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OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
By A. M. M. STEDMAN, M.A.
French Examination Papers in Miscellaneous Grammar
and Idioms. Second Edition. Cr. 8vo. 2s. 6d.
In use at Eton, Harrow, Winchester, Haileybury, Repton, Cheltenham, &c.
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30005
OXFORD:
ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
EDITED BY
A. M. M. STEDMAN, M.A.
WADHAM COLLEGE.
ASSISTED BY
MEMBERS OF THE UNIVERSITY.
LONDON:
GEORGE BELL AND SONS, YORK STREET,
COVENT GARDEN.
1887.
ERRATA.
P. 2, for 1186 read 1086.
P. 5, for Tusculanum read Tusculum.
P. 11, 1. 6, for his cope read a cope.
CHISWICK PRESS :-C. WHITTINGHAM AND CO., TOOKS COURT,
CHANCERY LANE.
26
PREFACE.
THIS book is in form a reproduction of a work published
some years ago; in matter it is practically a new work.
The last few years have wrought such a change in the con-
ditions of life and study at the University that a new treat-
ment has become absolutely necessary. And in this edition
the far more satisfactory method has been followed of
assigning each subject to a capable and responsible contri-
butor. The changes of the last ten years have been almost
revolutionary in their scope and results. The abolition of
restrictions on married Fellows, the freer intercourse
between undergraduates and their tutors' families, the intro-
duction of the drama, the gradual severance of the official
connection between religion and the University, the increase
of earnestness and interest in social problems, the greater
opportunities afforded for the exhibition of individual
tastes, the admission of women to the Examinations, and
the many changes in the Examination System-all this
has made the life of the Oxford of to-day a very different
thing to the life of ten years ago.
The most ardent reformer will scarcely assert that these
changes have been absolutely beneficial in every case, and
the reforms have been vigorously opposed by a large sec-
tion of the University. On the other hand, in a time of
intellectual activity and unrest, the University was obliged
to conform its system to the modern spirit, and a little
stirring of the waters is good for the body academic as for
the body politic. At all events, we may console ourselves
vi
PREFACE.
with the reflection that the energies of the reformers have
almost exhausted themselves, and that the University will
now have a space to digest and turn to use the reforms
which have been forced upon her with such alarming
rapidity. It is hardly possible to catch and stereotype the
elements of a life so changing and so complex as that of
Oxford-but I hope the main features have been faithfully
pourtrayed. I have to thank the authorities of most of the
Colleges for their courtesy in answering the questions
addressed them.
Í shall be very grateful for any suggestions which may
tend to make this book more useful and complete.
A. M. M. S.
HIGH CROFT,
near GODALMING,
July, 1887.
*
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.
ASHLEY, W. J., M.A.
BRABANT, F. G., M.A.
DIXEY, F. A., M.A., B.M. .
GENT, Rev. G. W., M.A..
GENT, MISS K. M.
GERRANS, H. T., M.A. .
HALL, H., B.C.L., M.A.
HENSON, H. H., B.A.
SADLER, M. E., M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Lincoln.
Late Scholar of C.C.C.
Fellow and Tutor of Wadham.
Principal of St. Mark's Coll.,
Chelsea, late Tutor of Keble.
Fellow and Tutor of Wor-
cester.
Merton.
Fellow of All Souls.
Steward of Ch. Ch. Secre-
tary to the Delegates of
Local Lectures.
Wadham.
STEDMAN, A. M. M., M.A..
WEATHERLY, F. E., M.A.
.
Late Scholar of B.N.C.
WELLS, J., M.A. .
Fellow and Tutor of Wadham.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY. Position of the
University in medieval life.-Uncertain origin.—Earliest
mention in 1187.-Disturbed relations between the University
and City.-The dispute of 1208.-Origin of the office of Chan-
cellor.—Intestine feuds.-Growth of the Colleges and of dis-
cipline.- Anti-papal feeling.-Struggles with the King.
Anti-feudalism.-Grossteste.-Roger Bacon.-Wycliffe-The
Renaissance.-Efforts for reform.—The Ordinances of Henry
V.-Intellectual activity.-Wolsey and the University.-Dis-
pute with Henry VIII.-Oxford under Edward VI.-The
Oxford martyrs.-Elizabeth.-The University now a Church
of England Institution.-The influence of Laud.-The Civil
War.-James II.-Religious revival of the Eighteenth Cen-
tury.-The Past and the Future
CHAPTER II.
THE COLLEGES-Entrance, expenses, &c.
CHAPTER III.
EXPENSES OF OXFORD LIFE. Fallacious estimates.-An
Oxford career not cheap.-Preliminary expenses. -Terminal
expenses.-Battels.-Meals-College Clubs.-Boating.-The
Union.-Tradesmen.-Necessary and unnecessary.-Minor
expenses. Examination fees. - Tabulated statement of
average expenses. -Decrease of expenses after third year.
A moderate estimate.-Credit and debt.-Little safeguard
against debt at Oxford
CHAPTER IV.
THE SOCIAL LIFE. Object of an Oxford career, ideal and
actual.-Choice of a College.-Commencing residence.-
Freshmen.-The Oxford day.-Morning and work.-After-
PAGE.
1
27
68.
X
CONTENTS.
noon and exercise. -Boating.-Pleasures and advantages of.
-Cricket. -Summer term. - Billiards. Tradesmen. - The
Union.-Dinner.-After dinner.-Wines. -Decadence of.
Changes in Oxford life.-Married tutors. - Influences of
Women.-Afternoon Tea. -Increase of refinement.-The
Theatre.-Music.-Increase of earnestness.-Discipline and
morality.-Proctors.-Evening amusements.-Power of Col-
lege authorities.-College cliques.-A walk down the "High."
-A superficial sketch of Oxford life only attempted.-Alma
Mater
84.
CHAPTER V.
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE. Introduction. -Social and In-
tellectual life intermingled. I. Oxford system defended
against attacks. — Superficiality.—Pedantry. — Over-work.—
Over-specialization. II. Intellectual influences brought to
bear on Oxford men.--(Official)-Dons.-Tutors, their selection
and work.-Lectures, private and public. - Professors.-
Lectures on Poetry, Art, &c.-Influence of Ruskin, Palgrave,
Freeman, Herkomer, &c.-Examinations. (Non-official)-
Intellectual atmosphere.-Freedom of Discussion.-Tolerance
of all views.-Effect on young minds.-Stages of Mental
Development. III. Departments of Intellectual activity
(a) Philososhy.-Represented by few, but characteristic.—
Method of teaching.--Mill v. Green.-Influence of Green.
(b) Politics. Oxford neither blindly Conservative nor Radical.
-Conservatism increasing. The Union.-Description of a
debate. -Other debating societies. (c) Literature, access to
libraries.-Tone of criticism.-Oxford current literature.-
Prospects of a Literature School. (d) Drama.—Progress of
in Oxford.-Inauguration of New Theatre.--Conclusion.—
Many-sided life of Oxford.-Rapidly progressing changes.
CHAPTER VI.
•
THE RELIGIOUS LIFE. Introduction. I. Retrospective.-
The Church and University Reform.-Peculiar position of
Christianity in modern Oxford. II. The religious life as it
is. (a) University influences, collegiate and non-collegiate.—
College Chapels.-Pusey House, and kindred institutions.-
Devotional classes.-The University sermons. (ỏ) Influence
of the Parish Churches.-Why so great.-S. Barnabas and
the High Church School.-S. Aldate's and the Evangelical
116
CONTENTS.
xi
School. (Henry Bazely).-Summary. III. The immediate
present and future.-The Religious reaction.-Development
of the philanthropic spirit; Professor Green. -—The outlook
hopeful.
142
CHAPTER VII.
PREPARING FOR OXFORD.-READING FOR SCHOLARSHIPS.
Matriculation.-Standard same as Responsions. Require-
ments of various Colleges.-Greek and Latin books.-Latin
Prose.-Grammar paper.-Arithmetic.-Algebra and Euclid.
-Unseen translation.-Essay. Reading for Scholarships.-
Regulations as to Tenure.-Division of Examination-papers.
-Classics most important.-Unseen translation.—Reading
classical authors.-Latin Prose.-Greek Prose.-Verse com-
position.—Critical papers, its subdivisions. -English papers.
-Essay.-General questions, i.e. on Literature, Art, Political
Economy, Logic, Philosophy.-History paper. -Miscellaneous
hints.-Mathematical Scholarships.—List of subjects.—Gene-
ral maxims.—Science Scholarships.—List of subjects
CHAPTER VIII.
. 159
EXAMINATIONS-HINTS ON READing. Attacks on ex-
amination system. -How far it can be defended.-General
sketch of Oxford examinations.-Examinations for degree of
B.A.-Courses open to undergraduates.-Pass and class.-
Recent changes.-Time of Examinations.-Specialization.—
Divinity Schools. —Oriental languages.-Honour moderations.
-Period of change probably at an end. Hints on reading.
Number of hours a day to work.-Division of hours.-Ap-
plication. — Helps to reading. — Note-books. — Analyses.
Pencil-marks.-Interleaved copies.-English translations.
Lectures.-Difficulty of taking notes.-Reading to be lessened
as schools approach.-Hints on Examination.-Causes of
failure.-Carelessness.-Want of power of expression.—Clear
style and arrangement necessary.-Failure from despondency.
-The New "Schools."-Vivâ voce.-Testamur.-Class-list. 181
CHAPTER IX.
THE PASS SCHOOLS. Admission.—Matriculation.-Respon-
sions. -Subjects for.-Moderations. -Subjects for.-Exami-
nation in Holy Scripture.-Final Schools. -Subjects for. -Dis-
xii
CONTENTS.
(C
advantage of taking up Modern Languages.-Subjects recom-
mended for various professions.-Ancient History.-Advice to
those who have chosen A. 1.-Methods of Study.-Advan-
tage of working out papers. — Prose. — Texts. Cribs,"
dangers of. Necessity of conscientious translation.—Taking
notes.-Mathematics.--Logic, Law, and Political Economy.-
Colleges and Private Tutors.
CHAPTER X.
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS. Principal Classical
Examination. Recent changes.-Copy of new regulations.-
Points in which they differ from the old.-Causes of the
change.-Defects in previous system.-Remedy sought.—Ex-
cellent changes.-Room for wide reading, scholarship, and
minute industry.-Possible defects in new arrangements.-
Details of Examination.-The four books to be read as wholes.
- Homer. - Demosthenes. Cicero. Virgil. -Specially-pre
pared books. -Increased importance of Literary questions.-
Four Groups.-Group A. Greek Dramatists.-B. Other Greek
authors.-C. Most Latin poets.-D. Other Latin authors.-
Remarks on the general questions.—The special subjects.—
The three Literary subjects.-Philology.-Logic.
M
CHAPTER XI.
201
218
LITERÆ HUMANIORES. History of the School.-Character
of the original Examination.-Changes in 1850.—Number of
Candidates.-Recent increase in the importance of the History
papers.-General remarks as to the Philosophy work. -The
Logic paper.-The Moral Philosophy paper.-Political Philo-
sophy.-General remarks as to the History work.—The Greek
History paper.-The Roman History paper.-The Scholar-
ship papers.-Lectures and private reading.-Viva Voce.-
Special subjects. - Coaching. The chief defects of the
Greats" school.-Its value for practical life and education. 244
66
CHAPTER XII.
JURISPRUDENCE. Oxford has a past history in connection
with the study of the Law. The study of the Corpus Juris in
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.-Vacarius.-Thomas à
Becket.-Accursius.-The Schools of his time.-The Domini-
cans and the Canon Law.-Bracton.-The Inns of Court.-
CONTENTS.
xiii
The fourteenth century.-The fifteenth century.-All Souls'
College.-Religious and Political strife.-Albericus Gentilis.
—The Laudian Era.-The eighteenth century.—Blackstone
and All Souls' College.-The Vinerian, Eldon, and Stowell
endowments.-The beginning of the nineteenth century.—
Theology, Law, and Medicine neglected.—1854.-The Law
and Modern History School. The need of Academical in-
struction in Law still felt.-Changes made in the work of the
Law Schools since 1873.-Jurisprudence.-Roman Law.-
English Law. -History of English Law.-International Law.
The B.C.L. Degree.-The Pass School in Law.-Professors,
Readers, and Lecturers in Law.-Private Tutors.-Other
Universities. Cambridge. —London. --- Edinburgh.— Dublin.
Further needs at Oxford.-A complete organization.—One
Law Library instead of two.-Increased Endowments.—
Advice to the Candidate on his work.-The University Law
Teaching needed.—Oxford text-books.—Blackstone's opinion.
-What is done in Foreign Universities?-How far will the
Oxford Schools carry the student in his call to the Bar?
Further changes in the work required at Oxford may be ex-
pected.—The study of Law as a preliminary to a B. A. Degree. 266
CHAPTER XIII.
MODERN HISTORY. Origin of the School.-Requirements
of the School.-The "Periods."-And "Special Subjects."-
Real Property. - Arrangement of work. - Constitutional
History.—Preparatory Reading.-Political Science. — Aris-
totle.-Hobbes.-Maine.-Political Economy and Economic
History. Suggested Reading.-Essay-writing.-Its impor-
tance.-And dangers.-Need of impartiality.-Advantages of
the School.
CHAPTER XIV.
MATHEMATICAL SCHOOLS. Time of standing for Examina-
tions.-College Tutor.-"Coach."-Moderations.-Subjects.
-General Hints Nos. 1, 2, and 3.-Order of Study.-Algebra.
-Theory of Equations.-Trigonometry.-Pure Geometry.-
Analytical Conics.-Differential Calculus.-Curve Tracing.
—Integral Calculus.—Mechanics.—Final Schools.—Subjects.
-Order of Study.-Solid Geometry.-Chances.—Statics.—
Particle Dynamics.-Rigid Dynamics.-Hydromechanics. -
Optics, Astronomy. Bookwork important. - University
Scholarships. Senior.-Junior
297
308
Xiv
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XV.
NATURAL SCIENCE AND MEDICINE. I. General introduc-
tion. II. The Honour School of Natural Science. (a) Its
relation to other Schools. (b) Its division into subjects.
i. Preliminary subjects. ii. Final subjects. iii. The relation
of these to one another. iv. Special subjects. (c) The choice
of a subject. (d) The course and methods of study. (e) The
time required for preparation. III. Science in the Pass
Schools. IV. Science Prizes. (a) College, Exhibitions,
Scholarships and Fellowship. (b) University Prizes. i. The
Burdett-Coutts Scholarships. ii. The Radcliffe Travelling
Fellowship. iii. The Rolleston Prize. iv. The Johnson
Memorial Prize. V. Oxford as a School of Medicine.
(a) Medical and Surgical Degrees and qualifications given by
the University. (b) Examinations for Medical and Surgical
degrees. i. Examinations for M.B. and B.Ch. a. Preliminary
Examinations.-B. The first Examination for the Degrees of
M.B. and B. Ch. (1st M.B.) y. The second Examination for
the Degrees of M.B. and B. Ch. (2nd M.B.) ii. Examination
for the Degree of M.Ch. (c) Examination for the Certificate
in Preventive Medicine and Public Health. (d) The Course,
and Methods of Study in Medicine and Surgery, the relation
between the Medical and other Schools, and the time required
for preparation
317
CHAPTER XVI.
HONOUR SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY. General remarks on the
School, its advantages and drawbacks. -Hebrew. -Biblia
Sacra.-Dogmatic Theology.-Ecclesiastical History.—Apolo-
getica.-Liturgies.-Sacred Criticism.-Suggested method of
Reading.-Lectures and Private Tuition
CHAPTER XVII.
WOMEN'S EDUCATION AT OXFORD. Recent commencement
of the movement. -The controversies as to admission to ex-
amination.—The examinations for women.-The system of
education.—Conditions of residence.-Expenses.-The Halls.
-Account of.-Occupations and amusements of
"Girl
Graduates."—Little overwork.-General characteristics of the
girl students
334
340
CONTENTS.
XV
CHAPTER XVIII.
UNIVERSITY EXTENSION. University Statute. -Com-
mittee of Delegates.-Object of University Extension Teach-
ing. Subjects of Lectures.-Formation of Local Committee.
-Fees, &c.-The plan of the Lectures.-The Syllabus.-The
Examination.-The Certificate.-Travelling Libraries.--Cost
of Lectures.-Endowment Fund for Lectures.-Appointment
of an Endowed Lecturer.-Gift to the Travelling Libraries, &c.
--Towns where Oxford Lectures have been delivered.-Corre-
spondence Lectures.-Application for appointment to the
Staff of Lecturers
351
CHAPTER I.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY.
THE
'HE Universities formed one of the most characteristic
elements of medieval life. They held an important
and peculiar position. Intimately connected with the
Church, to which indeed they owed their existence, they
were by no means included in the Church's organization;
nay, they stood outside it, not always in an attitude of
friendliness. The Universities were the main-stays of
orthodoxy; they were also the chosen haunts of heresy.
Free thought on the most sacred subjects—elsewhere pro-
scribed-flourished among the citizens of these student-
republics. The great movement of the eleventh century to
which the Universities of Europe owed their origin, is
identified with the name of an heresiarch-Abelard.
influence of Oxford, of Paris, and of Prague reached its
highest level when their destinies were swayed by heretics
-Wycliffe, and Gerson, and Huss, respectively. The case
was not far different with the relations between the Uni-
versities and the Temporal power. They must be reckoned
with the municipal corporations, the monastic orders, and
the civic leagues as one of the great forces hostile to feu-
dalism. Fiercely democratic in tone, in government re-
publican, they stood in dramatic antithesis to the prevailing
social and political system.
The
If Oxford must yield in point of antiquity to Bologna,
and in that of cosmopolitan influence to Paris, yet it may
12
B
2
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
claim to be more truly national than either. Of English
institutions there are few which have entered so deeply into
the national life as the University of Oxford. For centuries.
past it has mirrored that life, alike in greatness and shame,
in faith and sin, with unvarying fidelity. To Englishmen,.
then, the history of the University must always be deeply
interesting. If, however, an inquirer demand the time
when first that history began, he can obtain no definite
answer to his question. The beginnings of the University
of Oxford are buried in a profound obscurity. A century
ago it was not so. Then-unless ill chance brought a
sceptic from the sister University on the scene-the Oxonian
could, without fear of contradiction, claim the immortal
Alfred as the first "Founder and Benefactor" of his Alma
Mater. In these days of enlightenment nobody believes in
the "Aluredian fiction," and the exact date at which the
University entered on its history must be relegated to the
region of things unknown.
It seems fairly certain that the town of Oxford' can claim
an antiquity of at least a thousand years. The story of
Saint Frides wide, though itself a mere legend, and existing
in documents of a comparatively late date, seems to embody
an historic fact. In the eighth century, it may be fairly
believed, a community of nuns established themselves on
the site, which in later times has borne the name of Oxford.
As for the name itself, it first makes its appearance in the
Saxon Chronicle under the year 912.
In the last quarter of the eleventh century (A.D. 1186),
there was compiled that famous survey which is known as
the Domesday Book. It contains a very careful and detailed
account of Oxford, but in that account there is not a single
word to indicate the existence of the University. Yet the
statements of the Survey are not without interest to the
1 Vide "The Early History of Oxford," by J. Parker, chap. iv.
(Oxford Hist. Soc. 1885.)
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY.
3
student of academic history. For the Church appears to
hold a very prominent position. Out of 297 "mansions"
of which the owners are recorded, no less than 115 are said
to be the property of ecclesiastics. This fact is important,
for there can be no doubt that the University owed its
origin to the Church.
Around the foundation of Saint Frides wide there gathered
a settlement of wooden houses, from which came in after
times the historic town. Out of the schools which were
attached to the same foundation, there developed by slow
degrees the historic University. The exact date when the
schools became the University cannot be certainly deter-
mined, but there would seem to be good reason for assign-
ing the reign of Henry II. as the period at which the
transition was accomplished. It is indeed true that Robert
Pullus is said to have lectured on Theology as early as 1133,
and Vacarius on the Civil Law, a few years later, but both
the one and the other were probably "either mere teachers
in the royal court, or private tutors under the Canons of
St. Frides wide." In the year, 1187, however, at the very
end of Henry II.'s reign, there is definite evidence that the
University was in existence. Giraldus Cambrensis records
how he came to Oxford in that year, and read his new
work on the " Conquest of Ireland" to mixed audiences of
citizens and scholars, whom he entertained sumptuously.
In 1187, then, and for some time before, how long is un-
certain, there was an University in Oxford.
But what was an University? One of the most distinctive
features of the Middle Age was the tendency to association
which operated in every sphere of life. The existence of
this tendency can be traced in the rise of religious orders,
of orders of chivalry, of municipal corporations, of trade-
guilds, and craft-guilds, and, also, of universities. An
1 Vide "Lectures on Medieval and Modern History," by Bishop
Stubbs, p. 141. (Clarendon Press, 1886.
4
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
University, in fact, was precisely a "scholastic guild,
whether of masters or students." A degree was a "license
to teach;" a formal declaration of competence, and a
solemn admission into a society.
The early years of the University were not years of peace.
Indeed, throughout the whole medieval period disturbances
were of frequent occurrence. These disturbances were of
three kinds, as the scholars directed their enmity against
the townsfolk, or against the external powers of Church
and king, or against one another.
The scholars were necessarily brought into close contact
with the citizens of the town where they dwelt: there were
sufficient reasons for rendering that contact the occasion of
quarrel. To begin with there was the great question of
rent, in all ages of the world a source of ill-feeling,
markedly so in mediæval Oxford. It must be remembered
that the students were not, so to say, housed by the Uni-
versity in Colleges and Halls, but dwelt in rooms hired from
the townsfolk. These latter fleeced the students, who re-
taliated. Hence heartburnings, reprisals, riots. Then there
was the even greater question of jurisdiction. The Uni-
versity, as has been shown, was essentially ecclesiastical.
The students were all " clerks," and as such claimed
exemption from the ordinary tribunals. This exemption.
was intolerable to the townspeople, who suspected, not un-
naturally, that the riotous student would find more lenient
treatment in the Court of the Chancellor, than in the Court
of the Mayor. This question of jurisdiction, then, was the
fruitful source of "town-and-gown" commotions, some of
which assumed the most serious dimensions.
In 12082 there broke out in Oxford a famous dis-
turbance, which at one time threatened the very existence
1 Vide "English Historical Review," No. iv. p. 644.
2 This account is taken from Matthew Paris, "Chronica Majora,”
vol. ii. p. 525, sq. (Rolls edition.)
HISTORICAL SKETCH 1
5
OF THE UNIVERSITY.
of its University, and left its mark on the subsequent rela-
tions of scholars and citizens. It happened on this wise.
A certain clerk accidentally killed a woman and fled. The
Mayor and townsfolk found the corpse, and at once insti-
tuted an inquiry as to the author of the outrage. They
succeeded in discovering his name and residence. It
appeared that he occupied a house in conjunction with two
companions. Thither the Mayor and his followers pro-
ceeded, and when they could not find the guilty clerk, laid
hands on his two guiltless comrades and cast them into
prison. It so happened, unfortunately for the clerks, that
King John then reigned in England, and he was well known
to be an enemy of clerks. Indeed, he was reported to have
remarked, when he heard of the murder of a priest, "that
he had been relieved of an enemy." The townsmen of
Oxford, then, were sure to meet with sympathy from King
John. In fact, the King ordered the unhappy students to
be hanged, which order the townsfolk at once carried into
effect. The consternation among the students was immense.
"When this deed was done," says the old chronicler, "the
masters and their disciples, to the number of 3,000 clerks,
departed forthwith from Oxford, so that not one out of the
whole University remained." The citizens had triumphed
for the moment; with victory came repentance. They had
veritably "slain the goose which lay the golden eggs.'
Without the scholars," the hope of their gains" was gone.
They made haste to solicit the return of the exiles. But
that was not easy to secure, for the scholars were greatly
incensed, and demanded hard terms. Years passed before
the final settlement could be arranged.' At last, however,
the Papal Legate, Nicholas of Tusculanum, dictated the
terms on which the citizens should be admitted to pardon,
and the University return to Oxford. The townsmen who let
1 "Munimenta Academica," vol. i. p. 1, sq. (Rolls Series.)
6
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
halls to students were to remit half of the rent for two
years; to pay a sum of fifty-two shillings every year to be
expended on poor scholars; to feast a hundred poor scholars
every year on St. Nicholas' Day on bread, beer, "potage,"
and one dish of fish or flesh; to swear that they would sell
provisions to the students at a reasonable price, and to sur-
render any clerks, whom they might have occasion to arrest,
to the Bishop of Lincoln or his deputy. These were hard
terms, and they fell with equal severity on guilty and
innocent alike. A further condition was added to mark
the distinction between them.
"Let all those of you," says
the Cardinal, “who have confessed and been convicted of
hanging the clerks, come at the bidding of Hugh, Bishop
of Lincoln, as soon as the interdict is released, with bare
feet, without cloaks, and bare-headed, the whole com-
monalty following you, and take up their bodies and bury
them in the cemetery, where the clergy shall appoint."
This sentence of the cardinal may be said to have founded
the jurisdiction of the Chancellor, which has ever since been
admitted to extend over the members of the University.
The Chancellor is said to be nominated by the Bishop of
Lincoln, whose immense diocese then stretched from the
Humber to the Thames. It is not without significance that
Oxford was never during the Middle Ages the seat of a
bishop. The bishops of Lincoln took the greatest interest
in the University, watching over its interests and guarding
its privileges against king, pope, and townspeople with
admirable constancy; but they could not at such a dis-
tance exercise that dominant influence which was exercised
in the parallel instance of Paris, by the bishop of that city.
The Chancellor of Oxford was at first like the Chancellor
of Paris, the bishop's official. The Chancellor of Paris¹
never became anything else, for the constant presence of
For the position of the Chancellor of Paris, see an article by the
Rev. H. Rashdall, in the "English Historical Review," No. iv. p. 639, sq.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY.
7
the bishop prevented him from becoming, so to say, de-
tached from the see. The University of Paris found its
natural head in the Rector. The Chancellor of Oxford-
not subject to the influence of a present bishop-identified
himself increasingly with the University until he came to
be, and to be regarded as its natural head: he was in fact
in Oxford what the Rector was in Paris.
The contests which the students waged against the
townsfolk were not comparable in violence and pertinacity
with those which they waged against one another. In the
Middle Ages provincial feeling was far more intense than it
is to-day. Communications were difficult. The general
tendency of medievalism was towards permanence. That
fruitful source of mutual antipathy, mutual ignorance, was
integral to the age. North countryman hated South country-
men, Welshman detested Englishman with an enduring
hostility. Oxford University drew together to a common
centre all the various sections of the nation. From all parts
of the country the students flocked thither: bringing with
them to their new home their traditional antipathies, their
local, personal, and political rivalries. Foreigners, also, were
not uncommonly included among the members of the Uni-
versity though, in this particular Oxford never seems to
have at all approximated to the position of Paris, which
formed the intellectual centre of the West. In effect, Eng-
land throughout the Middle Ages, and indeed, more or less
throughout her whole history, has stood very much outside
the community of Europe. This isolation, the inevitable
result of geography and history, has had great results in
many directions, and among them in the direction of her
Academic life. Oxford was, perhaps, less cosmopolitan than
any other first-class University. Yet even so, the divisions
among the students were almost as deep as those which
severed into “Nations" the students of Paris. And thus,
the organization of Paris was adopted as the model on which
8
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
to construct the organization of Oxford. The basis of both
was the division into Nations. As Paris had its four Nations
each represented by its rectors, or proctors, so Oxford had
its two Nations, ranged under their respective "proctors."
The "Northern Nation" carried on an incessant feud with
the "Southern Nation," in which was included the Welsh
and Irish students. The two proctors into whose hands is
given the charge of the discipline of the modern University
perpetuate the memory of its medieval contests. These
contests were many and serious. Sometimes the royal
power had to be invoked before peace could be restored.
Perhaps the most critical of these civil wars was that which
broke out early in the fourteenth century, and which
left permanent traces on the subsequent history of the
University.
In the year 1333 there happened a great fight between
Northerners and Southerners. In vain the Chancellor
exerted himself to restore order.
were full; the sheriff was at his wits' end to find room for
more rioters : and still the disturbance went on.
The prisons in the castle
The more
studious members of the University were quite unable to
pursue their studies, and in despair of ever attaining the
tranquillity for which they longed, a number of northern
students resolved to depart from Oxford and seek a home
elsewhere. The place which they selected was Stamford,
already the seat of flourishing conventual schools. At
first all went well. The exiles received a warm welcome
from the townsfolk of Stamford. Their first act was to
address the King; they declared the reason of their conduct.
Oxford was no place for scholars by reason of its perpetual
commotions. But the University of Oxford had likewise
appealed to the King. The representations of the Univer-
sity were strongly supported by Queen Philippa and the
Bishop of Lincoln. Edward III. ordered the schismatic
1 "Collectanea" (Oxford Hist. Society), vol. i. part 1.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY.
9
students to leave Stamford: an order which was only
carried into effect by the employment of positive violence.
The University was thoroughly frightened; and we find
among the obligations imposed upon Masters of Arts at
their inception, a solemn oath never to lecture or read at
Stamford.¹ It was the last occasion on which the Univer-
sity found itself face to face with the danger of dispersion.
Already the Colleges were taking a prominent position; the
ties of material interest which bound the students to the banks
of the Isis were becoming strong enough to resist the strain
of any internal disturbances. The University, in fact, was
becoming wealthy, and with the Colleges came better order
among the students. The great plague of 1347 did not
spare Oxford: the number of members is said to have been
reduced to one-fifth of what it had formerly been. Then
the great struggle with France drew the interest of English-
men into another channel, and for many years Oxford was
in comparative quiet.
In the thirteenth century the students of Oxford were
engaged in a famous contest with the Papacy. The origin
of this contest is perhaps to be traced to the intense sym-
pathy which existed between the University and the nation.
It has always been an honourable characteristic of Oxford
that it has thrown itself heart and soul into the great inte-
rests which, wisely or madly, have absorbed the attention of
the English people. In no period of its history was that
characteristic more marked than in the period of the Middle
Age.
During the minority of Henry III., the Papacy had a
magnificent opportunity of recovering the position in the
affections of Englishmen which the rash conduct of Inno-
cent III. had forfeited. The government was virtually in
the hands of the Papal Legates. They had good inten-
tions :
: so far as was possible they were loyal to their trust,
1 "Munimenta Academica," vol. ii. p. 375. (Rolls Series.)
10
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
but the time was not propitious. The Papacy was entering on
its fatal contest with Frederick II. It was indeed a contest
"Where he that winneth, loseth most ; who trophies boasts,
hath none;
Where he who dies, the victor's prize, and he alone,
hath won. "" 1
That most unhappy contest worked evil to the Papacy in
every direction. The need for money to carry on the
"Crusade "compelled the popes to fling to the winds all
considerations of rectitude, and to strain every effort to
make full use of every chance in order to wring money
out of the nations of Christendom. Such a chance was
the minority of Henry III., and such was the conduct of
the legates that throughout England the deepest indigna-
tion was felt against the Papacy. This indignation found
expression in various ways-in the anti-Papalism of
Matthew Paris, and the ballad writers, in the firm resis-
tance to Papal assumptions made by the great Bishop of
Lincoln, Grostête-in the organized lawlessness of Robert
Twenge, and also, and not least important, in the conduct
of the students of the University of Oxford. The feelings
of the students found expression in 1238, and as is not in-
frequent, the immediate occasion was sufficiently trivial."
The legate, Cardinal Otho, visited Oxford, and took up his
residence in Oseney Abbey. Some members of the Uni-
versity took occasion of his visit to address to him certain
petitions. Their reception was anything but courteous.
The doorkeeper, who happened to be a foreigner, refused
them admission. Irritated at the refusal, and strengthened
by the accession of many students who came flocking from
all parts of the city, they made a determined attack on the
1 E. A. Freeman. See "Original Ballads by Living Authors," published
by Joseph Masters, 1850.
2 Matthew Paris, "Chronica Majora," vol. iii. p. 481. (Rolls
Series.) The story is very well told by Mr. Maxwell Lyte, "Hist. of
the University," p. 34.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY.
11
1
door. In the course of the combat, the Legate's chief cook,
who happened to be his own brother, poured a cauldron of
boiling broth upon the face of an Irish beggar, and was at
once shot dead by a Welsh student. The rest made efforts
to fire the monastery. This decided the Legate, who, cover-
ing himself in his cope, fled into the belfry, and there lay
concealed, until help came from Abingdon, where King
Henry was residing. Under the escort of the soldiers, whom
the King had at once sent to the scene of disorder, the
Legate managed to make his escape, but as he rode away
he could distinguish amid the din, the ominous words,
"Usurer," "Simoniai," "Spoiler,"
Spoiler," "Money-grubber," and
the like. The contest having come to an end, the rioters
had to pay the penalty. They were placed under excom-
munication, and it would have fared ill for the University
if the English bishops had not interfered in its behalf, and
bluntly told the incensed Cardinal that the root of the
mischief was the insolence of his own servants.
The students of Oxford took the deepest interest in the
great constitutional struggle of Henry III.'s reign; they
seem to have thrown themselves vigorously into the cause
of the barons, and by consequence they brought down upon
the University the wrath of the King. There is nothing
surprising in this. The constitution of the University was
eminently adapted to develop a love of freedom, for it was
essentially republican. The immense value of this fact
can scarcely be overstated. Feudalism has had many
admirers; it is not without attractive features; but at
bottom it was a veritable slave system. It tended to
shrivel away into a dull tyranny of caste. It was a great
thing that there should be in the University of Oxford an
emphatic and perpetual protest against this. The Univer-
sity, then as now, was the centre of the higher education
of the nation. Thither came the sons of barons as well as
the students of humbler birth. Within the charmed circle
12
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
of the University the servile distinctions of social status
faded into insignificance. There liberty reigned, and, as
inseparable from true liberty, there merit was supreme. It
was in itself a most precious education for the youth of
medieval England that they should during the most im-
pressionable period of life be brought under the influence.
of free ideas, and be enabled to make practical acquaintance
with Liberty. And during the thirteenth century there
was a special reason, apart from these general considera-
tions, which tended to make the University of Oxford
devoted to the cause of freedom. About the year 1221,
the Dominicans, or Preaching Friars, first took up their
residence in Oxford; and in 1224 they were followed by
the Franciscans, or Mendicant Friars. Both these Orders
were in the first energy of their institution. The force that
had created them was a burning love for men. That all
men are equal before their Maker was a cardinal article of
their faith. Wherever they came they infused into the
Church a freer spirit, the true spirit of Christian democracy.
Their influence was apparent in every direction-in religion,
in art, in science, in politics. Almost at once they took up
a prominent position in the Universities, and among them,
in Oxford. Perhaps the three most distinguished of English
churchmen, certainly the most famous members of the
University of Oxford during the thirteenth century, were
intimately connected with the Franciscan Order, Robert
Grosseteste, Adam de Marsh, and Roger Bacon. The first
was through a long life a most constant friend to the
University, and the recognized leader of the English Church.
Alike against domestic traitors and foreign oppressors,
Grosseteste presented a firm front. None of his contem-
poraries made so permanent an impression upon the national
mind. Even after death the belief of Christendom regarded
him as the scourge of a too mundane Pontiff; and though
he was never formally canonized, the devotion of his
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY.
13
countrymen attributed to him all the powers and preroga-
tives of a canonized saint. Miracles were wrought at his
tomb, and his name was invoked in the prayers of the
faithful. For centuries after his death his authority was
almost absolute in the schools. Adam de Marsh was
regarded in his own day as the glory of the University.
According to the custom of the time he received the title
of the "Illustrious Doctor." Among his personal friends
were Grosseteste and the Earl Simon de Montfort, and
Roger Bacon, whose judgment of contemporaries is not
usually too kindly, speaks of him with enthusiasm. In
later times the fame of both the Bishop of Lincoln and of
the great Oxford Doctor has been surpassed by that of their
mutual friend-the friar, Roger Bacon.
The wide range
of his studies, the extraordinary audacity of his specula-
tions, his indomitable courage in overcoming obstacles
before which a meaner man would have given down, his
unmerited misfortunes, the long oblivion to which his name
was consigned-all combine to invest the "Wonderful
Doctor" with a peculiar interest. Without doubt Roger
Bacon was the greatest Oxonian of the Middle Age, and
yet great Oxonians were then numerous.
If the thirteenth century is distinguished in the annals
of Oxford by the glorious trinity of whom mention has been
made, the fourteenth century can boast the names of the three
great schoolmen-John Duns Scotus, William of Ockham,
and John Wycliffe. Of these, the latter is better known
as a Church Reformer, "the morning star of the Reforma-
tion." The life of Wycliffe brings out very clearly the
intensely national character of the University of which he
was the chief ornament. In taking up the position of a
Church Reformer, he was but giving expression to the
wishes and beliefs of the mass of Englishmen. His doc-
trinal views may have been more or less heretical. They
were not thought so important in the fourteenth century as
14
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
they are, apparently, in the nineteenth. It was as the ex-
ponent of the national dislike of the Papacy, as the exponent
of the national yearning for greater spirituality in religion,
that Wycliffe gained his great position in the minds and
hearts of his contemporaries. He has been called the last
of the Schoolmen, and with reason; for after his time the
grand succession of "Doctors" ceased. There is a peculiar
fitness in the position of the "Evangelic Doctor" as the
last of the series. The labours of the Middle Age rendered
possible the Renaissance, of which the most fruitful result
was the Reformation. Wycliffe stands midway between
the Middle Age and the Reformation. With him ends the
greatness of medieval Oxford. The next age was base,
brutal, and sordid: the "darkest hour" which is said to
precede the dawn of day. The entire character of the
University underwent a transformation.
In European history the fifteenth century is memorable
as an age of war: in English history it is the age of Agin-
court and the Wars of the Roses. Yet, while it is true that
battles and sieges crowd the record of the contemporary
writers, it is not less true that the fifteenth century is
important in universal history, not as an age of war, but as
an epoch of transition. Then began, or, to speak more
truly, then became manifest that Revolution, which men
have agreed to call the Renaissance, or New Birth. It was
so indeed; but it was also, and not less definitely, the Dis-
solution, or ending of things. The young life of modern
times springs into existence. Yes, but it springs out of a
grave.
The growing weight of abuses had long crushed to the
earth the higher life of individuals and institutions, and
paralyzed their energies. Over the face of the West the
shadows had been deepening slowly but surely. Yet, before
the great faith of the Middle Age expired beneath that
insupportable burden, before yet the deep night fell over
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY.
15
Europe, there was a brief moment of energy, a convulsive
effort, an exertion of despair, to avert the ruin and the
gloom.
The fifteenth century opens with a supreme attempt to
reform the Church from within. That attempt originated
in the Universities; and from the first its strength and its
weakness may be deduced from the fact. The University
of Paris, in particular, made the greatest exertions to bring
to a successful issue this attempt at Reformation. Oxford,
it must be admitted, stood aside and played a subordinate
part, though representatives from the University sat in the
Councils of Pisa (1409) and Constance (1415).
It is no matter for surprise that the English representa-
tives at Constance showed less zeal for the extirpation of
heresy than for the Reformation of the Church. They
were in some sense under an obligation to justify, or at
least explain, the evil prominence of their country in the
matter of heresy. The Hussite doctrine had been drawn
from the teaching of Wycliffe, and was, indeed, the most
interesting and important result of the political connection
established between England and Bohemia, during the reign
of Richard II. The fathers of Constance recognized in the
English Reformer, the first author of the heresy against
which they had to contend.' They accordingly condemned
him as
"the leader and chief of the heretics of the time,"
and pronounced a multitude of propositions extracted from
his works te be heretical.
The Wycliffite doctrines had held their ground in Oxford
with great pertinacity. The struggle for their suppression
had taken the form of a struggle on the part of the Arch-
bishop of Canterbury to assert his authority over the
University. The primate was supported by the King,
Henry IV.; and in the year 1411 he was victorious alike
¹ Creighton, "History of the Papacy," vol. i. p. 340-1.
16
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
over heretics and rebels. The writings of the Reformer
were proscribed.
(C
In the year 1420, King Henry V.-himself, if we may
believe a very well supported tradition, an Oxford man-
put forth certain ordinances for the better government of
the University. The lawlessness of the students had been
very prominent during the years immediately preceding
these ordinances, and the University authorities were ob-
viously unable to deal effectually with it.' The King now
required all students and servants of students to swear,
on their first arrival in Oxford, to observe the statutes
enacted for the peace of the University. Also, that all
scholars and their servants be under the government of
Principals, able and prudent men, lawfully approved and
admitted by the Chancellor and Regents, and that on no
account they have their chambers in the houses of laymen,
under penalty, first, of loss of privileges; secondly, of
imprisonment; and, if their contumacy increase, of banish-
ment fitly following on disobedience.” There are other
regulations tending in the same direction, but this is by
far the most important of all. Twelve years later-that is,
in 14322-the University supplemented this legislation of
Henry V., by enacting "That all scholars of the University
dwell in a hall or college of the University, where commons
are provided, on pain of imprisonment." Townsfolk, how-
ever, were permitted to lodge students by permission of the
Chancellor. These statutes may be said to have worked a
revolution in the character of the University. Henceforward
the monopoly of the Colleges and Halls would be secure for
centuries. The University would fade into insignificance
before the Colleges. There was both gain and loss in this.
It was, doubtless, the means of securing better discipline
in the University. After 1432 there was much disorder in
1 Vide "Mun. Acad." p. 278-9.
2 Ibid. p. 320.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY.
17
Oxford, but nothing that could compare with the great
riots of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. But, as
seems to be almost invariably the case, order was purchased
by a loss of liberty. The contracting process formally
began in 1420, continued until the University of Oxford
shrunk into a high-class school. Within quite recent times
the University has made persistent, and, to some extent,
successful efforts to regain its national position; and the
tendency of the age is entirely in the direction of expansion.
If in this matter the fifteenth century was the beginning
of a long insignificance for the University as distinct from
the Colleges in another matter it was a very famous epoch
of academic history. The great buildings of the Univer-
sity-the Divinity School and public library-then came
into existence; and the church of S. Mary the Virgin was
rebuilt almost from the foundations. The famous collection
of books, which has been named after a later benefactor
the Bodleian library, began to be formed in the fifteenth
century, through the liberality of Humphrey, Duke of
Gloucester, whose name heads the list of founders and
benefactors for whom the University returns thanks to God
on certain public occasions.
The University, for the most part, held aloof from the
great dynastic struggle. It seems to have adopted the
inglorious neutrality which waits the issue of the contest,
and applauds the winner. No doubt, as the result of the
disorder of the time, the Chancellor now ceased to be a
resident academic official, and became, what he has ever
since remained, a non-resident, powerful patron. It is well
known that the modern Chancellor performs all his duties
through the medium of a Vice-Chancellor, appointed by
rotation from the Heads of Houses.
It was
The Renaissance necessarily affected Oxford.
natural that the new zeal for learning which glowed in the
hearts of men should draw them to the historic home of
C
18
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
learning. Thus the University experienced, not only an
internal revolution, which made much obsolete that had
been taught, and taught much that was novel and of
different tendency, but also the Renaissance drew the
University into new prominence, endowed it with great
possessions, and secured for it the patronage and effort of
great men.
Italy was the centre of the Renaissance. From that
country the movement spread gradually over the rest of
Europe. To Italy English students found their way in
search of the “new learning." Among such students none
are more celebrated than Grocyne and Linacre. The first was
a Fellow of New College, who went to Italy early in the
reign of Henry VII., and studied Greek at Florence. On
his return in 1491, he hired a room in Exeter College, and
taught Greek to the Oxford students, being the first
Englishman who did so. Linacre, a Fellow of All Souls
College, also studied at Florence. On his return to England
he taught medicine, and became physician to Henry VIII.
These men paved the way for the ardent band of students
who are known as the "Oxford Reformers." In 1496,
John Colet began his lectures on S. Paul's Epistles. Two
years later Erasmus came to Oxford to learn Greek. Sir
Thomas More, also an Oxonian, became the confidential
friend of both. These men believed in the possibility of a
Reformation of the Church from within. They, in the six-
teenth century, perpetuated the great ambition of Gerson
and his followers at Paris in the fifteenth. It was through
no fault of their own that failure waited on their effort.
Thomas Wolsey, the great Cardinal Archbishop of York,
stands out from the multitude of memorable individuals
whose labours have left their mark on Oxford, as at once
the greatest and the most unfortunate.
"He was most princely: ever witness for him
Those twins of learning, that he rais'd in you,
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY.
19
Ipswich and Oxford! One of which fell with him,
Unwilling to outlive the good that did it :
The other, though unfinished, yet so famous,
So excellent in art, and still so rising,
That Christendom shall ever speak his virtue."
1
Thus the great poet perpetuates, as he alone could, the
glories of the Cardinal as a "Founder; " and the witness
of Shakespeare may not unreasonably be regarded as more
than counterbalancing the unwilling ingratitude of the
University. It is not, however, as the true Founder of
"Christ Church" that Wolsey most deeply affected the
life of sixteenth-century Oxford. In 1523, while yet his
influence with the King had not begun to wane, he procured
a grant of extensive liberties for the University. "Its
clauses were so sweeping that every right possessed by
the town of Oxford was repealed, so far as the University
and privileged persons were concerned, and the University
was by it empowered to enter into competition with the
town, both in trade and government." The comparative
quiet which had reigned in Oxford for nearly half a cen-
tury was at once exchanged for a vehement and protracted
struggle. The town found an able champion in the person
of the Mayor, Michael Hethe. When the three "Bedylls"
summoned him to appear before the Deputy-Commissary
of the University in S. Mary's, he returned a vigorous
answer.2 "The said Mayor then demanded the messengers
what was the cause, and they answered that they could not
tell, and then the said Michael Hethe said unto the said
messengers, 'Recommend me to your master and show
him I am here in this town, the King's Grace's lieutenant,
for lack of a better, and I know no cause why I should ap-
pear before him; I know him not for my ordinary: if there
See "Records of the City of Oxford, 1509-1583" (J. Parker,
1880), p. 33.
2 Ibid. p. 79.
1
20
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
be any cause between the University and the Town, I will
be glad to meet him at a place convenient: which was as-
signed by my lord.'" The courageous Mayor was forth-
with excommunicated; and the sentence was ordered to be
published in all the parish churches of the town, because
when the curate of S. Ebbe's (the Mayor's parish church)
proceeded to read the sentence,¹ "the said Michael com-
pellid hym to putt of his surplesse, and to departe owt
the churche, or ells he wold have bett or myschevyd hym,
as he thretenyd the said curate so to doo." Ultimately,
however, the Mayor had to sue for absolution, which was
granted on very insufficient evidence of penitence. The
contest between the Town and the University continued
until 1542, when it was referred to arbitrators, whose
decision decided the University to petition for the repeal
of Wolsey's charter. Even this measure, however, does
not seem to have restored peace to Oxford; and for many
years the relations between the University and the Town
were the reverse of friendly.
The University comes into contact with the general
history of the Reformation when the King demands from
it an opinion on the famous Divorce question. It is
creditable to the independence of the Renaissance Oxonians
that Henry VIII. had to exert himself in order to get what
he wanted. The royal letters are an interesting commen-
tary on the whole proceeding. The King requires the
University to "accomodate itself to the mere truth as it
becometh true subjects to do; assuring it that those who
do, shall be esteemed and set forth, and the contrary
neglected and little set by." In a second letter he signi-
ficantly reminds the University that "non est bonum irritare
crabrones "—"It is not well to irritate wasps; and in
another epistle he practically commands the University to
override the opinion of the majority, if it be adverse to the
1 Ibid. p. 82.
""
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY.
21
divorce. The trusty members of the University are to SO
order and accomodate the fashion, and passing such things
as should proceed from that University in this case, as the
number of the private suffrages given without reason,
prevail not against the heads, rulers, said sage Fathers, to
the detriment, hindrance, and inconvenience of the whole.”
The King's exertions were after all only partially successful;
for when the University had with so much difficulty been
induced to give an opinion, it was careful to append a con-
dition, which went far to render it useless to the King.
And this decision was declared by many to be the act of a
minority.
The destruction of the monasteries must have seriously
affected the University of Oxford. Itself the creation of
monasticism, and in form and spirit deeply permeated with
the monastic idea, it could not but be intimately bound up
with the fortunes of the English monks. Indeed it seemed
at first as if the colleges would follow the monasteries to
the same destruction, and the great ruin would include in
its operation the Universities themselves. Perhaps the
eccentric personality of the great King alone averted so
great a catastrophe. "I tell you, sirs," he replied to the
hungry courtiers who would urge him to lay hands on aca-
demic endowments, "that I judge no land in England better
bestowed than that which is given to our Universities."
The reign of Edward VI. was a period of calamity for
the University. The horde of pirates and fanatics which
overran England, seizing the reins of government, and
bringing the realm almost to destruction, were nowhere
more disastrously active than at Oxford. Everywhere the
destroyer was set to work. Among the numerous acts of
outrage, none was more reckless and lamentable than that
which wrecked the reredos of All Souls College. The
college historian has related, with astonishing self-suppres-
1 See Burrows' "Worthies of All Souls," p. 68.
1
22
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
sion, how "every one of its fifty statues and eighty-six
statuettes was thrown down, and broken to pieces; while
the projecting portions of the structure were chipped away
till the whole was left a ruin."
It was not without a certain melancholy fitness that Oxford,
in the next reign, was the scene of a great tragedy. The
burning of the three bishops-Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer
-is certainly the most remarkable event of Mary's reign. The
fair, tall cross which modern piety has erected still per-
petuates the memory of these Oxford martyrs. In 1557,
Cardinal Pole held a visitation of the Universities.' It was
the last time that a representative of the Papal Power
should exercise authority over an English University. The
character of the visitation was not without significance.
The Cardinal's visitors "went over all the colleges, and
burnt all the English bibles, with such other heretical
books as could be found. Then they made a process against
the body of Peter Martyr's wife that lay buried in one of
the churches; but she being a foreigner that understood
no English, they could not find witnesses that had heard
her utter any heretical points; so they gave advertisement
of this to the cardinal, who thereupon writ back, that since
it was notoriously known that she had been a nun, and had
married contrary to her vow, therefore her body was to be
taken up, and buried in a dunghill, as a person dying under
excommunication." In this ignoble exhibition of impotent
bigotry ended the long connection between the University
of Oxford and the Roman Papacy, a termination at
once unworthy and characteristic, painful and eminently
instructive.
The history of the University under Queen Elizabeth
was comparatively uneventful. The long tenure of the
Chancellorship by Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, could
not be to the advantage of learning. Yet he performed an
¹ See Burnet's "History of the Reformation," part ii. book 2.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY.
23
useful service to the University in 1571, when his influence
caused an Act of Parliament to be passed incorporating the
"chancellor, masters, and scholars." Thenceforward the
continuity of academic life was not threatened by the ac-
cession of every new sovereign, from whom confirmation
of the charter would have to be secured. Leicester exerted
his very considerable powers as Chancellor to establish
Puritanism in Oxford, and the energy with which every
evidence of independence was noted and suppressed, went
far to explain the intellectual insignificance of Elizabethan
Oxford. The great Queen twice visited the University, in
1566 and in 1592, and on both occasions showed, with
pardonable pride, her rare knowledge of the Greek and
Latin languages.
The most important result of Elizabeth's reign was the
imposition upon the University of the Thirty-Nine Articles
and the Royal Supremacy, subscription to which was re-
quired from every student above sixteen years old.
"Thenceforth the University of Oxford, once open to
all Christendom, was narrowed into an exclusively Church
of England institution, and became the favourite arena of
Anglican controversy, developing more and more that.
special character, at once worldly and clerical, which it
shares with Cambridge alone among the Universities of
Europe." 1
The House of Stuart was ever friendly to the Univer-
sities; and at no period of its history, perhaps, was Oxford
at once so learned, so orderly, and so loyal as under the
government of the unfortunate Charles. To the period of
Stuart rule are to be ascribed the right of the University
to send representatives to sit in parliament, and that great
code of statutes known as Laudian or Caroline.
Archbishop Laud held the office of Chancellor from 1630
to 1641; that is, for a period of eleven years. During
1 Brodrick, "University of Oxford,” p. 92.
24
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
that time he worked many changes in the government and
studies of the University. For more than two centuries
his influence was paramount in Oxford; and, on the whole,
his influence was good. Oxford rightly regards the name
of Laud with gratitude and veneration. The hard times
which came so soon upon the University caused his govern-
ment to wear the aspect of an Age of Gold. Oxford became
the head-quarters of the King: for awhile it was the centre
of a brilliant court. 'Wit, learning, and religion joined
hand in hand, as in some grotesque and brilliant masque.'
This brilliance, however, was misleading and transitory.
The presence of Charles involved an almost total cessation
of study, while his necessities stripped the Colleges of their
plate, and converted it into coin.
9, 1
The defeat of the King brought ruin upon his supporters;
and nowhere had loyalty been more conspicuous and un-
selfish than among the students of Oxford University. It
is not surprising, therefore, that the years of Republican
government were a time of great misery to the University.
""
Indeed, a general ejection was, under the circumstances,
inevitable, and, as a matter of fact, no less than ten heads
of colleges and most of the professors were summarily
removed from their posts. Successive "Boards of Visitors
tyrannized over the unhappy University. The office of
Chancellor was, in 1650, bestowed on Cromwell himself.
It is but just to state that the Protector was no enemy to
the University as a seat of learning, and, as Chancellor, he
presented the University with a collection of manuscripts.
With the Restoration came better times.
Oxford again
was enthusiastically loyal. Once more the University drew
close the ties which bound it to the National Church. In
1681, the last Parliament of Charles II.'s reign was held at
Oxford, and came to an end by a dissolution so sudden and
¹ See the very brilliant picture of Oxford during the King's residence
in John Inglesant, ch. ix.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY.
25
It was the last Par-
unexpected as to be almost dramatic.
liament ever held in the University City.
Under James II., the history of the University, perhaps
for the last time, becomes a leading element in the history
of the nation. The attempt of the infatuated monarch to
override the elective rights of an Oxford College, was not
the least insignificant factor in his downfall. For the
moment, loyalty to the Church triumphed over loyalty to
the King, and the University welcomed the Prince of
Orange as a National Deliverer. Before long, however,
the natural tendency reasserted itself, and Oxford became
strongly Jacobite. Indeed, the feelings of the students
were so strongly on the side of the Pretender, that the
Government deemed it prudent to quarter soldiers in the
town during the critical year 1715.
The eighteenth century was a very inglorious epoch of
academic history. The unsparing denunciation of the great
historian seems to have been merited. As a national
institution, in the true sense of the phrase, the University
had practically ceased to exist. One fact, however, redeems
the history from insignificance, and reasserts the ancient
importance of Oxford. That fact is the Wesleyan move-
ment. Whitfield and the Wesleys were all Oxford men : the
religious revolution of which they were the leaders had its
origin in Oxford. And rightly, for the traditions of Oxford
were the traditions of an academic Iona. In the fourteenth
century, the poor preachers of Wycliffe had gone forth from
Oxford to work through the country. In the sixteenth cen-
tury, the followers of Erasmus had from Oxford called men
to the unnatural toils of unselfish reformation. And in the
eighteenth it is once more from Oxford that a new Church
movement makes its influence felt through the length and
breadth of the land.
The nineteenth century has witnessed many changes in
the University. The result of these changes has been on
26
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
the whole beneficial. In spite of mistakes, the University
to-day has recovered the position which it lost in the seven-
teenth century; so far, at least, as was possible under the
changed conditions. Oxford can never be national in quite
the same way as the medieval University; for it is no
longer the sole centre of the higher education of the nation.
New Universities have come into existence; provincial
colleges satisfy many wants which in the ancient days
could only be satisfied at the Universities of Oxford and
Cambridge. These have, and always will have, an honour-
able precedence over all rivals. This, at least, their long
and, on the whole, creditable history will secure to them.
Oxford, it may be permitted to believe, will still, in the
centuries to come, be able to inspire to high deeds of self-
sacrifice and brave endeavour. The spirit which lit the
flame of effort in Grostete and Wycliffe, in More and Wesley,
which in our own day has been to the Church a regenerating
force, and to the nation the call to the higher life—that
spirit will remain to Oxford its peculiar and historic
possession.
H. H. H.
Entrance :-
CHAPTER II.
THE COLLEGES.
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE.
The ordinary Examination is usually held in May and
October for residence in October.
The subjects are as follows :-(1) Some portion of a
Greek and Latin author, not less than a play of schylus
or Sophocles, or an equivalent amount of Homer, Thucy-
dides, Demosthenes, or Plato, together with a book of
Virgil, or an equivalent amount of Horace, Livy, or Cicero,
or any other classical author that has formed part of their
educational course. (2) Translation from English into
Latin Prose. (3) Grammar and Parsing. (4) English
Composition, with miscellaneous questions to test intelli-
gence or information. (5) Unseen passages from the Greek
and Latin Authors usually read in the highest Forms of
Schools. (6) Euclid, Books I., II., and Algebra as far as
Simple Equations inclusive. (7) The whole of Arithmetic,
as given in the school text-books of Colenso or Barnard
Smith.
Candidates, at least a week before the Examination, may
name any other special subject, such as higher Mathematics,
Ancient or Modern History, Physical Science, Political
Economy, in which they wish to be examined: and defi-
ciency in any one of the subjects mentioned in the preced-
ing paragraph may be compensated for by proficiency in
28
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
others, provided that a candidate gives evidence of being
likely to pass Responsions within the first Term of residence.
A Schools' Certificate with Honours exempts a Candidate
from the College Examination.
A certain number of admissions are also made by open
competition at the Scholarship Examination. Candidates
so admitted and passing their Responsions before October
have precedence in College standing over all others.
Expenses :-
Entrance Fee
Terminal Expenses :-
Caution Money
Tuition
Rent
£ s. d.
5 0 0
30
0
0
8 6
8
about 5 0 0
Establishment:
With care the Battels may be kept below £90 per ann.
Degree Fees:-
SCHOLARSHIPS AND EXHIBITIONS.
17 Scholarships
1 Heron Exhibition
2 Lodge Exhibitions
3 Freeston Exhibitions
value £80.
Open.
£70.
For those who need
""
£70.
وو
33
4 Gunsley Exhibitions
support.
""
£50. Open to Grammar
Schools of Nor-
manton, Wake-
field, Pontefract,
and Swillington.
£45. Open to the Gram-
mar Schools of
Rochester and
Maidstone.
THE COLLEGES.
29
Entrance:
BALLIOL.
The Examination is usually held at the beginning of
each Term on the Wednesday and Thursday of the week in
which the College meets, with a view to residence in the
ensuing Term. Candidates are expected to be present at
Nine o'clock A. M. Any candidate who applies to the
Butler of the College a week beforehand can be lodged and
boarded in College, during the period of the Examination,
at a fixed charge of £1, including attendance.
Candidates who have obtained a certificate from the
University Schools Examiners are admitted to the College
without further examination. Those who have passed the
examination in lieu of Responsions will be examined in
(1) An English Essay. (2) The Greek Text and matter of
the Gospels. (3) One of the following subjects: (re-
cognized in the Final Honour Schools of the University)
(a) The Greek and Latin Languages, (b) Mathematics,
(c) Physical Science, (d) Law, (e) Modern History, (f)
Theology.
Those who have not so passed will be examined in the
following:-
The subjects are as follows:-(1) Divinity, including
the Gospels in Greek. (2) In Greek, a written translation
from either Thucydides or Demosthenes, at the option of
the candidate, and a viva voce translation from Homer. In
Latin, a written translation from either Cicero, or Livy, at
the option of the candidate, and a viva voce translation from
Virgil. No portions of any of these books are fixed before-
hand. (3) Translation from English into Latin Prose.
(4) Questions in Greek and Latin Grammar viva voce.
(5) An English Essay. (6) Euclid, Books I., II.; or the
first part of Algebra. (7) Arithmetic, as far as Decimals,
inclusive.
30
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Candidates may also be examined, if they please, in other
subjects, such as History, Composition in Modern Lan-
guages, and [the more advanced parts of Mathematics.
Proficiency in these will be accepted as compensation for
some degree of failure in classical attainments, provided
there be reason to suppose that the candidate will be able
to pass the University Examinations.
The Examination is not competitive, but candidates are
expected to attain such a standard as will enable them to
read for Honours.
Expenses :-
The fees to be paid on coming into residence by a resi-
dent in College are :—
1. To the Vice-Chancellor, on
behalf of the University.
2. To the College, by Scholars.
""
£ s. d.
2 10 0
3 0 0
by Commoners 5 0 0
3. Caution-money to the College
(returned when the name is
taken off the College books) 21 0 0
Residents out of College pay only £5 as Caution-money.
Terminal expenses :-
I. i. For Tuition
ii. Establishment (i.e., Library, Chapel,
Bed-makers, Porters, and other
service, gas, water)
Room-rent-average, about
Cost of furniture (hire and depre-
ciation),' average
Building Fund
Rates, Taxes, Glazier, average
£ s. d.
8 6 8
600
5 0 0
210 0
1 10 0
£24 6 8
100
1 The College supplies the Furniture in each set of rooms, charging to
the incoming tenant 5 per cent. yearly during his occupancy on the value.
THE COLLEGES.
31
II. The weekly Battels (which are added to the above
charges in the Terminal account) vary greatly, as they
depend on the degree of economy exercised by each Under-
graduate. The lowest do not exceed £25–30 for the year,
the highest reach £90-95. From £35 to £45 per annum
appears to be a reasonable sum to allow under this head.
The weekly Battels include all expenses in the Buttery,
Kitchen, Shop and Store [groceries and wine], charges for
coals, messenger, gate bill, milk, fines, etc.
III. The total cost of living in College may thus be
placed at £35-45 per term. In the year ending Michaelmas
1886 the total amount for the year in the seven lowest bills
was less than £120 each. This includes subscriptions to
games or charities, and laundress (together, on the average,
about £8), sums which for convenience are paid through
the College but not charged by it.
IV. An out-College resident does not pay the charges
for Building Fund, for rates and taxes, etc., and only a
part of the charge for establishment (£4 10s. per annum
for Library, service, gas, water, college dues, etc.). With
economy he may reduce expenses about £20 or £25 below
the cost of living in College.
V. College fees for degrees :-
B.A.
M.A.
£ s. d.
440
660
SCHOLARSHIPS AND EXHIBITIONS.
15 Scholarships
5 Scholarships
value £80. Open.
""
£60. Open to Blun-
4 Mathematical Scholarships
""
dell's School, Tiver-
ton.
£80. Open.
8 Scholarships for Law,
History, and Nat. Science
""
£80. Open.
32
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
3 Exhibitions
1 Warner Exhibition
2 Exhibitions
value £70. Open to members
33
""
who have not com-
pleted their eighth
Term.
£90. Open to natives
of Scotland.
£100.Opento members
who have not ex-
ceeded 16 terms.
Entrance :-
MERTON.
Matriculation.
Matriculation Examinations are usually held in the
College Hall at 9.30 A.M. on the last Wednesday in May
and November, for residence in the following Term; and
on the Thursday before the College meets in Michaelmas
and Lent Terms, for residence in the same Terms.
The Examination consists of:
1. Latin Prose.
2. Greek and Latin Grammar.
3. Portions of one Greek and one Latin author, to be
taken from the list of the Board of Studies for
Responsions. (The books recommended are
Euripides' Hecuba and Alcestis, and Virg. Æn.
I.—V., but equivalent portions chosen from that
list will be accepted.)
4. Arithmetic.
5. Euclid, Books I. and II.; or Algebra to Simple
Equations.
Candidates are required to forward to the Warden, a
week before the Examination, testimonials of good conduct
and character for the previous three years, and to state the
THE COLLEGES.
33
Public School, if any, at which they have received any part
of their education.
Candidates whose testimonials are satisfactory, will be
admitted without a Matriculation Examination, if they have
obtained a University Certificate exempting them from
Responsions, or have passed either Responsions or the
University Examination "in lieu of Responsions," which is
held towards the end of September.
In the assignment of rooms, Candidates who pass their
Examination in the Term before they reside always have
the preference.
Expenses :-
The necessary expenses at entrance are :—
Caution Money for a Postmaster or Exhibitioner
""
""
""
Commoner
University and other Fees
£
s. d.
10
0 0
30
0 0
4 0 0
In some cases an Undergraduate has to purchase the
furniture in his rooms, but in the majority of rooms the
furniture belongs to the College, and the occupant pays a
rent for the use of it.
The payment of Caution Money at entrance is dispensed
with, if an Undergraduate undertakes to pay his fixed
terminal charges in advance, and his Battels weekly.
Terminal Expenses :
The fixed terminal charges, payable three times a year,
are-for an Undergraduate residing in College :-
Tuition Fees
Room Rent, from
Furniture Rent, from
Rates and Taxes, from
University Dues
College Dues and
Establishment Charges
d.
£ s. d.
£ s.
7 7 0
2 10 0 to
660
0 10 0 to
200
0 10 0 to
1 5 3
0 13
4
550
The last item is reduced to £3 10s. in the case of
D
34
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Undergraduates who receive the permission of the College
to live in lodgings.
Battels, which include provisions and groceries of all
kinds, and washing, but not wine, vary according to the
expenses of each Undergraduate. The lowest in each
Term are usually rather under £12, the average being
about £16.
Postmasterships and Exhibitions:
18 Postmasterships, assigned
in definite rotation to
Classics, Mathematics,
value £80, inclusive of rooms and
and Nat. Science respec-
tively
4 Exhibitions
وو
all allowances.
£60, persons are eligible
without restriction of age.
There is also an Exhibition Fund to assist poor students
and to promote study.
EXETER.
Entrance:
The following are the subjects of the Matriculation
Examination :—
1. One Greek Book: viz., Two Greek Plays by the
same author; the Media and Hecuba of Euripides,
or, the Edipus Rex and Antigone of Sophocles,
preferred.
2. One Latin Book: viz., Horace, Odes, Books I., II.,
III., and the Ars Poetica.
3. Arithmetic.
4. Euclid, Books I. and II.; or Algebra, to Simple
Equations inclusive. Euclid preferred.
5. Latin Prose Composition.
6. Greek and Latin Grammar.
7. Unseen Translations from Latin and Greek.
The Certificate of the Oxford and Cambridge Schools
THE COLLEGES.
35
Examination Board, if Latin, Greek, and Elementary
Mathematics are among the subjects specified on it, excuses
from the Matriculation Examination.
Expenses :-
Fees to be paid at the time of Matriculation :-
To the University.
