HUGHES NOTES ON MUHAMMADANISM
BP
161
.489
1894
A 839,463
NOTES ON MUHAMMADANISM
REV. T. P. HUGHES, C.M.S.
THIRD EDITION

ARTES
1817
SCIENTIA
VERITAS
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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
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QUÆRIS PENINSULAM AMONAN
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1894
NOTES
ON
MUHAMMADANISM.
NOTES
ON

MUHAMMADANISM,
BP
161
489
BEING OUTLINES OF
THE RELIGIOUS SYSTEM OF ISLAM.
REV. T.
BY THE
patrick
HUGHES, M.R.A.S.,
C.M.S., Missionary to the Afghans, Peshawar.
THIRD EDITION.
LONDON
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1894.
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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
THERE is a general impression amongst
European students of Islám, that it is a
simple system of Deism unfettered by numerous
dogmas and creeds, which are supposed to be
such an insuperable hindrance to an acceptance
of Christianity. Such was the opinion of the
historian, Gibbon, and it is also the view taken
by some who seek to weaken the authority of
the Christian system by extolling the merit of
its great rival creed. But even amongst the
advocates of Christianity there is altogether an
erroneous impression as to what Muham-
madanism really is. Dean Stanley has an ad-
mirable chapter on the subject of Islám in his
vi
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
"Eastern Church"; but he tells his readers that
"the Qurán contains the whole of the religion of
Muhammad"; and Mr. Zincke, in his exceed-
ingly interesting book, "Egypt of the Pharaohs
and the Khedive," appears to be under the
same impression; for he says, "the Qurán is an
ali embracing and sufficient code, regulating
everything." Whereas the true state of the
case is, that whilst the Qurán is the highest
authority for Muslim doctrine, still, the "faith-
ful," whether Sunní, Shía'h, or
Wahhábí,
must reccive the sayings and practices of their
Prophet as of divine obligation; for, in Islám,
the teachings of the "Sacred Traditions
must be received side by side with that of the
Qurán itself; and the Muslim who would escape
the suspicion of heresy must not dare to
question the teaching of the learned doctors,
whose opinions have been handed down in
numerous commentaries and ponderous volumes
of divinity.
In publishing these "Notes on Muham-
""
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
vii
madanism," the author is fully conscious of
their imperfections, but he ventures to hope
that they will contain information which may
be suggestive to Missionaries and others in-
terested in the study of Islám.
Upon a thoughtful study of the present work,
the reader cannot fail to observe what an
important place dogmatic teaching occupies in
the system under consideration. There are
those amongst English and Continental writers
who regard all dogmatic teaching as antiquated,
and who would recommend the Christian
Missionary to keep dogma in the back-ground,
when dealing with such a religious system as
Muhammadanism. But Muslim divines would
spurn such teaching as unworthy of theologians,
whether of Islám or of Christianity. The
trumpet must give no uncertain sound. It
is a solemn thing for a Christian Missionary to
be engaged day by day in unsettling the
religious opinions of immortal beings, unless
he feels that he has something good and true
viii
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
to offer in the place of opinions renounced. If
we call upon the millions of Islám to loose from
their moorings amidst the reefs and shoals of a
false system, and to steer forth into the wide
ocean of religious inquiry, we must surely
direct them to some fair haven of refuge where
they will find rest and peace. It has been
well said by Dr. Martensen* that "a mind
starved by doubt has never been able to produce
a dogmatic system"; and we are quite sure
that all who have had practical experience of
Muhammadanism, will agree that none could
be so helpless in dealing with Muslim doctors,
as those who are wandering about in the un-
certainty of doubt, and cannot stand firm in
the certainty of faith.
On the other hand, Muhammadanism may
be used as a schoolmaster to bring men to
Christ, for much which is contained in its
elaborate system is expressive of man's great
*Christian Dogmatics," by Dr. H. Martensen, Bishop
of Zeeland, Denmark.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
ix
and exceeding need. The Christian controver-
sialist, in dealing with Muhammadanism, must
ever remember that it contains a two-fold
element of truth. The Founder of Islám
derived much of his system from that great
unwritten law of God which is ever speaking
to men of every nation and of every clime;
and he was also greatly indebted to the written
law of the Holy One of Israel, although he
received it from Talmudic sources. To quote
the words of Bengel, the commentator, "the
Law" whether it be that written on the con-
science, or in the pages of the Qurán, or in
God's revealed word-" the law hounds a man
till he betake himself to Christ; then it says
to him, Thou hast found an asylum; I pursue
thee no more; thou art wise, thou art safe.""
Notwithstanding its fair show of outward
observance, and its severe legal enactments,
there is something in Islám which strikes at the
very root of morals, poisons domestic life, and
(in its truest sense) disorganizes society. Free-
X
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
dom of judgment is crushed, and a barrier has
been raised not merely against the advance of
Christianity, but against the progress of Civi-
lization itself. It is impossible to account for
this peculiar feature in Muhammadan nations
by attributing it to the peculiarities of Oriental
races, or other accidental circumstances. The
great cause lies in the religious system which
they profess, which binds them hand and foot.
For everything in religion, in law, in life, and
in thought, has been measured for all time.
Muhammadanism adınits of no progress in
morals, law, or commerce. It fails to re-
generate the man, and it is equally powerless
in regenerating the nation.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
THE favourable reception which has been ac-
corded to the first edition of these outlines
of the Muhammadan system has encouraged
me to put forth a revised and enlarged edition.
I am glad of the opportunity; for, the first
edition contained numerous errors, consequent
upon my bringing it out during a short and
hurried visit to England, in the summer of
1875. Still, notwithstanding its numerous and
manifest shortcomings, it has been pronounced
by an eminent Arabic scholar, as not only
"about the best outlines of Muslim faith he
had seen"; but as having "the rare merit of
being accurate."
T. P. H.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
I. MUHAMMAD .
II. ISLAM.
1
. 10
III. RULE OF FAITH
12
IV
THE QURAN.
14
V
INSPIRATION
47
VI. THE TRADITIONS
VII. IJMA'.
VIII. QIAS
50
61
64
•
IX. FAITH
X. ALLAH, or Gor
66
67
XI. ANGELS
79
XII. PROPHETS
84
XIII.
THE DAY OF RESURRECTION AND JUDGMENT 87
xiv
CONTENTS,
XIV. HEAVEN
XV. HELL.
XVI. THE DECREES OF GOD.
XVII. THE FIVE FOUNDATIONS OF PRACTICAL
PAGE
91
96
98
RELIGION
101
XVIII. THE RECITAL OF THE CREED
102
XIX. PRAYER
104.
XX. RAMAZAN, OR THE MONTH OF FASTING
119
XXI. ZAKAT, OR LEGAL Almsgiving
125
XXII. HAJJ, OR PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA.
130
XXIII. THE LAW
137
XXIV. SIN
XXV. PUNISHMENT
XXVI. LAWFUL FOOD
XXVII. FARZ-I-KAFAI
XXVIII. FITRAT
139
-
141
. 143
146
147
XXIX.
SALUTATIONS
XXX. CALIPH
XXXI.
MUHAMMADAN CLERGY, SCHOLARS, AND
SAINTS
155
XXXII. THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE
•
160
148
150
CONTENTS.
XV
PAGE
XXXIII.
MUHARRAM AND ASHURAA
163
XXXIV. AKHIRI CHAHAR SHAMBA
167
XXXV. BARA WAFAT
168
XXXVI. SHAB-I-BARAT
169
XXXVII. 'ID-UL-FITR
171
•
XXXVIII. 'ID-UL-AZHA
173
XXXIX. NIKAH, OR MARRIAGE
177
XL. TALAQ, OR DIVORCE
182
XLI. JANAZA, OR BURIAL
185
XLII. SLAVERY
194
XLIII. KHUTBAH, OR THE FRIDAY'S SERMON
198
XLIV. JIHAD, OR RELIGIOUS WAR .
206
XLV. MARTYRS
XLVI. THE FOUR ORTHODOx Sects,
XLVII. THE SHIA'HS
211
•
212
214
XLVIII. THE WAHHABIS
219
XLIX. SUFIISM, OR MYSTICISM
227
L. FAQIRS, OR DARWESHES
234
LI. ZIKR, OR THE RELIGIOUS SERVICES OF
THE DARWESHES
243
LII. THE LORD JESUS CHRIST
256
F
xvi
CONTENTS.
LIII THE CRUCIFIXION OF OUR SAVIOUR.
LIV. THE DIVINITY OF CHRIST AND THE
HOLY TRINITY .
LV. TAHRIF, OR THE ALLEGED CORRUPTION
OF THE SACRED BOOKS OF THE
PAGE
261
264
·
JEWS AND CHRISTIANS
INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS
267
275
NOTES
ON
MUHAMMADANISM.
P
I. MUHAMMAD.
THE earliest biographers of the Arabian Pro-
phet, whose works are extant in Arabic, are
Ibn-Ishaq (A.H. 151), Ibn-Hishám (A.H. 218),
Wáqidi (A.H. 207), and Tabarí (A.H. 310). Is-
mail Abulfida, Prince of Hamah, in Syria (A.h.
733), compiled a Life of Muhammad in Arabic,
which was translated by John Gagnier, Pro-
fessor of Arabic at Oxford (A.D. 1723), and into
English by the Rev. W. Murray, Episcopal
clergyman at Duffus, in Scotland. * Dr. Spren-
ger of Calcutta commenced a Life of Muham-
* Mr. Murray's translation was published at Elgin
(without date). It is exceedingly scarce, the British Mu-
seum not possessing a copy.
B
2
MUHAMMAD.
mad in English, and printed the first part of it
at Allahabad (A.D. 1851); but it was never
completed. The learned author afterwards
published his work in German in 1869.* The
only Life of Muhammad in English, which has
any pretension to original research, is that by
Sir William Muir of the Bengal Civil Service.†
Muhammad (lit. the praised one), son of
Abdul Muttalib, by his wife Amina, was born
at Mecca, August 29th, A.D. 570. He assumed
the prophetic office at the age of forty, fled
from Mecca at the age of fifty-four, and died
at Medinah, June 9th, A.D. 632, aged sixty-two.
The Hijrat, or Hegira (the flight from Mecca),
which is the Muhammadan era, dates from July
16th, A.D. 622.
The character of Muhammad is an historic
problem, and many have been the conjectures.
as to his motives and designs. Was he an
impostor, a fanatic, or an honest man "a very
prophet of God?"
And the problem might
* Das Leben und
Sprenger. 6 vols. 8vo,
die Lehre des Mohammad. A.
Berlin, 1869.
† Life of Mahomet. 4 vols. 8vo. London, 1858-61.
New Edition. 1 vol. 8vo. London, 1877.
MUHAMMAD.
3
have for ever remained unsolved had not the
Prophet himself appealed to the Old and New
Testament in proof of his mission. This is
the crucial test, established by the Prophet
himself. He claims to be weighed in the balance
with the Divine Jesus. Having done so, we
find him wanting.
Objection has often been made to the manner
in which Christian divines have attacked the
private character of Muhammad. Why reject
the prophetic mission of Muhammad on account
of his private vices, when you receive as inspired
the sayings of a Balaam, a David, or a Solomon ?
We do not, as a rule, attack the character of
Muhammad in dealing with Islám; it rouses
opposition, and is an offensive line of argument.
Still, in forming an estimate of his prophetical
pretensions, we contend that the character of
Muhammad is an important item in our bill of
indictment. We readily admit that bad men
have sometimes been, like Balaam and others,
the divinely appointed organs of inspiration;
but in the case of Muhammad his professed in-
spiration sanctioned and encouraged his own
vices. That which ought to have been the foun-
tain of purity was, in fact, the cover of the
B 2
4
MUHAMMAD.
Prophet's depravity.* But how different it is
in the case of the true prophet David, where, in
the words of inspiration, he lays bare to public
gaze the enormity of his own crimes. The deep
contrition of his inmost soul is manifest in every
line-"I acknowledge my transgression and my
sin is ever before me against Thee, Thee only,
have I sinned, and done this evil in Thy sight."
upon
The best defenders of the Arabian Pro-
phett are obliged to admit that the matter of
Zeinab, the wife of Zeid, and again, of Mary,
the Coptic slave, are "an indelible stain
his memory; that "he is once or twice untrue
to the kind and forgiving disposition of his best
nature; that he is once or twice unrelenting in
the punishment of his personal enemies; and
that he is guilty even more than once of con-
niving at the assassination of inveterate oppo-
nents; " but they give no satisfactory explana-
tion or apology for all this being done under
the supposed sanction of God in the Qurán.
In forming an estimate of Muhammad's pro-
* Vide Quran, chap. xxxiii. 37, and chap. Ixvi. 1
† Vide Muhammad and Muhammadism, by Mr. R.
Bosworth Smith, M.A., an Assistant Master of Harrow
School.
MUHAMMAD.
5
phetical pretensions, it must be remembered
that he did not claim to be the founder of a
new religion, but merely of a new covenant.
He is the last and greatest of all God's pro-
phets. He is sent to convert the world to
the one true religion which God had before
revealed to the five great lawgivers—Adam,
Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus! The creed
of Muhammad, therefore, claims to supersede
that of the Lord Jesus. And it is here that we
take our stand. We give Muhammad credit as
a warrior, as a legislator, as a poet, as a man of
uncommon genius, raising himself amidst great
opposition to a pinnacle of renown; we admit
that he is, without doubt, one of the greatest
heroes the world has ever seen; but when we
consider his claims to supersede the mission of
the Divine Jesus, we strip him of his borrowed
plumes, and reduce him to the condition of an
impostor! *
For whilst he has adopted and
"There are modern biographers of the Prophet who
would have us believe that he was not conscious of false-
hood when making these assertions. He was under a
hallucination, of course, but he believed what he said.
This is to me incredible. The legends of the Koran are
derived chiefly from Talmudic sources; Muhammad must
6
MUHAMMAD.
avowed his belief in the sacred books of the
Jew and the Christian, and has given them all
the stamp and currency which his authority
and influence could impart, he has attempted
to rob Christianity of every distinctive truth
which it possesses-its Divine Saviour, its
Heavenly Comforter, its pure code of social
morals, its spirit of love and truth-and has
written his own refutation and condemna-
tion with his own hand, by professing to con-
firm the divine oracles which sap the very
foundations of his prophetical pretensions.
have learned them from some Jew resident in or near
Mekka. To work them up in the form of rhymed Suras,
to put his own peculiar doctrines in the mouths of Jewish
patriarchs, the Virgin Mary, and the infant Jesus (who
talks like a good Moslem from his birth), must have re-
quired time, thought, and labour. It is not possible that
the man who had done all this could have forgotten all
about it, and believed that these legends had been brought
to him ready prepared by an angelic visitor. Muhammad
was guilty of falsehood under circumstances where he
deemed the end justified the means.
He was
brought face to face with the question which every spi-
ritual reformer has to consider, against which so many
noble spirits have gone to ruin,-will not the end justify
the means?"—"Islam under the Arabs," by Major Durie
Osborn, p. 21.
MUHAMMAD.
7
We follow the would-be prophet in his self-
asserted mission from the cave of Híra to
the closing scene, when he dies in the midst
of the lamentations of his harem, and the con-
tentions of his friends-the visions of Gabriel,
the period of mental depression, the contem-
plated suicide, the assumption of the prophetic
office, his struggles with Meccan unbelief, his
flight to Medina, his triumphant entry into
Mecca-and whilst we wonder at the genius of
the hero, we pause at every stage and inquire,
"Is this the Apostle of God whose mission is to
claim universal dominion to the suppression not
merely of idolatry, but of Christianity itself?"
Then it is that the divine and holy character
of Jesus rises to our view, and the inquiring
mind sickens at the thought of the beloved, the
pure, the lowly Jesus giving place to that of the
ambitious, the sensual, the time-serving hero of
Arabia. In the study of Islam the character
of Muhammad needs an apology or a defence at
every stage; but in the contemplation of the
Christian system, whilst we everywhere read of
Jesus, and see the reflection of His image in
everything we read, the heart revels in the
8
MUHAMMAD.
contemplation, the inner pulsations of our spi-
ritual life bound within us at the study of a
character so divine, so pure.
7
We are not insensible to the beauties of the
Qurán as a literary production, although they
have, without doubt, been overrated; but as we
admire its conceptions of the Divine nature, its
deep and fervent trust in the power of God, its
frequent deep moral earnestness, and its sen-
tentious wisdom, we would gladly rid ourselves
of our recollections of the Prophet, his licen-
tious harem, his sanguinary battle-fields, his
ambitious schemes; whilst as we peruse the
Christian scriptures we find the grand central
charm in the divine character of its founder.
It is the divine character of Jesus which gives
fragrance to his words; it is the divine form of
Jesus which shines through all He says or does;
it is the divine life of Jesus which is the great
central point in Gospel history. How then, we
ask, can the creed of Muhammad, the son of
Abdullah, supersede and abrogate that of Jesus,
the son of God? It is a remarkable coincidence
that whilst the founder of Islam died feeling
that he had but imperfectly fulfilled his mis
MUHAMMAD.
9
sion, the founder of Christianity died in the
full consciousness that his work was done--"It
is finished." It was in professing to produce
a revelation which should supersede that of
Jesus that Muhammad set the seal to his own
refutation.
* Waqidi relates that Muhammad shortly before his
death called for a "shoulder blade" upon which to write
another chapter of the Qurán, which should prevent them
going astray for ever.
10
II.-ISLAM.
ISLA'M is the name given to the Muhammadan
religion by its founder. Abdul Haqq (the com-
mentator on the Mishkát) says it implies "sub-
mission to the divine will."
In the Dictionary of the Qurán entitled
Moghrab, Islám is explained as "entering into
peace (salm) with another," alluding to the
fact that he who embraces Islám in a Mu-
hammadan state becomes free from all those
penalities and disabilities which belong to one
who does not embrace the faith.
