monosyllabic, which are mod- ified by the addition of suffixes. These suffixes often show the same “vocalic harmony ” to which I have referred in some of the Sibiric idioms (above, p. 212); but its action is reversed, as while in Turkish, for example, the vowel of the suffix alters the vowel of the root, in Telugu it is the latter which controls the former. Although all the Dravida tongues have borrowed more or less from the Sanscrit, it has been in words only, and their peculiar structure stands as ever wholly apart from all Aryac speech. There is something that looks like inflection in them, but the case-endings are merely particles referring to place, and not true gram- matical cases. They are still in that stage of growth where the distinction of verb and noun is ill-defined, and relative pronouns are absent. The literature which has been developed in these tongues is of respectable extent. That of the Tamils of Southern Hindostan and northern Ceylon stands in the front rank. It is in both prose and poetry, special forms of expression being characteristic of the latter. Everywhere it reveals Aryac inspiration, and illustrates 246 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. the general traits of the Dravidian intellect, ready facility in imitating and adapting the forms of a higher civilization, but limited originality and independence of thought. LECTURE IX. THE AMERICAN RACE. CoNTENTS.–Peopling of America. Divisions. I. The Arctic Group. Members. Location. Character. 2. The North Atlantic Group. Tinneh, Algonkins, Iroquois, Dakotas, Muskokis, Caddoes, Shoshonees, etc. 3. The North Pacific Group. Tlinkits, Haidahs, Californians, Pueblos. 4. The Mexican Group. The Aztecs or Nahuas. Other nations. 5. The Inter-Isthmian Group. The Mayas. Their culture. Other tribes. 6. The South Atlantic Group. The Caribs, the Arawaks, the Tupis. Other tribes. 7. The South Pacific Group. The Qquichuas or Peru- vians. Their culture. Other tribes. THE American Race includes those tribes whom we familiarly call “ Indians,” a designation, as you know, which perpetuates the error of Columbus, who thought the western land he discovered was a part of India. I shall not undertake to discuss those extensive questions, Who are the Indians ? and, When was America peopled P and, By what route did the first in- habitants come here? These knotty points I treat in another course of lectures, where I marshal sufficient arguments, I think, to show satisfactorily that America was peopled during, if not before, the Great Ice Age; that its first settlers probably came from Europe by way of a land connection which once existed over the (247) 248 THE AMERICAN RACE. northern Atlantic, and that their long and isolated resi- dence in this continent has moulded them all into a singularly homogeneous race, which varies but slightly anywhere on the continent, and has maintained its type unimpaired for countless generations. Never at any time before Columbus was it influenced in blood, language or culture by any other race. So marked is the unity of its type, so alike the phys- ical and mental traits of its members from Arctic to Antarctic latitudes, that I cannot divide it any other way than geographically, as follows: I. Arctic Group. 2. North Atlantic Group. North Pacific Group. Mexican Group. Inter-Isthmian Group. South Atlantic Group. 7. South Pacific Group. All the higher civilizations are contained in the Pa- cific group, the Mexican really belonging to it by derivation and original location. Between the mem- bers of the Pacif and Atlantic groups there was very little communication at any period, the high Sierras walling them apart; but among the members of each Pacific and each Atlantic group, the intercourse was constant and extensive. The Nahuas, for instance, spread down the Pacific from Sonora to the straits of Panama; the Inca power stretched along the coast for two thousand miles; but neither of these reached into the Atlantic plains. So with the Atlantic groups; the i THE IN NUIT. 249 Guarani tongue can be traced from Buenos Ayres to the Amazon, the Algonkin from the Savannah River to Hudson Bay; but neither crossed the mountains to the west. The groups therefore are cultural as well as geographical, and represent natural divisions of tribes as well as of regions. The northernmost of this division is 1. The Arctic Group. This group comprises the Eskimo and Aleutian tribes. The more correct name for the former is that which they give themselves, Innuit, “ men.” They are essen- tially a maritime people, extending along the northern coasts of the continent from Icy Bay in Alaska on the west, almost to the Straits of Belle Isle on the Lab- rador side. Northward they reach into Greenland, where the Scandinavians found them about the year IOOO A. D., although it is likely that these Greenland Eskimos had come from Labrador no long time be- fore.* Throughout the whole of this extensive distribution, they present a most remarkable uniformity of appear- ance, languages, arts and customs. The unity of their tribes is everywhere manifest. The physical appearance of the Eskimos is charac- teristic. Their color is dark, hair black and coarse, stature medium, skull generally long (dolichocephalic, * Cf. A. T. Packard, “Notes on the Labrador Eskimos,” im Ameri- can AWaturalist, I 885, p. 473. 25O . THE AMERICAN RACE. 7I-73). The beard is scant and the cheek bones high. They usually have a cheerful, lively disposition, and are much given to stories, Songs and laughter. Neither the long nights of the polar zone, nor the cruel cold of the winters, dampens their glee. Before their deterioration by contact with the whites, they were truthful and honest. Their intelligence in many di- rections is remarkable, and thcy invented and im- proved many mechanical devices in advance of any other tribes of the race. Thus, they alone on the American continent used lamps. They make them of stone, with a wick of dried moss. The sledge with its team of dogs is one of their devices; and gloves, boots and divided clothing are articles of dress not found on the continent south of them. Their “kayak,” a light and strong boat of sealskins stretched over a frame of bones or wood, is the perfection of a sea-canoe. Their carvings in bone, wood or ivory, and their outline drawings, reveal no small degree of technical skill; and they independently discovered the principle of the afch and apply it to the construction of their domed snow-houses. The principal weapons among them are the bow and arrow and the lance. º The Aleutians proper live on the central and eastern islands of the Archipelago named from them. Their language differs wholly from the Eskimo. At pres- ent they are largely civilized. THE ANTHAPASCAS. 25I 2. The North Atlantic Group. The spacious water-shed of the Atlantic stretches from the crests of the Rocky Mountains to the Eastern Ocean. Whether the streams debouch into Hudson Bay or the Gulf of Mexico, their waters find their way to the Atlantic. The most of this region was in the possession of a few linguistic stocks, whose members, generally at war with each other, roved widely over these lowlands. The northernmost of them was the Athapasca stock. Its members called themselves Tinnéh, “people,” and they are also known as Chepewyans, an Algonkin word meaning “pointed skins,” applied from the shape of the skin robe they wore, pointed in front and be- lmind.* Their country extended from Hudson Bay to the Cascade Range of the Rocky Mountains, and from the Arctic Ocean southward to a line drawn from the mouth of the Churchill river to the mouth of the Frazer river. The northern tribes extend westward nearly to the delta of the Yukon river, and reach the seacoast at the mouth of the Copper river. At some remote period, some of its bands forsook their in- hospitable abodes in the north, and following the east- ern flanks of the Cordillera, migrated far south into Mexico, where they form the Apaches and Navajos, and the Lipans near the mouth of the Rio del Norte. The general trend of the pre-historic migrations of * E. Petitot, Monographie des Déné Dindjić, p. 24 (Paris, 1876). 252 THE AMERICAN RACE. the Tinnéh, seems to have been from a centre west of Hudson Bay, whence they diverged north, west, and southwest. In physical features they are of average stature and superior muscular development. The color varies considerably, even in the same village, but tends to- ward a brown. The skull is long, the face broad, and the cheek-bones prominent.* In point of culture the Tinnéh stand low. The early missionaries who undertook the difficult task of bringing them into accord with Christian morals have left painful portraitures of the brutality of the lives of their flocks. The Apaches have for centuries been notorious for their savage dispositions and untamable ferocity. They are, however, skilful hunters, bold warriors, and of singular physical endurance. Immediately south of the Athabascans, throughout their whole extent, were the Algonkins. They ex- tended uninterruptedly from Cape Race, in Newfound- land, to the Rocky Mountains, on both banks of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. The Blackfeet were their westernmost tribe, and in Canada they em- braced the Crees, Montagnais, Micmacs, Ottawas, etc. In the area of the United States they were known in New England as the Abnakis, Passamaquoddies, Pequots, etc.; on the Hudson, as Mohegans; on the Delaware, as Lenape; in Maryland, as Nanticokes; in Virginia, as Powhatans; while in the Ohio and Mis- * See F. Michel, Dix huit ans chez les Sauvages (Paris, 1866), and Petitot, ubi supra. 3 s ALGON KIN TRIBES. 253 sissippi valleys, the Miamis, Sacs and Foxes, Kicka- poos and Chippeways, were of this stock. Its most southern representatives were the Shawnees, who once lived on the Tennessee, and, perhaps, the Savannah river, and were closely related to the Mohegans of New York. Most of these tribes were agricultural, raising maize, beans, squash and tobacco; they occupied fixed residences in towns most of the year; they were skilled in chipping and polishing stone, and they had a definite, even rigid, social organization. Their mythology was extensive, and its legends, as well as the history of their ancestors, were retained in mem- ory by a system of ideographic writing, of which a number of specimens have been preserved. Their in- tellectual capacities were strong, and the distinguished characters that arose among them—King Philip, Tecumseh, Black Hawk, Pontiac, Tammany, Pow- natan—displayed, in their dealings of war or peace with the Europeans, an ability, a bravery and a sense of right, on a par with the famed heroes of antiquity. The earliest traceable seat of this widely extended group was somewhere between the St. Lawrence River and Hudson Bay. To this region their tradi- tions point, and there the language is found in its purest and most archaic form. They apparently di- vided early into two branches, the one following the Atlantic coast southward, the other the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes westward. Of those that re- mained, some occupied Newfoundland, others spread- 254 THE AMERICAN RACE. over Labrador, where they were thrown into frequent contact with the Eskimos. Surrounded on all sides by the Algonkins, the Iroquois first appear in history as Occupying a portion of the area of New York State. To the west, in the adjoining part of Canada, were their kinsmen, the Eries and Hurons; on the Susquehanna, in Pennsyl- vania, the Conestogas; and in Virginia, the Tusca- roras. All were closely related, but in constant feud. Those in New York were united as the Five Nations, and as such, are prominent figures in the early annals of the English colony. The date of the formation of their celebrated league is reasonably placed in the fifteenth century. Another extensively despersed stock is that of the Dakotas. Their area reached from Lake Michigan to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Saskatchewan to the Arkansas rivers, covering most of the valley of the Missouri. A fragment of them, the Tuteloes, resided in Virginia, where they were associated with the Monacans, now extinct, but who were probably of the same stock. & They are also called the Sioux. Their principal tribes are the Assiniboins, to the north ; the Hidatsa or Crows, at the west; the Winnebagoes to the east; the Omahas, Mandans, Otoes, and Poncas, on the Mis- Souri; the Osages and Kansas to the south. The Chahta-Muskoki stock occupied the area of what we call the Gulf States, from the Atlantic to the Mississippi River. They comprised the Creeks or THE MOUND BUILDERS. 