To the College
£2 10s.
£5.
It is requested that the money may be brought in two
distinct sums, and not in a single cheque.
A further payment of £25 to the College is required as
Caution Money (a Deposit), and is recoverable when the
name is withdrawn from the Books of the College. This
sum and the Fee to the College may be paid in a single
cheque.
All members of the College under twelve Terms standing
are required to reside in College.
Terminal Expenses :-
Tuition.
College Dues:
Until the Term of taking of Degree of B.A. .
From that time until the twenty-seventh Term
After taking the Degree of M.A.
£
s. d.
7 7 0
3 3 0
1 15 0
040
4 10 0
2 10 0
1 0 0
4 11 0
•
Establishment (a) for residents in College
""
Bedmaker
(b) for residents out of College
Rooms (average)
Degree Fees:-
B.A., £4 13s. 6d. ; M.A., £4 5s.
A man's average expenditure in College is £38 per Term.
Scholarships and Exhibitions :—
3 Scholarships
4 Scholarships for Mathe-
matics
4 Scholarships for Nat.
Science
1
value £80, open.
£80, open.
>>
£80, open.
36
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
8 Stapleton Scholarships
value £60, limited to persons
1 or 2 King Charles I.
Scholarships
1 Carter
2 Hasker, for the encourage-
ment of Theology
2 How Exhibitions
1 Gifford
2 Symes and Michell
""
""
""
""
وو
born or educated in
in the Diocese of
Exeter.
£80, limited to persons
born or educated in
any of the Channel
Islands.
£80. Persons born in
Kent have the pre-
ference.
£80, open to all who
need assistance.
£35, limited to sons of
clergy.
£70, limited to Ashbur-
ton School.
£60 and £50, restricted
to Students of Di-
vinity of not less than
two terms' standing.
There are other Exhibitions, open, awarded for proficiency
in Classics, and in the various subjects of the Final Schools.
ORIEL.
Entrance :-
An Examination is held every Term. The subjects are
the same as those required for Responsions, with translation
papers from Latin and Greek authors.
Expenses:-
Admission Fee
Caution Money (Commoners)
(Scholars)
""
£ s. d.
5 0 0
30 0 0
. 10 0 0
Terminal Expenses:
Tuition
THE COLLEGES.
Establishment (in College)
37
£ s. d.
7 0 0
5 0 0
""
(out of College).
2 10 0
268
3 13 4
Bedmaking (in College)
Rent (average)
Degree Fees :-
·
(Furniture may be hired.)
B.A., £4 2s. 6d.; M.A., £8 1s.
Scholarships and Exhibitions:-
10 Scholarships
4 Adam de Brome
Exhibitions
9 Exhibitions
2 Bible Clerkships
value £80, open.
>>
£80, open to deserving per-
sons needing support.
of various value.
£70.
""
Entrance :-
QUEEN'S.
The regular days of Examination for Matriculation at
Queen's College, for those who propose commencing their
residence in the following Term, are-
1. The day after Ash-Wednesday.
2. The Thursday after Ascension Day.
3. The second Thursday in November.
Supplementary Examinations are held in each Term on
the day before the College meets, and on the last Thursday.
Subjects of Examination previous to Admission:-
1. Greek and Latin Grammar.
2. Translations from English into Latin Prose.
The College recommends parents or guardians not to apply, under
ordinary circumstances, for leave for Students, coming up before they are
of age, to live out of College.
38
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
3. Greek Book :-The Hecuba and Alcestis of Euri-
pides.
Latin Book :-Four Books of Cæsar.
Or some equivalent Latin and Greek
Books.
4. Arithmetic; and Euclid I., II., or, Algebra, as far
as Simple Equations, inclusive.
Candidates who have received from any Examining Body
a Certificate which excuses from Responsions are admitted
without examination.
Expenses :-
Fees paid at Admission:
a. Entrance Fee.
£ s. d.
5 0 0
30 0 0
b. Caution Money
For Scholars, Clerks, and Exhibitioners, whose Ex-
hibition exceeds in value £60 a year, the Caution Money
is £15.
Of the Caution Money £10 is returned when the B.A.
Degree is taken, £10 more when the M.A. Degree is taken,
and £5 more on compounding, the balance when the name
is removed from the College Books.
Terminal Expenses :
£
s. d.
Tuition (for three years)
8 0 0
Establishment
Servants
4 0 0
2 3 6
College Dues
068
Rooms (average).
600
Degree Fees :-
B.A., £5 5s.; M.A., £3 6s.
An Undergraduate may complete his three years' course
for £400: he can live in fair comfort for £160 a year. The
latter sum includes the whole expense of living at Oxford.
THE COLLEGES.
39
Scholarships and Exhibitions:--
20 Scholarships
5
""
2 Bible Clerkships
1 Jodrell Scholarship
25 Hastings Exhibitions
1 Fitzgerald Exhibition
1 Thanet
value £80, open.
""
وو
£80, open to natives
of Cumberland or
Westmoreland.
£80, open.
£90, open.
""
""
And various smaller Exhibitions.
£90, open to certain
schools in Cumber-
land, Westmoreland,
and Yorkshire.
£66, open to Middlesex.
£41, open to Appleby.
NEW.
Entrance:
The Examination is ordinarily held twice a year, in May
and November: residence usually begins in the following
Term, but those who wish to offer themselves for Respon-
sions immediately may do so. The Examination is directed
to ascertain that candidates for admission have a reasonable
prospect (1) of passing all the necessary Examinations of
the University; (2) of reading with profit to themselves
for Honours in some one School.
The Examination consists partly of necessary, partly
of optional subjects.
The necessary subjects are:-(1) Divinity, including the
Gospels in Greek (except for those who can claim ex-
emption, according to the Statutes of the University,
from Divinity Examinations). (2) Easy Passages for
translation from the Classical Authors usually read in
Schools at the discretion of the Examiners. (3) Transla-
tion from English into Latin Prose. (4) Greek and Latin
"
40
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Grammar. (5) Greek and Latin Books. (6) English Com-
position. (7) Euclid, Books I., II. ; or, for those who prefer
it, Algebra as far as Simple Equations inclusive.
Arithmetic.
(8)
The optional subjects are:-(1) Greek and Latin
Languages. (2) History. (3) Mathematics. (4) Natural
Science.
Candidates offering Mathematics are requested to state
how much they have read in that subject.
Candidates offering Natural Science are requested to
select one or more of the following subjects: Physics,
Chemistry, Physiology.
Proficiency in any one of the optional subjects is accepted
as compensation for defective knowledge of the necessary
subjects, provided there be reason to believe that the can-
didate will be able to pass Responsions within the first two
Terms of his residence.
Expenses :—
Admission Fee.
Caution Money.
(No Caution Money is required from those
who pay their bills in advance.)
Terminal Expenses :-
Tuition
£ s. d.
5 0 0
30 0 0
7 0 0
College Dues, &c.
1 1 0
and 3s. 4d. in £ on their accounts.
Rent.
4 10 0
(Furniture can be hired.)
Bedmaker
7 10 0
Degree Fees:
B.A., £2 2s. M.A., £2 2s.
Scholarships and Exhibitions:-
6 Scholarships, value £80, open to Winchester.
4
""
""
£80, open.
awarded each year.
There is also an Exhibition Fund.
THE COLLEGES.
41
Entrance:
LINCOLN.
The regular Matriculation Examinations are held at
least four times a year, viz., on the first Friday in each
Term for residence in that Term, and also early in June
for residence in the Michaelmas Term following. Due notice
of the day will be given to the applicants for admission.
The Examination is in the following books and subjects:-
1. Latin Prose Composition.
2. Easy Passages of unprepared Translations.
3. A portion of some Greek Author, e.g., two Greek
Plays of the same Author, or, five consecutive books.
of Homer; and a portion of some Latin author,
e.g., the Georgics, or five consecutive books of the
Eneid, or, Horace's Odes I.-III. inclusive, with the
Ars Poetica. The Latin and Greek books selected
must be such as may be offered for Responsions.
4. Greek and Latin Grammar.
5. Euclid I., II.; or, Algebra to Simple Equations:
inclusive.
6. Arithmetic.
A Certificate of the Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board,
or that of having passed the Examination in lieu of Respon-
sions will be accepted instead of the Matriculation Exami-
nation.
Expenses :-
£ s. c.
Admission Fee.
3 3 0
Caution Money.
30 0 0
Terminal Expenses :-
Tuition
700
Rent.
about
4 4 0
Establishment .
no return
Degree Fees:-
B.A., £4 4s.; M.A., £4 48.
42
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Scholarships and Exhibitions :-
14 Scholarships, value £80, open.
14
1
""
""
from £60 to £80.
value £60, open to Bucks.
And some smaller Exhibitions.
Entrance:
MAGDALEN.
Matriculation Examinations are usually held in May,
October, and November.
Subjects of Examination :—
Candidates for Matriculation will be required to offer one
¹ Greek and one 1 Latin Book; to translate from English
into Latin; to answer questions in Greek and Latin
Grammar, in Arithmetic, and in the Elements either of
Algebra or Geometry. The following amounts of the several
subjects and authors will be required :-
1. In Algebra.—Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication,
Division, Greatest Common Measure, Least Common
Multiple, Fractions, Extraction of Square Root, Simple.
Equations containing one or two unknown quantities, and
problems producing such equations.
2. In Geometry.-Euclid's Elements, Books I., II.
3. In Arithmetic.-The whole.
4. Passages of Unseen Translation from Latin and Greek
will also be set; but omission or failure in this subject will
not necessarily disqualify a candidate for admission.
5. Candidates who propose at any time in their Univer-
sity career to read for Honours, will, if they wish, be
examined in some portion of the subject in which they
propose to take Honours.
1 Two Greek Plays or five books of Homer, with Odes I., II., III., and
De Arte Poetica of Horace, or five books of Virgil, are the books
recommended.
THE COLLEGES.
43
i. No Examination whatever is recognized as standing in
the place of the Matriculation Examination.
ii. The standard has been going up very much recently,
with an increased number of applications.
iii. It is now necessary to put down a name at least nine
months beforehand.
Expenses :-
There is no admission fee: persons elected on the
Foundation of the College pay no Caution Money, but Com-
moners pay £40, which is returned when they either take
the degree of B.A. or remove their names from the College
books. Persons who keep their names on the books after
taking the degree of B.A. pay a fresh caution of £5, which
is accounted for to them on the removal of their name.
Terminal Expenses :--
Tuition
Establishment, Servants, College Dues
and Rates
Rooms (average)
Degree Fees:
B.A., £0 17s. 6d. ; M.A., £1 5s.
£
S.
d.
7 0 0
6 12 0
50 0
The lowest sum it is practically possible to live on, may
be taken at £140 per annum : taking the College all through,
the average expenditure may be taken at about £250 per
annum.
Scholarships and Exhibitions:
30 Demyships, value £80, open.
The annual sum of £500 is granted in Exhibitions.
BRASENOSE.
Entrance:-
Candidates for admission to this College, whose applica-
tions have been made later than March 17, 1886, are re-
quired to pass Responsions before coming into residence.
44
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Expenses:-
£ s.
d.
Admission-fee.
4
4 0
Caution Money, Commoners
25 0 0
Scholars
20 0 0
وو
Terminal Expenses :-
Tuition (for 3 years)
8 8 0
Establishment charges,
servants, &c. (about)
60 0
4 0 0
Room-rent (average)
Degree Fees:-B.A., £4 15s. 6d.; M.A., £8 Os. 6d.
Scholarships :-
Scholarships
value £80, open.
12 Hulme Scholarships
""
£80, open.
8
""
""
""
£130, open.
1 Watson Scholarship
""
£100, open.
And some minor Exhibitions.
Entrance:
CORPUS.
The Ordinary Matriculation Examination is held twice
a year: (1) early in June; (2) at the same time as the
Scholarship Examination, which is duly advertised. The
subjects are as follows :—
1. Translation from English into Latin Prose.
2. Translation into English of an unprepared passage of
Greek or Latin.
3. Portions of two Greek authors and one Latin author,
or, two Latin authors and one Greek author, selected
by the candidate from the list prescribed for Respon-
sions.
4. Arithmetic.
5. An English Essay, or, a paper of General Questions.
6. Euclid, Books I., II.; or, Algebra to Simple Equations.
Candidates who have passed Responsions or any equiva-
THE COLLEGES.
45
lent examination, are excused from examination in Elemen-
tary Mathematics.
Candidates who propose to read for Honours in Mathe-
matics, Natural Science, or Modern History, will be examined
in those subjects, and in so much only of the Classical sub-
jects as is required for Responsions. Such candidates will
be excused from the classical part of the Examination, if
they have obtained a certificate which excuses from Res-
ponsions either in the Oxford and Cambridge Schools'
Examination, or in the Oxford Local Examinations. Such
candidates are requested to give notice of the subject in
which they wish to be examined, in writing, to the Presi-
dent, a month at least before the date of the Examination.
Expenses :-
d.
Caution-money (Commoners)
£ s.
30 0 0
""
(Scholars)
Terminal Expenses :-
none
Tuition (3 years)
College dues, &c., about (in
College)
""
(out of College)
Rent (average)
Degree Fees :-B.A., 10s., M.A., £1.
Scholarships—
25 Scholarships value £80, open.
And various Exhibitions.
CHRIST CHURCH,
CHURCH,
Entrance Examination :
:
900
4 5 0
1 18 0
4 6 8
The Examination is held twice in the year :-(1) On the
Thursday and Friday in October before the beginning of
full Term, with a view to residence in the January follow-
ing. (2) On the Thursday and Friday in the third week
before the Commemoration, with a view to residence in the
October following. Candidates must call on the Dean at
46
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
9.30 A.M. on the first of the two days, bringing testimonials
of character for the previous two years from their Masters
or Tutors.
The subjects of Examination are:-
1. Euripides two of the following plays :-Hecuba,
Alcestis, Medea; or, Xenophon, Anabasis I-IV.
2. Cæsar De Bello Gallico I—IV; or, Cicero de Amic. and
de Senect; or, Virgil, Æn. I-V.
[Papers will be set in the books offered.]
3. Latin Prose Composition.
4. Latin and Greek Grammar.
5. Arithmetic.
6. Euclid I, II; or, Algebra to Simple Equations inclu-
sively; but the former is strongly recommended.
Expenses :-
Entrance, £5.
Caution Money, £25: of this £12 10s. will be returned
on taking the B.A. degree: the whole may be claimed
on removing the name from the books.
Caution Money for Members of the Foundation and
College Exhibitioners, £12 10s. : this may be claimed.
on removing the name from the books.
College Exhibitioners pay no Entrance Fee.
Terminal Expenses for resident under-
graduates:-
Tuition
Establishment (including share of
wages of Scouts, Messengers,
Porters, &c.)
Room-rent
•
Damage Account (average)
Window Cleaning, &c.
Laundress
Recognised gratuities
£ s. d.
800
about 5 2 10
about 5
0 0
3 4
about 4 0
about 1 10 O
1 10 0
[The above expenses do not include Kitchen, Buttery, and
Coal Charges, which depend on the undergraduates' orders.]
THE COLLEGES.
47
The furniture of the rooms is valued by the College
valuer, and the value ranges from £15 15s. Od. to £125 7s. 6d.,
according to the size of the rooms. The money is paid by
the incoming and received by the outgoing tenant.
Including University Dues, 13s. 4d., and Poor Rate and
Local Rate (according to rent), say £1 10s. Od., a man may,
by exercising strict economy, live in College on £32 5s. 10d.
per term, or at an annual expenditure of £96 17s. 6d.
This sum, which does not include vacations, is much lower
than the average, but higher than the necessary expenditure
of an Undergraduate, so far as College accounts go.
Degree Fees:-
B.A., £3 3s. Od.; M.A., £3 3s. Od.
Scholarships and Exhibitions:-
12 Junior Studentships value £80, open to Westminster.
41 Scholarships
""
£80, open.
11 Exhibitions
""
£45, open.
4 Fell Exhibitions
""
£40, open.
1 Slade
""
33
£30, open.
3 Holford
18 Careswell,,
""
""
£60, open to Charterhouse.
£60, open to schools in
Salop.
Entrance:-
TRINITY.
At Trinity, candidates for residence in October are
usually examined in the May preceding : but Examinations
are also held at the beginning of Term in October and
January, when a few candidates are admitted to fill extra
vacancies. The subjects are :
1. Translation from English into Latin prose.
2. Translation of a passage of unprepared Greek and
Latin into English. Passages are set from
Homer, Demosthenes, and Cicero.
3. Latin and Greek Grammar, or English Essay, or both.
4. Two plays of Sophocles, prepared.
48
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
5. Five books of the Æneid, prepared.
6. Arithmetic.
7. Euclid Books I., II., or, the first part of Algebra.
For 4 and 5 equivalents may, by permission, be offered
by candidates who are still at school at the time of the
Examination.
Candidates may offer as extra subjects any of the fol-
lowing:-
1. Higher Mathematics.
2. Chemistry or Physics (one or more branches).
3. A period of Ancient or Modern History.
A Candidate possessing a Certificate that he has satisfied
the Examiners of the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Ex-
amination Board in Latin, Greek, and Elementary Mathe-
matics, if he has obtained distinction in any subject, will
be admitted without any College Examination. A Can-
didate who holds a Certificate without distinction, or one
who has passed the Examination in lieu of Responsions,
will be admitted on an Examination in an optional sub-
ject of his own choice, with Latin Prose and English
Essay.
Expenses:-
Entrance Fee
Caution Money
£ s. d.
5 0 0
30 0 0
Of the Caution Money £20 is returned when the degree
of M.A. is taken; the remainder when the name is
taken off the books.
Terminal Expenses :-
Tuition (for three years)
College Dues
Servants.
(Residents out of College pay
about £1 13s. 1d. less.)
Bedmaker
Shoe-cleaner
£ s. d.
770
1 16 0
2 10 0
1 10 0
050
THE COLLEGES.
49
An additional charge for servants
is made at the rate of 3s. in
the pound on the amount of
Buttery and Kitchen accounts.
Room-rent (average)
500
On taking rooms in College the furniture is either
bought at a valuation from the former occupant, or, in case
of certain rooms, is rented from the College. The val-
uations vary from about £20 to £60.
The annual expenditure of an average man residing in
College may be put at £115 to £120. This sum would
include almost every requisite, except books and clothes.
It is possible for a man by very strict economy, to live
in College for £80 or £85, and for less than this if out
of College.
Degree Fees :-
B.A., £3 16s. Od.; M.A., £6 1s. Od.
Scholarships and Exhibitions :—
4 Scholarships, for Classics; one
may be awarded for excellence
in Mathematics .
1 Natural Science Scholar-
ship.
•
value £80 open, awarded
annually in No-
vember.
""
£80 open, awarded
annually in No-
vember.
The College has power to give Exhibitions, tenable on
the same conditions as the Scholarships, to those who
do well in the Scholarship Examination. There are also
smaller Scholarships in the gift of the College. The Pre-
sident and Tutors are empowered to award annually, after
Examination, Exhibitions to deserving Commoners of
the College, reading for Honour University Examina-
tions.
་
E
50
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Entrance :-
ST. JOHN'S.
The Examination will be held on the Wednesday and
Thursday before the beginning of each full Term. Candi-
dates who have not passed Responsions will be examined
on both days: those who have passed on the latter day only.
All candidates for admission who have gained a Certifi-
cate from the Oxford and Cambridge Board, or from the
Oxford Local Examination Delegates, which excuses from
Responsions, become members of the College without
further Examination.
Candidates who have passed Responsions are required to
show a satisfactory and competent acquaintance with three
out of the following subjects:-
1. Latin Prose Composition.
2. Easy sight translation from Latin.
3. Easy sight translation from Greek.
4. English Questions, to test general information and
powers of composition.
Candidates who have not passed Responsions must pass
in three of the above subjects, and also in
5. Arithmetic.
6. Euclid I., II., or Algebra, including Simple Equa-
tions.
7. Latin and Greek Grammar.
8. Prepared books: one Latin, such as Virgil, Eneid
I.—V.; or Georgics; or Horace Odes I.-III., and
Ars Poetica; or Cæsar, B. G. I.-IV.; or some
equivalent: and one Greek, such as Euripides'
Hecuba and Alcestis; or any two plays by the
same author; or five consecutive books of Homer.;
or Xenophon, Anabasis, Books I.-IV.; or some
equivalent.
Candidates who offer and show knowledge of some sub-
THE COLLEGES.
51
ject for an Honour School are thereby excused from subjects
1-4, and if they have passed Responsions also from sub-
jects 5-8.
Expenses :-
Admission Fee.
Caution Money.
£ s. d.
630
Terminal Expenses :-
Tuition (for three years).
For those residing after twelve
terms
•
College Dues and Miscellaneous
charges.
Bedmaker and Underservant
Washing.
Rooms (average)
30 0 0
700
300
2 6 8
1 10 0
200
3 10 0
A percentage is charged on College Dues.
In all the smaller rooms, furniture is provided by the
College, for which a percentage is charged. In the
remainder the valuation amounts on an average to
about £30.
Battels range from £30 to £40 a Term, and this includes
all food, rooms, establishment charges, and tuition
fees.
From £90 to £120 per annum represents the whole
authorized expenditure, the former sum being eco-
nomical, the latter lavish. This does not include tips,
club subscriptions, books, clothes, etc. A man may
actually live in College on £100 per annum, but if
vacations are included, £150 would be a low sum;
£200 would enable him to live comfortably, £250
luxuriously.
Scholarships :-
8 Scholarships
15
""
value £80, open.
""
£100, restricted to
Merchant
School.
Taylors'
52
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
2 Scholarships
2
N N
value £100, restricted to
""
2
4 Senior Scholarships
""
4 Scholarships (Casberd)
""
Coventry School.
£100, restricted to Bristol
Grammar School.
£100, restricted to
Reading School.
£150, restricted to former
pupils of Merchant
Taylors' School.
£80, confined to members
of the College.
Entrance:
JESUS.
The subjects for the Entrance Examination are as
follows:
1. Greek and Latin Grammar.
2. Latin Prose Composition.
3. Arithmetic.
4. Euclid I., II., or Algebra to Simple Equations in-
clusive.
5. Horace, Odes I., II., III., with the Ars Poetica.
6. Euripides, Medea and Hecuba.
In lieu of (5) and (6) any books may be substituted which
are accepted for Responsions.
Expenses :-
Entrance Fee
•
Caution Money.
Terminal Expenses :-
Room Rent and Furniture (average).
College Service
College Dues
Tuition
£
s. d.
4 4 0
20 0 0
4 4 0
300
1 10 0
7 0 0
THE COLLEGES.
53
Linen, china and glass, cutlery, plate, bedroom ware,
brooms, etc., are not provided as furniture.
Every member of the College is expected to subscribe to
the College Clubs (Musical, Debating, Boat, Cricket, Foot-
ball, and Athletic Clubs). The entrance Fee is £1, and the
terminal subscription of £1 10s. entitles a member to the
full privileges of all the Clubs.
The cost of Battels, which include Kitchen, Buttery,
Coal, Ale, Messenger, Gate Bill, Laundress, and Grocery,
may be kept within £1 10s. for the week, or about £12 for
the Term.
Economical members of the College keep their whole
College expenses, viz., Battels, Room Rent, College Service
and Dues, Tuition, Rates, and University Dues, within the
sum of from £80 to £90 for the year.
Taking the whole College, the average amount of Battels
was £91 12s. 6d. The fifteen lowest averaged £83 9s. A man
can keep his whole University expenses within £120 a year.
Scholarships and Exhibitions :-
12 Scholarships
value £80, open.
12
""
""
£80, restricted to
Wales or Mon-
mouth.
4 Meyricke Scholarships
""
1 King Charles I. Scholarship
16 Meyricke Exhibitions.
2 King Charles I. Exhibitions
""
133
£80, restricted to
Wales or Mon-
mouth.
£80, restricted
to
natives of the
Channel Islands.
£50, restricted to
Wales or Mon-
mouth.
£50, restricted to
natives of the
Channel Islands.
54
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
1 Smith Exhibition
1 Phillips Exhibition
value £50, restricted to
""
Carnarvon.
£50, restricted to
Llandovery School.
WADHAM.
Entrance :-
Candidates who have passed the Examination in lieu of
Responsions, or who have obtained the Certificate of the
Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board, or of
the Delegates of the Oxford Local Examinations, giving
exemption from Responsions, are admitted without further
examination. Those who have not so passed, are required
to pass an Examination in the following subjects:-
1. One Greek and one Latin Author.
2. Translation from English into Latin Prose.
3. Greek and Latin Grammar.
4. Arithmetic.
5. The first two Books of Euclid; or Algebra, as far
as Simple Equations.
6. An easy passage of unprepared Latin, and one of
Greek, may also be set.
Expenses :-
Payments to be made on admission are:
Entrance Fee
Caution Money .
£
s. d.
5 0 0
30 0 0
The Caution Money is returned when the name is re-
moved from the College books.
Terminal Expenses :-
Tuition, till all the Examinations ne-
cessary for the Degree of B.A. have
been passed
Establishment and Servants :—
1. For Residents in College
2. For Residents out of College
7 10 0
400
3 0 0
THE COLLEGES.
55
Bedmaker.
Rooms (average)
£ s.
d.
1 6 8
4 5 0
The furniture is let out by the College, and a charge of
5 per cent. is made on the value.
Degree Fees:
B.A., £4 4s.; M.A., £8 4s.
The average expense for actual residence in College,
which includes payment for furniture, but not for washing,
is about £95.
Scholarships :-
13 Scholarships
5 Hody Scholarships
Entrance :-
value £80, open.
""
£80, after an Examination
in Hebrew Literature.
PEMBROKE.
The Examination is usually held two days before the be-
ginning of the Term in which the Candidate proposes to
reside.
No further examination will be required from those
Candidates who hold the Certificate of the Oxford and
Cambridge Joint Board; or who have passed Responsions,
or the Examination in lieu of Responsions.
Those who have not so passed, will be examined in the
following subjects:-
1. Arithmetic.
2. Euclid, Books I. and II.
3. Latin Prose Composition.
4. Latin and Greek Grammar.
5. A Latin Book.
6. A Greek Book.
Candidates are recommended to offer as their Latin Book,
Cæsar de Bello Gallico, Books I.-IV.; and as their Greek
Book, Euripides' Hecuba and Medea.
56
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Algebra to the end of Simple Equations may be sub-
stituted for Euclid, Books I. and II.
Expenses :-
1. Entrance Fee to the College .
2. Caution Money; a deposit, which is
returned on taking the M.A. De-
gree, or on removing the name
from the College books
Terminal Expenses
Tuition (until all examinations for
Degree of B.A. are passed)
College Dues
College Expenses
College Service.
£ s. d.
500
•
30 0 0
7 13 4
2 15 4
2 13 4
1 10 8
4 6 8
Room Rent (average)
Undergraduates take the furniture of the rooms chosen by
them at a valuation.
Undergraduate members of the College can keep their
whole College expenses (viz., Battels, Room Rent, College
Dues, College Expenses and Service) under £100 a
year.
Degree Fees:-
B.A., £7; M.A. £5.
Scholarships and Exhibitions:-
1 Henney Scholarship
1 Cleobury Scholarship
4 Foundation Scholarships
2 Boulter and Radcliffe
Scholarships
2 Oades and Stafford Scho-
larships
4 Scholarships
1 or more, King Charles I.
Scholarships
value £90, open.
""
£100, open.
""
£80, open.
£80, open.
""
£80, open.
£75, restricted to Ab-
""
ingdon School.
""
£80, restricted to the
Channel Islands.
THE COLLEGES.
57
value £80, with the same
limitations.
1 Morley Scholarship
4 Townsend Scholarships
""
1 Holford Scholarship
""
£80, restricted to scho-
lars from Gloucester,
Cheltenham, North-
leach, and Chipping
Campden Schools.
£60, restricted to the
Sutton foundation at
Charterhouse.
1 Rous Scholarship, value £60, for a scholar from Eton
The Rous is entirely close.
2 King Charles I. Exhibitions, value £50, with the same
limitations as the
Scholarships.
Other Exhibitions to those who need assistance.
WORCESTER.
Entrance:
The Examination is held at the beginning and end of
every Term.
The subjects are :—
1. The Hecuba and Alcestis of Euripides.
2. Cicero, de Amicitia and de Senectute.
3. Latin and Greek Grammar. Other books may, with
the consent of the College, be substituted for
those which are here mentioned.
4. Translation from English into Latin Prose.
5. Arithmetic.
6. Euclid, Books I., II., or Algebra to the end of
Simple Equations.
Candidates who hold Certificates which exempt them
58
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
from Responsions are exempted also from the College
Examination.
Expenses :-
£ s. d.
Admission Fee (Commoners)
8 0 0
Caution Money (Commoners)
20 0 0
Caution Money (Scholars).
10 0 0
Terminal Expenses
Tuition
7 0 0
about
4 6 8
4 10 0
660
•
Rent.
(Furniture can be hired.)
College Dues
Rates, Taxes, &c.
Degree Fees:-
Scholarships :-
B.A., £3 1s.; M.A., £5 1s.
1 Finney Scholarship value £80, open.
5 Clarke Scholarships
£80, open.
£120, to encourage Biblical
studies.
1 Barnes Scholarship
""
3 Scholarships
""
5 Cookes Scholarships
£80, restricted to Bromsgrove.
""
4 Eaton Scholarships
£80, for sons of clergymen.
""
£80, open.
There are also from six to ten Exhibitions, two of which
are connected with the Charterhouse School, and three with
Bromsgrove School, of the value of £20.
Entrance:
KEBLE.
The Examination is held in October for residence in
October or January.
The subjects are :-
1. Euripides' Hecuba and Medea, or Sophocles' Ajax
and Electra.
THE COLLEGES.
59
2. Virgil, the Georgics, or Horace, Odes I.-III. with
the Ars Poetica.
3. Euclid, Books I., II., or Algebra.
4. Arithmetic.
5. Greek and Latin Grammar.
6. Latin Prose.
7. Easy passages of Greek and Latin, not specially
prepared beforehand.
Candidates who have passed any Examination which
grants exemption from Responsions are excused all these
papers except (6) and (7).
Candidates to whom rooms have been promised receive
them in the order in which their names are entered upon
condition of coming up to the College standard in the
Matriculation Examination; but, in exceptional cases, per-
sons who have applied too late to receive a promise of
rooms are allowed to offer themselves on the chance of
being selected by the Warden to fill such extra vacancies as
may fall in.
Expenses:
There is a fixed annual charge of £82, which is payable
in advance in three equal instalments, one at the beginning
of every Term, and which includes all ordinary Battels, i.e.,
the Rent of Furnished Rooms, Board, University and
College Dues, Servants, and Tuition, but not washing, lights,
or beer at luncheon and dinner. Extras, not necessarily
required, are provided according to a fixed tariff, but are
not allowed to exceed £5 per Term.
Degree Fees :-B.A., 10s.; M.A., 10s.
Scholarships :-
3 or more Scholarships, annually, varying in value from
£80 to £60.
1 Historical Scholarship, annual value £60.
There are several Exhibitions confined to members of
the College.
60
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Entrance :
HERTFORD.
The Examination is held on the Thursday before the
meeting of the College each Term.
Candidates are examined (unless they have obtained any
Certificate, or have passed any Examination which excuses
them from Responsions) in the following books and sub-
jects, viz. :-
1. Euripides, Hecuba and Alcestis.
2. Virgil, Georgics.
3. Latin Prose Composition.
4. Latin and Greek Grammar.
5. Arithmetic.
6. Euclid, Books I., II.
Other Greek and Latin Books may be substituted for
those above mentioned, provided that the quantity in each
case be not less than is required for Responsions.
Expenses :-
Admission Fee.
£ s. d.
5 5 0
Caution Money.
Terminal Expenses
Tuition
30 0 0
6 13 4
Establishment (in College)
600
""
(out of College).
368
500
Rent (average).
Degree Fees :-
B.A., £5 5s.; M.A., £5 5s.
Scholarships and Exhibitions:-
30 Scholarships
value £100, most of them open.
£40, limited to the Free
4 Meeke
2 Lucy
} Scholarships
وو
3 Lusby Scholarships.
>>
Grammar School of
Worcester and Hampton
Lucy, respectively.
£50, open.
THE COLLEGES.
61
1 Macbride Scholarship, value £50, open.
1 White Exhibition
1 Brunsell Exhibition
In the gift of the Principal.
There are also four other Scholarships.
ST. MARY HALL.
Entrance:
There is no Entrance Examination.
Expenses :-
For Gentlemen willing to adopt a strictly frugal scale of
expenses.
Fees, to the Hall, on Entrance, £5.
The annual payment, including all expenses (excepting
for Fuel and Candles, and the Laundress' Bills), will be
fixed at £76; or, if Rooms already furnished are preferred,
at £81 (for a residence of 24 weeks).
The payment of one-third of these charges at the com-
mencement of each Term (reckoning Easter and Trinity
Terms as one) will render the deposit of Caution Money
unnecessary.
If such payment be not made, a sum of £30 will be re-
quired as Caution Money, to be deposited before the com-
mencement of Residence.
The Caution Money will be returned by instalments,
viz.:
On taking the Degree of B.A., £10.; M.A., £10.
The £81 is thus apportioned :-
£
s. d.
Tuition
20 0 0
Rent of Furnished Rooms.
15 0 0
Battels, for 24 weeks
27 0 0
University Dues, Servants, and other
Establishment charges
19 0 0
£81 0 0
62
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
The total expense of obtaining the B.A. Degree need not,
in the case of a fairly prudent and diligent Student, exceed
the sum of £300, viz.:
Entrance Fee (to the Hall)
Matriculation ditto (to the Univ.)
Battels, 3 years, at £81
£ s.
d.
500
2 10 0
243 0 0
Fuel and Lights (say)
15 0 0
Laundress
Degree Fees (to the Hall)
10 10 0
5 0 0
""
(to the Univ.)
8 0 0
£289 0 0
For those who prefer not to adopt the Special Plan
described above, the preliminary payments are:-
Matriculation Fee (to the University)
Entrance Fee (to the Hall)
Caution Money (deposit).
£ s.
s. d.
2 10 0
12 2 6
30 0 0
£44 12 6
The average annual expenses range from £90 to £100
per annum.
Exhibition :
1 Nowell Exhibition, value £30. Preference is given to
the kin of the Founder.
ST. EDMUND HALL.
Entrance :-
Candidates are not required to pass an entrance Exami-
nation.
Expenses:
Students are admitted either (i.) on the Fixed Payment
THE COLLEGES.
63
System, or (ii.) on the ordinary system of Caution
Deposits and Payments at the end of each Term.
(i.) Fixed Payment System :-
There is no Entrance Fee or Caution Deposit.
Terminal Expenses
Each Undergraduate pays at the commencement of each
Term, £26 6s. 8d. This sum includes Board, Rooms.
(furnished), Tuition, Rates, University Dues, all pay-
ments to servants, and all charges to the Hall.
Tuition
This includes admission to all the Lectures given to
Members of Queen's College (together with the Lectures.
of other Colleges in the combined List with Queen's),
as well as those given in the Hall.
Furniture:
No charge, except in case of undue damage, which is
estimated by a Professional Valuer.
Residence:
The period of residence covered by the Fixed Payment
is three terms of eight weeks each. Residence in
Vacations will involve an extra charge for Board, etc.,
of 4s. a day.
University Dues and Rates :—
Under this head are included the Terminal University
Dues, Poor and Local Board Rates, &c., but not the
Matriculation Fee (£2 10s.), or Fees for the University
Examinations or Degrees.
On this system and from the data above given, it is pos-
sible to calculate beforehand almost precisely the cost
of the whole University course of three years.
(ii.) Caution Deposit System :-
Entrance Fee
Caution Deposit, returned when the
d.
£ s.
500
name is removed from the books 14 0 0
Furniture, varying from £12 to 21 0 0
64
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Furniture may be hired from the
Hall, but in this case the
Caution Money is.
Terminal Expenses (to be paid at the end
of each term):
£ s.
d.
21 0 0
Tuition (as above) and Hall Officers 5 5 0
Hall Servants .
Establishment Charges
200
2 2 0
University Dues and Poor Rate (say) 0 13 0
Room Rent (according to site)
one-third of £8, £10, or £12.
To these items have to be added Laundress, Battels (or
Board), and Fuel.
The extras on this System (not included in the payments
made to the Hall) are Groceries and Lights, and an extra
Terminal Fee of £1 paid personally to the Bedmaker. All
the other items mentioned above as extras on the Fixed
Payment System are already included (so far as they may
happen to have been incurred) in the Terminal Bill.
Degree Fees:B.A., £4 9s.; M.A., £4 9s.
A man's lowest expenditure during actual residence may
be taken at from £85 to £90. But the average expenditure
may be quite fairly represented at £100 to £110.
Exhibitions:—
1 Exhibition, value £24, to which the duties of
Librarian are attached.
1 Organistship
""
£24.
There are occasionally some Exhibitions of the value of
£20, open.
UNATTACHED STUDENTS.
Entrance:
A Candidate must, before being allowed to matriculate
either have passed one of the following-
1. The previous Examination at Cambridge.
THE COLLEGES.
65
2. The Oxford and Cambridge Schools' Examination
Board.
3. The Oxford Senior Local Examination, in which
case the candidate must have shown sufficient
merit to be excused from Responsions,
or, he must offer himself for examination before the Dele-
gates.
A Matriculation Examination is held at the beginning of
each Term for those who desire to follow the Arts course.
Candidates can offer any of the Greek and Latin books pre-
sented for Responsions.
Those who have been unable to prepare the full amount
required in Responsions may offer-
1. One Greek Play, or Three Books of Homer, or other
Greek book of like amount.
2. Cæsar de Bello Gallico I.—III., or Three Books of
Horace, or other Latin book of like amount.
3. Translation from English into Latin.
4. The Elements of Greek and Latin Grammar.
5. Arithmetic.
6. Euclid, Books I. and II., or Algebra, to Simple
Equations.
Expenses :-
The Fees and Dues to be paid before Matriculation are:
1. Matriculation fee to the University
2. Entrance fee to the Delegacy
•
3. Caution Money (returned on removal of name) 2
•
£ s. d.
2 10 0
2 10 0
0
0 10 0
1 7 6
0 3 6
Total
9 1 0
4. Entrance Fee to Library
5. Dues for the first Quarter .
6. Lodging House Delegacy Fee
F
66
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
The Quarterly Dues (£1 7s. 6d. per quarter) are payable
for twelve quarters; after which period the charge for one
year will be at the rate of 12s. 6d. per quarter; and after
the sixteenth payment the amount payable is reduced to
7s. 6d. per quarter.
A Tuition Fee of £2 2s. is payable terminally.
Every Student who resides in a Licensed Lodging House
is bound by the Statutes to pay (through the Delegacy) a
fee of 3s. 6d. a Term to the University.
Annual expenditure during actual residence:-
The expense of Board and Lodging for the eight weeks
of Term will vary according to the tastes and habits of
individuals. With care and economy a sum of 30s. per
week will suffice. In some cases the average weekly ex-
penditure has been less, but it would not be prudent for
anyone to calculate on living for a smaller sum, unless he
has already found by experience that he can reduce his
expenses below this limit.
The yearly expense of living for three Terms (Easter and
Trinity Terms being counted together as one) may there-
fore be reckoned as follows
Board and Lodging for 24 weeks at
30s. a week.
University and Delegacy Dues
Examination Fees (on the average).
Tuition.
£ s. d.
36 0 0
606
2 0 0
660
50 6 6
This estimate does not include travelling, books, clothes,
incidental expenses, or cost of living in Vacations.
Scholarships :-
2 Exhibitions (Grocers'
Comp.)
value £25, restricted to
those who require help.
THE COLLEGES.
67
3 Exhibitions (Clothworkers'
Comp.) for Nat. Science, value £50.
3 Exhibitions (Clothworkers'
Comp.)
value £30, restricted to those
who give evidence
that they are candi-
dates for honours.
IT
CHAPTER III.
EXPENSES OF OXFORD LIFE.
T is difficult to treat with perfect accuracy a question
which in a great measure depends upon the means and
self-control of individual undergraduates. It must be pre-
mised then that in this chapter the statements made are
somewhat general, and that the estimates given will not
hold good in every case.
In the first place, we must warn men not to place too
much faith in the statements and estimates which are
industriously circulated concerning the inexpensive cha-
racter of an Oxford career. It is often said, to encourage
young men to enter the University, that a degree may be
gained for a comparatively small sum, and that it is an
easy matter to live comfortably, and as a gentleman, upon
half the money usually spent. Many men, on the faith of
such assurances, come up to Oxford only to find that they
have been wofully deceived; that it is possible, certainly,
to live upon the income mentioned, but only on condition
of being debarred from the amusements and society they
have been led to expect. We are writing here for those
who do not look forward to a total abstinence from social
comforts, but who hope to take their place in a College on
much the same footing as their contemporaries, who are
sent to Oxford to work, yet not to eschew pleasure alto-
gether; to be careful in money matters, yet not to feel the
EXPENSES OF OXFORD LIFE.
69
pinch of poverty. If our typical undergraduate, with a
real and creditable determination to live within a small
income, associates with his equals, and enters into College
sports and festivities, the inevitable result follows; he runs
into debt, perhaps becomes reckless, and finds in the end that
his College career has cost him twice as much as the amount
he was assured was amply sufficient. It must be remem-
bered that young men of nineteen or twenty have usually
but little experience in keeping accounts, and are often
unable to regulate their expenses. They thus easily, and
almost unwittingly, run into debt; their lives are made
miserable, and their careers a disappointment. All honour to
those who can by rigorous self-denial avoid the unnecessary
expenses of an Oxford career, but let the ordinary man be
sure that estimates on paper may be tempting, but are gene-
rally unpractical. For instance, it is said that a man with
proper care and economy may live at a College for £120 a
year, and pass through his career to his degree for little
over £300. The statement is fallacious. If we are only
to include strict College and University expenses the esti-
mate may be within the mark or even beyond it. But few
need to be reminded that such expenses by no means form
the whole of an average man's outlay. He rows, he clothes
himself, he entertains a little, he has certain subscriptions
to pay and multitudinous small expenses to bear. And he
will be very fortunate if these extra matters do not cost
him another £50 a year. Let him beware then, and put
not too much faith in statistics.
Without doubt the feeling in favour of economy has
grown of late years. The Colleges are to a far less extent
the homes of the wealthier classes, and at most Colleges the
authorities make every effort to promote simplicity of living
and to make provision for poorer students. All this has
had an important effect on average expenditure, and it is
probable that an Oxford degree, though still more expensive
70
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
than a Cambridge one, is 10 per cent. cheaper than it was
ten years ago.
We will now endeavour to give some idea of the expenses
of Oxford life by first detailing the various necessary items,
and next making a few remarks on those expenses which
depend upon the man himself. To begin with his entrance
at a College. He will first pay a certain sum as caution
money, which is intended to secure the College against any
loss it might sustain through his death, bad behaviour, etc.
This is usually £30, sometimes £25 or £20. The money
is returned when his name is removed from the College
books. If he takes his name off immediately upon gaining
his first degree, he receives (generally) the sum intact; if he
allows his name to remain, the annual fees, etc., are deducted.
Then there is an admission fee generally of £5, some-
times of less amount, and next there is the Matriculation
fee to the University of £2 10s.
In most cases a further large expense will be entailed by
the necessity of purchasing the furniture of the outgoing
tenant of the rooms. On leaving the rooms the furniture
is again sold, allowing for dilapidations, to the new-
comer. In some cases the furniture belongs to the College,
and an annual sum, amounting to 6 or 7 per cent. on its
value, is paid for its hire. It is usually more economical
in the end to purchase the furniture at once, for the rent
for three or four years will amount to more than the sum
paid for dilapidations by the student at the end of his
tenancy under the first system.
There are of course other minor expenses falling upon
the freshman; a stock of china, glass, and other domestic
articles must be laid in. Generally these may be purchased
from the scouts, who always collect from their former
masters a large supply of such necessaries. A cap and
gown must be purchased, and these, with other trivial
matters, may easily amount to £7 or £8.
EXPENSES OF OXFORD LIFE.
71
Moreover, if he has not already passed his "Smalls," the sum
of £2 will be due to the University chest for that examination.
Thus the student's preliminary expenses will amount to
about £45, exclusive of the purchase of furniture. This,
of course, varies very much in value, according to the
means or taste of the outgoing tenant. It may amount to
as much as £80, or range as low as £20. The average is
from £25 to £45.
The most important items, of course, in Oxford expenses
are the terminal "Battels." These accounts represent the
College expenses of the term--all the meals, the establish-
ment charges, the tuition-fees, coals, room-rent, and, in some
cases, hire of furniture, and various other smaller items.
The tuition-fees in most Colleges amount to £22 a year,
sometimes for three years, sometimes till the last examina-
tion has been passed. The establishment charges (for
servants, etc.) are generally £15 a year; and the room rent
averages about £11 a year, and if the furniture be hired
from the College, an extra £2 or £3 a term must be added.
These charges may vary with each College somewhat, but
we think that the estimate we have given will be found
fairly accurate. The charges for meals naturally depend
greatly on the tastes of individual undergraduates, for it is
quite within his power to determine the amount and quality
of meat and drink he shall consume. As we said before,
many men live on comparatively nothing; but the ordinary
man who has decided to live in only moderate comfort, and
who is not particularly stinted for money, will generally
find himself living at the rate of those around him. Speak-
ing roughly, he will scarcely be able to keep his Battels
below £32 a term (often they may be £34); and when
some special expenses have been entailed (as in the Summer
Term), they may be over £37. Taking £32 as an average
then, we shall not err in excess.
Of course, if a man has
1 We have not here included the cost of the hire of furniture, £2 or £3.
72
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
many friends, in or out of College, he must entertain them
in some way, either with breakfasts, lunches, or dinners,
and the cost of these will materially increase his Battels.'
The kitchen bill of an ordinary man may be about £12, and
his buttery bill (for bread and butter, beer, etc.), £3 a term.
Dinners vary much in price at different Colleges, and
they are conducted on various systems. Sometimes a fixed
price is charged, and students are quite dependent upon the
cook, sometimes men are charged for what they eat. A
plain dinner may be generally obtained (including beer) for
2s. or 2s. 3d., and a very fair meal for 3s.
At Keble the undergraduates take all their meals together,
and though this tends to discourage individual extravagance,
it obliges a poor man to pay for his breakfast double the
sum he would have thought necessary in his own rooms.
At several of the other Colleges meals in common at a
stated price are provided.
Weekly accounts are sent in to each man, where he is
charged for all he has consumed during the week, and these
are generally about £1 18s. or £2. (It must be remembered
that in these various items are included-all meals, coals,
messenger, gate bill, etc.) Coals may cost about 30s. a term,
and the smaller expenses may amount to £2. When these
items are added to tuition fees, establishment charges, room
rent, etc., they will together amount to over £31 a term;
and the average undergraduate will not be able to reduce
this sum by much. At the end of each term it is usual to
give a gratuity to the scouts of the staircase-£1 to one,
and 10s. to the other: or £1 to each. Then there is the
washing bill, which may amount to £4 a year.
We may
next mention the expenses of travelling to and from Oxford,
which on the average can scarcely be less than £5 a year.
From these calculations it may be seen that a student
1 For instance, a large breakfast-party may cost £3; a lunch the
same; and two friends to dinner, 6s. or 7s.
EXPENSES OF OXFORD LIFE.
73
can without much difficulty keep his necessary College
expenses under £100.
An undergraduate will generally feel himself obliged to
subscribe to the College Clubs, and he will hardly escape
for less than £3 a year.¹ A man who is not absolutely poor
ought to make it a point of honour to support such insti-
tutions; for, as we have attempted to show elsewhere, an
ordinary College owes in a large degree its reputation to
the position it takes on the river or in the cricket field,
and this cannot be a high one if its Clubs are not properly
supported. We confess that there is often an excessive
amount of moral pressure applied, for this purpose, to men
who are really unable to subscribe, and whose poverty is
held to be a mere sham. Such men are placed in a cruel
and unenviable position; but we believe that generally only
a little self-denial is needed to raise the sum required. A
parent who allows his son £160 a year can surely increase
this allowance by £3 to enable the latter to support insti-
tutions which have become necessary. Not to mention the
laudable object of these Clubs, it is not possible for those
outside Oxford to conceive the amount of obloquy a student
meets by refusing to subscribe.
If a man boats he will be obliged to subscribe to Salter's
the sum of £3 3s. a year. Connected with boating there
are other expenses, such as a boating costume, &c. If the
student is lucky enough to row in his College Torpid or
Eight, there is a subscription of £3 10s. to be paid to the
University Boat Club; and training will also entail a few
more expenses. But, generally boating is the most eco-
nomical, as it is the most healthy, of exercises; and if all
its expenses incurred during four years' residence be added
together, they will not usually amount to £20, a sum
These subscriptions have been in many Colleges consolidated, and
an undergraduate may pay one stated sum once a Term, and enjoy the
privileges of all the Clubs at a moderate cost.
74
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
certainly not disproportionate to the pleasure and benefit
derived.
Most men, we suppose will become members of the Union,
to which the entrance fee is £1, and the terminal subscrip-
tion £1 5s.
Besides these almost necessary subscriptions, there are
others, connected with the College, purely optional-e.g.,
Wine Clubs, where a membership will entail subscriptions
of from £6 to £10 a year.
There are five tradesmen at least whose services will
generally be found indispensable-viz., the tailor, grocer,
wine-merchant, bookseller, and boot-maker. To these often,
no doubt, will be added others-the ironmonger, jeweller,
upholsterer, chemist, perfumer, picture-dealer, &c. However,
these are not so necessary as the former, and we strongly
advise men to pay them as little attention as possible.
Small articles bought on the spur of the moment, in
passing a shop, will be found, when the bills are sent in, to
have cost an extraordinary amount of money. The unfor-
tunate undergraduate will notice with wonder that he has
been charged for six pairs of kid gloves at 5s., a neat
scarf pin at £3, or a fancy table at four guineas-articles
pressed upon his acceptance by an insinuating tradesman,
and long ago lost, broken, or stolen.
We advise men always to insist upon their bills being
sent in terminally; and, more than this, to insist upon
paying them. Tradesmen will often defer settlement till
the end of a man's career, or, at all events, for several years,
and the student will generally find that his bills come to
double the amount he had anticipated. A terminal settle-
ment will save a vast amount of trouble and money, and
the necessity of paying large and perhaps inconvenient ac-
counts at the end of several years will be avoided. It is
often impossible to pay at the time of purchase, and difficult
at the end of term; but there is no doubt that the system
EXPENSES OF OXFORD LIFE.
75
of long credit is the bane of Oxford, and the longer a man
keeps out of the debtor's slough of despond, the better will
it be for his welfare and peace of mind.
It must be understood that in speaking of Oxford ex-
penses, we assume that the undergraduate will find himself
in clothes, wine, groceries, etc., in Oxford itself. He may
of course procure all these necessaries elsewhere, but none
the less should he count them among his University
expenses.
It is impossible to speak definitely of the amount
a man may spend upon his tailor. Some men may dress
on £7 a year-some may require £100. We do not
suppose the ordinary undergraduate will be able to
keep his annual bill below £20, supposing that he buys
all his clothes in Oxford. If he buys his hats, gloves,
shirts, ties, &c., at his tailor's, his bill may perhaps be
£5 more. For £20 it is possible to dress respectably,
and as a gentleman. If a man wishes to "dress well," he
must expect to see his bill £40 or £50.
From the grocer various articles will be required-tea,
coffee, sugar, candles, dessert, etc.; and £2 10s. a term is a
very moderate allowance.
A man's book bill depends greatly upon his tastes; and
the accounts of a pass-man and an honour-man are neces-
sarily widely different. The former, if he only buys the
books necessary for his examinations, may spend £4, or even
less; for the latter, £15 a year is not an extravagant sum,
unless he determines to live upon the charity of his neigh-
bours. The undergraduate who has a love for literary
pursuits, or who rejoices in parchment and morocco, may
spend £100 in a very short time, for there is no ruling
passion which involves such a large outlay as a taste for
collecting books.
A man's wine bill depends especially upon the size of the
circle of his acquaintances, and their capacities or tastes.
76
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
If he have many friends, whom he entertains, and who are
able to imbibe much Port and Sherry, his account may be
£20 or £30 a year; nor would this for a man of good means
be an extravagant allowance. But for the student of limited
income, and whose hospitality must be in accordance with
his means, £10 a year should be the outside of his wine
bill. At some Colleges, wine (with groceries, etc.) is sup-
plied from the Common Room; and this in most cases is
an excellent plan.
We do not suppose a man will be able to keep his boot-
maker's bill below £3, however economically disposed he
may be, and this sum will be often doubled.
Besides the necessary expenses we have mentioned the
student will always find himself involved in various minor
expenses with tradesmen-such as the upholsterer, china
merchant, picture dealer, etc. Few men will avoid such
small bills, and we shall adopt a moderate estimate in
making them amount to £10 a year.
There is lastly that large item which may come under
the head of "indefinite and unaccountable expenses," for
which ready money is required. It is useless to attempt
to enter into details here, for different men have different
methods of spending, but all do it more or less. The
undergraduate will find that he needs a fair store of ready
cash to meet the calls which come upon him everywhere.
If a man indulges in smoking, an additional expense of
perhaps £5 is incurred; and if this be included in "inde-
finite expenses," an allowance of £20 as ready money is not
extravagant.
Moreover, our Undergraduate will have, before he can
take his degree, to pay various sums with indefinite fre-
quency as examination fees. For Smalls he pays £2, for
Mods., £1 10s. (for the Rudiments, £1), and for his Final,
£1 10s. This means an average of £1 5s. a year under
favourable circumstances.
EXPENSES OF OXFORD LIFE.
77
We have now spoken of the most important items in
University expenses. No doubt there are many still remain-
ing for a large number of men, but they chiefly depend
upon the idiosyncrasies of individuals, nor can they be classi-
fied. We will now tabulate the expenses, and thence infer
the allowance necessary for the ordinary Undergraduate.
Expenses upon Entrance.
Caution Money
Admission Fee
Matriculation Fee.
Purchase of Furniture .
Minor Expenses
£ s. d.
30 00 (returned)
500
2 10 0
30 0 0 (returned)
8 0
0
75
10 0
Annual Expenses.
Average Battels
Washing.
£ s. d.
96 0 0
400
Scouts
500
College Subscriptions.
300
Union
3 15 0
Salter's
3 3 0
Travelling Expenses
Tailor, &c.
5 0 0
20 0 0
7 10 0
Grocer
Wine
Bookseller
•
Bootmaker
Small Bills
Ready Money
•
10 0 0
4 0 0
3 0 0
10 0 0
20 0 0
194 8 0
With regard to the Entrance expenses, if the furniture
be hired from the College, a deduction of £30 may be made,
78
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
but in that case £8 or £9 a year must be added, as the cost
of hire, to the Battels.
From the foregoing table it may be seen that £200 a year
will maintain a young man at Oxford in comfort, and with
the addition of a few luxuries. No doubt the amount of
several of the items may be diminished: £5 may be taken
off the wine bill, £5 off the ready money, and £5 off the
tailor's bill. The total may perhaps be lessened by £20
with the exercise of some self-denial, and a gentlemanly
appearance still maintained. Less than £175 will hardly
be sufficient.
At most Colleges after the end of his third year the
Undergraduate no longer pays tuition fees, and above £20
is thus to be deducted from his annual expenses. At the
same period too, men are generally obliged to go into
lodgings, and are in that case no longer charged with the
whole amount of establishment expenses, which are lessened
by about £10. But though this and a few other items are
saved by going into lodgings, we do not think the plan is
on the whole an economical one; often, in fact, it adds to
the annual expenses. It is impossible to procure decent
lodgings under 16s. or 17s. a week, and the extras often
amount to 5s. more. Generally the food in lodgings is
much dearer than in College, and certainly not so good.
There are other disadvantages also; for instance, there are
no men-servants in lodgings, and the slatternly maid-servant
is but a sorry substitute for the ready and generally useful
scout. We should advise men to remain in College as long
as possible, even if they are obliged to be content with
somewhat inferior rooms. They sometimes are allowed a
choice, unless the College is full, and we recommend them
to remain inside the walls, not to prefer the visionary liberty
of residence in lodgings.
We have seen that generally after his third year the
student reduces his expenses by over £20. In some Colleges
EXPENSES OF OXFORD LIFE.
79
this is £30: and sometimes as much as £40.
Moreover,
the Union subscriptions are only paid for three years; and
this represents a saving of £3 15s. ; but, as we said, often
this is neutralized by the extra expenses of lodgings; and
we shall not be far from the truth in placing the student's
expenses in his fourth year at not less than £160. It must
be distinctly understood that the estimate we have given
allows for no extravagances on the one hand, and no pinch-
ing on the other. We do not pretend to write here for the
man who will live on £120 a year; while if the student has
any expensive tastes the amount we have given may be easily
swelled to £250 or £300. £180-£200 a year will support
a man quietly as a gentleman, but no more. If he be fond
of dress, books, horses; if he has many friends and enter-
tains much, he should certainly have at least £300 a year.
Thus, then, if the student resides three years, the cost of
his maintenance will probably be £530 at the least; if
he resides four years another £150 may be added, and
another year may increase this by £150. Very few men,
however, continue to reside after four years; pass-men
often take their degree in three years, or in less than three
years.
To these expenses must be added the various University
Fees for degrees. The B.A. fee is £7 10s., the M.A. fee,
£12. There are also the College fees for degrees, which
vary very much, and range up to £10.
In conclusion, if the cost of a man's career from his
matriculation to his M.A. cost him no more than £570 as
a Pass Man, or £700 as an Honour Man, he may certainly
be congratulated on the result.
The mention of expenses naturally leads us to speak of
a subject which unhappily must have great interest for
many men. It is impossible to give statistics upon this.
matter, but we shall not err greatly if we say that a large
number of University men who lead a sociable life have felt
80
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
the incubus of debt. Expensive or careless habits which
result in debt are common among men of all ages; while
such failings are, as might be expected, particularly
numerous among youths who are perhaps enjoying for the
first time the freedom of independent life, and have but an
inadequate estimate of the value of money. It has always
been held that a propensity for running into debt is a usual
characteristic of the true University man, and it must be
allowed that there is some foundation for this opinion.
Most men must have found it very difficult to avoid ex-
ceeding their allowances: and there are many to whom
such transgression implies not only present inconvenience
but future trouble. It is almost useless to repeat here the
well-worn admonition, that it is safer to keep out of debt
altogether. When once the barrier set up by prudence has
been passed, the great safeguard against debt is lost, and
the descent to discomfort and perhaps ruin is easy. A
man who owes no more than he can properly pay, will
strive to keep his expenses within bounds, but when once
these expenses exceed his allowance, he will no longer be
so careful in small matters. His argument will be like that
of the man who sins against his health, he will say "This
little can't make any difference; I may as well owe £30 as
£20." It is not difficult to see that this course, persisted
in for a year or two, will land him, if not in insolvency, at
least in wretchedness. The more he owes, the more reckless
probably he becomes, his life is made miserable, his friends
wretched, and all the pleasures of existence are soured by
the weight of his burden. He is afraid to enter a shop,
in dread of the demands of his creditor; he avoids the
(C
High" or the " Corn," lest he may meet some importu-
nate tradesman. Every step upon the stairs makes his heart
sink, he "sports his oak" continually, pleads illness or
feigns absence. He is reduced to every ignoble shift to
stave off the evil day, and grovels before his creditors with
EXPENSES OF OXFORD LIFE.
81
prayers for patience. Ominous-looking correspondence
crowds his table, and the sight of every letter awakens in
his mind unpleasant thoughts. During his first year or
two, his tradesmen have been lenient to him, nor even have
sent in their bills. But the state of his affairs must become
known, and creditors naturally grow suspicious when money
is not forthcoming. A polite request for settlement is
followed by a threat, which in its turn is fulfilled by a
despatch from a Proctor in the Vice-Chancellor's Court,
demanding payment within a week. If this be not complied
with, the man is "put in the Court," and, if the bill be
allowed, of course he is ordered to pay. Debts are not
legally recoverable if contracted by a minor; but at Oxford
the Vice-Chancellor usually judges the necessity of a certain
item, and decides accordingly. Thus one pair of trousers
might be considered a necessary expense, four pairs in a
Term an unnecessary one, which would be disallowed.
And so with other things. Sometimes, however, the Vice-
Chancellor will inquire into a man's position before giving
a decision. For example, an expensive gold chain may be
a perfectly justifiable item for a man with a large allow-
ance, which it would certainly not be for one with small
means. Thus it might be allowed in the first, but disal-
lowed in the second, case. These exceptions only apply to
minors; men over age are, of course, responsible for every-
thing. But even if a man is "put in the Court, and his
bill is disallowed, does he gain anything by it? Nothing;
for his credit and reputation are ruined. The heads of his
College become acquainted with the facts, and the under-
graduate, if not sent down, receives a severe reprimand, and
loses his character. For this the small triumph gained
over a tradesman is but a sorry recompense.
The truth is that running into debt is made much too
easy at Oxford. The poorest man, provided he wears a
decent coat and has sufficient assurance, can run up a bill
G
82
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
of £50 or even £100 in a very short time. When the
temptation is so great, there will always be found men
weak enough to yield to it, and though we are not advo-
cates of too much paternal government, it seems absurd to
adopt no precautions in the interests of undergraduates in
such a serious matter.
At Cambridge a different system prevails. Every trades-
man is bound to send to the Tutor of each College, every
quarter, a list of such bills due to him by the students as
exceed £5. These bills are sent to the parent. We expect
that if this system were suddenly adopted in Oxford, many
parents would be considerably astonished. By no means
would we imply that the College authorities are careless of
a man's expenditure. They doubtless do all in their power
to check extravagance. But what they cannot see they
cannot stop, and it is a serious question whether some re-
strictions on tradesmen and undergraduates might not be
advisable.
rare, and with
As a rule, wilfully extravagant men are
pure thoughtlessness it is possible to deal. A wise father
will remember his own career and forgive his son a few
small extravagances if he sees no vice and a real desire to
live within his income. A good understanding between
parent and son will be the best cure for such errors.
A. M. M. S.
EXPENSES OF OXFORD LIFE.
83
TABULATED STATEMENT OF COLLEGE EXPENSES.
Tuition.
Establishment.
Rent. Total.
University
£25
(no return)
£15
£40
Balliol
£25
£18
£15*
£58
Merton
£22 1s.
£15 15s.
£11
£48 16s.
Exeter
£22 1s.
£22 19s.+
£13 13s.
£58 13s.
Oriel
£21
£22
£11
£54
Queen's
£24*
£19 10s. 6d.
£18
£51 10s. 6d.
New
£21
£10 13s.t
£14
£45 13s.
Lincoln
£21
(no return)
£12 12s.
£33 12s.
Magdalen
£21
£19 16s.
£15.
£55 16s.
B. N. C.
£25 4s.*
£18
£12
£55 4s.
C. C. C.
£27*
£12 15s.
£13
£52 15s.
Ch. Ch.
£24
£15 6s.+
£15
£54 6s.
Trinity
£22 ls.
£12 18s.
£14
£48 19s.
St. John's
£21*
£7+
£10 10s.
£37 10s.
Jesus
£21
£13
£12 12s.
£46 12s.
Wadham
£22 10s.
£12
£12 15s.
£47 5s.
Pembroke
£23
£20 10s.
£13
£56 10s.
Worcester
£21
£19 6s.
£13
£53 68.
Keble
Hertford
£20
£18
£15
£53
St. Mary Hall
£20
£19
£15
£54
St. Edmund Hall
£15 15s.*
£13
£10
£38 158.
* For three years.
+ And a percentage on College bills.
N.B.-Many of these estimates are only average ones. Hire of furni-
ture is not included in rent.
:
THE
CHAPTER IV.
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
HE value of an Oxford career is not to be estimated
by a single standard. As schools of learning the
Universities are unrivalled, as schools of manners they are
equally pre-eminent. What is the main object of such a
career is a question the answer to which will depend upon
the mental and social ambitions of the individual.
The ideal object of an Oxford career is to imbue the
student with the highest form of culture, to teach him the
best that has been thought and written by the best minds
on the highest subjects, and to enable him to play the best
part in the great struggle of human life. A special and
professional training should be only a secondary object of
such a career. There is one profession indeed-and that
of the highest importance, the profession of teaching-for
which the University does prepare its students, but in other
respects it aims at producing noble tendencies rather than
commercial results, at humanizing the man rather than
turning him out a professional expert.
To those who rightly appreciate their University, Oxford
is not merely the pleasant home where they may take such
and such a degree; she is the nursing-mother of students
who by her aid become familiar with the great souls she
holds in honour and the problems which agitate humanity,
who read not for a degree but for life, who hold steadily to
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
85
the high ideals of the scholar, and fire their minds with
those enthusiasms which it is easy to ridicule and decry,
but without which the world would be infinitely the poorer.
Such men Oxford will teach the graces which lend rich-
ness and interest to life, acquaintance with the great prin-
ciples of literature and morality, respect of self and of
others, widened sympathies and admiration of genuine
greatness. At the same time it would be idle to assume
that the highest ideal of a University career can appeal
with much force to the great majority of undergraduates.
To them such a career is the natural complement of a
Public School education, a means of employing pleasantly,
and not unprofitably, the years between boyhood and man-
hood, an opportunity of gaining a tone in the society of
well-bred and cultivated men, or a commercial investment
which will prove valuable in any profession. They will
read with fair steadiness for a Pass, often even for an
Honour degree, they will learn much not only from books
but from men, they will form valuable friendships, and they
will leave in the vast majority of cases with an undoubted
strengthening of their moral and intellectual nature.
To give some account of the life of such a typical under-
graduate is the object of the present chapter, a task in-
volving indeed serious difficulties, but at the same time
necessary and not without interest.
The choice of a College is the most important prelimi-
nary to a man's University career. Many will be influenced
by family associations, or by the traditions of their school.
Intellectual fame will attract many, athletic fame will
attract more, and a man of limited means will naturally
look to where frugal living is in fashion. It would be invi-
dious to urge arguments in favour of a particular College.
Advice may be easily sought, and reputations rise and fall.
What in one year may be a College of the first rank, may
sink in another to a secondary place. And with regard to
86
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
economy reputations are often fallacious. It is necessary
to insist strongly that the greater part of University ex-
penses are regulated by the undergraduate himself, and the
allowance he requires depends chiefly on his own character
and pursuits. There are expensive sets at most Colleges,
there are moderate sets, and there are frugal sets: and it
lies with the man to decide with which he will associate.