In the Quran the word is used for doing
homage to God. Islám is said to be the religion
of all the prophets from the time of Abraham,
as will appear from the following verses (Surat-
ul-Imrán, ver. 78, 79) :-" We believe in God
and in what hath been sent down to Abraham,
and Ishmael, and Isaac, and Jacob, and the
Tribes, and in what was given to Moses, and
Jesus and the Prophets from their Lord. We
ISLAM.
11
make no difference between them, and to him
are we resigned (i.e. Muslims). Whoso desireth
any other religion than Islám, that religion
shall never be accepted of him, and in the next
world he shall be lost."
There are three words used by Muhammadan
writers for religion, namely, Din, Millat, and
Mazhab aud in the Kitáb-ut-Tárífát the dif-
;
ference implied in these words is said to be as
follows :-Din as it stands in its relation to
God, e.g. Din-Ullah, the religion of God; Millat,
as it stands in relation to a prophet or lawgiver,
e.g. Millat-i-Ibrahím, the religion of Abraham ;
and Mazhab as it stands in relation to the
divines of Islám, e.g. Mazhab-i-Hanají, the re-
ligion of Hanífa. The expression Dín, however,
is of general application.
Those who profess the religion of Islám are
called Musalmáns, Muslims, or Momins.
Ahl-i-Kitáb, “the people of the Book," is used
for Muhammadans, Jews, and Christians.
12
THE
III.-RULE OF FAITH.
Muhammadan rule of faith is based
upon what are called the four foundations of
orthodoxy, namely, the Qurán, or, as it is
called, Kalám Ullah, the Word of God; the
Hadis (pl. Ahádís), or the traditions of the
sayings and practice of Muhammad; Ijma', or
the consent of the Mujtahidín, or learned
doctors; and Qiás, or the analogical reasoning
of the learned.
In studying the Muhammadan religious sys-
tem it must be well understood that Islám is
not simply the religion of the Qurán, but that
all Muhammadans, whether Sunni, Shía'h, or
Wahhabi, receive the Traditions as an authority
in matters of faith and practice. The Sunni
Muhammadans arrogate to themselves the title
of traditionists; but the Shía'hs also receive the
Hadís as binding upon them, although they do
not acknowledge the same collection of traditions
as those received by their opponents. Th
RULE OF FAITH.
13
Wahhabis receive the "six correct books of the
Sunnis."
The example of Muhammad is just as binding
upon the Muslim, as that of Him who said
"Learn of me" is upon the Christian, and very
many were the injunctions which the "Pro-
phet "
gave as to the transmission of his sayings
and practice, and very elaborate is the canon
whereby Muslims arrive at what they believe
to be the example of their Prophet. If, there-
fore, the grand and elaborate system of morals
as expressed in the law of Islám has failed to
raise the standard of morality amongst the
nations of the earth which have embraced its
creed, it is not unreasonable to conclude that its
failure rests in the absence of a living example
of truth.
14
IV. THE QURA'N.*
66
THE word Qurán is derived from the Arabic
Qara, which occurs at the commencement of
Súra xcv., which is said to have been the
first chapter revealed to Muhammad; and has
the same meaning as the Hebrew kara, to
read," or "to recite," which is frequently used
in Jeremiah xxxvi., as well as in other places
in the Old Testament. It is, therefore, equi-
valent to the Hebrew mikra, rendered in Nehe-
miah viii. 18. "the reading." It is the title
given to the Muhammadan Scriptures which
are usually appealed to and quoted from as the
Qurán Majid,” or the "Glorious Qurán”; the
Quran Sharif,” or the “Noble Qurán"; and
is also called the "Fúrgán," or "Distinguisher,"
66
* The contents of this article appear as an Introduction
to the Roman-Urdú edition of the Qurán, published at
Ludianah, North India, 1877.
THE QURAN.
15
"Kalám Ullah," or the
"Word of God,"
and "Al kitáb," or "the Book."*
Muhammadans believe the Qurán to be the
inspired Word of God sent down to the lowest
heaven complete,† and then revealed from time
to time to the Prophet by the Angel Gabriel.
There is, however, only one‡ distinct assertion
in the Qurán of Gabriel having been the me-
dium of inspiration, namely, Súra-i-Baqr (ii.),
91; and this occurs in a Medina Súra, revealed
about seven years after the Prophet's rule had
been established. In the Súra-i-Shura (xxvi.),
192, the Qurán is said to have been given by
the "Rúh ul A'mín," or Faithful Spirit; and
in the Súra-i-Najm (liii.), 5, Muhammad claims
to have been taught by the " Shadid-ul-Quá,"
* According to Jalál-ud-dín Syuty there are fifty-five
titles of the Qurán. (See the Itqán, p. 117.)
† See Jalál-ud-dín's Itqán, p. 91. The "Recording
Angels" mentioned in the Súra-i-Abas (lxxx.), 15, are
said to have written the Qurán before it was sent down
from heaven.
‡ Gabriel (Jibrál) is only mentioned twice by name
in the Qurán: once in the verse noted above, and again
in the Súra-i-Tahrím (lxvi.), 4. He is supposed to be
alluded to under the title of Rúh-ul-Qudus, or the Holy
Spirit, in Súras Baqr (ii.), 82, 254; Máida (v.), 109; Nahl
(xvi.), 104.
16
THE QURAN.
or One terrible in power; and in the Traditions
the agent of inspiration is generally spoken of
as "an angel" (malak).* It is, therefore, not
quite certain through what agency Muhammad
believed himself to be inspired of God.
According to Ayeshah, one of the Prophet's
wives, the revelation was first communicated
in dreams, Ayeshah relates† :
Ayeshah relatest:-" The first
revelations which the Prophet received were
in true dreams; and he never dreamt but it
came to pass as regularly as the dawn of day.
After this the Prophet was fond of retirement,
and used to seclude himself in a cave in mount
Híráa and worship there day and night. He
would, whenever he wished, return to his
family at Mecca, and then go back again,
taking with him the necessaries of life. Thus
he continued to return to Khadijah from time
to time, until one day the revelation came
down to him, and the angel (malak)‡ came
* Malak. Hebrew, Malakh, an angel; prophet; a name
of office, not of nature. See Wilson's Hebrew Lexicon,
p. 13.
† Mishkat, bk. xxiv. chap. v. pt. 1.
Capt. Matthews, in his edition of the Mishkât, has
followed the Persian Commentator, and translated the
THE QURAN.
17
to him and said, 'Read' (igaráa); but the
Prophet said, 'I am not a reader.' And the
Prophet related, that he (i. e. the angel) took
hold of me and squeezed me as much as I could
bear, and he then let me go and said again,
"Read!' And I said, 'I am not a reader.'
Then he took hold of me a second time, and
squeezed me as much as I could bear, and then
let me go, and said Read!' And I said, 'I am
not a reader.' Then he took hold of me a third
time and squeezed me as much as I could bear,
and said :-
6
"Read! in the name of thy Lord who created;
Created man from a clot of blood in the
womb.
"Read! for thy Lord is the most beneficent,
He hath taught men the use of the pen;
He hath taught man that which he knoweth
not.' *
"Then the Prophet repeated the words him-
self, and with his heart trembling he returned
(i. e. from Híráa to Mecca) to Khadíjah, and
word Malak, Gabriel, instead of Angel, and most of our
English authors have quoted the tradition from his book.
* Súra-i-Alaq (xcvi.), the first five verses. The other
verses of the chapter are of a later date.
C
18
THE QURAN.
said, 'Wrap me up, wrap me up.' And they
wrapped him up in a garment till his fear was
dispelled, and he told Khadijah what had passed,
and he said: ‘Verily, I was afraid I should have
died.' Then Khadíjah said, 'No, it will not be
So. I swear by God, He will never make you
melancholy or sad. For verily you are kind to
your relatives, you speak the truth, you are
faithful in trust, you bear the afflictions of the
people, you spend in good works what you gain
in trade, you are hospitable, and you assist
assist your
fellow men.' After this, Khadijah took the
Prophet to Waraqa, who was the son of her
uncle, and she said to him, 'O son of my uncle!
hear what your brother's son says.' Then
Waraqa said to the Prophet, 'O son of my
brother! what do you see?' Then the Prophet
told Waraqa what he saw, and Waraqa said,
<
That is the Númús* which God sent to Moses."
Ayeshah also relates that Haris-ibn-Hishám
asked the Prophet, 'How did the revelation
* Námús. Understood by all Commentators to be the
angel Gabriel. It has, however, many significations, e.g.
Law, Voice, Sound, &c. (see Johnson's Arabic Dictionary).
Probably a corruption of the Greek vóμos, which is always
used in the New Testament for the Law of Moses
THE QURAN.
19
come to you?' and the Prophet said, ‘Some-
times like the noise of a bell, and sometimes the
angel would come and converse with me in the
shape of a man.'”
According to A'yeshah's statement, the Súra-i-
Alaq (xcvi.) was the first portion of the Qurán
revealed; but it is more probable that the
poetical Súras, in which there is no express
declaration of the prophetic office, or of a divine
commission, were composed at an earlier period.
Internal evidence would assign the earliest date
to the Súras Zilzál (xcix.), Asar (ciii.), A'diyát
(c.), and Fátiha (i.), which are rather the utter-
ances of a searcher after truth than of an Apostle
of God.
The whole book was not arranged until after
Muhammad's death, but it is believed that the
Prophet himself divided the Súras and gave
most of them their present titles, which are
chosen from some word which occurs in the
chapter.* The following is the account of the
collection and arrangement of the Qurán, as it
* The ancient Jews divided the whole Law of Moses
into fifty-four Sections, which were called Sidrah, or an
order or division. These sections had each a technical
c 2
20
THE QURAN.
stands at present, as given in traditions recorded
by Bokhárí :-
"Zaid-ibn-Sábit, relates * :- Abú-Bakr sent
a person to me, and called me to him, at the
time of the battle with the people of Zemá-
mah; and I went to him, and Omar was with
him; and Abú-Bakr said to me, "Omar came
to me and said, 'Verily, a great many of the
readers of the Qurán were slain on the day
of the battle with the people of Zemámah;
and really I am afraid that if the slaughter
should be great, much will be lost from the
Qurán, because every person remembers some-
thing of it; and, verily, I see it advisable for
you to order the Qurán to be collected into
one book.' I said to Omar, How can I
do a thing which the Prophet has not done?'
He said, 'I swear by God, this collecting of
the Qurán is a good thing.' And Omar used
to be constantly returning to me and saying:
You must collect the Qurán,' till at length
6
name, e.g. the first was called "Bereshith," and the second
"Noah." (See Dr. Adam Clark on Genesis.)
* Mishkát, bk. viii. chap. iii. pt. 3.
THE QURAN.
21
God opened my breast so to do, and I saw
what Omar had been advising.' And Zaid-ibn-
Sábit says that, 'Abú-Bakr said to me, "You
are a young and sensible man, and I do not
suspect you of forgetfulness, negligence, or
perfidy; and, verily, you used to write for the
Prophet his instructions from above; then
look for the Qurán in every place and collect
it." I said, "I swear by God, that if people
had ordered me to carry a mountain about
from one place to another, it would not be
heavier upon me than the order which Abú-
Bakr has given for collecting the Qurán." I
said to Abú-Bakr, "How do you do a thing
which the Prophet of God did not?" He
said, "By God, this collecting of the Qurán
is a good act." And he used perpetually to
return to me, until God put it into my heart
to do the thing which the heart of Omar
had been set upon. Then I sought for the
Qurán, and collected it from the leaves of
the date, and white stones, and the breasts
of people that remembered it, till I found the
last part of the chapter entitled Tauba (Re-
pentance), with Abú-Khuzaimah Ansárí, and
with no other person. These leaves were in
22
THE QURAN.
the possession of Abú-Bakr, until God caused
him to die; after which Omar had them in
his life-time; after that, they remained with
his daughter, Hafsah; after that, Osmán com-
piled them into one book.'
And
"Anas-ibn-Málik relates :- Huzaifah came
to Osmán, and he had fought with the people
of Syria in the conquest of Armenia; and
had fought in Azurbaiján, with the people of
Irák, and he was shocked at the different
ways of people reading the Qurán.
Huzaifah said to Osmán, "O Osmán, assist
this people, before they differ in the Book
of God, just as the Jews and Christians differ
in their books." Then Osmán sent a person
to Hafsah, ordering her to send those portions
which she had, and saying, "I shall have
a number of copies of them taken, and will
then return them to you." And Hafsah sent
the portions to Osmán, and Osmán ordered
Zaid-ibn-Sábit, Ansárí, and Abdullah-bin-Zu-
bair, and Said-ibn-Alnas, and Abdulláh-ibn-
ul-Háris-bin-Hishám; and these were all of
the Quraish tribe, except Zaid-ibn-Sábit and
Osmán. And he said to the three Quraish-
ites, "When you and Zaid-ibn-Sábit differ
A
THE QURAN.
23
about any part of the dialect of the Qurán,
then do ye write it in the Quraish dialect,
because it came not down in the language
of any tribe but theirs." Then they did as
Osmán had ordered; and when a number of
copies had been taken, Osmán returned the
leaves to Hafsah. And Osmán sent a copy
to every quarter of the countries of Islám,
and ordered all other leaves to be burnt, and
Ibn-Shaháb said, "Kharíjah, son of Zaid-
ibn-Sábit, informed me, saying, 'I could not
find one verse when I was writing the Qurán,
which, verily, I heard from the Prophet; then
I looked for it, and found it with Khuzaimah
Ansárí, and entered it into the Súra-i-Ahzáb.'
This recension of the Qurán produced by
Khalifa Osmán has been handed down to us
unaltered; and, as Sir William Muir remarks,
"there is probably no other book in the
world which has remained twelve centuries
with so pure a text.'
"' *
That various readings (such as Christians
understand by the term) did exist when Os-
mán produced the first uniform edition is
* Muir's "Life of Mohamet," vol. i. Introduction.
24
THE QURAN.
more than probable, and the Shi'ahs have al-
ways charged the Ansárs with "having
mutilated and changed and made the Qurán
what they pleased;" a charge, however, which
they do not attempt to prove, beyond the
mere assertion that certain passages were
omitted which favoured the claims of Alí to
be the first Khalif.
The various readings (Qira'at) in the Qurán
are not such as are usually understood by
the term in English authors, but different
dialects of the Arabic language. Ibn Abbas
says the Prophet said, "Gabriel taught me
to read the Qurán in one dialect, and when
I recited it he taught me to recite it in an-
other dialect, and so on until the number of
dialects increased to seven." +
Muhammad seems to have adopted this ex-
pedient to satisfy the desire of the leading
* See the Hyát-ul-Kalúb, a Shi'ah book of Traditions,
leaf 420. "The Ansárs were ordained to oppose the claims
of the family of Muhammad, and this was the reason why
the other wretches took the office of Khalif by force.
After thus treating one Khalif of God, they then muti-
lated and changed the other Khalif, which is the book of
God."
+ Mishkát, bk. ii., chap. ii., pt. 1.
THE QURAN.
25
tribes to have a Qurán in their own dialect;
for Abdul Haqq* says, "The Qurán was first
revealed in the dialect of the Quraish, which
was the Prophet's native tongue; but when
the Prophet saw that the people of other tribes
recited it with difficulty then he obtained per-
mission from God to extend its currency by
allowing it to be recited in all the chief dialects
of Arabia, which were seven:-Quaraish, Taí,
Hawázin, Ahl-i-Yaman, Saqíf, Huzail, and
Baní-Tamín. Every one of these tribes ac-
cordingly read the Qurán in its own dialect,
till the time of Osmán, when these differences
of reading were prohibited."
These seven dialects are called Saba'ta-Ahrúf,
and the science of reading the Qurán in the
correct dialect is called 'Ilm-i-Tajwid.
The chronological arrangement of the chap-
ters of the Qurán is most important. In the
present Urdú edition, as well as in all Arabic
editions, the Súrás are placed as they must
have been arranged by Zaid-ibn-i-Sábit, who
put them together regardless of all chro-
* Abdul Haqq, the Persian Commentator of the
Mishkát.
26
THE QURAN.
He
nological sequence. If, therefore, we arrange
them according to the order which is given
in Syuty's Itqán,* we shall not fail to mark
the gradual development of Muhammad's mind
from that of a mere moral teacher and re-
former, to that of a prophet and warrior
chief. The contrast between the earlier, mid-
dle, and later Súrás is very striking.
who at Mecca is the admonisher and persuader,
at Medína is the legislator and the warrior,
who dictates obedience, and uses other weapons
than the pen of the poet and the scribe.
When business pressed, as at Medína, poetry
makes way for prose; and although touches
of the poetical element occasionally break
forth, and he has to defend himself up to a
very late period against the charge of being
merely a poet, yet this is rarely the case in
the Medína Súrás, in which we so frequently
meet with injunctions to obey God and the
Prophet.+
To fully realize the gradual growth of Mu-
* The chronological list as given in Jalál-ud-dín Syuty's
Itqán will be found in the Index of the Súras.
+ See Rodwell's Introduction to the English Qurán, in
which the Súrás are chronologically arranged,
THE QURAN.
27
hammad's religious system in his own mind,
it is absolutely necessary to read the Qurán
through, not in the order in which it now
stands, but that in which Muslim divines ad-
mit that it was revealed. At the same time
it must be remembered that all Muhammadan
doctors allow that in most of the Súrás there
are verses which belong to a different date
from that of other portions of the chapter;
for example, in the Súra-i-'Alaq the first five
verses belong to a much earlier date than
the others; and in Súra-i-Baqr, verse 234 is
acknowledged by all commentators to have
been revealed after verse 240, which it abro-
gates.