255 Muskokis, the Choctaws, Chickasaws, and later the Seminoles. The latter took possession of Florida early in the last century. Previously that peninsula had been inhabited by the Timucuas, a nation now wholly extinct, though its language is still preserved in the works of the Spanish missionaries. The Creeks and their neighbors were first visited by Fernando de Soto in 1540, on that famous expedition when he discovered the Mississippi. The narratives of his campaign represent them as cultivating exten- sive fields of corn, living in well fortified towns, their houses erected on artificial mounds, and the villages having defences of embankments of earth. These statements are verified by the existing remains, which compare favorably in size and construction with those left by the mysterious “Mound Builders ” of the Ohio valley. In fact, the opinion is steadily gaining ground that probably the builders of the Ohio earthworks were the ancestors of the Creeks, Cherokees, and other southern tribes.” Much of the area of eastern Texas, and the land north of it to the Platte River, were held by various tribes of the Caddoes. Fragments of them are found nearly as far north as the Canada line, and it is prob- able that their migration was from this higher latitude southerly, though their own legends referred to the east as their first home. They depended for subsist- ence chiefly on hunting and fishing, thus remaining in * See an article on “The Probable Nationality of the Mound Build. ers,” in my Assays of an Americanist, p. 67 (Philadelphia, 1890). 256 THE AMERICAN RACE. a lower stage of progress than their neighbors in the Mississippi valley. Sometimes this is called the Pani family, from one of their members, the Pawnees, on the Platte River. Their most northerly tribe was the Arickarees, who reached to the middle Missouri, and in the south the Witchitas were the most prominent. - The Kioways now live about the head-waters of th Nebraska or Platte River, along the northern line of Colorado. Formerly they roamed over the plains of Texas, but according to an ancient tradition, they came from some high northern latitude, and made use of sleds.” Omitting a number of small tribes, whose names would weary you, I shall mention in the Atlantic group the Shoshonce bands, called also Snake or Ute Indians. They extended from the coast of Texas in a northwesterly direction over New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona and Nevada, to the borders of California, and reached the Pacific near Santa Barbara. Many of them are a low grade of humanity, the lowest in skull- form, says Professor Virchow, of any he has ex- amined on the continent. The “Root-diggers ” are one of their tribes, living in the greatest squalor. Yet it would be a serious error to suppose they are not capable of better things. Many among them have shown decided intellectual powers. Sarah Winne- mucca, a full blood Pi-Ute, was an acceptable and fluent lecturer in the English language,i and their * Dr. Ten Kate, in Revue d’Aºthnographie, 1885, p. 122. t Life Among the Pi-Utes, by Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins (Boston, 1883). 9.gz ºd ºđđO（sº）vīS CIRILINn & H.J. GŁO SIGITAJ, NVICINI g\/?SN & （~& \, § 77/wo//so º 5)%.！È. § ^//yAVO 497 b/ PACIFIC COAST TRIBES. 257 war chiefs have at times given our army officers no little trouble by their skill and energy. The Comanches are the best known of the Shosho- nees, and present the finest types of the stock. They are of average stature, straight noses, features regular, and even handsome, and the expression manly. They are splendid horsemen and skilful hunters, but men never given to an agricultural life. 2. The North Pacific Group. The narrow valleys of the Pacific slope are tra- versed by streams rich in fish, whose wooded banks abounded in game. Shut off from one another by lofty ridges, they became the home of isolated tribes, who developed in course of time peculiarities of speech, culture and appearance. Hence it is that there is an extraordinary diversity of stocks along that coast, and few of them have any wide extent. In the extreme north the Tlinkit or Kolosch are in proximity to the Eskimos near Mount St. Elias. They are an ingenious and sedentary people, living in vil- lages of Square wooden houses, many parts of which are elaborately carved into fantastic figures. Their canoes are dug out of tree trunks, and are both graceful in shape and remarkably seaworthy. With equal deft- ness they manufacture clothing from skin, ornaments from bone, ivory, wood and stone, utensils from horn and stone, and baskets and mats from rushes.” To the South of them are the Haidahs of Vancou- * Dr. A. Krause, Die ZZinkit Indianer (Jena. I885). 17 - 258 THE AMERICAN RACE. ver's island, distantly related in language to the Tlink- it, and closely in the arts of life. Their elaborately carved pipes in black slate, and their intricate designs in wood, testify to their dexterity as artists. South of them are various stocks, the Tsimshian on the Nass and Skeena rivers, the Nootka on the sound of that name, the Salish, who occupy a large tract, and others.” All the above are north of the line of the United States. Not far south of it are the Sahaptins, or Nez Percés, who are noteworthy for two traits, one their language, which is to some extent inflectional, with cases like the Latin, and the second, for their com- mercial abilities. They owned the divide between the headwaters of the Missouri and of the Columbia rivers, and from remote times carried the products of the Pacific slope—shells, beads, pipes, etc.—far down the Missouri, to barter them for articles from the Missis- sippi valley. The coast of California was thickly peopled by many tribes of no linguistic affinities, most of whom have now disappeared. They offer little of interest except to the specialist, and I shall omit their enumeration in Order to devote more time to the Pueblo Indians and Cliff-dwellers of New Mexico, Colorado and Arizona. These include divers tribes, Moquis, Zuñis, Aco- mas and others, not related in language, but upon the same plane of culture, and that one in many respects higher than any tribe I have yet named to you. They * The tribes of British Columbia have been especially studied by Dr. Franz Boas, who has published extensively upon them. THE AZTECS. 259 constructed large buildings (pueblos) of stone and sun-dried brick, with doors and windows supported by beams of wood ; they were not only tillers of the soil, but devised extensive systems of irrigation, by which the water was conducted for miles to the fields; they were both skilful and tasteful in the manufacture of pottery and clothing; and as places of defence or retreat they erected stone towers and lodged well- squared stone dwellings on the ledges of the deep cañons, known as “cliff houses.” 4. The Mearican Group. The nations of leading prominence in this group spoke the Aztec or Nahuatl tongue. On the arrival of Cortes, they controlled the territory from the Gulf to the Pacific, and their colonies and commerce ex- tended far north and south. They dwelt in populous cities built of brick and stone, were diligent cultivators of the soil, made use of a phonetic system of writing, and had an ample literature preserved in books. The physical traits of the Aztecs were nowise pecu- liar. Their skulls were moderately long or medium, though a few are brachycephalic, the forehead narrow, the face broad. The hair is occasionally wavy, and they present more beard than most of the other In- dians. The color is from light to dark brown, the nose prominent, and the ears large. In stature they are medium or less, strongly built and muscular. Persons ill-made or deformed are rare, and among the young of both sexes graceful and symmetrical forms are not uncommon. 26o THE AMERICAN RACE. The governments of the various nations were based on the system of clans, gentes or totems, which was common not only in America, but in most primitive communities. Each gens had a right of representa- tion, and the land belonged to its members, not as individuals, but as parts of the clan. The highest officer of the State was in early times elected by the chiefs of the gentes, but later the office became heredi- tary. * Of all the arts, that of architecture was most de- veloped. The pyramid of Cholula compares in magni- tude with the most stupendous results of human labor. It has four terraces, and its base is a square, I 500 feet on each side. Similar structures are found at Pa- pantla, Teotihuacan, and other localities. They are built of earth, stone, and baked brick, and could only have been completed by the united and directed labor of large bodies of workmen. The cities of ancient Mexico were many in number, and contained thou- sands of houses. Tenochtitlan was surrounded by walls of stone, and its population must have been at least sixty thousand souls. Of their cultivated plants the most important were maize, cotton, beans, cacao and tobacco. An intoxi- cating beverage, called octli, was prepared from the fermented juice of the agave, but its use was limited by stringent regulations, and repeated drunkenness was punished with death. The Aztecs were in the “bronze age " of industrial development. Various tools, as hoes, chisels and */* : AZTEC RELIGION. 26 I scrapers, ornaments, as beads and bells, formed of an alloy of tin and copper, and copper plates of a crescentic shape were used as a circulating medium in Some dis- tricts. In welding and hammering gold and silver they were the technical equals of the goldsmiths of Europe of their day. Most of their cutting instru- ments, however, were of stone. They were lovers of brilliant colors, and decorated their costumes and buildings with dyed stuffs, bright flowers, and the rich plumage of tropical birds. Such feathers were also woven into mantles and head- dresses of intricate designs and elaborate workman- ship, an art now lost. Their dyes were strong and permanent, some of them remaining quite vivid after four centuries of exposure to the light. In order to obtain the materials used in their arts and to exchange their completed products, they car- ried on an active commerce, both domestic and foreign. All the cities had market days, when the neighboring country people would flock in great numbers to town, and the journeys of their merchants extended far to- ward the Isthmus of Panama. The national religion was a polytheism built up on a totemic worship; that is, it was originally a nature worship grafted upon the Superstitious devotion paid to the presiding genius of the gens. Huitzilopochtli was the chief divinity of the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan, Quetzalcoatl was especially adored at Cholula, and the two Tezcatlipocas, the one dark and one white, were other prominent mythical figures. According to the 262 THE AMERICAN RACE. myth these four were brothers, but engaged in a series of contentions among themselves, which repeatedly wrecked the world.” The Nahuas were by no means the only nation who had made decided progress in culture. In Michoa- can, to the northwest of the valley of Mexico, dwelt the Tarascos. They spoke a totally different tongue, but according to Aztec legend had accompanied the Nahua from a northern region into their Mexican homes. Physically they are described as a taller and handsomer folk than the Nahuas, with a language singularly vocalic and musical. Bold in war, they were never subject to the Aztecs, and appear to have been their equals in the arts. They constructed houses of stone, and made use of a hieroglyphic writing to pre- serve the records of their ancestors.f The Mixtecs and Zapotecs were neighboring tribes, who lived on and near the Pacific above the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. By tradition both nations came to- gether from the north; “mixtecatl" in Nahuatl means “people from the cloudy land.” To them are at- tributed the remarkable edifices of Mitla, stone-built structures, whose walls are elaborately ornamented with rude stone mosaics in meander designs or “grecques.” The roofs seem to have been supported * See D. G. Brinton, American Aſero Myths, Chap. III (Philadel. phia, 1882). f The Tarascos have been studied with much care by Dr. Nicolas Leon, of Michoacan, who has published a number of articles on their antiquities and languages. MAYA PEOPLES. . 