At the same time there is no doubt that at some of the
smaller and less-known Colleges it is possible to live with
greater economy. The tone is quieter, the general feeling
is in favour of careful living.
When the College has been chosen, an early notice should
be given to the authorities. It is generally advisable to
begin residence in the October Term. No man should,
under ordinary circumstances, commence residence under
the age of eighteen. The standard of age has been some-
what lowered of late years, but the expediency of early
residence is decidedly doubtful. A boy with mind and
character undeveloped has everything to lose and nothing
to gain from contact with the labours and temptations of
an Oxford career. If the candidate's testimonials of cha-
racter satisfy the authorities of the College, he will be re-
quired to present himself at the entrance examination—an
ordeal to a fairly educated man not of great severity, and
one which, except at a College of high renown, is more
qualifying than competitive.
This Examination, and, in many cases, his Responsions,
passed, the student pays his Caution-Money, buys his
furniture (if it has been the property of the previous
tenant), and is admitted a Member of the College. He then
matriculates, that is, is admitted a Member of the Uni-
versity, before the Vice-Chancellor. At this rather awe-
inspiring ceremony he receives a copy of the Statutes of
the University in Latin-a valuable collection of rules for
the conduct of his daily life, with especial cautions against
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
87
wearing boots, carrying bombarding implements, smoking,
and playing marbles on the steps of the Bodleian.
He is now an Oxford man-a freshman. The name of
freshman has denoted from time immemorial the possession
of certain marked attributes-great shyness, great reve-
rence for the outward signs of University dignity, great
gullibility, and a trembling anxiety not to overstep the
limits of his privileges. This unfortunate person is tra-
ditionally supposed to furnish the butt for the bright wits
of the College. His credulous mind is made the receptacle
of strange stories, concoctions of unblushing ingenuity.
His person is the object for practical jokes of an alarming
character. An examination hangs threateningly over him,
while his terror is heightened by stories of the rigour and
undeviating cruelty of examiners. It is needless to state.
that this statement of the case bears a very false aspect.
There are certain ordeals of more or less severity, which a
freshman has to pass through, but he will not find his
trials very terrible ones. There are some rules of etiquette
which freshmen are held bound to observe. In returning
the call of a senior man, he must call until he finds him in,
and must on no account leave a card. Nor must he return
the hospitality of his seniors in his first term; his atten-
tions must be confined to his fellow-freshmen. To break
these rules, and generally to assume a "swagger" air will
argue bad taste and presumption, and Oxford society has
effective means of punishing these faults, which the
offender will quickly experience. Let him be humble then
and wait, and he will have his reward.
And, indeed, he will generally have little difficulty in
finding friends among the men of his year, at his own or
at other Colleges. Men of this or that year naturally cling
together, and the date of entrance divides College society
sharply and clearly; it is well, therefore, that freshmen
should make friends with freshmen. Thus there will be
88
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
many to cheer our typical freshman's loneliness, if it
should exist. But in all probability it will not. In College
he will receive invitations to breakfast, or wine, or perhaps
afternoon tea, and if he be a Public Schoolman, his engage-
ment list should be very full. In fact, the life of a fresh-
man is by no means a joyless one. The novelty of the
life, the sense of freedom, the varied enjoyments, and the
glory of his new inheritance make the days pass happily.
The first awkwardness soon wears off, and the freshman
takes his place in the College ranks with proper dignity,
learns to speak of schools and river and dons with easy
freedom, and is ready in his turn to patronize with lofty
superiority the men whose position was once his own.
The freshman must not hope that luxurious rooms will
be at once apportioned to him. Often indeed he will not
even be able to enter College for one or two terms, which
he will be obliged to spend in lodgings. If he is more
fortunate, and have rooms in College assigned him, he
must expect to live in attics at an elevation above the
ground, and be content with a dismal carpet and ricketty
Chairs. It may be two years before he changes to better
rooms, which perhaps he will only enjoy for a year; for,
as a rule, longer residence than three years in College is
not allowed. At this period he will be allowed to migrate
into lodgings, where he will remain until he has passed his
last examination.
The Oxford day falls naturally into three divisions-the
morning, a period of work; the afternoon, of exercise;
and the evening, of amusement and work combined, or
alternated.
The first event of the day is, of course, attendance at the
College Chapel. With regard to this the various Colleges
differ both in time and regulations. In some cases the
service is held at eight o'clock; sometimes later, at ten
o'clock; sometimes attendance is necessary on four
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
89
mornings in the week, sometimes only an appearance on
Sunday is required, and in a few Colleges even this is un-
necessary. For Chapel is substituted, in some instances,
a roll-call at the same time, at which, as an alternative,
undergraduates may present themselves. Besides morning
Chapel, there is usually an afternoon service at five o'clock.
After Chapel will be seen that species of hospitality which
is peculiar to University life-a breakfast-party. At Oxford
it is the almost invariable custom of the senior men to invite
the freshmen to breakfast, and this repast also furnishes an
opportunity for entertaining other friends at what is, under
favourable circumstances, the most pleasant of meals. By
this we do not understand those congregations of eating men
which are called training breakfasts, where every one is in
a state of war with his neighbour, struggling to procure with
the greatest eagerness the half-cooked viands which are sup-
posed to give strength and muscle to the athlete. Than such
meals there is nothing more uncomfortable or disgusting,
while there is nothing more luxuriously sociable than a
small and well-appointed breakfast for six or eight con-
genial spirits. A pleasant breakfast is the proper ante-
cedent of a pleasant day. After breakfast comes the in-
evitable pipe or cigar, and the perusal and discussion of
the daily papers. Then follows, if the man be wise, three
solid hours of good hard reading. This amount may easily
be secured, if breakfast is begun, as it usually is, at 8.45.
The study is, of course, liable to be broken into by lectures,
especially in the first terms of a man's career; and the
opportunity thus given of leaving his books will tempt
him to direct his steps further than the lecture-room, to
call on some friend, or saunter down the "High," and
turn into some inviting shop. But such temptations
must be resisted, and he should return to his rooms im-
mediately after lecture, and resume his reading. He will
certainly find his pleasures enhanced by the satisfaction
90
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
felt at having done a good morning's work. Generally
no one reads much beyond one, nor is it wise to attempt
to pass that hour, and place too much strain upon the
brain. Luncheon at Oxford is not so sociable a meal as
breakfast, nor is it so luxurious and plentiful. In fact
we shall be within the limits of truth when we say that
a very large number of men confine themselves to bread,
with cheese or butter, and beer, a sufficiently frugal meal.
The especial period for heavy luncheons is in the Summer
Term, when the presence of fair cousins or sisters is the
cause of such merrymaking. But, unless a friend drops
in, the meal is a simple one; certainly the boating-man
cannot allow himself a large luncheon, with two or three
glasses of sherry. If he does he will unpleasantly feel
the consequences in the utter loss of his wind before he
has pulled many strokes. Nor must he be late at the
river, for the "coaching" usually commences at 2.15 or
2.30, and the walk from the Colleges to the barges is
work for fifteen minutes.
The question whether a man shall row or not, depends
of course upon his inclination and physical ability. There
are many who refuse to undergo the labour and discom-
fort which are necessary to qualify a man for his "Torpid"
or "Eight.
Eight." Certainly boating as practised at Oxford is
not an unmixed pleasure, and the necessity of sitting
quietly in déshabillé beneath a steady rain or fall of snow
tends naturally to diminish the enthusiasm of a novice.
Moreover, the operation which most must submit to, and
which is technically termed "coaching," involves the duty
of bearing patiently the lusty and liberal abuse which the
"coach" often pours forth upon the unfortunate freshman,
whose active anxiety to satisfy his stern monitor is gene-
rally rewarded by a concussion with his oar, and the un-
dignified backward motion which is called "catching a
crab." But in spite of these preliminary inconveniences,
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
91
rowing is a noble exercise, and exerts a healthy influence
upon every part of the bodily frame. In the case of con-
stitutional weakness no man should be persuaded to row.
The great exertion and intense strain which is necessary in
a race must tell with grave effect upon a weak heart or
diseased lungs, and though such effect may not be visible
at the time it will often show itself in after years. Upon
a sound constitution rowing will not work any harm, nor
is it necessary to place reliance in the highly-coloured
stories which are circulated concerning the harmful results
of this exercise. It has been shown by elaborate statistics
that men who have rowed in the "Varsity" or in their
College eight have not as a rule fallen short of "three-
score years and ten," nor are they troubled with the
numerous complaints which rowing is vulgarly believed to
induce. A delicate man should by all means avoid an
exertion for which he is unfitted, but one conscious of no
such incapacity should for several reasons undergo the
usual coaching. To be able to row will always prove a
most useful accomplishment. Physically, it is a splendid
exercise; socially, a valuable means of social intercourse.
It is almost a necessary element in a University education,
and, from a regard for the credit of his College, no one
should refuse to place himself in a position by which he
may be able to sustain her fame upon the river. For
though Oxford is primarily and properly an intellectual
resort, it is no secret that the position of a College upon
the river and in the cricket-field is one index to its popu-
larity. Generally the first question the average man asks
with regard to his future College is, "How high is it on
the river ?" If a College can combine intellectual and
physical superiority its popularity will be unbounded; if
this cannot be, the coarser excellence will, we fear, often be
found to predominate over the other. At Oxford the most
general topic of conversation, and the one of which some
92
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
men never tire, is the river. Even the metaphors of daily
life are borrowed from the phraseology of the boats, and a
man is asked to "bucket " over his dinner, or to "get
forward" with his reading. The genuine boating man is
undoubtedly a nuisance. No sooner does the conversation
change to a more interesting subject, than he quickly turns
to his cherished topic, which he urges and urges usque ad
nauseam. Boating (as hunting) seems to exert a marvellous
influence over the minds of its devotees, which blinds them to
the fact that there may be those to whom it does not present
such charms, and whose interest in the narration of its merits
is often but the enforced politeness of a bored listener.
The progress the freshman at first makes in the art of
rowing is slow, and the work imposed is very hard, but
soon his labours are rewarded not only by the eulogiums of
his coach, but by the facility of which he himself is con-
scious. It is remarkable how suddenly this improvement
comes, and though the man may not yet have attained to
good "form," he will no longer find himself gasping for
breath, or his wrists giving way from pain after the first
twenty strokes. Form is of course most difficult to acquire,
and in most cases fair strength and weight, with moderate
form, will insure a place in the College Boat.
The "coaching" generally lasts during the October
Term, and in the Lent Term the "Torpid " or Junior Eight is
taken in hand, and the most promising of the freshmen are
drafted in. The Torpids are rowed at the end of this term,
and any vacant places in the Eights, which are rowed in
the Summer Term, are filled up from those who have best
acquitted themselves in the earlier races. The Torpid
races last six days, the Eights two days longer. In these
races the boats do not row abreast, but start in a long line,
at a distance from each other of twenty yards. Their
re'ative positions are defined by the order in which they
were left at the close of the last races.
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
93
The object of the head boat is to keep its place, of the
other boats to catch or "bump" the boat in front.
When
a "bump" has been made, the victors and the vanquished
draw at once out of the course, and leave the river free for
the other boats. The boats are now so numerous that the
races are rowed in two divisions; for, formerly, in such a
long line, the head boat was not far distant from the
winning-post, and the disparity of distance to be traversed
by it and the lower boats was of course very great.
There is naturally some difference between the two crafts,
and the Eightsmen are more finished in style, and capable
of rowing a faster stroke, than those who have a place in
the Torpids. The latter boats are without sliding seats,
while the Eights are narrower, lighter, more outrigged, and
canvas-covered. A distinctive ribbon is usually reserved
for the Eightsmen, whose position is, next to a place in
the "Varsity," the most coveted honour.
66
""
""
Besides the Eights and Torpids there are also "Fours,'
'Pairs," and Sculls races. Each College, too, has its
own "Scratch Fours," and usually in the Summer Term
its regatta. Thus no incentive of enthusiasm is absent.
The art of rowing, as of boat-building, has now reached
such a pitch that further ascent seems impossible. A fine
oarsman moves like a beautiful machine; to every part of
his body is assigned its proper work, while to assist his
motions every appliance of art is called into requisition.
The object of the boat-builder is to fashion a craft which
shall be as narrow and light as possible, and which shall
combine the proper amonnt of stability with the least re-
sistance to the water. In fact a
In fact a “skiff," or light sculling
boat, is so narrow and flimsy, that the seat with difficulty
receives the sculler, who is obliged to keep both blades of
the sculls on the water to preserve his balance. If he
happens to raise either blade, the result is immersion. The
light Eights are of similar construction, and their appear-
94
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
ance, as they rock about with every wavelet, is such as to
raise the liveliest apprehension in the spectator. However,
no disastrous accident has as yet occurred, and the actual
danger is really infinitesimal. Moreover, there are always
ready, with punts, University watermen, to rescue unfor-
tunate undergraduates. But no one should trust himself
in a boat or canoe unless he is able to swim.
There are
several good bathing-places at Oxford, and those who
cannot swim can soon learn.
The reading man who is fortunate enough to have the
offer of a place in one of the boats will often, from the
adoption of a new system, find serious difficulty in ar-
ranging his work. In fact, he will ask the question
whether he is justified in rowing at all, for the extra
time which is spent upon his training must of course be
deducted from his working hours. In several ways he
will feel this interference. He will be obliged to retire
for the night at an early hour, and the entertainments
given by many men to the crew will form a distraction.
In the summer the heavy meal in the middle of the day,
with the strong ale, will preclude possibility of working
in the afternoon. Then comes the practice, and then a
large supper, after which one will do well to get even an
hour's reading. The student then must be prepared to lose
some time, but this, if he possesses a little moral courage,
need not be a great amount. In training for the Torpids.
especially, it is easily possible to make up five or six hours.
a day. In the Summer Term he may rise early, and so
get in an hour or more, but he must not expect to combine
hard reading and rowing. Indeed, among all classes of
men, idle and industrious alike, the Summer Term is
allowed to be more a period for amusement and enjoyment
than for severe study. It has been shown how boating is
liable to break up reading, and the same disadvantage is
joined to cricket. For one of a College eleven there will
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
95
usually be two, and often three matches, a week. He will be
obliged to leave at one o'clock in the "drag" or the tram for
the grounds, which are distant nearly two miles, and he will
probably not be back in College till seven o'clock. After
this is supper, and then usually very little reading. So
that, in this term especially, is the devotion of the whole
morning to study needful. Even in the morning there
will be many distractions.
Idle friends will enter and
assert that to read upon a beautiful day is sinful and un-
natural. Frequent invitations to the participation of
claret-cup will arrive; or the student will take his Aristotle
or Hallam, and attempt to read beneath a cedar in the
gardens, where he will be seized upon at once by a group of
merry idlers, and forced to declare his opinion of the “Derby
favourite," or to estimate the chances of Jones being in the
"'Varsity" eleven. He must thus map out his day with
great skill if he intend to work four or five hours, and must
determine to compensate for the time wasted now by extra
study in the "Long."
All will acknowledge that the Summer Term, two short
months, is the most pleasant of all terms-perhaps, indeed,
the most enjoyable epoch of a lifetime. During the greater
portion of it there are perpetual opportunities for amusement.
Rowing, cricket, lawn-tennis, croquet, archery, garden-
parties, flower-shows, should furnish interest to the most
languid. What can be more charming than to float lazily
down the Cherwell, shaded from the sun by the overspreading
trees, or listlessly to saunter beneath elms and beeches in the
fine old gardens? If more active amusements are sought,
one may run with the eight along the river path, or pull
down to Sandford, to fish, or bathe in the "lasher." These
pleasures, which may seem trivial and ordinary, are to Oxford
men invested with a large interest by reason of their locale.
All the incidents of every-day life are beautified and refined
by the associations of the grand old place. In the Summer
96
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Term an undergraduate lives in an atmosphere of poetry
and romance. The sombre, crumbling walls are relieved
and enlivened by green foliage and gay flowers, the summer
sun imparts to all hearts a generous glow. And at the
crowning scene of all, when the old buildings re-echo with
the sweet laughter of fair women, when old friends meet
again, when all forget their troubles and throw themselves
eagerly into the unceasing pleasures and revelry of this
time: surely now the happiness of sanguine youth is in its
zenith, this for after years must be brightest, most joyful
memory.
Taking up the thread of our remarks whence we di-
gressed, we pass on to the remainder of the afternoon. In
the Winter Terms "coaching" usually takes up from one
and a half to two hours; and a man will at all events find
himself back in his rooms by five o'clock. This will leave
him an hour before dinner, which he may spend in many
ways;—in reading, at the Union or the Clubs, in shopping,
at that new institution, afternoon tea, or at billiards.
A prudent man will adopt the first plan, and make sure of
one hour while he is able, for his time after "Hall" can
never be called his own. If he spends his time in sauntering
from shop to shop, here purchasing one trifle, and here
another, not asking or thinking of their price, he will be
astonished at their amount when the tradesman sends in
his bill, with a request for payment of this small "account."
Again, billiards is a remarkably fascinating game, and its
votaries at Oxford are naturally numerous. There is often
heard an outcry against this game as the parent of vice and
sin, but this is usually founded on ignorance or prejudice.
No doubt some have been hastened on their downward course
by a love for billiards, but these number only an infini-
tesimal proportion of the whole body of players. Those
who abuse this and such-like games generally confuse the
game and the player. The truth is that the hurtfulness of
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
97
an
this or that game depends entirely upon the latter:
ordinary healthy-minded young man is seldom ruined by
such pursuits, and as seldom will all the lectures in the
world keep a man of a low and depraved mind from
carrying out his designs. At Oxford most of the billiard
tables are private, and even at the public ones University
men always attempt to exclude "outsiders."
The shops of Oxford are, as is well known, a great fea-
ture of the place. All that is needed to make life comfort-
able, every contrivance of luxury, every beautiful product
of science and art, quickly finds its way to a town where
customers are neither few nor considerate of expense.
Oxford tradesmen have an unenviable reputation for ex-
tortionate charges, but they are probably as much sinned
against as sinning. Many men think nothing of keeping
a tradesman waiting for years for his money. Tradesmen
cannot live on hope and promises, and they are forced to
make the possessor of ready cash pay for the delinquencies
of the Skimpoles of the University.
In place of these modes of killing time, an undergraduate
may spend his hour at the Union, or at one of the School
Clubs. These latter have been established for the benefit
of those men who prefer the companionship of their old
schoolfellows to the more mixed society of the Union. The
accommodation here is neither so extensive nor so con-
venient (though less unpleasantly crowded) as at the Union,
and many men are members of both. The Union is a kind
of large literary club, where every opportunity is afforded
to those desirous of improving their minds. Apart from
the debates, which are naturally a very important feature,
every facility is afforded for universal reading. There are
six or seven large rooms apportioned to different branches
of literature, ephemeral or otherwise. In one room are the
daily papers, in another the weekly periodicals, in another
the various magazines. There is a large library where
H
98
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
every work likely to assist the studies, or amuse the leisure
hours of students, may be found, unless dishonest members
have appropriated these volumes to their own use. There
is, too, a writing-room, where paper, envelopes, etc., are
supplied, and letters gratuitously stamped. It is a natural
result that this room should be generally crowded by under-
graduates, whose eager desire is to equal their subscription
by the value of stamps consumed. For membership of the
Union there is required from freshmen an entrance-fee of
£1, which entitles to all the privileges of membership except
voting. The second Term they are proposed, seconded,
and usually elected. The subscription is £1 5s. a Term,
and after nine payments (including the entrance-fee) a man
becomes a life member with no further payments, except a
voluntary terminal charge of 3s. 6d. for stamps. There are
coffee and smoking-rooms, where cigars and cigarettes are
provided at a fixed price, and where coffee is supplied on the
production of tickets which may be procured of the Steward
for 2d. each. The chief officers of the Union are the
President and Treasurer, who are elected every Term. For
these offices there is always a brisk competition, and much
excitement is aroused among the favourers of rival candi-
dates. It is thus evident that the Union presents many
advantages, and, apart from the debating element, plea-
santly supplies a want which would otherwise be severely
felt.1
From a description of these various means of amusement
we are carried to speak of " Hall," as dinner at Oxford is
universally called. The time is usually six o'clock, but at
Christ Church and some other Colleges dinner is an hour
later. Whether this arrangement is convenient, depends
upon the student's ability to read after a full meal. To
those unable to do so, the change is a boon, for it allows
At some Colleges Junior Common Rooms have been established, and
these offer some advantages of the Union and the Wine Club.
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
99
them an extra hour before the brain is clouded. Systems
of dinner vary at different Colleges. In most, dinner con-
sists of "commons," that is to say, a list is handed round
containing the names of the dishes for the day, choice is
made, the order is taken to the kitchen, and a plate, or
"commons" of the given commodity is brought up. This
system has no doubt its advantages, but in two ways it is
somewhat objectionable. A man is entirely dependent
upon the cook for the style of the dinner, and for his par-
ticular allowance; and, secondly, a commons" is often
such a huge plateful that one is disgusted at the amount
and general appearance of the food. Apart from this, the
meal is plentiful and of good quality, and a fair dinner
(meat, pudding, cheese, beer, etc.) may be obtained at most
Colleges for an average of 2s. 9d. In some cases the under-
graduate is charged according to the amount he consumes,
in others there is a fixed charge for dinner.
No wine is, as a general rule, permitted; but at Magdalen
men are "sconced in sherry; and when " sconces have
sufficiently accumulated, the table has wine at dinner. At
some tables soda-water is allowed. There is usually one
day in the week, called "Strangers' Day," when a better
dinner is served, to which men invite their out-College
friends.
It may be said on the whole that dinners at Oxford are
very fair, and that the charges are moderate. In some
cases it is possible to raise the expenses much higher, as
when the men are divided into batches of ten or twelve,
who appropriate a table, and choose an "arbiter edendi"
for the week, to settle the menu for his term of office.
Thus they can regulate their expenses as they please,
while they are not so dependent upon the cook, and can
always insure a good dinner.
1 A" sconce " is a fine imposed upon a man for talking" shop," or
behaving himself otherwise unfittingly at
Hall."
WorM
100
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
The manner in which he spends his after-dinner hours
will be a fair index to a man's character, and consequently
we shall find here the most marked differences.
We have said that to begin reading immediately after
dinner is not only useless but harmful; and we shall find
that most men act upon the excellent and convenient rule
of spending an hour at all events after Hall in some lighter
occupation. What this occupation is to be depends very
much upon the man's purse, and the number and nature of
his friends. If his exchequer be very limited, or his friends
few, he will retire to the privacy of his own rooms and
regale himself on tea, or walk to the Union to smoke and
drink coffee. At several Colleges a set of men join to play
pool every evening for an hour; and College debates and
meetings not seldom occur. A large proportion of men
indulge in those convivial meetings which are called
"wines;" and an undergraduate with a fairly large circle
of acquaintances will generally find his engagements to such
entertainments amount on an average certainly to two a
week.
Many men lay down for themselves a rule to which they
rigidly adhere: a certain hour for work is fixed, and the
moment the hour strikes, all frivolity is thrown aside, and
reading claims their undivided attention for two hours,
when they are ready to embark in any scheme of amuse-
ment proposed. Such a system has great and undeniable-
advantages, but it is one which it will be found extremely
difficult to observe without exception, so many are the dis-
tractions of Oxford life. A reading undergraduate usually
numbers among his friends one or two idle men, whose sole
business in life is to find amusement at the expense of their
neighbours. Such inveterate triflers will be found a great
hindrance to steady reading. They invade the rooms of
their more industrious friends at all hours, seasonable or
unseasonable, refuse to receive a hint that their presence is
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
101
unnecessary, and if a more open remonstrance be uttered,
pour every kind of abuse upon the head of the unfortunate
student, and do not hesitate to apply to him that most op-
probrious of all terms-" smug." These men wander from
room to room in search of rest, and often succeed in spoil-
ing a whole evening's work, or in forcing their friend to
read, for compensation, far into the morning.
It is impossible to imagine the many calls which a man
has upon his time after dinner. There are always some men
who play cards or billiards every night, and who gladly
welcome a pleasant companion; and if a man finds himself
in such a set, escape will be difficult, and reading next to
impossible. At some Colleges a large College "wine" is
given several times a Term, to which all undergraduates
are invited. It may well be imagined that any study after
such an entertainment will be of a dubious character. In
most Colleges, too, there is a wine club, which holds its
meetings once a week. These clubs comprise a dozen or
more of the best known and most sociable men of the
College, and the "wines" are given on some specified day
when a dinner better than usual is provided. To this a
man invites his out-College friends, and takes them to the
"wine" which is held in the rooms of the members alter-
nately at the expense of the club. Thus the necessity of
giving a "wine" oneself is avoided, and this extremely
pleasant and sociable arrangement is the means of bringing
together a large number of men who have never met before ;
and an advance is thus made beyond the common limit of
College Society by introducing new men and new ideas.
After an hour or so, an adjournment may be made to
pool," or whist. Thus another evening is lost to work.
There are often literary institutions, Shakespeare or Sheridan
clubs, which meet once a week in fact, there is every op-
portunity for spending time, both pleasantly and profitably,
at the expense of reading. For it must be remembered that
66
:
102
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
though many of the meetings we have mentioned do not
last long, an unsettled feeling is often caused by them, and
one is easily led to embark in some other scheme of enjoy-
ment at their close.
Oxford wines have seen their best days. Time was when
a big "drunk "
was looked upon as a serious duty incum-
bent upon every right-minded undergraduate. Such wines.
happen once now where they happened three times twelve
years ago. So great has been the growth of civilization
and tea. But still they exist, and when the College boat
has bumped its bumps, or a generous undergraduate has
succeeded after many trials in passing his Mods., the festive
spirits of the College assemble.
There are probably few who have not heard or read of
these jovial meetings, for often has the art of the novelist
given us a picture of their pleasant features, of the air
clouded by many pipes, of the bowls of punch that are
emptied, the old (or new) port which disappears, the stale
jokes that are cracked, the old stories renewed, and the old
"chaff" served up again. But even a Thackeray's skill
cannot make us participate in the intense enjoyment, the
sanguine spirit of healthy youth which, careless of the
future, revels in the present, finds in every little circum-
stance some opportunity for pleasure, and sees in every
hackneyed witticism and ancient story the manifestation
of a genius which merits the most hearty plaudits.
(
Sapias, vina liques, et spatio brevi
Spem longam reseces. Dum loquimur fugerit invida
Aetas carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero."
And then the songs that are sung! How eagerly they
dash to the chorus, and leave the unfortunate performer
high and dry in the middle of his verse! How vociferously
they applaud the stuttering utterances of the timid orator,
and fill the voids caused by his barrenness of words with
hearty demonstrations of their attachment to him as а
66
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
103
jolly good fellow," thrice repeated!
How confidential
they become; how generous in the hospitality they offer
to all!
(C
"" (C
Such are the amusements of undergraduates; and a
pleasant contrast is a wine" to the hard work of past
days. The lives of some men are of course entirely passed
in such occupations. At Oxford, as elsewhere, there are those
who abuse the good gifts of fortune, and gain to themselves
the name of "fast men, roués,” or “rakes." Than
these there are no more despicable creatures in existence.
But there are many men who are perhaps called “fast,” but
who do not really come within our category. They
combine with high animal spirits and love of pleasure a
carelessness of their interests or a passion for show, which
may be follies, but are not crimes. Beneath a "fast"
exterior they conceal a kind and generous spirit, and a
mind which is often disgusted with the wearisome frivo-
lities of their daily life. These men in after years, with
the acquisition of experience, settle down into excellent
husbands, and worthy and exemplary parish priests.
At this point it may not be out of place to note the
changes which the last few years have wrought in Oxford
life. We may say at once that they have been on the
whole beneficial. The great progress which English society
at large has made in the direction of refinement has
naturally had its corresponding effect on the University,
where several causes peculiar to Oxford life have been
at the same time actively at work. The chief of these
causes has been the multiplication of married Tutors.
The monastic restrictions on the marriage of Fellows
have been removed, and Tutors have no longer to face
the awkward dilemma of celibacy or loss of income. The
change has been a violent one, and has involved an almost
complete subversion of the old ideas of College existence.
The reformers of 1877 made no secret of their desire to
104
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
assimilate the life of Oxford to the life of Scotch and
foreign Universities, where the students, without Colleges
and College Tutors, can obtain a cheap education under
the direction of a body of Professors. The Commissioners
therefore removed the restrictions on married Tutors, cut
down the number and emoluments of College Tutors, and
founded and endowed Professorships and Readerships with
a lavish hand. The merits of the latter policy it would
be out of place here to discuss. If one may judge from
evidence furnished in a recent Parliamentary report, the
Professors exert little influence, because they can attract
few hearers.
The effects on social life are more far-reaching. When
half the Tutors live without the College walls, with ex-
traneous interests and ties, not dining in the College
Hall, lecturing at other Colleges, and only attending
their own College when their presence is absolutely re-
quired, the old ideas of corporate existence, and much of
the old esprit de corps must of necessity disappear. The
further grave question as to the maintenance of College
discipline by a decreased resident staff is not to be ignored.
These disadvantages have frankly to be faced. On the
other hand, married Tutors are not necessarily uncon-
scientious. They will look upon the claims of their College
as paramount, and there seems no reason on the face of
things why a married Tutor should be less capable than
a married schoolmaster, or a married clergyman.
This great change has introduced a new and potent
influence into undergraduate life-the influence of women.
It would be easy to be cynical on the mixed effects of
such an influence, but so far these effects have been good.
Those Tutors who take a kindly interest in their pupils
now often ask men to afternoon tea instead of to College
breakfasts or wines. Their wives and daughters are thrown
into close relationships with undergraduates. Visits are
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
105
paid and returned, and the College scout sees his master's
rooms invaded by bands of ladies bent on tea and music.
With the advent of ladies have come more refinement
and greater interest in social and artistic topics. When
men see none but men there is danger of a certain loss
of polish of mind and manners, and if the new system
witnesses a slight growth of frivolity and flirtation, there
is no doubt that afternoon tea is not more immoral than
beer and billiards, or the society of ladies more dangerous
than that of barmaids.
Side by side with this freer social intercourse other
influences tending to refinement have been at work. The
movement in favour of æstheticism has had many (and
not over wise) supporters in Oxford; and now that ex-
aggerated ideas have died away, we certainly find ourselves.
better able to appreciate more varied forms of beauty.
Undergraduates, as a rule, show more taste for art, and
their rooms display ample evidence of this taste.
The theatre too, under Mr. Jowett's régime, has become
a recognized feature in Oxford life, and though there has
been a strong opposition to the introduction of the drama,
it is to be hoped that the movement, if kept within bounds,
may result in an increase of refinement. At all events, the
performances at the new theatre can scarcely demoralize
men more than the entertainments at the old "Vic," where
the "Great Vance," or some other music-hall singer, in an
atmosphere of smoke and vulgarity, was wont to amuse his
votaries with ribald lays. No one will deny that the new
performances are an advance on this state of things.
Popular London pieces are placed on the stage, and under-
graduates, on the production of a written permission from
their parents or guardians, are allowed to get up plays
among themselves.
Music is, too, becoming a prominent feature. Besides the
concerts which are always held in the May Term, Tutors
106
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
and undergraduates join in promoting musical evenings, in
which songs, interspersed with recitations, amuse mixed
audiences of ladies and students. At Balliol Sunday
evening concerts are regularly held, when sacred (and
sometimes secular) music is performed.
The last and not the least important element in Oxford
life is the greater interest shown in public and philan-
thropic questions. This influence will be discussed in the
chapters on the Intellectual and Religious Life, but a
movement which induces the undergraduate to take a real
interest in the welfare and education of the masses cannot
be without its effects on the social life. As art has brought
refinement, so has the new movement brought earnestness
and a stronger sense of responsibility.
University discipline as distinguished from College dis-
cipline is in the hands of the Proctors who are elected
every year in a cycle from the Colleges.
The Proctorial system is naturally the object of much
abuse, but its fundamental conception is surely perfectly
sound. It is absurd to suppose that young men, if left
entirely to themselves, will always preserve that decorum
of manner and soberness of habit which should distinguish
the students of a great University. In the multitudinous
opportunities for excessive pleasure and indulgence, a youth
of high spirits will frequently lose himself, and can only be
kept straight by a strong hand. The Proctors cannot of
course be cognisant of every unfitting action which is per-
petrated within the University, but it is certain that many
are kept from wrong by fear of the punishments which
these officers are able to inflict. It is as absurd to say that..
morality would be as strict in their absence as in their
presence, as it would be to say that the housebreaker and
pickpocket would pursue their avocations with less industry
if the strong arm of the law were not ever threatening
them.
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
107
The Proctors are in their sphere quite autocratic, and
they have the power, if they find a man wrongdoing, of
instantly sending him down for the remainder of the Term,
for one or more Terms, or utterly and for ever. In the
evening they generally begin their rounds about 7.30, and
continue till 11, when they stop all men without cap and
gown, requesting the delinquent to call on them the next
morning. At this interview the usual fine of 5s. is exacted.
In the morning the Proctors have not a definite system of
waylaying men, and only make any chance victims they
may meet in passing from one College to another. They
often search the billiard rooms after 9 P.M., and
any under-
graduate found there is fined 10s. The Proctors are also
supposed to take notice of smoking in the streets, and
driving dogcarts or pony-traps, but these misdemeanours
do not seem to come equally within their cognisance. The
two Proctors are assisted by four Pro-Proctors, and are
served by some officers named "bull-dogs," objects of special
abhorrence to undergraduates.
The morality of Oxford men has, if we may believe those
competent to judge, improved of late years. There is cer-
tainly that amount of doubtful morality which is natural
in a place where two or three thousand young men are
gathered together, a large number of whom have good
health, liberal allowances, and little to do; but when we
take into account the manifold temptations ever present,
we are forced to acknowledge that the general moral tone
is good.
To resume the account of an undergraduate's evening.
From the hours of 9 till 10.30 we suppose that most men
will be found reading. Some will begin an hour earlier,
or study an hour later, but the generality of men wisely
attempt to devote an hour or two hours to intellectual pur-
suits. At the close of their reading they may adjourn
to a neighbour's rooms to finish the evening with the
"
108
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
accustomed pipe and " grog." There are, as has been said,
several days on which no reading after Hall will be accom-
plished. If, after a "wine," a man is able to get through
a fair amount of work, he may consider himself fortunate,
and may be congratulated on the possession of a remarkably
strong head. Generally he will drift with the rest to some
rooms where cards require less intense application, or, if
the gates be not closed for the night, will pay a visit to
some out-College friend. With regard to the first-mentioned
amusement, there is no doubt that this fascinating game, if
it be a daily amusement, in whatever form it be played-
whist, loo, “van," or "Nap."-is apt to consume more time
and money than is advisable for a prudent man. Some
certainly are able to rise from a card-table at a stated hour
to resume their reading, but we fear there are few whose
interest in the game will not inveigle them into re-
maining to the prejudice of their work. However, a
moderate participation in the pleasures of whist will
not greatly disturb reading, nor have a particularly bad
effect upon the moral nature. Many men arrange to
postpone play until ten o'clock, when the proper amount of
work has been done, and this plan, if practicable, should be
generally adopted. With regard to the second point, we
do not think that cards, as played among ordinary Oxford
men, will arouse that gambling spirit which is latent in
many; the stakes are not sufficiently high, nor is the play
sufficiently frequent. Even if this spirit were roused, we
do not think it would find enough scope for its activity to
do much harm; and it is a remarkable fact that, though
games of chance are naturally popular among under-
graduates, there is a great absence of that sordid gambling
fever which so often characterizes the meetings of men of
maturer years. There are, of course, some men who wish
to gain for themselves the title of "fast," among whom
whist at guinea points, or unlimited loo," are favourite
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
109
occupations; but with the average undergraduate cards
neither tend to immorality nor to the ruin of reading.
If a man is often out of College in the evening he will
labour under several disadvantages. His Tutors will not
unnaturally conclude that his absence from College is not
connected with reading, and that therefore his time is wasted.
Again, in his nocturnal peregrinations he is very liable to
meet the Proctor, and thereby incur a fine if he is without
his cap and gown; while, by re-entering College any time
after 9 P.M., he must pay a fine ranging from 1d. to 2s. 6d.,
according to the hour he “knocks in." If he enters after
twelve o'clock, or if at that hour more than once a week,
he is likely to be summoned to an interview with the Dean,
or the head of the College, and to receive from him a severe
lecture, with sometimes the more substantial punishment of
being "gated "—that is, confined to College within certain
hours. To persist in wrongdoing will always be found
useless and inexpedient, whatever be the pleasure derived
from tormenting those set in authority. The heads of a
College exert a despotic power, which they will not suffer
to be trifled with. They possess the most potent means of
insuring obedience to commands by their power of rustica-
tion. If a man, after several warnings, is still contumacious,
they may remove his name from the " Buttery" list, by
which means he is unable to procure food in College, unless
his friends take it out for him in their own names, as they
sometimes do for several days. If he does not now submit,
they may send him down for the rest of the Term, the next
Term, or entirely close his career at College. Of course
the latter punishments are only reserved for the more
flagrant offences of lighting a bonfire in "quad.," screwing
up a Tutor's" oak," or behaviour of similar extravagance.
However, failure to pass the ordinary examinations in
reasonable time will generally cause a removal of the name
from the College books. Different rules hold good at
110
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
different Colleges; but in most cases if a man has not
passed his "Smalls" by the end of the second Term, or
his "Mods."
Mods." by the end of the eighth Term of residence,
he is politely requested to remove himself elsewhere. Such
unfortunate men usually migrate to a Hall, or to the Un-
attached, where they have to drag on a comfortable but
ignoble existence.
We have thus given a brief description of the manner in
which an ordinary undergraduate may pass his day at
Oxford. Of course this method may be varied in many
points. Instead of spending his afternoon on the river he
may walk, play fives, racquets and tennis, ride, or drive.
These two latter amusements are naturally very expensive,
and by a man of limited income should be eschewed.
If a
man keeps a horse at Oxford, his expenses will probably be
nearly £2 a week, or £50 a year; while if he hires for
riding and driving to any extent, he will find that his
terminal bill at the stables will come to a large amount.
The charge for a hack or pony-chaise for the day (or part
of the day) is 10s. 6d. ; and if he indulges in this luxury
three times a week he must not be astonished if his pleasure
has cost him over £20 a Term. For it is not only the bare
hire (or keep) of the horse which is in question: there are
also numerous incidental expenses which only those ex-
perienced in such things can understand. For instance,
when men take a drive they often put up at some hostelry,
and indulge in a dinner which is not generally a cheap
one. There are, too, many tips" connected with this
luxury, which will increase the total considerably. More-
over, for a hunter the charge is two guineas a day, and
it will thus be seen how bills are swelled to the astonish-
ment and disgust of parents. Around Oxford there is fair
opportunity for hunting, and several packs meet within easy
distance, chief among them being the "Heythrop," to which
a strong contingent of undergraduates is usually furnished.
(6
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
111
Those who have had any experience of Oxford life must
have noticed with astonishment the system which prevails
at many Colleges, of splitting up the men into cliques more
or less small. It is only natural that there should be men
who, continually meeting, should in course of time form a
set. Undergraduates have naturally special friends, with
whom they will generally prefer to associate; and as a man
grows "senior," especially will he turn to his particular
friends, and derive more enjoyment from their society, than
among men whose conversation bears on topics which have
become somewhat tedious to him. It is not, however,
necessary on that account to withdraw themselves wholly
from the society of others, and to form an exclusive coterie.
If a precedent for such action is once created, others will
be likely to take the same course, and after some time the
whole College will be separated into various small knots of
men without any tastes or interests in common, and, to all
outward seeming, utter strangers. It is easy to see how
ruinous such a state of things must be. A College is thus
a house divided against itself; there is no accord between
the several sets; each has in view only its own interests or
comforts, and, amid the jealousies and bickerings of the
sectaries, the common weal is entirely hidden. Whenever
a College office becomes vacant, each clique puts forward a
candidate, and a large amount of ill-feeling is naturally en-
gendered. The officers thus lose that public support which
is their due, and which is indispensable for the proper con-
duct of affairs. Men refuse to row, and will not trouble
themselves about cricket; do not call upon, or entertain
the freshmen; each prefers to go his own way, and leaves
everything else to take care of itself. Then the College
Eight is filled up with "unfit" men, the Eleven is never
settled, College meetings are sparsely attended, and the
natural result follows: the Eight goes down, the Eleven
loses its matches, and the College its popularity. The
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various sets accuse each other of being the cause of this
calamity, barely deign to nod as they meet in the "quad.,"
and take every opportunity of abusing their neighbours..
The longer they remain, the more confirmed they become
in their exclusive habits, and often they leave College
without being on speaking terms with a quarter of the
members.
The picture we have drawn is not, with reference to some
of the larger Colleges, an exaggerated one, and the disastrous
result described has always followed. Smaller Colleges, with
far more prudence and public spirit, tacitly set up a rule that
all the undergraduates shall know each other, and, to further
this general acquaintance, encourage public hospitality as
much as possible. Large College breakfasts and "wines" are
given by the men in turn, and each undergraduate is thus
in a manner forced to make the acquaintance of his
neighbour. College matters, too, are not decided by the
arbitrary will of one or two prominent men, but are laid
before the whole College, whose opinion is required. Every-
thing is thus carried on in the light, and although the
necessary union of friends is not prevented, it is not allowed.
to degenerate into a selfish cliquism, which will prove the
temporary ruin of the College.
"Let us take a walk down Fleet Street," or rather let us
stroll down "the High,"-that unrivalled street,—with St.
Mary's steeple looking down upon us, past the pinnacles of
All Souls, and the barbaric splendour of Queen's, and the
sober majesty of University, and at the end the pleasant.
Cherwell, and Magdalen's matchless tower.
Here will be seen one man rushing home from a lecture
to his luncheon, his arm full of books, his academicals
flying in the wind, and his head crammed full of the
newest conceits concerning Virgil or Plato. There are
two dilettanti, sauntering gracefully arm in arm, followed
by a pair of pugs or spaniels of the purest breed. Their
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
113
clothes are cut excellently well; everything about them is
quiet, and in good taste, inviting, not compelling, attention.
They themselves peer through eye-glasses at the newest
picture in this window, or the prettiest trifle in that, and
eye with easy condescension all who meet them. Following
them comes a freshman, uncomfortably prim, with cap and
gown in spotless condition, and evidently proud of his
elegant attire. He has been invited to lunch with an old
schoolfellow, and, not wishing to transgress the rules of the
University, has donned the official garb. As he passes along,
he enters a tailor's, orders a hat, and gives the name of his
College with great unction, firmly insisting upon im-
mediate payment, in accordance with his resolution of
avoiding debt. Alas! glance at his account two years later
in the same tradesman's ledger!
Next come three fast men, in coats and trousers of
enormous and alarming patterns, with all about them of
the newest and most advanced style. They have spent the
last hour in the stables where their horses are kept, and
have been regaling themselves with beer and choice stories.
As they "swagger" along they leer and wink at every
female who passes them, and are greeted with loud shouts
from noisy friends in the window opposite, whence too comes
the “tootle-tootle" of a post-horn, blown by some under-
graduate who considers this amusement to be the height of
wit. Behind them race half-a-dozen boating men bound for a
big lunch, to which, with its slang of the barge and the water,
they look forward, after a hard morning's reading.
From this shop creeps slowly a man with downcast head,
who has been trying his best to soothe the impatience of a
large creditor. From this shop steps lightly forth one,
with happy face, who has succeeded in convincing a
credulous tradesman of the certain demise of an ambiguous
aunt, to whose wealth he is left heir.
Here, passing, are grey-haired dons, majestic and serene,
I
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and here young tutors, proudly conscious of their new
position, intent upon impossible reforms, or revolving sharp
witticisms for common-room conversation. There are the
velvet sleeves of the Proctor, followed by his satellites ;
and there tradesmen who have been vainly making calls by
appointment upon wary undergraduates. And so they
pass, the ever-changing, never-changing elements of
Oxford life.
In this chapter it would have been out of place to do
more than skim the surface of Oxford life. Of its intel-
lectual side much will be found in the succeeding chapter,
and though the social and the intellectual life can scarcely
be divided, and act and react upon each other, it has seemed
advisable to give to each a separate treatment. Here we
have descended from the lofty level, whence we ought
perhaps to view the glorious possibilities of an Oxford
career, and have mingled in the careless throng of young
barbarians. It may be that the picture has been too
gross, and that we have allowed too much space and
sympathy to the commonplace aims of the average under-
graduate. It may be so-but in justice let us remember
that it is not given to every man to be touched by the
beauty and wisdom of fine literature, or rise to the serene
height of a fellowship. Nor is the life of an under-
graduate, such, as we have described, necessarily incon-
sistent with intellectual progress. Whether a man
achieves success in the schools or not, he will have learnt
much at Oxford which is more valuable than mere book-
learning. No one can live free from the influences that
surround him, and the influences of Oxford are unrivalled.
The glory and romance of her past, her great work in
the present, her fine old buildings, where each grey stone.
has its history, appeal with irresistible force to the dullest
soul. To her sons she is alma mater—the wise, loving
mother of their fresh young days. Who is not proud of
THE SOCIAL LIFE.
115
her? Who will not do her reverence? Who recalls not
with pathetic memories his College days-his triumphs or
his follies? Who will not try, in some small way, to
do honour to his University? Let us all re-echo in our
minds and lives the fine apostrophe of one of Oxford's
most honoured sons, "Beautiful city! so valuable, so
lovely, so unravaged by the fierce intellectual life of our
century, so serene! And yet, steeped in sentiment as she
lies, spreading her gardens to the moonlight, and whispering
from her towers the last enchantments of the Middle Age,
who will deny that Oxford, by her ineffable charm, keeps
ever calling us nearer to the true goal of all of us, to the
ideal, to perfection? ""
A. M. M. S.
¹ Matthew Arnold, Essays on Criticism, Preface, p. xiii.
CHAPTER V.
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE.
THE intellectual life to be here treated of is only the
undergraduate life. Intellectual life at Oxford, in
its widest sense, is a problem beyond the reach of the
present writer. It would be a noble task indeed, for one
intimately acquainted with Oxford common-rooms and
University society, to set forth the views there promulgated
about the great social and political problems of the day,
or even about those which specially concern Oxford her-
self, such as the future of women's education, the goal to
which examinations are hurrying us, the chances of Non-
conformity obtaining a footing in Oxford, or the prospects
of a flourishing Medical School. Such dissertations, how-
ever, are beyond the scope of the present chapter.
Oxford is happy in that many phases of her social life
deserve to be called intellectual as well. Nothing in life is
more pleasant than this intermixture of the two; and thus,
although the quiet and uneventful tenor of Oxford life
rarely supplies the materials for a story, yet there is a
great charm in reading the College life of our greatest
men, such as the rambles of Macaulay and his companions.
round Cambridge, or how Tennyson revisited the rooms
where his loved and lost friend dwelt, and remembered
how once they held debate there. And although there be
nothing intellectual about a row on the river, or a wine
party, yet joining in such amusements need not argue a
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE.
117
distaste for higher pursuits. When Tennyson, in the
passage just referred to, finds in his friend's old rooms-
"The noise
Of songs and clapping hands, and boys
That crashed the glass and beat the floor,"
we may feel the pathos of the situation, but we need not
infer that College life has sunk to a lower level since his
time. The same boys, who were probably rejoicing at the
success of their College boat (for, be it remembered, it
was during the races, a time of licensed Saturnalia, that
the poet revisited his college, and that it was most likely a
bump-supper, if that be the proper Cambridge name,
which he disturbed) might meet again the next day for far
more intellectual converse. There are certainly many in
Oxford who hold that "rowing and reading" is a good
realization of the Greek "music and gymnastic," and many
Colleges, which point with triumph to the number of their
first-class men who have rowed in "the eight." In the
rooms of many a man of high mental powers, you may see
fastened up as a trophy a huge and somewhat unsightly
oar, with which he helped to row his College boat on to
victory, or a shining row of pewter and silver cups, won
on the river or the running ground, while from another
corner of the same room gleam richly-bound books, blazoned
with College arms, and awarded for some triumph in the
schools.
Much might be written to this effect, but it is not so
much the blending of the distinctly social with the intel-
lectual life which we wish to emphasize, as that many
social pursuits partake also of an intellectual character.
Such are the debating societies, with the Union at their
head, and such also are musical societies, chess clubs,
societies for reading Shakespeare, and others, among which
must be included the latest development, that of amateur
dramatic performances. Of many of these pursuits, more
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will be said presently. It may be that their multiplication
tends to produce idleness or relaxed work in some cases,
but it is none the less true that they are intellectual
influences.
Before giving any detailed picture of Oxford intellec-
tual life, it may be as well to notice some charges which
are constantly brought against the Oxford system. Thus,
it has been questioned whether, for the majority of under-
graduates, there is any intellectual life at all. Under-
graduates, according to these critics, pass a very enjoyable
life of amusement, consisting of a long holiday, scarcely
broken by the slight labour of getting up enough facts to
pass their examinations. First, however, it may be re-
marked that these examinations are by no means so very
easy, as is shown by the number of men "ploughed." And
many pass-men get interested in their work, while few can
wholly escape the intellectual influences round them. And
next it must be remembered that pass-men are not the
whole of Oxford. Even if the class-men were inferior in
numbers, it might well be maintained that they are the
most important and characteristic part of Oxford. But
the real state of the case is, that the numbers of pass-men
and class-men are very nearly equal,¹ a result which
1 The total number of candidates in the six Honour Final Schools for
Trinity Term, 1886, was 410. These schools are held once a year. The
total number of candidates for the two corresponding examinations in
the Pass Final Schools, held in November, 1885, and June, 1886, may
be fairly reckoned to be 421. This does not allow for those men who
were "ploughed" in November and tried again in June, so that honour-
men will probably number rather more than pass-men. It is difficult to
calculate the exact number of pass-men, because of the examination
regulations. Every pass-man takes up three subjects for his Finals,
which may be taken, if he pleases, in separate terms. Consequently
his name usually appears on the list more than once. The above total
is obtained by reckoning a man's name once, twice or three times,
according to the number of subjects he is taking up, and dividing the
sum by three.
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE.
119
gives a conclusive and satisfactory answer to the above
attack.
Considering the thousands of men who look back with
gratitude to their Oxford days, and regard their University
with deep affection for the great gifts of knowledge and
culture which she has bestowed on them, it is ridiculous
that such attacks should be made. Still, as they are made,
and command a wide audience, it is advisable to say a few
words on the point.
But, although it is perfectly absurd to maintain that
intellectual life at Oxford is an unknown and possibly
non-existent quantity, yet the further question remains,
whether the system of Oxford and the tone of her life may
not tend to foster some of those ugly growths which cling
round learning as round every good thing. Oxford is the
head-quarters of the examination system, and has been
freely accused of producing all the evils which are attri-
buted to that, and, indeed, to any other system. The attacks
upon her may be conveniently summed up under four
heads. She is arraigned in various quarters as producing
superficiality, pedantry, over-work and over-specialization.
Such evils are undoubtedly always exemplified where
education is carried on on a large scale, and one of the
great educational problems we have to face is how they
can be minimized. But that any one of them has decidedly
infected Oxford, we believe quite untrue.
The superficiality complained of is two-fold. The first
arises from the idleness and want of interest shown by
many pupils, who only cram as much of their subjects as
will just secure them their degree, and then forget them
as soon as possible. We believe that the magnitude of this
evil in Oxford has been much over-rated; but, at any rate,
she is making strong efforts to shake it off.
A large
portion of the remodelling of examinations ("tinkering "
as it is profanely called), which is going on at present, has
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for its object the banishment of "cram," and the substitu-
tion of intelligent study. However, it may be doubted
whether the nature of the average pass-man will undergo
much change in this respect.
The second kind is, perhaps, more characteristic of
Oxford, and harder to deal with. It is the superficiality
of the man who makes a great show with small intellectual
wares, who treats books like noblemen, to quote Douglas
Jerrold's witticism, that is, he learns their titles, and brags
of their acquaintance. There can be no doubt that Oxford
education in general, and the Litteræ Humaniores School
in particular, tend in certain cases to encourage this sort of
shallowness. Some men aim at learning just enough of a
subject to enable them to write a neat little essay on it, in
which they may adroitly profess a thorough knowledge of
the whole, and pass off as original information gathered at
second or third hand. Perhaps men of this type rarely
produce a good enough impression on examiners to obtain
first-class honours, for in the Litteræ Humaniores School
deep as well as wide reading is necessary in many subjects;
but there are many 2nd and 3rd class men who, in ordinary
conversation at least, can apparently hold their own with-
out much real knowledge. However, it is perhaps too
much to hope that, in a place where learning is thought
highly of, we can ever be free from the affectation of it.
Of pedantry in Oxford happily little need be said. If
by pedantry we are to understand that sort of owl-like
application to a few subjects, which renders the student
incapable of recognizing the importance of any others, and
often unfits him for ordinary life, such pedantry hardly
seems the fault of the present age. The multiplicity of
subjects of interest is such that hardly any student can
ignore the importance of other studies than his own.
Neither is learning any longer regarded a disqualification
for other pursuits. It is not so long ago, to quote a typical
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE.
121
story, that a lady, after dancing with a gentlemanly,
undergraduate, was surprised to hear that he had taken a
first-class, and wondered that he was the same as every-
body else. Nobody would feel this surprise now. Perhaps
this was at the end of a period when the typical reading-
man was supposed to be like Mr. Sloe, slightly sketched
in "Verdant Green," who "teas all day long to keep him-
self awake for reading," and was considered by Mr.
Bouncer likely to "blow himself up with gunpowder tea,
before he could take his double-first." Sometimes there
appears in the streets of Oxford a figure which makes us
wonder if the race of pedants is after all extinct, but, if
existent, they must be a small army.
Similar observations may be made about over-work.
That the pressure of competitive examinations has pro-
duced many instances of breakdown, and even of premature
death, is sadly true. Of course celebrated doctors, by
collecting these cases, are able to read us terrible lessons,
and prophesy the speedy decay of Englishmen, if the
abominable system be kept up. Few, however, really
believe that the case is made out, when they consider the
small proportion of these breakdowns to the total number
of examinees; and Oxford has a small share of whatever
blame there be, for the variety and versatility of her life is
the best known antidote to the evil. Moreover, a system
where all who reach a certain standard can get first-class
honours, and where the success of one does not necessarily
mean the failure of the other, does not stimulate to such
break-neck competition.
As regards over-specialization, we doubt if much can be
made of the charge. It is sometimes said that men who
are in for a particular examination, often seem to have no
special interest outside it, but this may mean little more
than that most of the Honour Schools are exacting, and
leave little time for multifarious reading. As nobody would
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wish to see first-class honours gained too easily, the chance
of this evil must clearly be run. The examination boards
seem, as a rule, not afraid of it, for many of the changes
tend to specialize the subjects read. It is fair to add that
a large party still exists, though in a minority, which looks
with disfavour on specialization, for fear that it may
destroy the peculiar merits of Oxford teaching.
On the whole, it is a fair conclusion to say that Oxford
aims at the Aristotelian mean in these matters, with
considerable success. For it must always be remembered
that the very freedom allowed to undergraduates, one of
the finest traits of Oxford, renders the teaching body less
able to check such intellectual weeds.
After thus vindicating the claims of Oxford to a true
and healthy intellectual life, we will now attempt to de-
scribe it. The subject may possibly be best approached by
considering the intellectual influences, official and non-
official, brought to bear on undergraduates, and the way in
which they work. This will afford us a general sketch of
the intellectual life, supplementary details of which will
be given afterwards under their respective headings.
In the first place, something must be said about the
tutors, a difficult and delicate subject, for in dealing with
so eminent a body, criticism requires courage, while praise
may be deemed superfluous.
The position of a successful Oxford tutor, able to influ-
ence by his teaching the picked intellects among the youth
of England, is one of the noblest conceivable.
There are
many such; but the qualifications are high for such a task,
and certainly there are many who either only partly succeed,
or wholly fail. The responsibility must be largely borne
by the system, now to some extent superseded, of electing
to tutorial fellowships by examination only. Obviously
the possession of knowledge does not imply teaching power;
and, what is more, the selected candidate was almost always
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE.
123
a young man who had just taken his degree, and conse-
quently had no experience in teaching. This experience.
had to be acquired at the expense of possibly several
generations of undergraduates. Moreover, the work is
not of a character to test a man's teaching power much.
The popularity of his lectures, or the reverse, and the
success of his pupils in the schools, are the only criteria,
and neither are particularly good ones.
It follows that a
tutor may teach for years without any good test of the
efficiency of his teaching. A better plan has been adopted
in some instances lately, that of selecting tutors among
schoolmasters and others of tested merit in teaching. Of
course in selecting by this method, another danger has to
be guarded against, namely, lest the newly-elected tutors
should have imbibed too much of the pedagogue spirit, and
treat the undergraduates like school boys. In fact, the
selection of tutors is a most difficult task, since their
qualifications must be so various, and their position with
regard to undergraduates is so peculiar. For instance, the
following qualifications may be mentioned as most essential
to good teaching, and yet rarely found with high intellectual
gifts, namely, the ability to comprehend the difficulties of
dull pupils, and the patience to thoroughly explain them.
It is a frequent complaint of pass-men that their tutors will
not, or cannot, come down to the level of their minds.
Every undergraduate, besides having to attend a certain
number of lectures, has a special tutor to whom he takes
work. Happy those who are under a first-rate man! In
his earlier years at Oxford, a man has often a shy, school-
boy feeling toward his tutor, but in his last year of residence
the barrier often melts away, and the relations between
teacher and pupil become quite unrestrained. The benefit
thus derived is often incalculable. The undergraduate
finds himself admitted to terms of friendship and even
familiarity; while the reverence for what may be a cele-
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brated name merges in a personal liking. How well all
who have enjoyed this privilege remember the familiar
nickname, which somehow did not detract from the
reverence felt; the cheerful half-hours, which were looked
forward to as a pleasure, not as a toil; the wit and learning
that were then shown us; the kindly criticism and
encouragement! Many an old Oxford man will treasure up
these things as among his most precious memories. Many
a man, when he leaves Oxford, has gained in his tutor a
true friend, whose advice, guiding hand, and ready help,
will be of use to him all his life.
One of the great changes introduced by the Com-
missioners of 1877 has been the creation of a large body
of married Fellows. This has considerably altered the
conditions of College life. Married Fellows and tutors are,
of necessity, non-resident, for, though the experiment of
building houses for married Fellows is now being tried at
New College, yet want of room makes such an arrange-
ment impossible in almost all the other Colleges. While,
therefore, a certain number of Fellows are unmarried and
resident, the greater part are not. What effects this change
will have on the relations between dons and undergraduates
it is too soon to foresee, though some critics are already
condemning it, and extolling the past system for virtues
largely imaginary.
Lectures are the next important feature of intellectual
Oxford which demands attention. Formerly lectures were
divided into public, which were delivered by Professors,
for any members of the University who might wish to
attend, and private, which were confined to undergraduates
of the Colleges at, which they were delivered, except on
payment of a special fee. About a dozen years ago, a
combination system of lectures was formed, several Col-
leges arranging that all the lectures at each one of them
should be open to members of all those Colleges. This
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE.
125
has now expanded into a vast system of inter-collegiate
lectures, the ramifications of which are difficult to trace,
but which practically throws open almost all lectures, with
very few exceptions, to all undergraduates, irrespective of
the particular College to which they may happen to belong.
Theoretically therefore, a man has now the choice of
attending lectures in almost any College he pleases, and a
complete list is published in the "Gazette" for that
purpose. But practically the system works as follows.
Most of the lectures are only attended by the men of the
College at which they are delivered, whose attendance at a
certain number of College lectures is compulsory. But
the more prominent and successful lecturers have their class-
rooms thronged by a crowd of men from all Colleges,
voluntarily attending these lectures in addition to those of
their own College, and are thus practically, though non-
officially, raised to the rank of University teachers. Thus
the success of a lecture may be judged from the number of
undergraduates attending it, who usually apply to it the
plain straight-forward test, whether its matter is directly
"useful for the schools" or not. There is a general im-
patience of lectures not conforming to this standard, and
if a tutor ventures to give his lectures a wider range, he
will probably find the greater part of his voluntary audience
rapidly disperse. Moreover, any want of clearness, or
defect in style, will soon thin the lecture-room. There
are, of course, lectures in which students find it desir-
able to take rapid notes at the time during the lecture,
and then spend another hour in deciphering them; such,
for instance, was often the case with the lectures of
the late Professor T. H. Green. This, however, is only
done when the known value of the lecture outweighs any
inconvenience caused by a too rapid delivery, or too great
condensation of matter. As a general rule, men do not
care to attend lectures in order to pick up what they can
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readily get in other ways. Thus lectures on Greek and
Latin authors are often regarded as superfluous by the
pupils, for little can usually be added to the excellent notes
in the editions now used. In reading for Finals lectures
are more useful and interesting, especially those on the
more general subjects in the Litteræ Humaniores School.
Now that the term "private lecture
private lecture" is practically
meaningless, the term "public lecture" is reserved for
such among Professors' lectures as are of a popular cha-
racter, and delivered to a mixed audience. These are a
special feature of Oxford life, and deserve a detailed ac-
count. Apart from these it is doubtful whether the lectures
of Professors, the official University (as distinguished from
the College) teachers, are very successful. The number
of Professors was largely increased by the Commissioners
of 1877, but the system has had no time to take root, and
it is hard to see how it can do so. For the examinations
dominate Oxford so completely that the men have usually
no time nor inclination to attend lectures which are not
useful for the schools. While, therefore, those among
Professors whose lectures come under this category can
command an audience, the majority secure but a thin at-
tendance, a result due in no way to any inadequacy or want
of interest in the lectures themselves. Hence the Commis-
sioners have been reproached because while striving to do
away with idle Fellows, they have created a class of idle
Professors. In this matter, as in many others, Oxford is
evidently at present in a transition state. It should be
fairly stated, however, that the work of Professors is con-
sidered to be research quite as much as teaching.
Many of the public lecturers draw large audiences, owing
partly to the popular character of their subjects, and partly
to the fame of some of the lecturers. Such are the lectures
of the Professors of Poetry and Fine Art. In these lectures
undergraduates have the privilege of being directly in-
structed by some of the greatest minds of the age. Thus
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE.
127
many generations of Oxford men have been able to listen
to Ruskin, and the present generation can hear Palgrave,
Freeman, and Herkomer. It must, however, be confessed
that this privilege is not always used as it might be. The
rd times for the lectures, which are usually delivered
or 3.0 P.M., partly account for this. Reading men
Hot give up their afternoon's exercise, nor idle men
their afternoon's amusement. However, their place is
largely filled up by the Oxford ladies, who always throng
in crowds to any public lecture of a popular character.
Their presence is not always approved of. Ruskin once
declared in a lecture that the undergraduates ought to be
his only hearers, and the undergraduates present somewhat
ungallantly applauded. But certainly Ruskin had some
reason, for he could always draw crowds of men to his
lectures, and it was hard for a man to find himself shut out
of a lecture-room, because all the space was taken up by
ladies, who only attend by courtesy.
Ruskin's power over young Oxford is a subject worth a
short digression. His school of immediate disciples was
small, though enthusiastic; but in many ways his influence
reached far. His lectures always rivetted the attention by
their strangeness, equally with their eloquence. "I always
wish to interest you," he once said, "and sometimes to
shock you." In this he certainly did not fail. While his
eccentricities furnished us with amusement, the beauty and
grandeur of many of his thoughts have sunk deep into
many minds. One project of his will be often remembered
with a smile. He used to deplore the labour wasted on
unproductive amusements, such as rowing, and tried to
substitute for them the useful exercise of road-making.
Under his auspices several men actually commenced repair-
ing a road at Hincksey, two miles from Oxford, and during
that time many undergraduates walked out and took a turn
at the pickaxe and shovel. But the project came to nothing
and the road is still a muddy spot in a very miry walk.

128
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
The lectures on Poetry and Art are often delivered in the
Sheldonian Theatre, which provides room for any audience,
however large. The actual audience rarely fills up a large
space of it, and is often smaller than the lectures deserve.
In Poetry the chair has been lately filled by Matthew
Arnold, Sir F. Doyle, J. C. Shairp, and F. T. Palgrave.
Many will remember the pleasure they received from Doyle's
lectures. Shairp's were felt by many to be disappointing,
and hardly worthy of his fame. The chair is at present
worthily filled by the compiler of the "Golden Treasury."
Freeman's historical lectures always attract a large audience.
His peculiar views, often so dogmatically announced, excite
much comment, and not seldom some amusement.
On examinations, as an intellectual influence brought to
bear on men, so much will be said in the following chapters,
that the subject may be passed over now.
The preceding heads, Tutors, Professors, Lectures, and
Examinations may be called the official influences of Oxford.
But still more important and interesting are those special
influences which work less directly, such as the manner of
life and tone of thought of a man's College friends, or of
the general environment of Oxford.
It is sometimes objected to Oxford that her degrees are
won too easily, and that she ought rather to aim at the
standard of London University. To this it has been con-
sidered a sufficient answer that residence in Oxford is in
itself an important part of education. The air of Oxford,
intellectually speaking, we believe to be wholesome and
bracing. Though some of the phenomena are singular and
perhaps repellent, yet the whole tone of thought leads to
toleration and broadness of view. All opinions are subjected
to the test of reason, and all who hold opinions strongly
will find themselves expected to justify them by reasons,
and will not be allowed to shelter themselves under the
plea of authority, or the universal practice of the world.
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE.
129
On the other hand, those who have a sophistical and para-
doxical turn will delight in finding reasons for the most
extravagant opinions, of the truth of which they believe
they have convinced themselves. Accordingly there is
scarcely any craze or extravagance of thought which does
not meet with disciples in Oxford. This is an amusing
feature, and has been stereotyped by Matthew Arnold's well-
known quotation, There are our young barbarians all at
play." The absurdities of the Oxford æsthetes are a recent
illustration of this. Another noteworthy feature is the un-
practical tendency of much of Oxford thought. Based as
it often is on pure reason, it fails by neglecting some
practical aspect of the question. This is specially notice-
able in political thought, where Oxford often exhibits im-
patience of the working anomalies which are bound up
with English life. From another point of view, indeed,
such an attitude may be considered a wholesome corrective
to the lazy acquiescence of the ordinary British citizen.
The way in which all these influences work on the mind
of the average undergraduate has often been described.