The sources whence Muhammad derived the
materials for his Qurán, are, over and above
the more poetical parts, which are his own
creation, the legends of his time and country,
Jewish traditions based upon the Talmud,
perverted to suit his own purposes, and the
floating Christian traditions of Arabia and
South Syria. Muhammadanism, however, owes
more to Judaism than it does to either
·
* See a book by M. Geiger entitled, "Was hat Mu-
hammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen," in which
28
THE QURAN.
Christianity or Sabeanism, for it is simply
Talmudic Judaism adapted to Arabia, plus
the Apostleship of Jesus and Muhammad.
Wherever Muhammad departs from the mono-
theistic principles of Judaism, as in the idola-
trous practices of the Pilgrimage to the K'aba,
it is evident that it is done as a necessary
concession to the national feelings and sym-
pathies of the people of Arabia, and it is ab-
solutely impossible for Muhammadan divines
to reconcile the idolatrous rites of the K'aba
with that simple monotheism which it was
evidently Muhammad's intention to establish
in Arabia.
The Qurán is divided into:-
1. Harf (pl. Hurúf), Letters; of which
there are said to be 323,671.
2. Kalimah (pl. Kalimát), Words; of which
there are 77,934.
3. A'yat (pl. A'yát), Verses. A'yát is a
word which signifies "signs," and it was used
that learned Jew has traced all the leading features of
Islám to Talmudic sources. Also "Literary Remains of
Emanuel Deutsch." Essay on Islám.
THE QURAN.
29
by Muhammad for short sections or verses of
his supposed revelation. There are said to
be 6,616 verses in the whole book; but the
division of verses differs in different editions
of the Arabic Qurán. The number of verses
in the Arabic Quráns are recorded after the
title of the Súra, and the verses distinguished
in the text by a small cypher or circle.*
4. Súra (pl. Suwar), Chapters. A word
which signifies a row or series, but which is
now used exclusively for the chapters of the
Qurán, which are one hundred and fourteen
in number. These chapters are called after
some word which occurs in the text, and if
the Traditions are to be trusted, they were so
named by Muhammad himself, although the
verses of their respective Súrás were undoubt-
edly arranged after his death, and sometimes
with little regard to their sequence. Musal-
mán doctors admit that the Khalif Osmán
arranged the chapters in the order in which
they now stand in the Qurán.
* Unfortunately the verses in Rodwell's English Qurán
do not correspond with the Arabic Qurâns in use amongst
the Muhammadans of India.
30
THE QURAN.
5. Rukú' (pl. Rúkúát), Prostrations. These
are of two kinds, the Rukú' of a Súra and
the Rukứ, of a Sípára, and are distinguished
in the Arabic Qurán by the letter 'ain on
the margin. Muhammadans generally quote
by the Rukú and not by the verse.
6. Ruba', The quarter of a Sípára.
7. Nisf, The half of a Sípára.
8. Suls, Three-quarters of a Sípára.
9. Sípára,* the Persian for the Arabic Juz.
The Sípáras or Juz, are thirty in number, and
it is said that the Qurán is so divided to
enable the pious Muslim to recite the whole
of the Qurán in the thirty days of Ramazán.
Muhammadans generally quote their Qurán by
the Sípára and Ruku', and not by the Sura
and A'yat.
10. Manzil (pl. manázil), Stages. These are
seven in number, and are marked by the letters
F, M, Y, B, Sh, W, and Q, which words are
said to spell Famibeshauq, i. e. "My mouth
with desire." They have been arranged to
enable the devout Muslim to recite the whole
in the course of a week.
*The Persian word Sipára is derived from si, thirty,
and pára, a portion.
THE QURAN.
31
'Ilm-i-Usul,* or the Exegesis of the Qurán,
is a science, some knowledge of which is ab-
solutely necessary to enable the Christian con-
troversialist to meet a Muhammadan opponent.
It is used by the Muslim divine to explain
away many apparent or real contradictions
which exist in the Qurán, and it is also avail-
able for a similar purpose when rightly used
by the Christian in explanation of the exegesis
of his own sacred books.
The words (alfáz) of the Qurán are of four
classes:-Khass, 'Amm, Mushtarak, and Muaw-
wal.
(1) Kháss, Words used in a special sense.
These are of three kinds :-Khusus-ul-jins,
Special genus; Khusús-un-nau', Special spe-
cies; Khusús-ul-'ain, Special individuality.
(2) 'Amm, Collective or common, which em-
brace many individuals or things.
(3) Mushtarak, Complex words which have
several significations; e.g. 'ain, a word which
* 'Ilm-i-Usúl embraces both the exegesis of the Qurán
and Hadís. The most authoritative works on the 'Ilm-i-
Usúl of the Qurán are Syuty's Itqán (Sprenger's edition),
and the Manor-ul-Usúl, and its commentary the Núr-ul-
Anwar.
32
THE QURAN.
signifies an Eye, a Fountain, the Knee, or
the Sun.
(4) Muawwal, Words which require to be
explained: e.g. Sulát may mean either the
Liturgical daily prayer (Namáz), or simple
prayer (Dua').
II. The Sentences ('Ibárat) of the Qurán
are either Záhir or Khafí, i. e. either Obvious
or Hidden.
Obvious sentences are of four classes:
Záhir, Nass, Mufassar, Muhkam.
(1) Záhir. Those sentences, the meaning of
which is Obvious or clear, without any assist-
ance from the context (karína).
(2) Nass.-Those sentences the meaning of
which is Manifest from the text: e. g. "Take
in marriage of such other women as please
you, two, three, or four." Here it is manifest
that the expression "such other women as
please you" is restricted.
(3) Mufussar. Sentences which are ex-
plained by some expression in the verse: e. g.
"And the angels prostrated themselves all
of them with one accord save Iblis." Here
THE QURAN.
33
it is explained that Iblís did not prostrate
himself.
(4) Muhkam.-Perspicuous sentences, the
meaning of which is incontrovertible: e. g.
Súra-i-Máida (v.), 98, "He (God) knoweth
all things."
Hidden sentences are either Khaji, Mushkil,
Mujmal, or Mutashabih.
(1) Khají.-Sentences in which other per-
sons or things are hidden beneath the plain
meaning of a word or expression contained
therein: e. g. Súra-i-Máida (v.), 42, “As for
a thief whether male or female cut ye off their
hands in recompense for their doings." In
this sentence the word Sáriq, "thief," is un-
derstood to have hidden beneath its literal
meaning, both pickpockets and highway rob-
bers.
(2) Mushkil. -Sentences which are ambigu-
ous: e. g. Súra-i-Dahr (lxxvi.), 15, "Vessels
of silver and decanters which are of glass,
decanters of glass with silver whose measure
they shall mete."
(3) Mujmal.-Sentences which are compen-
dious, and have many interpretations: e. g.
D
34
THE QURAN.
Súra-i-Má'rij (lxx.), 19, "Man truly is by
creation hasty."
(4) Mutashábih.-Intricate sentences, or ex-
pressions, the exact meaning of which it is
impossible for man to ascertain until the day
of resurrection, but which was known to the
Prophet e. g. the letters Alif, Lám, Mím
(A. L. M.); Alif, Lám, Rá (A. L. R.); Alif,
Lám, Mím, Rá (A. L. M. R.), etc., at the
commencement of different Súras or chapters.
Also Súra-i-Mulk (lxvii.) 1, "In whose hand
is the Kingdom," i. e. God's hand (Arabic,
yad); and Súra-i-Twá Há (xx.), "He is most
merciful and sitteth on His throne," i. e. God
sitteth (Arabic, istawá); and Súra-i-Baqr (ii.),
115, "The face of God" (Arabic, waj-ullah).
III. The use (istimál) of words in the
Qurán is divided into four classes. They are
either Haqiqat, Majáz, Saríh, or Kináyah.
(1) Haqiqat.-Words which are used in their
literal meaning: e. g. rukú, a prostration;
ziná, adultery.
(2) Majáz.—Words which are figurative.
(3) Sarih.-Words the meaning of which is
THE QURAN.
35
clear and palpable: e. g.
"Thou art divorced."
"Thou art free,"
(4) Kináyah.—Words which are metaphorical
in their meaning: e. g. "Thou art separated";
by which may be meant "thou art divorced."
IV. The deduction of arguments, or istidlál,
as expressed in the Qurán, is divided into four
sections: 'Ibárat, Ishárat, Dalálat, and Iqtizá.
(1) 'lbárat.-The plain sentence.
(2) Ishárat.-A sign or hint: e. g. "Born
of him;" meaning, of course, the father.
""
(3) Dalálat.-The argument arising from a
word or expression: e. g. Súra-i-Baní Isráíl
(xvii.), 23, “Say not unto your parents fie
(Arabic, uff); from which it is argued that
children are not either to abuse or beat their
parents.
(4) Iqtiza. Demanding certain conditions:
e. g. Súra-i-Nisá (iv.), 91, "Whoso killeth a
Mumin (believer) by mischance shall be bound
to free a slave." Here the condition demanded
is that the slave shall be the property of the
person who frees him.
An acquaintance with the use of these
D 2
36
THE QURAN.
expressions used in the exegetical commen-
taries of the Qurán is of great assistance to
the Bazaar-preacher, for it often happens that
Maulavís interrupt the preacher by putting
some difficult question, which the most able
missionary will find it difficult to answer to
the satisfaction of a mixed assemblage. For
instance, an interesting discourse or discussion
is often interrupted by a Maulaví putting the
following question : "What did Jesus mean
when He said, 'All that ever came before me
were thieves or robbers? The sole object
of the Maulaví being to interrupt a profitable
conversation or sermon, the best reply to such
an one would be, "Maulaví Sáhib, you know,
sentences are Záhir or Khafí, hidden or evident.
That is Khafi. Hidden sentences you know
are of four kinds, Khafi, Mushkil, Mujmal, or
Mutashábih. I consider the text you have
quoted to be Mujmal, and you must admit that
it would take up too much time to explain a
Mujmal sentence in the midst of my present
discourse." Most probably the Maulaví will
be satisfied, for the preacher has applied a little
flattering unction, in supposing that the Mau-
laví is learned in the principles of exegesis.
THE QURAN.
37
We have frequently silenced a troublesome ob-
jector, who has introduced the subject of the
Trinity for no other purpose than to disturb
the preaching, by telling him that it was mu-
tashábih, i.e. intricate, and at the same time
asking him if he knew the meaning of Alif
Lám Mím at the commencement of the se-
cond chapter of the Qurán. This appears
to have been our blessed Lord's method with
troublesome objectors: "The baptism of John:
whence was it?"
It is often painful to observe how some of
our native preachers will attempt to explain
the sacred mysteries of our faith in the midst
of an ignorant mob. Whereas learned Muslim
doctors, if placed in the same position, would
decline to discuss mysterious questions under
such conditions. They would say, as the
Christian Divine might also say, "Many things
in God's word are hidden (khafi), and cannot
be explained to such a mixed audience as this,
and besides this, in speaking of the nature
(zát) of God, there is always some fear of
blasphemy (kufr); I prefer speaking to you on
that subject alone, after the preaching is over.”
Some passages of the Qurán are contradic-
38
THE QURAN.
tory, and are often made the subject of attack;
but it is part of the theological belief of the
Muslim doctor that certain passages of the
Qurán are mansukh, or abrogated by verses
afterwards revealed. This was the doctrine
taught by the Arabian prophet in the Súra-i-
Baqr (ii.), 105, "Whatever verses we (i. e.
God) cancel or cause thee to forget, we bring
a better or its like." This convenient doctrine
fell in with that law of expediency which
appears to be the salient feature in Muham-
mad's prophetical career.
In the Tafsír-i-'Azízí it is written, that ab-
rogated (mansúkh) verses of the Qurán are of
three kinds: (1) Where the verse has been
removed from the Qurán and another given
in its place; (2) Where the injunction is ab-
rogated and the letters of the verse remain ;
(3) Where both the verse and its injunction
are removed from the text. This is also the
view of Jalál-ud-Dín, who says, that the number
of abrogated verses has been variously estimated
from five to five hundred, and he gives the
following table of twenty verses which most
commentators acknowledge to be abrogated,
THE QURAN.
39
or mansúkh, with those verses which cancel
them, or are Nåsikh.*
*
It is to be regretted that the Greek verb kaтadów, in
St. Matthew v. 17, has been translated in some of the
versions of the New Testament by mansúkh; for it gives
rise to needless controversy, and conveys a wrong im-
pression to the Muhammadan mind as to the Christian
view regarding this question. According to most Greek
lexicons, the Greek word means to throw down, or to destroy
(as of a building), which is the meaning given to the
word in our authorised English translation. Christ did
not come to destroy, or to pull down, the Law and the
Prophets; but we all admit that certain precepts of the
Old Testament were abrogated by those of the New Tes-
tament. Indeed we further admit that the old covenant
was abrogated by the new covenant of grace. "He taketh
away the first that he may establish the second." Heb. x.
9.
In the Arabic translation of the New Testament, printed
at Beyrut, A.D. 1869, karaλúw is translated by naqz, “to d.-
molish";
and in Mr. Loewenthal's Pashto translation, a.d.
1863, by bátildwal, "to destroy," or "render void,"; and
in Henry Martyn's Persian Testament, A.D. 1837, it is also
translated by the Arabic ibtál, i. e. "making void." In both
the Arabic-Urdú and Roman-Urdú it is unfortunately ren-
dered mansukh, a word which has a technical meaning in
Muhammadan theology contrary to that implied in the
word used by our Lord in Matthew v. 17.
40
THE QURAN.
Subject.
The Qibla.
(
Qisás, or Retaliation.
The Fast of Ramazán.
No.
Mansukh.
1 Súra-i-Baqr (ii.), 115,
2 Súra-i-Baqr (ii.), 178,
Násikh.
Sura-i-Baqr (ii.), 145,
J Súra-i-Máida (iv.), 49,
Súra-i-Baní Isráíl (xvii.), 35,
3 Súra-i-Baqr (ii.), 183,
Sura-i-Baqr (ii.), 187,
4 Súra-i-Baqr (ii.), 184,
Súra-i-Baqr (ii.), 185,
Súra-i-Al-i-'Imrán (iii.), 102, Súra-i-Taghabun (lxiv.), 16,
Sura-i-Nisá (iv.), 89,
6 Súra-i-Nisá (iv.), 88,
Súra-i-Tauba (ix.), 5,)
Súra-i-Tauba (ix.), 36
Súra-i-Baqr (ii.), 234,
Súra-i-Tauba (ix.), 5,
11
7 Súra-i-Baqr`(ii,), 216,
8 Súra-i-Baqr (ii.), 240,
9 Sura-i-Baqr (ii.), 191,
10 Súra-i-Nisá (iv.), 14,
Súra-i-Máida (v.), 105,
Súra-i-Anfál (vii.), 66,
13 Súra-i-Núr (xxiv.), 3,
14 Súra-i-Ahzáb (xxxiii.), 52,
15 Súra-i-Mujádila (lviii.), 13,
first part of verse.
12
16 Súra-i-Mumtahina (lx.), 11,
17 Súra-i-Tauba (ix.), 39,
Súra-i-Núr (xxiv.), 2,
Sura-i-Taláq (lxv.), 2,
Súra-i-Anfál (vii.), 67,
Súra-i-Núr (xxiv.), 32,
Súra-i-Ahzáb (xxxiii.), 49,
Súra-i-Mujádila (lviii.), 13, lat-
ter part of verse.
Súra-i-Tauba (ix.), 1,
Súra-i-Tauba (ix.), 92,
18 Súra-i-Muzammil (lxxiii.), 2, Súra-i-Muzammil (lxxiii.), 20,
19 Súra-i-Núr (xxiv.), 57,
20 Súra-i-Nisá (iv.), 7,
Súra-i-Núr (xxiv.), 58,
Súra-i-Nisá (iv.), 11,
Fidya, or Expiation.
The fear of God.
Jihád, or war with infidels.
Jihád in the Sacred months.
Provision for widows.
Slaying enemies in the Sacred
Mosque.
Imprisonment of the adulteress.
Witnesses.
Jihád, or war with infidels.
The marriage of adulterers.
The Prophet's wives.
Giving alms before assembling
a council.
Giving money to infidels for wo-
men taken in marriage.
Jihád, or war with infidels.
The night prayer.
Permission to young children
to enter a house.
Division of property.
THE QURAN.
41
Upon a careful perusal of the Qurán, it does
not appear that Muhammad ever distinctly de-
clared that it was the object of his mission
either to abrogate or to destroy the teaching
of the previous prophets. On the contrary,
we are told that the Qurán is "A book con-
firmatory of the previous Scriptures and their
safeguard."*
And yet such is the anti-Christian character
of Islám that it demands nothing short of the
entire destruction of God's revealed will to
mankind contained in the New Testament.
In dealing with serious minded Muhamma-
dans, we should, as far as possible, abstain
from attacking any real or apparent contradic-
tions which may exist in the Qurán, and insist
more upon a general comparison between the
two systems: the teaching of Jesus and the
teaching of Muhammad, the position of man
under the Gospel and the position of man
under the Qurán, the sonship of the Christian
and the servitude of the Muslim, the covenant
of Grace and the covenant of Works; and
endeavour to show the true seeker after Truth
and Salvation, that it is impossible for the
* Sura-i-Máida (v.), 52.
42
THE QURAN.
mission of Muhammad to abrogate and super-
sede that of Jesus.
It must be admitted that the Qurán deserves
the highest praise for its conception of the
Divine nature, that it embodies much deep and
noble earnestness; but still, it is not what it
professes to be-it pulls down what it professes
to build up, it destroys what it professes to
confirm. It is not Truth, and as the counter-
feit of Truth we reject it. In the Qurán we
read,* "We believe in God, and that which
was sent down unto us and that which was
sent down to Ibráhím and Ismáíl and Isqhá
and Yáqúb and the Tribes, and that which
was delivered to Moses and the Prophets from
the Lord, and we make no distinction between
any of them." And yet this very book which
"makes no distinction between any of them
and which is said to be "confirmatory" of the
Scriptures, ignores the Atonement, the Sacra-
ments of Baptism and the Lord's Supper, and
denies the Crucifixion of the Saviour, the Son-
ship of Christ and the doctrine of the Holy
Trinity.