263 by solid pillars of granite, some of which are still in place. Of the age or purposes of these buildings we know nothing, as they were deserted and in ruins when first visited by the Spaniards. There are many smaller tribes in Mexico of inde- pendent stocks, but a catalogue of their names would be of little use. The most widely distributed are the Otomis. They are of small stature, dolichocephalic, and averse to civilization. According to tradition they are the oldest occupants of the land, possessing it before the arrival of the Nahuas. Their language in singularly difficult, nasal and primitive. In form it is almost monosyllabic, with a tendency to isolation. This has led some writers to believe it akin' to the Chinese, for which there is not the slightest ground. 5. The Inter-Isthmian Group. Between the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and that of Panama the continent narrows to a point, and the pressure of the population advancing from both direc- tions forced a large number of diverse nationalities into a limited area. Only one of these could lay claim to a respectable civilization, most of the others living in primitive savagery. This people, the Mayas, occupied the whole of the peninsula of Yucatan, and the territory south of it to the Pacific Ocean. It was divided into a number of independent tribes, the principal of which were the Quiches and Cakchiquels, in the present State of Gua- temala. In all there were about eighteen dialects of 264 THE AMERICAN RACE. the tongue, each of which can easily be recognized as a member of the stock. There can be little doubt that the common ancestors of these tribes moved down from the north, following the shore of the Gulf of Mexico. This is the state- ment of their most ancient traditions, and it is sup- ported by the presence of one of their tribes, the Huastecas, on the shore of the Gulf, near Tampico. It has been calculated that their entrance into Yucatan was about the beginning of the Christian era. Physically the Maya peoples are of medium height, dark in hue, the skull usually long (dolichocephalic), the nose prominent, and the muscular force superior. The artist Waldeck compares their features to those of the Arabs. Their mental aptitudes are reflected in the culture they developed under circumstances not the most favorable. As architects they erected the most re- markable monuments on the continent. The elabo- rate decorations in stone, the bold carving, the free employment of the pointed arch, and the size of the edifices in the ancient cities of Palenque, Copan, Uxmal, Chichen Itza, and others, place them in the front rank among the wondrous ruins of the ancient world. They were a decidedly agricultural people, cultivat- ing maize, cotton, tobacco, peppers, beans, and cacao. The land was portioned out with care, each house- holder being granted an area in proportion to the size of his family. The cotton was woven into cloth, skil- * ANCIENT RECORDS. 265 fully dyed, and cut into graceful garments. The dyes were vegetable substances, collected from the native forests. What is not elsewhere paralleled in America, they carried on an extensive apiculture, domesticating the wild bee in wooden hives, and obtaining from its stores both wax and honey. Their weapons and utensils were mostly of stone. There is no evidence that the Maya tribes had the metallurgical skill of the Nahuas. Obsidian, jade, agate, and chert were the materials from which they made their tools and weapons. In war and the chase they were expert with the bow, the long lance, and the blow-pipe or sarbacane, a device recurring in both North and South America, as well as familiar to the Malays. The war-club, the sling and the tomahawk or hand-axe were also known to them. Small quantities of gold, silver and copper were found among them, but not in objects of utility. They were prized as materials for ornaments, and were em- ployed for decorative purposes. The art of writing was familiar to most of the Maya tribes, and especially to those in Yucatan. The Spanish authors assert that the Quiches in Guatemala had written annals extending eight hundred years be- fore the conquest, or to 750 A. D., and the chronicles of the Mayas which have been preserved, refer to a still more remote past, possibly to about 300 A. D. The script was quite dissimilar in appearance from the Mexican. 266 THE AMERICAN RACE. Adjoining or near the numerous branches of the Maya peoples, there dwelt several outliving colonies of Nahuas in the Isthmian region, who have left there interesting relics of their culture. The Pipiles near the Pacific coast were the authors of a series of excel- lent bas-reliefs carved on slabs of stone, which have recently come into the possession of the Berlin mu- seum.* The Nicaraos, between the Pacific Ocean and Lake Nicaragua, and on the islands in this lake, were the sculptors of the strange figures in stone pictured by Squier in his travels, and some of which are now in the Smithsonian museum ; while the Alaguilacs in Western Guatemala have left ruins which have not yet been explored. All these tribes were Nahuas of pure blood. On the shores of Lake Managua, to the east and west, were the Mangues, a people of some cultivation, acquainted with a form of hieroglyphic or picture writing, very skilful in pottery, and agricultural in habits.j. It has been ascertained that they are a branch of the Chapanecs, who dwelt in the province of Chiapas, Mexico. The other tribes around Lake Nicaragua were wild. * S. Habel, 7%e Sculptures of Santa Zucia Cosumaſhuapa (Washington, 1878). Bastian has also written a good account of them (Berlin, 1882). f D. G. Brinton, “On the Alaguilac Language of Guatemala,” in Proceedings of the American Philosop/. Soc., 1887. # D. G. Brinton, 7%e Gilegiience, a comedy ballet in the Dialect of AVicaragua. Introduction, p. viii. (Philadelphia, 1883). CHIRIQUA GOLD WORK. 267 The Woolwas on the north, and the Huatusos along the Rio Frio to the east, depended on hunting and fishing for a livelihood. So also did most of the tribes of Honduras, Vera Paz and the Isthmus. The only nation which distinguished itself in the arts were the Cuevas, in and around Chiriqui Bay. They were adroit in the treatment of gold. The early writers describe them as prominent in general culture and certain technical arts. To them we attribute the gold figures disinterred from the mounds of Chiriqui and its neighborhood. They are manufactured by two methods, the one by soldering gold wires drawn out into the finest thread upon thin hammered plates of the same metal, the wire forming the design; the other by casting hollow figures.* The skill displayed often excites the astonishment of the jewellers of our own day. 6. The South Atlantic Group. The interminable forests of Brazil and the endless plains of the Pampas were at the discovery thickly peopled by bands of roving nations, dependent chiefly on the products of woods and streams for their sup- port. None of them had sedentary dwellings, none knew the art of building with brick or stone, and none laid much stress on agriculture. Some of them had, however, considerable technical skill in various direc- tions, and few if any of them could be assigned to as low a status as the Australians, for example. * C. H. Berendt, Bull. of the Ameer. Geog. Society, 1876, p. I I. 268. THE AMERICAN RACE. The ruling people on the northern coast and the Lesser Antilles at that time were the Caribs. They possessed much of the coast line from the Isthmus of Panama to the mouth of the Orinoco, and many of the smaller southern islands of the West Indian archi- pelago. They had established a colony on Hayti, but probably not on Cuba, and their expeditions, so far as we know, never reached Florida. According to their own statements, all the island Caribs came from the mainland at no long period before the Discovery. Re- cent researches have shown that the original home of the stock was south of the Amazon, and probably in the highlands at the head of the Tapajoz River. A tribe, the Bakairi, is still resident there, whose lan- guage is a pure and archaic form of the Carib tongue.” They were a finely formed set of men, the skull long but variable, their color dark, large narrow nose, prom- inent cheek bones, wide mouth, and thin lips. Their language is rich in vowels and pleasant to the ear. In some districts that spoken by the women va- ried in some degree from that in use among the men. This is not without other examples among the Ameri- can race, and appears to have arisen partly from the custom of capturing women from other tribes for wives, partly from a tendency to easy dialectic varia- tion in the languages themselves. The Arawaks occupied on the continent the area of the modern Guiana, between the Corentvn and the Pomeroon rivers, and at one time all the West Indian * Karl von der Steinen, Durch Central Brasilien, S. 308. RRAZILIAN TRIBES. 269 Islands. From some of them they were early driven by the Caribs, and within forty years of the date of Columbus' first voyage the Spanish had exterminated nearly all on the islands. Their course of migration had been from the interior of Brazil northward; their distant relations are still to be found between the headwaters of the Paraguay and Schingu rivers. The extensive slope which is watered by the Ama- zon and its tributaries is peopled by numerous tribes whose affinities are obscure. Those on the plains near the coast belonged to the Tupi-Guarani stock. This extended along the Atlantic from Rio de la Plata to the Amazon, embracing in the north the Tupis or Tupinambas, and on the south the Guaranis. Scat- tered tribes of the stock extended westward to the Paraguay and Madeira rivers, reaching to the foot hills of Andes. Though positive data are lacking about their early migrations, the evidence at hand tends to show that these were from south to north, and that the Tupis displaced an earlier people of a different physical type and a lower grade of culture. This is the result derived both from a comparison of existing dialects and from explorations in the artificial shell-heaps, or sambaquis, which are found along the coast. Many of them are of great size and very an- cient. They contain skulls of an inferior type, with low foreheads, prominent and strong jaws, and short skulls (brachycephalic), while the Tupi skull is more fully developed and long (dolichocephalic). Similar shell-heaps, proving an equally rude people, are found 27o THE AMERICAN RACE. along the coast of Guinea, and both among the Ara- waks of that locality, and still more among the Goa- jiros of the peninsula of that name on the coast of Venezuela, who are distantly related to the Arawaks, do we find the brachycephalic skull and strong jaws of the builders of the “Sambaquis.” We may suppose, therefore, that the Tupis drove these earlier residents to the shores of the northern Ocean.