The process usually gone through is that of every newly-
awakened mind, and may be found written large in the
history of every people. To the age of faith when opinions
are accepted on authority follows an age of active inquiry
and often doubt. Then finally the doubts resolve them-
selves, and an age of reason follows, when opinions are
held from mature conviction. Many Oxford men go through
this complete process during their three or four years'
residence. The freshman usually is a schoolboy, who has
taken his opinions on authority, who has possibly strong
religious beliefs, instilled by early training, and who believes
that all Liberals must be cads. Arrived at Oxford, he is
at once surprised and possibly bewildered to find free dis-
cussion on all subjects, to hear opinions he considers certain
called in question, and beliefs he regards as sacred made
K
130
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
matter for argument. He finds himself easily worsted,
when he tries to maintain his own opinions, and feels that
he must think and reason for himself. So far the way is
the same for all, but here it divides into three paths. Some
few, convinced of the truth of their opinions, hold firmly
and fearlessly to them, fight down difficulties as they arise,
and leave Oxford with convictions more deeply and firmly
established. Others, carried away by the intoxication of
new ideas, abandon their convictions at once and join what-
ever band of thinkers they are most attracted to. These
two classes, however, are the minority. In most cases,
where the intellect has been awakened, there follows a
period of doubt and eager inquiry, not in many cases a
stormy and troubled time, but rather a time when the
mind begins to rejoice in its newly-found power, and is
inclined to skim rather too lightly over questions, and to
decide them off hand. Many of us, when we look back at
that period in our lives, can feel some regret that
"That time is past,
、
And all its aching joys are now no more,
And all its dizzy raptures."
Oxford will be blamed by few because in some of her
pupils this state of doubt and suspended judgment becomes
permanent. Many men, indeed, who leave Oxford in this
state of mind, soon find settled convictions when once
engaged in the real battle of life. Others, again, more for-
tunate still, have their doubts resolved and convictions re-
settled before leaving their Alma Mater. The influences
brought to bear upon a man in his last year are often
highly beneficial; especially if he be reading for the School
of Litteræ Humaniores, in which case the noblest thoughts
of the best writers, ancient and modern, on the highest sub-
jects, will be forced on his attention. And so a man, when
leaving Oxford, will often have already learnt to smile at
his intellectual extravagances during his earlier years there.
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE.
131
It remains to give an account of the position in Under-
graduate Oxford, of various branches of thought, such as
Philosophy, Politics, Literature, and the Drama.
Perhaps the word Philosophy would be associated with
Oxford teaching more readily than any other. Many men
can look back to the time when, as undergraduates, they
took an interest, now no longer kept up, in those world-old
problems, always to be fought over, and never to be solved.
Others, again, may recall the time when an interest was
awakened, which has lasted, and given them life-long food
for reflection. The latter band, however, will be naturally
small, for Philosophy is an exacting mistress, and demands
more time and brain-work than most men have to spare.
Oxford thus seems identified with Philosophy. And yet,
we believe, it constitutes a very small part of Oxford life.
Teachers are few. Those Colleges may be deemed fortunate
which number three or four philosophers among their
teaching staff. Again, there is no special examination in
philosophy; it only forms a part of the Littera Human-
iores School, and many have taken honours, and even high
honours, in that school, who have scarcely stepped over the
threshold of the temple of philosophy. Yet the few who
have done so are those to whom Oxford has given of her best.
The method of teaching always has this great character-
istic. The student is taken first to the ancient philo-
sophers. He is taught to read and appreciate Plato and
Aristotle, and thence he is led down the stream of history
to modern times. It is a noticeable feature of Oxford
work that she draws no line between ancient and modern
thought, but encourages the study of both, side by side.
Soon among the students the usual division takes place.
Led by the bent of their own minds, and the guiding hands
of their tutors, they fall into one or other of the two great
camps into which philosophy is divided. This division is
one far more easily felt than accurately stated, and, with-
132
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
out attempting to be very exact, we may adequately describe
it by saying that some follow the lead of Locke and Hume,
others that of Kant. Ten or a dozen years ago, the former
school was in the ascendant, and Mill its great authority.
Now, largely owing to the teaching and personal influence
of the late Professor T. H. Green, of Balliol, the tide has
set strongly in the other direction. It must not, however,
be supposed that Mill is entirely dethroned. His works,
especially his "Logic," are still recognized textbooks, and
questions are set largely from them. However, in answer-
ing these the student is expected to show himself able to
criticize Mill's views.
The philosophy of Professor Green, perhaps the most
potent intellectual influence in Oxford during the last fif-
teen years, deserves a fuller notice. It is only a short time
ago that Mr. Mark Pattison told us, in his " Memoirs," of
the downfall of Mill and sensationalism, and the growing"
influence of Green, who "brought Kant and Hegel to
Oxford." The late Rector of Lincoln was a hostile critic,
and his statement, though true, is, taken by itself, mis-
leading. Green's philosophy is not simply a reproduction
of German thought; it is much better described as a
criticism, or, better still, as a reconstruction of the tradi-
tional English philosophy, of which Locke, Hume, and Mill
are representative names, in the light furnished by the
foreign systems of Kant and Hegel. Not to dwell long on
matters which have little interest for the general reader, we
may yet point out how such a criticism demanded, alike
from friend and foe, a survey of the whole field of modern
philosophy; and why it is, therefore, that in the Oxford of
to-day the interest in metaphysical speculation is so much
wider and keener than it was. Nevertheless, had Professor
Green been no more than a metaphysician, his influence,
great as it was, could never have extended beyond a com-
paratively narrow circle. That which attracted young
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE.
133
Oxford about him was the union in him of the speculative
and the practical; the conviction, which inspires and in-
vigorates his philosophy, that to conceive the ideal intel-
lectually, and to realize it actually, amid the world in which
we live, are but different aspects of one and the same
endeavour. To such teaching, set forth as it was in a life
of singular devotion and simplicity, may be most truly
traced that great wave of philanthropic interest, which in
our generation has swept over Oxford with such beneficial
effect. Nothing is more surprising to old Oxford men
than the interest which undergraduates now take in the
many practical questions which connect themselves with
religion, morality, or politics. Though there are many
parties and many methods, the leaders of nearly all would have
to confess that a large part of their inspiration came from
"Green of Balliol." It is sad to remember that a life in
which so much had been done, and so much more was pro-
mised, should have prematurely closed in middle age.
A Philosophical Society, consisting partly of younger
graduates, partly of undergraduates, has lately been
started. The members meet in one another's rooms; a
paper is read on some philosophical subject, and then dis-
cussion follows. The Society has been too lately started
for its influence to be marked, but the experiment is an
interesting one, and deserves to succeed.
Turning to the subject of Politics, we find very different.
views, both far from the truth, current about the tendencies
of Oxford. To some she appears the incarnation of rigid
Conservatism; to others, a hot-bed of violent Radicalism.
From the point of view of an election agent, Oxford, of
course, presents an unbending Conservative front. This,
as is well known, is due to the number of non-resident
M.A.'s, who are mainly country clergymen. But, among
the resident M.A.'s, it is by no means certain that the Con-
servatives are in the majority. At all events, all opinions
134
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
are represented, all discussed, and all tolerated. Oxford is
safe from the crystallization of habit and opinion which
grows so often on the country clergyman, resulting in an
unbending political dogmatism. However, many politi-
cians, neglecting these obvious facts, have considered, or
chosen to consider, Oxford a mighty stronghold of prejudice.
But this is a digression from undergraduate Oxford.
The opposite view, that Oxford is extremely Radical, is due
mainly to the energy with which the advanced section of
undergraduates, a very small minority, express their
opinions. As the great body of undergraduates who come.
to Oxford from school are traditional Conservatives, it is
natural that those who are converted to the opposite
political faith should be the most eager politicians, and
have most to say in defence of their opinions.' It must
not, however, be understood that all the Conservatism of
Oxford is traditional and unreasoning. A large part of it
must be so, but there are plenty of men who are Conserva-
tives from reasoned conviction. Conservatism has always
been a strong force in young Oxford, and at present it
seems to be steadily increasing, grounding itself on zeal for
the Church and the Empire. Certainly it has a stronger
hold than ten years ago, when Liberalism was the creed
of most clever undergraduates, and Conservatism was rather
regarded the sign of an inferior intellect. Such specula-
tions will not seem trivial to the reader who remembers
that Oxford is the nurse of many of our future statesmen.
The Debating Societies provide several outlets for political
energy. Foremost of these is the celebrated Union, which
1 "By the way, from having been an ardent Tory in his freshman's
year, his principles took a sudden turn afterwards, and he became a
Liberal of the most violent order. He avowed himself a Dantonist, and
asserted that Louis the Sixteenth was served right." (Pendennis, vol. i.
chap. 18). University life has changed much for the better since
Thackeray wrote of it; but the leading features of his vigorous sketch
are as true as ever.
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE.
135
has a history of more than sixty years, and numbers among
its Presidents Archbishop Tait, Bishop Wilberforce, Car-
dinal Manning, Rt. Hon. W. E. Gladstone, Rt. Hon. G. J.
Goschen, Lord Dufferin, Lord Sherbrooke, and several
other names nearly as famous. The Union is partly a
literary club, partly a debating society. Like all long-
established institutions, it has periodical ups and downs.
At present it is rather " down." The debates for the last
year or two have certainly not been of a high order, but
they now show signs of reviving, and are likely to become
as popular as ever.
Then
A Union debate is a highly characteristic Oxford scene,
and deserves a detailed description. The Debating Hall is
large and new. Benches run down both sides of it, and
when the house is crowded, the lower half is entirely taken
up by cross-benches. The debate is not organized as a
Parliament, so that the benches are occupied without dis-
tinction of parties. At the centre of the upper end is the
President's chair. A gallery runs above, to which ladies
are admitted. During the day the room is used as a
reading-room, but every Thursday night, at eight, the news-
papers are cleared away, and the room rapidly fills.
the President and other officers enter, and cries of "Order,
order," are raised against those members who have neg-
lected to remove their hats. Before the debate, there
comes what is known as private business, which affords a
recognized opportunity for the younger members to try to
show off their wit. The President gravely inquires whether
any honourable member has any question to ask of the
officers of the Society with regard to their official duties.
Then comes some fun. One member will demand, with
a voice quavering with emotion, when the Treasurer is
going to rise to the level of the age and supply reply post-
cards for the members' use. Another will ironically sug-
gest that the President cannot be aware that the clock was,
136
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
on Monday, a minute and a half behind time. The power
of scoring-off these would-be jokers, and turning the laugh
against them, is much thought of. When this is over, the
real debate begins. The mover of a question is allowed
half-an-hour for speaking, the other members being re-
stricted to twenty minutes. The debate rarely retains its
interest after two or three at the most have spoken. If
an indifferent speaker gets up, the benches thin rapidly.
The beau idéal of a Union speech is one bristling with bril-
liant antithesis and epigram. The Union audience is one
of the most impatient and critical to be found, and no
nervous nor affected speaker has a chance before it. Senti-
ment is never tolerated, and rhetoric very rarely, unless it
exactly fits in with the views of the hearers. Some mem-
bers are markedly unpopular, aud can never get a hearing.
Thus the Union once denied itself, for a whole year, the
luxury of square envelopes, because an unpopular member
always asked for them at question-time. More recently, a
member was jeered at while proposing a tribute to Victor
Hugo. It was thought at the time that an insult had been
offered to a great man's memory; but those knowing the
temper of the Union will understand that the said mem-
ber's unpopularity was the sole cause of the manifestation.
With these exceptions, the audience is fair and unpre-
judiced. It will listen contentedly to Radical orators, if
amusing, though the speaker must look for a tumult every
time he mentions the leaders of his party; but it will howl
down even a Tory who proses.
It is needless to say that the oratory generated by this
system is not first class. The style is often flashy and
superficial, and the matter too often reminds one strongly of
the latest newspaper leaders. But a successful Union orator
has of necessity acquired many qualifications for speaking,
and the more solid ones can be added afterwards. Many
of our present statesmen have been trained in this school.
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE.
137
Besides the Union there are several other debating
societies, some named after distinguished politicians, such
as the Palmerston, the Canning, the Strafford, and the
Russell. Almost every College has its own, the audience
of which is not usually so terrible as that of the Union.
Thus a dull and weary speech of an essay character, made
by a hard-working scholar of the College, may be listened.
to with the semblance of attention, and duly applauded.
Some of the oratory would be of a lighter character than
at the Union, and whimsical nonsense will often prove an
agreeable interlude to the more serious speeches. Most of
these societies are great sticklers for the forms of debate,
and derive great amusement from their occasional infraction.
If the President inadvertently breaks some rule, he may
find a vote of censure at once carried against him, all in
perfect good humour. These debating societies are cer-
tainly of much use in teaching men to speak who do not
aspire to become Union orators.
Education in Literature, at least in Modern Literature,
has so far almost escaped being a part of the Oxford curri-
culum. It is true that English Literature is one of the
subjects which may be taken up in Pass Greats, but this
course is taken by few. But up till now, though Ancient
Literature forms an important part of Classical Honour
Moderations, there has been no honour examination in
Modern Literature. This stain, as some consider it, is
apparently about to be wiped away by the establishment of
a joint School of Modern Languages and Literature. The
University, however, while showing herself perhaps only
too ready to respond to the educational demands made upon
her by the thinking part of England, has wisely been deaf
to the imperious utterances of those who would have
divorced literature from philology, and elevated it into a
separate school.
Literature in Oxford is therefore about to enter on a
138
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
new stage. But it is well at this time to reflect on a
point often lost sight of, namely, how much Oxford has
always done indirectly to educate the taste and form
the judgment in literary matters. Vast libraries lie round
the student, to which he may, without much difficulty,
gain access. He hears all sorts of books talked of and
criticized, and soon desires to read and judge for himself,
if only to take a worthy part in his friends' conversa-
tion. Thus undergraduates who have come from school
totally unacquainted with English literature often rapidly
learn to read and admire. If the tone of literary com-
ment has a fault, it is that it is too critical. This is
natural in a society where bright and smart conversation
is thought so highly of, and witticisms and epigrams are
treasured up, and go the round of the Colleges. But it
is certainly a fault. Thus, if a writer has several marked
defects, easily ridiculed, his possible good qualities are not
thought of. A good instance of this is the low reputation
which Dickens apparently always has in undergraduate
Oxford. Anybody with the least turn for criticism can
discover faults in every page of Dickens, and so many men
are led to speak slightingly of the author of "David Copper-
field" and "Bleak House." The Master of Balliol must have
had this characteristic defect of Oxford in his mind when
he lately said to the Professor of Poetry, "Teach us not to
criticize, but to admire "a word happily addressed to
the man who has done more to teach us to appreciate the
true gold of our literature, and to separate it from the
dross, than any living writer, except perhaps Matthew
Arnold.
Oxford is not destitute of a literature of its own. No
production of these days can quite touch the celebrated
"Oxford Spectator," though isolated articles are some-
times nearly, if not quite up to the level of the best parts
of it. There is now a regular Oxford magazine, "printed
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE.
139
on beautiful paper, with an artistic cover," as we were told
by an Oxford friend, who meant, not obscurely, to hint
that these were its principal merits. This verdict would
not be a fair one. The magazine has only been started
quite recently, and is without doubt a great improvement.
on the "Undergraduates' Journal." It is open to contri-
butions both from graduates and undergraduates. Largely,
of course, it is taken up with College news, and some of the
writing is certainly not of a high order of merit. Often a
better standard is reached. For instance, there appeared
in one of the later numbers a Socratic dialogue on bowling,
which is quite equal to the best pieces in the "Oxford
Spectator."
Undergraduate wit, from time to time, tries to find vent
in the publication of other journals and pamphlets. Thus,
about ten years ago, some papers came out called the
"Shotover Papers," from a well-known hill near Oxford.
These were mainly "skits " on College topics, and were
generally amusing as well as sometimes personal. The
editorship was kept a secret, though it was usually con-
sidered a very open one. Also during the Torpid races of
1886 a paper was brought forward purporting to be a journal
of the races, and called "The Rattle." Besides the infor-
mation about the races, it contained parodies of considerable
merit, and often poked broad fun at some prominent Uni-
versity characters. The success of this jeu d'esprit led to
the publication of a new paper in the following Term; but
it died a natural death after two numbers had been
published. "The Rattle," however, has been revived this
year, and may prove a permanent addition to Oxford
literature.
The Drama has received a great stimulus in Oxford
during the last few years. It is generally known that
up to last year (1886) no theatrical representations
were allowed at Oxford during Term-time. The result was
140
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
that the "Victoria " Theatre degenerated into a low music-
hall. But the influence of the late Vice-Chancellor
has effected a great change. Under his auspices, in
June, 1880, the "Agamemnon " was produced in the
original Greek in Balliol Hall. In this particular line
Cambridge has now surpassed Oxford, by its successive
performances of the "Ajax," the "Birds," and the
"Eumenides." It is however worth remembering that
Oxford led the way.
Since amateur theatricals have been
taken under the Vice-Chancellor's protection, they have
flourished greatly, and last year (1886) saw the estab-
lishment of a new theatre in Oxford, inaugurated by a
performance of "Twelfth Night" by undergraduate.
amateurs. The late Vice-Chancellor further accentuated
his approval of theatricals by inviting Mr. Irving to lecture
in the New Schools at Commemoration-time, and himself
seizing the occasion to set forth how great an intellectual
engine he believed we might have in the acting and bearing
of first-rate plays such as Shakespeare's. It is considered
doubtful whether his successor looks on the matter with
the same eyes, so that the future of the Drama in Oxford
must still be considered uncertain. The old objections to
acting as immoral are, we hope, dead and buried; but its
opponents are on stronger ground when they plead the
absorbing nature of acting and the consequent interference
with work. However this may be, most of the University
would surely be sorry to see the work of the last few years
in this direction undone.¹
Such are some of the intellectual aspects of young
Oxford. Some are lighter, and some more serious, but all
characterized by that which is her principal charm, the
1 Since the above was written the present Vice-Chancellor,
Dr. Bellamy, has given a qualified permission of amateur acting among
undergraduates, and the "Alcestis " has been added to the list of revived
Greek dramas.
THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE.
141
bright and many-sided play of the newly-awakened intellect.
To omit from the picture much that may seem trifling or
extravagant would impair its truth. Seriousness and con-
viction come generally with years; where they are found
in the young, we shall often, if we look deeper, find the
ugly growths of priggishness and dogmatism. Instead of
blaming Oxford for not always giving these gifts, let
us thank her for the great gifts she has to give; for
teaching the young mind to think and to reason, for im-
parting that tolerance which comes of a widened experience,
and for storing the memory with the noblest images and
sayings of the world's greatest writers, whether ancient or
modern.
From much of what has been said, it will be seen that
Oxford is rapidly changing. The action of the Commis-
sioners has greatly altered the tenure of Fellowships and
Professorships. The studies of the University have been
re-organized and grouped into definite faculties, controlled
by newly-constituted Boards," with the result that im-
portant changes in the examinations have been and are
still being made. Many other changes have to be described
in the following chapters, such as the admission of women
to examinations, the foundation of a Nonconformist College,
and the noble attempt to carry Oxford influences, religious
and intellectual, into East London. That these changes
are in the main beneficial, will hardly be denied. Only let
us hope that while Oxford intellectual life is made by
these influences fuller, freer, and, in the truest sense, more
national, her own peculiar excellences may not disappear.
F. G. B.
THE
CHAPTER VI.
THE RELIGIOUS LIFE.
HE "religious life" of Oxford is a subject which may
be treated, from many points of view; a short intro-
ductory paragraph will serve to indicate the mode in
which it will be treated here. The present position of
religion in Oxford cannot be understood without some
slight acquaintance with the ecclesiastical and educational
forces which were stirring the University some thirty or
forty years ago; and a brief historical notice of these will
occupy the first section. The second will endeavour to
present a picture of the religious life of an undergraduate
as it is, and has been during the last fifteen or twenty
years: the University influences brought to bear upon
him in and out of College, the Churches he frequents, and
the leaders by whom he is most attracted. It will only
remain to note in a last section some of the influences which
have most recently moulded the religious life of Oxford,
and are likely to possess yet more strength in the future.
I.
The secession of Dr. Newman in 1845, and still more the
secessions which followed the Gorham Judgment in 1851,
were at the moment paralysing to the Churchmen of the
University. There was a great lull in controversy; the
ecclesiastical side of questions was no longer that which
THE RELIGIOUS LIFE.
143
forced itself to the front on every occasion. So far this
was well; whichever side we take in the religious dispute,
we cannot deny the urgent need of reform in almost all
parts of the University system. The first Commission
had inaugurated its work by 1850; and the party of Edu-
cational Reform was eager for action.
66
Of the discontent of this party, and of their aims and
inspirations, we gain an interesting glimpse in Mark
Pattison's "Memoirs." The tone of the book is dis-
agreeable, and it has, therefore, not been quite so widely
read perhaps as it deserves; but it gives us a very vivid
picture of the dislike felt for the Oxford of the Tractarians,
by one who delighted to call himself a Humanist,” and
who was certainly animated by a more than common bitter-
ness toward theologians. A note of grim triumph runs
through all Pattison's reflections at this period. "The
ecclesiastics are cleared out of the way; at last, we can
realize the idea of a University devoted solely to know-
ledge and research; and our motto shall be Vae Victis."
That is the unmistakable spirit of what he says, and there
is some reason to fear that it was the spirit, not only of his
own party, but mutatis mutandis of some of his antagonists.
At least, it is a little difficult for us now to understand the
fierce passions which seem to have raged on both sides over
questions of a purely educational character. However that
may be, the "Humanists," or anti-ecclesiastical party, were
"in," and they made copious use of their power. The
effect of their work has been to sever all but the most
formal connexion of the University with the Church of
England. The Heads of Houses still attend in state to
hear sermons at St. Mary's; Colleges must still possess,
at least, one "Chaplain-Fellow;" in short, the official
Christianity, so far as it exists, is Anglican. But the
"Test Acts" have been swept away; no sort of religious
profession is demanded of intending students; Fellowships
.
144
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
and Scholarships may be held by persons of any, or of no
denomination; conscientious objections may relieve a man
from the irksomeness of early chapel; there is a strong
tendency to elect laymen to be Heads of Colleges. It is,
perhaps, no wonder that old Oxford men, contemplating an
Oxford thus turned topsy-turvy, should shake the dust
from their feet, and depart anathematizing the modern
spirit, and its incarnation, Mr. Gladstone. The Oxford
they knew—the Oxford of Laud—is no more.
But Laud was himself a great University reformer; and
it is possible that were he living now, he would be less
alarmed than some of those who swear by his name. It is
very easy to exaggerate what has been done. It amounts in
fact to this, that the Anglican Church is no longer in sole
possession of the ground. She has position, prestige,
emolument, but not monopoly. Yet it may be reasonably
doubted whether, at any time during the last three hundred
years, the Church of England has had adherents among
the undergraduates more numerous, more devoted, and
more instructed than now. If we are to believe the records
of the early part of this century, for instance, we cannot
make an instant's comparison between the dead-alive state
of Anglicanism in Oxford then and its vigorous and
healthy life to-day. It cannot be said that practically the
restriction of the Church's privileges has done her anything
but good. She has had to come out and fight in the open,
and she bids fair to win the battle. Nor is it a small
thing that she is still the "official" religious teacher of the
Colleges and the University; her influence, as such a
teacher, has become more potent of recent years, and is
likely to become more potent still.
The Christian religion at Oxford, then, is in a somewhat
peculiar position. On the one hand is the dominant
majority of "Humanists," who have largely secularized
the University, and would like to secularize it more; on
THE RELIGIOUS LIFE.
145
the other hand, there is the strong and increasing minority
of Churchmen, who do their best to vitalize what remains
of the connection between the Church and the University,
and to neutralize by individual effort the dangers to which
the faith of undergraduates is exposed. It results from
this, that the religious life of "men up" is "of Oxford,”
and yet "not of Oxford"; it is "of Oxford" in the sense
that they are up here, and that many religious influences
are brought to bear on them in consequence of that fact; it
is "not of Oxford" in the sense, that the University, as a
corporate body, takes little heed, and that, as the following
pages will show, the religious impulse comes largely from
outside.
II.
His College Chapel is the centre round which the reli-
gious life of an undergraduate might naturally be expected
to revolve; and though the foregoing remarks will have
shown why this is not always the case in the present gene-
ration, still a survey of the religious influences actually at
work in Oxford may very properly begin from that point.
The services usually consist of Morning and Evening Prayer,
said daily, and the same on Sundays, with or without a
sermon. Except at those Colleges which offer the option
of a roll-call, attendance at Matins is exacted from the
undergraduates on week-days, and at both services on
Sundays, that is, of course, where no religious objection is
raised on their behalf. The external presentment of these
services is usually of the plainest possible character, though
on Sundays some attempt at a choir and at singing at least.
the Canticles is usually made. In sharp contrast to the
majority are the beautiful and elaborate services at the
Cathedral, at Magdalen, and at New College, which at all
times of the year attract numbers of visitors. Of late years
it. has become customary at some Colleges to say the daily
L
146
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Evensong at 10 P.M., of course in a shortened form; whilst
at Keble a short office is regularly said at that time as a
fitting close to the day's labour. The attendance of under-
graduates at such services is quite voluntary, and is fairly
good. In another, and more important matter, too, much
progress has been made in College Chapels during the last
twenty years. The Holy Communion is celebrated weekly
at many Colleges early on Sunday morning, and some even
get so far as to recognize the Saints' Days in a similar
way. Sermons, if not more common, are certainly more
practical and telling than they were; and devotional
addresses, like those given to an ordinary congregation,
are occasionally delivered in some chapels. It may be said
indeed that religious men in authority were never more
anxious than they are now to stir the hearts and win to
God the service of the young men committed to their care.
A real effort is nearly everywhere made to make the
Chapel and its services "effective" in the best sense.
Yet a religiously-minded undergraduate is seldom able to
satisfy his soul with the services of his College Chapel;
often he would be surprised if any one suggested that he
could. Many causes might be assigned for this. The Head
of the College, or the Chaplain-Fellow, may be doing all
he can, but his influence is perhaps counteracted and cer-
tainly marred by the dead-weight of indifferent Dons asso-
ciated with him. The services themselves are not of a
character to arouse the enthusiasm of anyone, whatever
his views may be. The more earnest kind of undergraduate
comes too often to regard the whole thing as a survival
from remote antiquity, about which nobody cares very
much, and which never impresses his heart as real. We
must at least admit the fact that, whether Anglican or not,
he usually strives to satisfy his religious instincts else-
where. But it would not be fair to put this down wholly
or even chiefly to the changes which have taken place in
THE RELIGIOUS LIFE.
147
Oxford during this century. There is little to show that
College Chapels were centres of religious life, even when
the Church of England had it all her own way. Some
failure of the kind must always occur where the Academic
life so largely overshadows the Religious. Religion is
nothing if not spontaneous, and all the arrangements of
his College are necessarily associated in an undergraduate's
mind with the idea of discipline. Then again the frequent
changes in the staff or the students make permanent effort
a difficult matter. Even under the most favourable condi-
tions, it is not easy to make a College Chapel a great success.
Still the presence of a great deal of speculative or
practical Agnosticism in Oxford Common Rooms and the
possibility of losing the College Chapels altogether-through
disestablishment-have forced Churchmen in Oxford to set
up various non-Collegiate agencies which should supple-
ment rather than supplant the existing system. Foremost
amongst these, alike from its endowments and from the
traditional Oxford teaching which it represents, stands the
Pusey House in St. Giles'. Here are afforded opportunities
both of devotion and instruction to all such undergraduates
as feel their need of more than they can obtain elsewhere.
Services, simple in character but astonishingly beautiful
and touching, are regularly held in the little Chapel, and
lectures on the deeper mysteries of the Faith or on ques-
tions at issue between Christianity and Modern Thought
are delivered term by term by the Principal to numbers of
attentive hearers. A similar position is filled for the Evan-
gelical School by Wycliffe Hall where lectures on Biblical
subjects are given by the Principal, and conferences invited
on points of interest or difficulty. The mention of Wycliffe
Hall suggests that of S. Stephen's House, in the promotion
and foundation of which the present Bishop of Lincoln
took great interest, and which associates itself in a special
way with missionary work. Both these institutions are
I
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OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
primarily intended for the training of graduates who intend
to take Holy Orders, but both serve also as centres for their
respective supporters, and attract a number of undergra-
duates about them. Another way in which religious in-
fluences are brought to bear upon men, independently of
their Colleges, is the holding of special classes or devotional
meetings by the great leaders of religion in Oxford.
No
one who has been to them is ever likely to forget the
Friday evening addresses of the present Bishop of Lincoln,
until lately Professor of Pastoral Theology-the intense yet
affectionate earnestness of the speaker, or the crowd of awed
and eager faces. Mr. Chavasse, of S. Peter-le-Bailey possesses
much of the same wonderful power over the hearts and
minds of young men, and passing from his presence, too, one
may feel that one has been listening for a while to a true
"speaker for God." Nor again is any sight in England
more impressive than the interior of S. Mary's when some
famous preacher occupies the pulpit. Perhaps of all the non-
Collegiate forms of religious influence brought to bear on
Oxford men, this is the most visible and far-reaching. Tier
beyond tier in the galleries, through the aisles and passages,
even on the steps of pulpit and reading-desk, wherever their
grave and reverend seniors leave them room, crowd and
wait the undergraduates. Presently the bell stops, the
hymn begins, the Heads of Houses enter in dignified pro-
cession; the preacher parts from the Vice-Chancellor with
ceremonious reverence, and wends his narrow way to and
up the pulpit stairs. He recites the Bidding Prayer, and
we hear, perhaps for the first time, the stately music of its
rhythmic sentences; we recall with him the memory of
founders and benefactors now gone to rest; we pray that
in this University "sound knowledge and religious learning
may for ever flourish and abound." Then the text is read
and the sermon begun, and in a few moments the whole
audience is fixed in hushed and rapt attention. Soon the
THE RELIGIOUS LIFE.
149
preacher closes, the congregation passes out, and the fresh
young faces lose their unwonted solemnity; but some there
always are whose hearts have been touched, whose wills
have been strung to high resolve, and who in the coming
years will do a work for God and their fellows.
There are
many things in Oxford which send our thoughts backward
to the past; it is the future that dwells with us most when
Dr. Liddon is preaching at S. Mary's.
So far of the Collegiate and non-Collegiate influences.
brought to bear upon the religious life of men up at Oxford.
It is, however, to the Parish Churches that we must turn
if we wish to see the religious undergraduate in his most
spontaneous development. For the religious undergraduate
has usually been the religious schoolboy, and the religious
schoolboy draws as much of his inspiration from the Parish
Church of his home as he does from his school-chapel.
Again, it is just at the age when men come up to the
Universities that religion begins to have a full meaning
for those who are earnest and single-hearted; it is no
longer simple conformity to rules imposed from above; it
is the dominating impulse which not merely transforms.
their own lives, but cannot rest unless it is, at least in a
degree, doing something for the souls of others. The mere
Academic religion is felt to be too narrow and formal;
men want to be in closer touch with the poor and down-
trodden, and to have some share in the ministrations of the
clergy, whose vocation it is to follow thus closely in the
steps of their Divine Master. And, again, the Parish
Churches have an advantage which the College Chapels
can never possess. They are not closed in the vacations. They
have all that swing and movement, all that energetic life
and fulness of reality, which can only result from the
regular and uninterrupted discharge by an institution of
its appointed functions. A great service at S. Barnabas,
or an evangelical appeal from the pulpit of S. Peter-le-
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OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Bailey, is not felt by the undergraduate to be only some-
thing got up in term-time for his especial benefit; it comes
charged with the associations of many similar services in
the past; it is the eternal worship which the Church is
always offering, or the eternal call she is ever making to
her children. And so all the sympathetic instincts upon
which Christianity makes so large a call come strongly into
play; the worshipper is one with his fellow-Christians all
the world over; he is knit close with a system which
endures at all times; not one which dies for half the year.
Broad-Churchism, popularly so called, has little hold of
the City of Oxford; and those undergraduates whose
religion plays any real part in their lives may usually be
found at the "High" or "Low" Churches. Among the
former, S. Barnabas is certainly the most conspicuous,
both from the grandeur and correctness of its ritual, and
from the number of undergraduates who attend its ser-
vices. The church itself is a sufficiently striking structure.
Built in the Italian style, with a lofty apse for the High
Altar, and with the choir-seats projected into the body of
the church, it presents at once an unusual aspect to Eng-
lish eyes; a strangeness not lessened by the lofty and
elaborate baldachino, the cross suspended over the chancel
gate, and the symbolic frescoes which decorate the eastern.
wall. The church seats about 1,200 people, mostly poor,
and is nearly always crowded. Undergraduates may be
found there at all times in term, but especially at the
Sung Service of Holy Communion on Sunday morning
at 11. The ritual is exceedingly beautiful and solemn ;
few things bring home to us with more effect than the
sight of that kneeling multitude, how much "worship"
has come to mean for English Churchmen during the last
generation. Another service much attended by under-
graduates is the Catechetical Instruction given on Sunday
afternoons to the children; and so conducted as to be
THE RELIGIOUS LIFE.
151
nothing less than a training-school for those who will
hereafter be called to minister in parishes of their own.
At this, and indeed at nearly all churches in Oxford, full
use is made of the opportunities afforded by the seasons of
Advent and Lent, both of which fall largely in term; the
best known preachers in the English Church frequently
come down ; and the solemn chanting of the Misrere or the
Dies Iræ, when the sermon is over, leaves in the heart an
echo that haunts it for days afterwards. Here, again, the
College Chapels are at a great disadvantage as compared
with Parish Churches; for, except at Keble, little or no
change is made in College services (under modern condi-
tions, it is often impossible there should be) with the vary-
ing ecclesiastical seasons. It is, perhaps, the size of S.
Barnabas and its wide open spaces, together with the crowd
of faces visible from every point, that makes services at all
seasons so impressive there; for it is needless to say that
there are many other churches in Oxford, such as SS.
Philip and James, and the new Church of SS. Mary and
John, at which the lessons of the season are pressed home
with equal fervour, and the services rendered with the
same care, and almost with equal splendour of ritual.
These, and other churches like them, have all their votaries,
and, like every church in Oxford of whatever ecclesiastical
type, are always crowded; but whether from the "advanced"
character of its ritual, or from the poverty of its congrega-
tion, or from the succession of well-known preachers who
speak from its pulpit, S. Barnabas has held, and continues
to hold, a prerogative position.
If we turn to the opposite school of Anglican theology
we find an activity not less zealous, and an influence which,
if less widespread, is still powerful. It is often said by com-
placent High Churchmen that the Evangelical party is dead
or dying in Oxford. For any truth there may be in this
assertion so far as the senior members of the University
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OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
are concerned, the "Evangelical party" has only itself to
thank; a party which persistently holds itself aloof from
friendly discussion with all who do not pronounce its
shibbeloth, cannot complain if it is accounted une quantité
négligeable. But the accusation is distinctly untrue so far
as regards undergraduates, and untrue again as describing
the condition of the Low Church school. Those who wish
to gain some insight into a side of Oxford religious life
which does not come prominently forward, should read
Mr. Hicks' life of Henry Bazely. All of us who were
"up" in the "Seventies,
Seventies," can remember the tall spare
figure standing, Bible in hand, at the Martyrs' Memorial,
and preaching the Gospel to all who were willing to stand
and hear. But until this book came out few beyond the
circle of Bazely's personal friends understood or appreciated
the entire self-devotion and deep religious enthusiasm of
the man.
He was a widely-read theological student, and
his time was devoured by pupils; yet he was a regular
attendant at the daily prayer-meeting held at S. Aldate's
parish at 7.30 a.m., "and by that time he had done an
hour's reading. He would read with pupils from 9 to 1,
would be out visiting the sick and poor or looking up
undergraduates all the afternoon, and in the evening at
lectures or meetings, from which he rarely returned before
10 p.m."¹
On Sundays he was of course even more busily
employed in Evangelistic work. He seems to have had in
a marked degree the gift characteristic of the saint-an
actual and dominating sense of the constant presence of
God. He had persuaded himself that the Presbyterian
1 Henry Bazely: ch. vii.
(C
2
2 On my asking him one afternoon, whether he would be able to
go out with me, as it was so lonely for me to walk without him-
Lonely! while you have God to speak to and pray to," he answered.
I then asked him if he really always did so, when he was by himself.
He then said, "Yes-surely-always where and whenever I am alone.”
Henry Bazely: ch. ix. (Letter from his wife).
THE RELIGIOUS LIFE.
153
was the genuine form of Church Government, and was in
English Presbyterian Orders; but in the prayer meetings,
the “revival" addresses, and all the Mission work that
went on in S. Aldate's and kindred parishes, he was an
eager and successful worker. At a time when such work
was more liable to be misunderstood than it now is, he
made an effort to speak to and to save some of the wretched
women who hang about the Oxford streets. And though
he was not one of us Churchmen, yet he may stand for us
as the type of religious man developed by the school with
which he associated himself-a type of its emphasis on
personal religion, of its zeal for the salvation of souls, and,
if it may be said without offence, of its comparative indif-
ference to Church order. It must be admitted at least
that to him and to men like him, is to be attributed much
of the increased hold which the "Evangelical party" have, of
late years, obtained upon a certain section of undergraduates.
We must not forget indeed the abiding and whole-hearted
service which has been rendered to that party for so many
years by its Oxford nestor, the Rev. A. W. M. Christopher.
High and Broad, as well as Low Churchmen, have all, at
times, found themselves in the Large Room at S. Aldate's
Rectory, and have gazed with interest at attentive rows
of undergraduates, whose faces would indeed have been
strange at churches of a different school, but whose numbers
and enthusiasm impressed one with a sense of strength.
Listening there to men who had worked in far-away Mission
fields, or to Mr. Aitken, or to Professor Drummond, one
could forget for awhile that there were parties, and hope
that all went away drawn nearer to each other and to
Christ.
Enough has been said to show how important is the part
played by Oxford churches in the religious life of under-
graduates. Much has necessarily been left out. Over and
above those which have been mentioned, almost every
154
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
church in Oxford has its clientèle of undergraduates who
attend its services, sing in its choir, or teach in its Sunday-
schools. Nonconformist undergraduates of course depend
much more than Anglican upon out-of-college religious
ministrations. The few Roman Catholic students may
worship at S. Aloysius; there are chapels for those who
belong to the various Protestant bodies; and some men
find a rest for themselves in the Salvation Army. Every-
where the religious life of the place is varied and full; and
though in a University sceptical influences must always be
present, yet it cannot be said of Oxford, at least, that there
religious teachers are few or their influence confined. It
would be much more true to say that within the last ten
years Christianity has taken a great spring forward. But
this subject demands a separate section.
III.
The account above given of the religious life of under-
graduates will be recognized as true by any men who have
been up during the last fifteen or twenty years. But some
of those now resident might complain that as it stands it
is hardly a complete account of the now and actual religious
life of Oxford. As a matter of fact, during the last three
or four years the Christianity of Oxford men has been
partly modified, partly enriched by certain new influences,
the full development of which must come hereafter. A
brief notice of these and a brief indication of the lines
along which Christianity is likely to move at Oxford in the
future, will fitly close this article.
Perhaps we may begin by saying that the labours of all
the pious, learned, and devoted men, of whatever school,
who have struggled for the Faith in Oxford during the
latter half of this century have begun to bear welcome and
unmistakable fruit. The mere fact that during a time of
crisis they stood firm and ceased not to preach and practise
THE RELIGIOUS LIFE.
155
their religion; that they "did not despair of the Republic,"
but continued to hold classes, to give apologetic lectures, to
mingle with the younger men, and to show that Christianity
might still assimilate to itself all that was best in the ideas
of their own time-these things have had their issue in a
wider readiness on the part of the new generation to “make
trial” of Christianity. Ten and, even more, twenty years.
ago, when a materialistic philosophy was dominant
throughout the University, there was, as many of us can
remember, a disposition to put religion out of Court alto-
gether; to regard Christianity as a delusive, if amiable,
weakness, and God as a hypothesis for which, as Mr.
Morley said, there was a low degree of probability. There
is much of this prevalent still; but it is less prevalent
than it was, and what exists is largely counteracted by the
growing strength of the Christian side. In this respect, as
in some others, Oxford has but been the microcosm of
England; and the fact may pardon a digression, which
shall, at least, be short. One cause of the change has, per-
haps, been the failure of those predictions of a coming
Peace and Plenty for men, which were not uncommon
among the Reformers and Freethinkers of the first half of
the century. Science is enthroned King among us, and
we have had reform after reform of the Constitution; yet
the old vices reign all but undiminished, and the future of
the working classes is more problematic than ever. So, to
some extent, we have been forced back upon the ideas of
our forefathers. We have lived through our first amaze-
ment at the Evolution hypothesis, and we no longer think
"Darwinism” incompatible with the "creation" of the
world by God. We have found again that man has
spiritual instincts and cravings which materialism cannot
satisfy, and that the happiest of all lives is the life of simple
belief and dependence upon God. And so what most of
all stirs us who live at the end of the century is the desire,
156
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
not to get rid of religion altogether, but to incorporate our
new discoveries with our ancient faith; to find once more
in Christianity the ordering principle which may guide our
practice, and give meaning to our knowledge.
This fresh yearning after a religious truth which shall
satisfy and purify the hearts of men has arisen, in great
measure, from the deeper realization of the complexities of
human nature, and the enforced attention to the moral and
physical evils of our overgrown society. That, then,
which distinguishes the quite recent from the less recent
religious life of Oxford is the marked presence of the
philanthropic element. That it should be so has been
(6
largely due to one who, though not a theologian, but a
philosopher, yet had an influence upon the religious thought
of his time, which it would be difficult to over-rate, and
which has affected men of all parties—the late Professor
T. H. Green. Without attempting to expound his specu-
lative views, we may just indicate two great doctrines
which formed the foundation of his teaching, and which
he was never weary of reiterating.
Neither nature nor
man, he said, can be known by us, or made intelligible
to us, without the assumption of a Spiritual Prin-
ciple," which gives unity and meaning to the one, and
strives to realize itself ever more and more fully through
the progressive ideals of the other. And, again, because
God is thus revealed to us in the very fact of knowing,
and in the very conditions of conduct, therefore we are
not to think of Him as far away in some transcendental
world, but as here, in our midst, accessible to our intelli-
gence, working through our wills. For all pupils of
Professor Green, to know God, meant to find the revelation
of Him in their highest ideals, and to serve Him meant to
make men Godlike. We need not now scan these proposi-
tions with the eye of a theological or philosophical opponent;
we can all see how profoundly they would affect the prac-
THE RELIGIOUS LIFE.
157
tical religion of young men who were, in any true sense,
sincere Christians. As a matter of fact, all parties in
Oxford caught some echo of Green's meaning, and some
measure of his enthusiasm. The best and most religious
men of the present time are not content simply to go to
their favourite church, to be more or less edified, and to
come away again. They interest themselves in social ques-
tions. They throng meetings where such questions are to
be discussed; as at the Hall of Keble, in 1884, when nearly
a thousand undergraduates assembled to hear the Bishop of
Bedford and others speak on the condition of the poor at
the East End. A great deal of money is yearly subscribed
to maintain organizations devoted to Christian and philan-
thropic work. Some Colleges maintain special "Missions'
in neglected parts of London; all make some sort of effort
to support the work which is being done on a larger scale
at the Oxford House, Bethnal Green, or at Toynbee Hall,
Whitechapel. To make one's religion not only a comfort
to one's own soul, but more than anything else, a practical
living force among men, ruling and Christianizing their
intercourse with one another this is the ideal of to-day's
Oxford. Are we awake to the beauty of Temperance or
Purity? Then let us form a Church Temperance Society,
or join the Church Purity Association, that our activity
may be corporate, and not individual only. A well-known
speaker or earnest religious teacher can always command
large audiences on either of these subjects.
And thus, looking to the future of Christianity in Oxford,
we can hope that events are bringing about a reunion of all
parties, which, at one time, seemed impossible. There is
no necessary contradiction—and we are beginning to see it
-between the "personal religion" of the Evangelical, the
"Sacramental system" of the High Churchman, and
philanthropic efforts which recall the memory of Maurice
and Kingsley, and which are largely inspired by the desire
158
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
to bring dogma into living connection with daily life and
practice. We are becoming conscious that, after all, the
largest and most fruitful conception of Christianity is that
which represents it as a Church; a corporation to which
the individual brings his special gift, and consecrates it
henceforth, “in the Lord," to the service of the whole
body. And in the Church, thus widely representative, we
may surely see the Guardian of all that is of permanent
value in the doctrine and organization of the past; and at
the same time the Authority which adapts its methods,
whether of teaching or of worship, to the needs of each suc-
ceeding generation. It is in the consolidation of all who
thus think into one great central "party" that the hope of
the Church of England lies; and in the future, as in the
past, it is from Oxford that the fruition of her hope will
come.
G. W. G.
CHAPTER VII.
PREPARING FOR OXFORD-READING FOR
SCHOLARSHIPS.
THOSE whose work it has been to prepare men for
Matriculation at any of the Colleges of Oxford, will
readily agree with the assertion, that in many cases that
which seems a most elementary examination involves a
large amount of steady and even severe reading. The
average standard of work required is certainly far below.
that of the higher forms in a public school, and should
not tax severely the capacity of a fourth form boy.
The Colleges, while adopting a similar method of exam-
ination, vary as to the subjects required, and the degree of
excellence necessary. Of late years there has been a
marked decrease of laxity in admitting members. Even
at the less distinguished Colleges, there is far more diffi-
culty in matriculating than was the case twenty years ago,
while in several instances the examination is purposely
rendered difficult to ensure fair qualifications in those who
are admitted. Some Colleges even insist upon all their
members entering for some one Honour examination, and
require satisfactory evidence that the candidate will be able
eventually to obtain such Honours. The result is that
those who wish to become members of such Colleges are
obliged to offer higher subjects, and show a higher standard
of excellence; while the intellectual attainments of the
average undergraduate have been raised. The object of
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OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Matriculation examinations is to give some assurance to
the tutors that the student will be able to pass the Uni-
versity examinations in due time; and it is natural that
Colleges, with some regard for their reputation, which, of
course, depends greatly upon the attainments of their
members, should institute a more than formal inquiry as
to the capabilities of those who wish to be enrolled upon
their books.
At those Colleges where Honours are not compulsory,
the examination is of much the same nature as Responsions,
and in some cases is identical with it. Generally, it consists
of one Greek and one Latin author, Latin composition,
Greek and Latin grammar, arithmetic, and either Euclid I.
II., or algebra up to simple equations. Sometimes an un-
prepared passage or passages for translation into English,
and English composition are added.
The following table of the various requirements may be
of use:
(1) At Magdalen and Pembroke the subjects are
admittedly, and at Queen's, Merton, Worcester and
Jesus practically, identical with those for Responsions.
(2) At Ch. Ch. and Hertford, they are also identical with
Responsions, but at Ch. Ch. candidates are recommended
to take up Euclid rather than algebra, while Hertford
does not include algebra at all.
(3) In the following Colleges an unseen paper is added
-Oriel, Lincoln, S. John's, Keble. At Wadham an
unseen paper may be set.
(4) At Brasenose a Divinity paper is set on St. Matthew's
Gospel.
(5) At Exeter no grammar paper is set.
At Trinity an unseen paper is set, and an essay may
be taken instead of, or in addition to, the grammar paper.
The Greek author must be Sophocles.
At both these Colleges a special subject may be added.
PREPARING FOR OXFORD, ETC.
161
(6) At Balliol, Corpus, New and University, the exam-
inations are harder and of a special character. In
these four Colleges every undergraduate is required
to read for honours in at least one school.
The Greek author usually offered is Euripides, two of
whose plays are required, in most cases the "Hecuba" and
the "Alcestis" (or "Medea"). The other usual alter-
natives are (1) two plays of Sophocles (at Exeter the
"Edipus Rex" and the "Antigone" are selected; at
Keble the " Ajax" and the "Electra.") (2) Five consecu-
tive books of "Homer." (3) "Xenophon's Anabasis," I.-IV.
The Latin author is generally either "Horace's Odes," I.-
III. with the "Ars Poetica, or Virgil's "Eneid," I.—V, for
which some Colleges substitute the Georgics, other Colleges
prescribe “Cæsar de Bello Gallico,” I. to IV, or "Cicero
de Amicitia et de Senectute." Considerable license is usually
given to any candidate wishing to take up any of the books
permitted for Responsions. An accurate translation into
English is the one thing wanted. As the same books may
be offered again for Responsions, it is always as well to
prepare them carefully for Matriculation.
(C
The passage set for translation into Latin is usually of a
simple character, and as in Responsions a good style is
not so much needed as an accurate adherence to the rules
of grammar, whether in accidence or Syntax. As the
passage will be a connected one, and not consist of detached
sentences, it will not be enough to have worked exercises
in some class-book such as Bradley's Arnold." Besides
this, there should be translated passages out of some col-
lection such as "Sargent's Easy Passages for Translation."
Although much style is not required, it is never too early
to learn to recognize the main differences between the
English and Latin idioms, such as the arrangement of
words in a Latin sentence, or the way in which a Latin
sentence may be built up out of two or three short sentences
M
162
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
in English. Those who cannot carry in their memories
the mass of rules contained in the larger class-books will
find "Moore's Twelve Rules for Latin Prose" a remarkably
useful book, considering its size.
The grammar paper consists of a number of simple
questions on accidence, or the ordinary rules of Syntax,
especially with reference to irregularities and exceptions.
Short passages are sometimes given, and Greek and Latin
idioms, for translation and explanation. The most obvious
course is to carefully learn all the irregularities of nouns
and adjectives, cases governed by prepositions, the irregular
verbs, and the explanation of the ordinary constructions.
The best way to make sure of these is to work out grammar
papers. If the time for this be grudged, these papers may
be done viva voce, which, however, is hardly so satisfactory.
In arithmetic and algebra, it is always necessary to work
through some papers of the requisite standard. A rule in
arithmetic or algebra çan never be considered learnt, unless
an example on it can be readily solved when it comes
casually in the middle of a paper. If the examples cannot
be done, the rule should be referred to after the paper is
finished, and the sum tried again. The great point, how-
ever, to be aimed at is accuracy in figures. Since in
Responsions two-thirds of the marks are required for a
pass, it is clear that very few mistakes in arithmetic can
be passed in Matriculation. In fact, most of the "ploughs"
in Responsions are due to inaccuracy.
In algebra the difficulties will be of a different character.
For those who find it a hard task to get over the
w plus x stage, or to understand the meaning and use
1.
991
"There was a young man of Sid-Sussex,
Who stated that w plus x
Was the same as x w,
But they said, 'Sir, we'll trouble you
To confine that idea to Sid-Sussex.'"
We are quite willing to be convinced that the College referred to in
PREPARING FOR OXFORD, ETC.
163
of factors, the best way is to throw over the algebra and
take instead the other alternative, the Euclid which, in the
last resort, can at least be made safe by learning by heart.
The evident preference of Euclid to algebra among pass-
men is certainly based on this consideration. Most men
however should find themselves able after a little explana-
tion, to follow the reason of a proposition. The propositions.
when learnt ought to be written out as well as said vivá
voce.
If a passage of unseen translation is set, it will not be
of any great difficulty, nor likely to give much trouble to
anyone who has had some practice. The numerous class
whose knowledge of Latin and Greek is only sufficient to
get up with difficulty some stated books will probably
avoid the Colleges where an unseen paper is set.
Sometimes an essay is required. The subject is not
likely to be one which should cause a fairly educated man
much difficulty to write upon in good plain English.
Sometimes it will appear hard at first sight, but few will
be unable, after a little thought, to collect a few ideas, or
remember a few facts bearing on the question. Nothing is
more suicidal than to give up at once in despair because
the subject is an unfamiliar one.
The above are the subjects set at most Colleges. Where
honours are compulsory, greater accuracy is insisted upon,
and opportunity afforded for the display of wider know-
ledge. For instance, the authors are more in number or
more difficult, and to be read with greater care; the Latin
prose more idiomatic, and the grammar of a more advanced
character. For information on these points, the remarks
which follow on "Reading for Scholarships" may perhaps
be referred to.
the above quotation from Cambridge lyrics has been atrociously libelled.
But every teacher of algebra will understand very well the stage referred
to.
:
164
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
READING FOR SCHOLARSHIPS (CLASSICAL).
In attempting to give advice on this subject, it is difficult
to help wondering whether such advice has ever yet helped
anyone to actually secure a Scholarship. For not only are
scholarships usually won by the most brilliant boys, who
have least need of practical hints, but also so many Sixth
Forms largely ground their teaching on the requirements.
of Scholarship examinations that further guidance seems.
superfluous. The following suggestions must therefore be
considered mainly for those who have left school, and are
preparing for these examinations by private study, or those
who are not fortunate enough to be at a good school, and
consequently are forced to rely on their own resources.
Scholarships are in all cases awarded after a competitive
examination. The standard of the examination varies to
some extent in different Colleges. A reference to the table
of Matriculation requirements will indicate in what Colleges
the highest standard is to be looked for. The following
conditions as to age and tenure are now almost universal.
(1) Candidates must not be more than nineteen years of
age on the day of election. (2) The stipend of an open
scholar is fixed at a maximum of £80 per year. (3)
The Scholarship is held in the first instance for two years
only; it is then continued for two years more, in case
the scholar's work and conduct have been satisfactory, and
the tenure may in certain cases be continued for a fifth
year.
In almost all cases the number of papers set for a.
Classical Scholarship is eight, the examination usually
lasting four days, on each of which there are two papers
of three hours each. Four of the papers are almost certain
to be as follows: (1) Latin Translations, (2) Greek Trans-
lations, (3) Latin Prose, (4) Critical Paper. At Colleges.
PREPARING FOR OXFORD, ETC.
165
where stress is laid on Latin and Greek Composition, the
remaining papers will probably be (5) Greek Prose, (6) Latin
Verse, (7) Greek Verse, (8) General English Paper, usually
including some History questions. But at most Colleges it
is now the practice to form one paper either of Greek Prose
and Verse, or of Latin and Greek Verse. The two remain-
ing papers will be either a History Paper and a General
English Paper, or an Essay and a paper in which History
and general questions are mixed.
Of these papers the most important, as it is natural in a
University where Classics still hold their ground, are the
first three mentioned, the Translation Papers and the Latin
Prose. Next to these in importance comes the General
English Paper, or the Essay, success in which has gained.
many a Scholarship. But no amount of excellence in the
English will ever compensate for feebleness in the classical
part of the examination. A respectable standard here is a
sine qua non. We will now discuss the papers in order.
The first point to notice about the Translation Papers is
that as the passages composing them are selected from the
whole range of Classical Literature, it is not likely that the
candidate will find that he has read many of them before-
hand. If he has read one out of the six usually set, he
will be fortunate; while to have read two must be con-
sidered an exceptional stroke of good luck. It follows that
the future scholar must not only have read a fair amount
of classical authors, but that he must also be skilled in
unseen translation. Unceasing practice is necessary to gain
this faculty, but hardly anything is more useful when it is
attained. The way to acquire it is to select passages of
which the context is unknown' (this is most important),
Those who have no Translation Papers at hand to choose from, nor
tutor to select passages for them, will do well to purchase a volume of
unseen translations, e.g., Spratt and Pretor's "Exercises in Translation
at Sight."
166
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
and then to conscientiously turn them into the best English
at command, steadily rejecting the aid of the Grammar and
Dictionary. If the temptation to use these helps even once
or twice in a passage is yielded to, the excellence of this
training, as strengthening both the intelligence and the
memory, will be quite gone. Every unseen passage should
always be read over carefully at least twice. Not until the
sense and connection of the whole are clear, ought pen to
be put to paper. In the examination itself this last rule
rises into a precept of first-rate importance. The paper
should be read over again and again, until, if possible, the
whole is clear. If one hour out of the three allotted be
spent in this way, it will not be wasted.
If unfamiliar words occur the best plan is certainly to
guess at them, and not send up papers disfigured and
rendered unintelligible by gaps. But of course there is
guessing and guessing. Wild shots at the meaning of a
word, from a fancied resemblance to another word of a
possibly totally different meaning, are not much use. But
if the sense and connection of a passage have been clearly
reasoned out, the meanings of the unknown words will
probably suggest themselves from the context. A transla-
tion which suits the context is very likely to be right, and
if not, there is at least no absurdity, so that nothing is
gained by leaving the words untranslated. The advice
then which we give is-guess by all means, only let no
guess stand which does not fit the context.
The style of translation should not be flowery, certainly
not modelled on any English author, and, above all, must
not be too free. The best rule is to translate as literally as
possible, if only care be taken to translate into English. In
other words, the literal translation should never be departed
from except where the differing idioms of English and the
Classics demand it. This advice, however, needs a caution
added to it. A great many translations, notably most
PREPARING FOR OXFORD, ETC.
167
An English
of the Bohn series, are not English at all.
sentence may be perfectly correct grammatically, and yet
quite wrong in the idiom. What the translator of a Latin
or Greek sentence has to think of is how an English writer
would most naturally express the same idea.¹ Usually this
may be secured without going far from the original. A
study of the best translations, such as Dale's Thucydides,
Butcher and Lang's Odyssey, Church and Brodrib's Tacitus,
Davies and Vaughan's Republic of Plato, or Munro's Lu-
cretius, will show how good idiomatic English may be
combined with fidelity of translation. In studying these
translations it is worth noticing how much of the effect of
the English is produced by well-chosen words. In trans-
lating poetry this is half the battle. Another good rule in
translating poetry is to follow the order of the Greek or
Latin words as closely as the grammar or idiom of the
English allows. Fidelity of translation, it may be added,
is chiefly secured by attention to details. It is well worth
running over the individual tenses, particles, and preposi-
tions before the paper is finally shown up, to ascertain if
the full force of each has been accurately brought out.
With regard to the reading of classical authors little
advice is needed. No useful rules can be laid down, even
if they were desirable, on the probability of passages being
set from any particular author. It is best to be ready for
all sorts of authors, and armed as much as possible at all
points. The following threefold arrangement of classical
reading is recommended to those who have the time for
it :-
(1) Some authors should be read as they are in the
higher forms of schools, carefully and critically, with due
attention to all the grammatical difficulties involved.
¹ Nixon's "Parallel Extracts from Latin and English," will be found
a most useful book for comparing the idioms of the two languages, and
accordingly very useful both for Translations and Composition.
168
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
(2) One or two works, or parts of works that make
wholes in themselves may be read entirely through as
rapidly as possible, without much attention to the language,
but rather as an English book would be read.
Thus one
or two selections such as the following might with advan-
tage be read in this manner: Those books of the Iliad
which form the Achilles; the narrative of Odysseus (Od.
IX.-XII.); the whole Æneid, or either Books I.-VI., or
VII-XII.; the Sicilian Expedition (Thucydides VI., VII.);
Livy XXI., XXII. ; one or two selected orations of Cicero.
(3) Short passages may be read from some authors for
the special purpose of becoming familiar with their style
or the dialect in which they wrote. The candidate who
finds before him a passage from an author such as Hero-
dotus, Plautus, or Juvenal to translate will be heavily
handicapped if he have not made at least some slight
acquaintance with them.
The possibility of carrying out a plan such as the pre-
ceding depends of course largely on the time which can be
given up to it, and the individual talent of the worker.
One further caution is needed, not to spend too much of
one's working time in reading classical authors. No one
is expected to have gone over the whole field of Classics by
the time he comes up to Oxford. To read widely in the
hope of "spotting" the passages set, is not very much good.
A few carefully selected portions of authors, read on the
lines laid down, are far more likely to be useful than an
indiscriminate scamper over the whole field of the Classics.
Next in importance comes Latin Prose Composition, a
subject so necessary for most Oxford examinations that to
fall below mediocrity in it will always be a fatal bar to a
Scholarship. If the candidate's strength lies in some other
subject, he must be prepared to show that he can write
Latin Prose at least grammatically correct, while if his
reliance is mainly on Classics, he will be expected to be
PREPARING FOR OXFORD, ETC.
169
familiar with the Latin idiom. The difficulty of gaining
this familiarity is well known. Considering, however, the
severe drilling in this subject which most Sixth Forms are
put through, we need only comment here on two or three
books, which are useful to those acquiring the art of writing
Latin.
(C
'Bradley's Arnold," though quite recently published,
will be already a name of familiar sound to most school-
boys. The exercises will not, of course, be of much use to
anyone who is about to compete for a scholarship. Nobody's
Latin prose can be up to the mark unless he has been ac-
customed to translate connected passages. But we believe
that many who have used the work as an exercise-book
will turn to it afterwards as a book of reference, remember-
ing the extent and accuracy of the information there stored
up. It is well, however, to remember in using it, that the
best Latin Prose is that which uses the most common con-
structions, so that it is better to disregard the exceptions to
rules of Syntax, and to practically consider the latter of
general application. Accordingly, it is a question whether
it is not better to use some less pretentious book (e.g.,
"Moore's Twelve Rules of Latin Prose ") to guard against
mistakes purely grammatical. "Pott's Hints towards
Latin Prose Composition" is an extremely valuable and
suggestive book, which all should read who can. It has
the great merit of being interesting, and will not take many
hours to read entirely through. The Translation passages,
by the same author, which are published separately, are
rather disappointing. "Nixon's Parallel Extracts" have
already been referred to. "Abbott's Latin Prose through
English Idiom" is a very fresh and stimulating work. It
is, however, largely elementary, and the details show little
systematic arrangement, so that it is not a very convenient
book of reference.
Excellence in writing Greek Prose, though not so indis-
170
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
pensable as in the case of Latin, is sure to make its mark in
the examination, and is by no means so difficult to acquire
as most students seem to think. The fact is that, in many
respects, Greek Prose is not nearly so hard as Latin. In
Greek the constructions are, as a rule, easier, the idiom
simpler, the sentences less involved, and the order less arti-
ficial than in the sister language.
On the other hand, of
course, the grammar is much more difficult, and the
vocabulary much harder to remember than the Latin one,
where almost every word recalls an English equivalent.
Moreover, the study of Greek is usually commenced at a
later age than that of Latin. Whatever the cause, the
numbers of those who excel in Greek Prose Composition.
are very few.
For the study of this subject there is the boon of an
almost model text-book, "Sidgwick's Introduction to Greek
Prose Composition," which it is difficult to praise too
highly. To those wishing to excel we would say of it—
((
"Nocturna versate manu, versate diurna."
Sargent and Dallin's Materials and Models for Greck
Prose Composition" might also be used. Regarded as a
series of parallel extracts in Greek and English, it will be
found of much value. Frankly, however, we are doubtful
of the advantage of adding a definite model to each trans-
lation passage.
For in modelling one's style on that of a
classical author, his broader features and general charac-
teristics should be imitated, not so much his special phrases,
while his mannerisms should be carefully avoided. And it
appears to us that an imitation of phrases and mannerisms
is likely to be the chief result of the above plan.
English-Greek and English-Latin Dictionaries should
be used as little as possible. When a word is at first un-
familiar, a little thought will often reveal the fact that the
idea contained in the word is much simpler than it first
PREPARING FOR OXFORD, ETC.
171
appeared, and, in reality, perfectly well known. When,
however, the equivalent for an English word has to be
looked out, the word found in the Dictionary should not be
used until it has been looked out as well in the Greek-Eng-
lish or Latin-English Dictionary, as the case may be, and
its meaning and use verified.
Lastly, let it always be remembered that, to learn to write.
Greek, it is necessary to make the acquaintance of Greek
writers. "The one unfailing way to learn Composition-
to which all notes, lists, and books are but secondary—is
careful, constant study of the great Greek writers. What-
ever Greek books you read, always have them at hand when
you are doing Composition, and constantly refresh your
mind and taste by reading a few lines or sentences (Sidg-
wick)."
Verse Composition is no longer so highly valued as it
once was, and those who have no taste or time for culti-
vating it will not necessarily damage their chances of a
Scholarship by not doing so. At the same time, Verse
papers are still set, and as long as University prizes are
given for Verse Composition, excellence in this branch will
tell heavily in a candidate's favour.
It is probable that those who are reading for Scholarships
will have thrown away all props in this subject long before
the examination. If, however, text-books are wanted, the
best ones to use are "Gepp's Elegiac Verse," part II.
(part I. is of little use), and "Sidgwick and Morice's Greek
Verse Composition." It need scarcely be added that success
in verse, as in prose composition, is only to be attained by
careful study of the original authors.
The critical paper may contain any sort of question
whatever on classical subjects. For practical purposes.
these subjects may be grouped under four heads, i.e. (1),
Grammar (chiefly Syntax), (2) Etymology, (3) Philology,
(4) Antiquities.
172
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
(1) Grammar.-The Grammar questions will only be
answered well by those who have been accustomed to refer to
those larger works, such as Roby and Goodwin, which not
only state the rule, but explain the principles of the language
on which it is based. Those who have been used to this will
be able, not only to give the technical name for a construc-
tion (which must, by no means, be omitted), but also to
add a sound explanation. We wish here to say a word on
behalf of "Farrar's Greek Syntax," a work which has met
with much criticism, but which we believe to be one of the
most stimulating ever written. A treatise on Grammar
which makes the subject as fascinating as a story-book is
not an educational instrument to be lightly thrown aside,
whatever its shortcomings.
1
(2) Etymology. The questions set under this head are
those upon the different meanings of the same word, which
should be connected with one another and referred to the
original root. Constant and intelligent use of the Lexicon
or Dictionary will soon give readiness in this. Instances
may be collected in a separate note-book, which should con-
tinually be referred to.
(3) Philology.-Questions in this science are set more
and more in the critical papers year by year.
The prin-
ciples of the subject may be studied either in Papillon or
in Sayce. A few Sanskrit words should certainly be
learnt; for not only are they most useful for purposes of
illustration, but they throw a flood of light on the Greek
and Latin forms.
1 "Technical terms are, as it were, the paper money of criticism,
which must not be put into circulation unless it can be redeemed by
what alone has an intrinsic value the rational explanation." Jeyes
(Entrance Classical Scholarships). The writer would wish to add a note
in praise of Mr. Jeyes' admirable little book, which has helped both to
clear and confirm his views on many points connected with this subject,
and which goes into the whole question more fully and skilfully than he
can hope to do.
PREPARING FOR OXFORD, ETC.
173
(4) Antiquities.-If" Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities'
has been kept in frequent use, to elucidate any point that
may have arisen when reading the Classics, very little more
will be necessary. The following list of authors may be read
at discretion, according to taste and time:" Ramsay's
(Elementary) Manual of Roman Antiquities," "Bekker's
Gallus and Charicles," and " Mahaffy's Social Life in
Greece." Those who have not the time for reading these
works might, at least, read the Primers in Macmillan's
shilling series-" Wilkins on Roman Antiquities," and
Mahaffy on Greek Antiquities." Both these primers are
exceedingly interesting and full of information.