* Súra-i-Baqr (ii.), 136; also Súra-i-A'l-i-'Imrán (iii.),
83.
THE QURAN.
43
THE TITLES
OF THE
CHAPTERS OF THE QURAN.


No.
Title of Súra.
Meaning in
English.
THE CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER.
According
Accord-
to Jalál-ud-ing to According to
Rev.J.M. Sir W. Muir.
Rodwell.
dín.
123
Fátiha
Baqr
Preface
Cow
uncertain
8
6
86
91
uncertain
Al-i-'Imrán Family of Im-
88
97
A.H.2 to 10.
rán
4
Nisá
Women
91
100
uncertain
5
Máida
Table
112
114
A.H.6 to 10.
6
Anám
Cattle
54
89
81
7
'Aráf
Aráf
38
87
91
8
'Anfál
Spoils
87
95
A.H.2
Tauba
Repentance
113
113
The last
10
Yúnus
Jonah
50
84
79
11
Húd
Hud
51
75
78
12
Yusuf
Joseph
52
77
77
13
R'ad
Thunder
95
90
89
14
Ibráhím
Abraham
71
76
80
15
Hajr
Hajr
53
16
Nahl
Bee
69
17
Bani Isráil
Children of Is-
49
rael
18
Kahaf
Cave
68
19
Maryam
Mary
43
*8 229
57
62
73
88
67
87
69
69
58
68
20
Twá Há
Twá Há
44
55
75
21
Ambiyá
Prophets
72
65
86
22
Hajj
Pilgrimage
103
107
85
23
Múminún
Believers
73
64
84
24
Núr
Light
102
105
A.H. 5
25
Furqán
Qurán
41
66
74
26
Sh'urá
Poets
46
56
61
27
Namal
Ant
47
68
70
28
Qasas
Story
48
79
83
29
'Ankabút
Spider
84
81
90
30
Rúm
Greeks
83
74
31
Luqmán
Luqmán
56
82
088
60
50
44
THE QURAN.
No. Title of Súra.
Meaning in
English.
THE CHRONOLOGICAL Order.

According
to Jalál-ud-
dín.
Accord-
ing to According to
Rev.J.M. Sir W. Muir.
Kodwell.
32
Sijda
Prostration
74
70
44
33
Ahzáb
Confederates
89
103
uncertain
34
Sabá
Saba
57
85
49
35
Maláika
Angels
42
86
66
36
Yá Sín
Yá Sín
40
60
67
37
Sáffát
Ranks
55
50
59
38
Swád
Swád
37
59
73
39
Zamár
Troops
58
80
45
40
Múmin
Believer
59
78
72
41
Fussilat
Explanation
60
71
53
42
Shorí
Council
61
83
71
43
Zukhráf
Jewels
62
61
76
44
Dukhán
Smoke
63
53
58
45
Jâsiya
Kneeling
64
72
57
46
Abqáf
Ahqáf
65
88
64
47
Muhammad
Muhammad
94
96
uncertain
48
Fatah
Victory.
111
108
A.H. 6
49
Hujrát
Chambers
106
112
uncertain
50
Qâf
Qáf
33
54
56
51
Záriát
Breath of
66
43
63
Winds
10 10 10
52
Túr
Mountain
75
44
55
53
Najam
Star
22
46
43
54
Qamar
Moon
36
49
48
55
Rahmán
Merciful
96
48
40
56
Waqia'
Inevitable
45
45
41
57
Hadíd
Iron
93
99
uncertain
58
Mujádila
Disputer
105
106
uncertain
59
Hashar
Assembly
101
102
A.H. 4
60
Mumtahiná Proof
90
110
A.H. 7
61
Saf
Array
110
98
uncertain
62
Jum'a
Assembly
108
94
uncertain
63
Munafiqún
Hypocrites
104
104
A.H. 65
64
Tagbábun
Deceit
109
93
82
65
Taláq
Divorce
108
101
uncertain
66
Tahrim
Prohibition
107
109
A.H. 7 to 8
67
Mulk
Kingdom
76
63
42
68
Qalam
Pen
2
17
52
69
Háqa
Inevitable-Day 77
42
51
70
Ma'arij
Steps
78
47
37
71
Núh
Noah
70
51
54
THE QURAN.
45

No.
Title of Súra.
Meaning in
English.
THE CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER.
According
Accord-
to Jalál-ud-ing to According to
Rev.J.M. Sir W. Muir.
Rodwell.
dín.

72
Jinn
Genii
39
62
65
73
Muzzammil Wrapped up
3
3
46
74
Muddassir
Mantle
4
2
21
75
Qiyámat
Resurrection
30
40
36
76
Dahr
Man
97
52
35
77
Mursalát
Messengers
32
36
31
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
22 *** **
Nabá
News
79
37
33
Názi'át
Ministers of
80
35
47
Vengeance
'Abas
He frowned
23
24
26
Takwir
Folding up
6
32
27
Infitár
Cleaving
81
31
11
asunder
Tatfif
Short Measure
85
41
32
Inshiqá
Rending in
82
33
28
sunder
85
Burúj
Celestial Signs
26
28
31
86
Táriq
Night Star
35
22
29
87
'A'la
Most High
7
25
23
88
Ghashiya
Overwhelming
67
38
25
89
Fajr
Day-break
9
39
14
90
Balad
City
34
18
15
91
Shams
Sun
25
23
4
92
Lail
Night
93
Zubá
Sun in his me-
ridian
94
Inshiráh
Expanding
95
Tin
Fig
22 500€
8
16
12
10
4
16
11
5
17
27
26
8
96
'Alaq
Congealed
1
1
19
blood
97
Qadar
Night of
24
92
24
power
88888
Baiyana
Evidence
99
21
uncertain
99
Zilzál
Earthquake
92
30
3
100
'Adiyát
Swift horses
13
34
2
101
Qári'a
Striking
29
29
7
102
Takásur
Multiplying
15
15
9
103
'Asar
Afternoon
12
27
1
104
Hamza
Slanderer
31
13
10
105
Fil
Elephant
18
19
13
106
Qoreish
Qoreish
28
20
10
5
46
THE QURAN.
No. Title of Súra.
Meaning in
English.
107
Máún
108
109
Kausar
Kafirún
110
Nasr
Necessaries
Kausar
Infidels
Assistance
Lahab
Urity
THE CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER.
According
Accord-
to Jalál-ud-ing to According to
Rev.J.M. Sir W. Muir.
Rodwell.
dín.
IDEAL
16
14
14
9
39
18
17
12
38
101
111
30
5
11
22
21
10
20
113
Falaq
Day-bre: k
19
6 uncertain
114
Nás
Men
20
7 uncertain
111
Labab
112 Ikhlás
A
47
V.-INSPIRATION.
ACCORDING TO Muhammadan theologians, in-
spiration is of two kinds, Wáhi and Ilhám.
Wahi, is that which was given to the prophets,
and is used especially for the Qurán; Ilhám
being the inspiration to Walis, or saints.
Ilhám is the word generally used by Christian
missionaries for the inspiration of the sacred
Scriptures, and we believe it is sometimes used
by Arabic divines for a higher form of inspira-
tion, but always in the compound form of
Ilhám Rabbáni.
Shaikh Ahmad in his book, the Núr-ul-Anwár,
defines inspiration as follows:-" Wáhí, or
inspiration, is either Záhir (external), or Bátin
(internal). Wáhí Záhir is divided into three
classes:-(1) Wáhí Qurán, that which was
given by the mouth of the angel Gabriel, and
which reached the ear of the Prophet after
he knew that it was Gabriel who spoke to
48
INSPIRATION.
him. (2) Ishárat-ul-Malak, that which was
received from Gabriel, but not by word of
mouth, as when the Prophet said, 'The Holy
Ghost has breathed into my heart.' (3)
Ilhám, or Wáhí Qalb, that which was made
known to the Prophet by the light of prophecy.
This kind of inspiration is possessed by Walis
or saints, but in their case it may be true or
false. Wáhí Bátin is that which the Prophet
obtained by analogical reasoning (giás) just
as the enlightened doctors, or Muftahidín, ob-
tain it."
The Ishárat-ul-Malak, mentioned in the above
quotation is never used for the inspiration of
the Qurán, but for certain instructions which
Muhammad professes to have received direct
from Gabriel, and which are recorded in the
Hadís, or Traditions.
Whatever may have been the actual impres-
sion upon Muhammad's mind as to the nature
of the communications he professed to have
received from God, it is evident that Muslim
theologians have no conception of the Word
of God being given in the form of the Old
and New Testament Scriptures. The most
plausible objection raised against the New Tes-
1
INSPIRATION.
49
tament, by Muhammadan controversialists of
the present day, is that the Christians have
lost the original Gospels and that our present
book contains merely the Hadís, or traditions,
of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. It is,
therefore, necessary to correct their common
idea that the Gospel was revealed to Jesus in
the same manner as the Qurán is said to have
been given to Muhammad; to show that it
was the special office of the Holy Spirit to
give the New Testament Scriptures, and that
they came to man by the same method of
inspiration whereby the Old Testament writ-
ings were given to the Prophets of old, the
Qurán being an exception to God's usual
method of giving inspired writings to his
Prophets.*
* Vide 2 Tim. iii. 16: πάσα γραφὴ Θεόπνευστος “ all scrip-
ture is God-breathed" (divinatus inspirata, Vulg.), which
Dean Alford says is the idea common to the Jews. Vide
Jos. contra Apion. i. 7.
2
50
VI. THE TRADITIONS.
THE Hadis (pl. Ahádís) is, as we have already
remarked, the second part of the Muhammadan
rule of faith. It forms the body of that oral
law of the Arabian legislator which stands
next to the Qurán in point of authority,
being considered by all Muhammadans, whether
Sunní, Shía'h, or Wahhábi, as a supplement
to that book. The collections of these tra-
ditions are called Hadís, being records of the
sayings of the Prophet, but they are also called
Sunna, a word which signifies custom, or regu-
lation.
Muhammad gave very special injunctions.
respecting the faithful transmission of his say-
ings; for example, it is related by Tirmizi,
that the Prophet said, "Convey to other per-
sons none of my words except those which ye
THE TRADITIONS.
51
know of a surety. Verily he who purposely
represents my words wrongly, would find a
place nowhere for himself but in fire."
But notwithstanding the severe warning
given by Muhammad himself, it is admitted
by all Muslim divines that very many spurious
traditions have been handed down. Abu Dáud
received only four thousand eight hundred,
out of five hundred thousand, and even after
this careful selection he states that he has
mentioned "those which seem to be authentic
and those which are nearly so." Out of forty
thousand persons who have been instrumental
in handing down traditions of "the Prophet,'
Bokhárí only acknowledged two thousand as
reliable authorities. It will, therefore, be seen
how unreliable are the traditions of Islám
although they are part of the rule of faith.
Such being the case, it is not surprising that
'Ilm-i-Hadís, or the Science of Tradition, has
become a most important branch of Muslim
Divinity, and that the following canons have
been framed for the reception or rejection of
traditions.
E
52
THE TRADITIONS.
I. With reference to the character of those
who have handed down the tradition *
(1) Hadis-i-Sahih, a genuine tradition, is one
which has been handed down by truly pious
persons who have been distinguished for their
integrity.
(2) Hadis-i-Hasan, a mediocre tradition, is
one the narrators of which do not approach in
moral excellence to those of the Sahíh class.
(3) Hadis-i-Zaif, a weak tradition, is one
whose narrators are of questionable authority.
The disputed claims of narrators to these
three classes have proved a fruitful source of
learned discussion, and very numerous are the
works written upon the subject.
II. With reference to the original relators
of the Hadís :-
(1) Hadis-i-Marfu', an exalted tradition, is
a saying, or an act, related or performed by
In the first edition of these Notes the canons for the
reception and rejection of traditions were taken from
Sayyad Ahmad Khan's "Essay on Traditions," but in
the present edition they have been arranged according to
the Arabic treatise, entitled Nukhbat-al-Faqr, by Shekh
Shahab-ud-din Ahmad, edited by Capt. W. Nassau Lees,
(Calcutta, 1862.)
THE TRADITIONS.
53
the Prophet himself and handed down in a
tradition.
(2) Hadis-i-Mauquf, a restricted tradition,
is a saying or an act related or performed by
one of the ashab or companions of the Prophet.
(3) Hadis-i-Máqtu', an intersected tradition,
is a saying or an act related or performed by
one of the Tába'in, or those who conversed
with the companions of the Prophet.
III. With reference to the links in the chain
of the narrators of the tradition, a Hadís is
either Muttasil, connected, or Munqata', dis-
connected. If the chain of narrators is com-
plete from the time of the first utterance of
the saying or performance of the act recorded
to the time that it was written down by the
collector of traditions, it is Muttasil; but if the
chain of narrators is incomplete, it is Munqata'.
IV. With reference to the manner in which
the tradition has been narrated, and transmitted
down from the first:-
(1) Hadis-i-Mutawátir, an undoubted tradi-
tion, is one which is handed down by very
many distinct chains of narrators, and which
has been always accepted as authentic and
genuine, no doubt ever having been raised
54
THE TRADITIONS.
against it. The learned doctors say there are
only five such traditions; but the exact number
is disputed.
(2) Hadis-i-Mashhúr, a well-known tradition,
is one which has been handed down by at
least three distinct lines of narrators. It is
called also Mustafiz, diffused. It is also used
for a tradition which was at first recorded by
one person, or a few individuals, and after-
wards became a popular tradition.
(3) Hadis-i-' Azér, a rare tradition, is one
related by only two lines of narrators.
(4) Hadis-i-Gharib, a poor tradition, is one
related by only one line of narrators.
It
Khabar-i-Wahid, a single saying, is a term
also used for a tradition related by one person
and handed down by one line of narrators.
is a disputed point whether a Khabar-i-Wahid
can form the basis of Muslim doctrine.
Hadis-i-Mursal (lit. "a tradition let loose "),
is a tradition which any collector of traditions,
such as Bokhári and others, records with the
assertion, "the Apostle of God said.”
Riwayat, is a Hadís which commences with
the words "it is related," without the authority
being given.
•
THE TRADITIONS.
55
Hadis-i-Mauzu', an invented tradition, is one
the untruth of which is beyond dispute.
It is an universal canon that no tradition
can be received which is contrary to the Qurán,
and it is related that when 'Ayeshah heard
Omar say that Muhammad had taught that
the dead could hear, she rejected the tradition
as spurious, because it was contrary to the
teaching of the Qurán.
Whatever may be the difference of opinion
as to the authority of the various traditions,
it must be remembered that they form the
groundwork of the different schools of thought
of the Muhammadan religion. It is, therefore,
impossible for European critics to form a just
estimate of the Muhammadan creed without
being acquainted with those traditions which
are generally received as authentic and genuine.
European writers are unfortunately under
the impression that the "Muhammadan re-
vival" is a going back to "first principles,"
as expressed in the Qurán, whereas, it is, as
we have already remarked, a revival of the
study of the traditions concerning their Prophet,
which study has undoubtedly been promoted by
the establishment of printing presses in Egypt,
56
THE TRADITIONS.
Turkey, and India. Not that we think Islám
will present any fairer proportions even when
deprived of those excrescences which are sup-
posed to have been the preternatural growth
of tradition, as long as the Pilgrimage has the
so-called divine sanction of the Qurán, and the
position of women is regulated by the same
"divine oracles."
The following are the six principal collectors
of Hadís received by the Sunni Muhamma-
dans :-
1. Muhammad Ismail Bokhárí.*
Born, A.H. 194; died, A.H. 256.
2. Muslim-ibn-i-Hajjáj.
Born, A.H. 204; died, A.H. 261.
3. Abu Isa' Muhammad Tirmizi.
Born, A.H. 209; died, A.H. 279.
4. Abu Daud Sajistaní.
Born, A.H. 202; died, A.H. 275.
5. Abu Abdur Rahmán Nasaí.
Born, A.H. 215; died, A.H. 303.
6. Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn-i-Májah.
Born, A.H. 209; died, A.H. 273.
* The names in italics denote the usual title of the
book.
THE TRADITIONS.
57
Some divines substitute the following for
that of Ibn-i-Májah.
Muawattáa Imám Málik.
Born, A.H. 95; died, A.H. 179.
The following are the collections of Hadís
received by the Shía'h:-
1. The Káfi, by Abu Jáfar Muhamad, A.H.
329.
2. The
Man-lá-yastahzirah-al-Faqih
Shekh 'Ali, A. H. 381.
by
3. The Tahzíb, by Shekh Abu Jáfar Mu-
hammad, A.H. 466.
4. The Istibsár, by the same author.
5. The Nahaj-ul-Balághat, by Sayyud Razi,
A.H. 406.
Copies of the Sihah-Sittah, or "six correct"
books of tradition received by the Sunnís, to-
gether with the seventh work by Imám Málik,
have been lithographed, and can be purchased
in the book shops of Delhi, Lucknow, and
Bombay; but the work most read is the Mish-
kát-ul-Musábíh (the niche for lamps), which is
a collection of the most reliable traditions.
This work was originally in Arabic; but it
was translated into Persian in the reign of
Akbar. It was rendered into English by Cap-
.58
THE TRADITIONS.
tain Matthews, and published in Calcutta in
1809. The English translation has been long
since out of print, but efforts are being made
by the author of these notes for its republica-
tion. The popular collection of Shía'h tradi-
tions arranged in the form of an historical
narrative is the Hyát-ul-Qulub, a Persian work
which has been translated by the Rev. J. L.