* In frequent contiguity with the Tupis was another stock, also widely dispersed through Brazil, called the Tapuyas, of whom the Botocudos in eastern Brazil are the most prominent tribe. To them also belong the Ges nations, south of the lower Amazon, and others. They are on a low grade of culture, going quite naked, not cultivating the soil, ignorant of pottery, and with poorly made canoes. They are dolichocephalic, and must have inhabited the country for a long time, as the skulls found in the caves at Lagoa Santa, in connec- tion with the bones of extinct animals, are identical in form with those of the Botocudos, and probably be- longed to their ancestors. West of the Paraguay River is an extensive plain called El Gran Chaco, beginning at the eighteenth de- gree of South latitude, and continuing to the Pampas of Buenos Ayres. This region was peopled by nu- * On this complex question compare Perhand/ungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesel/., 1886, s. 703; 1887, s. 532, and elsewhere; Karl von den Steinen, Durch Central Brasilien, s. 295, and the work of Von Martius, Zur Athnographie Amerika's zumal Brasiliens, Vol. I. (Leipzig, 1867). SOUTH AMERICAN TRIBES. 271 merous wandering tribes, the Abipones, the Guaycu- rus, the Lules, and scores of others. They were in nowise related to the Guaranis, having short skulls, different linguistic stocks, and an inferior grade of culture. As they were warlike, and in constant strife with the whites, as well as among themselves, they have now nearly disappeared. The tribes of the Pampas were on a similar plane of development, and have also given way before the march of the white race. In the extreme south of the continent are the Pata- gonians and Fuegians. The former are sometimes called Tehuelches, or Southerners. They are a no- madic and hunting people, dark olive-brown in color, tall in stature and robust. The Fuegians are generally quoted as among the most miserable of savages. Though exposed to a damp and cold climate and always insufficiently nour- ished, they wear scarcely any clothing, and are content with wretched huts of branches and weeds. They have long skulls (about 75), long, narrow eyes, well- shaped noses, and generally are good specimens of one of the American types. Their language is emi- nently polysynthetic and rich in terms to express the objects and incidents of their daily life. 7. The South Pacific Group. The principal nations in the South Pacific group are the Chibchas and the Qquichuas. The former, called also Muyscas, resided near the 272 THE AMERICAN RACE. Magdalena River, near the present city of Bogota. They were sedentary, agricultural, and skilful in a number of arts. Their agriculture extended to maize, potatoes, cotton, yucca and other vegetables, and their fields were irrigated by canals. As potters and gold- Smiths they ranked among the finest on the continent, and both for symmetry of form and richness of deco- ration some of the vases from their district cannot be surpassed from American products. The most powerful and cultivated of the South American nations were the Qquichuas of Peru. Orig- inally they were a small tribe near Lake Titicaca, where they dwelt in close relations to the Aymaras. About IOOO. A. D., their chief, Manco Capac, con- quered the valleys to the north and founded the city of Cuzco. His successors added to the territory of the state until it extended from a few degrees north of the equator to about 20° south latitude, or a distance along the coast of over I 500 miles. In width it varied from 200 to 400 miles. Of course it embraced a variety of distinct stocks, so that it is impossible to speak of any “Peruvian '' type of skull or features, the less so as it was the policy of the Incas, as the rulers were called, to remove conquered tribes to dis- tant parts of the realm. The social organization of Peru rested upon the political union of clans or gentes, as it did in most other American nations. The ruler of the realm acted in accordance with the advice of the council elected by the gentes, but also exercised at times an autocratic PERUVIAN AGRICULTURE. 273 power, and it would be an error to consider him not more independent than the war-chief of one of the hunting tribes. The office was hereditary in the female line, provided a satisfactory candidate ap- peared ; otherwise it was elective.* No American nation surpassed the Peruvians in agricultural arts. Maize, cotton, coca, potatoes, and tobacco were the principal crops. As the arable land in the narrow vales of their country was limited, they increased its extent by constructing terraces along the mountain sides, and to guard against the aridity, nil- merous dams were built, from which canals carried the water for miles to the various fields. Fertilizers were dug into the soil, and a rotation of crops observed to prevent its exhaustion. The domestication of animals had advanced further in Peru than elsewhere on the continent. Besides the dog, and a fowl like a goose, they had large herds of lamas, an animal they used for food and also for carrying burdens, though its chief value was its wool. This was spun and woven into articles of clothing, mats, etc. Quantities of cloth from this substance and from cotton are exhumed from the ancient tombs. The specimens are often in good preservation, showing geometrical designs worked with symmetry, and dyed of various bright colors. In the mountain regions the houses were generally * The most careful analysis of the Peruvian government is given by Dr. Gustav Brühl, Die Culturvålker All-America's, pp. 369, sq. (Cincinnati, 1887). I8 274 THE AMERICAN RACE. of stone, and in the arid coast lands, of sun-dried bricks. They were located in groups surrounded by walls, also of stone or brick. The stones were some- times fitted together with extraordinary nicety, or else- where were united with mortar or cement. Recent travellers have stated that the stone-work on some of the ruins of the Inca palaces is equal to that in any part of the world; this is especially true of the myste- rious ruins of Tiahuanaco, near Lake Titicaca, where some of the most complete work on the continent is to be found. These architects had not discovered the pointed arch, as had the Mayas, and in the details of their structures, as in the forms of their doors and the per- fect simplicity of their walls, it is clearly seen that they had no connection with the northern civilizations. The structures were rarely erected on pyramids or mounds, and frequently were of several stories in height. Their skill in the reduction and manufacture of va- rious metals excited the admiration of the Europeans. Among the articles they offered the Spaniards were utensils, both solid and hollow, of gold, imitations of fruits and animals of the same substance, golden but- terflies, idols, birds, masks, and mace-heads. Groups of half a dozen figures in various attitudes have been found of solid silver, the symmetry and expression being well preserved. There was a like exuberance in the forms they gave their pottery. The jars and vases were imitations ARTS IN PERU. 275 of every kind of object around them—fish, birds, rep- tiles, fruits, men, houses. Often the product is SO symmetrical that one is tempted to believe it was formed by a potter's wheel; but this invention, so an– cient in the old world, was never known to the Amer- ican Race. Curious ingenuity is displayed in the pro- duction of whistling or musical jars, which will emit a note when the fluid is poured in ; or trick-jars, which cannot be emptied unless turned in a certain direction, not at first obvious. The art of glazing was not known, and most of the pottery seems to have been sun-dried only. With the materialistic notions of religion and of a future life which they entertained, it was regarded of the utmost importance that the body should be pre- served undisturbed in the tomb. Hence it was often carefully mummified, and the sepulchres were selected in the most secret and inaccesible location, either a cave on the side of a precipice, or if in the plains the grave was levelled, so that no sign of it appeared on the surface. South of the Peruvian monarchy were the Arau- canians, occupying the area of the modern state of Chili. They were a warlike, hunting race, physically and also linguistically akin to the tribes of the Pampas. Neither the Incas nor the Spaniards succeeded in re- ducing their indomitable spirit. In culture they had gained an advantage over the Pampean tribes by their relations to the Qquichuas, but were far behind the latter in general aptitude in the arts. Much of their & 276 THE AMERICAN RACE. subsistence was dependent on the chase, and they are not classed among the partly civilized natives of the continent. They are described as tall and robust, the skull brachycephalic, the face round, the nose short and rather flattened. LECTURE X. PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. CoNTENTS.–I. ETHNOGRAPHIC PROBLEMS. I. The problem of acclimation. Various answers. Europeans in the tropics. Aust- africans in cold climates ; in warm climates. The Asian race. Tolerance of the American race. Theories of acclimation. Con- clusion. 2. The problem of amalgamation. Effect on offspring. Mingling of white and black races. Infertility. Mingling of colored races. Influence of early and present social conditions. Is amalgamation desirable As applied to white race; to colored races. 3. The problem of civilization. Urgency of the problem. Influence of civilization on savages. Failure of missionary efforts. Cause of the failure. Suggestions. II. THE DESTINY OF RACEs. Extinction of Races. The Amer- ican race. Are the Indians dying out 2 Conflicting statements. They are perishing. Diminution of insular peoples; causes of fatality. The Austafrican race. The Mongolian race stationary. Wonderful growth of the Eurafrican race. Influence of the Semitic element. The future Aryo-Semitic race. Relation of ethnography to historical and political science. THE population of the world in this year of 1890 is estimated at Over fifteen hundred millions. This vast multitude have passed in review before us in their races, peoples and nations. What is the future of these jostling millions, each individual of whom is striving after some goal, seeking to satisfy Some desire? (277) 278 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. This momentous question depends directly on the solution of certain problems with which the ethno- grapher especially has to deal. On the right reading of these problems rests the destiny of races, and on the destiny of races hangs the fate of Man. We shall do well therefore to take home from the study of this Science the horoscope it forecasts. The first of these inquiries is The Problem of Acclimation. How far can the various races not merely support and live through, but do good work in the varied cli- mates of the world 2 -” Never was this question so urgent as to-day. With fleets of steamships ploughing every ocean, and the iron horse racing on its steel track over every conti- ment, the movement of men is conducted in such masses and with such rapidity that the most extensive migra- tions of nations of other ages seem insignificant in comparison. Like many other questions in ethnography, this one has been answered very variously, too often, evidently, by writers influenced by other motives than a single desire to reach the truth. It has been in close prox- imity to political and social movements, and facts have been twisted to serve the purposes of advocates. The facts, indeed, are easily liable to misinterpreta- tion. Take the white race, for instance. It has for centuries possessed flourishing colonies not only in the southern temperate zone, which would not surprise EUROPEANS IN THE TROPICS. 279 us, but under the torrid suns of India, Mexico and Brazil, in Java and the Isle of France, in the West and East Indies, not to speak of the Hamitic tribes, who thousands of years ago established themselves on the borders of the Sudan (see above, p. 116). Long be- fore that, the Indo-Aryans had crossed the Hindu Kush and extended their sway over the Dravidian peoples of Hindostan. But in these tropical regions have they not merely existed, but also prospered P. Have they retained, along with the purity of their blood, also their fecun- dity, their viability and their energy P I must reply emphatically, No. In the words of a medical observer of ample experience in the tropics—“The changes which a torrid climate impresses upon the constitution of Europeans and upon their descendants are patho- logical, and tend with fatal certainty to the extinction of the race.” + In India the children of English parents must be sent back to Great Britain or they will perish. It is said that in the history of the civil serv- ice there has not been a single family which survived three generations. Even the first generation Ioses the energy which characterizes the parental stock. The whites nowhere in the tropics can undergo continuous physical toil exposed to the sun. They are always found subsisting on the labor of the native races. The Spanish and Portuguese population of tropical America have survived in their new home for nearly * Dr. J. Orgeas, Za Pathologie des Kaces Humaines, p. 481 (Paris, I886). 