66
""
((
Besides this, the life and times of the classical authors
read should be got up, and in particular the circumstances
under which their works were written. General questions
on the history of ancient literature are also sometimes set
(see also remarks on General Paper).
It is obviously impossible to indicate entirely the wide
field from which questions may be selected. "Gantillon's
Examination Papers" will supply examples of most kinds,
−(1)
The remaining paper or papers, i.e., those on English.
are, owing to the great variety of the questions set, the most
difficult of all to classify and give advice on. It will be con-
venient to arrange them under the following heads :—
Essay or Essay Questions, (2) General Questions, (3) His-
tory. It is, however, very rarely that three papers are set
on this subject. Not unfrequently one paper combines all
three.
It has been often said that the essay is not intended to
discover wide reading, but to gauge intelligence and
thoughtfulness. This is a cardinal truth, but it must also
be remembered that these qualities only show and develop
themselves where there is wide reading. A schoolboy who
has read no general literature cannot be expected to write
a readable essay. Ideas are not likely to spring up spon-
174
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
taneously in his mind; for the habits of thought and reflec-
tion must be formed by the mind being brought in contact
with some of the great English authors. Otherwise, when
the candidate finds the essay paper before him, he may find
he has no ideas worth writing down, and may be forced to
take refuge in one or the other of the expedients so well
known to schoolmasters, of writing either a bad sermon, or
a national panegyric to the tune of "Rule Britannia." An
intelligent interest in politics, or in any other questions that
are stirring the world at large, will save many from this
fate, but the great desideratum is to have read some English
authors. A systematic habit of reading newspapers and
reviews will often be of great use, if it is not supposed that
they can be a substitute for more important works.
Not only the matter but also the form of the essay must
be considered. It is not enough to have ideas, there must
be also the power of expressing them, and in this many
fail. General reading must therefore be supplemented by
practice in writing. It is a capital plan, after reading a
book, to write down in a commonplace book the ideas it
suggests, and an abstract of the most striking passages.
In writing an essay, a general plan should be most carefully
drawn up to serve as a framework, and consistently adhered
to. In the best essays this plan is often skilfully hid, but,
if searched for, may be found running through and giving
unity to the whole. It is best not to attempt a style of
one's own, nor to model one on any well-known author.
Let the thoughts be clearly and orderly expressed, and the
style will follow of itself.
The general questions may be on almost any subject
under the sun. But as several questions are certain to be
set, and no one is expected to answer more than a few, a
candidate will almost certainly have the opportunity of
throwing himself into his special subject. Anyone, there-
fore, who has an individual preference for some subject, is
PREPARING FOR OXFORD, ETC.
175
recommended to devote almost all his general reading to
strengthening it. Such subjects may be Literature, Art,
Political Economy, Logic, and Philosophy. On each of
these, without going fully into them, we shall make a few
discursive remarks.
To show a literary appreciation of the merits and defects.
of a great classical author is often to score highly. If
these authors are read with the eyes open, as writers of
interest, not merely as grammarians, many important
points will be readily grasped. To gain an idea of Greek
Literature as a whole, Jebb's Primer may be read, a little
work full of interest.
In Latin Literature Cruttwell's work may be used, at
least in part. "Professor Nettleship's Suggestions Intro-
ductory to a Study of the Aneid," and Conington's Intro-
ductions to the several works of Virgil will give much
help towards a correct appreciation of the greatest Roman
poet. Some of the "Ancient Classics for English Readers
may also be read with advantage.
For English Literature it is a good thing to read two or
three of the "English Men of Letters" series, selecting in
each case authors familiar to and admired by the reader.
Time spent in studying Shakespeare will never be thrown
away, and questions are very often set on his works.
""
For
a short and interesting view of Shakespearian questions,
nothing can be better than "Dowden's Primer of Shake-
speare. The editions of separate plays published by the
Clarendon Press are familiar to all; but we rather recom-
mend the Rugby edition, which gives less philology and
more literature.
A very good way to commence the study of Art would
be to read, side by side, "Lessing's Laocoon" and "Ruskin's
Seven Lamps of Architecture," both delightful works from
different points of view. It is a useful practice to test the
principles laid down, and try to illustrate them by fresh
176
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
examples. Those who live near some cathedral or historical
church ought by all means to study the principles of Archi-
tecture, as few studies are more ennobling, and at the same
time few are easier. It is best to commence with "Rick-
man," with the help of "Parker's Glossary of Gothic
Architecture." All who keep their eyes open when out of
doors, and look out for instances of the terms employed,
will probably make rapid progress in this subject, with
hardly any expenditure of time.
The principles of Political Economy are best studied in
Mrs. Fawcett. After reading her book, those who have a
taste for the subject may go on to "Fawcett's Manual,"
and then ultimately to Mill. But if the subject proves
hard and progress is slow, it will be wise to postpone the
further study of it for a few years.
Questions on Logic are occasionally set, but the subject
had better be studied only by those who have a natural
bent for it. "Fowler's Deductive Logic" is, we think,
the best to commence with, though some would rather
recommend Jevons' work on the same subject. With
regard to philosophy, we would strongly dissuade anyone
from working at it as his special subject, unless he has
been most distinctly advised to do so by some tutor who
knows his abilities and the bent of his mind.
In
The subject of History is the last one to be considered.
The questions set will almost certainly be on Modern History
as well as Ancient, but more largely on the latter.
reading for the paper, manuals such as the "Student's
Greece," and the "Student's Rome," which are necessarily
dry because of their condensation, will not be found of
much use. Much better are the " Epochs of Ancient
History," one or two of which ought certainly to be read
by all who have time. The best of the whole series is
"Bosworth Smith's Rome and Carthage," while perhaps
PREPARING FOR OXFORD, ETC.
177
"1
the next most useful is "Cox's Athenian Empire.' It
should be observed that in reading history it is better to
know a period well than to have a vague and unsatisfactory
idea of the whole. Those who feel a strong interest in the
subject, and desire more or less to specialize in it, are
recommended to choose the period which coincides with
their classical reading. Thus together with Thucydides.
should be read the volumes of "Grote on the Peloponnesian
War," while with Livy XXI., XXII. may be read Arnold's
History, vol. III.
For English History "Green's Short History of the
English People" is the best work to read. Since, however,
Green's chronology is apt to be discursive, and does not
keep to the usual landmarks, it is as well to read side by
side with his work a short epitome of the facts, such as
"Miss Beale's Outlines of English History." Here also it
will be advisable for some to specialize, by reading a period
more fully. A good plan is to get up the literature of a
period in connection with its history, such as that of the
Renascence, the Elizabethan Age, or the age of the French
Revolution.
A few general hints in conclusion. In the History paper,
as in the general paper, it is not necessary to answer all
the questions. Half-a-dozen selected questions, thoroughly
answered, will make a much better impression than an
attempt to answer the whole paper. In the critical paper,
on the other hand, it is as well to attempt as many questions
as can fairly be done in the time, while the whole of the
translation and prose composition papers ought certainly to
be done. In the case of the verse papers, advice is more
1 It is a pity that there are still two gaps in this admirable series.
Two volumes on "Rome's Conquest of Italy" and "Rome's Conquest
of the East," would render it a complete history of both Greece and
Rome, during the centuries when their histories are of first-rate
importance.
N
178
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
difficult. Some have the knack of running off verses
rapidly, others of doing only a few, and polishing them.
Both are useful talents, but perhaps the second is the most
likely one to succeed. No one should ever leave the
Examination Room until time is up. Often knowledge
recurs to the mind during the last half-hour, which seemed
at first to have utterly vanished. Neat and clear writing
often tells in a candidate's favour; and all should endeavour,
as much as possible, to show up their papers free from
erasures and corrections.
MATHEMATICAL AND SCIENCE SCHOLARSHIPS.
The number of Mathematical Scholarships offered at
Oxford is very small compared with the Classical; and that
of Science Scholarships fewer still. The subjects on which
questions are set in the former, are :—
(1) Euclid.-(Books I.-IV., VI., and XI.) "Todhunter's
Euclid" is the best to read. The appendix should be
read as well, for questions are often set from it. The
art of solving riders should be carefully cultivated, as
it is thought very highly of.
(2) Algebra.-Most of "Todhunter's Larger Algebra "
should be worked through.
(3) Trigonometry." Todhunter's Plane Trigonometry"
should be sufficient. "Lock's Trigonometry" is not
enough by itself, but should be supplemented by his
more advanced work.
(4) Theory of Equations (Todhunter). In this subject
it is usually enough to be ready to solve equations of
the various types discussed.
(5) Conic Sections (Geometrical).-Here there is a choice
of at least four text-books, Drew, Taylor, Besant, and
Wilson, all, in our opinion, more or less unsatisfactory.
PREPARING FOR OXFORD, ETC.
179
(6) Conic Sections (Analytical)." Puckle's Conic Sec-
tions" is a more interesting work than Todhunter's.
The two may be read together and supplemented by
extracts from "Salmon's Conic Sections."
Besides these subjects, papers are also set sometimes on
(7) Differential Calculus, which may be read in Todhunter
or Williamson. (8) Mechanics; for which "Todhunter's
Mechanics for Beginners," and "Besant's Elementary
Hydrostatics," are quite sufficient."
The following maxims may be useful :—
(1) Learn the Euclid thoroughly, so as to be perfectly at
home in every proposition set.
(2) Pay great attention to bookwork, especially in
Algebra and Trigonometry, so that you may be able to
write it out accurately.
(3) Work through, against time, as many Scholarship
papers as you can get copies of.
(4) Carefully learn the solution of questions you were
at first unable to do, and collect the most typical and
striking of these in a manuscript book for future use.
(5) Carefully cultivate a lucid and direct style, so that
the examiner can see at a glance what method you are
pursuing, and the reason of every step you take. It
may be as well to add the warning that proofs are
shortened by the use of simple and direct methods,
not by leaving out links in the chain of argument.
Science Scholarships at Oxford are awarded for excellence.
in either of three subjects, viz.: (1) Physics, (2) Chemistry,
(3) Biology.
To prepare for these the student should read the follow-
ing books:-
(1) Physical Scholarships.-" Dechanel's Physics," "Tod-
hunter's Mechanics." For the chemical portion of the ex-
amination: the inorganic part of "Williamson's Chem-
istry," "Harcourt and Madan's Practical Chemistry."
180
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
(2) Chemical Scholarships.-" Williamson's Chemistry,"
"Harcourt and Madan," "Roscoe and Schorleimer,"
"Armstrong" (the organic portion). These two latter
works are to be studied side by side.
On Physics
"Dechanel" and "Todhunter's Mechanics "
should be read.

(3) Biological Scholarships. "Huxley and Martin's
Biology," Huxley's Physiology," "Michael Foster's
Physiology,' Huxley's Anatomy of Vertebrated
Animals."
"" ((
On Chemistry, as for Physical Scholarships.
A. M. M. S. and F. G. B.
CHAPTER VIII.
EXAMINATIONS-HINTS ON READING.
THE
HE frequent references in former chapters will have
shown the importance of examinations, which are, in
fact, the keystone of the Oxford educational system. Many
of our leading men would wish it otherwise. They acquiesce
with a groan in the organization which, radiating from the
Universities, embraces the whole country in a network
which grows firmer every year. The Commissioners,
according to these authorities, lost a great opportunity.
They ought, by crushing the examination system and
substituting a professorial one, to have turned Oxford into
a sort of modern Athens, in which pupils might have
drunk in wisdom from one teacher after another, without
the hard practical question "Is it useful for the schools?"
always obtruding itself. To such critics what is absolutely
happening at present in Oxford may be some answer. The
Commissioners, as we have stated in a former chapter, did
attempt to greatly develop the class of Professors, having
chiefly in view "the wants of the highest class of students
who look beyond University examinations." But they
wisely left the examination system alone, with the result
that it is now more firmly established than ever, while the
Professors find difficulty in filling their lecture-rooms.
The fact is that examinations are now more than ever
thoroughly adapted to the temper of the age. Evil they
may be in some points, though these have been greatly
·
182
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
exaggerated, but they are, at all events, now a necessary
evil. So also is hunger an evil, but yet, it has been well.
said, it is also a very great good, for it is our chief incen-
tive to work. Some will work without this stimulus, but
yet those work best on whom the necessity of bread-winning
is laid. In like manner examinations are also a great
incentive to work, without which many would not work at
all, while the numbers of "the highest class of students,"
who work best without it, are very few. The mass of men
who read intelligently and with interest may look back
gratefully in after years to the examinations which kept
them well up to their work. How many men would, except
for examinations, read carefully through works like Aris-
totle and Thucydides, and how few are not thankful
afterwards to have done so? The critics of the examination
system should come down from cloudland, and open their
eyes to plain facts. We have lately heard it asserted that
pupils should be taught "the holiness of work. It is
wonderful that speakers should say such things, who pre-
sumably know what teaching really is. What percentage
of pupils can they hope to raise to this exalted ideal?
""
Besides, some test of teaching is necessary, and what
other test can there be but examination? Our critics
will probably reply that examination is a bad and inade-
quate test, and probably worse than none.
This we
utterly deny. We believe that the system is in the
main defensible even in its weakest point, the selection of
officers for the army by competitive examinations. The
defence of examinations for a University degree is far
easier. Practically the question may be summed up as
follows: Success in an examination is a guarantee that the
candidate has read, with more or less intelligence, a certain
number of stated subjects, and that he has shown to some
degree the qualities of capacity for sustained brain-work, a
more or less retentive memory, and a power of mental
EXAMINATIONS-HINTS ON READING.
183
concentration. This is a moderate claim for the testing
power of examinations, and yet surely enough to justify
them. Of course, no one supposes that the test is infallible.
Examinations, like all systems, are no respecters of persons,
and individuals sometimes fare hardly. But in the main
they form an efficient winnowing-machine for separating
the wheat from the chaff, and it is no great condemnation
of the system, that some double first-class men do not turn
out geniuses, or that some men fail in the schools, whose
failure cannot be attributed to one of the usual causes, such
as idleness, carelessness, or extravagant pretensions. "An
examination must always remain a principal incentive to,
and satisfactory termination of, a course of hard study."
With this preface we may go on to describe Oxford
examinations in general. The most important, and those
which concern by far the largest number of students, are
those for the degree of B.A. The degree of M.A., it may
be stated here, can be taken by any graduate who is a
B.A., and qualified by standing usually from two to three.
years after that of B.A., and without any further examina-
tion. The other degrees, for which separate courses of
examinations are required, are in the schools of Law,
Medicine and Music, i.e., those of B.C.L., B.M., M.Ch., and
Mus. Bac. respectively. A special degree for Natural Science
has not yet been added.
Those who adopt the usual plan of taking the degree of
B.A. on leaving Oxford have three examinations to pass,
Responsions, Moderations and Finals. The first, Responsions,
is a pass examination for all undergraduates alike; but in
the other two, there is a choice between the Pass Schools
and the Honour Schools. Pass Moderations are on the
subjects of Divinity, Classics, and either Mathematics or
Logic. Honour Moderations are either Classical or Mathe-
matical, but all candidates must also pass in Divinity. In
pass Finals three subjects have to be chosen out of a list, in
184
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
which they are classed under four groups, no one being
permitted to select more than two subjects in the same
group. The groups and principal subjects in each are
Group A (1) Classics. (2) Roman and Greek History.
Group B (1) English or Modern History. (2) A Modern
Language. (3) Political Economy. (4) Law. Group C
(1) Mathematics. (2) Science. Group D, Theology. In
Honour Finals there is a choice of six schools, those of
Litteræ Humaniores, Divinity, Mathematics, History, Law
and Science, to which a seventh has been lately added, that
of Oriental Languages, while an eighth, that of modern
languages, is at present in embryo.
Since it is not necessary that Honours should be sought
in either or both schools, every undergraduate has four
alternatives to choose between.
He may-
(1) Take a pass in both schools.
(2) Read for Honours in Moderations, and take a pass
in Finals.
(3) Take a pass in Moderations, and read for Honours
in Finals.
(4) Read for Honours in both Moderations and Finals.
Of these alternatives, the first is adopted by the large
class, who either distrust their own powers, or wish to gain
a degree with the least necessary amount of trouble. Of
course, this is the least satisfactory manner of gaining an
Oxford training, so that some Colleges insist on every
member competing for Honours in at least one school. The
second alternative is, as a rule, adopted by those who
desire some certificate of merit in classical subjects, often
as a help to obtain a school-mastership, but who either wish
to conclude their Oxford career as soon as possible after-
wards, or who possibly have no taste for the higher subjects
required in the Final Honour Schools. It is doubtful
whether these men judge wisely, if they consider a class
gained in these schools comparatively useless as a certificate
EXAMINATIONS-HINTS ON READING.
185
for teaching purposes. We believe that most head-masters
consider the double class the most valuable guide in select-
ing assistants. The third alternative is usually the course
of those who are weak in Classics and Mathematics, or in-
capacitated for study in them by reason of ill-health, but
who have some special bent for law, history, philosophy or
science. This class of men, however, is diminishing, now
that preliminary examinations in special subjects have been
made an alternative to Moderations. The fourth is that
selected by the truest sons of Oxford. The most usual
course is to select the classical school in Honour Moderations,
and the Litteræ Humaniores in Finals. The latter is the
school par excellence of Oxford, and the appearance of its
class list is the great event of the educational year. Its
subjects may be shortly summed up as Ancient History
and Philosophy, to be studied in the original authors, and
supplemented by the study of Logic, Ethics and Politics, in
modern times, each of these terms being interpreted in its
widest sense. Some energetic men try for Honours in both
Classical and Mathematical Moderations, or in more than
one of the Final Honour Schools. Thus an embryo divine
may add a first in Theology to one in Litteræ Humaniores,
or a mathematician may try for Honours in the science
school after having gained a class in the Mathematical.
These examinations may be taken one after another, so
that the feat of taking a double-first is not so great
(6
now as it was when both schools had to be taken at the
same time. Possibly, however, the standard then was not
so severe.
To this general sketch of Oxford examinations it may be
as well to add some account of the more important changes,
which during the last few years have considerably modified
the whole system. The present is a good time to do so, since
it is probable that the present period of change is now
approaching its end. Much impatience has lately been
186
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
expressed in Congregation at the perpetual unsettling,
and many hopes uttered that the newly-constituted examina-
tions may now be allowed to develop themselves, and show
how they work.
Leaving the less important points to be commented on
in the following chapters, we may group the main changes
under the following heads :-
1. First, the times of many of the examinations have
been altered. The Honour examinations, with the excep-
tion of Mathematical Moderations, are now held only once
a year instead of twice, the Final Schools in Trinity Term,
and Classical Moderations in Hilary Term. These changes
entail increased labour on the examiners for the time
being, but were necessary for the following reason. By far
the largest number of undergraduates who seek honours
matriculate in Michaelmas Term, and enter for their Finals
at the end of their fourth year of residence, i.e., in Trinity
Term. Consequently it was found that the other half-
yearly Final Schools, held in Michaelmas Term, were almost
deserted; so few men entering for them that it was found
difficult to keep up the standard. Accordingly the transition
to abolishing them altogether was but a slight one. It
would be well if a similar change were made in Mathe-
matical Moderations. Considering the very small number
of candidates for this school, it seems strange that half-
yearly examinations should be still retained. Another im-
portant change under this head is that Responsions are now
held four times a year instead of three, and may be passed
before matriculation, or entrance at a definite College. This
at once diminishes the labour of matriculation, and frees
many a man's first term from the bugbear of examination.
2. The following great change has been made in the direc-
tion of specialization. Candidates for the Final Schools
of Mathematics, Law, and Science, are no longer required, as
formerly, to have passed Moderations. The Honour School
EXAMINATIONS-HINTS ON READING.
187
of Mathematical Moderations is now allowed to count for the
B.A. degree, while, in the schools of Law and Science, pre-
liminary examinations have been instituted, which excuse
from Pass Moderations. An attempt has been lately made to
practically extend this privilege to the History School, by
adding to Honour Moderations a third school, that of
Ancient History. The scheme was unsuccessful, but the
University, though we judge she has been wise in rejecting
it, will probably sanction some alternative scheme.¹ She
can hardly refuse to the historians a privilege already
granted to the lawyers and men of science. When this
change has been effected, all undergraduates will have the
power of specializing themselves in some definite subject im-
mediately after passing Responsions, provided that they
offer an additional subject at Responsions, presumably to
compensate for the loss of Pass Moderations.
3. The Divinity examinations have been greatly changed.
The old unsatisfactory examination in the "Rudiments of
Faith and Religion" has been abolished, its loss being com-
pensated for, partly by increasing the amount of Divinity
necessary for Moderations, partly by adding to the three
groups of the Pass Final Schools a fourth group of
Theology.
4. The study of Oriental languages has been added to
the Oxford curriculum. Besides a Final Honour School,
which has just been instituted, the privilege has been
granted to those of Indian birth and descent, of offering an
Oriental language, instead of either Latin or Greek, both
at Responsions, and at Pass Moderations. Sanskrit and
Persian are also two of the subjects in Group A of the
Final Pass Schools.
5. The changes in the details of special examinations
¹ The University is perfectly willing to concede a preliminary ex-
amination in history, if the historical tutors wish it. But at present
they do not, consequently the question remains in abeyance.
188
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
have been many. An account of most of these must be
left to the following chapters. Two, however, are of
sufficient importance to deserve special mention. The
Honour School of Classical Moderations has been revolu-
tionized by the requirement that the whole of four stated
classical authors, i.e., Homer, Virgil, Demosthenes, and
Cicero's orations, should be offered by all candidates, in-
stead of only select portions of them being read, as for-
merly. And the Final Science School has been thoroughly
re-modelled, and several new branches introduced.
6. To these changes must be added the regulations.
which, in certain cases, excuse a man from Responsions,
thus leaving him free to commence at once his higher
work. Responsions are not required of those who have
(a) passed the previous examination at Cambridge;
(b) satisfied the Oxford and Cambridge Schools' ex-
aminers in Latin, Greek, and Elementary Mathematics;
(c) obtained a special certificate at the Oxford Local
Examination;
(d) resided three years, and obtained Honours in Finals
at an affiliated College, i.e., those of Lampeter and
Nottingham;
(e) passed for the Indian Civil Service.
The excellence of most of these changes is undoubted,
but they have certainly rendered the Oxford examination
system a highly complex machine. A little calculation
reveals the fact that there are now over a hundred and fifty
ways in which the B.A. degree may be taken, and that, too,
only counting the separate examinations, and not the endless
varieties under each of them.' It is noticeable that, among
the many paths now open, there is not one as yet in which
Greek is not required, except in the unimportant case of an
If the different subjects in Pass Greats be taken into account, as
perhaps in strict fairness they should, the number of alternatives rises
to over 4,000 !
EXAMINATIONS-HINTS ON READING.
189
Indian born and bred, who may offer Sanskrit or Arabic
instead of it.
The above account has not included charges which are
still sub judice, such as the proposed Honour School of
Modern Languges.
After this description of the various examinations, and
the changes they have recently undergone, a few hints on
the method of reading for them may naturally follow. It
is unnecessary to say much, as most men readily find out the
method most suited to them, and the common sense of the
average reading man may usually be trusted, with a little
direction from his tutor. Reading, to be successful, must
of course be methodical, and the man who reads casually,
at odd hours and on no fixed principle, is not likely to do
much good to himself.
How many hours a day to work? Everybody who reads
for an examination has to give a definite answer to this
question. It is easy to see that neither the man who "works
a steady hour a day," nor the traditional pale student, who
takes no exercise, and works in the small hours of the
night, exactly hit the golden mean, but the mean itself has
to be determined by a host of individual considerations.
Speaking generally, we may say that a pass-man, or class-
man not expecting the highest honours, who works a
steady average four or four-and-a-half hours a day, with the
intention of putting on an extra hour or two when the
examination approaches, cannot be accused of wasting his
time. So also six hours a day, with a capability of ex-
panding at need to seven or eight, are enough with most
intellects of the requisite calibre to obtain first-class
honours. It is, of course, possible for strong and untiring
brains to work even nine or ten hours a day, and that, too,
without trenching on the hours of sleep and exercise, but
few have both the power and the inclination to do this.
But this advice should be given to all, never to work with
190
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
a tired brain. If after an honest effort, the mind refuses
to concentrate itself on the task before it, the best way is to
give it up for the time. Another useful caution is, to take
care that the stated number of hours of work per day is
the average number. The many distractions of Oxford life
will often rob a man of several hours a day, while on
another he may be left to himself, and may be able to make
up the time lost on the previous day. Many men believe
that they are working five or six hours a day, while in
reality only their best working days reach this standard,
and most fall far below it.
As regards the times of reading, the average man will
probably think himself sufficiently virtuous if he is up in
time for morning chapel at 8 a.m., while we should certainly
discourage him from burning midnight oil. Thus the
hours of reading will have to be got in between 9 a.m. and
11 p.m.
Of these at least two, usually from 2 to 4 p.m.,
must be set apart for exercise, and two more for hall-dinner
and a break afterwards. By working continuously during
the remainder, a man may read as much as ten hours a day.
But these are the Dis geniti,
Quos æquus amavit
Jupiter, aut ardens evexit ad æthera virtus.
The undergraduate of average human mould may fairly
reckon himself a hard-reading man, without coming
anywhere near this standard. All should be able to get
three clear hours in the morning, while some will manage
to work four at a stretch. If these hours are lost, the day
will never be a good working day. Nothing is more decep-
tive than to give them up, under the impression that they
can be retrieved in the evening. If only an hour or an
hour and a-half's work is left till after lunch, it may be
done either in the evening, or in the afternoon, by working
for an hour or an hour and a-half before hall-dinner, which
EXAMINATIONS-HINTS ON READING.
191
is at some Colleges at 6 and at others at 7 p.m. Afternoon
work is naturally the most broken up. A man who is
reading six hours a day may divide them between the
morning and the evening; but we should advise all to try
to usually get in an hour's work before hall-dinner. A good
programme for a hard day's work of eight hours is to work
from 9.30 a.m. to 1 p.m., 4.30 to 6 p.m., and 8 to 11 p.m.
In summer term, especially during the latter part of it, the
difficulty of reading increases, and temptations to idleness
spring up every hour of the day. Our advice to all would
be to make certain of getting four clear hours in the
morning before half-past one; then very little will be left
to chance.
Moreover, it is as well to be careful not to measure the
amount of work done by the hours spent in reading, for of
course the time a man passes with an open book before
him does not always represent a corresponding amount of
work. Many men who complacently contemplate their
weekly average of six hours a day, have in fact only com-
pleted an amount of work which might have been done in
half the time. We all remember little Mr. Bouncer's
reading, “It was a pleasing sight to see the little gentleman
with books spread before him, endeavouring to persuade
himself that he was getting up his subjects." The faculty
of intelligent attention cannot be acquired without practice,
any more than any other mental quality, and those who
have not adequately cultivated it at school will have some
difficulty in gaining it afterwards.
Suppose then our undergraduate with his books open
before him, and his attention concentrated on them, either
comfortably ensconced in his arm-chair, if he believes that
bodily comfort promotes work, or on a hard seat, if he has
adopted the stern Spartan theory that luxurious ease and
hard reading do not accord. The next question is how he
shall best employ his time. This leads to the consideration
192
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
of such "helps to the acquisition of knowledge" as note-
books, analyses, translations, et hoc genus omne.
Note-books are often of the utmost value, but they
require care in their use. It is a common form of self-
deception with some men to imagine that they have
mastered a subject by filling up half-a-dozen note-books
with selections from it. But the real value of note-books
is measured by the good to be got from re-perusing them
when the examination draws near. Thus, before commit-
ting a fact to a note-book a man should satisfy himself, first
that the fact is one of great importance, secondly that he
will recall it more easily by transcribing it. The characters
of note-books of course vary greatly, but perhaps their
most important use is to collect under general headings
scattered notices in different authors of men and places,
opinions, traits of characters, inconsistencies, etc. These
notices, written down shortly at the time of reading, will
prove invaluable, and should be read again and again before
the time of examination arrives. It is not too much to say
that a cultivation of this habit will often save the student
long and laborious hours of future search. Every whist-
player knows the importance of drawing one's inferences
at the time.
Again, in analysing a book—a very useful and necessary
operation in many cases-it is not necessary to turn what
should be a brief synopsis into what is practically a trans-
lation, or an abridged, and no doubt also a mutilated edition.
Two or three lines are sufficient to give the gist of a page
of most authors. Many a man will avail himself of a
standard analysis, or perhaps profit by the work of a friend,
who, having lately gone through the same examination, is
ready and ambitious to put his comrade up to all the latest
tips." But it should be understood that nothing is more
profitable, or more likely to repay trouble spent, than to
make a careful analysis for oneself.
(C
EXAMINATIONS-HINTS ON READING.
193
The help of pencil-marks in books also is by no means to
be despised. They should be carefully and not indiscrimi-
nately used, to bring out into prominence some important
fact, or the pith of some critical note. To use pencils of
different colours on a fixed principle is also a valuable help.
Thus in reading an author like Thucydides or Aristotle it
is a capital plan to underline with a blue pencil passages
which involve critical or grammatical difficulties, and with
a red pencil those which are important for the matter of
the book. Another good plan in reading a classical author
is to underline a word not known without writing the
translation at the side as is usually done. Then, on a
second reading, the memory will be effectively tested and
so strengthened.
Interleaved copies of classical authors are also very
useful. When the commentaries are numerous and lengthy,
a judicious selection of notes from them, written down in
an interleaved copy, will dispense with the necessity of
re-reading the commentaries, and thus save much valuable
time.
What advice to give on the subject of translations it is
hard to say. We should be inclined to compare them to
crutches, and to advise no one to take to them unless he is
fully persuaded that he cannot walk without their help.
Still it is useless to blink the fact that large numbers
of men, especially pass-men, habitually do and will continue
to use them. Nor is their use altogether to be discouraged
when a man has a large amount of work to do in a short
time, or, to take special cases, when a man determines to
read through several classical authors rapidly, or when a
historian or philosopher who is an indifferent scholar, finds
himself with large quantities of authors like Thucydides or
Plato to learn. But this caution is necessary. The great
danger of "cribs " is that they may give a man a tolerably
correct knowledge of the English of a passage, while his
0
194
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
ideas as to its construction and literal translation may be
of the vaguest order. But to one who is thoroughly alive
to this, and ready to supplement his work by the aid of.
grammar and dictionary, the use of translations need do
little or no harm. Of course the use of standard translations
for improving one's style, such as "Jowett's Plato," or
“Munro's Lucretius," is quite a different matter.
All undergraduates will find a large portion of their
working time taken up in attending lectures. On the
choice of lectures little need be said. Some of a man's
lectures will be chosen for him by his college, while he will
be free to add to the list at his discretion. Our sole advice
would be, not to choose too many. The college will take
care that a man attends all necessary lectures, and too many
lectures are apt to cut up the morning's work.
When a man is new to lectures, he may find some diffi-
culty in taking notes. He will probably soon find a method
by which he may be able to take down legibly what is valu-
able, and reject the useless. The best lecturers will usually
sufficiently indicate the manner in which they wish their
lectures to be taken down. Lecturers know that few men
are industrious enough to copy out afresh notes that are
confused and indistinct, while they feel that for the indus-
trious few the labour should, if possible, be saved. Of
course, there are the exceptional cases, already referred to,'
in which really valuable matter is delivered either with too
great rapidity or too little power of expression. In these
cases it may be necessary to copy out the notes again. But
usually it is easy enough to take down legible notes at the
time, though the earlier pages of some note-books will often
contain blunders, owing to a want of familiarity with the
subject. For instance, a first class-man once showed us his
philosophy note-book, on the first page of which Bishop
¹ See page 125.
1
EXAMINATIONS-HINTS ON READING.
195
Berkeley appeared as "Barclay," our friend being at the
time more familiar with the brewer than the philosopher.
"My experience tells me," said lately one of the most
eminent lecturers in Oxford, "that it may save some of you
from mistakes to mention that Xenophanes is spelt with an
X, and Zeno with a Z." A few mistakes of this character
need not impair the excellence of a well-arranged and
orderly note-book.
When the examination begins to draw nearer, the number
of lectures will naturally diminish. Then is the time to
read again carefully lecture-notes, note-books, and analyses,
and generally to gather up all the scattered threads of work,
and take a final review of it. A man well advanced in his
subjects should rather aim at diminishing than increasing
the number of his working hours during the last few weeks.
Of course, many will find themselves unable to do this.
But all should endeavour to enter the schools in good health,
and with the brain quite clear and untired. A man who
has spent most of the days and nights immediately pre-
ceding the examination in a desperate attempt to get
up hurriedly a large part of his work is hardly likely to
be in a fit condition to be examined, either mentally or
physically.
A few hints as to the examination itself may be of use.
The art of being examined is a subject on which much
might be written, but an ounce of practice is worth a ton
of theory, and as the Oxford man is not likely to be long
without this practice, we can afford to be brief.
There are certainly many men who, from various causes,
do not do themselves justice in an examination. Some fail
simply from carelessness. Carelessness about health is a
common form of this. Six hours paper-work, with the
mind at full stretch, is a severe strain for anybody, how-
ever strong. Therefore, everything should be done to keep
the mind clear and the body in health. Air and exercise
196
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
ought not to be neglected, while late hours are to be espe-
cially shunned. If excessive work before the examination
is to be discouraged, still more so ought work during the
examination itself. Many of our readers will doubtless re-
call the fate of friends, who sat up most of the night before
some dreaded paper, cramming up "tips," or learning the
hard passages, only to find, when they came with aching
heads and tired brains into the examination room next
morning, that, of the passages they had so laboriously got
up, not one had been set.
Another class fail from inability to communicate their
knowledge. The facts may perhaps be flying about their
minds, like the pigeons in the well-known simile of
Thextetus, but they may be quite unable to catch them;
or more simply, they may have no power of expression. Of
course, if a man finds himself in this state when the exami-
nation paper is before him, there is no advice to be given.
The fault must be cured by constant practice in writing
answers to questions, especially to those actually set. It
may seem a strange statement, but we believe that many
men go in for their examinations, without having looked at
any papers set previously, in order to gather the style of
question.
The style of writing should be as clear as possible, to save
the examiner trouble. Nothing is more gratifying to an
examiner than a lucid and methodical answer, in `which all
the thoughts are arranged in logical order, under their
proper headings, and every fact is in its right place. But
we do not advise anyone to cultivate too many graces of
style, unless he has a natural gift for such writing, nor to
imitate the diction of any well-known prose writer. After
all, if the facts are clearly grasped and adequately expressed,
the style will probably come of itself.
"Verbaque prævisam rem non invita sequentur.'
At the same time, a careless and slip-shod style has often
EXAMINATIONS-HINTS ON READING.
197
spoilt an otherwise good examination. Nothing, of course,
is ever gained by fine writing, when used as a cloak to
cover ignorance or poverty of thought.
Nor again is it any use to employ an allusive style. No
one should be tempted to allude to any subject he is really
ignorant of. Examiners easily see through such pretences,
and give credit for no more knowledge than the facts
absolutely set down.
A third class of examinees may be mentioned, whose
failure is due to what may be fairly called moral faults.
We are not now referring to the idlers, but to those who,
though they may have worked well, are so distrustful of
themselves that they have little hope of success, and conse-
quently are in despair when confronted by a paper which
looks hard at first sight. In such cases, to expect failure is
the surest way to court it. A man who has fully persuaded
himself that he cannot succeed is not likely to do so. The
fact is that, if a man has mastered the really important
parts of his subject, he cannot well fail, except through
want of confidence. Examiners do not, as a rule, as is
sometimes supposed, go out of their way to set abstruse
and far-fetched questions to trap the unwary.' Sometimes
even a well-prepared man will find a paper before him which
looks hard at first, and in which he seems "at sea." In
such a case he should look carefully over the paper, select
the questions he knows most about, and answer them first
to the best of his ability. By this time he will probably
find he knows something else, and thus, by steady deter-
1 'Do you know who Hadassah was, old fellow ?"
"Never heard of her."
"Ha! you may depend upon it these are the sort of questions which
pluck a man," said Mr. Bouncer, who thought-as many like him have
thought-that the getting up of a few abstruse proper names would be
proof sufficient for a thorough knowledge of the subject.
"Verdant Green," Part III., ch. ii.
198
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
mination and perseverance, he may turn into a successful
paper what would have been a decided failure had he
listened to the first promptings of despair. In fact, it is a
golden rule for all examinations always to answer first
those questions which are best known. This will often give
confidence in attacking the more doubtful questions, and
will thus increase the chance of success. It is, of course,
always to be borne in mind that no one is ever expected to
do the whole paper, and in some cases less than half, well
done, will secure the highest honours.
Of the new schools, or buildings where the examinations
are held, and which have only lately been completed, Oxford
is justly proud. Formerly the examinations were mainly
held in the rooms under the Bodleian Library, and, as
neither light nor fire is allowed there, that there may no
harm happen to the precious MSS. it contains, the position
of examinees was sometimes very uncomfortable. The
present writer has been examined on the shortest day of
the year, when there was a hard frost, and snow on the
ground. Apart from the cold, it was barely possible to get
six hours' daylight, and the afternoon paper had to be
finished in semi-darkness. In the splendid buildings just
erected in the High Street there is every facility for light
and warmth, so that the present generation of under-
graduates are, in this respect, better off than their prede-
cessors.
After the paper-work is over, there remains the vivi
voce. Between the two there is usually a weary and
anxious interval; for the examiners may not begin the vivá
voce until all the paper-work has been looked over, and
when they do begin they examine very few each day.
Perhaps few ordeals are more terrible to the average under-
graduate than this awful ceremony. Many are the stories
about the "ploughing" propensities of dons, the stern joy
they feel at badgering the unfortunate victims, who are
EXAMINATIONS-HINTS ON READING.
199
"Butchered to make a Roman holiday."
The reality, perhaps, will not be so bad as the anticipation.
Dons are but human, and can scarcely help being amused
at the occasional absurdity of the answers, or indulging in
sarcasm when some obvious idler is before them. But the
man who has worked well need not fear ill-treatment. His
possible nervousness or inability to collect his thoughts will
not jeopardize a success which his paper-work has entitled
him to.
It is an understood rule that viva voce may raise
a man's place in a class-list, but cannot lower it. Those,
accordingly, whose class or pass is secured by their paper-
work have a nominal viva voce. Those whose work is
doubtful, i.e., nearly, but not quite, sufficient to give them
a pass or definite class, may often have a long and searching
vivá voce.
This does not mean needless torture, as the
victim may be inclined to think, but indicates that the
examiners are bent on making themselves clear if there are
any grounds for not withholding the pass or class.
Little advice is necessary for viva voce. An hour or
two hours' work a day, merely to keep the subjects fresh
in the memory, is usually enough. It is, however, often
as well to find out and be ready with the corrections of
any serious mistakes that may have been made in the
paper-work; for they will probably be heard of again.
Also, if a man feels he has shown special weakness in any
one subject, he should look over it again, and be ready for
questions on it.
In the Pass Schools the examinee is not kept long in
suspense. The same day that he undergoes vivú vocc he
may learn his fate of the Clerk of the Schools, from whom,
if successful, he will receive on payment of a shilling, a fee
which surely no man ever yet grudged, a testamur," so
called from the most prominent Latin word on it. A
class-man has to wait until the list comes out. This,
in many cases, is very late now that most examinations
200
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
are only held once a year. Thus, last year (1886) the
class-list for Litteræ Humaniores was not issued until
August 7th, although the summer term ended in the middle
of June.
F. G. B.
A
CHAPTER IX.
THE PASS SCHOOLS.
DEGREE being at least one of the objects of the
passman's career, it is necessary for him to deliberate
as to the means of achieving that desirable end. And here,
as has been facetiously remarked in other departments of
action, there appear to be three, if not more, courses open
to him. He may place himself under the private tuition
of one of the examiners for the time being, and having with
his guidance gone carefully through the papers before the
examination may emerge successful, if demoralized, from
the ordeal. Or he may adopt the more difficult but cheaper
plan of taking with him into the schools various adven-
titious aids. Or he may read his subjects with honesty
and industry.
Of these three courses, the first two are not recommended
to the aspiring passman. Apart from the discredit attach-
ing to them, they are attended not only with considerable
difficulty but with certain practical unpleasantness to the
parties concerned, as indeed any faithful history of academic
matters would record.
The suggestions, therefore, which follow are based on
the supposition that the passman is not only honourable,
but wise, and will adopt the true course, that of honest
work.
Admission to a College.
Applications for admission to a College should be made
by parent or guardian not less than one year before residence
202
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
is desired. For those who are regarded as fit and promis-
ing candidates for Scholarships, application is unnecessary,
testimonials of good conduct and certificates of birth being
sufficient at the time of the examination.
Matriculation.
The subjects for Matriculation are commonly as follows:
1. Translation from one Latin and one Greek book, to
•
be chosen by the candidate from a specified list.
2. Translation from English into Latin.
3. Latin and Greek Grammar.
4, Arithmetic, and Euclid books I., II., or, Algebra
to Quadratic Equations.
The above subjects are absolutely necessary, and are
identical with the subjects required for Responsions. In
addition to these the following are in many cases added.
5. Passages of unprepared Latin and Greek authors.
6. The Gospels, or some of them, in the Greek.
7. An English Essay.
8. A special subject, e.g., History, or Advanced Mathe-
matics.
The last two items, 7 and 8, commonly figure in the
examinations of those Colleges only which require all their
members to take Honours.
Subjects for Responsions.
It is now common to pass Responsions or obtain the cer-
tificate of the Delegates for the Examination of persons not
members of the University, before matriculating. This
done, candidates are matriculated at many Colleges, without
further examination; and at others after an examination in
the extra subjects only, marked 5, 6, 7, and 8, in the fore-
going list.
The suggestions, therefore, which follow, relating to
Responsions, will apply in a great measure to Matriculation.
THE PASS SCHOOLS.
203
Selection of Books.
The common advice, "pick the easiest," is not difficult
to give, but very difficult to follow. The advice here offered
is “Decide if possible whether you are going to read for
Honours in any school. If so, your selection of books for
Responsions will be easily made. But if you are bent upon
a Pass Degree, remember that if you offer certain authors
for Responsions, you are precluded from offering them for
Moderations and Finals. If, for example, you offer Livy
for Responsions, and Herodotus for Moderations, you are
precluded from offering either of those authors for Finals.
And you will thus have cut off the easier of the books.
admissible for the latter examination. Again, if you offer
Xenophon's Anabasis or Hellenics for Responsions, you
cannot offer the Memorabilia for Moderations, a book which
is certainly easier than the combination of Plato at present
admissible."
Regard will of course also be had to the peculiar condi-
tions of the particular candidate. If, for example, he has
decided "late in life" to enter the University, and practic-
ally has to begin his Latin and Greek again, he will not be
wise to offer Eschylus or Aristophanes, Plautus or Tacitus
for Responsions. For absolute easiness, Cæsar's De Bello
Gallico and Xenophon's Anabasis may be recommended.
The former is especially useful as a help to Latin writing.
But they are wearisome and uninteresting to a degree.
Perhaps two plays of Euripides, such as Hecuba and
Alcestis, with Horace, three books of the Odes, and the
Ars Poetica will be found to combine as nearly as possible
ease and interest of subject. Whether Algebra be offered
in preference to Euclid will depend very much on the incli-
nation of the Candidate. It is submitted that all men can
be taught sufficient Algebra to satisfy the examiners, but
that for some Euclid is absolutely hopeless.
Responsions over Moderations can be passed in the 4th
204
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
term from Matriculation. The work cannot be prepared
in less than two terms, and for many this is insufficient.
Subjects for Moderations.
(1)
FOR ALL CANDIDATES.
The Examination in Holy Scripture will, until further
notice, consist of an Examination in—
(1) The Gospel of St. Matthew and the Gospel of St.
John.
(2) Either the subject-matter of the Acts of the Apostles,
or that of the two books of Samuel.¹
Candidates who are permitted by the Statutes to offer an
additional Greek book instead of Holy Scripture will, until
further notice, be required to offer the Phædo of Plato, and
Candidates who are permitted to offer a Sanskrit or an
Arabic book, instead of Holy Scripture, will be required to
offer-
(1) as a Sanskrit book, Mudrā-rākshasa, substituting the
Sanskrit interpretation for the Prakrit passages.
(2) as an Arabic book, Kosegarten's Tabari, vol. iii.
pp. 55—87, or Cureton's Shahrastāni, pp. 21–251.
(2)
FOR THOSE WHO DO NOT SEEK HONOURS.
Classics.
Candidates will be required, until further notice, to select
three books from the following list,-two of such books
being Latin and one Greek, or two being Greek and one
Latin,—and one of such books at least being some portion
1 To be studied in the Revised Version of 1885.
THE PASS SCHOOLS.
205
of a historical or a philosophical work, selected from those
books which are marked with an asterisk:
GREEK.
*Herodotus, V., VI.
*Thucydides, VI., VII.
*Xenophon, Memorabilia,I.,II.,IV.
*Plato, Apologia, Meno.
*Aristotle, Politics, I., III.
Homer, Odyssey, VI.-XII.
Sophocles, Oedipus Rex, Oedipus
Coloneus, Antigone.
Aristophanes, Acharnenses, Nubes.
Demosthenes, Philippics, in Lepti-
nem.
LATIN.
*Livy, XXI.-XXIII.
*Tacitus, Histories I.—III.
Cicero, Pro Roscio Amerino, Pro
Milone.
Terence, Andria, Phormio, Heau-
tontimoroumenos.
Virgil, Aeneid, VII.-XII.
Horace, Sat. I, II.; Epist. I., II.
Juvenal (except Sat. II., VI., IX.,
XV., XVI.).
[The above list is obligatory on all Candidates who
matriculated in and after Easter Term, 1885.]
In accordance with the provisions of the Examination
Statute, Candidates will "be required to show a competent
knowledge both of the text and of the contents of the
books which they offer, and to answer not only questions
relating to Grammar and Literature, but also any ques-
tions directly arising out of the matters treated of in these
books."
Mathematics.
For Candidates who offer Mathematics the subjects of
examination will be-
(i) In Algebra, Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and
Division of Algebraical Quantities (including simple
irrational quantities expressed by radical signs or fractional
indices), Greatest Common Measure and Least Common
Multiple, Fractions, Extraction of Square Root, Simple
Equations, containing one or two unknown quantities,
Quadratic Equations, containing one unknown quantity,
Questions producing such Equations, and the simplest
properties of Ratio and Proportion :
206
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
(ii) In Geometry, the Geometry of the Circle, viz., Euclid,
Book III., and the first nine Propositions of Book IV.
Logic.
For Candidates who offer Logic the subjects of examina-
tion will be the elements of Logic, Deductive and Inductive.
These subjects may be studied in Fowler's Elements of
Deductive Logic, and the first five chapters of Fowler's
Elements of Inductive Logic (omitting the sections on
Classification, Nomenclature, and Terminology, and the
notes appended at the end of each chapter), or in Jevons'
Elementary Lessons in Logic, or in any other works which
cover the same ground.
(3)
FOR THOSE WHO OFFER SANSKRIT OR ARABIC.
Candidates who, under the provisions of Statt. Tit. VI.
B. § 1. cl. 10, offer Sanskrit or Arabic as a substitute for
either Greek or Latin at the First Public Examination will
be required, until further notice, to select the book, or the
two books, which they offer from the following lists: but
in no case will a Candidate be allowed to offer the same
book, or any part of it, in which he satisfied the Masters
of the Schools.
I. SANSKRIT.
PAÑĆA-TANTRA: Book I., or Books
II., III.
RAGHU-VANSA : I.—VII.
KUMARA-SAMBHAVA: I.-VII.
BHAGAVAD-GITA: the whole.
BHAṬṬI-KAVYA: I.-V., with the
commentary of Jayamangala.
II. ARABIC.
(1) KUR'AN: Sur. 1, 19, 90-114,
with the commentary of al-
Baidāwī (ed. Fleischer) on
Sur. 19.
(2) The MU'ALLAKÄT: any two of
the poems with the comment-
ary (ed. Arnold).
(3) AL-HARIRI: any three Makā-
mas with commentary.
(4) EL-FAKHRI (ed. Ahlwardt),
pp. 1-175, or 176–390.
(5) [EL-BELĀDHORI]: Anonyme
Arabische Chronik (ed. Ahl-
wardt, Bd. xi., ed. 1883), pp.
161-359.
THE PASS SCHOOLS.
207
Candidates who offer two Arabic books will be required
to offer either (1), or (2), or (3), with either (4) or (5).
Candidates will also be required to translate short passages
from books not specially offered by them, and, unless they
offer Latin, to translate from English into the language
which they offer.
In selecting books for this, the second examination, regard
must again be had to Finals. But this need only limit the
Candidate, so far that he will be wise to offer neither Livy
nor Herodotus, in order that he may still retain his choice
of those books for Finals. Of the other subjects, for
choice, Logic, Mathematics, popular opinion seems to favour
the former. The examination in Holy Scripture, though
still virtually a part of Moderations, may be passed
separately, and is incumbent on all alike, whether Pass or
Honour men.
Our Passman, therefore, being safely through Modera-
tions, has for his Final Schools to choose three subjects from
the following four groups :-
IN GROUP A.
Subjects for Finals.
(1) a. Greek Philosophical Works.
Plato, Republic I.-IV.
Aristotle, Ethics, Books I.-IV. (omitting chapter vi.
of Book I.), together with chapters vi.-x. of Book
X. (from Eipnμévor de to the end of the Treatise).
Politics, Books I., III., VII. (following the old order of
the Books).
6. Historians.
Greek. Thucydides, VI., VII.
""
Herodotus, VII., VIII.
Latin. Livy, XXI.-XXIII.
""
Tacitus, Annals I.—III.
208
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
(2) Outlines of History.
Greek, from the Legislation of Solon to the death
of Alexander the Great.
Roman, from the establishment of the Republic to
the death of Domitian.
(3) Sanskrit. Manu I.-VI.; and Sakuntalā.
(4) Persian. (Gulistan, Books VII., VIII.; Būstān, Books
I., II.; and Sikandar-nāma, Cantos XIII.-XXIV.
IN GROUP B.
(1) Either English History to 1815, together with one
of the following subjects of Literature—
(a) Piers Ploughman, The Prologue, Passus i.-vii.
Chaucer, The Prologue, The Knightes Tale, The
Nonne Prestes Tale.
(b) Shakespeare-Richard II. Hamlet. Tempest.
King Lear.
Or one of the following periods of Modern European
History-
(a) 1048—1254, to be read in Milman's History of
Latin Christianity.
(b) 1517-1648, to be read in Dyer's Modern
Europe. Candidates will be required to show a
knowledge of the Political and Descriptive Geo-
graphy belonging to the period which they offer.
(2) (a) French Language and Composition.
(i) The following Books are to be specially prepared:
(a) Molière, Le Tartuffe.
(6) Either Corneille, Les Horaces. Or Racine,
Athalie.
(7) Voltaire, Siècle de Louis XIV., chapters i.-xxiv.
(ii) A general acquaintance with the History of the
Literature of the Age of Louis XIV. will be
required.
(b) German Language and Composition.
THE PASS SCHOOLS.
209
(i) The following Books are to be specially prepared:
(a) Schiller, The Maid of Orleans.
(B) Either Goethe, Hermann und Dorothea.
Lessing, Nathan der Weise.
Or
(7) Goethe, Wahrheit und Dichtung, Books I.-IV.
(ii) A general acquaintance with the History of the
Classical Period of German Literature (from Klop-
stock to Goethe) will be required.
Unseen passages for translation will also be set in French
and German.
(3) The Elements of Political Economy, to be read in
Fawcett's "Political Economy," and in the fol-
lowing portions of Adam Smith's "Wealth of
Nations," viz., Book I. chapters viii., ix., X., xi.
(Parti.); Book II. chapters i., iii., iv., v.; Book IV.
chapters i., ii., vii.; Book V., chapter ii. (omitting
Art. 4).
(4) Either The Principles of the English Law of
Contracts, to be studied either in "The Principles
of the English Law of Contract" by Sir W. R. Anson
(Clarendon Press Series), or in Pollock's "Prin-
ciples of Contracts in Law and Equity," or in other
works of similar character;
Or The Institutes of Justinian, omitting from Book II.,
Title 11, to Book III., Title 12 ;
Or The Hindu Law of the Family, Family Property,
and Inheritance, which may be studied in the “Trea-
tise on Hindu Law and Usage," by J. D. Mayne.
IN GROUP C.
(1) The Elements of Plane Geometry, including the
doctrine of similar triangles, viz., Euclid Books
I.-IV., with the definitions of Book V., and Book
VI., Propositions 1-19.
The Elements of Trigonometry, including the tri-
gonometrical ratios of the sum of two angles, the
P
210
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
solution of plane triangles, the use of logarithms,
and the mensuration of plane rectilinear figures.
(2) The Elements of the Mechanics of Solid and Fluid
Bodies, including the composition and resolution of
forces, centre of gravity, the simple machines and
the application of virtual velocities to them, the
laws of motion, the laws of falling bodies, the
motion of projectiles, the pressure of fluids on sur-
faces, the equilibrium of floating bodies exclusive of
the theory of stability, the methods of determining
specific gravities, the laws of elastic fluids, simple
hydrostatical and pneumatical machines.
(3) The Elements of Chemistry, with an elementary
practical examination.
Candidates who intend to offer this subject for exami-
nation are recommended to read that part of Roscoe's
"Lessons in Elementary Chemistry," which treats of
Inorganic Chemistry (pp. 1-289, edition 1873).
The practical examination will be in the following
subjects as treated of in Harcourt and Madan's
"Exercises in Practical Chemistry".
1. The preparation and examination of gases (pp.
62-112, edition 1873).
2. The qualitative analysis of single substances
(pp. 255-310, edition 1873; see also sections
IV. and V. of Part I, omitting that which
relates to substances or properties of substances
not referred to in the Analytical Course).
(4) The Elements of Physics.
Candidates offering themselves for examination in this
subject will be expected to show an acquaintance
with Part I., together with any two of Parts II.,
III., IV., of the following treatise:-
Elementary Treatise on Natural Philosophy, by
1
THE PASS SCHOOLS.
211
Deschanel.
Everett.
Part I. Mechanics, Hydrostatics, and Pneumatics.
Part II. Heat. Part III. Electricity and Mag-
netism, of which chapter xlvi. may be omitted in the
edition of 1883, or chapter xxxix. in the earlier
editions. Part IV. Light and Sound.
Translated and edited by Professor
IN GROUP D.
(1) (a) Isaiah, chapters i.-xii., xxviii.-xxxiii., with the
contemporary history as recorded in 2 Kings, chap-
ters xv.-xx., 2 Chronicles, chapters xxvi.-xxviii. ;
and (b) The First Epistle to the Corinthians, of which
chapters i.-xi. are to be studied in the original
Greek.
(2) The Nicene Creed, together with the Articles of
Religion, xix.-xxviii. ;
or The ecclesiastical history of the period, A.D. 313-361.
(3) Genesis, chapters xii.-xxi., to be studied in the
original Hebrew; or Genesis, chapters xii.-xxxv.,
to be studied in the Septuagint Version; or Gene-
sis, chapters xii.-1., to be studied in the Vulgate
Version;
or Butler's "Analogy of Religion," Part I., omitting
chapters i. and vi.
Not more than two subjects may be taken from any
group; and one subject must be either A (1), A (3), A (4),
or B (2); in other words, a language.
A modern language, except in very rare cases, is not
recommended, if a testamur be the end of the Passman's
studies. It is a tempting subject to those who have resided
or travelled abroad. But to such persons it is often
especially fatal, because the probability is that their educa-
tion has been intermittent, and that their grammatical
knowledge is of the scantiest, no matter how fluent their
212
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
conversational powers may be. To Army Candidates or
Indian Civilians, content with a pass degree, these remarks
will, of course, not apply. And with the latter the Sanskrit
and Persian will no doubt be popular.
There remains, therefore, for the majority of Passmen
A (1). For this examination, one of the two authors must
be a historian, one a philosopher. For the historian, it
may be safely said that Livy is easier than Tacitus, and
Herodotus than either, except for those who from unac-
countable reasons find Greek harder than Latin. Whether
the philosopher should be Plato or Aristotle, and if Aris-
totle-which book-Ethics or Politics, is a more difficult
matter on which to advise. This much may be said, that
it is useless to read the Politics with a Tutor, who is not a
thorough student of Political Economy, as well as a good
scholar. With such a teacher the Politics for Group A and
Political Economy for a second subject would make a
suitable and congenial combination. The objection to
the Republic is that the subjects are so wide, open to so
much discussion and difference of opinion, that a teacher is
apt to get discursive, and a pupil argumentative, pugilistic,
and impatient, with the usual result that the most impor-
tant part-the text-is neglected.
On the whole the balance is in favour of the Ethics.
A (1) having been selected, the remaining subjects will
be chosen, according to the Candidate's taste and intended
career. If he meditates entering Holy Orders, he will be
wise to offer Group D, for, by so doing, he will cover a
great portion of his Bishop's Examination If he purposes
being articled to a Solicitor, he will choose Contracts; if
for the Bar, either Contracts or Roman Law. The latter
is recommended for two reasons. It is the proper subject
with which to begin a liberal legal education; and the
standard and style required for Oxford resemble the
requirements of the Bar Examination in Roman Law,
THE PASS SCHOOLS.
213
so that both examinations can be passed simultaneously.
"Contracts" is, of course, one of the subjects for the Bar
Call, but the knowledge required for that examination is of
a far more practical and professional nature than that of
the Oxford Examinations, whether for Pass or Honours.
For the Candidate who is influenced by no professional
considerations, Contracts and Political Economy, even
though studied within the narrow limits of a Pass School,
will undoubtedly be the most valuable subjects for selection.
Ancient History will only be chosen if in the Candidate's
school training such matters have not been neglected. If
neglected, this subject had better be shunned. It cannot
easily be "picked up." The same remark applies to Modern
History and Literature; while it is believed that if men
have any taste for Mathematics or Physics, they will be
reading for Honours in one of those subjects.
Before passing to a few suggestions on the methods of
study, it may be well to advise the Passman who has
chosen A (1) to offer that subject as soon after Moderations
as possible. He will find that Aristotle and Plato come far
more easily to him when fresh from having read Plato or
Xenophon for the former examination, than if he has
spent a year in passing-say, Law and Political Economy.
The Summer Term is the better time for A (1), because
two terms, with only the Easter Vacation, immediately
precede.
Methods of Study.
Grammar. Assuming a fair knowledge of grammar,
the best way of testing it is by papers, set at first in pro-
gressive form, afterwards mixed. Two, at least, out of
three should be done with the help of books, more know-
ledge being gained by the labour of turning over the leaves
of Dictionaries and Lexicons, than by learning pages of
grammar books by rote. During correction, which will, of
course, be written, searching viva voce questions will be put
214
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
to the pupil, for it occasionally happens that the lips are
unable to reproduce what the pen has so smoothly written
down. Answers to questions of all sorts should be written
in note-books, and on one side of the page only. The tutor
will then have ample space for correcting and writing
answers omitted by the pupil, and the pupil will feel he has
some tangible benefit to take away with him from lecture.
A constant reference to old papers, their mistakes and
corrections, is of the utmost value.
Prose. As a rule, the pieces given in the published
selections are too difficult. And it is submitted that more
can be learnt from doing easy pieces well, from polishing
and improving what is within the pupil's power, than from
attempting pieces beyond him, and above the requisite
standard. The safest selection to work from is that of the
pieces which have been actually set in examination. But a
pains-taking tutor will himself write pieces of English for
his pupils, framed in such a way as to test the particular
mistakes to which they are liable. Above all, pieces should
be done by the pupil with his tutor. Such a system inspires
the necessary mutual confidence. A pupil requires more
than the mere scoring of his mistakes.
Texts. Here, more than in any other part of his
work, the Candidate is dependent on himself. All the
tutors in the world cannot get up his texts for him. Then
there is the momentous question-Dictionaries and Lexicons
or Cribs? The only answer is that, provided the former
are honestly used, there is not much harm in the latter.
But if the Passman wants to know what he so often
piteously asks, "How he is to fit himself for doing
unseens?" the answer must unhesitatingly be given, “By
preparing your set books with your Dictionary and Lexicon.”
How can a man, who merely crams a set book with a crib,
expect to translate an unseen piece at sight? Those who
have prepared their set books most honestly will, as a rule,
THE PASS SCHOOLS.
215
do best in unseen work: But it is not enough merely to
prepare his work. The Candidate must also go through the
mill of saying it; and let him not be beguiled by the
pleasant tutor who translates to him. Such a method is
easiest and pleasantest for the tutor, for it involves no trial
of patience. It is the most seductive way for the pupil, for
it involves no labour. But it is a fatal way with a view to
success. It is the pupil's business to translate, the tutor's
to correct and improve. And even if, as may happen, the
pupil has so serious an impediment in his speech as to
render vivú voce almost impossible, still the tutor must resist
the temptation. There is nothing to be done but the
stupendous work of making the pupil write out, under his
tutor's eye, all the difficult passages, the tutor translating
to him all the easier ones.
For the taking of notes, interleaved texts save time, but
a clean text should always be used for the final revise.
What notes should be taken is a difficult point to settle. A
good, though rough, rule is, never to take down what your
tutor's correction has merely helped you to remember. If,
in translating, you forget a word, and a correction brings
back to you what you once knew, do not make a note of
that, or you will never improve your memory. But where,
in preparing, you failed to understand a construction, take
down from your tutor first a literal translation, and then an
improved version. Be content with nothing short of that.
The man who cannot give you a literal translation is either
lazy or ignorant.
When the "subject matter," as well as the text has
to be known, it cannot be too strongly urged that it
is from the text alone, that the subject matter can
properly be learnt. The popular notion appears to be
to get up the text without any regard for its meaning, and
then cram the subject matter from Mr. So-and-So's notes.
Nothing can be more absurd and unsatisfactory. The pupil
216
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
is not taught, but only crammed; and further, in books
like Plato and Aristotle will usually fail. Papers first pro-
gressive, and afterwards general, should be set, and answered
direct from the text. If the pupil thinks an analysis will
help him, he should make it himself. When made, he may
throw it in the fire. The labour of making, and the effort
of condensation will have taught him most of what he
wanted to know.
Mathematics. For Euclid, viva voce instruction, varied
from time to time by papers done without books, is the
most effectual method of preparation. For Algebra and
Arithmetic work under the personal supervision of the tutor
is the only satisfactory way to clear up difficulties.
Logic, Law, and Political Economy. Here again the
dictation of analyses by tutors is deprecated. When the
pupil has read his books through once, he is fit to begin a
series of easy progressive questions, writing his answers
with the full assistance of the books. Then if he is ques-
tioned on what he has written, it will soon be discovered
what he understands. In Logic and Law, problems may
be set by the tutor to be answered by each pupil in
the Lecture hour. The reading out of the answers
will induce a wholesome spirit of rivalry. Progressive
questions finished, mixed papers should commence, the
answers being written without direct consultation of the
books.
History. The same remarks more or less apply to
History, though cross-questioning and "badgering" are
not so needful. More attention will have to be paid to
style.
As to paper work generally, the tutor's difficulty will be
to steer between giving complete written answers to ques-
tions without talking them out, and merely talking over
the questions without giving written answers.
Both plans
are necessary. The pupil will no doubt prefer written correc-
THE PASS SCHOOLS.
217
tions and no badgering. But if he desires to be thoroughly
taught, and to be able to stand the trial of vivâ voce exami-
nation, he will submit to be badgered, remembering that
badgering gives no pleasure to the tutor, but is merely a
proof that he is conscientious.
It is hoped that the foregoing remarks will be accepted
in the spirit in which they are made. They are not meant
to teach tutors their duty, but merely to indicate to the
Passman what he should look for in his teacher, and how
he can most effectively profit by his teaching. Still less is
there any intention to draw invidious distinctions between
College and private tutors. Both have their province. For
the majority of Passmen, College tuition ought to be suffi-
cient, provided subjects are duly completed in lecture, and
papers properly looked over. But for those whose education
has been neglected, or who feel themselves unable to grasp
a subject thoroughly in the publicity of the class-room,
the individual attention of private tuition is imperative;
always, however, to supplement and not take the place of
College work.
F. E. W.
CHAPTER X.
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS.
THE subject of the present chapter is the principal
Oxford examination in pure Classics. Every under-
graduate who has already passed Responsions, or some
equivalent examination, is eligible as a Candidate for it,
provided only that he has entered on his fourth and not
exceeded his eighth term of residence. Since the exami-
nation is now held once a year only, in Hilary Term, it
follows that the vast majority of undergraduates who
matriculate in Michaelmas Term have only one opportunity
of entering for it, i.e., in their seventh term of residence.
The sweeping change lately effected, which has so com-
pletely altered the character of this examination, has been
already referred to. To fully exhibit its scope and import-
ance, we will first transcribe the new regulations from the
examination statutes, then point out in what respects they
differ from the old, and finally state what causes led to the
change, and what results its promoters wished to secure.
The following is a complete copy of the new regulations
under which a part of the candidates were examined last
year (1886), but which come into force this year for all
Candidates alike.
I. All Candidates for Honours will be examined in the
following subjects:-
!
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS.
219
1. Translation of passages taken from Homer, Virgil,
Demosthenes, and Cicero's Orations.
2. Translation of passages taken from Greek and Latin
authors other than the four above named.
3. Portions of authors specially offered. Candidates
are required to offer three books from the following
list. Not more than one book may be taken from
any one group.
A (1). Eschylus, the Trilogy, or any four plays in-
cluding the Agamemnon.
(2) Sophocles, any three plays; or, any two plays with
the Agamemnon of Eschylus.
(3) Euripides, any four of the following plays:-
Bacchæ, Hippolytus, Ion, Iphigenia in Tauris,
Medea, Phoenissæ, Hecuba, Alcestis.
B (1). Aristophanes, any three of the following plays :
Acharnenses, Aves, Equites, Nubes, Ranæ, Vespæ.
(2) Thucydides, any three consecutive books.
(3) Pindar, Olympian and Pythian Odes.
(4) Theocritus.
(5) Plato, Republic, Books I.-IV.; or, the Gorgias
and Protagoras.
C (1). Horace, Odes, Epodes, Carmen Seculare, and
Ars Poetica, with either the Satires or the Epistles.
(2) Juvenal (omitting Satires II., VI., IX.), with
either Persius, or one book of the Satires of Horace.