Merrick (Phillips, Sampson, and Co., Boston,
U.S., 1850).
The most trustworthy of the various collec-
tions of Sunni traditions is the one usually
called Bokhárí. It was compiled by Abu Ab-
dullah Muhammad ibn-i-Ismaíl a native of
Bokhára. In obedience to instructions he is
said to have received in a vision, he set himself
to commence the collection of all the current
traditions relating to Muhammad. He suc-
ceeded in collecting not fewer than six hundred
thousand traditions, of which he selected only
7275 as trustworthy! These he recorded in
his work; but it is said that he repeated a
two rik'at prayer before he wrote down any
one of the 7275 traditions which he recorded.
There is, therefore, every reason to believe
that the compilers of the books of tradition
THE TRADITIONS.
59
were sincere and honest in their endeavours to
produce correct and well authenticated tradi-
tions of their Prophet's precepts and practice;
but, as Sir William Muir remarks, "The exclu-
sively oral character of the early traditions
deprives them of every check against the licence
of error and fabrication."
Sir William Muir has very ably dwelt upon
the unsatisfactory character of Muhammadan
tradition in the first volume of his "Life of
Mahomet," to which Sayyid Ahmad Khán has
written a reply in a supplement to his essay
on Muhammadan tradition. The learned Say-
yid is in this, as in almost everything he writes
on the subject of religion, his own refutation.
Sir William Muir reveals to the public "the
higgledy-piggledy condition, the unauthenticity
and the spuriousness of Muhammadan tradi-
tions," and surely Sayyid Ahmad Khán does
but confirm the same when he writes: "All
learned Muhammadan divines of every period
have declared that the Qurán only is the
Hadees mutawátir; but some doctors have de-
clared certain other Hadeeses also to be Muta-
wátir, the number, however, of such Hadeeses
not exceeding five. Such are the
deeses that
60
THE TRADITIONS.
are implicitly believed, and ought to be religi
ously observed."
But although the traditions of Muhammad
are shrouded with a degree of uncertainty
which is perplexing, not to say vexatious, to
the student of history, still there can be no
doubt as to the place they were intended to,
and still do occupy in the theological structure
of Islám. The example of Muhammad is just
as binding upon the Muslim as that of our
Divine Lord and Saviour is upon the Christian.
And everything Muhammad said with reference
to religious dogmas and morals is believed to
have been inspired by God; by a
"wáhí ghair-
i-mutlu'," or an inspiration similar in kind to
that which we believe to have been given to
the inspired writers of our Christian Scriptures.
61
VII.--IJMA'.
IJMA' is the third foundation of the Muham-
madan rule of faith. It literally means col-
lecting, or assembling, and in Muslim divinity
it expresses the unanimous consent of the Muj-
tahidín (learned doctors); or, as we should cal
it,
"the unanimous consent of the Fathers."
A Mujtahid is a Muslim divine of the highest
degree of learning, a title usually conferred by
Muslim rulers. There are three foundations
of Ijma' : (1) Itifáq-i-Qauli, unanimous consent
expressed in declaration of opinion: (2) Itifáq-
i-Fili, expressed in unanimity of practice;
(3) Itifáq-i-Saqúti, when the majority of the
Mujtahidín signified their tacit assent to the
opinions of the minority by "silence" or non-
interferance.
The Mujtahidín, capable of making Ijma',
must be "men of learning and piety, not
heretics, nor fools, but men of judgment."
There is great diversity of Ginion as to
up to what period in the history of Islám,
62
IJMA'.
Ijma' can be accepted. Some doctors assert
that only the Ijma' of the Mujtahidín who
were Asháb (companions); others, that of those
who were not only "companions" but "de-
scendants" of the "Prophet," can be accepted;
whilst others accept the Ijma' of the Ansárs,
(helpers,) and of the Muhájarín (fugitives,)
who were dwellers in Medina with Muhammad.
The majority of learned Muslim divines, how-
ever, appear to think that Ijma' may be col-
lected in every age, although they admit that
ewing to the numerous divisions which have
asen amongst Muhammadans, it has not been
possible since the days of the Taba' Taba'in,
(i.t., the followers of the followers of the
companions).
The following is considered to be the relative
value of Ijma':
mous
1.
Tha of the Asháb (companions) is equal
to Hadis Muatwátir. That which was decided
afterwards, but in accordance with the unani-
opinion of the Asháb, is equal to Hadís
Khabar-i-Mashhúr, and that upon which there
was diversity of opinion amongst the Asháb,
but has since been decided by the later Muj-
tahidín is equal to Hadis-i-Khabar-i-Wáhid.
!
IJMA'.
63
Amongst the Shia'hs, we believe, there are
still Mujtahidin whose Ijma' is accepted, but
the Sunnís have four orthodox schools of in-
terpretation, named after their respective
founders, Hanafí, Sháfa'i, Máliki, and Hambali.
The Wahhabis for the most part reject Ijma'
collected after the death of "the Companions."
From these remarks, it will be easily un-
derstood what a fruitful source of religious
dissension and sectarian strife this third foun-
dation of the rule of faith is. Divided as the
Christian Church is by its numerous sects, it
will compare favourably with Muhammadaniśm
even in this respect. Muhammad, it is related,
prophesied that as the Jewish Church had
been divided into seventy-one sects! and the
Christians into seventy-two! so his followers
would be divided into seventy-three sects.
but every Muslim historian is obliged to admit
that they have far exceeded the limits of Mu-
hammad's prophecy; for, according to Abdul
Qádir Jiláni, there are at least 150.
*
;
* The seventy-three sects are, according to some writers,
distributed as follows :-Shia'h 31, M'utazilah 21, Kha-
wárij 7, Murjíah 5, Najáriah 3, Jabariyah, 2, Mushabiyah
1, and Nájíah (the term used for the orthc dox).
64
VIII. QIAS.
QI'A's (lit. "to compare ") is the fourth founda-
tion of Islám, and expresses the analogical
reasoning of the learned with regard to the
teaching of the Qurán, Hadis, and Ijma'.
There are four conditions of Qíás: (1) That
the precept or practice upon which it is
founded must be of common ('amm) and not
of special (khúss) application; (2) The cause
(illat) of the injunction must be known and
understood; (3) The decision must be based
upon either the Qurán, the Hadís, or the Ijma';
(4) The decision arrived at must not be con-
trary to anything declared elsewhere in the
Quran and Hadís.
Qíás is of two kinds, Qiás-i-Jali or evident,
and Qiás-i-Khafi or hidden.
An example of Qiás-i-Jali is as follows:-
Wine is forbidden in the Qurán under the word
Khamar, which literally means anything in-
QIAS.
65
toxicating; it is, therefore, evident that opium
and all intoxicating drugs are also forbidden.
Qíás-i-Khafi is seen in the following example:-
In the Hadís it is enjoined that one goat in
forty must be given to God. To some poor
persons the money may be more acceptable;
therefore, the value of the goat may be given
instead of the goat.
66
IX.-FAITH.
FAITH, I'mán, is defined as "the belief of the
heart and the confession of the mouth." It
is of two kinds—I'mán-i-Mujmal and I'mán-
i-Mufassal.
I'mán-i-Mujmal is a simple expression of
faith in the teaching of the Qurán and the
Hadís.
I'mán-i-Mufassal is a belief in the six articles
of faith, viz.-1. The Unity of God. 2. The
Angels. 3.
3. The Books. 4. The Prophets.
5. The Day of Judgment. 6. Predestination,
or the Decrees of God.
67
X.-ALLAH OR GOD.
THE name of the Creator of the universe in
the Qurán is Allah, which is the title given to
the Supreme Being by Muhammadans of every
race and language. It is called the special, or
essential, name of God, the ism-i-zát; all other
names being considered merely ism-i-safát, or
attributes, of which there are said to be ninety-
nine.* It is supposed to have been derived
from the word iláh, a deity or god, with the
addition of the definite article al, thus Al-ilah,
The God. But Imám Hanífa says that, just as
God's essence is unchangeable so is His name,
and that Alláh has always been the name of
the great Eternal Being (vide Ghyás-ul-Loghát).
It appears to be an Arabic rendering of the
Hebrew el, God. It is expressed in Per-
* Vide the ninety-nine names of God in the article on
There is also the Ism-ul-'Azam, the exalted name of
God, which is said to be unknown.
F 2
68
ALLAH OR GOD.
sian and Hindustani by the word Khudá, de-
rived from the Persian Khud (self); the self-
existing one.
The Muhammadan belief in the existence of
God is expressed in the first part of the well
known confession of faith, La-iláha Il-lal-
láho, "There is no deity but God," the in-
terpretation of which occupies so prominent a
place in all treatises of divinity.
The following is an interpretation of the
Muslim belief in the existence and nature of
God, by the famous scholastic divine, Imám
Ghazáli, in his book entitled Al Maqsud-ul-
asná, an extract from which Ockley has trans-
lated from Pocock's Specimen Historiæ Ara-
bum:-
"Praise be to God the Creator and Restorer
of all things; who does whatsoever he pleases,
who is Master of the glorious throne and
mighty force, and directs his sincere servants
into the right way and the straight path ;
who favoureth them, who have once borne
testimony to the unity, by preserving their
confessions from the darkness of doubt and
hesitation; who directs them to follow his
chosen apostle, upon whom be the blessing
ALLAH OR GOD.
69
and peace of God; and to go after his most
honourable companions, to whom he hath
vouchsafed his assistance and direction which
is revealed to them in his essence and opera-
tions by the excellencies of his attributes, to
the knowledge whereof no man attains but he
that hath been taught by hearing. To these,
as touching his essence, he maketh known that
he is one, and hath no partner; singular, without
anything like him; uniform, having no con-
trary; separate, having no equal. He is an-
cient, having no first; eternal, having no be-
ginning; remaining for ever, having no end;
continuing to eternity, without any termination.
He persists, without ceasing to be; remains
without falling, and never did cease, nor ever
shall cease to be described by glorious attributes,
nor is subject to any decree so as to be deter-
mined by any precise limits or set times, but is
the First and the Last, and is within and without.
"(What God is not.) He, glorified be his
name, is not a body endued with form, nor a
substance circumscribed with limits or deter-
mined by measure; neither does he resemble
bodies, as they are capable of being measured
or divided. Neither is he a substance, neither
70.
ALLAH OR GOD.
do substances exist in him; neither is he an
accident, nor do accidents exist in him. Neither
is he like to anything that exists, neither
is anything like to him; nor is he deter-
minate in quantity nor comprehended by
bounds, nor circumscribed by the differences
of situation, nor contained in the heavens. He
sits upon the throne, after that manner which
he himself hath described, and in that same
sense which he himself means, which is a sitting
far removed from any notion of contact, or
resting upon, or local situation; but both the
throne itself, and whatsoever is upon it, are
sustained by the goodness of his power, and
are subject to the grasp of his hand. But he
is above the throne, and above all things, even
to the utmost ends of the earth; but so above
as at the same time not to be a whit nearer
the throne and the heaven; since he is exalted
by (infinive) degrees above the throne no less
than he is exalted above the earth, and at the
same time is near to everything that hath a
being; nay, nearer to man than their jugular
veins, and is witness to everything:
6
though
* Vide Qurán.
ALLAH OR GOD.
71
his nearness is not like the nearness of bodies,
as neither is his essence like the essence of
bodies. Neither doth he exist in anything,
neither doth anything exist in him; but he is
too high to be contained in any place, and too
holy to be determined by time; for he was
before time and place were created, and is now
after the same manner as he always was. He
is also distinct from the creatures by his attri-
butes, neither is there anything besides him-
self in his essence, nor is his essence in any
other besides him. He is too holy to be sub-
ject to change, or any local motion; neither
do any accidents dwell in him, nor any con-
tingencies befall him; but he abides through
all generations with his gloricas attributes,
free from all danger of dissolution. As to the
attribute of perfection, he wants no addition of
his perfection. As to being, he is known to
exist by the apprehension of the understanding;
and he is seen as he is by an ocular intuition,
which will be vouchsafed out of his mercy and
grace to the holy in the eternal mansion, com-
pleting their joy by the vision of his glorious
presence.
66
(His Power.) He, praised be his name, is
72
ALLAH OR GOD.
living, powerful, mighty, omnipotent, not liable
to any defect or impotence; neither slumbering
nor sleeping, nor being obnoxious to decay or
death. To him belongs the kingdom, and the
power, and the might. His is the dominion, and
the excellency, and the creation, and the com-
mand thereof. The heavens are folded up in
his right hand, and all creatures are couched
within his grasp. His excellency consists in
his creating and producing, and his unity in
communicating existence and a beginning of
being. He created men and their works, and
measured out their maintenance and their de-
termined times. Nothing that is possible can
escape his grasp, nor can the vicissitudes of
things elude his power. The effects of his
might are innumerable, and the objects of his
knowledge infinite.
"(His knowledge.) He, praised be his name,
knows all things that can be understood, and
comprehends whatsoever comes to pass, from
the extremities of the earth to the highest
heavens. Even the weight of a pismire could
not escape him either in earth or heaven; but
he would perceive the creeping of the black
pismire in the dark night upon the hard stone,
ALLAH OR GOD.
73
and discern the motion of an atom in the open
air. He knows what is secret and conceals it,
and views the conceptions of the minds, and
the motions of the thoughts, and the inmost
recesses of secrets, by a knowledge ancient and
eternal, that never ceased to be his attribute
from eternal eternity, and not by any new
knowledge, superadded to his essence, either
inhering or adventitious.
66
(His will.) He, praised be his name, doth
will those things to be that are, and disposes
of all accidents. Nothing passes in the empire,
nor the kingdom, neither little nor much, nor
small nor great, nor good nor evil, nor profit-
able nor hurtful, nor faith nor infidelity, nor
knowledge nor ignorance, nor prosperity nor
adversity, nor increase nor decrease, nor obedi-
ence nor rebellion, but by his determinate
counsel and decree, and his definite sentence
and will. Nor doth the wink of him that
seeth, nor the subtlety of him that thinketh,
exceed the bounds of his will; but it is he who
gave all things their beginning; he is the
creator and restorer, the sole operator of what
he pleases; there is no reversing his decree
nor delaying what he hath determined, nor is
•
74
ALLAH OR GOD.
there any refuge to man from his rebellion
against him, but only his help and mercy; nor
hath any man any power to perform any duty
towards him, but through his love and will.
Though men, genii, angels and devils, should
conspire together either to put one single atom
in motion, or cause it to cease its motion, with-
out his will and approbation they would not be
able to do it. His will subsists in his essence.
amongst the rest of his attributes, and was
from eternity one of his eternal attributes,
by which he willed from eternity the existence
of those things that he had decreed, which
were produced in their proper seasons accord-
ing to his eternal will, without any before or
after, and in agreement both with his know-
ledge and will, and not by methodising of
thoughts, nor waiting for a proper time, for
which reason no one thing is in him a hind-
rance from another.
"(His hearing and sight.) And he, praised
be his name, is hearing and seeing, and heareth
and seeth. No audible object, how still so-
ever, escapeth his hearing; nor is any thing
visible so small as to escape his sight; for
distance is no hindrance to his hearing, nor
ALLAH OR GOD.
75
darkness to his sight. He sees without pupil
or eyelids, and hears without any passage or
ear, even as he knoweth without a heart, and
performs his actions without the assistance of
any corporeal limb, and creates without any
instrument, for his attributes (or properties)
are not like those of men, any more than his
essence is like theirs.
"(His word.)
word.) Furthermore, he doth speak,
command, forbid, promise, and threaten by an
eternal, ancient word, subsisting in his essence.
Neither is it like to the word of the creatures,
nor doth it consist in a voice arising from the
commotion of the air and the collision of bodies,
nor letters which are separated by the joining
together of the lips or the motion of the
tongue. The Koran, the Law, the Gospel,
and the Psalter, are books sent down by him
to his apostles, and the Koran, indeed, is read
with tongues, written in books, and kept in
hearts; yet as subsisting in the essence of God,
it doth not become liable to separation and
division whilst it is transferred into the hearts
and the papers. Thus Moses also heard the
Word of God without voice or letter, even as
the saints behold the essence of God without
-
76
ALLAH OR GOD.
substance or accident. And that since these
are his attributes, he liveth and knoweth, is
powerful and willeth and operateth, and seeth
and speaketh, by life and knowledge, and wil
and hearing, and sight and word, not by his
simple essence.
66
(His works.) He, praised be his name, exists
after such a manner that nothing besides him
hath any being but what is produced by his
operation, and floweth from his justice after
the best, most excellent, most perfect, and
most just model. He is, moreover, wise in his
works, and just in his decrees. But his justice
is not to be compared with the justice of men.
For a man may be supposed to act unjustly by
invading the possession of another; but no
injustice can be conceived of God, inasmuch as
there is nothing that belongs to any other
besides himself, so that wrong is not imputable
to him as meddling with things not appertain-
ing to him. All things, himself only excepted,
genii, men, the devil, angels, heaven, earth,
animals, plants, substance, accident, intelligible,
sensible, were all created originally by him.
He created them by his power out of mere
privation, and brought them into light, when
ALLAH OR GOD.
77
•
as yet they were nothing at all, but he alone
existing from eternity, neither was there any
other with him. Now he created all things in
the beginning for the manifestation of his
power, and his will, and the confirmation of
his word, which was true from all eternity.
Not that he stood in need of them, nor wanted
them; but he manifestly declared his glory in
creating, and producing, and commanding,
without being under any obligation, nor out of
necessity. Loving kindness, and to show fa-
vour, and grace, and beneficence, belong to
him; whereas it is in his power to pour forth
upon men a variety of torments, and afflict
them with various kinds of sorrows and dis-
eases, which, if he were to do, his justice could
not be arraigned, nor would he be chargeable
with injustice. Yet he rewards those that wor-
ship him for their obedience on account of his
promise and beneficence, not of their merit
nor of necessity, since there is nothing which
he can be tied to perform; nor can any injus-
tice be supposed in him, nor can he be under
any obligation to any person whatsoever. That
his creatures, however, should be bound to
serve him, ariseth from his having declared by
78
ALLAH OR GOD.
the tongues of the prophets that it was due
to him from them. The worship of him is not
simply the dictate of the understanding, but he
sent messengers to carry to men his commands,
and promises, and threats, whose veracity he
proved by manifest miracles, whereby men are
obliged to give credit to them in those things.
that they relate."