28O PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. four hundred years. But when have they displayed the astonishing energy of the early Conquistadores? Many of the so-called Spanish creoles are really of mixed blood. In Peru and Mexico it is hard to find a family without the strain of another race in its pedi- gree. In Cuba, where there has been the least ex- posure to this result, owing to the prompt extinction of the natives, the descendants of the early European im- migrants are enfeebled and infertile. While in Mexico, in Guatemala, and in Yucatan, the men of prominent energy are either of mixed blood or, like the late Gov- ernor Barrios, are of the once conquered, the pure American race. I do not call a race acclimated which merely manages to exist, at the sacrifice of those qual- ities which are its highest claim to distinction. On the other hand, the black race finds it hopeless to struggle with the climate above the fortieth parallel of latitude. In no portion of Southern Europe did it ever maintain itself, and when its members were car- ried in numbers as slaves to Mauritius and Ceylon, they succumbed to the change.* Even in Africa it is doubtful if it ever effected a permanent settlement on the shores of the Mediterranean. Pulmonary diseases and scrofula are the chief morbid changes which de- stroy its emigrants. In the West Indies and generally in tropical and sub-tropical America they seem to flourish. In the United States the “colored people’’ increase by birth * Authorities in Hovelacque et Hervé, Précis d’Anthropologie, 214, Sq. ACCLIMATION OF RACES. 28I more rapidly in proportion than the whites, though this calculation includes the mulattoes and others of mixed blood. Whether the Asian race has greater or less powers of acclimation than others is a question of much signifi- cance at present, when the teeming millions of the Ce- lestial empire seem ready to pour forth in resistless floods over the whole earth. We are not prepared to reply. The subjection of this race to foreign climatic influences has been too recent and under conditions too exceptional to furnish the requisite data; and in their Own land, the Chinese, from whom we look for the most portentous migrations, have lived in a country which does not present contrasts equal to those of the various zones. The American race may be regarded as an excep- tion to the others. The area it always occupied ex- tended from one polar circle to the other, including every degree of altitude, and every extreme of temper- ature to which man is exposed. No difference in the viability or the energy of its members in various parts of the continent can be noted. The most remarkable monuments of its toilsome industry were completed under the tropical sun of Yucatan; while one of the most ingenious of its tribes lived the farthest north of any human beings. The physical energy of the stal- wart Patagonian is not superior to that of the active Carib or the northern Algonkin. We may possibly find the explanation of this in the trend of the chief mountains and rivers of the continent, which facilitated 282 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. easy progress from north to south, while in the eastern hemisphere the trend running parallel with the latitude, separated the early peoples into Smaller climatic areas. While the its so far as ascertained seem to point to the decision that each race is confined to climatic conditions similar to that of its original area of charac- terization, the theory has been advanced that this is but for a time, that by persistence and repeated Sacri- fices of the unfit, finally a remnant will survive fully able to face the novel trials of the climatic change.* This, however, is a theory only. It may be allowed credence to the extent that the survival of a remnant is possible; but it would be at the sacrifice of the dis- tinctive qualities of the higher races; those can flourish only under the physical conditions which gave them birth. It has also been urged that the improved sanitary hygienic science of modern times will do efficient bat- tle against the lethal influences of strange climes. Doubtless in individual cases such precautions are of the highest value; they aid the system in withstanding malarial and zymotic poisons; but the best of them, employed on the widest scale, will prove sadly inade- quate, as is shown by their failure in many a tract in the temperate zone. If we cannot restore salubrity to the Roman Campagna, or to Staten Island in New York Harbor, it is more than wild to talk of rendering healthful the Congo Basin. * This is the opinion advocated by de Quatrefages. His argu- ments will be found in the seventh chapter of his Histoire Générale des Races Humaines (Paris, 1889). MISCEGENATION. 283 I am tempted, therefore, to consider this problem of acclimation insoluble, and to express myself in the words of the learned physician I have already quoted, “There is no such thing as acclimation. A race never was acclimated, and in the present condition of the world, a race never can become acclimated.” + The Second of our inquiries relates to The Problem of Amalgamation —that which the French call métissage and the Amer- icans miscegenation. The fact that we have manufac- tured this “ recent and ill-formed word,” as Webster’s Unabridged calls it, is evidence that the questions in- volved in this problem touch us nearly. They touch the whole world, and very closely. I know of noth- ing within the range of human power to control, more decisive of the future prosperity or failure of the liuman species than this of the effect of race-intermar- riage. The consequences of such blendings may be studied with reference to the viability of the offspring, their mental faculties, and their fecundity. At the outset it is important to premise that the question cannot be treated as simple and single. It is complex. The results of race-crossings differ with races and with evironment. The law that applies to one case in one place is not certainly good in other cases and elsewhere. It seems, for instance, tolerably certain that the * Dr. J. Orgeas, La Pathologie des Races Humaines, p. 481. 284 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. cross between the white and black races produces offspring (mulattoes) who are deficient in physical vigor. It is well ascertained in the United States that they are peculiarly prone to scrofula and con- sumption, unable to bear hard work, and shorter lived than either the full black or the white. This is not owing to our climate, as the same results are recog- nized by the negroes of the Gold Coast, who for four hundred years have been in constant contact with the whites.” In the West India Islands, the mulattoes must be constantly reinforced by new crossings, or they disappear. The fertility of such unions, though generally equal if the number of births alone is considered, is really less on account of the greater mortality of the infants. As a rule, the third generation of descendants of a marriage between the white and the Polynesian, Aus- tralian or Dravidian, become extinct through short lives, feeble constitutions or sterility. According to one writer, except a few small islands in the Pacific, there is not an instance of a modern population of mixed white blood, living by itself, which is not on the road to extinction.* It is not certain that this applies either to the cross- ing of the Eurafrican or the African with the Ameri- can race. The half-breed between the negro and the Indian, of which we have examples in the Cafusos of * Darwin, 7%e Descent of Man, p. 171 (New York, 1883). f Dally, quoted in Hovelacque et Hervé, Arécis d’Anthropologie, p. 218. FACE-HYIBRIDS. 285 Brazil, the Zambos of Paraguay, the Chinos of Peru, and the “Black Caribs '' of St. Vincent, are said to be finely formed and vigorous. Throughout Mexico, Central and South America, there has been a blending of the white and red races on an enormous scale, and the result has been that both physically and mentally this mixed race has repeatedly taken precedence in political and social life over the pure descendants of the European colonists. It is well-known that the half-breeds of our frontiers, of British America and of Greenland, are singularly hardy, intelligent and vigor- ous scouts, guides, hunters and soldiers. Not a few of them have distinguished themselves in our colleges, and later in clerical and political life. It would appear also that in the earlier conditions of social life, no such debility attended the crossing of the Eurafrican and African race as seems at present to be the case. The only physiological explanation which can be offered of the numerous negroid tribes of eastern and southern Africa, is that they are the de- scendants of prolonged and intimate unions between the pure negroes and members of the Hamitic and Semitic divisions of the white race (see above, p. 185). This permits the suggestion that there are special causes now at work which alter the influences of race- mixture from what they once were. Some of them are patent. In modern times it is an almost universal law that all mixed-white populations derive their white blood exclusively from the father, their dark blood exclusively from the mother. I do \\0'Mºk. & kſº- 286 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. not know that I can tell you precisely what effect this would have,” but it is certain that such a divergence from what is customary within the race limits would exert a decided influence both physically and socially. It is generally believed among students of heredity that the pscyhical qualities are inherited more from the mother, the physical more from the father; and if this holds good in most cases, we should expect the children of such unions to be intellectually inferior to the average of their parents. This I think is true. Advocates of miscegenation, such as de Quatrefages, Serres and others, are apt to draw a different conclu- Sion, because they compare the average intellectual ability of the products of such unions with the average of the lower race, and this is certainly in favor of the mixed stock, but is an unscientific procedure. It is also true that in perhaps ninety per cent, of the cases, these mixed unions are illegal, and the children suffer under the stigma of illegitimacy. This means more or less deficiency in home training, education, legal protection, and social recognition. In primitive conditions this was not the case, and hence race minglings at that time were under far more favorable auspices. In most modern communities the prejudice against members or partial members of the dark races forces them to rest content with unequal advantages, if not educational, at least social, and the recognition of * See the question discussed by Waitz, Anthropologie der AWatur- zólker, Ból. I, s. 188. THE DUTY OF WOMAN. 