(3) Catullus (selections published by the Clarendon
Press), with Propertius, Books I.—III., or IV., V.
D (1). Tacitus, Annals I.-IV., or the Histories.
(2) Livy, Books II.-V.
(3) Plautus, any four of the following plays:-
Amphitruo, Aulularia, Captivi, Menæchmi, Miles
Gloriosus, Mostellaria, Rudens, Trinummus.
(4) Terence.
(5) Lucretius, Books I., II., III., IV., V.
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OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
(6) Cicero, Letters, Parts I. and II. of Watson's Selec-
tion, or De Oratore, Books I., II.
Candidates are recommended not to offer more than three
books, unless they do so under the regulations of Sect. III.
The examination in these books will include questions.
bearing upon their contents, style, and literary history.
Questions will also be set in Greek and Latin Grammar,
literary criticism, and antiquities.
The following arrangement of papers is contemplated in
these regulations:-
Authors named in class I.-six hours.
Other authors not offered-three hours.
Books offered-three hours for each book.
General paper, grammar, etc.—three hours.
II. Candidates must also offer one of the following sub-
jects :-
(1) The history of the Greek Drama, with Aristotle's
Poetics (omitting chapters xx. and xxv.).
(2) The history of Attic Oratory, with Jebb's Selections.
(3) The history of Roman Poetry to the end of the
Augustan age, with Quintilian De Instit. Orat.,
Book X.
(4) The elements of Deductive Logic with either
Magrath's Selections from the Organon, §§ 3-6,
22-33, 36-47, 50-53, 61-66, 68 and first para-
graph of 69, 105-112, 118-127 (all inclusive); or,
such portions of Inductive Logic as are contained
in Mill's Logic, Book III., chapters i.-iv., vi.-—viii.,
x.—xii., and xx.
(5) The elements of Comparative Philology (including
Syntax) as applied to the illustration of the Greek
and Latin languages.
Candidates are recommended not to offer more than two
of these subjects unless they do so under the regulations of
Sect. III.
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS.
221
III. All candidates will be examined in Latin Prose
Composition.
Papers will also be set in Greek Prose Composition, and
in Greek and Latin Verse Composition, but—
(1) The omission of either or both of the Verse Compo-
sition papers may be compensated for by a fourth book
from the list in Sect. I., clause 3, or an additional subject
taken from the list in Sect. II. When a candidate under
this regulation offers four books he will be required to
select one book from each of the four groups, A, B, C, D.
(2) The omission of Greek Prose Composition may be
compensated for by an additional subject taken from the
list in Sect. II.
It should be understood that failure in or the omission
of any one paper will not necessarily prevent a candidate
from obtaining the highest honours.
The changes which these new regulations have introduced
are fully described under the following headings:-
(1) By far the most striking and important innovation is
that contained in Section I., clause 1. Under the old
regulations the four authors, Homer, Virgil, Demosthenes,
and Cicero, were compulsory, but otherwise were treated
exactly like the rest. Candidates had to choose one of the
alternative portions offered in the case of each author, on
which papers were set exactly similar to those on the other
books.
1
But now these four authors are separated from
the rest in two important respects. They are to be read as
wholes, not as parts, and translation passages only are set
on them.
(2) The number of specially offered authors has been
fixed at three. Formerly it was possible to offer one as a
minimum (besides the four compulsory books), but the
usual number offered was four. Thus, while the minimum
1 It will be noticed that in Cicero only the speeches are so treated.
1
222
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
number of books used to be five, and the practical maximum
eight, the number is now definitely fixed at seven, except
for those who take up an extra book to compensate for the
omission of the verse paper.
(3) The papers set on the special books now include
questions bearing on their contents, style, and literary
history. Such questions were, indeed, under the old
statutes "considered an integral portion of the exami-
nation." But they were only set in the general critical
papers; while now every paper on a special book
contains two or three general questions. Thus these
questions now occupy a far more important place in the
examination.
(4) The number of hours allotted to the books in the old
examination was twelve, six hours for the four compulsory,
and six for the special books, however many in number (a
regulation which practically limited their number to four).
Now four hours are allotted for the translations in the com-
pulsory books, and three hours each for the papers on the
special books; thus making a total of thirteen hours. The
effect of this alteration is greatly to increase the relative
value of the three special books.
(5) The special books have been divided into four
groups, and only one book may be selected from each. This
limitation of the freedom of choice renders the selection
more representative than before. The only restrictions on
the freedom of choice used to be that the Greek and Latin
books should be, if possible, equal in number, and that a
Greek dramatist had to be offered by all who took up more
than five books in all.
(6) An extra subject has been added, "The history of
Attic Oratory," while the two special subjects, "The
history of the Greek Drama," and "The general history of
Roman Poetry," which were formerly alternatives, may now
be both taken up at the same time, if desired.
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS.
223
(7) The omission of Verse and Greek Prose Composition
may be now more fully compensated for than under the old
regulations.
The most important among these changes are those
specified under the heads (1), (3), and (4). It may be also
noticed that the combined effect of (3) and (6) is to greatly
increase the value of the study of Greek and Latin
literature.
It is worth while to add, that, though the character of
the examination has been so thoroughly revolutionized, none
of the authors included in the list of books have been
changed, and very few alterations made in the selected
portions to be offered. The principle underlying the list is
that poets and orators should be read for Moderations,
while historians and philosophers are reserved for the Final
Schools. Exceptions to this rule are made in the case of
Thucydides, Plato, Tacitus, and Livy, for reasons which
the classical scholar will easily divine.
We have now to consider the causes of this important
change. Historically, it may be connected with a series of
similar changes which have been made of late years in
most public examinations in England. Each of these may
be roughly described as a change from prepared to un-
prepared books, from seen to unseen translation. All com-
petition examinations which included Classics among their
subjects began by prescribing certain authors or portions
of authors, on which Candidates would be specially
examined. But it was quickly found that many, who came
up perfectly able to fulfil the examination requirements in
the authors set, had no real knowledge of the Latin or
Greek language apart from them, and were sometimes even
ludicrously deficient in elementary knowledge. Accord-
ingly a change has been made in many important examina-
tions, especially in those for the Army, so that passages for
translation are now set, not from stated books, but from
224
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
the whole field of the Classics, the standard, of course, not
being made too severe. Success in translating these
passages will evidently depend, partly on the extent of the
candidate's reading, partly on his knowledge of the
language. There can be no question but that these
changes have considerably improved the Army and other
examinations.
Oxford has sought a similar remedy for an evil of a
kindred nature, with this difference, that she has not had
the task of improving an examination that worked badly,
but rather of rendering still more efficient one that has
already produced excellent results. The principal part in
Honour Moderations, as formerly constituted, was the
minute learning of fixed portions of eight classical authors.
Now capital editions of these authors, with ample notes,
have lately poured from the press with such rapidity, that
the task of getting them up has been considerably simpli-
fied, and can no longer be considered a test of classical
knowledge, but merely of application and conscientious
study of notes. The labour had been so facilitated, that
success no longer marked out the true scholar, for whom
alone it was felt that first-class honours should be reserved.
It was all very well to have such weapons of precision, but
what if they abolished the distinction between the average
and the first-rate marksman ? Besides, it was felt that
the Classics were being studied more as a series of problems
in grammar, than as authors, who had a meaning and a
literary worth.
"I am very glad," a member of Con-
gregation ironically observed lately, "to hear Thucydides
described as a historian; since I have been lecturing on
him for ten years as an imperfect grammarian." Mean-
while the classical tutors were in a somewhat unpleasant
position. They could not but recognize that their lectures.
were considered quite needless by the men who had read
the commentaries, and that the only opportunity they had
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS.
225
of bringing their knowledge and teaching power to bear on
the best men was in the special subjects, such as Logic and
Philology.
CC
The remedy which the framers of the new regulations
have devised for these evils is to encourage men to read
larger quantities of classical authors, and to read them
rather for the language and the thoughts, than for the
grammatical form with which they are clothed. To illus-
trate the kind of scholarship they wish to encourage, they
refer to Macaulay's definition of a scholar, as a man who
can read Greek and Latin with his feet on the hob." Hence
the regulation that the poems of Homer and Virgil, and
the speeches of Demosthenes and Cicero are to be offered
as wholes. It is neither stated nor expected that the whole
of these authors should necessarily be read. It is noticeable
that the words of the statute state that candidates will be
examined (not in these authors, but) in the translation of
passages from them. Correct translation, therefore, how-
ever acquired, is deemed worthy of the highest honours, for
it may be said of examination, as it has been said of Logic,
that it is concerned rather with the results than the pro-
cesses by which they are arrived at." But it is clear that
the result in this case will be due either to wide reading, or
to knowledge of Latin and Greek. The extreme cases are
those of the man who has read the whole, or nearly the
whole of the authors set, and of the man who has just
read enough of them to become imbued with their spirit
and style. But the promoters of the scheme would
probably feel disappointed if they found either of these
methods pursued. They really intend some via media,
which will combine the excellences of both, though the
proportion in which the ingredients should be mixed is
left wholly indefinite, to be determined by the individual
student and tutor. Accordingly classical tutors have now
recovered a worthy sphere of exertion, both in advising
226
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
their pupils how much to read, and helping them to sup-
plement their reading by a thorough knowledge of the
style and contents of these four authors.
ever.
Nor is this all. The benefits of an accurate study of
definite portions of authors are recognized just as much as
It is true that the number of authors so read is in
some cases slightly diminished, but far more weight is
attached to them than before. On each is set a searching
three-hours' paper, designed to bring out an accurate
knowledge, not only of the text, but of their "contents,
style, and literary history." Thus the field of patient
labour is, on the whole, rather enlarged than narrowed.
To sum up, we may say the new regulations aim at com-
bining the advantages of wide reading, with those of a
thorough knowledge of Latin and Greek, while leaving
room as well for accurate attention to detail. The attempt
to secure all these features at once in an examination is
one well worthy of all success. The authors of a scheme from
which such great results are expected are naturally very
proud of it, and believe that they have at last secured a
really excellent classical examination, in which wide reading,
scholarship, and minute industry, will all have their due
weight. Accordingly, it is natural they should look with
disfavour on any change tending to interfere with it. To
this feeling mainly was due the final rejection last year of
the scheme for an Honour School of Historical Modera-
tions, which was compared at the time to an attempt to
plant two young trees on a plot of ground large enough for
only one. It is felt that this examination must be left
unimpeded for some time to see how it will actually work.
For after all, it is confessed that it is an experiment, and
may disappoint the high hopes formed concerning it.
Prophets of evil are already not wanting. It has been
stated that one result will be to drive into the Pass Schools
crowds of men who would formerly have read for Honours,
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS.
227
but whose scholarship is not equal to the strain now put
upon it. It has also been asserted that the selection of
passages from the four authors will infallibly, after a time,
fall into a groove, and that those tutors who are most skilful
at discerning where the line of the groove runs, will be able
to advise their pupils what passages to read. In con-
firmation of this prediction, a story is told that a tutor was
heard, after last year's examination, to regret that he had
not advised his pupils what portions of the authors to
read, as in that case they would have read the passages
actually set. Certainly this story, if true, indicates a pre-
ternatural acuteness, for there is at present much vagueness
about many of the leading features of the examination.
"They are going to try experiments on us," a candidate.
for the school this year remarked lately, a remark well
indicating the general impression which is in the air.
Whether this indefiniteness can be maintained or no, is
perhaps the important question; for if it disappears, will it
not mean that the examination is falling into a groove?
Another serious consideration is, whether the necessity of
reading large quantities of the Classics may not lead to a
too free use of translations.
Such are some of the difficulties which beset this young
plant. Experience has to show whether they will choke it
and impede its growth, or whether it will spring up, as all
who wish well to the future of Classics in Oxford must
hope, to be a worthy realization of the noble idea of those
who planted it.
We have described the late changes at length, because of
their great intrinsic interest. We now proceed to offer
some hints on the details of the examination. First, some
advice must be given on the difficult, yet at the same time
interesting and novel problem, how to read the four books
so often mentioned, so as to be ready to translate passages
from them.
228
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
From the previous remarks, it will be gathered that
success in this may be considered due to the concurrence of
two causes, wide reading, and accurate knowledge of the
style and contents of the authors. These two elements are
reflected in the character of the lectures at present delivered
on these books. Some lecturers translate large quantities
to their pupils; others explain the history and matter of
each poem or speech; give hints on the style, and the
peculiar difficulties to be found in it. Now of these two
elements of success, undoubtedly the first is the more
important. As, however, it is a comparatively simple
matter, and needs little advice, our remarks will rather
bear on the point how the second element may be made to
help the first. To those, therefore, who find themselves
able to read through the whole of these books, there is
little to be said. Many men will doubtless find themselves
able to read the whole of Virgil, and a respectable con-
tingent may manage to get through the whole of Homer,
especially since one probable effect of the new statutes will
be to make larger quantities of these authors read at
schools. But few, we think, will manage to wade through
the whole of the speeches of Demosthenes and Cicero. The
hints which follow are, therefore, for those who either have
not the power or the time to read through the whole of
these authors, and for whom the problem to be solved is by
pursuing what methods they may be able to translate a
passage from one of them, not previously read, better than
if it were a genuinely unseen passage.
It is not possible to lay down that this or that passage
of an author should be read, as being more likely to be set
than another. In fact, if it ever should be possible to do
so, the examination would have lost half its value. If then
we recommend that some portions should be read in prefer-
ence to others, it must be understood that it is because some
parts are more highly characteristic of their author, and
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS.
229
throw light on the whole work. For what is mainly wanted
is a general and comprehensive view of the whole. It
follows from this that individual passages should not be
studied too minutely. The scholar who is reading "with
his feet on the hob," obviously cannot employ bulky com-
mentaries; those which have the fewest and shortest notes
will be best fitted for him. Perhaps the ideal would be to
read a text without any notes, never stopping to consider
difficulties at the time, but only marking with a pencil
unknown words and difficult sentences for subsequent eluci-
dation. We will now consider the four books in detail.
Homer. Those who have not the time to read the whole
Iliad should, at any rate, read the books which form the
Achilleis, i.e., I., IX., XI. and XVI.-XXIV. To these Books
III. and VI. should, if possible, be added, because of their
great interest and beauty. Again, in the Odyssey, no one
should omit the story of Odysseus in Books IX-XII., in
fact, Books V.-XII., containing the whole narrative of
Odysseus' wanderings, ought to be read consecutively. So
also should some of the later books, e.g., Books XIX.-
XXIII. These selections will be enough to give a repre-
sentative view of the two poems, but we by no means
intend to suggest that no more should be read. In reading,
no edition with long notes ought to be used. Merry's
edition of the Odyssey (Clarendon Press) seems exactly
what is wanted. There is nothing equally good on the
Iliad. "Pratt and Leaf's Story of Achilles" may be used,
though the notes include much that might have been with
advantage left for the Lexicon to supply. Paley's small
edition of Iliad, I.-XII. may also be recommended.
On the more important and difficult question, how those
who only read a part of both poems should prepare for
translating passages on the remainder, we venture to offer
the five following suggestions:
(1) The story of both Iliad and Odyssey should be care-
230
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
fully got up.
"Church's Stories from Homer" puts most
of it in a narrative form. But perhaps the best way would
be to read rapidly a verse-translation, such as Pope's Iliad,
or Lord Derby's, which is more literal. The object is of
course to be able to recognize the context of passages. The
best clue for this is proper names, therefore the parts taken
in the story by the principal characters should be observed.
(2) The Homeric grammar should be thoroughly
mastered, by no means a hard task. The sixteen pages
in Merry's Odyssey, I,-XII., will probably be found
sufficient.
(3) The Homeric vocabulary will probably prove the
chief difficulty. The best way to overcome it is to use
"Orusius' Homeric Lexicon." To secure every word in
Homer, by working this Lexicon entirely through, would
be by no means a superhuman task, if only attempted
after several books had first been read.
(4) A capital subject to work at would be Homeric
Antiquities, i.e., to carefully learn, with the Greek words, the
principal details of everyday life in Homer, e.g., the facts
connected with things such as ship, door, bed, chair, chariot,
armour, sacrifice, etc., etc. The locus classicus¹ on each
should be sought for and carefully observed. The supreme
importance of this will be obvious to all who remember
that the Homeric narrative is not hard, when once the
peculiarities of grammar and vocabulary have been sur-
mounted. Accordingly, the passages in which technical
details occur are the principal ones likely to cause difficulty.
(5) A like plan might be adopted with regard to
Similes, which are often passages of more than usual
difficulty. When they occur in the verse-translation, it
may be as well to turn to the original Greek.
Demosthenes. A greater change has been produced by
1 E.g., "Ship," cf. Od. V. 234-261. "Armour," II. XVIII. 478—
482, 609-613. "Door," Od. XXI. 42—50.
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS.
231
the new regulations in the reading of Demosthenes, than
in the case of any other author. From a very easy he has
suddenly shot up into a most difficult book. Formerly the
"De Coronâ" was read in Holmes' edition, and nothing
more was required. The change from the "De Coronâ" to
the whole of Demosthenes' speeches is indeed enormous.
A lecture on this book is more certain to be wanted than
on any other. It is very difficult to give any advice here
on the selection of speeches to be read. None of the groups
of political speeches should be omitted, but enough of them
read to gain a clear picture of the whole public life of
Demosthenes, from the speeches "De Symmoriis" and
"Pro Megalopolitanis," delivered before Philip had
become a visible danger to Athens, to the final Apologia
for his life, in the Crown oration. The last-named speech,
the masterpiece of its author, should certainly be read,
whether passages are likely to be set on it or not. Besides
these, all should read at least the 1st and 3rd Philippics,
and one, if not more, of the Olynthiacs (e.g. the third).
All the Olynthiacs and Philippics are short, and their total
amount just about equal in length to the "De Coronâ." The
extreme length of the "De Falsa Legatione," on the other
hand, will make many men hesitate before reading it. Of
these speeches the Olynthiacs and Philippics make up one.
volume of the “Catena Classicorum," and the "De Falsa
Legatione" another, of rather larger size, both edited by
Heslop. As to the private orations, we will not attempt to
give advice.
To read the whole of Demosthenes would be a Herculean
task, but it is one which most men will find unnecessary.
For in this point Demosthenes is very satisfactory, that he
does not tease his translators with sentences which seem to
defy ordinary grammar or language. In preparing for
translating passages from him, the following points should
be attended to :-
232
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
(1) An accurate chronological list of all the public
speeches should be first drawn up, and then the history of
the period should be read in detail, the occasion and im-
portance of each speech being carefully marked. Grote's
habit of quoting his authorities in footnotes renders his
history most valuable for this sort of work, while his
accounts of the speeches themselves will be found exceed-
ingly useful.
(2) A full list of the private speeches should also be
drawn up, with an account of the circumstances under
which each was spoken, and an abstract of their contents.
(3) The principal difficulty in the vocabulary will
probably be caused by the law terms. These should be
separately studied, and a full list of them might advan-
tageously be drawn up. An accurate knowledge of the
proceedings in the Athenian law courts will form the key
to unlock many a difficult passage.
It may be added that the knowledge to be gained by
following these hints would almost certainly be of use also
in the general paper.
Cicero's Orations. It may fairly be assumed that few will
consider it worth while to read through the whole mass of
speeches which Cicero delivered during a long political and
forensic life. Most men will select a list of speeches to read,
and be content to consider the rest unseen. Of course it is
very necessary to take care that this list is a representative
one, in which every speech illustrates some new field of
Cicero's oratory, or some fresh epoch of his life.
As a
sample, the following list is tolerably representative :
(1) Pro Sexto Roscio. (2) One of the Verrine orations.
(3) Pro Lege Maniliâ. (4) Pro Cluentio. (5) One of the
Catiline orations. (6) Pro Muræna. (7) Pro Sestio or
Pro Plancio. (8) Pro Milone. (9) Second Philippic. It
is true that such a list does not travel far from the beaten
track, and many will doubtless prefer to read speeches of
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS.
233
less fame, in the hope that passages may be set from them.
But we believe that it is best in the long run to read the
better and more interesting speeches-at any rate, to let the
bulk of speeches read be of this character.
The points to be attended to in preparing for the Cicero
paper are almost identical with those whose study we
recommended in the case of Demosthenes.
(1) As in the case of the Greek orator, a full chrono-
logical list of all the speeches should be drawn up, together
with a statement of the occasions on which they were de-
livered, and a short account of the argument of each.
Great help in doing this will be afforded by Forsyth's, "Life
of Cicero," or by the introductions to Watson's Selections
from his Letters.
(2) The political speeches should be carefully dis-
tinguished from the private, and special notice should be
taken of those which, though private in form, had really an
important political bearing, e.g., the speeches against
Verres, or for Cluentius and Milo. For the political
speeches, the history of the period should be to some extent
learnt. For the private ones an abstract of the matter
should be got up.
(3) The legal procedure and law terms, though not
likely to give so much difficulty as in the case of Demos-
thenes, yet should be closely studied.
Virgil. At first sight it might appear as if less change
had been made in this subject than in the three others.
Under the old regulations it was necessary to take up two-
thirds of Virgil. Now the whole has to be offered, but
merely for translation. While therefore the new statutes
may be considered to have largely increased the difficulties
of Demosthenes, and in a less degree those of Homer and
Cicero, Virgil has, if anything, been made rather easier.
For now that no passages for comment are set as formerly,
except a possible line or two in the general paper, it is not
234
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
so necessary to learn the subject carefully, so that the
extra amount is quite compensated for by the increased
rapidity of reading.
Thus, a change has indeed taken place, but not so much
in the amount as in the method of reading. This is per-
haps the one feature in the new examination that we cannot
help in some measure regretting. An accurate study of
Virgil, in Conington's edition, can no longer be considered
a part of the Oxford classical curriculum. No longer has
the student time to study those discursive notes, in which,
after the construction of a line had been viewed from every
possible standpoint, he was at last left to draw the con-
clusion for himself. Shorter and clearer notes, going
straight to the point, are now required. The change in
the prescribed text-book is significant of much. Formerly
it was Conington; now Papillon reigns in his stead. The
change may be salutary, but yet surely many Oxford men,
past and present, will grieve if the pressure of examin-
ations should lead to the elimination of their old friend
John Conington.
We certainly think, for many reasons, that the whole of
Virgil should be read, if possible. It is not very much in
amount, if compared with the other books, while several
passages would prove extremely difficult as unseen trans-
lation. For those, however, who find themselves unable to
read the whole, the following hints may be useful :-
(1) As in Homer, the subject-matter of the book, i.e.,
the stories of the Eclogues and the plot of the Eneid,
should be carefully learnt. Verse translations here may be a
great help. Two of these are by real poets, Dryden
and Morris. Dryden will be found heavy and not always
accurate; also his metre, the rhyming decasyllable couplet,
is not a well-chosen one. Morris has chosen a much better
metre: his quaint archaism, however, seems rather more
suitable to Homer than Virgil. But, at all events, a poet's
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS.
235
translation will be found more readable than that of a
scholar who is no poet.
(2) A good plan in getting up the matter would be
to collect all the important names and notice in what
scenes they occur. The characters of the Æneid are so
few, that this may be easily done.
(3) The matter of the Georgics is specially difficult, and
apt to elude the grasp. In fact, it is difficult to see how
the Georgics can be made "safe," without a careful reading
of the whole. Certainly, it would be a great mistake to
read the Æneid only, neglecting the Georgics.
(4) Finally there are, as was hinted above, many
passages in Virgil, which cannot be safely left unread.
Perhaps it would then be as well to get a list of these diffi-
culties (from Conington's indices or elsewhere), and work
steadily through the whole of them. Such a plan is certainly
not recommended in the case of the other three authors,
but, in the case of Virgil, it might be an additional safe-
guard to a hardworking man. To a man who had not
already worked well at his Virgil, and read the greater
part of it, such a plan would probably be of little use.
We now pass on to the consideration of the books
specially offered. These were, it will be remembered,
three, or in some cases four in number, of which not more
than one may be selected from each of the four groups
into which the books are divided. On each book is set a
three hours' paper, consisting of, first, two or three general
questions on the style and matter of the author; secondly,
longer passages for translation; and, thirdly, short passages
to translate and comment on. The latter feature, i.e.,
the short passages, is no novelty, though they have
been rather discontinued of late years. The real innova-
tion lies in the general questions, which include matter
often not to be got from the introduction to an author.
Accordingly Oxford tutors have now an opportunity of
236
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
supplying in their lectures valuable matter, both critical
and literary, which, so long as the examination was con-
fined to the text, they apparently had lost. However, it is
by no means impossible that the editions of authors with
notes may, by enlarging their introductions and adding
appendices on various points, once more render the lectures
superfluous.
It is hardly possible to give much advice as to the choice
of special books, or the method of reading them, since so
much depends on the individual bent, and on previous
reading at school. Nor is it necessary to make many remarks
about the text-books to be employed, since this is a matter
of common knowledge. As a rule a particular text-book
has only been mentioned, where it is acknowledged to be
the text-book par excellence. Accordingly the remarks
which follow on the various groups are designedly cut as
short as possible. Advice on the general questions would
be valuable, but the subject is as yet too indefinite and
tentative to be treated of at length.
Group A. This group is composed of the Greek trage-
dians, Æschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Besides the
alternatives of choosing one of the three, there is a fourth
likely to be tempting to many, of choosing the Aga-
memnon, together with two plays of Sophocles. The Aga-
memnon, however, is of such extreme difficulty that no one
should take it up unless he is fully aware of the magnitude
of the task. Of the numerous editions of the Agamemnon
we should be inclined to prefer Sidgwick's, though it is
short and mainly intended for schools. Three plays of
Sophocles are the alternative chosen by most men. Cer-
tainly the commentators on Sophocles are better than those
on Euripides. Among the former Jebb's Ajax and Electra
still stand unrivalled.
In reading a Greek play, textual criticism should be
attended to, and the various readings noticed. A useful
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS.
237
plan is to collate two different texts, e.g., Campbell's and
Dindorf's.
Of course the information given in the introduction to
most editions is likely to be useful for the general questions.
Thus we may refer to the introductions to Drake's edition
of the Eumenides, Paley's editions of both Eschylus
and Euripides, the special introductions to the plays in
Campbell's Sophocles, as well as those in the separate
plays edited by Campbell and Abbott, and also Mahaffy's
"Social Life in Greece," chapters vi. and vii., especially
the latter.
Group B. Here the authors are Aristophanes, Thucy-
dides, Pindar, Theocritus, and Plato. Pindar and Theocritus
may be regarded as rather out-of-the-way books which are
seldom taken up-the former very seldom. There is this
great advantage in taking up either Thucydides (any three
books) or Plato (Rep. I.-IV.), that both these authors are
required again for Finals. Unless therefore the student
has a special taste for Aristophanes, he will do well to take
up one of them. Thucydides is the best, since he is the
harder author, for he must be read for Finals in any case.
In reading Thucydides it is best to employ an interleaved
edition, to extract the cream of the numerous commentators
who cannot be wholly neglected. The general questions
here are mainly historical, so that it will be necessary to
study the matter carefully with the aid of Grote (another
future labour anticipated). The questions on the Republic
of Plato will probably stick pretty closely to the matter.
Social life in Athens as illustrated by comedy, and the
historical value of Aristophanes' statements are likely to
be the principal points on which the general questions in
Aristophanes will turn. Mahaffy's "Social Life" will again
be useful (ch. viii.). In estimating the historical import-
ance of a statement, it is best to refer to some large history
such as Grote, where the matter will be well threshed out.
238
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
The commentator in his note is often tempted to exaggerate
the importance of his author.¹
Group C. This group includes most of the Latin poets,
i.e., Horace, Juvenal with Persius, and Catullus with Pro-
pertius. Here it is difficult to offer any suggestions. Very
many men will probably consider themselves most familiar
with Horace. But Horace is so difficult and tricksy an author
that they are advised to be very careful in choosing him.
Juvenal, who at first sight seems more difficult, is really
easier, since his peculiarities when once learnt are retained
in the memory more easily than those of Horace. In read-
ing Juvenal the first edition of Mayor should be procured
if possible. The subsequent editions (up to the fourth,
which has just been published) are splendid storehouses of
learning, but somewhat lengthy for the ordinary reader.
Simcox's Juvenal, though a capital little book, is not enough
by itself.
Catullus will be found easier than Horace, and
quite as interesting.
The chronology of Horace's writings seems a general
question likely to recur. Wickham's Horace has a long
excursus on it. In reading the lyric poets the metres should
be observed, in the Satirists, the pictures they severally
draw of life and society at Rome.
Group D. This consists of a miscellaneous list of other
Latin authors, including selections from Tacitus, Livy,
Plautus, Terence, Lucretius and Cicero. The alternatives
from Cicero, it may be observed are "Watson's Selected
Letters," parts I. and II., and De Oratore, Books I. and II.,
one of which, if chosen, would be offered in addition to the
speeches which all must take up. Two of the alternatives
in this group may be offered again for Finals, the Letters
of Cicero just mentioned, and Tacitus (Annals I.—IV.).
1 For an instance of this cf. Paley's note on Acharnians, 527, with
Grote, v. 362 and note (twelve volume edition).
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS.
239
There are several strong reasons for choosing the Cicero.
Not only will it be useful for Finals, but it will also fit in
well with the speeches to be read in any case, while the
introductions in Watson will be useful for both subjects.
Those, however, who are afraid of being cloyed with Cicero
-certainly no unreasonable fear-will prefer another alter-
native. Lucretius is a book which has the great recom-
mendation that it is only necessary to read one commentary
on it, Munro's edition and translation being all-sufficient.
Livy (Books II.—V.) is a more interesting study now that
the change in the statutes has introduced questions such as
the authorities from which Livy drew, and the historical
value of his statements. Plautus and Terence are to our
mind so complicated by the teasingly minute character of
the textual and metrical criticism, that we do not advise
anybody to take them up, unless he has a taste for the style
of criticism in which Wagner excels.
The foregoing remarks on the general questions set in
each paper have been of necessity vague, since no one can
forecast the direction the examination may take in the next
few years. The two facts about them which seem fairly
certain are that questions about the MSS. and the history of
the text will be set pretty frequently, and that there will be
a tendency to recur to questions on the literary character-
istics and merits of the authors read. It follows that histories
of Greek and Latin literature need frequent consulting.
It is unnecessary to dwell on the importance of translat-
ing on paper passages from the books read. Neither is it
necessary to do more than glance at the consideration that
the merit of a translation from the poets and orators of
Greece and Rome will largely depend on the translator's
degree of acquaintance with the poets and orators of his
native land.
On the unseen translations and the composition papers
we have nothing to add to the remarks in the chapter on
240
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
reading for Scholarships. Most men have only to keep up
in these subjects a standard of excellence already attained.
The whole examination has now been touched on except
the special subjects. These are five in number, of which
three at the most can be taken, and only two, if none of
the composition papers are omitted. Of these subjects three
are on the history of Classical Literature, the remaining
two being Logic and Philology. It is not a wise policy to
omit both the Logic and the Philology, so as to include
none but literary subjects.
The three literary subjects are the Greek Drama, Attic
Orators, and Roman Poets. Each is to be read in connec-
tion with part of a classical author or authors, but no
English authorities are named at the same time. Questions
are set not only on the history, but on literary criticism as
well. Those who take up the subject of Attic orators will
have the advantage of a definite text-book, i.e., Jebb's work
on the subject, to which his selections (from Antiphon,
Andocides, Lysias, Isocrates, and Isæus) form a companion
volume. In the other two subjects the want of any recog-
nized text-books will probably have to be supplied by a
lecture. In studying the Greek Drama the want of an
adequate history of Greek Literature will be much felt.
Jebb's Primer is excellent so far as it goes, but of course it
is quite elementary. Müller's "Greek Literature" is "trust-
worthy," but its length (3 vols.) and its general ponderous
character will probably cause it to be used mainly as a book
of reference. Donaldson's "Theatre of the Greeks" is
perhaps the standard authority on the subject, and is cer-
tainly a work of tried merit. Pleasant criticisms on the
Greek Dramatists will be found in Symond's "Greek
Poets." For the history of Roman poetry to the end of
the Augustan age there is an increasing body of commen-
taries. There is the choice between Cruttwell's and Sim-
cox's "History of Latin Literature," either of which may
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS.
241
be supplemented by Sellar's works. Some of the articles.
in Professor Nettleship's "Essays in Latin Literature" may
be read, i.e., those on Catullus, Virgil, and Horace.¹
The remaining two subjects, Philology and Logic, are
often worked up simply by attending a lecture and taking
careful notes. The subject of Comparative Philology has
been rather widened lately, its application to Syntax being
included now as well as those to inflexions. Care should
be taken not to rely exclusively on any one text-book, such
as Papillon, Sayce, or Peile; but either of these, supple-
mented by a lecture, will be probably found sufficient.
Though Greek and Latin are the two languages to be
illustrated, it is well also to be ready with examples from
other languages, especially from Sanskrit. The Sanskrit
forms indeed are so important in the subject that they
should certainly be learnt even by those who have no
knowledge of that language outside them. The most ancient
forms of Latin words, also, as revealed by inscriptions, de-
serve careful study.
We have kept Logic to the last, as the most important
of the special subjects. "The Elements of Deductive Logic,"
so far as they are included in this examination, fall under
two heads. First, there is the ordinary Formal Logic,
consisting largely of the syllogistic work in its various
branches. This is identical with the Logic of the Pass
School, but nevertheless cannot be safely neglected by the
Honour man, as several questions are always set on it.
Secondly, there is the part in the main peculiar to the
Honour School, i.e., discussion of the various logical pro-
blems which afford room for difference of opinion. These
It is an interesting and significant fact that almost every work on
classical literature referred to above was peacefully reposing on the
shelves of the Union Library one month before the examination this
year (Feb. 1887)! Certainly the lecturers have it all their own way in
the special subjects.
R
242
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
are the questions as to the Nature and Province of Logic,
and the Logical Difficulties connected with the Term, the
Proposition, and the Syllogism (such as the Import of
Propositions, the group of difficulties which cluster round
Definition and Classification, or the Functions and Value
of the Syllogism). Into the deeper questions which lie at
the root of Logic, such as the Origin of Knowledge, the
Criterion of Truth, or the Nature of Judgment, we advise
no one reading for Moderations to attempt to penetrate.
In such matters the lecture is almost certain to be a safe
guide.
We hope that those who require a text-book will be led
by patriotism to read Fowler rather than Jevons. Most
of Mill's Logic, Books I. and II., should also be read,
certainly the following chapters: Book I., chapters 5, 6,
7, and Book II., chapter 3. Many men when commencing
Logic, hear Mill's opinions so often mentioned only to be
found fault with, that they conceive a low opinion of that
philosopher, and think him not worth reading. But in
judging so they commit a serious mistake. Mill's theory
of Logic is certainly receiving severe treatment at present.
But his opinions are so repeatedly made the groundwork
of questions, that a knowledge of them is necessary, if only
for the purpose of arriving, by criticism of them, at con-
clusions which may be judged more satisfactory. The
notes to the appendix to Mansel's Aldrich are also useful.
In addition to the Deductive Logic, all must offer either.
part of Mill's Inductive Logic, or some selections from
the Organon of Aristotle. A knowledge of both will be
very useful in reading for Finals. On the whole we think
that the Inductive Logic will connect itself best with the
Deductive Part. The questions are usually set straight
from the chapters of Mill to be read, and in this case at
least little criticism is expected. The selections from Aris-
CLASSICAL HONOUR MODERATIONS.
243
totle will hardly be mastered without the aid of a lecturer
or tutor.
The foregoing pages will, we trust, give a fairly accurate
picture of the present character and requirements of
Classical Honour Moderations, which will probably undergo
but slight alteration for a considerable number of years.
F. G. B.
CHAPTER XI.
THE HONOUR SCHOOL OF LITERÆ
THE
HUMANIORES.
HE School of Litere Humaniores has always been the
chief of the Oxford Honour Schools. For a classical
man, a first-class in it is still the crowning distinction in his
career, without which even the most brilliant series of
scholarships and prizes is incomplete; and although the
University has now, for many years, granted its honours in
other than classical subjects, the fact remains that, by
universal admission, the larger proportion of the ablest
men every year seek their honours in the old school.
The present system of University Examinations begins
with this century. In 1800 a statute was passed that, from
the next year onwards, there should be a special examina-
tion in which honours should be awarded. There were to
be two classes, the names in which should be arranged in
order of merit; the only distinction between first class and
second class was that there were never to be more than
twelve names in the first. No separation was made between
Classical and Mathematical candidates.
In the first five years only thirteen candidates were deemed
worthy of honours, and the system was therefore altered;
in future, the distinction between the first and second class
was made a real one, and not merely dependent on the
number of the candidates. The names in the classes were,
THE HONOUR SCHOOL OF LITERE HUMANIORES.
245
moreover, to be arranged alphabetically. Thus the char-
acteristic mark of the Oxford Examination system, as
opposed to that of Cambridge, was introduced. Oxford
has never conferred on her students honours corresponding
to those of the Senior Wrangler, or the Senior Classic. At
this same time the Honour School of Mathematics was
established alongside of that of Litera Humaniores.
In 1809, the second class was divided into two by a line,
the names above and below which, were arranged sepa-
rately; thus a third class in honours was practically intro-
duced, although the name "second" continued to be applied
to the whole till 1825. In 1830 a fourth honour class was
added.
The title of this examination-in Literis Humanioribus
--accurately described its nature. A candidate was exam-
ined in the form, as well as in the substance, of Ancient
Literature, or such portions of it as he chose to offer.
Thus he was compelled at one and the same time to study
accurately the language of his authors, and to digest and
examine their matter: in fact, the examinations embraced
both words and facts, and so furnished a double training.
A candidate was allowed to offer as much Latin and Greek
Literature as he pleased; but, as a rule, he limited himself
to the works of sixteen authors. The Ethics of Aristotle
was invariably taken up, and with it generally the Rhetoric
and the Politics; besides these, a man usually offered
Herodotus, Thucydides, the first decade of Livy and part
of the Annals of Tacitus. Among poets and orators, there
was more variety in the books chosen.
66
It was in this examination that Oxford first class-men
won their reputation. It has been well described as a
'weight-carrying test" ; a man had need to be strong to
offer himself for examination in sixteen authors at once;
and the strain was still greater if, like the late Sir Robert
Peel and Mr Gladstone, he tried for and obtained first class
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Mathematical Honours, immediately before his Classical
Examination, for a "double first" man at that time had to
deal with both his subjects at once.
The whole system was revolutionized by the statutes
which were accepted by Convocation in 1849 and 1850, and
which came into operation in 1852 and 1853.
The changes were two-fold. First of all, side by side
with the old Classical and Mathematical Final Schools, were
set up two others in Natural Science, and in Law and
Modern History. It was felt that the University must
recognize the development of knowledge in the century,
and no longer restrict her examinations to the old instru-
ments of education, however excellent.
The second change was a concession to human weakness.
Candidates for classical honours were required henceforth
to divide their work into two parts; they were at the end
of their first two years to be examined by Moderators in
eight Greek and Latin writers, mainly poets and orators,
paying, in their reading, especial attention to the grammar
and language of their authors; the Final Examination was
in the remaining work of the old school; the examinations
in form and that in matter were thus practically divided.
Since 1853 hardly any alteration has taken place. The
Republic of Plato has ousted the Rhetoric of Aristotle
completely, and almost the Politics, and has established
itself as an equal with the Ethics, which once reigned supreme
in Oxford Moral Philosophy. In History also, soon after
1870, the earlier periods of Roman History were given up,
and the portion studied was made continuous by including
the last century of the Republic, which had before been
omitted. With this change went the substitution of Watson's
Selections from the Letters of Cicero for the first decade
of Livy.
Such, in brief outline, is the history of the changes in
the school. When first established in 1807, there were
THE HONOUR SCHOOL OF LITERE HUMANIORES.
247
only ten candidates for Classical Honours, but the number
increased rapidly and reached what was long its highest
point in 1833, when eighty-seven were classed at Easter
and forty-eight at Michaelmas. After this there was a
slight falling off, but the average was about one hundred
each year (divided not unequally between Easter and
Michaelmas), till the change of 1850. The numbers then
fell off considerably, but soon rose again. After 1882 the
examination hitherto held in the Michaelmas Term was
abolished, as it was found so few availed themselves of it.
In Trinity Term, 1885, there were 145 candidates, this being
the highest number on record for one year.
Although, however, there has been no formal change of
any importance since 1853, yet it would, I think, be
generally acknowledged that, during the past ten years, the
actual conduct of the examination has altered materially.
Up to that time, the School of Literæ Humaniores had
been, in spite of the presence of papers in History and
Scholarship, pre-eminently philosophical; but the importance
of the historical element has been gradually growing, until
now it is quite possible for a man to obtain his first class.
for very good work in this department alone, provided his
other work reaches a certain degree of merit.
Side by
side with this increase of the importance of the papers in
History has been a still greater increase in the standard
of the knowledge required: men of very ordinary ability
now deal familiarly with facts and theories, to which the
best men of ten years back were strangers. This develop-
ment is partly due to the greater interest felt in the
History work, and the tendency to specialization in all
studies; but still more to the fact that the system of
"combined lectures" enables a man to avail himself of the
best teaching on every subject, as he is no longer con-
fined to the tutors of his own College: hence he has
opened to him whole branches of his subjects, which he
248
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
would never have had time to study for himself. Whether
this development of second-hand knowledge is a good
thing is disputed; that there is this increase is a fact.
The days are gone by when a man could get his first class
in Roman History by a few days' reading of Mommsen.
Of course, this specialization on the part of candidates has
at once caused, and been caused by, a similar change in
the examiners; a man is now appointed for one or other
side of the work, and depends upon his colleagues' views
for half of the candidate's papers.
Turning to the actual preparation for the examination, it
will be most convenient to consider the work that has to
be done under the head of the several papers set. The
programme of philosophical work, put out by the Board
of Studies, certainly serves no practical purpose, if it
serves any purpose at all. It seems as if its authors had
attempted to set forth in detail the old programme of the
examination, which was familiarly said to be de omni
scibili.
One preliminary remark must be made as to the whole
philosophical side of the work, i.c., it does not matter what
philosophical views a man adopts, so long as he understands
them, and is consistent in them. It is often said that a candi-
date should alter his own views, if he has any, to suit those
of his examiner. To attempt this is needless, and probably
dangerous, for it is likely to lead to confusion. What
every examiner objects to is, in the first place, inconsistency
-that a man should answer one question from an idealist,
and another from a materialist standpoint; and, in the
second place, ignorance-such, for example, as was shown
by a candidate in a recent examination, who described
Utilitarianism in his papers as "subversive of all morality,"
and showed in his viva voce that he had no conception
what Utilitarianism meant. To give general suggestions
as to reading for the papers in Philosophy is the harder,
THE HONOUR SCHOOL OF LITERE HUMANIORES.
249
because men approach this subject so differently. It is
said that the first question a well-known Oxford tutor
always puts to his pupils is, "Do you want really to learn
any Philosophy, or do you want simply to know enough of
it, not to spoil your class in History?" This saying,
whether true or not, really brings out clearly the variety in
men's work: if a man has no taste for the philosophical
side of his reading, he had better trust himself for it
entirely to his tutor, who will tell him what is absolutely
necessary for him to know, and where to find it. Any
attempt on the part of such a man to mark out his reading
for himself, is certain to end in waste of time, and probably
in disaster. In History this is much less the case: even if
a man has no taste for this, there is a certain amount of
ground to be covered, which he must cover for himself,
without much outside help.
There is no doubt that it is the Logic paper for which
men find preparation the hardest. In this come the
questions not only in pure Logic, but also in Psychology
and Metaphysics. The only book absolutely prescribed is
part of the Novum Organum of Bacon; and it certainly
is a great boon to the non-philosophical candidate that he
can, without much difficulty, make sure of at least two
questions in the paper, while his work is rendered the more
easy to him by Bacon's epigrammatic denunciations of
Plato and Aristotle. A lecture on the Bacon is hardly
necessary, as Professor Fowler's edition of the Novum
Organum supplies all the explanations needed. Others
prefer the notes in Ellis and Spedding's edition.
The exact opposite of this is the case with the Aristo-
telian Logic: here a lecture is absolutely indispensable.
And in spite of the thorny nature of the subject (I have
never been fortunate enough to meet an undergraduate
who had the least liking for it), its very difficulties are
so tangible that they need close work to overcome them
250
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
rather than any turn for philosophical speculation. It
is perhaps unfortunate, especially for the weaker men,
that the selections from Trendelenburg, which were once
prescribed as necessary by the Board of Studies, have
now been removed from the list of books; the subject has
lost part of its definiteness, and certainly the candidate
has not gained by any lightening of the amount of his work.
If a man requires any further aid for his Aristotelian
Logic, he will find it in Grote's Aristotle, or in special
books, e.g. Poste's Posterior Analytics. The appendices
to Mansel's Aldrich may also be found useful. One
more remark only need be made on this subject, viz.,
that it is especially necessary to notice all those parts of
Aristotle's Logic which illustrate and are illustrated by
his Ethics.
To turn now to the more general parts of the paper, a
candidate has, as a rule, in his Moderations reading become
somewhat familiar with his subject. Most men read some
of Mill for this examination; for their Final School
Mill's Logic and his Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's
Philosophy form the basis, whether accepted or rejected,
of their work. Men besides generally read some of Hume's
Essays, e.g., those on Causation. The late Professor
Green's preface to Hume is certainly to be avoided by
all but the strongest men. The translation of Lotze,
which has been recently published, is also read by a few.
Mansel's Prolegomena Logica will be found very useful
by those who can obtain it: it has been long out of print.
But the two books first mentioned will be fully sufficient
for an ordinary man, if he reads them in connection with
some of the excellent courses of lectures on Modern Logic,
to which he is sure to be sent.
The Moral Philosophy paper has changed somewhat in
character during the last few years. Until the end of
THE HONOUR SCHOOL OF LITERE HUMANIORES.
251
1882 there had always been two papers, one of questions
on the Republic and the Ethics, the other on general
Moral and Political Philosophy: shortly before the ex-
amination of 1883 the examiners put out a notice that the
former paper would be dropped, and that the questions on
Plato and Aristotle would henceforth form part of the
Moral Philosophy paper: the questions on Political Philo-
sophy were transferred to the general Ancient History
paper. The reason given for this change was the rather
insufficient one, that it was impossible every year to produce
new questions on the general Philosophy, apart from the
Plato and Aristotle. The change is considered by some to
have worked well; but it has certainly had undesirable
results in some directions, e.g., it has discouraged men
from general reading in Moral Philosophy, especially of
the works of the English philosophers; it has also dis-
couraged the reading of Political Philosophy, for it is
found that men as a rule prefer to attempt the History
questions in the joint paper. I think it might be added
that it has acted injuriously on the History also, by limiting
the number of questions that can be set on the more general
aspects of the subject.
However, the change has been made, and it does not
seem likely to be reversed. Hence the advice to be given
to a man beginning his Moral Philosophy reading, might
almost be summed up in the single sentence: "Know your
Republic and Ethics, and you are safe." And certainly
this advice would only err by a slight exaggeration;
whether for the purpose of gaining a high class, or whether
as a foundation for a sound knowledge apart from the
schools, a man cannot know his Republic and his Ethics too
well. Men are still pointed out in Oxford who are said to have
read their Ethics through carefully ten times and more while
they were still undergraduates: and I suppose a man rarely
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OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
goes in for the School, without having read the book three
or four times at least.
:
Lecturers on the Ethics may be divided into two classes
—those whose aim is to make their pupils understand what
Aristotle has said, and (which sounds easy, but really is
all-important) able to construe his Greek and those who
attempt not only this, but also at the same time to illustrate
Aristotle from modern philosophical ideas, and who accord-
ingly introduce much general matter into their lectures.
The latter class, of course, aim at far more; but they
too frequently, if it is allowed to say it, succeed only
in generally confusing their hearers, and making them
know nothing thoroughly. If a man understands the
Ethics, he can proceed in his second year's reading to
compare Aristotle's statements with those of modern
philosophers; if he attempts this at once, he in most cases
fails to master either his Aristotle or anything else. An
uudergraduate's lectures are, of course, determined by his
tutor but he may at least insist on being sent to some one
whom he can understand.
Few things which a man can do for himself are more
valuable than that he should make an abstract of his
Ethics, book by book, as he reads. The result is probably
worthless in itself: in fact, it is an old piece of Oxford
advice-" First make an abstract of your Ethics, and then
burn it:" but an abstract so made does a man far more
good than copying another man's work, however excellent.
The only help apart from lectures, which a man gets for
his Ethics, is from Grant's edition. (The last edition
should always be got, as it is a great improvement on the
two earlier ones.) Though this is always found fault with,
it is always used. The text prescribed for the examination
is Bekker's; but this is rather antiquated, and men would
probably find it easier to use Susemihl's excellent edition,
which is well printed and punctuated.
THE HONOUR SCHOOL OF LITERÆ HUMANIORES.
253
For the Plato, the preface to the Republic in Professor
Jowett's translation must be read, and men generally use also
Zeller's Socrates and the Socratic Schools, and Plato and
the Early Academy. Of translations, Davies and Vaughan's
of the Republic is excellent; of the Ethics there is no
good one; Williams' is terribly diffuse, and Peters' is
perhaps the best. When a man has thoroughly mastered
the matter of his texts, he can then turn to more general
matters, and is able to appreciate the difference between
ancient and modern points of view, e.g., on the sphere of
the duties of the State, on the relation between Ethics and
Esthetics, and other such questions as are continually
occurring in the papers set.
On general Moral Philosophy, men often read the late
Professor Green's Prolegomena to Ethics, and Martineau's
Types of Ethical Theory. Sidgwick's Methods of Ethics,
and History of Ethics may also be recommended, and
Bradley's Ethical Studies will be found very helpful.
It is said by some that Oxford philosophy does not
extend its otherwise universal indulgence to the ideas of
Mr. Herbert Spencer. I do not believe this, and a man
may read the Data of Ethics with great advantage to
his class. If a man wishes to have something besides his
lectures on the History of Philosophy, Ritter and Preller
will furnish him far more than he needs for the ancient
philosophers; but it is worth a man's while to read
some of this. Lewis's "History of Philosophy" has at
all events the merit of being clear, and will help a weak
man.
On the Political Philosophy, if that vague term may be
used, a man must certainly read some of Sir H. Maine's
Ancient Law, and his Early Institutions, especially of
course the more general chapters. Thus he may omit, if
he cares to do so, the chapters on Testamentary Succession
in the former book. The controversy as to the origin of
254
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
society, between Sir H. Maine and the opposing school of
Mr. McLennan is well summed up in an essay on the Primi-
tive Family, at the end of A. Lang's Custom and
Myth. (The whole book is worth looking through, even
from a "schools"" point of view.) Apart from Mill's
two little books on Representative Government and on
Liberty, it is hard to recommend any definitely; but a
man must acquaint himself with the history of the Social
Contract theory, and with such subjects as Sovereignty,
the functions of the State, punishment, etc. A good lecture
on the Politics of Aristotle will be found most valuable,
even if the text is not read.
A glance at the papers set in past years will show that
to answer many of the questions a man needs rather general
reading and an acquaintance with the politics of the day
than any special study.
Political Economy also figures in the list of subjects for
the school, and there are generally one or more questions
set on it: these a man may safely neglect, if he has not
time to study the subject. But certainly it is worth the
while of all candidates to read the more general chapters in
Mill, e.g., that on Taxation. If a man has a real interest
in Political Economy, he will not have much opportunity
of showing it in the ordinary papers; he had better offer
his reading as a special subject: but of this more will be
said hereafter.
As to the philosophical side of the work generally, it
may be said that a man will find it worth while to
specialize on any branch of it that especially attracts him:
it has only been attempted above to point out the ordinary
sources with which all men must make themselves some-
what familiar.
Turning now to the History side of the work, there are
here three papers to consider, those on Greek and on Roman
History, and the general paper. In the last are included
THE HONOUR SCHOOL OF LITERE HUMANIORES.
255
(besides the political philosophy above spoken of), ques-
tions on those parts of the authors offered which lie outside
their main subjects, e.g., the Oriental History of Herodotus,
and questions which involve a survey of Greek and
Roman History together, their points of agreemeut and of
contrast.
Two things cannot be too strongly insisted on to a man
beginning his History reading.
(1) That it is comparatively useless to read his texts
alone. They must be read in connection with some modern
work on the subject, e.g., after each portion of his Hero-
dotus a man should always read the corresponding chapters
of Grote.
(2) A man should always read with his atlas by him.
Men too often neglect the first point, read their text
carefully, and then months after set to work to get up the
English writers on the subject. The result is that they
can translate their texts, and they know what Grote and
others have said on the subjects; but they have missed the
stimulus of seeing their classical authors examined by a
modern historian, and have not learnt how the evidence of
contemporaries should be dealt with, and so probably accept
the statements of the modern writer, without attempting
to see how far they correspond with the authority on which
they profess to be based.
Neglect of the use of the atlas means that much of the
history read remains entirely unreal: armies move and ships
sail in space; but the student never brings home to himself
that the events he reads about actually happened.
If a man will only read his books carefully in the way
above suggested, he will find the work of "revising" them
easy: the author, the modern writer, and the atlas combine
to stamp the course of events on his memory.
In reading texts many incidental points have to be
noticed, entirely apart from the main course of events.
A
256
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large part of our knowledge of Greek and Roman consti-
tutional history, of the social life of those nations and of
their religion has to be gathered from chance references,
scattered up and down the pages of the historians; we
have to infer from a mere phrase, what the author left un-
described as perfectly familiar to his own contemporaries.
It is therefore necessary that a man should at once mark,
wherever he comes across them, all references to such points
as these. It is often said a commonplace book should be
kept for each author, arranged under headings; but this
involves far too much expenditure of time, and often the
points noticed do not lend themselves readily to any cut
and dried classification. I have always found it simpler to
note down on the margin of the interleaved page (and all
texts should be interleaved) the point to be noticed in the
text; a glance down these notes afterwards brings at once
to the mind the fact to be remembered.
To turn now to the special authors for Greek History.
Herodotus probably presents the most difficulty to all men
reading for "Greats"; not only is he full of such references
as have been just described, but he tells his story with such
involved simplicity that it is often hard to remember where
he speaks of any given event. Some men may perhaps.
find even so poor an analysis as Wheeler's useful, and others
assist their memories by tracing or inventing a "symmetry"
in Herodotus' arrangement of events.
With regard to the early books of Herodotus, men are
often in a difficulty how much they are to know. It may
safely be said that, unless a man has a special care for the
Oriental History, he may leave the whole subject matter
of these books, only carefully marking the occasional
references to Greek history and customs, and those (which
are very important) to Herodotus himself and his travels.
It is unfortunate that the only English edition with good
notes-Rawlinson's-is largely made up of material which
THE HONOUR SCHOOL OF LITERE HUMANIORES.
257
is useless; for useless it obviously is that a man who has no
knowledge to begin with of the History of Egypt or of
Assyria, should be suddenly asked to wade through a number
of discussions as to minute points in those histories. I have
known unwise but conscientious undergraduates who have
spent weeks of useless labour on the early books of Hero-
dotus. Should, however, a man wish to study these
thoroughly, he cannot do better than begin by reading
the later chapters at all events of the new edition of
Maspero's Histoire Ancienne de l'Orient. This will furnish
him a foundation for work which will repay his trouble.
On Thucydides less help is needed, apart from the diffi-
culties of translation; the narrative is straightforward
enough. Arnold's edition is well worth using. But what-
ever else is done, Grote's history must be read with the
Thucydides, for in his comments on the narrative of the
Athenian historian, we have the English historian at his
best. It may be added that few things are more necessary
to note than the omissions of Thucydides. The two books
of Xenophon's Hellenica which end the Greek authorities
prescribed present no difficulty apart from their chronology.
I have been told that only three questions can be set on
them, an exaggeration which is not without some truth.
The period of Greek History offered, as distinguished from
the original authorities, reaches from the earliest times to the
end of the Peloponnesian war; it is the first part of this
which presents most difficulty. Here Grote is confessedly
very weak, and Curtius is as untrustworthy as he is brilliant;
a good lecture on this early period is indispensable, as is
also one on the Constitutional History of Sparta and Athens.
On the latter subject the best book in English is still, I think,
the old translation of Hermann's Manual of Greek An-
tiquities. Before leaving the Greek History it should be
added that a man who hopes to do well in it must read
some of Aristotle's Politics, e.g., Books II. and VIII. (new
S
258
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
order). More amusing, and almost as useful in a different
way, are Plutarch's Lives, of which those of Solon, and
of the Athenians of the fifth century should certainly be
looked at. These are the more necessary, as Grote repre-
sents entirely what may be called the Thucydidean view of
Greek History.
Turning to Roman History, very little need be said as to
texts. Cook's edition of the Catiline of Sallust seems
to me much the best there is of that book in English, and
Tyrrell's edition of the Letters of Cicero is most useful so
far as it has appeared no other edition need specially be
recommended.
Two general remarks must be made as to the Roman
History. (1) So large a part of its interest is constitutional,
that special stress must here be laid on the advice given
above, to note the incidental mentions of the powers of
magistrates and of senate or assemblies, which lie scattered
up and down our authorities. These, of course, will be
put together in lecture, but it is better for a man to observe
them also for himself.
(2) Unless a special interest is felt in the various cam-
paigns which fall within the period prescribed, they had
better be left. Certainly not more than one question in a
paper will ever be set on them, and to have a chance of
answering this, a vast amount of uncongenial and therefore
largely unprofitable work must be done. To many, how-
ever, they will be one of the most interesting and useful
parts of their work.
To speak now of the special books; the main interest
presented by Plutarch's "Lives of the Gracchi" and the
"Jugurtha" of Sallust is to try and discover the real
events of the periods under the confused Greek ideas of the
former, and the pictorial amplifications of the latter. With
the Catiline the case is different: here Sallust is a contem-
porary authority, and in spite of himself is of first-rate
THE HONOUR SCHOOL OF LITERÆ HUMANIORES. 259
importance. Watson's selections from the Letters of
Cicero is undoubtedly the hardest of the Latin books
offered. To master its very miscellaneous contents is very
difficult, but a good deal may be done by writing précis of
the more important letters and series of letters, e.g., those
to and from Cælius, which are especially to be noticed. In
reading the Letters of Cicero all allusions to his speeches
should be marked most carefully: men too often treat the
letters as if they were the only works of their author which
had survived to us: this is fatal to a sound knowledge of
history and dangerous to a high class. No book is more
helpful in this part of the work than Boissier's delightful
Cicéron et ses Amis.
One part of the period of Roman History has no autho-
rity prescribed to correspond to it-I mean, of course, the
period from the death of Cicero to that of Augustus. To
bridge this a man cannot do better than read the Monu-
mentum Ancyranum (in Mommsen's edition); he must
know something about this, and the more he knows the
better.
Turning now to the general authorities in Roman His-
tory, it may safely be said, whatever else is read, Mommsen
must be read too. Of course the faults of his history have
been repeatedly pointed out; but it certainly has the merit
of bringing home to the reader the facts he wishes to know,
and of arranging these as parts of one whole, which is
illustrated by ingenious application of those principles.
which are common to all history, ancient and modern
alike. Perhaps I ought to add that Freeman's two essays
(on Sulla and Mommsen's Rome, in his second volume)
form a useful corrective to Mommsen.
Of other books Ihne's fourth volume is the best account
in English of the constitutional position at Rome in the
second century B.C. His narrative of the history from 146 to
the death of Sulla, has the great merit of giving authorities,
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66
but may often be best described as 'perversely in-
genious."
On the histories of the Empire, Duruy has the advantage
over Merivale of being shorter, brighter, and more modern :
in spite of faulty parts, he seems to me the better of the
two. But Mommsen's new volume is now in English, and
therefore accessible; dealing as it does with the provinces,
it gives what really is most important in the history of the
Empire; though, of course, it touches on very many points
which candidates do not require "in the Schools."
As to the general Ancient History paper, nothing need.
be added to that which has been already said. The prepara-
tion for this is simply the intelligent study of the special
works on Greek and Roman History, which have been
already mentioned.
I have now tried to speak of the more obvious sources
in which the history work for "Greats" may be studied.
No doubt every one reading for the School will have these
supplemented and amended by his tutor and his lecturers.
But after all, suggestions beyond a certain point are useless
in History as in Philosophy. The best advice that can be
given is: "Know your texts, and then read whatever you
like that bears on your subject." The merit of the School
is that there are few pieces of knowledge which cannot be
introduced somewhere in answering the questions.
No special hints need be given as to preparation for
the translation papers from the books and those in Scholar-
ship-viz., the Latin and the Greek Prose Composition and
the Translation of Unprepared Passages. It need only be
said that all these papers are important, and that though
they have less weight than the question papers, they still
often turn the scale for or against a candidate's class.
In regard to the whole course of the work, Philosophical
as well as Historical, it is often said that men now read
comparatively little, as the lectures which they attend are so
THE HONOUR SCHOOL OF LITERE HUMANIORES.
261
many and so full. I fear this is true to some extent: the
papers done in the examination show a curious similarity
in the questions generally attempted, and in the way in
which they are attempted. Of course such reproduction of
second-hand knowledge is as useless as it is easy, and can-
not be too strongly condemned from an educational point
of view; but even from the point of view of a good class,
it is well worth a man's while to try and make himself
independent of his lectures, using them as helps, but not
as absolute guides. With this end I shall only make one
suggestion, which I should reject as too obvious, did I not
know that the advice it gives is neglected every day by
half the men reading for the School. It is simply this:
"Always read your lecture notes over within twenty-four
hours after taking them, and so digest them at your
leisure." Too many consider that the business of a lecturer
is to give them a number of convenient manuals of answers
to questions, which they copy mechanically, and never look
at again, until the approach of Collections or the Schools
makes them cram up their note-books.
There are three points connected with the examination,
which must be discussed separately-they are the vivấ
voce, special subjects, and coaching.
In regard to the first, there has been a decided reaction
in favour of this time-honoured institution; it would cer-
tainly be no exaggeration to say that, in 1886, vivá voce
played an important part in determining the class of a
considerable number of candidates. Of course where the
papers clearly fix a man's position, viva voce becomes
almost a form; but there are many cases in which papers
leave the question doubtful. Hence if asked, "Ought I
to do any reading for viva voce?'
I should always say,
"Certainly; look up your weakest point." But, as it is
all-important a man should be as well in health as possible
262
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
when he is "Vivaed," he had certainly better not do much
hard reading after his paper work is over: to attempt to
revise all his work would be as useless as it would be
wearisome.
On the question of special subjects, opinions vary very
much. Almost any book or subject connected with Philo-
sophy, or with Ancient History, may be offered; but
comparatively little use is made of this permission; per-
haps about one man in twelve "takes up" something
extra. If it can be done without prejudice to the prepara-
tion of the ordinary subjects, it is worth while to offer a
"special"; but to sacrifice the necessary work to this is
most dangerous. The Politics of Aristotle is the most
frequently chosen among books or subjects outside the
prescribed course; since this ought to be read in any case
it takes but little more reading if it is definitely offered
for examination: at the same time, it cannot be said that
its being so offered increases the candidate's change of a
first to a very considerable extent, though, of course, it
helps him a little.
With regard to "Coaching," a great change has come.
over the school within the last twenty years. From the
time of its foundation down to about 1870, it was almost
an invariable rule for the future first class man to "coach,”
and there were generally one or two famous men in each
generation to whom almost every one went; the last of this
line of famous coaches was the late "Student" Williams, or
perhaps, I should say, Mr. Assheton Cross. Now, on the
other hand, it is quite unusual for a candidate to seek any
further help than that of his tutor and of public lectures :
the reason, of course, of this change is, that now it is as
much the rule for a College tutor to take essays from his
pupils as it was the exception thirty years ago, and that
College lectures are a very different thing from what they
THE HONOUR SCHOOL OF LITERÆ HUMANIORES.
263
were at the time when (as was the case at Oriel about
1850) a man was excused from attendance on them on the
ground that he was reading for Honours.
Coaching, however, is still most useful in the case of a
man who has a decided distaste for one side of his work: a
good coach will probably be able to inspire him with some
interest in it, or, at all events, will help him to get up an
appearance of such interest.
The School of Literæ Humaniores is certainly, as was
said, the most popular of our Oxford Examinations. In
these days of criticism and of change, a system which has
worked well for more than thirty years seems almost
venerable. But even "Greats " does not escape attack.
The charge that it encourages mere second-hand know-
ledge has been already referred to more than once; the
field of work, it is said, which has to be covered is so
great that it is impossible for a man to do much for
himself, and so anything like original work is out of the
question.
Again Philosophers complain that a man can take his
first class when he has only touched the fringe of their
subjects, and historians are indignant that the highest
Honours in Ancient History are given for knowledge of
two periods of Greek and Roman History, and of only one
or two of the original authorities, even on these; e.g., the
whole of the story of the Punic Wars is "outside the
period" in most cases, and so may be unknown.
Even more bitter is the feeling of the Philologists; they
say with reason that in a school which calls itself the Final
Classical School, the least important place is taken by the
knowledge of Latin and Greek. If a candidate can only
read these with some ease, anything further does not matter.
This last charge seems unanswerable: to the others it is
replied that the object of the School is not to train
specialists but to educate men; that it is impossible to
Uor M
264
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
require a complete knowledge of anything from a student
of twenty-three, and that the graduate, after his examina-
tion is over, can and ought to go on with special work in
his own subject. Unfortunately this defence generally
breaks down in practice as far as the last point is con-
cerned after his degree the young B.A. either begins at
once to teach others his old subjects, or goes off into prac-
tical life.
:
In fact there is a widespread feeling in Oxford now that,
however well the general work of education may be done
here, something more ought to be done for special studies.
At the same time there are few that would sacrifice entirely
any one of the three elements in the examination, the
Philosophy, the History, or the Scholarship. The most
obvious solution has always seemed to be that some parts of
these might be given up in compensation for special study
in the other departments, e.g., to those men whose taste lies
in the direction of History, the removal of the Logic paper
would set free at least six months of their preparation
time, which they could most profitably use in more or
less original work in History. And it is more than doubt-
ful whether for such men the Logic and Metaphysics have
any educational value which is not possessed also by the
Moral and Political Philosophy.
But it is more necessary here to speak of the merits of
the School as it is, than to try and point out how it may be
improved. Even for practical purposes it is most useful:
probably the larger number of those who go in for it intend
to be teachers; and head masters with reason prefer a man
who has taken Honours in this school, even though he was
only in the second class, to one who has been placed in the
first class of the more special schools of History, Law, or
Theology. The thorough familiarity with Ancient History
required, and the necessarily wide classical reading, are in-
valuable to a future schoolmaster. To those who are going
THE HONOUR SCHOOL OF LITERA HUMANIORES.