79
XI: ANGELS.
THE existence of angels (malak, pl. maláik),
and their purity, are absolutely required to be
believed in by the Qurán, and he is reckoned
an infidel who denies that there are such beings,
or hates any of them or asserts any distinction
of the sexes.
The Muhammadans reckon four
archangels: (1) Jibráíl (Gabriel), who is God's
messenger; (2) Mikáil (Michael), who is the
protector of the Jews; (3) Israfil, who will
sound the last trumpet at the resurrection;
(4) Azráil, the angel of death. Muhammad
undoubtedly obtained the names of these arch-
angels from the Scriptures and Jewish tra-
dition, although in the Apocryphal Book of
Enoch* the names of the six archangels are
Uriel, Raphael, Raguel, Michael, Sarakiel,
* Book of Enoch translated by Archbishop Laurence,
chap. xx.
80
ANGELS.
Gabriel―a fact which may be cited as an ad-
ditional proof, that when Muhammad availed
himself of Jewish traditions, he quoted or
adopted them with the same want of accuracy
as when he appealed to the Divine word of
God.
There are also the two recording angels
called the Mua'qqibát, or the angels who con-
tinually succeed each other, who record the
good and evil actions of a man, one standing at
his right hand and another on his left.
are also called the Kirám-ul-Kátibín (the
exalted writers). The angel who has charge
of Heaven is Rezwán and the angel who pre-
sides over Hell is Málik.
These
Munkar and Nakir are described by Mu-
hammad as two black angels with blue eyes
who visit every man in his grave, make him
sit up, and examine him as to his faith in God
and in Muhammad his prophet. If the answer
is satisfactory, he will be allowed to sleep on
in peace, but if he replies that he knows no-
thing of "God's Apostle," then he will be struck
with an iron hammer called Mitraqat, and he
will roar out, and his cries will be heard by all
animals that may be near his grave, excepting
ANGELS.
81
men and genii.* This exciting ceremony is
said to take place as soon as the funeral party
have proceeded forty paces from the grave! +
Enlightened Muhammadans of the present day
attempt to explain all this in a figurative sense,
but in vain, for there is a very trustworthy
tradition, recorded both by Bokhári and Muslim,
to the effect that Muhammad related that he
himself heard the infliction of torment on
infidels in their graves when passing through
the grave-yard, and that his camel was fright-
ened by their groans! This is one of the many
instances of Muhammad's superstitious belief
which the more recent Muhammadan divines
endeavour to explain in a metaphorical sense.
We have, however, shown in a previous article
that the traditions of Bolhári are of considerable
historical weight, so that there can be little
doubt that Muhammad believed "the pun-
ishments of the grave" to be real and literal,
which is opposed to the teaching of God's
revealed word (vide Eccl. ix. 10; xii. 7; Psalm
cxlvi. 4).
* Mishkát, bk. i. chap. v.
Tide Article on Janaza or Burial.
G
82
ANGELS.
*
The Devil is said to be a fallen angel who
was turned out of Paradise because he refused
to do homage to Adam.* He is called Iblis, a
word which is most probably derived from
balas, a wicked or profligate person; and also
Shaitán (Satan). Besides angels and devils,
there are said to be a distinct order of crea-
tures called Jinn (Genii) who were created of
fire some thousands of years before Adam.
According to tradition the species consists of
five distinct orders:-1. Jánn; 2. Jinn; 3.
Shaitán; 4. 'Ifrít; 5. Márid.
Their chief abode is the mountains of Qáf,
which are supposed to encircle the world.
There are good and evil Genii. If good, they
are exceedingly handsome; if evil, they are
horribly hideous. The evil genii are said to
have been at liberty to enter any of the seven
heavens till the birth of Jesus, when they were
excluded from three of them. On the birth
of Muhammad they were forbidden the other
four heavens. They continue, however, to
ascend to the confines of the lowest heavens,
and there listen to the conversations of the
* Surat-ul-Baqr (ii.), 33.
ANGELS.
83
angels respecting the decrees of God, which
they sometimes impart to men by means of
talismans and invocations.
The good genii are Muslims, and perform all
the religious duties of the faithful.
King Solomon is said to have had great
power over the genii by means of his magic
ring.*
Students of Islam must bear in mind that
most of the absurd stories of the genii are
related in the Qurán, and have, therefore,
received from Muhammad all the authority
of a divine revelation.
+
* The second Targum on Esther i.-ii., mentions the
four classes of Genii which were given into the power of
King Solomon.
G 2
84
XII.-PROPHETS.
THE number of prophets (rasúl), which have
been sent by God, are said to be 224,000, or,
according to another tradition, 124,000. Of
these 313 were Apostles sent with special com-
missions, to reclaim the world from infidelity
and superstition.
Six brought new laws which successively ab-
rogated the preceding and have special titles,
or kalima*: —
1. Adam (Adam), Sufi- Ullah, the Chosen of
God.
2. Nuh (Noah), Nabi- Ullah, the Preacher of
God.
Dr. Pfander, in the second chapter of Mizán-ul-Haqq,
states that Muhammadan Doctors assert that by the de-
scent of the Psalms the Torah was abrogated. Such, how-
ever, is not the case, for the Psalms are not said to have
abrogated the Torah, and consequently David has no
special title or Kalima.
PROPHETS.
85
3. Ibrahim (Abraham), Khalil-Ullah, the
Friend of God.
4. Musá (Moses), Kalim-Ullah, one who con-
versed with God.
5. 'Isa (Jesus), Ruh Ullah, the Spirit of
God.
6. Muhammad, Rusúl-Ullah, the Messenger
of God.
The number of sacred books delivered to
man are said to have been one hundred and
four, viz. :-
Ten, to Adam ;
Fifty, to Seth (Sísh);
Thirty, to Enoch (Edrís);
Ten, to Abraham ;
The Taurát, to Moses;
The Zabur, to David;
The Injil, to Jesus;
The Quarán, to Muhammad.
The one hundred scriptures given to Adam,
Seth, Enoch, and Abraham, are termed Sahi-
fah (a pamphlet), and the other four, Kitáb
(a book); but all that is necessary for the
Muslim to know of these books is supposed to
have been retained in the Quarán.
Luqmán-i-Hakím (supposed to have been
86
PROPHETS.
Æsop) and Alexander the Great are also con-
sidered by Muhammadan commentators to have
been prophets. Luqmán is mentioned in the
thirty-first Sura of the Quarán, and Zulqurnain,
"the two-horned" (supposed to have been
Alexander), in the eighteenth Sura; but it is
not clear as to what position the author of
the Quarán intended to assign to these worthies.
Muhammad's enumeration of the Old Tes-
tament Prophets, both as to name and chro-
nological order, is exceedingly confused.
87
XIII.—THE
XIII. THE DAY OF RESURRECTION
AND JUDGMENT, AND THE SIGNS
OF THE LAST DAYS.
QI'A'MAT (lit. "standing"), or the day of resurrec-
tion and judgment, is a time which all Muham-
madans allow is a perfect secret and known
only to God. But they say that the approach
of the day of judgment will be known by
twenty-five signs.*
1. The decay of faith among men.
2. The advancing of the meanest persons to
dignity.
3. That a maid-servant shall become the
mother of her mistress.
4. Tumults and seditions.
5. A war with the Turks.
6. Great distress in the world.
7. That the provinces of 'Iraq and Syria
shall refuse to pay tribute.
* See Mishkát-ul-Musábih, bk. xxiii. chap. iii.
88
RESURRECTION AND JUDGMENT.
8. That the buildings of Medina shall extend
to Yaháb.
9. The sun rising in the west.
10. The appearance of a remarkable Beast,
called the Dábbat-ul-arz, which shall rise out
of the earth in the temple at Mecca.
11. War with the Greeks and the taking of
Constantinople by 70,000 of the posterity of
Isaac.
12. The coming of Masih-ud-Dajjál, or Anti-
christ.
13. The coming of Jesus Christ, who will
descend upon one of the minarets of the
Mosque at Damascus.
14. War with the Jews.
15. The ravages made by Yajúj and Majúj
(Gog and Magog).
16. A smoke which shall fill the whole
earth.
17. An eclipse of the moon.
18. The return of the Arabians to idolatry.
19. The discovery of a heap of treasure by
the retreating of the river Euphrates.
20. The demolition of the temple at Mecca.
21. The speaking of beasts and inanimate
things.
RESURRECTION AND JUDGMENT.
89
22. A breaking out of a fire in Yaman.
23. The appearance of a remarkable man
who shall drive men before him with his staff.
24. The coming of Imám Mahdí,* the di-
rector, who will come from Khorásán, his
troops bearing black ensigns.
25. A mighty wind which shall sweep away
the souls of all who have but a grain of faith
in their hearts.
The following is a succinct account of the
day of judgment, translated from a Muham-
madan book:-"Then shall God bring all men
back and raise them again, and restore to
them their souls, and gather them together.
He will then call for the books in which have
been written the good and evil actions of all
men. Then he will judge them in equity and
weigh the balance (mízán) of their works, and
will make retribution to every soul according
to what he has done. Some shall enter Para-
dise through his goodness and mercy, and some
shall go to hell. No Muslim shall remain in
Imám Mahdí is said by the Shia'hs to have been their
twelfth Imám, Abu Kásim; but who will come again in the
last days.
90
RESURRECTION AND JUDGMENT.
hell for ever, but shall enter into Paradise,
after they have suffered according to their sins,
for believers shall remain for ever in Paradise,
and the unbelievers in hell fire."
Sírát is a bridge which all must pass over on
the day of judgment. It is said to extend over
the midst of hell, and to be sharper than the
edge of a sword. In passing it the feet of the
infidel will slip, and he will fall into hell fire;
but the feet of the Muslim will be firm, and
carry him safely to Paradise.
91
XIV.-HEAVEN.
THE Muhammadan Paradise is called Jannat
(garden) in Arabic, and Bahisht in Persian;
the word Firdaus, from which we get our Eng-
lish word Paradise, being restricted to one
region in the celestial abodes of bliss.
There are eight different terms employed in
the Qurán for heaven, and although they would
appear to be but different names for the same
region, Muhammadan divines understand them
to mean different stages of glory.
They are as follows*
:
1. Jannat-ul-Khuld (Sura xxv. 16), "The
garden of eternity."
2. Dár-us-Salám (Sura vi. 127), "The dwel-
ling of peace."
3. Dár-ul-Qarár (Sura xl. 42),
ling which abideth."
"The dwel-
* These various stages of Paradise are variously given by
European authors. Those in the text are from the Arabic
dictionary, the Ghyás-ul-Loghat, and have been compared
with the verses given from the Qurán,
92
HEAVEN.
4. Jannat-i-'Adan (Sura ix. 72), "The garden
of Eden."
5. Jannat-ul-Mawá (Sura xxxii. 19), "The
garden of refuge.'
6. Jannat-un-N'aim (Sura vi. 70), "The gar-
den of delight.
7. Jannat-i-'Illiyún (Sura lxxxiii. 18), “The
garden of 'Illiyun."
8. Jannat-ul-Firdaus (Sura xviii. 107), "The
garden of Paradise.”
as
These eight stages of Paradise are spoken of
"eight doors" in the traditions (Mishkát,
bk. ii. chap. i.).
The sensual delights of Muhammad's Para-
dise are proverbial, and they must have exer-
cised considerable influence upon the minds of
the people to whom he made known his mission.
The allusions in the Qurán are far too numer-
ous to admit of quotation, but they will be
found more particularly in Suras lxxvi., lv., lvi.,
xlvii.
The descriptions of the celestial regions and
the enjoyments promised to "the faithful"
still more minutely given in the traditional
sayings of the Prophet (Mishkát, bk. xxiii.
chap. xiii.).
HEAVEN.
93
Apologists for Islám, Carlyle for example,
have suggested that the sensual delights of
Muhammad's Paradise may after all be taken
figuratively, even as the Song of Solomon and
the Revelation of St. John. It is quite true
that such is the interpretation hinted at in the
Akhlaq-i-Jaláli; and Mr. Lane in his "Modern
Egyptians" says he met a Muslim of learning
who considered them figurative; but such is
not the view of any Muhammadan commentator.
All Muslim theologians have given a literal in-
terpretation of the sensual delights, and it is
impossible for any candid mind to read the
Qurán and Traditions and arrive to any other
conclusion on the subject.
Islám, true to its anti-Christian character,
preaches a sensual abode of bliss in opposition
to the express teaching of our blessed Lord,
who said, "They neither marry nor are given
in marriage, but are as the angels of heaven
(St. Matt. xxii. 30).
""
It is remarkable that with the exception of
one passage (Sura iii. 25), Muhammad's de-
scriptions of the sensual paradise belong to the
later period of his mission, and after he had
become a polygamist.
94
HEAVEN.
In addition to the seven divisions of celestial
bliss, there are said to be seven firmaments
(asmán).
1. Of pure virgin silver, which is Adam's
residence.
2. Of pure gold, which is Enoch's and
John Baptist's.
3. Of pearls, which is Joseph's.
4. Of white gold, which is Jesus'.
5. Of silver, which is Aaron's.
6. Of ruby and garnet, which is Moses'.
7. Of crystal, which is Abraham's.
Muhammadans undoubtedly get their tra-
dition of seven heavens from the Talmud;
but the Jewish tradition with reference to
the seven heavens was a more sensible ar-
rangement than that of the Muhammadans.
The seven heavens of the Jews are as
follow :-
*
1. The vellum, or curtain.
2. The expanse, or firmament.
3. The clouds of ether.
4. The habitation, where the temple of Jeru-
* See Dr. Adam Clark on 2 Cor. xii. 2.
་
HEAVEN.
95
salem and the altar are situated, and where
Michael the great prince offers sacrifice.
5. The dwelling place, where troops of an-
gels sing.
6. The fixed residence, where are the trea-
sures of snow and hail.
7. Araboth, or special place of glory.
96
XV. HELL.
HELL, or the place of torment, is called in
Arabic Jahannam, and in Persian Dozakh; and
is said to have seven portals or divisions,*
which the Commentator Baghawi distributes
as follows:-
1. Jahannam, for Muhammadans; for, ac-
cording to the Qurán, all Muslims will pass
through hell.+
2. Lazwá, a blazing fire for Christians (Sura
lxx. 15 only).
3. Hutama, an intense fire for Jews (Sura
civ. 4 only).
""
* Sura xv. 44. "It hath seven portals, and at each
portal a separate band; a tradition founded on the
Talmud. Thus in Sota 10, David is said to have rescued
Absalom from the seven dwellings of hell. (Rodwell.)
† Sura xix. 44, "Verily there is not one of you that
shall not go down into hell. Jahannam is the Arabic
form of the Greek yeévva, and it is remarkable that the
word should be used for a purgatorial hell and not adŋs
which, according to the Papists, denotes that state.
HELL.
97
1
4. S'air, a flaming fire for Sabians (Sura
iv. 11, and fourteen other places).
5. Sagar, a scorching heat for Magi (Suras
liv. 58, and lxxiv. 43).
6. Jahím, a huge hot fire for idolaters
(Sura ii. 113, and twenty other places).
7. Háwía, the bottomless pit for hypocrites
(Sura, cl. 8).
The situation of hell is a matter of dispute.
Baghawi's distribution of the different sections
of hell is a proof of the utter recklessness of
Muslim Commentators, for in neither case are
Lazwa and Hutama apportioned to Christians
or Jews in the Qurán.
H
98
XVI. THE DECREES OF GOD.
TAQDIR, or the absolute decree and predes-
tination of both good and evil, is the sixth
article of the Muslim's creed. The orthodox
belief is that whatever hath or shall come to
pass in this world, whether it be good or bad,
proceedeth entirely from the divine will, and is
irrevocably fixed and recorded in the preserved
tablet (Lahw-ul-Mahfúz).*
Of this doctrine Muhammad makes great use
in his Qurán, and all those who have had any
practical acquaintance with the lives of Mu-
hammadans, know well to what extent it
influences the daily life of every Muslim. It
* Lahw-ul-Mahfuz, occurs only once in the Qurán,
namely, Sura lxxxv. 22, where it relates to the Qurán
being written thereon. The Preserved Tablet on which
the actions of men are written, is called Imám-ul-Mubín,
the clear prototype, Sura xxxvi. 11.
DECREES OF GOD.
99
is not only urged as a source of consolation in
every trial, but as a palliation of every crime.
"It was written in my taqdir" (fate), is an
excuse familiar to every European who has
had much intercourse with Muslim servants or
soldiers.
The following is a translation of an Arabic
treatise on the subject: "Faith in the decrees
of God, is that we believe in our heart and con-
fess with our tongue that the most High God
hath decreed all things so that nothing can
happen in the world, whether it respects the
conditions and operations of things, or good
and evil, or obedience and disobedience, or
faith and infidelity, or sickness and health,
or riches and poverty, or life and death, that is
not contained in the written tablet of the
decrees of God. But God hath so decreed
good works, obedience, and faith, that He
ordains and wills them, and that they may
be under His decree, His salutary direction,
His good pleasure and command. On the
contrary, God hath decreed, and does ordain
and determine evil, disobedience, and infidelity;
yet without His salutary direction, good plea-
sure and command, but being only by way
H 2
100
DECREES OF GOD.
of seduction, indignation, and prohibition.
But whosoever shall say that God is not
delighted with good faith, or that God hath
not an indignation against evil and unbelief,
he is certainly an infidel."