287 these invisible barriers must necessarily have a deter- iorating influence on ambition. This of course was not the case in primitive society, where no other power was recognized than that of the strong right arm. The possibility of a vigorous and fertile cross-race under certain co 'itions seems therefore to have been demonstrated by the past history of the species. Is it a desirable result in itself? May we look forward to the commingling of races as worth the fostering care of states and societies? The question bristles with difficulties—moral, not physical difficulties. There can be no doubt but that any white mixed race is lower in the scale of intelligence than the pure white race. A white man entails indelible degradation on his descendants who takes in marriage a woman of a darker race; and any relation other than that of marriage, no matter if it does lift the lower race, is unauthorized by any sound moral code. Still more to be deplored is the woman of the white race who unites herself with a man of a lower ethnic type. It cannot be too often repeated, too emphatically urged, that it is to the women alone of the highest race that we must look to preserve the purity of the type, and with it the claims of the race to be the highest. They have no holier duty, no more sacred mission, than that of transmitting in its integrity the heritage of ethnic en- dowment gained by the race through thousands of generations of struggle. That philanthropy is false, that religion is rotten, which would sanction a white woman enduring the embrace of a colored man. 288 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. The two problems we have now discussed seem to present a dilemma. The pure races do not flourish out of their physiological surroundings; and yet some of them are not adequate for the work required by modern culture. What resource have we? The an- swer is, in the union of the lower races among them- selves, especially the Mongolian and the African. Thus we may expect a blending capable of resisting the heat of the tropics, and intelligent enough to carry out the directions of that race which will ever and everywhere maintain its supremacy so long as it maintains its ethnic purity—the Eurafrican. Let us now turn to The Problem of Civiligation. It is one which has arisen within the last two or three centuries, and is now so urgent that it will have an instant reply. With increased means of locomo- tion and augmented love of progress, civilization is now transported, with all its complex forces, to every nation and every tribe, no matter where or of what race, and the question is put point blank, Will you ac- cept this precious gift, or will you have it forced upon you, with such results as may happen? Japan has welcomed the message, inscrutable China hesitates, Persia wavers, the miserable Australians refuse, the savages turn their back—all in vain; the message is importunate, will take no denial, must be accepted. Opposition means destruction. The Bechuana kraal which refuses to have a grand opera house and electric MISSION ARY EFFORTS. 289 lights, if the European sees fit to put them there, will be wiped out of existence. So will every tribe, every nation, every race, which sets forth to oppose the re- sistless flow of civilized progress. . Preservation, however, and not destruction, is the maxim of the ripest culture. The Tasmanian is ex- tinct, the Polynesian disappearing, many an American tribe lives only in name, all gone down before the fierce flames of a civilization which did not lighten, but consumed them. Many another people is disap- pearing in the same way, in spite of the devoted efforts of earnest men and women to save them, to bring them into accord with the thought of the higher race, to teach them the boundless blessings of European enlightenment. What is the history of these efforts? Failure, and yet again failure. Consider the history of the attempts to bring the American race into accord with the European. There were the noble endeavors of the Jesuits in Paraguay, the untiring zeal of the Francis- cans in Yucatan, the admirable devotion of the Mora- vian brethren in the northern continent, and the long list of missionary societies in Protestant churches. These represent the most sustained, unselfish and enlightened efforts which have ever been made to civilize the Indians. They are of the same nature and on the same plan as those which have been and still are directed toward other savage peoples, the Polynesians and Africans for example. Have they been successful? Can an instance be I9 29O PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. adduced where they have achieved a full and perma- nent introduction of a savage tribe to the real benefits of our civilization P I cannot answer for the history of missions through- out the world, but I can and do for my special field, America, and I say, not a single instance of success can be named. The Jesuits and the Moravians suc- ceeded, indeed, in reclaiming the natives from their wild life; they transformed them from warring savages into peaceful planters; from drunken, cruel and super- stitious, they made them sober, kind and religious. This was a noble, an admirable result. But were their converts any the more able to accept the civilization of Europe? Not a whit. David Zeisberger's last sermon was a wail that his sixty years' of missionary work had failed to accomplish this result. Ten years after the expulsion of the Jesuits from Paraguay, their extensive “reductions,” which at one time included thirty or forty thousand Christianized natives, were a heap of ruins, and the converts dispersed to the four winds— and this after nearly two centuries of training ! Should we conclude from these sad histories that it is impossible to bring the existing savage nations into accord with our own culture? This is not my conclu- sion. Rather I infer that we have not tried the proper measures. We have relied almost exclusively on mis- sionary religious work, forgetting that our religion is Only one part of our civilization, and, so far as it is dogmatic and ceremonial, much the least part. We have been singularly inconsequent. We send our own SUGGESTIONS FOR MISSION WORK. 29I children six days to a secular school, and only on the Seventh to a Sunday-school; but the poor Indian we send to Sunday-school all seven days, and then expect him to have an education like our own | Our mission- aries hold up to the savage pictures of Christian brotherhood, of unselfish motive, of universal charity, which he soon finds have no existence in Christian communities or modern civilization. If he is an hon- est convert, he is absolutely disqualified from contact with civilized peoples | The Jesuits and the Moravians, both practical orders, knew this well, and therefore not only prevented their acolytes learning European tongues, but used every means at their command to banish all relations between the two races in those under their control. - It may seem uncharitable in me to oppose and con- demn missionary enterprises in savage communities; but I do so under the full conviction that as usually conducted they fail, and are bound to fail, in the most excellent aim they have in view. To succeed, they should be combined with a broad secular education, with a full recognition of the real impulses of modern life, and an effort to inculcate sound principles rather than respect for ceremonies and dogmas, about which the Christian sects themselves are never in unison. The native religious and moral codes should be studied, and all that is good in them—generally there is a great deal of good—should be retained ; right ac- tions should be based on respect for law, on the inher- ent sense of justice, on natural affection, and not Ç 292 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. merely on ecclesiastical edicts. Above all, independ- ence of thought should be encouraged, the principles of religious and political freedom should be held up as superior to those of subjection, and the convert should be instructed that attachment to any particular creed is in no wise requisite to enjoy the best results of civili- zation. It may be objected that doctrines such as these would leave the missionary as such little to teach. I reply that these doctrines are true, and are those nec- essary to the reception of civilization, and if they are omitted or obscured, the missionary is not an apostle of light, but of darkness, and that his efforts will prove unsuccessful in the future, as they have in the past. The consideration of this problem of civilization leads us to cast a glance at the future and to ponder O11 The Destiny of Races. We are well aware that many a family, many a tribe, many a linguistic stock, has perished off the face of the earth, leaving no trace of its existence. Of others we know but the “naked nominations.” May not whole races have followed the same fatal course? Nay, more, may not some of the existing races be likewise doomed, as the mature tree, to fall and dis- appear? It was the opinion of the learned Broca that certain Osseous remains in Europe point to a race once there | | THE INDIAN PROBLEM. 293 entirely unlike any other, modern or ancient.* The gloomy precedent is established, therefore, and we have to reflect if it applies to any now living varieties of our species. Beginning at home, we may first inquire concerning the American race. The question, Are the Indians dying out? was investigated Some years ago by learned authorities at Washington, who announced the cheerful result that, contrary to the universal opinion, the red man is not decreasing at all, but increasing in numbers! # I have studied these pleasing statements with care, and regret that I do not reach the same satisfactory conclusions. The writers in question take no account of the signs of a dense ancient population in the Olhio valley, in Michigan, in Florida, in the Pueblo region; they take for granted that the estimates of all the early voyagers and travelers were gross exaggerations; they pay no attention to the historic fact that the natives of the Atlantic coast suffered severely from epidemic diseases before the English established their first set- tlements, diseases probably disseminated from the Spanish colonies in Florida or Mexico; finally, they commit the fatal ethnographic error of confounding under the name “Indians '' both the pure and the mixed members of the race. * Quoted in Darwin, 7%e Descent of Man, p. 182. f S. N. Clark, Circular of the Bureau of Æducation, Washington, 1877; Garrick Mallery, in Proceedings of the Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, 1877, p. 340. 294 PROBLEMIS AND PREDICTIONS. This last oversight vitiates all the argument. No one is prepared to say that some faint strain of native American blood may not be perpetuated indefinitely. But this is not the survival of the race or of the “ In- dians,” any more than the Normans survive to-day in England. My own studies convince me that the American race is and has long been disappearing, both actually, tribe by tribe, and relatively, by admixture with the whites. In our own area there were many tribes once of considerable numbers, who have become wholly extinct. The Timucuas of Florida, the Ca- tawbas of South Carolina, the Monacans of Virginia, the Mohegans of New York, the Boethucs of New- foundland, have no living representatives. The whole of the inhabitants of the Bahamas and Greater Antilles were hurried to destruction in a couple of generations after the discovery by Columbus. The list would be long were I to recapitulate the dead languages known by name or by a few sentences in some old missionary book, to the student of American linguistics. The process is not suspended. Beginning at the north with the Eskimos, we find their number steadily diminishing; * the Athabascas, according to Petitot, are but a wreck of their former selves; of the tribes of the United States, Miss Alice Fletcher, who has trav- eled extensively among them, assures me that in a few generations there will be scarcely any of pure descent * This is the statement of Dr. F. Nansen, the recent explorer of Greenland, and many others. || if .| i FATE OF THE POLYNESIAN S. 295 surviving; and I have noted for myself on the reserva- tions what an increasing proportion of the young peo- ple reveal the infusion of European blood. The same is true all over the Continent. The American Indian, as such, is destined to disappear before European civilization. If he retains his habits he will be exterminated ; if he aims to preserve an un- mixed descent, he will be crushed out by disease and competition ; his only resource is to blend his race with the whites, and this infallibly means his disappearance from the scene. The Island World, extending from Easter Island to Madagascar, presents the same spectacle. The abor- iginal, undersized Negritos have long disappeared from many of the larger islands where they lived in historic times; and on the Philippines and elsewhere the report is that they are slowly but steadily drifting toward annihilation.