265
in for some other line in life, the actual knowledge is less
directly useful; but even here there are few points in
modern politics. or speculation on which the knowledge
acquired in the "Greats School does not, more or less
directly, bear.
And as a mental training every one in Oxford would
admit the School is unmatched. The extent of ground to
be covered requires a man to cultivate the all-important
power of singling out essential points to the comparative
neglect of the rest of a subject. The catholicity of the
School, if the expression be allowed, is the best training
possible in clear thinking: all views are admitted, but
justice must be done to each, and the evidence for it clearly
stated: the one unpardonable sin in working for "Greats" is
to be confused.
And from a literary point of view what better training
could be given than that a man should be expected to
render himself familiar with the greatest works on History
and Philosophy in Classical Literature, reading these not
as a school exercise in grammar, but for themselves, as a
chief part of the intellectual inheritance of the world.
Examinations may possibly be an evil; they certainly
seem now to be a necessary one; but while they last it
would be the universal wish of Oxford men that, however
the "Greats" School may change, its main features may
always remain what they have been in its past distinguished
history.
J. W.
TH
CHAPTER XII.
JURISPRUDENCE.
'HERE is no branch of study taught at Oxford in
which the whole system of teaching has been so
revolutionized in the last few years as the study of juris-
prudence. But in order to understand and appreciate the
strenuous efforts made in recent times in Oxford to make
our University Schools of Law a valuable preliminary to a
successful professional career, it will be well to take a glance
at the Oxford that lies far behind us in the past centuries,
and in the memories of some of the great law writers and
teachers of the past we shall perhaps discover a justification
for a still closer connection between our University and
the great profession of the Law.
Prescriptive rights are rudely challenged in modern times.
by an appeal to utilitarian considerations. The teaching of
the Law in this place has the seal and stamp of present merit
and actual professional value upon it; to that we shall
allude more particularly, but we may also say that had no
serious effort been made to re-create a Faculty of Law, this
University would have been false to its traditions, as well
as neglectful of its opportunities. It may be that in the
future the Universities and the Inns of Court-perhaps in
some hour of adversity for the latter, when men are seeking
to widen the entrance to the legal profession-may be
drawn closer to one another, and may then recognize a
JURISPRUDENCE.
267
common interest, and share a common responsibility in pre-
paring students for the profession. At present University
Law studies must practically be regarded as unrecognized
by authority, and claiming only from the profession that
regard which their intrinsic merits have fairly earned.
The earliest records of this University are connected
with the teaching of the Civil Law. The Corpus Juris
Civilis unfolded new legal conceptions to feudal Europe.
In Italy, in Southern France, in Germany, the law customs.
of barbaric tribes, and the feudal institutions which had
attended and protected their infant growth into nation-
alities, gave way in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
before the restored majesty of the Roman law.
For a
second time it was made apparent to the world that the
earlier civilization was not to perish. Even in her fall
Rome had dowered the cruel and hungry tribes that over-
whelmed her, with the priceless gift of Christianity, and
now, seven hundred years after, the great jurists of Rome
are remodelling the private law of Europe; yet another four
hundred years, and the learning of the Renaissance shall
supplant the Scholastic Philosophy of the Middle Ages.
In this second gift of Rome to Europe, Oxford played an
important part. When Irnerius was teaching at Bologna,
Vacarius, under the patronage of Archbishop Theobald,
was lecturing to crowded audiences at Oxford. He himself
composed nine books upon the Code and Digest, and so
popular did the new learning become that complaints were
soon heard that the study of the Civil Law was the only
sure road to preferment in the Church, and that the
Scholastic Trivium, grammar, logic, and rhetoric, and the
Quadrivium, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music,
intended as these were to embrace the study both of man
and nature, were alike falling into decay.
Thomas à Becket himself studied at Bologna, and was
made a Doctor of Laws at Oxford.
268
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
In Henry III.'s reign Franciscus Accursius, one of the
most renowned Glossators of the Corpus Juris, took up his
residence at the King's Hall in Beaumont. The schools in
Oxford in his day bore no resemblance to the magnificent
fabric erected in the early years of the seventeenth century,
a fabric which still shows to the stranger entering by the
main gateway opposite Hertford College, the order and
gradation of the studies of ancient Oxford. He will still
find the Divinity School in front of him, the centre of the
system. Upon its right and left the Schools of Medicine
and Law, while the other three sides of the Quadrangle still
bear the names of the studies in the course of Arts, the
Trivium and Quadrivium of every University in Europe in
the Middle Ages.
When Vacarius and Accursius taught in Oxford, the
Schools of the Arts and the Sciences were mean buildings
adjacent mostly to St. Mary's Church, but some of them
scattered throughout the city. In the beginning of the
thirteenth century the study of the Canon Law in Oxford
received a new impulse from the settlement of the
Dominicans; they collected crowds of students to their
lectures, in buildings far superior to the University Schools.
At this period the Common Law of England began to
repudiate most strenuously all its obligations to the Civil
and the Canon Law, and the reign of Henry III., when the
study of the Civil and Canon Law were apparently
flourishing in such vigour at Oxford, is the very period
when the administration of the law was passing out of the
hands of the clergy, and out of the control of the Univer-
sities. Bracton indeed, Henry's Chief Justiciary, was an
ecclesiastic, and it is possible that the first two books of his
great work, "De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliæ," were
delivered as lectures to Oxford students; at any rate, he
had himself imbibed the methods and the language of
the Civil Law; but in this century a Commission of
JURISPRUDENCE.
269
Edward I. directed that students, "apt and eager," should
be brought from the provinces, and placed in proximity
to the Courts of Law, fixed by Magna Charta at West-
minster. Thus the Inns of Court were founded, and
Oxford had to resign all pretension to train and equip
lawyers for the practical work of the profession. Antony
Wood indeed argues that there were schools of Common
Law in Oxford, but his inferences are drawn, not from
facts, but from an ingenious but fallacious array of
probabilities.
In the fourteenth century the Civil Law was everywhere
but in England asserting its supremacy. In Oxford the
College system which had begun with University, Merton,
and Balliol, was largely extended. Canterbury Hall was
founded in 1361, mainly to promote the study of the Civil
and Canon Law; but this intention was never carried into
complete effect. In the foundation of New College in
1379, ten of the “ poor indigent clerks were to study
Civil, and ten Canon Law. This century was the golden
age of Medieval Oxford, although at its close the theolo-
gical storm which raged around the name and teaching of
Wiclif seriously affected the influence of the University in
its true work of education. From the time of Wiclif down
to the latest Jacobite risings of the eighteenth century,
Oxford was as much a home of political and religious
faction fighting as of sound learning, and the study of the
Civil Law suffered equally with other studies from these
disturbing causes.
The fifteenth century was not a bright one for Oxford;
an English literature of home growth was competing with
the Oxford training in the Arts, just as a century before
the English Common Law had drawn away her students
from her special training in the Civil and the Canon Law.
The French wars and the Wars of the Roses were emptying
her schools; in 1489 the schools of Civil and Canon Law
270
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
had fallen into decay, and were repaired by a general sub-
scription, nor did they ever flourish again as formerly.
But, on the other hand, we must not forget the splendid
foundation of All Souls' College in 1437, the true home of
Civil and Common Law in Oxford at the present day.
Although this was a Medieval and Roman Catholic foun-
dation, it was never intended as a seminary for the regular
clergy, but rather to train great statesmen and great
Churchmen for the service of the country. The speciality
of All Souls' was to be the study of Civil and Canon Law.
Among the forty Fellows there were to be sixteen jurists.
In the first century of her existence All Souls' gave four
professors of Civil Law to the University.
From the period of the Reformation almost down to our
own day Oxford has been rarely free from the bitter strife
of rival factions, religious or political. The Medieval
conflicts between town and gown were varied by fights
between the Northerners and Southerners in the University
itself. The classical studies introduced at the Renaissance
split the schools into factions of "Greeks" and "Trojans,”
and the religious and political tempests of the Reformation
convulsed the University and threatened the suppres-
sion of all learning. In the rapid changes of the sixteenth
century it was dangerous to belong to any party. Visita-
tions of the Universities became the fashion. Henry VIII.
reforms and destroys after his fashion, Protector Somerset
and Cranmer after theirs. A reaction of terrible severity
followed, and while bishops were being burned in the City
Ditch and Bibles in the market-place, Oxford was no fitting
home for study or research.
In the reign of Elizabeth the study of the Civil Law
received a new impulse from the teaching of Albericus
Gentilis, who settled at Oxford under the patronage of
Leicester. In 1587 he was appointed Regius Professor of
Civil Law; this chair had been founded with four others
JURISPRUDENCE.
271
by Henry VIII. out of the spoils of the monasteries.
Gentilis was a civilian of the old school, an advocate of a
thorough training in the Civil Law alone. His writings
supply the framework of the first and third books of
Grotius.
During the sixteenth century the study of the Common
Law became more completely localized in London. No
professional advancement could be looked for in Oxford,
and accordingly we find that Fellows of All Souls' became
in increasing numbers non-resident, retaining their fellow-
ships while practising in London. In 1582 Archbishop
Grindal, then College Visitor, expressly prohibits this, but
the strict rule of residence was subsequently repealed by
Archbishop Bancroft.
Amid all the dramatic details of the stirring period of
the Civil War, the Restoration, and the Revolution, there
is nothing to induce us to believe that the study of Law did
not suffer in common with every other study from the
violence of the times.
""
The Statutes framed by Laud for the University were
promulgated in 1636, and were actually in force until 1854.
In his days boys came up to Oxford at a very early age.
Lord Herbert of Cherbury, for instance, came to Oxford
at the age of twelve. Six or seven years' courses of lectures
preceded the degree of Master of Arts, and a further
period of study was necessary to qualify for the degree in
laws. Laud first instituted examinations. "The exercise,'
wrote the President of St. John's, "is passing solemn, and
cannot but beget an extraordinary care in the actors on
both sides to fit themselves unto this awful trial." But
the new system became a mere farce; the turmoil into
which Oxford was plunged by the Civil War and the suc-
cessive Visitations which followed had a most injurious
effect upon all study and discipline. The century following
the Revolution has been called the Dark Age of Academical
272
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
learning; the old disputations were obsolete, the examina-
tions were neglected, Jacobitism flourished in Oxford long
after it had ceased to have any influence with the nation.
The united testimony of Hearne, Adam Smith, Johnson,
Swift, Lord Chesterfield, Lord Eldon, and Gibbon concurs
in representing the Oxford of the eighteenth century as a
paradise for quarrelsome politicians and indolent gentle-
men.
It is with the more pleasure therefore that we can point
to one bright exception, for at this period Blackstone was
delivering as lectures at All Souls' those Commentaries on
the Laws of England which have done more to systematize
and present a complete view of our juridical system than
any writings since the days of Bracton. Blackstone's first
volume was published in 1755, the remaining ones between
1756 and 1759.
At the beginning of this century Christopher Codrington,
Fellow of All Souls', Captain of King William's 1st Regi-
ment of Foot Guards, and Captain-General of the Leeward
Islands, endowed by his will the magnificent library of All
Souls'. This was completed in 1756 under the care of Black-
stone. Since his day an excellent law library has been added.
Blackstone for eighteen years made All Souls' a special
object of his care. It is said that as a practising lawyer he
was not successful; by the advice of Murray, afterwards
Lord Mansfield, he came to Oxford to read law lectures,
and his success induced Mr. Viner to establish a chair of
Common Law, of which Blackstone was the first Professor.
Mr. Charles Viner by his will in 1755 left about £12,000
to establish this Professorship and endow Scholarships for
the study of the Common Law.
We may allude here to the endowment of the Eldon
Law Scholarship in 1830, also to that of the Civil Law
Fellowship at University College in 1837 by the Viscoun-
tess Sidmouth, in honour of her father, Lord Stowell.
JURISPRUDENCE.
273
These complete the somewhat meagre list of endowments
for the study of Law in Oxford.
The commencement of this century witnessed a great
change in the method of Oxford studies. In 1800 an
Honour School was founded for the course of Arts; seven
years later this was divided into two Honour Schools,
but while these flourished the Sciences languished, and the
study of the Law fell into decay. Knowledge in the
various faculties was not tested by any examination. Pro-
fessors' lectures were neglected. Dr. Phillimore, Regius
Professor of Civil Law, in his evidence before the Com-
mission of 1850, explained that the total income of his
Chair was £99 13s. 4d., in addition to a few fees from
those taking degrees in the Faculty of Law. He said that
no residence, library, or lecture-room was provided, that
there had been no public lectures given for more than a
century, and that his only duties were to present for
degrees and make a Latin speech when some Emperor of
Russia or King of Prussia was made a Doctor of Civil
Law.
Between 1800 and 1850 even the teaching in the two
favoured Schools had much degenerated. The Pass degree
had become a mere farce, and Honours were given not for
comprehensive knowledge, but for a minute textual ac-
quaintance with a few authors. Lord Bacon had com-
plained that the foundations of Colleges were all dedicated
to Professions, and none to Arts and Sciences at large.
The reverse was now the case. Theology, Law, and Medi-
cine were buried in neglect, while the circle of Arts and
Sciences was miserably contracted.
It would be beyond the limits of our subject if we were
to enter into the changes effected by the legislation of 1854.
They were far-reaching. Unrecognized and unrewarded
studies received a new status, the professoriate was increased,
university government was reorganized, effete restrictions
T
274
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
and monopolies were abolished, and Oxford was made
useful to the nation.
From 1853 the combined School of Law and Modern
History takes its rise with a Pass and Honour List. In that
year there were twenty-one Honour men, and twenty-one
Passmen in that School; in 1871, the last year of its sepa-
rate existence, there were fifty-two class men and sixty-six
Passmen.
In 1872 a separate School of Jurisprudence was founded,
but for that year the combined and the separate schools
co-existed in order that faith might be kept with the
students who had prepared their work for the combined
School. We may here dismiss the subject of this Law and
Modern History School with the remark that while it sup-
plied a higher standard of culture than a Law School pure
and simple can possibly do, and therefore in our opinion
was more valuable as a test for a degree in Arts, its Law
studies were of no professional value. Mr. Joshua Williams'
"Treatise on Real Property," and Sandars' "Institutes of
Justinian" carefully learned were sufficient for the highest
class in it, if the History papers were up to the mark. The
school was a History rather than a Law School.
Blackstone, a hundred years before, had protested against
the notion of equipping barristers for their work from bar-
risters' chambers only. He says, "Academical education
must be made a previous step to the profession of the
Common Law." Mr. Denison, in his evidence taken before
the Commission in 1851, says, "A youth of twenty-two
entering a conveyancer's chambers without preparation has
walked blindfold into a sort of legal jungle. Masses of
papers are daily placed before him; he barely understands
their terms before they are replaced by another set. A
second unprofitable year follows with a special pleader, or
equity draftsman. If the pupil does not then give up the
attempt as hopeless, and become a clergyman, as is
JURISPRUDENCE.
275
extremely common with Oxford men, he spends a third
hundred guineas, and at last perhaps becomes a sort of
handicraftsman, with a memory, or a commonplace book
stored with cases, but knowing nothing of the science of
Law."
In 1867, when our elementary Law School combined with
History was at work, two Fellows of All Souls' published
a pamphlet contrasting the training an Englishman received
for the profession with that given in France, where a
complete course of legal instruction is secured under the
official control of the Minister of Public Instruction, and in
Germany where every advocate is a State servant, and
passes through the State School, the University, a three
years' course at Berlin, and a period of probationary practice
in the Law Courts. Before the year 1873 we may say that
this University had made no serious attempt to fulfil that
ideal which Blackstone had placed before himself when he
declared that " Academical education must be made a pre-
vious step to the profession of the Common Law." Since
his day not only had Oxford tutors been saying the same
thing, but the Commissioners of 1850 had reported that
"the connection of Oxford with the profession of the Law
is unsatisfactory." This state of affairs was discreditable
to the University, inasmuch as scarcely any judges or lead-
ing barristers were Oxford men; the profession and the
public were ill-served, for in the narrow training of the
barrister the science of Law was neglected, our Law
literature was a mere mass of reports and our Statute
Book encumbered with half-obsolete and half-repealed en-
actments.
From the year 1873 to the present time great improve-
ments have been made in the Law studies of Oxford. We
may conveniently consider, first, the changes made from
time to time in the work of the Schools both of Jurispru-
dence and of the Faculty of Law.
276
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
By [Statt. Tit. V. (VI.), Sect. i., C.] the examination in
the new School of Jurisprudence is always to include
1. General Jurisprudence.
2. The History of English Law.
3. Such departments of Roman Law, and-if the
Board think fit—such departments of English Law
as the Board of Studies may specify.
4. Some department of International Law.
Wide scope was left to the Board of Studies to prescribe
what books and special subjects they pleased; and for some
years a course of study of the History of the Law was in
favour, rather than a knowledge of any department of
English Law as it is at present administered.
In late years there has been a growing tendency to sub-
stitute a practical for an antiquarian knowledge of the Law.
In order to bring out the full significance of this ten-
dency we will trace the changes made in the work of each
subject from year to year.
General Jurisprudence:-
Here the Board began by recommending the study of
Austin (Campbell's Edition)Vol. I., omitting Lectures 2,
3, 4, and Vol. II., lectures 46, 49, 50; also portions of
Bentham's "Theory of Legislation" (Dumont's transla-
tion).
In May, 1873, two additional lectures of Austin were
added.
In 1876, the Board made sweeping changes in every de-
partment to take effect that same year in the Mich. Term.
Energetic protests were called forth at the summary manner
in which these changes were forced upon the undergraduates
who were already advanced in their preparation for the
School. One well-known Law tutor wrote to the Vice-
Chancellor assailing the Board and the examiners in no
measured terms. "Are we to send young men to Hobbes
JURISPRUDENCE.
277
and Bentham for principles of morality, and for examples
to the Board of Studies ?" He declared that the School
was a lottery, that the institution of a Board to control
the examiners was a farce, and that the examiners, who
were mostly non-resident, were quite out of touch with the
work done in Oxford. This language was too strong for
the occasion, but certainly the introduction of the English
Law of Contract at six months' notice was unreasonable,
but on this point the Board yielded. Nevertheless the
arbitrary changes had their effect upon the Class List for
that year, which fell from twenty-four to fifteen. Since
that time the Faculty of Law has been careful to keep faith
with the undergraduate.
To continue our reference to the subject of General
Jurisprudence.
In 1876, it was announced that candidates were to be
examined in the Principles of Jurisprudence, the Theory of
Legislation, and the Early History of Legal Institutions.
(The special chapters in Austin were omitted.) Austin's
works generally, Bentham's "Principles of Morals and
Legislation," and the works of Maine were recommended,
with references to portions of Hobbes and Savigny. These
changes were not all improvements. It was well to include
Maine, but to substitute Bentham for Dumont's transla-
tion, and to expect in six months any fruit from a reference
to the expensive and inaccessible works of Hobbes and
Savigny was ridiculous. In 1880 the translation of Dumont
was restored. In 1884 regulations were issued to take effect
in 1886 effecting wider changes in every branch of the
work of this school than had been made before.
The Principles of Analytical Jurisprudence were substi-
tuted for the Principles of Jurisprudence. The meaning
of the term Jurisprudence is as vague as it is comprehen-
sive. It includes an analysis of the conception of legal
terms such as Sovereignty, Rights, Law, Persona, Status.
•
278
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
It aims at allotting to every department, such as Con-
tract, Torts, Crime, Personal Property, Real Property,
its proper place in a comprehensive scheme of Law. It
includes also the theory of legislation, what the Legislature
ought to aim at. It deals also with the merits and defects
of codification. It professes to trace laws to their source,
and to show what springs from custom, what from legal
fiction, what from judicial decisions, equity, or direct legis-
lation. It is prepared also to track out the early history
of legal institutions, and to compare Modern with Ancient,
Eastern with Western modes of thought.
In 1884 the Board of the Faculty took advantage of the
wider choice of text books on these subjects.
The following are the recommendations of the Board :—
(1) General Jurisprudence.
Candidates will be examined in the Principles of Ana-
lytical Jurisprudence, in the Theory of Legislation, and in
the early History of Legal Institutions.
They are recommended to read the following books :—
Austin, Jurisprudence, Lectures I., V., VI., and the
Essay on the Uses of the Study of Jurisprudence.
T. E. Holland, Elements of Jurisprudence.
W. Markby, Elements of Law.
Bentham, Theory of Legislation, by Dumont.
Sir H. Maine, Ancient Law, and the Lectures on Sove-
reignty (XII. and XIII.) in his Early History of
Institutions.
Students may also refer to the following works:-
Hobbes, Leviathan, the second part, of Commonwealth.
Bentham, Principles of Morals and Legislation.
Savigny, System des heutigen römischen Rechts.
Sir H. Maine's works, so far as not above specified.
Fustel de Coulanges, La Cité Antique.
F. Pollock, Essays in Jurisprudence and Ethics.
O. W. Holmes, Common Law.
JURISPRUDENCE.
279
Roman Law.
This subject has also grown under the hands of
examiners and the Board.
In 1872 they were satisfied with the Commentaries of
Gaius and the Institutes of Justinian.
In 1876 the History of Roman Legislation and Judicial
Institutions were added. A special subject it will be seen
has been added in 1886.
(2) Roman Law.
1. The Institutes of Gaius.
The Institutes of the Emperor Justinian.
2. Digest, IX. 2, ad Legem Aquiliam.
Students are recommended to study the Institutes of
Gaius and Justinian in the editions of Poste and Moyle
respectively; and also to use some text showing clearly the
relation of the two works one to another, such as that of
Gneist, Pellat, Polenaar, or Holland.
Reference may also be made to—
J. Muirhead's edition of Gaius.
Alphonse Rivier, Introduction Historique au droit
Romain.
W. A. Hunter, Exposition of Roman Law in the order
of a code.
Ortolan, Justinian.
Puchta, Institutionen.
Salkowski, Institutionen.
Dirksen, Manuale (as a Lexicon for the study of the
texts).
The title of the Digest may be omitted by Candidates
who do not aim at a place in the First or Second Class.
Third upon the list of subjects for this School comes—
English Law.
In 1871-2, when the Jurisprudence School was founded,
The History of English Law took the important place now
reserved for the study of the Law as it is. In Act Term,
280
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
1877, a special subject of English Law was added for the
first time, viz., the Principles of the Law of Contract. In
Trinity Term, 1886, additional subjects were added, and
the subjects for examination stand as follows:-
(3) English Law.
1. The Law of Contract.
The subject may be studied in—
Sir W. R. Anson, Principles of the English Law of
Contract.
S. M. Leake, Elementary Digest of the Law of Contract.
F. Pollock, Principles of Contract in Law and Equity.
Reference may also be made to—
C. C. Langdell, Cases on the Law of Contract.
2. The Law of Succession, Testamentary and Intestate,
to-
(1) Real Property.
(2) Personal Property.
The subject may be studied in-
Stephen, Commentaries, Vol. I and II.
Williams, Treatise on the Law of Real Property.
Williams, Treatise on the Law of Personal Property.
3. The Law of Real Property, in so far as it is not
included in the foregoing subjects.
The subject may be studied in—
Williams, Treatise on the Law of Real Property.
Stephen, Commentaries, Vol. I. Book II. Part I.
Blackstone, Commentaries, Book II.
The principal Statutes referred to in Williams' Treatise
should be studied, and reference may be made to—
K. E. Digby, History of the Law of Real Property.
L. A. Goodeve, The Modern Law of Real Property.
4. The Law of the Constitution.
Candidates will be expected to have mastered the leading
JURISPRUDENCE.
281
principles of existing Constitutional Law, and in particular
to show a knowledge of the following topics:
The Legislative power of Parliament, the modes in
which it is exercised, and its extent as to Territory and
Persons;
The Prerogatives of the Crown. The Privileges of the
Houses of Parliament. The Constitutional Position of The
Privy Council, the Ministers of the Crown, the Established
Church, the Courts of Law and the Armed Forces.
They are recommended to read—
Blackstone, Commentaries, Introduction and Vol. I.
Stephen, Commentaries, Vol. II. Book IV. Part I. and
Book II., Ch. i.—ii.
Traill, Central Government.
Hearn, Government of England.
Bagehot, English Constitution.
They may also refer to—
Stephen, History of the Criminal Law.
Forsyth, Opinions on Constitutional Law.
R. Gneist, Englische Verwaltungsrecht.
The History of English Law still forms a special subject
in the School as follows:
(4) History of English Law.
Candidates must possess such an acquaintance with the
History of the Institutions referred to under the head of
the Law of the Constitution, as is necessary to explain
their present character and working.
They may refer to—
Dr. Stubbs, Select Charters and Constitutional His-
tory, omitting those chapters which relate specially
to Political History.
Hallam, Constitutional History.
Sir T. E. May, Constitutional History.
R. Gneist, Englische Verfassungsgeschichte.
282
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
In the subject of International Law, the Board began in
1872 with a demand for (a) a knowledge of its general
history up to 1750. (b) The Law respecting the sea, ships,
and navigable rivers, in time of peace.
Two years later these subjects were withdrawn, and in
their place were substituted (a) The General History of
International Law from the peace of Westphalia. (b) The
rights and duties of Neutrals.
In 1876 a change was made back to the History of the
Law, relating to seas, etc., in time of peace, and the out-
lines of International Law as a system were substituted
for the general history from the peace of Westphalia.
In 1882 the History of the Law relating to seas, etc., in
time of peace, was again struck out.
In 1886 the subject is thus arranged.
(5) International Law.
The subject may be studied in-
W. E. Hall, International Law, or T. Woolsey, Intro-
duction to International Law.
Heffter Europäisches Volkerrecht.
Reference may also be made to-
Dana, Notes to Wheaton's Elements.
Sir R. Phillimore, International Law, Vols. I-III.
Sir T. Twiss, Law of Nations.
We have thus sketched out the changes made in the work
of the School of Jurisprudence. From one of the easiest,
the School has now become one of the most difficult
avenues to the B.A. Degree.
The B.C.L. Degree.
The examination for the degree of B.C.L. is purely an
Honour Examination. There are three classes; but candi-
dates who have not exceeded their 25th Term may alone
obtain a place in the Class List; those of earlier standing
may, on satisfying the examiners that their work deserves
a place in the Class List, obtain the degree.
JURISPRUDENCE.
283
There have been since 1873 many changes made ïn the
work of this School; for instance, some department of a
foreign code might have been taken as an alternative to Juris-
prudence. A general acquaintance with Roman Private
Law was not required until 1877, and the subject of
English Law has only quite recently been very much
amplified.
The following are the latest Regulations of the Board of
the Faculty.
The Examination for the Degree of B.C.L. will, in
Trinity Term, 1887, and until further notice, include the
following subjects:-
(1) Jurisprudence.
All candidates will be examined in Jurisprudence and
the Theory of Legislation.
(2) Roman Law.
All candidates will be examined in-
1. The Principles of Roman Private Law, as set forth
in the Institutes of Justinian.
2. One special subject to be selected by each candidate
by himself from the following list.
1. Ownership and Possession.
2. The Theory of Contracts generally.
3. The Contract "Emptio Venditio."
4. The Contracts "Locatio Conductio" and "Man-
datum."
Candidates are advised to refer as frequently as they can
to Gaius, and to the Titles of the Digest which bear upon
the special subject they have selected. In particular
reference may, with advantage, be made to the following
Titles of the Digest.
For Special Subject No. (1), to the Titles "De Adquirendo
rerum dominio ” (xli. 1); "De Adquirenda vel amittenda
possessione" (xli. 2).
284
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
For Special Subject No. (2), to the Title "De Verborum
Obligationibus" (xlv. 1).
For Special Subject No. (3), to the Titles "De Contra-
henda Emptione" (xviii. 1); "De Actionibus Empti et
Venditi” (xix. 1); "Mandati vel Contra" (xvii. 1).
(3) English Law.
All Candidates will be examined in-
1. Real and Personal Property.
2. Common Law (including Contracts, Torts, Criminal
Law, and the Procedure of the High Court).
3. Equity (with especial reference to Trusts and Partner-
ship).
4. One Special Subject to be selected by each Candidate
for himself from the following list :-
(1) Agency.
(2) Sale.
(3) Easements and Profits-à-prendre.
(4) Specific Performance.
(5) Criminal Law.
(6) Evidence.
(4) International Law.
All Candidates will be examined either in-
The general principles of Private International Law; or
in
The Law of Neutrality.
Every Candidate is required to give notice to the Regius
Professor of Civil Law of the subjects in which he proposes
to offer himself to be examined, four weeks at least before
the first day of Trinity Term.
The Pass School in Law.
A word must be said upon the subject of Legal Study
in the Pass School of the Second Public Examination.
The Subjects of Examination in this School for those
who do not seek Honours are arranged in four groups, which
include fifteen subjects.
JURISPRUDENCE.
285
Every Candidate is to be examined in three subjects, one
of which must be either (1) Two Books, either both Greek,
or one Greek and one Latin, one being a portion of a Greek
philosophical work, and the other a portion of a Greek or
Latin Historian, or—
(2) The Elements of Sanskrit, or—
(3) The Elements of Persian, or—
(4) A Modern Language, either French or German.
Candidates frequently make choice for their second and
third subjects of the Elements of Political Economy, and
the following amount of Law, viz.,
(4) Either The Principles of the English Law of Con-
tracts, to be studied either in "The Principles of
the English Law of Contract," by Sir W. R. Anson
(Clarendon Press Series), or in Pollock's "Principles
of Contracts in Law and Equity," or in other works
of similar character;
Or The Institutes of Justinian, omitting from Book
II., Title 11, to Book III., Title 12 ;
Or The Hindu Law of the Family, Family Property,
and Inheritance, which may be studied in the
“Treatise on Hindu Law and Usage," by J. D.
Mayne.
The Principles of the English Law of Contracts has only
been added since 1882, in substitution for the Law of Real
Property; and in the following year, the Hindu Law of the
Family was added as a further alternative.
We must now consider the equipment of the Faculty of
Law, consisting of Professors, Readers, and Law Lecturers.
In Civil Law there is a Professor, also a Reader, so also
in English Law. In International Law a Professor, in
Jurisprudence a Professor, and in Indian Law a Reader.
This equipment is really a compromise between what the
Board of Studies has asked for at different times, and what
the University has been able to afford.
286
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
In 1876 the Board wished for two Jurisprudence Pro-
fessors, two Civil Law Professors, four Professors of
English Law, one of International, and one of Oriental
Law. It may, we think, be said that although ten Pro-
fessors could not be granted, the Faculty is by no means
starved with seven Professors and Readers.
The new Statutes have provided for adequate remunera-
tion, for residence, and for lectures. The Professor's
tenure is, with the exception of the Corpus Professorship,
for life, and the income, largely derived from Collegiate
sources, is £700 per annum. The Readerships are for short
terms of years, at an income of £300 and £400 per annum ;
generally speaking, both Professors and Readers are bound
to give forty-two lectures in the three terms of the aca-
demical year. The Professors are bound, as a rule, to
reside six months in the year in Oxford. We must notice
also the work of the Law Lecturers.
;
Every undergraduate pays a certain sum to his College
for tuition. In return the College is supposed to provide
adequate teaching, and many Colleges combine to divide
the tuition fees among the tutors and lecturers of those
Colleges, thus securing a wider choice of teaching. This
system has its drawbacks, but now that a general scheme
of the lectures of each Term is published beforehand, there
is not the danger there once was, of inadequate treatment
of one subject, and superfluous treatment of another.
A Law Lecturer, whether he be called a University
Reader, or merely a Law tutor, is absolutely necessary to
the undergraduate, who needs some one to arrange his
lectures for him, advise him upon his reading, test it by
papers, and assist him in difficulties. It is commonly said
that there is a want of organization about the present
system, that inferior men may become College tutors, and
secure as good a share of the tuition fees, as men who
would draw a class, and keep it together by their own merits.
JURISPRUDENCE.
287
It has been suggested that University Readers should
take the place of College Lecturers, and that the work
allotted to them should be specialized. We venture to
doubt whether a University Reader, at a moderate salary,
attached as Fellow to a College, and coming from the same
class of men that now teach as Law Lecturers, would be
any the more useful for being a University functionary.
Indeed, to specialize in his work, seeing that the whole
course is really rudimentary, would probably make his
teaching narrow and less useful, or, if ambitious, he would
certainly lay too much stress upon his special subject, and
possibly procure undue recognition for it in the Schools.
Even now complaints are heard that the work is arranged
to suit text writers on special subjects, and if the number of
Readers, each devoting all his energies to a special subject,
were increased, we should hear more of this complaint.
A word may be said upon the uses of the Private Tutor.
He should not be undervalued, for he is paid neither by
salary nor by College fees, but by the undergraduate who
needs his services. The most capable man naturally
secures the best class, but it is true that there is a fashion
in these things, and undergraduates, like other people,
sometimes follow the fashion without getting much good
therefrom. The undoubted fact remains that private
tutors in this and other schools have had, and still have,
full classes and make large incomes; this appears to in-
dicate some flaw in the costly University and Collegiate
system, seeing that even now it cannot dispense with this
extraneous aid. Is there not a possibility that absence of
competition among Professors, Readers, and Law Lecturers
may have something to do with this?
We may in this place briefly consider the methods and
appliances of other Universities in the study of Law.
Cambridge requires that every Bachelor of Arts shall
pass the following Examinations: (1) a "Previous Examina-
288
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
tion," corresponding to our "Responsions"; (2) a "General
Examination" in Classics, Algebra, Elementary Statics, and
Hydrostatics. The names of Candidates who pass appear in
four classes. (3) The Special Examination for the ordinary
degree, in which the Candidate may select Theology, Moral
Science, Law, History, or Natural Science. The Law
School at this stage is an elementary one; two papers are
given on Blackstone's "Commentaries," and one on Lord
Mackenzie's "Roman Law," or instead may be offered the
"Elements of Hindu and Mahometan Law.” For the
Cambridge Degree with Honours there are nine Triposes.
Women are now admitted to all of them.
The Law Tripos includes:
1. General and Comparative Jurisprudence.
2. Portions of the Digest.
3. Roman Law and its History.
4. English Real and Personal Property.
5. English Criminal Law.
6. English Legal and Constitutional History.
7. Public International Law.
8. Essays and Problems.
Successful Candidates take order of merit in three
classes, below which there is a list of those who, although
unplaced, have earned the B.A. Degree. A Bachelor of
Arts may proceed to the Degrees of LL.B. and LL.D.
without taking Honours in the Law Tripos, by satisfying
the Examiners in the English Law of Real and Personal
Property, and Criminal Law.
It will therefore at once be seen that the Cambridge
LL.B., who has not gone through the Law Tripos Examina-
tion, has not been subjected to a very severe test. This
makes the Degree somewhat inferior to the Oxford B.C.L.
The Faculty of Law at Cambridge has three Professors:
The Regius Professor of Civil Law, the Downing Professor
of English Law, and the Professor of International Law.
JURISPRUDENCE.
289
In addition to this staff of Professors there are two
Readers, one in English and one in Indian Law.
London. This University neither requires nor admits
any Examination in Law for the B.A. or M.A. Degree.
For the Degree of LL.B. there are the following
Examinations:
(a) An intermediate Examination in
(1) Jurisprudence.
(2) Roman Law.
(3) English Constitutional History.
The Candidate who gains the highest place in this
Examination receives an Exhibition of £50 per annum for
two years, and is University Law Scholar of his
(b) LL.B. Examination, including
year.
(1) Common Law, in which the Law of Evidence and
the Criminal Law find a place.
(2) Equity.
(3) Real Property.
(4) Roman Law.
For the Degree of LL.D. there is a further Examination,
which includes a selection of the above subjects, and also
either Jurisprudence or International Law.
Edinburgh. This University is more fully equipped than
any other for the study of Law.
There are six Chairs, viz., of Public Law, Civil Law,
Constitutional Law and History, the Law of Scotland,
Medical Jurisprudence, and Conveyancing.
The LL.B. Degree was instituted in 1862, and is open
to graduates only of that and other Universities. A three
years' course of attendance on the lectures of Professors
is required.
The B.L. Degree was instituted in 1874. This demands
a two years' course of Law studies.
Dublin. The Law Degree of Dublin is also of recognized
U
290
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
value. Law is one of the four Professional Schools in this
University, which are Divinity, Medicine and Surgery,
Law, Engineering.
Coming back to the Law studies of Oxford we may say
that very much has been done in the last fifteen years to
make them more valuable. The teaching staff will pro-
bably be held to be sufficient for the present, but in other
respects, if not in this also, there is room for further
development.
A complete organization for Law teaching is still a want.
A centre for the work is needed alike for Professors,
Readers, Lecturers, and Undergraduates. All Souls' would
be the natural centre, and should supply library, reading-
rooms, lecture, and pupil rooms. The Law Library at All
Souls' is invaluable, but it is incomplete. The Bodleian is
of no use to the Law student, who requires sometimes
a vast number of books of reference, for instance,
different volumes of Law Reports. At the Bodleian the
student cannot range over the pasture at will, and it
would take an army of assistants to fetch and carry away
the volumes required. The Bodleian possesses much that
All Souls is without, and those books which are never
read at the Bodleian would be a welcome addition to the
Law Library at All Souls. But the reading-room at All
Souls is altogether too small, and is very cold in winter,
having a glass roof. Lecture-rooms and pupil-rooms are
greatly needed. There has been no attempt to keep pace
with the development of Law teaching by an increased
endowment, and a further stimulus of Law Fellowships,
Scholarships, and Exhibitions would be a material assist-
ance to the successful prosecution of law studies in Oxford.
It remains for us to give the Candidate in the Honour
School of Jurisprudence some general advice and guidance
in his work. We must, however, preface our remarks by
this limitation, that we can only aim at giving him, so to
JURISPRUDENCE.
291
speak, a start in the right direction.
His College tutor or
Law tutor will be referred to from time to time upon the
work in hand.
The subjects are grouped in the following order :-
1. Jurisprudence. 2. Roman Law. 3. English Law.
4. History of English Law. 5. International Law.
Assuming that the Candidate has a year and a half in
which to prepare his work, we recommend him to select a
leading text-book or two on each subject, with the exception
of International Law, for study during the first three or four
months, and these to be read quickly through, without
note-taking, with one exception, to which we shall advert
directly.
The Candidate may begin with Holland, "Elements of
Jurisprudence," and Markby, "Elements of Law." The
former book maps out the principles of a science of Law,
and the latter analyses legal conceptions. The chapters on
Ownership and Possession, Easements and Prescription,
will be found a very useful preliminary to the study of
these subjects in the Roman Law. Maine's "Ancient
Law," and "Village Communities," should both be read
before approaching the Roman Law. The latter is not
among the text-books recommended, but Maine's remarks
upon the Indian Village Community throw much light
upon the Patriarchal theories of Roman Law, as well as
upon the development of feudalism from a system of town-
ships. The Candidate might begin his Roman Law with
Hunter's "Outline of Roman Law" and Hadley's
"Intro-
duction to the Study of Roman Law." The reading will
hitherto have been rapid, with an intention of taking up
the details of these subjects of Jurisprudence and Roman
Law a little later. But with the subject of English Law
it will be well to take notes from the first, for it is of little
use skimming Blackstone or Stephens, Anson or
Williams. The Law of Succession will be left to be
66
""
292
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
treated in a compendious form by the Law Lecturer, and
the Law of the Constitution in this early stage may be
taken from Bagehot and Hearn. The recently published
works of Professor Dicey and Sir W. Anson must also be
carefully read and noted. For the History of English Law
a beginning may be made with Hallam and May.
This sketch will give an idea of the preliminary process,
which is to traverse the whole ground rapidly, and under-
stand the relation of parts of the subject to the whole.
Having acquired a due sense of proportion, the Candidate
will be ready for lectures. We do not advise lectures upon
more than two or three subjects in the same term. We
should first select Roman Law, Jurisprudence, and the Law
of the Constitution.
The Candidate should take some pains to find out a
lecturer likely to benefit him in his reading, and then he
should stick to him, enlisting as much of his interest as he
can. Lectures without a careful study of text-books are
an utter waste of time. Let the Candidate make some use
of his tutor, bringing him not only answers to questions,
but questions to be answered. Let him also avoid general
essays upon subjects unexplored.
Note-taking is a most important element in success or
failure. Notes should be taken only on alternate leaves of
the note-book. The natural divisions of the subject should
be clearly brought out. Upon the opposite page room will
be found for illustrations from other books, and occasionally
for a closer analysis of the subject. The note-book is for
constant use, and for close study at the last, so the writing
must be clear, and the matter not too closely condensed.
A certain time should be devoted at the end of the
course for a survey of the whole field by means of the
note-books, looking up at the same time books of reference
bearing on the subjects, and referring again to the text-
books wherever the notes appear inadequate. A few exa-
JURISPRUDENCE.
293
mination papers may also be worked through. In the last
term there should be no need for lectures. We recommend
a very careful study of the note-book on each subject as the
very last thing before the examination in that subject.
When in the Schools the Candidate will do well to concen-
trate his attention as quickly as possible on each question
by itself, not confusing his mind by dwelling upon the
whole paper. At the same time, great care should be taken
that the drift of the question in hand is thoroughly under-
stood, for often a copious answer to a question that has
never been asked is given. This does no good, and some-
times the Candidate will find that he has anticipated a
question asked lower down on his paper.
We come now to the conclusion of this subject with the
question—What is the use of University Law teaching? Is
it wise for an intending barrister or solicitor to throw
himself into the work of the Honour School of Jurispru-
dence and of the Faculty of Law, or will he do well to ignore
examinations as much as he can, and trust to work in
chambers and practice in the Courts to make a lawyer of
him?
It is no longer possible to slip into a profession rich in a
monopoly of high places in public life, unexamined, quali-
fied only by a year's lectures, or a year in a barrister's
chambers.
The Incorporated Law Society led the way in prose-
cuting a more thorough system of examination, and the
Inns of Court, at first somewhat reluctantly, followed.
Since the year 1852, when the Commissioners reported
that the number of barristers not educated at either
University was increasing, Oxford has established a School
of Law, endowed an adequate teaching staff, and produced
a remarkable series of text-books. The works of Poste,
Moyle, Holland, Maine, Markby, Anson, Dicey, and
Grueber must be recognized by the most sceptical upon
294
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
the value of an Oxford training as a splendid contribution
to the Law literature of the period.
These men, and some of them are practical lawyers, add
their testimony to that which we have already quoted,
given by Blackstone, that "Academical education must be
made a previous step to the profession of the Common
Law," that it is a disheartening waste of time to attempt to
grapple with the ever-changing masses of papers that
adorn the barrister's table, unless the student has acquired
some scientific conception of law, and has mastered the
general principles that underlie the decisions of the Courts.
Other countries have anticipated us in discarding a rule-of-
thumb system. In France legal education is under the
control of the Minister of Public Instruction, and is regu-
lated by the Facultés de Droit with a Board of Professors
to each. In Germany every advocate must pass through
the State School and the University. The same is the
case in Italy. In America, where, as in Ireland, but unfor-
tunately not in England, barristers and solicitors form one
profession, there is a full provision for legal teaching at
the Universities. Both in New York and in Massachusetts
lectures are given by judges and counsel in practice.
Story's famous works were delivered as lectures. Indeed,
we think that those who make little of Professors' lectures
are not sufficiently aware of their value. Professor Hadley's
"Introduction to Roman Law" is a series of lectures given
to the students at Yale College. In Germany, Savigny
was a Professor. In that country Professors are highly
valued, and cases are still sometimes submitted by the
Courts for the dicta of the Faculties of Law.
In Scotland, Erskine delivered his famous "Principles.
of the Law of Scotland" as lectures in the Chair of Scots
Law in Edinburgh.
We have already alluded to Blackstone at Oxford. We
may
also recall the fact that Austin's lectures were given
JURISPRUDENCE.
295
in the Chair of Jurisprudence at London University, and
that at the Inns of Court Sir James Stephen delivered as
lectures his "Digest of the Criminal Law and of the Law
of Evidence." More might be added, but perhaps enough
has been written to induce the student to believe that Pro-
fessors and their lectures may prove of some value to him.
The Council of Legal Education has often been pressed
to recognize more fully the work done at Oxford, and to
dispense with any further examination in the case of
those who have taken Honours. The B.C.L. School is
recognized as exempting from an examination in Roman
Law and Jurisprudence. The Inns of Court can waive
their right to examine if they please, but the Incorporated
Law Society are bound to examine every Candidate for the
solicitor's profession.
The question of a further examination by the Inns of
Court is of small importance in our opinion. A man who
has taken Honours in the School of Jurisprudence will find
his Inns of Court Examinations a positive advantage to
him in his reading for the B.C.L. Degree; and this reading
can very well be taken up while doing practical work in
barrister's chambers.
Regarded from a professional point of view, the Law
training given at Oxford is very useful. From time to
time no doubt other branches of English Law will be
represented in the Honour School of Jurisprudence.
Equity and Criminal Law, which are included in the
B.C.L. Examination, will find a place here also.
The Law of the Constitution ought to be studied in the
School of the Law Faculty as well as in the Honour School
of Jurisprudence. Other changes will occur to other
minds as desirable. As we have seen, there is no finality
in the views of desirable change entertained by the autho-
rities. But the question will arise, whether Oxford is not
rapidly becoming too much a home for specialists, and
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OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOols.
whether her Degree in Arts is any guarantee for general
culture.
This is too wide a question to discuss here.
The old School of Law and Modern History, inadequate
as it was upon its Law side, gave a better guarantee for
culture than the present Jurisprudence School.
Many people will consider that a special study in Law
comes more properly after a Degree which attests a general
culture than as a main part of the knowledge required for
the conferment of that Degree.
HUGH HALL, B.C.L.
TE
CHAPTER XIII.
MODERN HISTORY.
HE Honour School of Modern History has itself a
history which covers some four-and-thirty years. A
School of "Law and Modern History" was one of the
results of that reforming movement which led to the first
University Commission. For twenty years these subjects.
were yoked together, until in 1872 two independent
Schools were established; while the present regulations
came into force as lately as 1886. In spite of many
difficulties, to which it were not surprising had the School
succumbed, it has steadily grown in importance. The
work has become more thorough, the teaching better
organized, the examination standard higher; and now the
study of Modern History excites so keen an interest and
gives an intellectual stimulus to so many that it must be
reckoned one of the most powerful forces in Oxford life.
Before speaking of the considerations which may lead a
man to choose this particular School, let us see what work
it sets before him. In the first place, he is required to
study the outlines of the whole of English History, both
political and constitutional; then, secondly, he is to give
special attention to a "Period' of both English and
Foreign History, thus, should he select the Period of
Foreign History from 1414 to 1610, he must take the
Period of English History from 1399 to 1603. He will,
in addition, be examined in Political Science, and in
""
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Economic History and Theory. And, finally, those who
aim at a good class are required to offer also a Special
Subject, with certain specified "original authorities."
Now the first and most difficult point to be settled by the
man who begins to read Modern History is, which Period
he shall "take.” The Periods are, roughly, as follows:
(1) from the fifth to the eleventh century; (2) the ninth to
the thirteenth; (3) the thirteenth to the fifteenth ; (4) the
fifteenth and sixteenth; (5) the seventeenth; (6) the
eighteenth; (7) from the middle of last century to the
middle of this. The selection will of course be determined
largely by individual preferences; one man may wish to
examine mediæval society, another the great changes ac-
companying the Renaissance and Reformation, while a
third may be more interested in the politics of the age
immediately preceding our own: but with most the choice
will be also influenced by regard to the Special Subjects.
Of these six are mentioned in the regulations, viz., Hilde-
brand, the first three Crusades, Italy (1492—1513), the
Great Rebellion (1638-1649), the French Revolution
(1789-1795), and India (1773-1805); and although
Candidates are permitted to offer other subjects, after
giving due notice and obtaining the approval of the
Board of Faculty, the fact that only in these six are
they likely to obtain assistance from tutors and lectures is
practically sure to restrict them to those suggested. It
will clearly be wise to choose such a Period and such a
Special Subject that the latter may fall within the former.
With some men it will be the General Period that will de-
termine the Special Subject, but with most the reverse
will be the case. Let us assume, then, that the first point
to be decided is, which Special Subject to study. Each has
its own interest and attraction. The first will give some
insight into the character and work of the medieval
Church, and its relations to the Empire and the secular
MODERN HISTORY.
299
power; the second shows Christendom and Mahometanism
in conflict; the third, the Renaissance and the death of
the Italian Republics; the fourth, the struggle between
Charles and the English Parliament; the fifth, the over-
throw of the ancien régime in France; the sixth, the
creation of our Indian Empire. In the first and the second,
again, the original authorities with which the student will
have to deal are in Latin, those for the third in French and
Italian, for the fifth in French only, and for the fourth and
sixth in English only.
One more alternative is presented. A candidate, instead
of choosing a historical Special Subject, may offer himself
to be examined in the History of the Law of Real Property,
and in this case he will not be influenced by his Special Sub-
ject in the choice of a Period. "Real Property” has the
advantage of lying in a comparatively narrow compass;
and this may induce those to take it up who shrink from
handling the masses of original authorities which the other
special subjects put before them. Men interested in
modern land-questions may feel themselves drawn to the
"Real Property" as likely to be of practical value; while
those who intend to become barristers or solicitors may see
in it a convenient introduction to their more strictly pro-
fessional studies. On the other hand the subject is very
technical, and but loosely connected with the other work of
the School; and it certainly seems unwise for a man who
has gained a general knowledge of a Period not to try to
add to it that insight into character, that training of judg-
ment and sympathy to which the detailed study of a his-
torical Special Subject may help him.
&
We will suppose then that, having considered the relation
of Special Subject to General Period, a man has made up
his mind which Subject and Period he will take. And
matters have not been unduly anticipated, in thus first
directing attention to the General Period and the Foreign
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OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
History; for, although tutorial help on the Foreign History
is usually deferred until the third term or even the second
year of reading, it is necessary to attend lectures upon it
from the first, if the ground is to be covered in the time.
Supposing a man to know something of general English
History, and to have two years before him, he may do well
to assign his time thus, the first long vacation and the
two following terms to English Constitutional and Political
History; the next term, long vacation, and another term,
to the General Period, English and Foreign, a term to the
Special Subject, and the last term to Political Science and
Economic History.
English Constitutional History is the backbone of the
School: around it may be grouped all that it is really
necessary to know of what is oddly called "Political"
History; and it gives a strength and dignity to the School
which it might otherwise lack. But Constitutional History
means the study of Stubbs and Hallam,-books which
appal the beginner, and of which the former will, not
improbably, somewhat bewilder him. The student, when
he plunges into it, seems to enter a forest of gesiths and
gemots, of assizes and justiciars, of tenths and fifteenths,
where the paths all run into one another, and lead no-
whither. And, therefore, it may be found more profitable
for him, before attacking his Stubbs and Hallam, to go
through a little preliminary course of reading; so that
when he comes to the greater works he may understand
what sort of questions he has to deal with, what are the
points at issue, "what it is all driving at." Let him
therefore commence with Professor Freeman's "Growth of
the English Constitution;" then let him look at the working
of our political institutions to-day, as explained, for in-
stance, in the chapters on the Cabinet and the House of
Commons in Bagehot's “English Constitution," and in the
first two lectures of Professor Dicey's "Law of the Con-
MODERN HISTORY.
301
stitution." Then, turning back, let him carefully analyse
the "Introduction" to Stubbs' "Select Charters," where
every word is worthy of letters of gold. And now he will
be in a fit state to open the Bishop of Chester's great work,
with some confidence in his power to see the significance of
its statements and generalizations.
It would be impossible here to go through the list of
General Periods and Special Subjects, and give suggestions
on each of them. But something perhaps may be said of
what is meant by Political Science and Economic History.
The Political Science paper differs from the rest, in that it
is not set upon a certain limited subject-matter, though,
indeed, definite books are mentioned. It is expected that,
whatever Period a man studies, his work will make him
think of the political principles for which men then strove,
and their relation to the principles of to-day, of the strength
and action of political forces then and now; and that he
will come to the reading of the prescribed books with some
knowledge of the significance of the subjects of which they
treat.
The authors chosen are Aristotle, Hobbes, Maine, and
Bluntschli, and it may be well to explain why these have
been selected. Aristotle's "Politics" is by far the most
important of all writings on Political Philosophy. It is
the first systematic treatise dealing with the great questions
of social organization, and it has permanently affected the
language of political theory. But it is of special value
to the student of History. For it gives the theory of the
ancient state, and by the very contrasts which it suggests,
above all by its limitations and omissions, helps us to see
wherein the medieval and modern world alike differ from
the ancient.
Yet the medieval world has this in common with the
ancient, that in both the interests of the individual were
held to be subordinate to the interests of the State. But
•
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OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
in the sixteenth century another conception of the State
began to influence men, one which regarded individuals as
having certain rights independent of any social union, and
as having created the State for certain limited objects.
This theory that the State originated in, or rested on, a
contract between individuals, underlay, in the shape given
to it by Locke, the Whig doctrine of parliamentary sove-
reignty; and, as taught by Rousseau, was held to justify
the claim to rebellion as a right. But it was Hobbes who
first consistently and powerfully worked out the theory;
and it can be all the more calmly considered on its own
merits when it is presented by Hobbes as a support to
authority, and not as a weapon against it.
Maine's "Ancient Law" is also in its measure a typical
and representative work; for it marks the beginning in
England of the application of the "historical method" to
political and social institutions. The history of the
growth of an institution does not always explain its value;
but it may at any rate show that many an idea which we
are accustomed to regard as necessary and self-explanatory, ·
is itself the result of a long development. And, finally,
the student is directed to Bluntschli's "Theory of the State,"
as a useful book of reference; a dull and confused work, but
worth consulting occasionally on particular subjects.
Men are, however, usually more afraid of the Political
Economy paper than of that on Political Science. The
regulations set forth that they "will be examined in Mill's
Political Economy," and "will also be required to show an
adequate knowledge of Economic History." But if they
plunge into Mill they find the greater part of his book
extremely difficult, and, what is more important, out of
relation to the rest of their reading. Besides, they can
scarcely fail to learn that Mill's conclusions have been
largely modified by subsequent economists, and they will
naturally ask, whether they are expected to follow the dis-
MODERN HISTORY.
303
cussion through the writings of Jevons and Cairnes and
Sidgwick. On the other hand, Economic History is by
itself a wide subject, and a subject for which there are no
good text-books. The fact is that a great change is coming
over the character of economic teaching in England, and
the regulations of the History School are probably only
transitional. For the present most investigators of Economic
History would agree in thus defining their attitude toward
orthodox Economics: they do not deny that the teaching
of Ricardo and Mill is a logical construction upon given
assumptions, nor that these assumptions are in a large
measure true of certain important sides of modern indus-
trial life, but they assert that these assumptions were
certainly not at all true until very recent times. And, there-
fore, they urge, the so-called "principles " of Political
Economy are, at any rate, not universally true for all times
and places, and, in consequence, contribute scarcely at all
to the understanding of the economic life of the past.
For this it is necessary to study economic institutions
in the light of the ideas of the time, and to examine
those ideas, not in relation to modern conditions which
did not then exist, but in relation to the conditions amid
which they rose. What, therefore, is desired in the History
School is probably this, that men should gain some sort of
acquaintance with the chief features of the development of
English Industry, Agriculture and Commerce, and with the
ideas influencing and underlying it; and therefore, that they
should also know the chief doctrines of modern economists,
without which the social history of the last hundred years
is scarcely intelligible. But it is to Economic History rather
than to modern Theory that attention is chiefly to be
directed. The following reading may be suggested,
Cunningham, "English Industry and Commerce," Book I.,
chaps. i., ii.: Books II., III., IV.; Rogers, “Work and
Wages," chaps. ii.—vi., viii.—xii., xiv.—xx. : Toynbee, "In-
304
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
1
dustrial Revolution of 18th Century," lectures ii.-v., vii.-x.
The last-named writer's essay on "Ricardo and the old
Political Economy," will explain the assumptions common to
Mill and all the great English Economists. Then it will save
time and trouble to run rapidly through some short treatise,
such as Jevons' "Primer," so as to gain familiarity with
modern terms. After this one may address oneself to Mill,
and read with especial care, Book I., chaps. x.-xii.; Book
II., chaps. vi.-xvi.; Book III., chaps. i.—iv., x., xiii.,
xvii., xxiv.; Book IV., chap. vii.; Book V., chaps. ii.-
iv., vii., xi.
As to the reading necessary for the Periods and Special
Subjects, reference should be made to the lists of books in
the Examination Statutes, and it would be scarcely possible
to make here any detailed suggestions. But some words as
to the general character of the work may not be out of place.
The work is of three kinds: attendance at lectures,
reading, essay-writing. And in the History School, essay-
writing has become the usual way of "doing work for one's
tutor." Men are advised at the beginning of the term to
give special attention to some particular period, certain
books are suggested, and "subjects" falling within their
reading are "set" for essays. Now, why has this particular
method been adopted?
For boys at school there is probably no better way of
teaching than to cause them to learn the main facts in such
a way that they can remember them. But in the study of
History in the University the learning of bare facts is the
smallest, and in a sense the least important, part of the work.
By going to the usual authorities, any tolerably industrious
man can readily find a sufficient number of facts,-of dates
and events. What he really wants to know is the meaning
of these facts, what stages they mark in the growth of such
and such an institution, what policy they show in the
action of a particular statesman, what contrasts they sug-
MODERN HISTORY.
305
gest between different ages and nations. And essay-writing
seems the best way to develop this habit of looking for
causes and effects. Let the student first quietly read the
necessary authorities upon the subject, making as he does
so a rough abstract of what they contain; then let him jot
down his ideas, in some dozen words, and make up his mind
what his line of argument is going to be, what he is going
to say first and next, and how he is going to end; and then,
when he sees to the end of what he is going to say, and not
before, let him begin.
The salvation of an essay is
(4
'point."
Now of course this, like all other conceivable methods,
has its risks. It dangerously encourages fine writing; it
may make a man undervalue reading and investigation in
comparison with facility in constructing neat arguments.
Yet, under the criticism of a tutor, it is the best way of
making the reading for the History School a really valuable
mental discipline. For, as Professor Seeley has so
admirably said, "in History everything depends on turning
narrative into problems. So long as you think of History
as a mere chronological narrative, so long you are in the
old literary groove which leads to no trustworthy know-
ledge, but only to that pompous conventional romancing, of
which all serious men are tired. Break the drowsy spell of
narrative; ask yourself questions; set yourself problems;
your mind will at once take up a new attitude; you will
cease to be solemn and begin to be serious.”
Nor is it as unnecessary as it ought to be to insist on
the importance of impartiality. No such opportunity will
ever come again of forming right judgments, and it were a
pity to lose all the benefit that could be gained, because of
previously created bias. This does not mean that a man is
to get rid of all his opinions beforehand, or that he should
not hope to retain those he has. He may fairly think
Strafford a hero, and Cromwell a hypocrite, or Cromwell a
X
306
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
saviour of liberty, and Strafford a tool of despotism; and
he may fairly hope that the result of his reading will be to
confirm him in these opinions. But this need not cause him
always to take for granted that the one was wrong or the
other right. Let him try to be scrupulously fair, and to
think how the matter presented itself to the actor himself.
What is necessary in dealing with individuals is still
more necessary in dealing with institutions. Be ready to
recognize that a great organization had some value for its
own time. It will be a great help towards clearness of
perception, if question-begging terms are scrupulously
avoided; thus, even if a man thinks that the mediæval
papacy was a curse to the world, he will not be giving up
any principle if he speaks of its "claims," instead of its
"pretensions."
Perhaps, at this point, we are in a position to answer
the question, Why should a man read for the History
School ? Because, in the first place, it is in many cases a
peculiarly valuable preparation for after life. Suppose, for
instance, that a man intends to take Holy Orders. Theology
is a study which, more than any other, requires a combina-
tion of powers, the power to understand and sympathize
with high feeling and emotion, the power on the other hand
of estimating at its true value the "practical side" of life.
And in each direction, History will help him. It will give
him, moreover, a wider horizon; he will learn something of
the relation of the Church to Society and the State; he
will see how men, in other times and conditions, have dealt
with the problems with which he also has to deal.
Or again, suppose he intends to enter "business." There
is no danger so great to the business man as the danger of
being immersed in the present, of caring only for the
immediate circumstances of the immediate occupation. For
such a man it will be a great safeguard to have made acquain-
tance with other motives and forces than those which he
MODERN HISTORY.
307
is likely to meet in business, to be able to appreciate forms
of society very different from those in which he is placed,
to understand how much the world has changed in the
past, and, therefore, how much it may change in the future.
Again, does not the History School offer an excellent
training for the politician or journalist? The business of
politics is becoming increasingly difficult; it demands,
above all, knowledge and seriousness. Only by studying
the past can the necessary knowledge be gained, and
nothing is so likely to impress a man with the tremendous
importance of the issues which the pettinesses of party
warfare conceal.
But the History School would not be so highly valued as
it deserves, were it only regarded as suitable to men who
look forward to certain particular professions. Of course,
like any other mental discipline, it teaches industry and
method; but its peculiar value lies rather in the training
of the judgment. It may make us discover the good in some
cause or movement which yet we may feel it our duty to
oppose; may make us see the long past causes of present
evils, and the far future results of action now lightly begun;
and it may encourage the habit of suspension of judgment
till the judgment has sufficient materials to build upon.
W. J. A.
FOR
CHAPTER XIV.
MATHEMATICAL SCHOOLS.
OR Candidates for Honours in Mathematics there are
two necessary and two optional examinations, the
former being the First and Second Public Examinations
respectively, and the latter those for the University Mathe-
matical Scholarships. The First Public Examination is
held twice a year, in June and December, and the student
may present himself not earlier than his fourth, and not
later than his eighth Term. The Second Public Examina-
tion takes place in June only, and is open to Candidates of
not less than twelve Terms', and not more than sixteen
Terms' standing. (The regulations for the University
Scholarships may be referred to later when the nature of
the Examinations is discussed.)
The majority of men whose names appear in the Mathe-
matical Class Lists are either Scholars or Exhibitioners,
and, as a rule, have had a preliminary training in most of
the subjects required for their First Examination-or
Moderations. Those who do not aim at success in the
competitions for the Junior University Scholarship will
generally find that the private instruction of their College
Tutor, supplemented by attendance at the lectures provided
by a combination of College Lecturers, will be sufficient to
enable them to take the highest honours. Occasionally,
MATHEMATICAL SCHOOLS.
309
however, when time is a consideration, or when the school
training has been inadequate, the student will do well to
"put on a coach.”
It may be assumed that he has passed Responsions before
commencing residence, and that he will not delay in obtain-
ing the testamur for the Additional Subject, which will free
him from further Classical troubles. He will thus be able
to begin reading for Moderations, undisturbed by Pass
Lecturers and Pass Examinations.
A glance at the list of subjects issued by the Board of
Faculty will show that the course of study for the first few
Terms is almost confined to Pure Mathematics.
66 MODERATIONS.”
List of Subjects for the First Public Examination.
1. Algebra and the Theory of Equations.
2. Trigonometry, Plane and Spherical.
3. Plane Geometry, including Conic Sections, treated
both geometrically and analytically.
4. The Differential Calculus, including its applications
to plane geometry, and to the determination of
tangents and normals to surfaces and lines in space.
5. The Elements of the Integral Calculus, including
Differential Equations.
6. The Elements of Mechanics, of Solids and Fluids.
For the guidance of the beginner three important prin-
ciples may be enunciated. The observation of these from
the outset will save him much trouble and cannot fail to
improve the quality of his work.
1. He should, in the first place, remember that the diffe-
rent branches mentioned in the above list are not distinct
but intimately connected, and that each may be made help-
ful to the others. In a piece of bookwork in Analytical
Conics or in the Differential Calculus he may find that an
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OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
ingenious method has been employed to overcome an alge-
braical difficulty. It may be true that the device was
originally invented for this particular purpose, but it should
be borne in mind, as it will probably prove useful in solving
some purely algebraical problem, which would be intract-
able if the correct method were not discovered. Thus it
not infrequently happens that a question, which the student
has attempted again and again, will yield to some method
suggested months later by his reading in another part of
his work.
2. He should, further, notice that subjects like Algebra
and Trigonometry still demand serious attention, although
he has spent so much of his school life in their study.
It is easy to devote an occasional hour to practice and
revision.
3. The course of study for the Final Examination follows
naturally after that for Moderations, and presupposes a
knowledge of the portions of Mathematics offered in the
earlier examination. It is, therefore, unwise to read
hurriedly certain branches on the ground that very few
questions are set on them, seeing that the learner's first
task, before starting on his higher work, will be to perfect
himself in that which he has previously neglected.
As to the order in which the different subjects for
Moderations should be taken, no rules can be given.
Everything depends on the student's attainments at the
time of his joining the University, and his tutor will be his
best guide. But on the subjects themselves the following
comments may be offered.
In Algebra the most important portions are the Solution
of Equations, Series (their Summation and Convergency
or Divergency), the Theory of Numbers, and Probabilities.
After mastering the text-books of Todhunter and Gross,
one might devote some time to the solution of problems
taken from Wolstenholme's "Collection of Mathematical
MATHEMATICAL SCHOOLS.
311
Problems." This work and copies of past Examination
papers will prove very useful, as affording the necessary
opportunities for practice.
On Theory of Equations the standard books are those by
Todhunter, and Burnside and Panton.
Todhunter's" Plane Trigonometry," and "Spherical Tri-
gonometry," Lock's "Plane Trigonometry," and McClelland
and Preston's "Spherical Trigonometry," are the best
books on these subjects. The last-mentioned will be very
suggestive reading for a good man.
Much attention is paid to Pure Geometry in Oxford, and
a tutor's guidance is essential. Casey's "Sequel to Euclid,"
and Taylor's "Ancient and Modern Geometry of Conics"
form a good introduction to the subject, and will be followed
by Leudesdorf's translation of Cremona's "Projective Geo-
metry." Lectures are also provided and are indispensable.
(The more ambitious student will consult Chasles, Poncelet,
or Reye.) The geometrical treatment of questions on
maxima and minima deserves notice.
Most men will find in Smith's "Conic Sections " suffi-
cient information on Analytical Conics. There is a rich
store of examples to be worked out and most of the ordinary
bookwork is given. Supplementary chapters may be
read in Salmon's "Conic Sections," and Wolstenholme's
"Problems" should be freely used.