101
XVII. — THE FIVE FOUNDATIONS OF
PRACTICAL RELIGION.
THE five pillars, or foundations, of practice in
Islám are:-
1. The recital of the Creed, or Kalimah,*
"There is no deity but God, and Muhammad
is the Prophet of God."
2. Sulát.-The five stated periods of prayer.
3. Roza.-The thirty days fast of Ramazán.
4. Zakát.-The legal alms.
5. Hajj.-The pilgrimage to Mecca.
* The enumeration of the Creed amongst the founda-
tions of practice seems to perplex English writers, and
consequently Dr. Macbride (p. 134), and other authors,
omit it entirely, and reduce the foundations of practical
religion to four. Our readers will observe, however, that
it is the recital of the creed, and not the creed itself, which
forms one of the five practical duties of the Muslim (vide
next article).
102
XVIII. THE RECITAL OF THE CREED.
THE Recital of the Kalimah, or Creed, is the
first of the five foundations, or pillars of prac-
tice, in Islám. It consists of the following
sentence, which is always recited in Arabic :-
Lá-iláha-il-lal-laho Muhammad-ur-Rasúl-
Ullah, "There is no deity but God, and Mu-
hammad is the Apostle of God." *
When any one is converted to Islám he is
required to repeat this formula, and the follow-
ing are the conditions required of every Muslim
with reference to it:--
1. That it shall be repeated aloud, at least
once in a life-time.
* We have here translated rasúl, "Apostle," although
it is generally rendered "Prophet," which, however, is the
more correct rendering of nabi, a word which also occurs
in the Qurán. Both nabi and rasúl are translated into
Persian and Hindustani by paighambar, which is trans-
lated into English by either Prophet, Apostle, or Messiah.
THE RECITAL OF THE CREED.
103
2. That the meaning of it shall be fully
understood.
3. That it shall be believed in "by the
heart."
4. That it shall be professed until death.
5.—That it shall be recited correctly.
6. That it shall be always professed and
declared without hesitation.
Something similar to this celebrated symbol
of the Muhammadan creed appears to have
existed in Arabia previous to the foundation
of Islamism. Dr. Arnold in his work on "Is-
lám and Christianity," quotes the following
prayer from the writings of Abulfaraj, which
is said to have been used by the idolatrous
Arabians: "I dedicate myself to Thy service.
O God! Thou hast no companion, except
Thy companion, of whom Thou art absolute
Master of whatever is his."*
Circumcision (Khatnah) although never once enjoined
in either the Qurán or Traditions, is an institution of
Islám; but it is not incumbent upon adults, the recital of
the creed being sufficient.
104
XIX. PRAYER.
PRAYER (Arabic Sulát, Persian and Hindustani
Namáz, Pushto Nmuz) is the second of the five
foundations of practice in Islám. The constant
round of devotion which characterizes Muham-
madan nations is a very remarkable phenomenon
in the system. We translate the words Sulát
and Namáz by the English word prayer, al-
though this "second foundation" of the re-
ligion of Muhammad is something quite distinct
from that prayer which the Christian poet so
well describes as the "soul's sincere desire
uttered or unexpressed." It would be more
correct to speak of the Muhammadan Namáz
as a service; "prayer" being more correctly
rendered by the Arabic du'a. In Islám prayer
is reduced to a mechanical act, as distinct from
a mental act; and in judging of the spiritual
character of Muhammadanism, we must take
into careful consideration the precise character
PRAYER.
105
of that devotional service which every Muslim
is required to render to God at least five times
a day,* and which, undoubtedly, exercises so
great an influence upon the character of the
followers of Muhammad.
It is absolutely necessary that the service
should be performed in Arabic; and that the
clothes and body of the worshipper should be
clean, and that the praying place should be
free from all impurity. It may be said either
privately, or in company, or in a Mosque-
although services in a Mosque are more meri-
torious than those elsewhere.
It is always preceded by ablution (Wuzu),†
and, if said in a Mosque, by the Azán and
* It is remarkable that there is but one passage in the
Qurán in which the stated times of prayer are enjoined,
and that it mentions only four and not five periods:-
Surat-ur-Rum (xxx.), 17, "Glorify God when it is even-
ing (masa), and at morning (subh),—and to Him be praise
in the heavens and in the earth,—and at afternoon ('ashí),
and at noon-tide (zuhr)." But all commentators are agreed
that masa includes both sun-set and after sun-set; and,
therefore, both the Maghrib and 'Ishaa prayers.
† Wuzu is the ablution of the face, hands, feet, &c.,
which is necessary before every time of prayer. Ghusal,
or the washing of the whole body, is performed after cer-
tain legal defilements.
106
PRAYER.
Iqámat, terms which will be explained after-
wards.
The regular form of prayer begins with the
Niyyat, which is said standing, with the hands
on either side:-
"I have purposed to offer up to God only,
with a sincere heart this morning (or, as the
case may be), with my face Qibla-wards, two
(or, as the case may be) rak'at prayers Farz
(Sunnat, or Nafl).”
Then follows the Takbír i-Tahrímah, said with the
thumbs touching the lobules of the ears and the open
hands on each side of the face.
"God is great!
The Qíám, or standing position. The right hand placed
upon the left, below the navel,* and the eyes looking to
the ground in self-abasement. During which is said the
Subhánt:-
"Holiness to thee, O God!'
"And praise be to thee!"
"Great is Thy name!"
The Shafia', and the two other orthodox sects, place
their hands on their breasts; as also the Wahhabis. The
Shía'hs keep their hands on either side. In all the sects
the women perform the Qíám with their hands on their
breasts.
+ The Shía'hs omit the Subhán.
PRAYER.
107
"Great is Thy greatness!"
"There is no deity but Thee!"
The T'auuz* is then said as follows:-
"I seek refuge from God from cursed Satan."
After which the Tasmíyah is repeated:-
"In the name of God, the compassionate, the
merciful."
Then follows the Fátihah, viz., the first chapter of the
Quránt :-
"Praise be to God, Lord of all the worlds!”
"The compassionate, the merciful!"
66
King on the day of reckoning!"
"Thee only do we worship, and to Thee
only do we cry for help.”
"Guide Thou us in the straight path,"
"The path of those to whom Thou hast been
gracious;
""
"With whom Thou art not angry,
""
"And who go not astray."-Amen.
After this the worshipper can repeat as many chapters
of the Qurán as he may wish; he should, at least, recite
one long or two short verses. The following chapter is
* The T'auuz is also called the 'Aúzobillah.
†The recital of the Qurán is called the Qira'at, or
reading.
108
PRAYER.
usually recited, namely, the Surát-ul-Ikhlás, or the 112th
chapter:-
"Say: He is God alone:
"God the eternal!"
"He begetteth not,”
"And is not begotten;"
"And there is none like unto Him."
The Takbír-i-Ruku', said whilst making an inclination of
the head and body and placing the hands upon the knees,
separating the fingers a little.
"God is great!'
""
The Tasbih-i-Ruku', said in the same posture.
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the
Great!"*
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the
Great!"
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the
Great!"
The Qiám-i-Sami Ullah or Tasmía', said with the body
erect, but, unlike the former Qiám, the hands being placed
on either side. The Imám says† aloud,
"God hears him who praises him."
* The Shía'hs here add, "and with his praise." This is
also added by the Shía'hs to the Tasbíh-i-Sijdah.
+ When the prayers are said by a person alone he
recites both sentences.
PRAYER.
109
The people then respond in a low voice.
"O Lord, Thou art praised."
Takbír-i-Sijdah, said as the worshipper drops on his
knees.
"God is great!
""
Tasbíh-i-Sijdah, recited as the worshipper puts first his
nose and then his forehead to the ground.
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High!"
*
I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High!"
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High!"
Then raising his head and body and sinking backward
upon his heels, and placing his hands upon his thighs, he
says the Takbír-i-Jalsa.*
"God is great!"
Then, whilst prostrating as before, he says the Takbír-
i-Sijdah.
"God is great!
""
And then during the prostration the Tasbíh-i-Sijdah as
before.
I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High!
* The Shía'hs here omit the Takbír, and say instead
"I rise and sit by the power of God!"
110
PRAYER.
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High!"
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High!"
Then, if at the close of one rak'at, he repeats the Takbír
standing, when it is called Takbír-i-Qiám; but at the end
of two rak'ats, and at the close of the prayer, he repeats it
sitting, when it is called Takbír-i-Qa’úd.
"God is great!"
Here ends one rak'at or form of prayer. The next rak'at
begins with the Fátihah or 1st chapter of the Qurán. At
the close of every two rak'ats he recites the Attahíyat,
which is said whilst kneeling upon the ground. His left
foot bent under him he sits upon it, and places his hands
upon his knees and says†:
“The adorations of the tongue are for God,
and also the adorations of the body, and alms-
giving!"
"Peace be on thee, O Prophet, with the
mercy of God and His blessing!"
"Peace be upon us and upon God's righteous
servants!"
*The Shía'hs here recite the Takbír:
"God is great!
with the thumbs touching the lobules of the ear, and add,
"I seek forgiveness from God, my Lord, and I repent
before Him!"
+ The Shía'hs omit the Attahíyat.
PRAYER.
111
Then raising the first finger of the right hand he recites
the Tashahhúd :—
"I testify that there is no deity but God *
and I testify that Muhammad is the servant
of God, and the messenger of God!" +
The Darúd is said whilst in the same posture.
;
“O God, have mercy on Muhammad and on
his descendants, as Thou didst have mercy
on Abraham and on his descendants. Thou
art to be praised, and Thou are great. O God,
bless Muhammad and his descendants, as Thou
didst bless Abraham and his descendants!"
"Thou art to be praised, and Thou art.
great!"
Then the Du'a-
"O God our Lord, give us the blessings of
this life, and also the blessings of life everlast-
ing. Save us from the torments of fire."§
* The Shía'hs add, "who has no partner."
+ Every two rak'ats close with the Tashahhúd.
The Shía'hs merely recite:-"God have mercy on
Muhammad and his descendants;" and omit the rest.
§ The Du'a is omitted by the Shía'hs, who recite the
following instead :-"Peace be on thee, O Prophet, with
the mercy of God and His blessing!"
"Peace be upon
us, and upon God's righteous servants!"
Un
112
PRAYER.
He then closes with the Salám.
Turning the head round to the right, he says -
-
"The peace and mercy of God be with
you."
Turning the head round to the left, he says-
"The peace and mercy of God be with
you."
66
At the close of the whole set of prayers,
that is, of Farz, Sunnat, Nafl, or Witr, the
worshipper raises his hands* and offers up a
Munáját," or supplication. This usually con-
sists of prayers selected from the Qurán or
Hadís. They ought to be said in Arabic,
although they are frequently offered up in
the vernacular.
These daily prayers are either Farz, Sunnat,
Naf, or Witr. Farz, are those number of
rak'ats, (or forms of prayer,) said to be enjoined
by God. Sunnat those founded on the practice
of Muhammad. Naf, the voluntary per-
formance of two rak'ats, or more, which may
be omitted without sin. Witr, an odd number
* The hands are raised in order to catch a blessing
from heaven, and they are afterwards drawn over the face
in order to transfer it to every part of the body.
PRAYER.
113
of rak'ats, either one, three, five or seven, said
after the night prayer. These divisions of
prayer are entirely distinct from each other.
They each begin afresh with the Niyyat. The
worshippers may rest for awhile between them,
but not converse on worldly subjects. The
Wahhabis think it correct to say the Sunnat
prayers in their houses and only the Farz
prayers in the mosque.*
In order that our readers may be able to
judge of the mechanism of this Muhammadan
performance of prayer, we annex a time-table
of the Muslim's common prayer, showing the
number of rak'ats or forms; from which it will
be seen what is required of a pious Muham-
madan. The five times of prayer are enjoined
in the Qurán, the other three periods of prayer
are voluntary. (See next page.)
Upon reference to the form of prayer, or
rak'ats, which we have given, and which admits
* Mr. Palgrave, in his "Central and Eastern Arabia,”
states that he observed that the Wahhabis were careless as
to the legal ablutions. Perhaps he was not aware that
the worshippers had performed the ablutions, and had
said the Sunnat rak'ats privately before they came into the
mosque.
I
14
114
PRAYER.

WHICH ARE VOLUNTARY, THE FIVE PERIODS OF PRAYER.
THREE PERIODS
THE NAMES FOR THE TIME OF PRAYER.
THE NUMBER OF RAK'ATS SAID.
No.
Time.
Arabic.
Persian.
Hindustani.
Pushto.
Sunnat which
are optional.
Sunnat before
Farz.
Farz.
Sunnat after
Farz.
Nafl.
Witr.
1
From dawn to sun- Sulát-ul-
Namáz-i- Fajr-ki-
da-Sahár-
2
2
:
:
rise.
Fajr.
01
When the sun has
begun to decline.
Sulát-ul-
Subh.
Namáz-i-
Namáz. nmuz.
Zohar-ki-
da-Máspe-
4
4
2
2
01
Zuhr.
Peshín.
Namáu. khín-nmuz.
3 Mid-way between
Sulát-ul-
Namáz-i-
'Asur-ki-
da-Mázi- 4
4
...
...
No. 2 and No. 4.
'Asar.
Dígar.
Namáz.
gar-nmuz.
4
A few minutes after | Sulát-ul-
10
5
sun-set.
When the night has Sulát-ul-
closed in.
Maghrib.
Namáz-i-
Shám.
Maghrib
da-Mákh-
3
2
2
...
...
:
'Ishaa.
ki-Namáz. ám-nmuz.
Namáz-i- 'Aysha-kí- da-Maz- 4
Khuftan. Namáz. khuftan-
4 2 2 7
nmuz.
1
When the sun has Sulát-ul-
Namáz-i-
Ishraq-kí- da- Ishráq-
...
2
well risen.
Ishráq.
About 11 o'clock A.M. Sulát-ul-
Zuha.
3
After mid-night.
Ishráq.
Namáz-i-
Chást.
Sulát-ul- Namaz-i- Tahajud-da-Shpe-
Tahajud. Tahajud. kí-Namáz. nmuz.
Namáz.
nmuz.
Zoha-kí-
da-Ghar-
Namáz.
mí-nmuz.
:
:
...
:
8
9
30
:
PRAYER.
115
of no change or variation, whether used for the
"time of travelling," in the "time of danger,"
or in the “time of need," it will be seen that
notwithstanding the beauty of its devotional
language, it is simply a superstitious rite,
having nothing in common with the Christian
idea of prayer.
The devotions of Islám are essentially "vain
repetitions," for they must be said in the
Arabic language, and admit of no change or
variety. The effect of such a constant round
of devotional forms, which are but the service
of the lips, on the vast majority of Muham-
madans, can be easily imagined. We believe
that the absence of anything like true devotion
from these services accounts for the fact that
religion and true piety stand so far apart in
the practice of Islám.
In addition to the daily prayers, the following
are special services for special occasions :
Sulát-ul-Juma'.-"The Friday Prayer." It
consists of two rak'ats after the daily meridian
prayer.
Sulát-ul-Musáfir.--"Prayers for a traveller.”
I 2
116
PRAYER.
Two rak'ats instead of the usual number at the
meridian, afternoon, and night prayers.
Said in time of war.
Sulát-ul-Khauf.-"The prayers of fear."
They are two rak'ats
recited first by one regiment or company and
then by the other.
Sulát-ul-Taráwih.-Twenty rak'ats recited
every evening during the Ramazán, immediately
after the fifth daily prayer.
Sulát-ul-Istikhara.-Prayers for success or
guidance. The person who is about to un-
dertake any special business, performs two
rak'at prayers and then goes to sleep. During
his slumbers he may expect to have "ilhám,"
or inspiration, as to the undertaking for which
he seeks guidance!
Sulát-ul-Khasúf.—Two rak'ats said at the
time of an eclipse of the moon.
Sulát-ul-Kusúf.-Two rak'ats said at the
time of an eclipse of the sun.
The Azán, is the summons to prayer pro-
claimed by the Muazzin, or crier, in small
mosques from the door or side, but in large
mosques it ought to be given from the minaret
(manárat). The following is a translation,
PRAYER.
117
"God is great! God is great! God is great!
God is great! I bear witness that there is no
God but God! (repeated twice) I bear witness
that Muhammad is the Apostle of God! (re-
peated twice) Come to prayers! Come to
prayers! Come to salvation! Come to salva-
tion ! *
God is great!
There is no other
God but God ! " +
In the early morning the following sentence
is added: "Prayers are better than sleep."
The summons to prayer was, at first, the
simple cry,
"Come to prayer." Bingham tells
us that a similar custom existed at Jerusalem
(vide Antiquities, vol. ii. p. 489): "In the mo-
nastry of virgins which Paula, the famous
Roman lady, set up, and governed at Jerusalem
the signal was given by one going about and
singing halleluja, for that was their call to
church, as St. Jerome informs us."
The Iqamat (lit. "causing to stand") is a
recitation at the commencement of prayers in a
congregation, after the worshippers have taken
* The Shía'hs add, "Come to good works!"
The Shía'hs recite the last sentence twice.
118
PRAYER.
up their position. It is exactly the same as
the Azán, with the addition of the words,
prayers are now ready."
66
The Iqámat of the Shafia' and the Wahhabis
is just half the length of that of the Hanifis.
119
XX.-RAMAZAN, OR THE MONTH OF
FASTING.
*
THE Ramazán is the ninth month of the Mu-
hammadan year, which is observed as a strict
fast from the dawn of day to sunset of each
day in the month. The excellence of this
month was much extolled by Muhammad, who
said that during Ramazán "the gates of Para-
dise are open, and the gates of hell are shut,
and the devils are chained by the leg"; and
that "only those who observe it will be per-
mitted to enter by the gate of heaven called
Rayyán." Those who keep the fast "will be
pardoned all their past venial sins."