* The Tasmanians have perished to the last man; the Australians are one-fifth what they were estimated by the best authorities at the be- ginning of the century; the Maoris of New Zealand have lessened one-half; the natives of Easter Island have sunk from twenty-five hundred in 1850 to less than three hundred ; and so on for nearly all the Polynesian islands. This extreme fatality has received the earnest at- tention of philanthropists and scientific physicians. Its causes are visible. They are the introduction of * F. Blumentritt, ZXie Złżnographie der Phil/iftinen, s. 8 (Gotha, I882). 296 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. new epidemics, as measles, small-pox, syphilis and consumption, the last mentioned peculiarly fatal, and now recognized as eminently contagious under certain conditions; an in-, eased infant mortality; drunkenness and its consequences; and diminished fecundity in the women. This last is both one of the most potent and one of the obscurest of the causes of diminished population. Why at some certain period a people should be smitten with sterility is a mysterious fact, for which the explanation must be postponed until we become better acquainted with the many enigmas which surround the process of reproduction. Add to the death-rate the considerable percentage of children who are born of unions with the White, the Asian or the African races, and are thus no longer representatives of the ancestral stock, and we must acknowledge that these insular peoples are in no better, even a worse case than the American Indians. They, too, are sitting beneath the Damocles sword of extinction. Such an assertion is doubtfully applicable to the Austafrican race. I have already referred to some statistics showing its heavy mortality in the isles of France and Ceylon, and the German ethnographer Ratzel is inclined to believe that it is diminishing in Central Africa itself.” But the census returns of our own country and of the West Indies show a positive * Fr. Ratzel, Völkerkunde, Bd. I, s. 628, who quotes the authority of Du Chaillu. ; f ** DECREASE OF THE ASIAN RACE. 297 and rapid increas particularly if we include the large population of mixed blood. We have been taught in this country to look with something like terror on the teeming millions of China, only awaiting the chance to overrun the whole earth, underbid all other laborers, profit by the fruits of our more liberal governments and nobler religions, and give nothing in return. A few centuries ago a still more dreadful fear haunted the nations of Europe that some other Timurlane or Genghis Khan would lead his countless hordes of merciless Mongolians from the steppes of Siberia across the cultivated fields of the Danube to wipe out, as with a sponge, the glo- rious picture of renascent European culture. The latter fear no longer disturbs any mind. The mightiest of the Tartar powers is but a shadow, main- tained by the mutual jealousy of Europeans them- selves; the illimitable steppes of Tatary and Mongolia acknowledge the suzerainty of the Slavonian ; and the nomadic hordes of the steppes and tundras are steadily diminishing under the same baneful influences of civilization which are blighting the Australian and the American. Whether this is true also of the Sinitic stocks, espe- cially of the Chinese, we have no positive information. It has been rumored that of late years repeated periods of drought, resulting in disastrous famine, have mate- rially reduced the population of the interior of China, many perishing and others removing nearer the coast. As it is only near the coast that foreigners have the 298 - PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. opportunity to observe the people, it is likely that they bring away an exaggerated notion of the density of population in the country at large. It is at any rate doubtful if the Chinese are more than stationary. Widely different is the vista which appears before us when we contemplate the Eurafrican race. It goes forth conquering and to conquer, extending its empire over all continents and to the remotest islands of the sea. Never has that progress been so rapid as to-day. Two centuries ago the whole of the white race which could lay claim to purity of blood numbered not over one hundred millions, or ten per cent. of the population of the world, and was confined to the limits of Europe and North Africa; now the European branch of it alone counts nearly five hundred millions, or one-third of the whole. In the year 1800, the non-resident whites of European descent were ten millions; now they are over eighty millions. Every navy and every army of any fighting capacity belong to the European whites and their descendants. No nation and no race of other lineage dare withstand an attack or disobey an order from a leading European power. Africa and Asia are dismembered and parceled out at London, Berlin and St. Petersburg, and no one dreams of ask- ing the consent of the inhabitants of those continents. This astonishing progress is not due alone to the North Mediterranean branch of the Eurafrican race. The representatives of the South Mediterranean branch are for a large part in it. In the forefront of it, whether in the great capitals of Europe or in the THE FUTURE ARYO-SEMITIC STOCK. 299 pioneer towns of the frontiers, we find the acute and versatile Semite, full of energy and knowledge, guiding in councils, his master hand on the levers of the vast- est financial schemes, his subtle policy governing the diplomacy of statesmen and the decisions of directors. As Prof. Gerland has well said, there is something in the Semitic character which is complementary to that. of the Aryan,” and it is not without significance that the surprising development of the latter began when the religious prejudices against the Jews commenced to yield to more enlightened sentiments. They are now the growing people. Statistics show that in Europe, while the Aryac population doubles in num- ber in thirty-four years, the Semites double in twenty- five years, having more children to a marriage and less infantile mortality.; When bigotry ceases on both sides, and free inter-marriage restores the Aryo- Semitic stock to its original unity, we may look for a race of nobler capacities than any now existing. Still more rapid would that progress be, still more beneficent would be the sway of European civilization, could the great powers of that continent lay aside un- worthy jealousies, and agree to extend in harmony the blessings of just government and sound education over other races. An unreasoning distrust has prevented the removal of the barbaric Sibiric power which centers at Constantinople; and the excellent results of * George Gerland, Anthropologische Beiträge, Bd. I., s. 5 (Halle, 1875). f Zeitschrift für AEthnologie, 1887, s. 88. 3OO PROBLEMIS AND PREDICTIONS. the extension of the Slavonian supremacy in Central Asia have been studiously ignored by British writers. Reflections such as these teach us how closely the study of ethnographic science is related to practical politics. Ethnography, indeed, is the necessary basis of correct history and sound statesmanship. It offers to history a foundation on natural law; it explains events by showing their dependence on the physical structure, the mental pecularities, and the geographic surroundings of the peoples engaged in them; it pre- sents, in its present pictures of savage life, the condi- tion of the highest nations in the earlier stages of their culture. - - To the statesman it offers those facts about the ca- pacities and limitations of peoples which should guide his dealings with them; it comes with no vague theory of optimism or pessimism, such as doctrinaire phil- osophers love to air, but with the admonition that each people, each race, must be studied by itself, free from bias, free from bigotry, and with the conviction that no matter what metaphysics say, any nation, as any man, may lift itself by the recognition of those indefeasible and universal elements of the mind, the “I,” the “ought,” and the “can "-the reverence of self, the respect for duty, and the devotion to freedom. “Man who man would be, Must rule the empire of himself; in it Must be supreme, establishing his throne On vanquished will, quelling the anarchy Of hopes and fears, being himself alone.” i INDEX OF AUTHORS. Abel, C., I 50. Achelis, T., 95. Allen, H., 27. Andree, R., 45. Avienus, R. F., 122. Barth, R., II6, I 19, 122. Bartels, M., 40. Bastian, A., 95, 237, 243, 266. Beddoe, J., 31, 146. Beauregard, O., 23.I. Berendt, C. H., 267. Bergaigne, A., 170. Berthelot, S., II6, II 7. Bertin, G., I 32. Bissuell, H., I 26. Bleicher, Dr., 90. Blumentritt, F., 225, 226, 295. Boas, F., 258. - Bonaparte, R., 213. Borsari, F., II 7. Brinton, D. G., 54, 61, 71, 75, I 24, 255, 262, 266. Broca, P., 30, II7, I2O, I43, 292. Brugmann, K., ISI. Brühl, G., 273. Bunsen, I23. Brugsch, I24. I 22 4-4-3 Callimachus, 117. Candolle, A. de, 39, Io9, 147. Cartailhac, E., 90. Castelnau, F. de, 224. Chantre, E., 172. Chudzinski, 30. Clark, S. N., 293. Collignon, R., 90, I 18. Cope, E. D., 27. Curr, E. N., 24.I. Curtius, I 59. Dall, W. H., 215. Dallas, J., 226. Dally, 284. Darwin, C., 20, 43, 85, 86, 95, 219, 284, 293. Delattre, A. L., 130. Delisle, F., 192. Delitzsch, 126. Deniker, J., 215. Doughty, I 34. Du Chaillu, 178, 296. Duncker, Max, I 59, 160. Duveyrier, 126. Earl, G. W., 237, 240. Ella, L., 228. (3OI) 3O2 INDEX OF AUTHORS. Emin Bey, 178. D’Escayrac de Lauture, 201, 203, 216. Faidherbe, 117, 120. Faurot, L., I 32. Finsch, O., 221, 227, 228, 234, 238. Fletcher, A., 294. Fligier, Dr., 123, 139, 148, I 59. Flower, W. H., 27, 226. Fornander, 236. Fritsch, N., 179. Gaudry, A., 85. Geiger, L., I48. Gerland, G., 191, 299. Glaser, E., I 33. Gooch, W. D., 91. Habel, S., 266. Haeckel, E., 32, 223. Hahn, T., 180. Hale, H., 61, 229, 237, 240. Halevy, 125, 126. Haliburton, R. G., I 32. Hamy, 233, 240. Harris, W. B., 117. Haughton, S., 94. Haynes, W. W., 129. Herodotus, 12 I, I66. Hervé, G., 160, 165, 217, 232, 280, 284. Hobbes, 76. Holden, L., 20, 29. Hooker, J., 126. Hopkins, S. W., 256. ... --51 Hovelacque, A., 160, 217, 232. Humboldt, W., 122, 150. Huxley, 89. Kant, E., 59. Keane, A. H., 213, 233. Kölliker, A., 29. Kollman, J., IOS. Krause, A., 258. Kulischer, M., 59. Kuun, G., 166. Lang, R. H., I60. Lapouge, G. de, I29, 147. Latham, R. G., I46. Leclerc, 179. Lenormant, I22. Lesson, 236. Lubbock, J., 67, 90. | Lumholtz, C., 55, 240, 24I. Lyman, B. S., 217. Mackenzie, J., 192. Mallery, G., 293. Man, E. H., 225. Mantegazza, IQ7. Martinet, 236. Martins, von, 270. Matthews, W., 23. Maury, 239. Meyer, A. B., 227. Meyer, K., 42. Michel, F., 252. Montaigne, 58. Montano, J., 226. Morgan, L. H., 58, IOI. Morse, E. S., 34, 94. INDEX OF Mortillet, G., 85, 89. Müller, Fr., II 5, 122, 188, 2Io, 2I4, 230, 232, 239. Müller, M., 83, I44. Müller, Dr. M., 124. Nansen, F., 294. Newman, I 22. Nordenskiold, N. A. E., 214. ID’Omalius, d'Halloy, 93, 146, 148, I66. Orgeas, J., 279, 283. Packard, A. T., 249. Palgrave, G., I 32. Penka, C., 147, 162. Peschel, O., 20, 223. Petitot, E., 251. Pitt-Rivers, 129. Ploix, M., 181. Pösche, T., I47. Potocki, 167. Pruner Bey, II8. Quatrefages, A. de, 95, I43, 172, 177, 191, 239, 282. Quedlinfeldt, I 18. Radde, Dr., 30. Ratzel, F., 233, 239, 296. Rawlinson, I 18, 126. Reclus, E., 44, 243. Reiss, W., 129. Ribbe, F. C., 22. Riccardi, P., 35. Ritter, I 10. ALJT HORS. 3O3 Rittich, A. F., 171, 208, 214, 215. Roskof, G., 67. Rousselet, L., 168. St. Vincent, B. de, I22. Sayce, A. H., II 5, 126, 147. Schliemann, H., 160. Schmidt, E., 22. Schneider, W., 53, 55, 67. Schrader, O., I47, 162. Schweinfurth, K., 179. Scylax, II 7. Seeland, N., 2II. Spencer, H., 56, 67. Steinen, K. von den., 268, 270. Stone, J. H., II6. Strabo, I 17. Suess, E., 88, 89, 222. Tautain, L., 184, 193. Taylor, I., IIo, I I2, I43, 146, 149, I59, 162. Ten Kate, Dr., 256. Testut, L., 33. Thompson, A., 235. Tiele, C. P., 42. Topinard, P., 31, 36. Tubino, Dr., I44. Verneau, Dr., I 16. Virchow, R., 27, 31, 80, Io9, 128, I29, 145, I48, 163, 172, 229. Wagner, M., 20, 44, 22I. Waitz, Th., 20, 40, I86, 286. Wake, C. S., 239. Wallace, A. R., 89, 196, 227. 