For the beginner the Method of Limits seems to be the
best foundation of the Differential Calculus. The works by
Todhunter and Edwards will afford a good introduction;
but, as soon as the subject of curves is reached, Williamson's
"Differential Calculus" may be referred to with advan-
tage. In the First Public Examination great weight is
attached to Curve Tracing. For success in this constant
practice is necessary, in order that the experienced eye may
see as speedily as possible the method that can be best
applied. Frost's "Curve Tracing" is interesting reading
312
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
and may be attacked even before beginning the Calculus.
It is essential that the student should aim at obtaining
clear ideas on Partial Differentiation, and that he should
always be careful as to the meaning he attaches to the
symbols employed,
Todhunter's " Integral Calculus " or Williamson's "In-
tegral Calculus" will suffice for this subject, but much
practice is needed throughout. For Differential Equations
the treatise by Forsyth should be consulted. It will fre-
quently be found that much ingenuity is required to recog-
nize which method should be adopted for the solution of
such an equation. A thorough knowledge of the subject
is needed at the beginning of the work for the Final
Schools. It should, therefore, receive due attention.
The fundamental conceptions of Mechanics frequently
present difficulties to the beginner. These he must
endeavour to overcome. Omission to do this, while he is
studying the elementary portions of the subject, will cause
frequent trouble later. The meanings of the terms em-
ployed, and the connection between the various units of
measurement, are often misunderstood, and great care is
needed before they are mastered. As text-books Greaves'
'Elementary Statics," Garnett's "Elementary Dynamics,'
and Besant's "Elementary Hydrostatics," may be recom-
mended.
GREATS.'
The following are the Regulations laid down by the
Board of Faculty for the Second Public Examination :-
Pure Mathematics.
1. Algebra.
2. Trigonometry, plane and spherical.
3. Geometry of two and three dimensions.
4. Differential Calculus.
5. Integral Calculus.
MATHEMATICAL SCHOOLS.
313
6. Calculus of Variations.
7. Calculus of Finite Differences.
8. Theory of Chances.
Mixed Mathematics.
1. Mechanics of Solid and Fluid Bodies.
2. Optics, Geometrical and Physical.
3. Newton's Principia, Sections I., II., III., and Parts
of IX. and XI.
4. Astronomy, including the more Elementary parts
of the Lunar and Planetary Theories.
The order in which these subjects are attacked is, to a
great extent, optional. The student may be desirous of
hastening on to the various branches of Mixed Mathe-
matics; and such a one will be able to acquire a consider-
able knowledge of all the divisions without waiting to
extend his reading in Pure Mathematics beyond the point
which he has reached in his preparation for Moderations.
Such a course may be followed in exceptional cases, but is
not often to be recommended. There should be, on the
contrary, a preliminary study of Solid Geometry. This
may even take place at the same time with the commence-
ment of some portion of Mixed Mathematics, but should
be deferred no longer, and should be looked upon as the
more important task. It is necessary to train the imagina-
tion early in the conception of the mutual relations of figures
in three dimensions; and we may seek in this fact an ex-
planation of the largeness of the number of questions now
set on Solid Geometry.
Clearness of ideas on this subject, and readiness in the
application of the methods of the Integral Calculus and
Differential Equations are indispensable for the attainment
of high honours.
After these words of preface, it will be unnecessary to
dwell at length upon the individual subjects that have to
be studied. Remembering that the tutor will indicate the
314
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
best order for the student, we may point to Salmon's
"Higher Algebra" and "Higher Plane Curves," as con-
taining the essentials of the higher portions of Algebra and
the Differential Calculus. The beginner will choose Smith's
"Solid Geometry" for his first book on that subject, and
will supplement it by reference to Frost's "Solid Geometry"
and Salmon's "Geometry of Three Dimensions." Tod-
hunter's Integral Calculus" will probably suffice for
Definite Integrals, and the Calculus of Variations. The
former of these subjects, and the Theory of Chances, will
be found well treated in Williamson's "Integral Calculus."
The student, who is attracted by questions on probability,
will find a storehouse of problems and solutions in Czuber's
Wahrscheinlichkeiten und Geometrische Mittelwerte."
Partial Differential Equations are treated of in Forsyth's
work, and Boole's "Finite Differences will contain all
necessary information on that subject.
Turning to Mixed Mathematics, we find Minchin's
"Statics" to be the ordinary text-book. The first
volume is confined to problems in two dimensions, and
is therefore insufficient for the Examination. The de-
ficiencies may be supplied from the second volume or
from lectures.
Dynamics of a Particle should be thoroughly mastered.
The number of types of questions is comparatively small,
and considerable facility in solving them can be acquired
with a little patience. The very condensed form in which
Besant's "Dynamics" is written, will cause many beginners
to read Tait and Steele's work first, especially as the latter
is in some ways more complete. But the newer book must
also be read, and the later chapters will be found to be an
excellent introduction to Rigid Dynamics, which is rightly
considered to be one of the most difficult subjects required
for the Schools. The student, to whom a problem on "Con-
strained Motion " is formidable, will spend weary weeks in
MATHEMATICAL SCHOOLS.
315
attempting to grapple with the more complex questions of
Rigid Dynamics.
An effort should be made to secure a tutor's help during
the first reading of Routh's Treatise, but it should be care-
fully worked through a second time in some Vacation, and
Schools' papers frequently consulted.
The third edition of Besant's " Hydromechanics" will
be sufficient for the wants of most students. Those who
wish to pursue the subject farther should read portions of
Lamb's "Hydrodynamics."
Lectures are provided on Physical Optics; and Godfray
or Main's "Astronomy," Godfray's "Lunar Theory," and
Cheyne's "Planetary Theory," are the text-books on those
subjects.
In this Examination Pure and Mixed Mathematics are of
equal weight, and the amount of bookwork set is so large
that it is necessary for the Candidate to have had continuous
practice in writing out the more important pieces. A
knowledge of these will enable anyone, even though he
lacks skill in the solution of problems, to secure a position
in the Class List.
.. UNIVERSITY SCHOLARSHIPS.
The Examination for the University Scholarships takes
place in the first week of the Summer Term. There is
a Senior Scholarship, the value of which is £50 for two
years; a Junior Scholarship of £30 for two years, and a
Junior Exhibition of £20 for one year. The Senior
Scholar is Johnson Scholar for the year.
Candidates for the Senior Scholarship must have passed
all Examinations necessary for the B.A. Degree, and must
not be of standing for the M.A. Degree. The subjects
aré Mathematics and Mathematical Physics.
A person who enters the University in the October
316
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Term may compete twice for the Junior Scholarship.
The subjects are included in the first four sections of
those for the First Public Examination, but the standard
is much higher than that required for Moderations.
Tradition names the favourite authors for study, but the
student who has mastered the ordinary text-books may
wander at will through any literature which bears on
the subjects of the Examination, and of which he will find
a rich supply in the Radcliffe Library at the University
Museum. As very great stress is laid on the solution of
problems, those who are serious competitors frequently find
it useful to seek the aid of a coach.
H. T. G.
CHAPTER XV.
NATURAL SCIENCE AND MEDICINE IN
THE
OXFORD.
I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
HE Oxford student of Natural Science enjoys many
advantages, chief among which are the various appli-
ances of the University Museum and of other institutions,
such as the Botanic Garden and the New Observatory, all
of which are available in one form or another for purposes
of instruction. The University provides for scientific edu-
cation on an unusually complete scale, both with regard to
the staff of professors and other teachers of various scientific
subjects, and also with regard to the laboratories and
apparatus required for the practical work which forms an
essential part of every branch of scientific study. The
collections of natural objects are in many of the depart-
ments extensive and valuable, and the student has also the
privilege of access to the fine scientific library belonging to
the Radcliffe Trustees.¹ In addition to the facilities for
scientific work thus afforded by the University itself, many
of the Colleges have Science tutors or lecturers of their
1 Various scientific societies exist in Oxford, such as the Ashmolean
(annual subscription of Undergraduate Members, 10s. 6d.), which has a
good scientific lending library; and the Junior Scientific Club. Both of
these hold meetings for the reading and discussion of original com-
munications.
318
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
own, and some few have laboratories and collections avail-
able for the use of their own members, and more or less
open to members of other Colleges as well.¹
2
The student of scientific tastes and aptitude will naturally
turn his attention to the Honour School of Science as
affording the most appropriate field for his academic
labours. On approaching the subject for the first time he
will probably find some difficulty in thoroughly compre-
hending the Statutes and official Regulations that bear upon
this School. These, it must be confessed, have reached a
high degree of complexity, in part inevitable from the rapid
growth of Natural Science itself, and the increasing amount
of specialization found necessary in its several branches;
in part caused by the fact that the University is still en-
gaged in determining the exact relation which Natural
Science shall hold to its other studies. Although a great
deal of legislation has lately taken place on the various
points involved in this question, the present stage can
hardly be considered final. It may be hoped, however, that
a condition of equilibrium will before long be established;
in which case the Regulations may be expected to settle
down into definite shape, to the great advantage of both
Candidates and their teachers. At present, as it is impossible
to stop the machine while its works are being re-arranged
and oiled, it becomes necessary to tide over the interval by
resorting to various temporary expedients (such as Decrees
of Convocation suspending or modifying the operation of
University Statutes,) which greatly increase the obscurity
of the subject.
1 One College has lately opened a laboratory devoted to practical en-
gineering.
2 An additional complication is caused by the fact that the Statutes
relating to Medical Degrees and Examinations have been lately modi-
fied; changes having resulted both in the Examinations themselves, and
in the relation of the Medical to other University studies.
NATURAL SCIENCE AND MEDICINE IN OXFORD.
319
It will be a chief aim of the following pages to assist
the student in choosing and arranging his course of study
by explaining to him in what relation the Science and
Medical Schools will in future stand to other Schools
(which, in consequence of a recent statute, it is now to some
extent possible to do), and also by indicating to him the
various divisions of subject that exist within the limits of
the Schools themselves, together with the nature of the
work required, and of the various examinations to be passed
in each one of them.
II. THE HONOUR SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCE.
(a) Its Relation to other Schools.
The Honour School of Natural Science forms one part
of the Second Public Examination of the University, Natural
Science being one of the seven subjects the obtaining of
Honours in any one of which practically entitles the Can-
didate to his B.A. Degree. Until lately it has been necessary
for every Candidate to pass the First Public Examination
(commonly known as Moderations) with or without taking
Honours, before presenting himself for examination in the
Final School of Natural Science; now, however, the Science
student is allowed to claim exemption from every part of
Moderations except the examination in Holy Scripture, or
the book that under certain conditions may be offered
instead of it. He still has to pass Responsions (familiarly
known as "Smalls") or one of the examinations recognized
by the University as equivalent to it. Moreover, if he
wishes to claim exemption from Moderations, he must take
up an additional subject in Responsions, selecting it from
a list published by official authority. The student, accord-
ingly, who has passed his "Smalls with the additional
subject, (which he is permitted, and ought, if possible, to
do before matriculating) has nothing further to divert him
""
320
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
from his strictly scientific studies, but the not very for-
midable examination in Holy Scripture.
(b) Its Division into Subjects.
Coming now to the Honour School of Natural Science
itself, the student will find that it consists of two parts, a
Preliminary and a Final. The Preliminary is divided into
five practically distinct examinations, as follows:--
(1) Mechanics and Physics.
(2) Chemistry.
(3) Animal Physiology.
(4) Animal Morphology.
(5) Botany.
The Final falls under six heads, thus :-
(1) Physics.
(2) Chemistry.
(3) Geology.
(4) Animal Physiology.
(5) Animal Morphology.
(6) Botany.
This second list is not so alarming as it seems. It does not
mean that any Candidate is expected to take up all these sub-
jects; they are in fact alternatives, of which no Candidate is
expected to offer more than one, though there is nothing
to prevent any Candidate, supposing that he has already
gained his class in one of them, from going into the Schools
again on a future occasion to offer another, provided that
he can get through the requisite amount of work within
the time allowed by the Statutes (in such a case five years
from matriculation). The number of subjects that a Can-
didate has to take up in the Preliminary Examination depends
upon which subject he selects for his Final Examination.
The rules on this point are as follows:-(a) The first two
subjects of the Preliminary Examination, viz., (1) Mechanics
and Physics, and (2) Chemistry, must be passed by every
NATURAL SCIENCE AND MEDICINE IN OXFORD.
321
Candidate, whatever his final subject may be. (b) In addi-
tion to these subjects compulsory for all, the Candidate who
offers either of the last four subjects of the Final Examina-
tion has certain other of the Preliminary subjects to pass,
as is shown below:-
Those who offer as a
Final subject
(1) Physics
Must pass the Preliminaries
in
(1) Mechanics and Physics.
(2) Chemistry.
(2) Chemistry.
(2) Chemistry
(1) Mechanics and Physics.
(3) Geology
(4) Animal Physiology
(5) Animal Morphology.
(6) Botany.
(1) Mechanics and Physics.
(2) Chemistry.
(3) Animal Morphology.
(4) Botany.
(1) Mechanics and Physics.
(2) Chemistry.
(3) Animal Morphology.
(4) Botany.
(1) Mechanics and Physics.
(2) Chemistry.
(3) Animal Physiology.
(4) Botany.
(1) Mechanics and Physics.
(2) Chemistry.
(3) Animal Physiology.
(4) Animal Morphology.
It is here to be noted that the Candidate may, if he
pleases, offer in his Final Examination one or more of
certain additional subjects together with the main subject
which he has selected from the list just given. These
additional subjects are as follows :-
(1) Crystallography.
Y
322
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
(2) Mineralogy.
(3) Anthropology.
(4) Practical Astronomy.
The Candidate's place in the Class-list will depend entirely
on his performance in the Final Examination; this not
being at all affected by his work in the Preliminaries. The
latter, though of a reasonable standard of difficulty, are
purely pass examinations, and their main object is to
ensure that the student of one branch of science shall not
be ignorant of the elements of the rest. It will be ob-
served, however, that while the Biologist is expected to
know something of Chemistry and Physics, the Chemist
or Physicist does not necessarily undergo any training in
biological subjects, which from some points of view may
seem to be a defect in the system. There are, however,
special reasons why Chemistry and Physics should be
looked upon as indispensable antecedents to the study of
Biology, while the converse certainly does not hold good to
the same extent.
The Preliminaries may be passed at any time after ma-
triculation, and may be taken either separately or together
as the Candidate pleases.
(c) The Choice of a Subject.
In selecting the subject of his Final School, the Candi-
date will probably be greatly influenced by his personal
bent and inclination. This should doubtless be allowed
great weight in the matter, for a man is far more likely to
do well in a subject in which he takes a natural interest.
Other considerations to be attended to are:-(1) The
amount of time at his disposal. If this is very short, the
curtailed preliminaries of Physics or Chemistry are worth
considering. (2) The extent of his mathematical know-
ledge. If this is small, he must at any rate avoid the
Physics School; if it be considerable, the Physics School
NATURAL SCIENCE AND MEDICINE IN OXFORD.
323
would very likely give him the best chance of distin-
guishing himself. As a matter of fact, the Physics division
of the Natural Science School is often taken as a second
school by mathematicians ambitious of further Honours
after their Final Mathematical Examination. (3) The
general direction of his future career. This may of itself
mark out the most appropriate subject for him to take up;
in many cases, however, the Candidate will not have yet
brought his views of the future into a sufficiently definite
form to afford him much guidance on this point.' (4)
The special question of whether he intends to graduate in
Medicine. If he does, he can save both time and trouble
by taking Chemistry or Human Physiology as his Final
subject, either of which will exempt him, as will be shown
later on, from some part of his Medical Examinations.
(d) The Course and Methods of Study.
The student will find the methods and course of study
required in the several subjects already marked out for
him with sufficient distinctness. The Regulations issued
from time to time by the Board of Faculty of Natural
Science supply him with an enumeration of those parts of
the subject in which his examination will be conducted,
and the Lecture lists published at the beginning of every
Term in the “University Gazette" keep him well informed
of the means of obtaining the necessary instruction. The
needs of the Student of Natural Science, both in the
way of lectures and of practical work, are well provided
1 The question of whether it is advisable to try for Honours in any
other School as well as the Science School may in most instances be
answered in the negative, though every such case must be decided on
its own merits. The combination of Mathematics with Physics is an
exception to this rule.
2 It may here be mentioned that Fees are charged to defray the
expenses of practical work at the Museum. These do not ordinarily
exceed £5 a Term, even if they reach it.
324
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
for at the University Museum, and the Professors of the
various scientific subjects make it part of their duty to
supervise generally the work done for the School by each
man, taking care that as far as possible everyone shall
have had an opportunity of receiving instruction in each
part of his subject. The advice and instruction always
accessible to the student at the University Museum will be
supplemented, if necessary, by the Tutor or Lecturer in
Science who is now to be found on the teaching staff of
most Colleges. The student in need of such additional
help will find his Science Tutor ready to give him what-
ever is necessary, either in his own person, or by arrange-
ment with other teachers.
Two considerations which affect the course of work for
the Science School should here be pointed out. The first
is that this School differs from others in not only having
to be "read" for, but having also to be worked for in the
way of practical exercises and manipulations. This means
that more time must be given up to the study of this than
of most other subjects in order to produce what is appa-
rently an equivalent result; on the other hand, the mental
strain in much of the practical work is not necessarily
severe, and the great interest which the actual observation
of the facts of nature is capable of arousing in the mind of
the man with a taste for Science may be accepted as full
compensation for the extra demands made on his time and
attention. The second point follows on the first; it is that
the student of Science will in all cases find it necessary to
give up part of his afternoons to work at the Museum or
elsewhere. This is from some points of view unfortunate,
since the ordinary arrangements for recreation in Oxford
proceed on the supposition that everyone will be free from
lecture or work engagements at least between two and four
o'clock in the afternoon, which is seldom the case with the
Science man. With a little management, however, the
NATURAL SCIENCE AND MEDICINE IN OXFORD. 325
difficulty is not serious; and the workers at the Museum
are now a sufficiently large class to be able if they choose
to make arrangements of their own for common recreation.
It would, however, be a pity if Science men ever grew into
an exclusive set in Oxford. The free mixture of men
reading Science with those engaged in other studies is good
for both, and should be encouraged.
(e) The Time required for Preparation.
The time that a student can give to preparation for his
Final School will of course vary in different cases. The
Statutes allow four years from matriculation, after which no
one is allowed to enter for an Honour Examination, unless
having already gained a Class in one of the Final Subjects,
he is still desirous of a Class in another, in which case he is
granted an additional year. The amount of time spent over
the Preliminaries will depend on the number necessary in
any given case, and on the extent of the Candidate's know-
ledge of their subjects at the time of his matriculation.
Most men would take at least a year and a Term over four
Preliminaries if they had to begin from the beginning. No
less than two clear years should be allowed for the Final
Subject; and even this will in some of the divisions be
found all too short, unless for exceptional men.
The case
of the Mathematician reading Physics is somewhat diffe-
rent; for him a single year may often be enough for his
"Second School." Speaking generally, it may be said.
that most men will do well to take advantage of the full
period (just under four academical years) allowed by
Statute to elapse between their matriculation and their
Final School.
III. SCIENCE IN THE PASS SCHOOLS.
The subjects of (1) Elementary Mechanics of Solids and
Fluids, (2) Elementary Chemistry, (3) Elementary Physics,
are recognized in the Final Examination for B.A. of those
326
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
who do not seek Honours. In this examination three
subjects in all must be offered, either one or two of which
may be taken from the foregoing list. It is probable that
before long other scientific subjects (e.g., Elementary Mor-
phology and Botany) will be added to these as alternatives.
The course of study required for these subjects needs no
special remark. The student will in all ordinary cases
find his wants amply provided for at the University Museum
or by his own College lecturer or tutor.
IV. SCIENCE PRIZES.
(a) College Exhibitions, Scholarships, and Fellowships.
Most Colleges now offer Scholarships or Exhibitions for
open competition in Natural Science. Due notice is always
given some months beforehand in the public journals of
the subjects, time, and place of the Examinations by the
result of which these Scholarships are awarded, and the
regulations and conditions under which the competition
takes place are identical with those applying to similar
Scholarships in Classics or Mathematics. Sometimes one
particular branch of Science is specified as the subject of
examination, sometimes the Candidate is allowed his choice
between two or more. The largest number of Science
Scholarships is given for Chemistry, which is the branch
of Natural Science most commonly taught in Schools.
Comparatively few are offered for Biological subjects, and
for those that are so offered there are sometimes but small
entries of Candidates. Perhaps if the schools were to take
more trouble in teaching Biology, and were to send up
larger numbers of more satisfactory competitors, the Col-
leges might be stimulated into offering more prizes in the
subject. There is no reason why Biology should not be
taught at school, though it is desirable, and indeed neces-
sary, to lay a foundation of Chemistry and Physics in the
first place.
NATURAL SCIENCE AND MEDICINE IN OXFORD.
327
It is usual to expect a successful Candidate, if he has not
already passed Responsions or its equivalent, to give evi-
dence of his ability to pass the classical examination
required of him without difficulty.
Fellowships are occasionally given in Natural Science,
but it cannot be said that they are very numerous.
(b) University Prizes.
The Burdett-Coutts Scholarships and the Radcliffe Tra-
velling Fellowships are University Prizes of considerable
importance. The former are held for two years; one being
given annually after an examination in Geology and allied
subjects. The latter are tenable for three years, on condi-
tion of spending at least eighteen months in study abroad.
An election is made every year; the examination being
held in Scientific subjects connected with Medicine.
The Rolleston Prize, a memorial to the late Linacre Pro-
fessor of Physiology, is given every two years for original
research in Biology. It is open alike to Members of the
Universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
The Johnson Memorial Prize is offered every four
for an original treatise in Astronomy or Meteorology.
years
V. OXFORD AS A SCHOOL OF MEDICINE.
A. Medical and Surgical Degrees and Qualifications given
by the University.
Two degrees are given in Medicine, those of Bachelor
and Doctor (M.B. and M.D.); and two in Surgery, those
of Bachelor and Master (B.Ch. and M.Ch.).
There is also a Diploma in Public Health, open, after
examination, to anyone who has taken the Degree of M.B.,
Oxon.
The Degrees of M.B. and B.Ch. are given together, after
the passing of certain examinations which will be detailed
328
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
below. Though they are always given together, they can
be registered at the General Medical Council Office in
London as separate titles, each of which implies a complete
examination in all the subjects required under the last
Medical Act, that namely of 1886.
For the Degree of M.D. additional conditions are required;
viz., a certain seniority of academic standing, and the
production of a dissertation on some subject connected with
the Science or Practice of Medicine.
For the Degree of M.Ch., besides conditions of seniority
there is an additional examination in Surgery.
B. Examinations for Medical and Surgical Degrees.
I. EXAMINATIONS FOR M.B. AND B.Cп.
These Degrees are given together on the passing of cer-
tain examinations, as follows:
a. Preliminary Examinations.
These are the same as the Preliminary Examinations in
the Honour School of Natural Science (vide supra, p. 320);
and the following are compulsory for all :-
1. Mechanics and Physics.
2. Chemistry.
3. Animal Morphology.
4. Botany.
The Board of Faculty of Medicine has the power of
recognizing other examinations of the University as equi-
valent to the above. At present the Chemistry of the Final
Pass Examination for B.A. is so recognized, the Physics of
the same School no doubt soon will be, and it is very pos-
sible that if Animal Morphology and Botany can be intro-
duced into the same Pass School, these subjects will also
be recognized by the Board of Faculty, in which case the
Candidate for a Pass Degree in Arts may find his labours
much lightened if he wishes to graduate subsequently in
Medicine.
NATURAL SCIENCE AND MEDICINE IN OXFORD.
329
B. First Examination for the Degrees of M.B. and B.Ch.
This examination (commonly called the "1st M.B.”) in-
cludes three subjects:
1. Organic Chemistry.
2. Human Anatomy.
3. Human Physiology.
These subjects are examined in practically, as well as by
papers.
The first may be taken separately on a previous occasion
to the others.
Exemption from examination in Organic Chemistry or
in Physiology may be claimed by anyone who has obtained
a First or Second Class in either of these subjects respec-
tively in the Final Honour School of Natural Science.
7. Second Examination for the Degrees of M.B. and B.Ch.
This examination is usually known as the "2nd M.B.”
It includes six subjects:-
1. Medicine.
2. Surgery.
3. Midwifery.
4. Pathology.
5. Forensic Medicine and Public Health.
6. Materia Medica and Pharmacy.
The last may be taken separately on a previous occasion.
These subjects are examined in practically and clinically,
as well as by papers.
II. EXAMINATION FOR THE DEGREE OF M.CH.
The examination for this, the Higher Degree in Surgery,
takes place in the following subjects:-
1. Practice of Surgery.
2. Surgical Anatomy.
3. Surgical Operations.
330
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
C. Examination in Preventive Medicine and Public Health.
This includes
1. Hygiene.
2. Sanitary Law.
3. Sanitary Engineering.
4. Vital Statistics.
It is only open to those who have taken the Degree of
M.B., Oxon.
D. The Course and Methods of Study in Medicine and
Surgery, the Relation between the Medical and other
Schools, and the Time required for Preparation.
The student who wishes to graduate in Medicine must
bear in mind that he will have to pass through the Arts
Course, and obtain his B.A. Degree before he can be ad-
mitted to the Degrees of M.B. and B.Ch. It is possible,
however, so to arrange his work that after Responsions
everything he does for his Arts degree may also be made
available for his Medical degree, to the great saving
of his time and labour. Opinions will, of course, differ as
to how far the intending Medical graduate should be con-
tent with receiving a merely scientific and professional
education from his University; most unprejudiced people,
however, would probably hold that the University has acted
wisely in refusing to force all students of Medicine through
an extended literary and philosophical curriculum. There is
no reason even now why anyone who pleases should not pass
through a complete classical or mathematical training before
taking up his Medical work, if only he can afford the ad-
ditional outlay of time, money, and labour, that such a pro-
ceeding must involve. Most men, however, will probably
wish to obtain their professional qualifications and degrees
as soon as they can, picking up on the road as much as is
possible in the way of a liberal education. Such men will
NATURAL SCIENCE AND MEDICINE IN OXFORD. 331
be well advised to take advantage of the statute allowing
of exemption from Moderations, and after passing Respon-
sions with the additional subject (if possible, before they
come up) they will do well to turn their attention at once
to the Honour School of Natural Science, their choice of a
final subject being determined partly by the bent of their
own scientific tastes, partly by the exemptions that can in
certain cases be claimed from parts of the First M.B.
examination. That is to say, a First or Second Class in
Chemistry exempts from the Organic Chemistry of the
First M.B., and a First or Second in Physiology from the
Physiology of the same examination. Moreover, the Pre-
liminaries required for the Physiology part of the Honour
School of Natural Science are identical with those required
for the First M.B.; the First or Second Classman in Physi-
ology, therefore, has nothing between him and the Second
M.B. but examinations in Organic Chemistry and Human
Anatomy. The corresponding Chemistry man would still
have to pass his Biological Preliminaries. On the whole,
therefore, the Honour School of Physiology is most to be
recommended to the Medical student, both from the time
saved, and also from the fact that it forms in itself per-
haps the best introduction to his Medical work.
The student who is not ambitious of Honours in Natural
Science may perhaps find it most convenient to take up one
or more of the Science subjects of the Pass Final School.
The Chemistry of this School, besides helping him to his
B.A., counts as equivalent to the Chemistry Preliminary for
the First M.B. (vide supra) and no doubt before long all
or most of the preliminary subjects will find a similar
home in this Pass School. A student who chooses this plan
will have, of course, to pass Moderations, as the exemption
clause only applies to those who take Honours. Nevertheless,
if in three years from his Matriculation he finds himself
a B.A., with one or two of his preliminary medical exami-
332
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
nations already passed, he will not have much cause of
complaint.
Admirable provision is made by the University, helped
in some respects by the Colleges, for instruction in the
Preliminary Subjects and those of the First M.B. Examina-
tion. The student, therefore, having taken his B.A. Degree,
cannot do better than remain in Oxford until he passes his
first M.B. Examination. The time that this will occupy
will vary, of course, with his powers of work and with the
extent to which he has already cleared his way of prelimi-
nary examinations. An industrious man who has already
passed his Preliminaries ought not to spend more than a
year over his First M.B., provided that he can claim ex-
emption from Organic Chemistry or Physiology.
The First M.B. passed, the student will do well to betake
himself to one of the Metropolitan Hospitals, or other great
centres of medical and surgical teaching, for his further
instruction. The University will no doubt in due course
of time provide for the teaching of Materia Medica and
Pharmacy and also of Pathology within its own limits, and
a good introduction to clinical study can be obtained at the
Radcliffe Infirmary. But with regard to the subjects
generally of the Second M.B. Examination, there is no
doubt that they can be studied to greater advantage
elsewhere than at Oxford. It will be necessary to
spend at least two years in preparation for this Examina-
tion.
Having passed this Second Examination, the student
can now supplicate for the Degrees of M.B. and B.Ch., the
possession of which entitles him to be registered under the
Medical Act of 1886 as a fully qualified practitioner.
Should he intend to practise as a physician, the Degree of
M.D. will probably be his next object; if his vocation is
Surgery, he will aspire to the M.Ch. If he is desirous of
obtaining a Public Health appointment, he may find the
NATURAL SCIENCE AND MEDICINE IN OXFORD. 333
Diploma in Public Health (for which he is now entitled to
offer himself) worthy of his attention.
Advice on points of detail is readily given to the student
by those University Professors and teachers of Science
whose subjects come into relation with Medical studies.
The student will also have a claim on the services of his
College Tutor or Lecturer in Science, or in Medicine should
his College possess one. General advice on the whole sub-
ject is given by the Regius Professor of Medicine, who
attends the Museum at specified times with that object.
The following publication will be found extremely use-
ful to anyone who desires further information on any point
in connection with either the Science Schools or the Medical
Degrees and Examinations :-
"The Examination Statutes " for the Degrees of B.A.,
B.Mus., B.C.L., B.M., and M.Ch., together with the present
"Regulations of the Boards of Studies, and Boards of
Faculties " relating thereto, to which is added a Table of
Fees. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1887. This volume con-
tains amongst other information a series of statements
drawn up by the Board of Faculty of Medicine, defining the
amount of each subject which is to be offered in the various
Examinations.
A pamphlet containing "Information respecting Medical
Study, Examinations and Degrees at Oxford" is being
prepared by direction of the Clarendon Press, and will be
shortly issued.
All official notices appear in the “ University Gazette,"
published by the Clarendon Press once a week during
Term.
F. A. D.
CHAPTER XVI.
HONOUR SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY.
GENERAL REMARKS
ON THE SCHOOL: ITS ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES.
MOST of the men who take up Honour Theology intend
eventually to take orders. The knowledge they will
gain will be of use to them in the Bishop's Examination,
and to a certain extent afterwards, but it is a mistake to
over-estimate the value of even a good class in this School.
If a man has the faintest chance of obtaining a moderate
class in Classics or Mathematics, he had better leave Theo-
logy alone, for the greater prestige and practical value of
a class in Classics or Mathematics is well worth the slight
extra work it will entail.
The average man who takes up
Theology aims at a Third Class, and generally gets it with
a very moderate amount of work, perhaps an average of
three or four hours a day. This is like reaching a haven
of rest to the poor weary man who has spent term after
term in fruitless endeavours to get through his Modera-
tions, and who by sheer perseverance has gained his tes-
tamur at last. He knows that now if he attends a certain
number of lectures, fills up enough note-books, and reads
through very many commentaries, he will in eighteen
months or two years be placed in the Fourth, or possibly
in the Third Class, and get his degree "with Honours."
HONOUR SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY.
335
But some men aim higher; they take up five subjects.
and advanced Hebrew, and expect to get a First Class-
these, too, generally get a Third, for the mistake of taking
up too many subjects is fatal to success. Unless a man
intends to devote three years to this School, and also means
to read fairly hard he will do best to aim at a Third Class,
and then he will not be disappointed.
Hebrew
This is a subject which has great weight in the Examina-
tion, and it is extremely difficult to obtain a First Class or
even a Second Class without it. For this reason it is
desirable that every Candidate, except perhaps one who is
very much pressed for time, should give it a trial.
It will be well to begin it at once, and to give about two
hours a day to it. If at the end of the Term it has been
found impossible to master even the elements, and if,
besides, the subject seems distasteful, it will be best to give
it up altogether. If, however, fair progress has been made,
it will be desirable to persevere steadily, and at the end of
the second or third term to take the advice of a competent
authority as to whether it will be prudent to take up
"advanced Hebrew," or to be content with an elementary
knowledge of the subject.
And now for a word of warning; most men are inclined
to give very much more time to Hebrew than can be spared
from other subjects, and many of the failures in the Theo-
logical School are due to this cause. It will, therefore, be
advisable to guard against this fault by strictly limiting
the time given to Hebrew to two or three hours a-day.
Biblia Sacra :
The whole of the first Term, with the exception of the
time given to Hebrew, should be devoted to Biblia Sacra,
as this subject is very important, and as a general rule is
336
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
rather neglected. When reading a book of the Old or New
Testament, it is advisable to run through the introduction
to a good commentary, and then to read through the book
itself, marking those passages which present difficulties and
referring to the commentary for their solution. As a rule
men endeavour to read straight through a commentary,
and waste their time over a mass of more or less irrelevant
matter which they cannot possibly remember and which
would be of very little use to them if they could.
The books of the New Testament must be read in the
Greek text: it is very necessary that St. Paul's Epistles
should be thoroughly known, as they are specially recom-
mended for diligent study in the Examination Statutes.
Dogmatica:-
In this subject three alternatives are allowed: the
doctrine of the Trinity, of the Incarnation, or of Grace.
In the Examination Statutes under each alternative two
lists of books are given. Those in the first list are marked
with an obelus (†) and are required to be thoroughly
known. Those in the second list are not required to be
known, but are recommended as sources of useful informa-
tion. It is very important that sufficient time should be
allowed for this subject, as "no Candidate can be placed in
the First Class unless he shall have proved himself to be
well acquainted with Dogmatic Theology;" so it is best to
begin it in the second Term, giving as much time to it as
can be spared from Biblia Sacra and Hebrew. The Greek
and Latin texts will require very careful reading, and it
will probably be necessary to go through them three or
even four times. Dogmatic Theology is to many an
irksome subject, as progress comes very slowly and im-
perceptibly; for though perhaps it it possible to "cram "
the texts, a knowledge of the subject matter can only be
obtained by careful and diligent study.
HONOUR SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY.
337
History:
With regard to Ecclesiastical History, very few remarks
are necessary. A choice between four periods is permitted,
viz., the Antenicene Church, the Church of the First Four
Councils, the Church of the Middle Ages (this period has
two sub-alternatives, 1, the Conversion of the Northern
Races, 2, the growth of the Papal Power from Charles the
Great to Boniface VIII.). The age of the Reformation. The
last period is perhaps the best to take up, as in each of the
others it will be necessary to read about five books of Church
History in Medieval Latin or Greek, which is rather a
laborious task. Most men take History as their third sub-
ject; it is not wise to begin it till the fourth Term, unless
Biblia Sacra and Dogmatics are known pretty well.
In 1888 the list of alternative subjects will be considerably
enlarged, as in that year a choice of no less than eight
periods is permitted.
Apologetica:
This is generally chosen as the fourth subject, and has
the advantage that it can be mastered in a fairly short
time. Four alternatives are allowed: 1, Natural Theology
and Revelation; 2, Date of the Canonical Books of the
New Testament; 3, Miracles; 4, Prophecy.
In making a selection between these subjects a man must
be principally guided by the natural bent of his mind, and
will of course choose that subject which seems most attrac-
tive.
Liturgica and Critica Sacra:
The two remaining subjects are Liturgica and Critica
Sacra. With regard to Liturgica, many of the questions
which the subject involves can only be solved with a very
great amount of patient study, and it is hardly worth while
to be content with a merely superficial knowledge.
Z
338
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Only a very good Hebrew scholar should attempt the
criticism of the Old Testament. That of the New Testa-
ment has been much simplified by the number of excellent
books written on the subject. It is of far more importance
to have a good knowledge of the principles of textual
criticism, than of the evidence for or against a disputed
passage.
Lectures and Private Tuition :-
It may be strange but it is nevertheless true that very
many lectures are of little practical value. This is unfor-
tunately especially the case with Theological lectures, for
these often degenerate into sermons. It is very difficult on
first beginning to read Theology for a man to decide what
lectures to attend, as he cannot gain very much advice
from his tutor on this point, for tutors and lecturers have
no opportunities for practically testing the value of each
other's lectures. Most men at first attend as many lectures
as possible, but after a Term or two they begin to see that
they are wasting much valuable time, and cut down their
list considerably. It is a good thing to get the opinion of
a man who has been reading Theology for a year or so as
to what to avoid, as his opinion will probably be more
candid than that of a tutor. A good private tutor is of
very great value, especially in the first Term, to set a man
in the right path, and in the last Term, to point out any
weak points.
Suggested Method of Reading:-
The remarks which have been made in the preceding
pages as to the order of reading the various subjects may
be briefly summarized thus. Nearly everyone should give
Hebrew a fair trial, and should begin it at once, devoting
not more than two hours a day to it, and giving up the
rest of his time during his first Term to Biblia Sacra. In
HONOUR SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY.
339
his second Term he should commence Dogmatics, and con-
fine his attention to these subjects until his fourth Term,
when he may choose his third subject. Only a man who
aims at a very high class should attempt a fourth subject,
as a little done well will pay much better than a great deal
done badly.
M.
CHAPTER XVII.
WOMEN'S EDUCATION AT OXFORD.
THE
HE movement in connection with the "Higher Educa-
tion of Women” "at Oxford was scarcely recognized
even in the University itself until a few years ago. Up to
that time hardly anyone had heard of the Oxford Colleges
for Women, and those who knew of their existence had the
vaguest ideas of the work done there. Cambridge took the
lead so completely in this direction that all other attempts
seemed very insignificant in comparison.
Nevertheless two Colleges for Women-Somerville Hall...
and Lady Margaret Hall-have existed in Oxford since the
year 1879. In 1886 St. Hugh's was opened, but as the
plan of it is slightly different from that of the other two,
many of the following remarks do not apply to it at all,
and it is described separately.
In the spring of 1884, a controversy took place with
regard to the question as to whether or not women should
be admitted to any or all of the University Examinations.
Already the students at Somerville and Lady Margaret
went in for examinations said to be of the same standard
as the corresponding Honour Examinations for men, and it
was felt to be hard that their certificates of success should
be considered of less value simply because they were not
recognized by the University Statutes. Those who took
an interest in the subject will remember that a large
WOMEN'S EDUCATION AT OXFORD.
341
majority of Convocation decided in favour of the admission
of women to the University Examinations, and it is since
that time that the recognition of the movement in Oxford
has been growing wider. The schools now open to men
and women alike will be found in the following list of
Examinations.
THE EXAMINATIONS FOR WOMEN AT OXFORD.
[The following particulars are copied from the paper
drawn up by the secretaries to the Association for the
Education of Women in Oxford; the fullest details of each
examination can be obtained by writing for the "Regula-
tions of the Oxford Examination for Women," to H. T.
Gerrans, Esq., Clarendon Buildings, Oxford.]
The Examinations are as follows:
(a) First Examination.
(b) Second Examination (Pass).
(c)
""
19
(Honours).
(a) The First Examination corresponds with "Respon-
sions "in standard, and consists of papers in (1) Two Lan-
guages, (2) Arithmetic, (3) Euclid, Books I. and II., or
Algebra to simple equations.
This must be passed by all who offer themselves as Can-
didates for the Second Examination, and not in the same
calendar year. But the following examinations are accepted
as equivalent:—Responsions (which was opened to women
in December, 1886), the Matriculation of the University of
London, the Oxford Senior Local, the Cambridge Higher
Local, and the Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board Certifi-
cate: the last three with certain restrictions.
(b) The Second Examination (Pass) is of the same
standard as the men's Pass Examination for degree. There
are six sections :
A. Languages.
342
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
B. Ancient History.
C. Modern History.
D. Mathematics.
E. Physical Science.
F. Logic and Political Economy.
Every Candidate must pass in A. and one other.
(c) The Second Examination (Honours) is of the same
standard as the Men's Honour Examination. In four of
the subjects-Classics, Mathematics, Modern History and
Science-the Honour Examinations of the University are
used, and the women-candidates are examined by the same
examiners, in the same papers, at the same time, and classed
on the same standard as the men.
There are eight sections altogether, of which any one,
and one only, may be taken. They are as follows :—
(1) Classics, in which the examination used is Honour
Moderations.
(2) Mathematics, in which, if Pure Mathematics only
be taken, the examination used is Honour Modera-
tions. If Pure and Mixed, then Honour Greats.
(3) Modern History, in which the examination used
is Honour Greats.
(4) Science, in which the examination used is Honour
Greats.
(5) English.
(6) Modern Languages.
(7) Ancient History.
(8) Philosophy.
(In these four sections the Delegates provide examina-
tions of their own, but the standard is the same as that of
the University Honour Examinations.)
There is further a Pass Examination in the Bible, or the
Bible and Prayer Book combined.
In the first four sections Candidates may take a portion :
thus in Classics they may take one language; in Modern
}
WOMEN'S EDUCATION AT OXFORD.
343
History they take English History only; in Science, Ele-
mentary Mechanics, and Physics and Chemistry only. If so,
they receive not Classes, but Certificates of Pass or Dis-
tinction. In Mathematics, they may offer any portion, and
receive a Class, or Certificate of Pass or Distinction accord-
ing to merit.
In all the sections, if the whole subject be taken, the
Candidates are classed in three or four classes. All classes
obtained are officially published in the "University Gazette."
The Instruction of Women in Oxford is in the hands of an
Association formed for that purpose. It consists of resi-
dents in Oxford, men and women, who undertake to provide
teaching in any subject for which there is a demand.
At present there are lectures in Modern History, English,
Latin, Greek, French, German, Mathematics, Logic, and
Political Economy. Several of the University and College
lectures are open to women students in the following sub-
jects: Mathematics, Classics, History, Chemistry, Physics,
Geology, and Anthropology. The teaching is open to all
women, whether living in Oxford with their friends, or in
lodgings approved by the Association, or residing in one of
the Halls. The fees vary from one to two guineas a course,
and the course lasts for the University Term of eight weeks.
Women students are admitted to the University Chemical
Laboratories for the ordinary fee of £3 a Term. They are
also admitted to the University Libraries and Museum.
The lectures, except those in the Men's Colleges, are given
chiefly in the Association rooms in Alfred Street.
It is a wise precaution to pass the First Examination
before entering at either of the Halls. It saves time for
one thing, and the Examination may be a source of great
annoyance afterwards, as some unfortunates can bear wit-
ness. After this the choice of Pass or Honours or both
depends on the individual and her capabilities. Some stu-
dents take both, some take the Pass alone from want of
344
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
time or ability to read for Honours; some take the Honour
Examination alone, especially those who are not equally
good in more than one subject. The First Examination is
held twice a year-in June and December. The Second Ex-
aminations are held yearly at the end of the summer Term.
Perhaps the fact which has aroused most criticism in the
Oxford scheme of Education of Women and the fact
which chiefly distinguishes it from the Cambridge one, is
that the rules about residence seem so informal. Newnham
and Girton follow the University rules in this respect, but
Somerville and Lady Margaret have not adopted them.
No residence, even in Oxford, is necessary, and no fixed
periods at either of the Halls, before going in for any of
the Examinations. Nevertheless, those who objected to
this arrangement may be relieved to find that it is most
exceptional for anyone to go in for Examinations who does
not reside either at one of the Halls or with friends in
Oxford, and that even the latter is unusual. Although
there are no specified limits to the time of residence at the
Halls, it is generally understood that no one stays up more
than four years or less than one unless with special permis-
sion and for a special reason. Most girls stay for three
years. If, however, anyone fails to get through the First
Examination within a reasonable time, she is requested to
leave the College, at least until she is more successful. The
reasonable time is fixed by the authorities-not by the
student herself.
The charges for Board and Lodging are, at Somerville,
£21 a term; at Lady Margaret £25 a term. Scholarships
varying from £20 to £35 a year in value are from time
to time (generally once a year) offered for competition
either by the Halls or the Association. Successful Can-
didates for the Hall Scholarships are required to reside at
the Hall which offers the Scholarship. The competition
is not great as a rule.
WOMEN'S EDUCATION AT OXFORD.
345
St. Hugh's Hall (at present a small house in Norham
Road) was opened in 1886, for those who could not afford
the more expensive terms at the other Colleges. The terms
are £45 a year for board and lodging. Two students share
a bedroom, and all work together in a common study. It
is intended for the benefit of members of the Church of Eng-
land, and, although it has no official connection with Lady
Margaret Hall, follows most of its rules and is conducted
on somewhat similar lines. The numbers at present are
under half-a-dozen : so it is really too early either to speak
of its past history or to prophesy of its future.
Both Somerville and Lady Margaret are under the direc-
tion of a governing Committee and a resident Principal and
Vice-Principal. Students are at liberty to choose their own
tuition and instructors, subject to the approval of the Prin-
cipal. At Somerville the numbers vary between twenty-five
and thirty, at Lady Margaret between twenty and twenty-
five. The chief difference between the two is that Lady
Margaret Hall is founded distinctly on Church of England
principles ("though with provision for the liberty of
members of other religious bodies "), while Somerville is
undenominational.
There is no limit as to age at any of the Halls, except
that no student, under ordinary circumstances, is admitted
under the age of seventeen. Over that, the ages vary up to
thirty, very seldom beyond: and the greater number are
generally under twenty-one.
At Somerville and Lady Margaret each student has one
large room to herself which serves as bedroom and study.
All necessary furniture is supplied by the Colleges, and the
occupant is at liberty to add whatever else she likes.
If she is clever in managing to screen off the "bedroom
part" of her room and chooses pretty decorations for the
rest, it is wonderful how pretty and artistic the rooms can
be made. Of course the choice of rooms, where there is a
choice, goes by priority of residence.
346
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
"I shall never be so happy again-the pleasantest part of
my life is over," is generally the thought in the minds of
those who are saying Goodbye to their College days for the
last time. For girls feel more than men that such a delightful
period of comparative liberty will never come to them again.
So many people still regard the "girl-graduate" (as they
will call her, though with no right whatsoever) at least as
an unnatural production that perhaps they would be sur-
prised to find how very simple and even common-place in
appearance is her life at College. Take, for example, one
ordinary day spent under ordinary circumstances.
She is waked at seven by a bell being rung up and down
the passage in which she sleeps. (She really does wake,
for the girl who lies sleepless all night "thinking about her
Examinations" exists as a rule in the brains of her sym-
pathizers alone.) Prayers are at eight, and here again some
people will be surprised to find that the "intellectual girl"
at Oxford at least, does not necessarily think it a fine thing
to want to "cut" them. Indeed this strange notion that,
at either University, girls at College always or often adopt
a sceptical tone about religion, and boast of it, would be
found on investigation to be grossly exaggerated. It would
be considered the height of bad breeding, to say the least of
it, to do any such thing. A few lazy ones will, of course,
run the time as close as possible, and sometimes fail to
put in an appearance at all. Prayers are followed by break-
fast, which everyone has together in the Hall or dining-
room. After breakfast the rooms are, or ought to be, ready
for work; but those who prefer, may use one of the rooms
common to all-the Library, Drawing-room, etc.
Unless there are lectures or morning "Coaches," the time
between nine and one is spent entirely in work. Lunch be-
gins at about one, and is a moveable feast lasting until nearly
two, during which time people go in and out as they please.
The afternoon is almost without exception given up to
amusement-except where afternoon lectures or "Coaches"
WOMEN'S EDUCATION AT OXFORD.
347
interfere. This really is a feature in the College life of
Women which most people absolutely overlook even if they
are aware of it. The good-natured personage who visited
one of the Halls under the impression that he would find
long rows of pale, heavy-eyed girls bending over books on
a lovely summer afternoon was almost breathless with
surprise to find no one at work, and the greater number
playing "Prisoner's base" on the lawn, with energy and
animation enough to do credit to the most ignorant
daughters of Eve.
In summer the favourite occupations are tennis or long
walks. Those who can drive and can afford it are fond of
hiring "Tommy," a good-natured though lazy little fellow,
who can be had with a small dog-cart at no very ruinous
price per hour. A smaller minority who have friends in
Oxford occasionally go for rides. Lady Margaret Hall has
a boat, and those who can swim the required distance (fifty
feet) may spend very pleasant afternoons on the river.
Cricket, though it must be confessed of a somewhat
feminine nature, occasionally comes into fashion. Indeed
anyone who will suggest any outdoor game whatever will
find plenty of supporters, for everyone is welcome to join
in whatever is going on.
Tennis is played more or less all the year round-even
late on in the October Term, for then games are scarce and
boating grows daily more impossible.
La Crosse is a
popular winter game, and for one short but brilliant period
which most participators regretfully remember Hockey
was the game par excellence, which engrossed everyone's
leisure and thoughts. But it has been partly put down
by the authorities since, as "too rough." Sometimes
on wet days the gymnasium at Lady Margaret's is the
scene of great festivity, and there are generally some girls
not altogether superior to a game of hide-and-seek all over
the house, with the blinds pulled down. In short, a love of
348
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
games is a distinct characteristic of the girls at College-
especially the young and healthy ones. The inter-collegiate
debates are also held fortnightly in the afternoons; and
although they are a source of pain and anguish to the people
who get them up, they are sometimes amusing, even if the
numbers are really too small to admit of great variety. Tea...
is also an informal meal, to which people drop in as they
please. Sometimes a stray guest comes and has tea too,
and looks curiously at the Hall and the students. Anyone
who likes can have tea in her own room and can ask her
friends in and out of College-her lady friends that is-
for even brothers are not admitted to the rooms, but are
entertained in state in the drawing-room. "Tea-parties"
are sometimes very lively, particularly when the tea and
provisions run short, or do not turn up at all, as sometimes
happens. Dinner or supper is at eight, and the interval
after tea is spent in work or amusement according to taste.
Evening Prayers follow at Lady Margaret, and the rest of
the evening is spent either entirely in work or in work
with variations. If there is a Concert or anything specially
entertaining at the Theatre, two or three of the students are
pretty sure to go. Those who have friends in Oxford oc-
casionally go to evening parties-dances always excepted,
as they are prohibited. Acting is always popular when it
is allowed, and the College concerts with their inevitable
"practices" these are some of the variations, but the
evenings are often spent entirely in work or in seeing
friends in College.
:
It is easy to see that any girl can read six, seven, or even
eight hours a day, and still have the whole afternoon for
amusement and recreation. As a matter of fact, very few
people try to work eight or more hours, and the majority
not more than five or six. There is no tradition of idle-
ness among women: they cannot boast of geniuses who
get their First-Classes without ever opening a book. Still
""
WOMEN'S EDUCATION AT OXFORD.
349
the general idea that they will overwork when they can is
not a true one. There are very few casès indeed where girls
have overworked at College. Those who stay at home very
often do so: for if they have a taste for study they cultivate
it along with their social and domestic tastes, and anything
like healthy recreation or exercise becomes quite impossible.
The life at College is too methodical and quiet to harm
anyone. Those who try to overwork generally see for
themselves that it will not pay in the long run: and their
friends and neighbours give them very little peace until
they promise to reform in this respect, sometimes going
to the lengths of forcibly carrying off their books, and
threatening to take away their candles unless they promise
to be in bed at a reasonable time.
66
One word as to the students themselves—if it is possible
to make any general comment on such a constantly chang-
ing set. The new student need have no fears as to the
reception she will meet on her first entry. No matter
under what disadvantages she may
come up” she will
receive a kindly and courteous welcome from the old stu-
dents, and, at least until the first strangeness has worn off,
will be looked after and have the fairest chances of being
happy. If she has the sense and good taste to show a little
deference to those who have been at College longer than
herself (even when they are her juniors in age) she will
never find any difficulty in getting on. It may be disagree-
able to new students to see younger girls taking precedence
of them; but it is a point of etiquette to which they ought
to yield and they ought to remember, too, that it requires
some effort on the part of the "old students" to be very
friendly to them all at once-especially when they seem to
come in place of those who have gone down.
The charge oftenest brought against the "girl graduate "
is that she is "gawky" and "has no manners": if this
is true of some of them it may be accounted for by the
350
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
ones.
fact that a good many of the younger ones pass straight
from school to College without going much into society
at the age when other girls do. It is certainly not true
of all girl-students: and they would not be recognized
in a drawing-room by any special peculiarity, all the
more because Oxford girls do not cling to the "sad
æsthetic garb" with the same fondness as the Cambridge
The "typical blue-stocking" with her short hair and
spectacles does appear from time to time; but she is not
very common. At Oxford, at least, the "masculine" or
fast girl has been so rare that it would be almost personal
to allude to her at all. Indeed there is so little to attract
her in the quiet life that she would probably be glad to get
away at the end of one term if she could. The intercourse
with the male members of the University is not extensive;
but as long as she is with a chaperone approved by the
Principal, the "girl-graduate " is allowed the ordinary liberty
in this respect.
If she knows men at Oxford and is asked
to their rooms, she may go, subject to the above conditions.
It must be remembered that the characters of most girls
are nearly formed by the time they are nineteen or twenty,
so that the influences they meet at College affect them ac-
cording to their individual dispositions, not by any fixed
rule. The girl-students are certainly fond of their work;
but they have no desire to kill themselves over it: and as
certainly are they fond of play too. There is really no one
type which could be selected and described so as to give a
fair impression of the rest, because there are so many
types, and they really differ so little in their main charac-
teristics from the girls who stay at home and do not go to
College at all.
K. M. G.
CHAPTER XVIII.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY EXTENSION LECTURES.
THE
'HE University Delegates of Local Examinations are
empowered by statute to receive proposals for the
establishment of lectures and teaching in the large towns
of England and Wales, and are authorized to appoint
Lecturers and Examiners for carrying out such proposals.
The Delegates have therefore appointed out of their own
number the following Committee to carry the statute into
operation :-
Rev. J. R. MAGRATH, D.D., Pro-
vost of Queen's College.
Rev. J. F. BRIGHT, D.D., Master
of University College.
Rev. W. W. JACKSON, Rector of
Exeter College.
Rev. H. B. GEORGE M.A., Fellow
and Tutor of New College.
H. F. PELHAM, M.A., Fellow and
Tutor of Exeter College.
A. ROBINSON, M.A., Fellow and
Bursar of New College.
A. H. D. ACLAND, M.A., Christ
Church.
E. B. POULTON, M.A., Tutor
of Keble College, and Lec-
turer of Jesus College.
M. E. SADLER, M.A., Christ
Church, Secretary.
The intention of the University Extension Movement is
to furnish for those who are unable to come to the Univer-
sities as many as possible of the advantages of a University
Education. The University, in arranging local lectures,
offers provisional facilities for this higher education in
towns where there is no University or Local College.
University Extension Lectures seek not only to supply
teaching adapted to popular needs, but to stimulate the
352
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
demand for such teaching. Their aim is to direct and
encourage study by furnishing instruction organized in
courses of lectures with discussions, classes, examinations,
and certificates of merit or distinction. Their object is to
bring the University to the people when the people cannot
come to the University.
The Delegates are willing to appoint Lectures in Ancient
and Modern History, Ancient and Modern Literature,
Mental, Moral and Political Philosophy, Political Economy,
Geography, Natural Science, Law, the Methods of Educa-
tion, Art, Music, Architecture, and in other subjects which
may be desired. The most popular subjects have proved
to be English History and Literature, the History of Labour,
Political Economy and Physical and Political Geography.
In the case of towns in which there is no Local Society
ready to act in concert with the Delegates, a Local Com-
mittee is usually formed, which is prepared to give a
guarantee for the expenses of the Lectures.
All arrangements as to fees charged for attendance at
the Lectures and Classes are left entirely to the Local
Committee or Society.
The Delegates are willing to organize Lectures and
Classes at any season of the year which the Local Com-
mittees may prefer; but experience has shown that the
three months before, and the three months after, Christmas
are the times which, as a rule, are more generally con-
venient and attractive to students.
Each Lecture of the course lasts about an hour, at the
conclusion of which those who so wish form a class, in
which the Lecturer and the students discuss any points of
difficulty which may have arisen during the Lecture.
Thus, while the Lecture audience consists of those who are
generally interested in the subject, the attendants of the
class are usually those students who are prepared to work
at home in connection with the teaching. After the
Lecture, the questions printed at the foot of each page of
OXFORD UNIVERSITY EXTENSION LECTURES.
353
the syllabus are answered in writing by the students at
home. These answers are sent to the Lecturer, and after
having been read and corrected by him, are returned at
the next week's class.
The need of text-books is partially met by the printed
syllabus, which gives an analysis of the Lectures, supplies
further information, furnishes lists of books recommended
for private study, and, being interleaved, serves as a book
for note-taking.
At the conclusion of the course an Examination is held
in writing. Entrance to the Examination is optional and
open to men and women, who have qualified themselves
by a sufficient number of attendances at the classes or
answers to the weekly questions. The Examination is con-
ducted by a University Examiner, who (unless special
arrangements are made) does not himself visit the Lecture
town. The Examination is conducted, and the papers sent
to Oxford, by the Local Committee. According to the
result of the Examination, certificates of two grades are
awarded by the University in the following form :—
University of Oxford.
LECTURES AND TEACHING IN LARGE TOWNS.
Certificate of Attendance and Examination.
LECTURES AT
has attended a course of instruction in
TERM 188.
given
under the authority of the DELEGACY, (according to STATUTE Tit. XIX. iv. De
Examinatione Candidatorum qui non sunt de Corpore Universitatis,) consisting
of Weekly Lectures and Classes for a period of..
...weeks, and
in the Examination held by the DELEGACY in the subjects taught in that course
of lectures and classes has been placed by the EXAMINER among those who have
Satisfied the Examiner.
LECTURER.
A A
EXAMINER.
354
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
A prize, consisting of a book, is awarded by the Delegates
at the termination of each course, to the student who, after
regular attendance at the Lectures, passes the Examination
most satisfactorily.
In connection with each course the Delegates issue a
Travelling Library, which contains copies of the principal
text-books and authorities recommended by the Lecturer.
The library is returned to the Delegates at the end of the
course.
The Travelling Libraries are packed in strong wooden
boxes, measuring 2 ft. by 1 ft. by 7 inches. Each of
the boxes, which are lined with leather and fitted with a
sliding shelf, serves as a book-case during the course of
Lectures. The boxes have hinged lids, which are fastened
by studs and screw-nuts.
The Travelling Libraries are issued at no extra charge,
beyond that of carriage by goods train to and from the
University Extension Office, Oxford, on the following
conditions:
(1) The books are deposited in the responsible care of
the Local Committee, which is acting in concert with the
University, for the term during which Oxford Lectures
are being delivered.
(2) The books are intended for the free use of students
attending the Lectures.
(3) A record of the weekly circulation of each volume
must be kept by the Local Committee on the printed form
provided for that purpose. It is suggested that each
volume should be issued for one week at the conclusion of
each Lecture, and that at the expiration of the week the
borrower should be permitted to renew his loan if no other
application has been made for the volume. At the end of
the course the circulation form is to be returned with the
Travelling Library to Oxford.
(4) If a volume is defaced or lost, the volume must be
OXFORD UNIVERSITY EXTENSION LECTURES.
355
paid for. Each volume is stamped as belonging to the
Delegates.
The Travelling Libraries have proved to be of the greatest
value to students in towns where there is no easy access to
collections of standard or reference books.
The fee payable to the University Delegates for six
Lectures and Classes, including sixty copies of the printed
syllabus, loan of Travelling Library, examination, certificates.
and prize, is £24 12s. An equally inclusive fee for twelve
Lectures is £42 12s. These fees do not include local ex-
penses of rent of lecture-room, printing and advertisements,
or the Lecturer's (2nd class) railway expenses from his
centre, which are divided among the various towns com-
bining to secure his services.
When it is arranged that the same Lecturer should
deliver the same lecture twice on one day to different
audiences in the same town, the fee for each course is
reduced.
The above fees are subject to a considerable reduction in
the case of Lecturers appointed under the endowment
scheme which was proposed in May, 1886, by a Committee
consisting of:-
The LORD BISHOP OF SALIS-
BURY.
The LORD BISHOP OF NEW-
CASTLE.
The LORD CHIEF JUSTICE COLE-
RIDGE.
The Rev. the MASTER OF UNI-
VERSITY.
The Rev. the PRESIDENT OF
TRINITY.
The Rev. the WARDEN OF
Keble.
The WARDEN OF MERTON.
The Right Hon. SIR JOHN Mow-
BRAY, Bart., M.P.
J. G. TALBOT, Esq., M.P.
The Right Hon. G. J. Goschen,
M.P.
Professor BRYCE, M.P.
A. H. D. ACLAND, Esq., M.P.
G. HERBERT Morrell, Esq.
Dr. MARKBY,
The Rev. A. G. BUTLER.
ALFRED ROBINSON, Esq.
The Rev. L. R. PHELPs.
ARTHUR SIDGWICK, Esq.
This Committee issued the following appeal:-
356
OXFORD ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
Oxford University Extension Teaching in Large Towns and
the Manufacturing Districts.
Since May, 1885, the Oxford University Extension Move-
ment has been brought into closer contact with the working
classes, among whom, it is believed, an opportunity has
arisen for the wider development of organized University
teaching. At the present time circumstances, which may
not recur, make it possible for the University Delegates to
establish in the manufacturing districts a large number of
Lectures and Classes, and in this way to provide, with the
aid of voluntary Local Committees, a system of higher
education adapted to the needs of the working classes,
particularly in History, Natural Science and Political
Economy.
The Weekly Lectures and Classes, held under the super-
vision of the University Delegates, have been attended in
twenty-two towns by more than 6,000 students, the greater
part of whom are working men.
In many towns where Lectures have been delivered, all
arrangements have been made and the guarantee-fund
subscribed by Committees of working men, hundreds of
whom attend the courses with great regularity and
interest after their day's work.
As a proof of the desire of the working classes for the
higher education provided by the Universities, it may be
pointed out that within little more than twelve months,
£300 has been subscribed by societies of artisans to meet
the expenses of the Oxford Lectures which they have
provided for their members.
It has, however, been found that the cost of University
Lectures is too heavy for the poorer neighbourhoods,
which are those where such teaching is most needed, and
that it is difficult to retain the services of the most efficient
Lecturers in consequence of the inability of the University
OXFORD UNIVERSITY EXTENSION LECTURES.
357
Delegates to guarantee to them the permanence of their
work.
These difficulties, which at present hinder the extension
of University Teaching, would be entirely removed if a
small endowment were provided towards the support of
three or four practised Lecturers of experience and success
in University Extension Teaching who are prepared on
this condition to devote themselves to the work for some
years.
To provide this endowment, however, the University
Delegates have no funds at their command. A Com-
mittee has therefore been formed to raise a sum of money
for the endowment of tried and successful Lecturers.
In answer to this appeal, the Committee have received
funds which enabled the University Delegates to appoint
the Rev. W. Hudson Shaw, M.A., late Exhibitioner of
Balliol College, and Stanhope Essayist, the first endowed
University Extension Lecturer under the above scheme.
Recognition of Certificates by the Science and Art Department.
The "Science Directory" (1885), § 34, contains the fol-
lowing addition:
CC
'(e) Certificates under the Universities' Extension
Schemes will be accepted as qualifying, without
further examination, on special subjects, which will
be considered on their merits."
In case of a person holding such a certificate and desiring
to teach under the Department, he should apply to the
Department, stating what subject he desires to teach and
asking that the Examination which he has passed under
the Oxford University Delegates for Local Lectures should
be accepted in lieu of further examination. The Depart-
ment would then ask the University Authorities to verify
the applicant's statement, and to give such further infor-
mation as might seem desirable as to the percentage of
marks which he had obtained, etc.
358
OXFORD: ITS LIFE AND SCHOOLS.
It should be added that University Extension Lectures.
are not found in any way to lessen the numbers attending
the Government Classes in Science and Art, and many of
the Science and Art Teachers are warm supporters of the
University Extension Classes in their own towns.
The University Delegates have received material assist-
ance in the development of their teaching from the Royal
Geographical Society, the Cobden Club, the Clothworkers'
Company, the chief London Publishers and the Delegates
of the Oxford University Press.
Courses of Oxford University Extension Lectures have
been delivered recently at the following towns: Ashburne,
Barnsley, Bath, Manchester, Reading, Leamington, Mal-
vern, Rotherham, Doncaster, Rochdale, Bury, Ashton-
under-Lyne, Bolton, Bridgwater, Tiverton, Taunton,
Hereford, Salisbury, Huddersfield, Oxford, Newcastle-
under-Lyme, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Burnley, Falmouth, Cam-
borne, Truro, Redruth, Stratford-on-Avon, Cheltenham,
Swindon, Hastings, Tunbridge Wells, Canterbury,
Brighton, Enfield, Crewe, Maryport, Windhill, Melksham,
Cirencester, Kidderminster, Stourbridge, Hebden Bridge,
Wells, Wallsend, Banbury and Uxbridge.
An interesting experiment has lately been tried by the
Delegates with a view of bringing the advantages of con-
tinuous instruction, under the guidance of an experienced
teacher, within the reach of isolated students. For this
purpose six Lectures upon
"the Worker and his Welfare,"
have been written by Mr. Arthur Acland, M.P., and have
been printed in six separate numbers, each of about twelve
pages demy octavo. Copies of these Lectures are posted
fortnightly from Oxford to the subscribing students: the
students are invited to write to the Lecturer about
any difficulties they may find in the subject, and the
Lecturer also carefully looks over, corrects and returns to
them the answers which the students write to the paper
!
OXFORD UNIVERSITY EXTENSION LECTURES.
359
of questions printed at the end of each Lecture. The cost
of a single ticket entitling the holder to one copy of each
Lecture free by post, to communication with the Lecturer
and to the correction of answers to the fortnightly
questions, has been fixed at five shillings. It is possible
that this system of Correspondence Lectures may be ex-
tended in the future to other subjects.
Applications from members of the University for appoint-
ment to the staff of Lecturers should be addressed with
statement of Honours, proffered subjects and references, to
the Secretary to the Delegates for Local Lectures, Exami-
nation Schools, Oxford. The Delegates regard it as
essential that Lecturers should before appointment to their
staff have obtained experience in lecturing.
M. E. S.
CHISWICK PRESS:-C. WHITTINGHAM AND CO., TOOKS COUurt,
CHANCERY LANE.

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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
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