3O4. INDEX OF AUTHORS. Wharton, I 51. Woldrich, J. N., 84. Whitman, W., 177. Whitney, W. D., 162. Zampa, R., I 59. Wilson, D., 75. Zeisberger, D., 29O. Winkler, H., I44, 212, 215. Zittel, C., 90. INDEX OF Abyssinians, I 35. Acclimation, 278. Adals, I 3I. Aetas, 35, 224. Afars, I 31. Affection, 55. Africa, derivation, I22. Agaonas, I31. Agathyrsi, 166. Agriculture, 72. Ainos, 33, 216. Afghans, 168. Akka, 178, 179. Albanians, I 52, 158. Albinism, 45. Aleutians, 216, 250. Alfurese, 233, 234. Alemanni, 163. Algonkins, 252. Allophyllic stocks, I I4. Amalgamation, 283. Amhara, I 35. American Indians, 7 I, 247, 293. American religions, 71. American race, 247, 281, 293, Amorites, I26. - Amoshagh, I22. Ancestral worship, 56, 68. Andaman islands, 224. 2O SUBJECTS. Angles, 163. Anglo-American, 164. Animals, domestic, 72. Animism, 68. Annamese, 206. Apaches, 251. Apes, extinct, 84. Aquitanians, 143. Arabia Felix, 134. Arabians, I 25, 133. Arameans, I 37. Araucarians, 275. Arawaks, 268. Architecture, 72, Areas of characterization, 94. Armenians, 167. Armorican, I 54. Arms, length of, 28. Arnauts, I 58. Arrow releases, 34. Aryac stock, I44. Aryac migration, I 53. Aryans, origin of, I44. Aryo-Semitic stock, I 50, 299. Ashanti, 185. Asia, 89. Asian race, the, 195, 281. Assyrians, 1 26, 130, ſ 50. Athapascans, 251. (305) 306 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Atlas mountains, 89, II 2. Attila, 2 Io. Austafrica, 89. Austafrican race, 98, I73, 296. Australians, 33, 35, 43, 46, 53, 55, 39, 24O. Auvergnats, IO7. Avars, I 7 I, 2 IO. Avesta, the, I45, I67. Aymaras, 272. Aztecs, 259. Baber, 209. Bactrians, 167. Bambaras, 184. Baniums, 183. Bantu group, 189. Barabras, 187. Barbari, I2 I. Baris, I8I. Basques, IO7, I I I, II 2, 142, I43. Battaks, 233, 234. Batuas, 178. Bedawins, I 33. Bechuanas, 189, 192. Bedjas, I31. Berbers, I I2, I 16, I 18, 121, 157, 183. Beluchis, 168. Bertas, 187. Bhillas, 244. Bhotan, 205. Biddumas, 182. Bilins, 131. Birmans, 205. Birthplace of species, 82. Black Caribs, 285. Blondes, 147, 163. Boadicea, Io'7. Bohemians, 165. Boru Island, 236. Brahmans, I 53, 169. Brahmanism, I 70. Brahui, 243. Brains, size of, 26. Brebres, I 21. Bretons, Io?, I 55. Briges, I67. Bretons, Ioy. Bronze, Asian, I45. Brunettes, 147, 163. Buddhism, 69, 70, 170, 20I. Bugis, 233. Bulgarians, 165, 2IO. Burgundians, 163. Bushmen, I77, I79, 2I4. Caddoes, 255. Caffres, 189. Cafusos, 33, 284. Caledonians, Ioy. Calf of leg, 33. Cambodia, I70. Cambodians, 206. Canaanites, I 26. Canarese, 244. Canon of proportion, 36. Cantabrians, 12 I, I43. Carians, I 59. Caribs, 268, 285. Carthaginians, I 20, 125, 130. Caste, I 70. Caucasic stock, I 70. “Caucasian * race, 172. Caucasus, IO 5, I I 2. Celt-Indic stock, I44. INDEX OF Celtic peoples, I 54. Celtic type, Ioy. Celts, IO7, I I I, ISO, I 5 I. Celtiberians, I2I. Ceylon, 222. Chaco, the, 27 I. Chaldeans, I37, IQ9. Changallas, 181. Chata-Muskokis, 254. Chepewyans, 251. Chibchas, 27 I. Chilluks, 181. Chinese, the, 198. Chinos, 285. Chiriqui, 267. Chukchis, 2I4, 2I 5. Circassians, I7 I, Civilization, IoI, 288. Climate, 40. Cochin-China, 205. Color in race, 29. Color of skin, 30. Color of eyes, 32. Color sense, 36. Comanches, 257. Commerce, pre-historic, 75. Communal marriage, 53. Confucius, 202. Congo, the, I77, 178, 189, 190. Coptic, I2O, I27, I 50. Cossacks, 2 Io. Craniology, I 9. Creeks, 255. Criteria of superiority, 47. Croatians, 165. Culture defined, IoI. Cuneiform writing, I 26. Cyclopean walls, 160. SUBJECTS. 3O7 Cymri, IoS, II 2. Cymric, Ioy, I 55. Cypriotes, I 30. Cyprus, I 59. Czechs, 165. Dacians, I 58, 166. Daghestan, 171. Dahomey, 185. Dakotas, 254. Dalmatians, 165. IDanakils, I31. Danes, I63. Dayaks, 233, 234. Deluge myth, I I4, I44. Destiny of Races, 292. Dinkas, 181. Disease in races, 39. Djats, 169. Djurjura, III, II9. Dravidians, 169, 239, 243, 284. Dryopithecus, the, 84. Easter Island, 236, 238. Egypt, Stone age, I29. Egyptians, 42, I2O, I 2 I, I23, 127. Ehkilis, I 33, I 34. Eranic peoples, I66. Eskimos, 2I, 54, 2I 5, 249. Esthonians, 212. Ethical standards, 58. Ethics, primitive, 59. Ethiopia, 177. Ethiopians, I 35. Ethnic psychology, 52. Ethnographic scheme, 99. Etruscans, 124, 130, 155, I 56. 308 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Eurafrica, 89. Eurafrican Race, 97, Io9, 298. Eurasia, 89, 196. Eurasians, IO7, II 2. Euskaric stock, I42. Euskaric type, I 59. Evolution, 80, 81. Exogamy, 43, 46. Eyes, orbits of, 23; color, 31. Facial angle, 24. Fans, 188. Fanti, 185. Fellahs, 188. Fellata, I83. Fetichism, 68. Fine arts, 73. Finnic group, 2II. Finns, 2I 2. Finno-Ugric, 206. Flatheads, 23. Folk-lore, 82. Food, 40. Formosa, 224. Franks, 163. French, I 56. Friendship, 55. Fuegians, 53, 27 I. Fundjas, 187. Gaelic, I 54. Gando, 183. Gallas, I31. Gauls, Ioy. Geez, 135. Genghis Khan, 209. Gens, 56, 57. Getulians, II6. Geographical provinces, 95. Georgians, I7I. Germany, I 57. Germans, I63. Ghadames, II6. Ghanata, 176. Ghiliaks, 2I 5. Glacial age, 91. Gondwana, 222. Goths, I 12, 125, 163. Great Mogul, 209. Greek language, 160. Greeks, 45. Gaunches, I 16, II 7, 122, 130. Guinea, 184, Gypsies, 169. Hadramaut, I34, 136. Haidahs, 257. Hair, the, 32. Hamitic stock, II 5. Harrari, 135. Haussas, 182. Heart line, 29. Hebrews, 139. Heel, in negroes, 28. Hellenic peoples, I 59. Heterogenesis, 81. Himyarites, 133, 186. Hindoos, 169. Hittites, I26, 2I4. Hottentots, 35, 177, I79. Hovas, 233. Huns, 2IO. Hunzas, 169. Iarbas, I22. Iberi, I2 I, I22, 143. INDEX OF Iberian peninsula, I2 I, I 57. Illyrians, I 52, 158. Illyric peoples, I 58. Inca bone, 23. “Indians,” 247. Indo-Chinese, 205. Indo-Eranic peoples, 166. Innuit, 249. Irish, IO7, 154. Iroquois, 254. Ishmaelites, 133. Islam, 69, 70, 203. Israelites, 137. Italians, I 56. Italic peoples, I 55. Jakout, 2IO. Jalin, 136. Japyges, I 58. Japanese, 216. Japetus, IOS. Javanese, 234. Jaws, shape of, 24. Jews, I 39, 299. Joktanides, I 36. Kabyles, I I I, II 6, 1 17, 118, 128. Kanembus, 182. Kanoris, 182. Kavi, 234. Kalihari desert, 179. Kalmucks, 208. Kamschatkans, 215. Karelians, 212. Khamers, 131. Khmers, 206. Khonds, 244. Kiks, 181. SUBJECTS. e 309 Kimos, 179. Kioways, 256. Kirghis, 2II. Kists, 17 I. Kohls, 244. Koraks, 215. Koreans, 218. Kurdistan, 167. Kurgans, 165. Ladakis, 205. Iadinish, I 56. Ladins, IO7. Lamuts, 208. Language, 60–66. Languages, scheme of, 64. Laos, 206. Lao-tse, 202. Latin peoples, I 56. Latins, 152, 155. Lapps, 35, 212. Leleges, I 59. Lemuria, 223. Lemurian reversion, 271. Lesghians, I 71. Lettic peoples, I62. Letto-Slavs, I 52. Leucaethiopes, II6. Lhasa, 204. Libyan group, II 5. Libyans, I 16, I 17. Libyo-Teutonic type, IO6, I 18. Ligurians, I 50, I 55. Linguistic stocks, 61. Lipans, 251. Lithuanian language, I49, 162. Livoanians, 2I2. Loan words, 65. 3IO INDEX OF SU LJECTS. Lolo, 198. Lombards, 163. Loochoo Islands, 218. Love words, 54. Luristan, I67. Macassars, 234. Macedonians, I 58. Madagascar, I79, 222. Magna Grecia, 16I. Magyars, 212. Malayalas, 244. Malays, 230, 232, 239. Mallinki, I84. Manchus, 207. Mandingoes, 183, 184, 193. Mangues, 266. Mantras, 224. Manx, IO7, I 54. Maoris, 236. Marghis, 182. Masiti, Igo. Massagetes, 164. Mauritanians, I 16. Mayas, 263. Mazimbas, 189. Megalithic structure, I2O. Melanesians, 227, 228. Melanism, 45. Melle, 176, 193. Menephtah inscription, 123. Metissage, 45, 47. Miaotse, 198. Micronesians, 245. Migrations, early, 74. Mincopies, 224. Mingling of races, 45. Mingrelians, 171. Mixtecs, 262. Modesty, 59. Mohammedanism, 70. Monbuttus, 187. Monogenism, 79. Montenegrins, 165. Mois, 224. “Mound Builders,” 255. Mundas, 244. Muscular habits, 33. Mzabites, I 16, 133. Nabotheans, 133. Namollos, 2 I 5. Nasal index, 23. Navajos, 251. Negrillos, 177. Negritos, 223. Negroes, the, 181. Negroids, the, 185. Negus, the Grand, 137. Nepalese, 205. Niger, the, 175, 176, 182. Nile, the, 175, 185. Nile, valley, 91, I:29. Ninevites, 126. Norsemen, 163. Nose, shape of, 24. Nubians, 45. Nubus, 187. Nuers, 181. Numidians, I 16. Nyam-Nyams, 187. / Oases, 176. Obongos, 178. Old Prussian, 162. Orbital index, 23. yº. INDEX OIF Oscans, I 5 I, I 55. Osmanlis, 2 IO. Ossetes, 167. Palaeolithic implement, 84, 90. Pali, 169. . Pamir plateau, 195, 198, 2IO. Papuas, 227, 229. Parsees, II 2, 167. Pawnees, 256. Pelasgians, 2I4. Pelvic index, 28. Permians, 2I 2. Personal loyalty, 56. Persians, 167. Phenicians, 126, 138, 160. Phonetic laws, 64. Phratries, 57. Phrygians, I 59. Physical ideal, 41. Picts, I I 4, 143. Po, plain of, III. Poles, 165. Polyandry, 53. Polygenism, 79. Polynesians, 235. Portuguese, I 56, I 57. Prakrit, I69. * Proto-Aryac language, 148. Proto-Hellenes, 16o. Proto-Semitic languages, I 19. Puls, 188. Punt, the land, 176. Pygmies, 177. Qquichuas, 272. Quaternary, geography, 86. Quimos, I79. } SUBJECTS. 3II Races, development, 92. Races, classification, 97. Races, subdivisions, 98. Rajpoots, 169. Rapanui, 238. Red hair, 45. Religion, 67. Rifians, 116, 125. Rig Veda, 169. River drift men, 84, 91. Romance languages, I 56. Romany, 169. Roumanians, I 56, I 57. Russians, 165. Ruthenians, 165. Sabeans, I 33. Sahaptins, 258. Sahara, the, 87, 88, II 6, 173, I76. Sakaies, 224. Sakulavas, 189. Sakya Muni, 69. Samaritans, I37. Sambaquis, 269. Samnites, I 55. Samoyeds, 212. Sandehs, 187. Sansandig, 183. Sanscrit, I45, 160, 168. Santals, ‘244. Sarmatians, 164. Savai, 236. Saxons, 163. Scotch, the, I 54. Scythians, 164. Senegal, 183, 184. Semangs, 224. Semites, cradle of, I 32. 3I 2 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Sereres, 183. Serkus, I I6. Servians, 165. Sex relations, 37. Sexual impulse, 53. Sexual preference, 43. Shamanism, 68. Sheba, Queen of, I 33. Shilhas, I 16. Shintoism, 217. Shoshonees, 256. Siagosch, I I 2. Siamese, 206. Sibiric Branch, 206. Sicily, 161. Simiadae in Europe, 85. Sinhalese, 235. Sinitic Branch, 197. Skulls, shape of, 21. Skypetars, I 58. Slavonic peoples, 164. Sokoto, 183. Somalis, I 32. Sononki, 184. Spaniards, I 56. Spanish Americans, 45. Special senses, 36. Steatopygy, 35. Stone age, 91. Stone age in Egypt, I 29. Suahelis, 189. Sudan, the, 181, 182. Suevi, II 2. Suomi, 21 2. Susians, 224. Sutures of skull, 22. Swedes, 163. Syrians, I 26, 137, 161. Sygyni, 166. Taboo, 237. Tadchiks, 168. Tagalas, 232, 233. Tamerlane, 209. Tamils, 244. Tanganyika Lake, 190. Tapuyas, 270. Tarascos, 262. Tartar or Tatar, 209. Tasmanians, 240. Tavastes, 21 2. Tchad, Lake, 175, 182. Teeth, the, 26. Telugus, 244. Teutonic peoples, 163. Thai, 206. Thibetans, 204. Thracians, I 58, 167. Tibbus, I 16, 183. Tibia, shape of, 28. Tigres, I 35. Timbuctoo, 183. Tinneh, 251. Tlinkit, 257. Tonkinese, 206. Todas, 183, 244. Tonga, 236. Totem, the, 56. Touaregs, 122. Transylvania, 166. Tribal religions, 69. Tuariks, I 16, 125. Tungus, 207. Tunisia, 9o, I 19, I2O. INDEX OF Tupis, 269. “Turanian,” 213. Turcomans, 2 IO. Turks, 161, 209, 2IO. Types of white race, IO6. Ugrians, 212. Umbrians, I 5.1, I 56. Ural-Altaic, 2O6. Utes, 43. Vandals, II 2, 125, 163. Vans, I I4, I 53. Veddahs, 230, 235. Volapük, 67. Volscians, I 55. Vouatouas, I78. SUBJECTS. 3I3 Waganda, 190. Wallachians, I 56. Walloons, Ioy. War, 76–78. Watuta, 190. Welsh, Io'7, I 54. Wends, 165, White Nile, 176, 181, 182. Wolofs, 183, 184. Woman, 38, 58. World religions, 69. Zambesi river, 189. Zapotecs, 262. Zend, 145, 167. Zulus, 189. Zuñis, 258. THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN DATE DUE AUG 13 2004 |||||||| ‘. . . Reviewed by Preservation DO NOT REMOVE OR MUTIILATE CARD - - º º - º ºffl ºil ºffl ºffl - - ºffl ºfflº º --~~~~ - --~~~~ ºffl - - - ºffl -º-º-º-º: - ºfflº - ºffl º== º == - ºffl - - - - --- - - ºffl ºffl º - - - - - - ºil- - ºfflº º º - - º ºffl º - º - --- == º º -- º == º - - º- -- ºº:i. = - == ºfflº -- -- - º: --------- ºil º --- --- - - - - º - - º - - - º º º - -