In the
* The word Ramazán is derived from Ramz, to burn.
The month is said to have been so called either because it
used (before the change of the calendar) to occur in the
hot season, or because the month's fast is supposed to
burn away the sins of men. (See Ghyás-ul-Loghát.)
❖ Mishkát-ul-Musábih, bk. vii. chap. i. sect. 1.
120
RAMAZAN, OR THE MONTH OF FASTING.
month of Ramazán, Muhammad said, the Qurán
began to be revealed from heaven.*
The fast does not commence until some Mu-
salman is able to state that he has seen the
new moon. If the sky be overclouded and
the moon cannot be seen, the fast begins upon.
the completion of thirty days from the begin-
ning of the previous month.
The Ramazán must be kept by every Mu-
salman, except the sick, the infirm, and preg-
nant women, or women who are nursing their
children. Young children, who have not reached
the age of puberty, are exempt, and also tra-
vellers on a journey. In the case of a sick
person or a traveller, the month's fast must
be kept as soon as they are able to perform
it. This is called Qazá, or expiation.
The fast is extremely rigorous and mortify-
ing, and when the Ramazán happens to fall
in the summer and the days are long, the
prohibition even to drink a drop of water to
slake the thirst is a very great hardship. Mu-
hammad speaks of this religious exercise as
easy,"† as most probably it was when com-
66
* Qurán, Surat-i-Baqr, verse 181.
† Ibid.
RAMAZAN, OR THE MONTH OF FASTING.
121
pared with the ascetic spirit of the times. Sir
William Muir* thinks Muhammad did not
foresee that, when he changed the Jewish in-
tercalary year for the lunar year, that the fast
would become a grievous burden instead of an
easy one; but Muhammadan lexicographers
say, the fast was established when the month
occurred in the hot season (see note, p. 119).
During the month of Ramazán twenty ad-
ditional rak'ats, or forms of prayer, are re-
peated after the night prayer. These are
called Tarawih.
Devout Muslims seclude themselves for some
time in the Mosque during this month, and
abstain from all worldly conversation and en-
gage themselves in the reading of the Qurán.
This seclusion is called 'Itiqáf. Muhammad
is said to have usually observed this custom
for the last ten days of Ramazán.
The Laylut-ul-Qadr, or the "night of power,"
is said by Muhammad to be either on the
twenty-first, twenty-third, or twenty-fifth, or
twenty-seventh, or twenty-ninth. The exact
date of this solemn night has not been dis-
* Life of Mahomet, iii. p. 49.
122
RAMAZAN, OR THE MONTH OF FASTING.
covered by any but the Prophet himself, and
some of the Companions, although the learned
doctors believe it to be on the twenty-seventh.
Of this night Muhammad says in the Qurán
(Surat-ul-Qadr):-
"Verily we have caused it (the Qurán) to
descend on the night of power.
"And who shall teach thee what the night
of power is?
"The night of power excelleth a thousand
months;
"Therein descend the angels and the spirit
by permission
"Of their Lord in every matter ;
"And all is peace till the breaking of the
morn."
By these verses commentators * understand
that on this night the Qurán came down en-
tire in one volume to the lowest heaven, from
whence it was revealed by Gabriel in portions
as the occasion required. The excellences of
this night are said to be innumerable, and it is
believed that during it the whole animal and
vegetable kingdom bow in humble adoration
*Tafsir-i-Hoseini.
RAMAZAN, OR THE MONTH OF FASTING.
123
to the Almighty, and the waters of the sea
become sweet in a moment of time! This
night is frequently confounded with the Shab-
i-Barát; but even the Qu rán itself does not
appear to be quite clear on the subject, for
in the Surat-i-Dukhán we read, "By this clear
book. See, on a blessed night have we sent it
down, for we would warn mankind, on the
night wherein all things are disposed in wis-
dom." In which it appears that the blessed
night, or the Laylut-ul-Mubarak, is both the
night of record and the night upon which the
Qurán came down from heaven, although the
one is supposed to be the twenty-seventh day
of Ramazán, and the other the fifteenth of
Shabán.
M. Geiger indentifies the Ramazán with the
fast of the tenth (Leviticus xxiii. 27); it is,
however, far more likely that the fast of the
Tenth is identical with the 'Id-i-Ashura, not
only because the Hebrew 'Asúr, ten, is retained
in the title of that Muhammadan fast; but
also because there is a Jewish tradition (vide
Adam Clark), that creation began upon the
* By Lane, in his "Egyptians," and by other writers.
124
RAMAZAN, OR THE MONTH OF FASTING.
Jewish fast of the Tenth, which coincides with
the Muhammadan day 'Ashura, being regarded
as the day of creation. Moreover, the Jewish
'Asur and the Muslim 'Ashura are both fasts
and days of affliction. It is far more probable
that Muhammad got his idea of a thirty days'
fast from the Christian Lent. The observance
of Lent in the Eastern Church was exceedingly
strict both with regard to the nights as well
as the days of that season of abstinence; but
Muhammad entirely relaxed the rules with
regard to the night, and from sunset till the
dawn of day the Muslim is permitted to indulge
in any lawful pleasures and to feast with his
friends; consequently large evening dinner-
parties are usual in the nights of the Ramazán
amongst the better classes. This would be
what Muhammad meant when he said, "God
would make the fast an ease and not a diffi-
culty," for notwithstanding its rigour in the
day-time, it must be an easier observance than
the strict fast observed during Lent by the
Eastern Christians of Muhammad's day.
125
XXI.—ZAKÁT, OR LEGAL ALMS-
GIVING.
ZAKAT (lit. "purification"), the legal alms,
or poor rate, is the fourth of the five founda-
tions of practice. Zakát should be given an-
nually of five descriptions of property, provided
they have been in possession a whole year;
namely, money, cattle, grain, fruit, and mer-
chandise. There are several minor differences
amongst the various sects as to the precise
explanation of the law with reference to these
legal alms; but the following are the general
rules observed by Sunni Musulmáns :—
(1.) Money. If he is a Sahib-i-Nissáb (i. e.
one who has had forty rupees in his possession
for a year), he must give alms at the rate of
one rupee in every forty, or two and a half
per cent.
(2.) Cattle. Should his property consist of
sheep or goats, he is not obliged to give alms
126
ZAKAT, OR LEGAL ALMSGIVING.
until they amount to forty in number. He
must then give one for one hundred and
twenty, and two for the next eighty, and then
one for every hundred afterwards. For camels
the following is the rate:-from 5 to 24, one
sheep or goat; from 25 to 35, one yearling
female (bint-i-mukház) camel; from 36 to 45,
one two-year old female (bint-i-labún) camel;
from 46 to 60, one three-year old female
(hiqqah) camel; from 61 to 75, one four-year
old female (jaz'ah) camel; from 76 to 90, two
two-year old female camels; from 91 to 120,
two three-year old female camels; and from
121 and upwards, either a two-year old female
camel for every forty, or a three-year old
female camel for every fifty.
For cows or bulls:-If 30 cows, a one-year
old female calf; if 40, a two-year old female
calf, and so on, a one-year old female calf for
every 10.
Alms for buffaloes are the same as for sheep.
For horses, either the same rate as for
camels, or two rupees eight annas for every
horse whose value exceeds one hundred rupees.
Animals used for riding, and beasts of burden,
are exempt.
ZAKAT, OR LEGAL ALMSGIVING.
127
3.) Fruits. For fruits watered by rain a
tenth is given; but if irrigated, then a twen-
tieth part.
(4.) Grain. The same rates as for fruits.
(5.) Merchandise. For the capital, as well
as for the profits, Zakát is given at the rate of
one in forty, provided the owner be a Sáhib-i-
nissáb. For gold bullion, half a misqál (=67
grains) is given for every 20 misqál weight.
For silver bullion at the rate of 23 per cent.
For whatever is found in mines, if over 240
dirhams in weight (=2lbs. 2oz. 2dr.), a fifth
is required; and if the money be laid out in
merchandise, alms are to be given on the
profits.
Wood and pearls are exempt, and also cloth-
ing; but not jewels.
The following are the classes of persons on
whom it is lawful to bestow the Zakát:-
1. Such pilgrims to Mecca as have not the
means of defraying the expenses of the journey.
2. Religious mendicants.
3. Debtors who cannot discharge their debts.
4. Beggars.
5. Poor travellers.
128
ZAKAT, OR LEGAL ALMSGIVING.
6. Proselytes to Muhammadanism.
The Zakát, or legal alms, must be distin-
guished from the Sadaqa, or offerings, which
is a term more especially applied to the offer-
ings on the 'Id-ul-Fitr (q.v.) although it is
used for almsgiving in general.
As far as we have been able to ascertain,
it does not appear that the Muhammadans of
the present day are very regular in the pay-
ment of the Zakát, which ought to be given
on the termination of a year's possession. In
countries under Muhammadan rule it is ex-
acted by Government.
It is somewhat remarkable that Muhammad
in his institution of legal almsgiving did not
more closely copy the Jewish law in the giving
of the "tenths," more particularly as the
number ten appears to have been so frequently
preferred as a number of selection in the cases
of offerings in both sacred and secular history.
The Muhammadan Zokát, however, differs very
materially from the Jewish tithe; for the latter
was given to the Levites of the Temple, and
employed by them for their own support and
for that of the priests, as well as for festival
ZAKAT, OR LEGAL ALMSGIVING.
129
purposes. The Muhammadan priesthood are
supported by grants of land,* and offerings at
the time of harvest, and are not permitted to
take any of the Zakát. Moreover, the descen-
dants of the "Prophet" are not allowed to
accept of either Zakát or Sadaqa, because
they are of the Prophet's own blood and
not to be included in the indigent."
66
Whatever may be the weak points in Mu-
hammadanism, all candid observers, acquainted
with the condition of Muhammadan nations,
must admit that its provision for the poor is
highly commendable. As we have journeyed
from village to village amongst the Afghans,
we have been frequently struck with the ab-
sence of great poverty; and even in our large
cities, where Muhammadan beggars are numer-
ous, it must be remembered that they are
either religious mendicants or professional beg-
gars, and for the most part quite unworthy of
charitable relief.
* Land, or any property appropriated for religious or
charitable purposes, is called waqaf.
K
130
XXII.—HAJJ, OR PILGRIMAGE TO
MECCA.*
HAJJ, or Pilgrimage to Mecca, is the fifth of
the five foundations of practice. It is said, by
Muhammad, to be of Divine institution, and
has the authority of the Qurán for its obser-
vance. Its performance is incumbent upon
those men and women who have sufficient
means to meet the expenses of the journey,
* Only three Englishmen are known to have visited
Mecca, and to have witnessed the ceremonies of the Pil-
grimage --Joseph Pitts, of Exeter, A.D. 1678; John Lewis
Burckhardt, A.D. 1814; Lieut. Richard Burton, of the
Bombay Army, A.D. 1853. The narratives of each of these
"pilgrims" have been published. The first account in
English of the visit of a European to Mecca, is that of
Lodovico Bartema, a gentleman of Rome, who visited
Mecca in 1503. His narrative was published in Willes
and Eden's Decades, A.D. 1555.
† Vide Qurán, Sura xxii. 28.
HAJJ, OR PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA.
131
and to maintain their families at home during
their absence.
The ceremonies observed on this occasion
are so ridiculous that they do more to reveal
the imposture of Muhammad than any other
part of his system. They are, even by the con-
fession of Muhammadans themselves, the re-
licts of the idolatrous superstitions of ancient
Arabia; and they are either evidences of the
dark and superstitious character of Muham-
mad's mind, or, what is perhaps even more
probable, they show how far the "Prophet"
found it suit his purpose to compromise with
the heathen Arabians of his day. The merits
of the pilgrimage are so great, that every step
taken in the direction of the K'aba blots out
a sin; and he who dies on his way to Mecca is
enrolled on the list of martyrs.
However ingeniously the apologists of Islám
may offer excuses for some of the weak points
of Muhammad's religious system, and endeavour
to shield the "Prophet of Arabia" from the
grave and solemn charge of having "forged
the name of God," the pilgrimage to Mecca
can admit of no satisfactory solution. In its
institution the false prophet layeth open his
K 2
132
HAJJ, OR PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA.
own folly, for in the ridiculous ceremonies of
the Hajj, we see the law-giver, whose professed
mission it was to uproot the idolatry of Arabia,
giving one of its superstitious customs the
authority of a Divine enactment. The pilgrim-
age to Mecca is one of the numerous inconsis-
tencies of Muhammad's pretended revelation.
The following is the orthodox way of per-
forming the pilgrimage, founded upon the ex-
ample of the Prophet " himself.
66
*
Upon the pilgrim's arrival at the last stage
near Mecca, he bathes himself, and performs
two rak'at prayers, and then divesting himself
of his clothes, he assumes the pilgrim's sacred
robe, which is called Ihrám. This garment
consists of two seamless wrappers, one being
wrapped round the waist, and the other thrown
loosely over the shoulder, the head being left
uncovered. Sandals may also be worn, but
not shoes or boots. After he has assumed the
pilgrim's garb, he must not anoint his head,
shave any part of his body, pare his nails, nor
* These are six in number, and are situated about five
or six miles from Mecca in different directions. They are
called Miqát.
HAJJ, OR PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA.
133
wear any other garment than the Thrám. Im-
mediately on his arrival at Mecca he performs
the legal ablutions, and proceeds to the Musjid-
ul-Harám, or Sacred Mosque, and kisses the
Hajr-ul-aswad, or the black stone, and then
encompasses the K'aba* seven times. This act,
which is called Tawáf, is performed by com-
mencing on the right and leaving the K'aba on
the left. The circuits are made thrice with a
quick step or run, and four times at a slow
pace. He then proceeds to the Maqám-i-
Ibrahim (the place of the prophet Abraham
and performs two rak'at prayers, after which
he turns to the black stone and kisses it.
He then goes to the gate of the temple leading
to Mount Safá, and from it ascends the hill and
* Some confusion exists in the minds of English authors
with regard to the word K'aba. The Temple or Mosque
at Mecca is called Musjid-ul-Harám (the sacred Mosque),
or Bait-ullah (the house of God). The K'aba (lit. a cube)
is the square stone building in the centre, containing the
black stone. And the Hajr-ul-aswad is the black stone
itself, which Muslims say was originally white, but became
black by reason of men's sins.
+ Sharastani informs us, that there was an opinion pre-
valent amongst the Arabs that the walking round the
K'aba, and other ceremonies, were symbolic of the motion
of the planets, and of other astronomical facts. (Rodwell.)
134
HAJJ, OR PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA.
runs from the summit of Mount Safá to that of
Mount Marwah seven times! On the top of
the hill he remains for a few moments, and
raising his hand heavenwards supplicates the
Almighty.
On the eighth day, which is called Tarwiah
he unites with his fellow-pilgrims at Miná in
the usual services of the Muslim ritual, and
stays the night.
After morning prayer he rushes to Mount
'Arifát, where, having said two rak'at prayers
with the Imám and heard the Khutbah (or
oration), he remains until sunset. He then
proceeds to Muzdalifah, and having said the
sunset and night prayers, he stays the night at
that place.
The next morning, which is the 'Id-ul-Azhá,
or great feast, he comes to three places in Miná,
marked by three pillars called Jamra. At each
of these pillars he picks up seven small stones,
or pebbles, and having said some particular
prayer over each pebble and blown upon it, he
throws it at one of the pillars. This ceremony
is called Rami-ul-Jamár, or the throwing of
pebbles.
He then proceeds to the place of sacrifice at
HAJJ, OR PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA.
135
Miná, and performs the usual sacrifice of the
'Id-ul-Azhá; after this sacrifice he gets him-
self shaved and his nails pared. The pilgrim
garb is then removed and the pilgrimage is
ended, although he should rest at Mecca the
three following days, which are called the Ay-
yám-ut-Tashriq, or the days of drying up the
blood of the sacrifice. These are three days
of well-earned rest after the vigorous peri-
patetic performances of the last four days.
The pilgrimage must be performed on three
days of the month of Zul Hijja, namely from
the seventh to the tenth; a visit to Mecca at
any other time has not the merit of a pil-
grimage.
Before he leaves Mecca the pilgrim should
once more perform the circuits round the
K'aba, and throw stones at the sacred pillars,
each seven times.
He then proceeds to Medina, and makes hist
salutations at the Shrine of Muhammad. The
Wahhabis do not perform the last act, as it is
contrary to their principles to visit shrines.
The Musulmán who has performed the pil-
grimage is called Hájí.
The K'aba is also called the Qibla, or the
136
HAJJ, OR PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA.
direction to which Muslims are
Muslims are to pray.
Mosques åre, therefore, always erected Qibla-
wards. At the commencement of Islám, the
Qibla was Jerusalem; but when Muhammad
failed to conciliate the Jews to his prophetic
pretensions, he made the K'aba the Qibla, or
the direction in which to pray.
The pilgrimage cannot be performed by
proxy, as some English authors have stated,
although it is considered a meritorious act to
pay the expenses of one who cannot afford to
perform it. But if a Muhammadan on his
death-bed bequeathed a sum of money to be
paid to a certain person to perform the pil-
grimage, it is considered to satisfy the claims of
the Muslim law. If a Muslim have the means
of performing the pilgrimage, and omit to do
so, its omission is equal to a kabira, or mortal
sin.
137
XXIII.-THE LAW.
MUHAMMADAN law consists of two divisions,
Rawá and Nárawá, i.e., Things lawful and
Things unlawful.
I. That which is lawful is divided into
five classes.
1. Farz.-That which has been enjoined in
the Qurán.
2. Wajib.-That of which there is some
doubt as to its Divine institution.
3. Sunnat.-The example of Muhammad,
which consists of three kinds :-
Sunnat-i-F’ili.-That which Muhammad
himself did.
Sunnat-i-Qaulí.—That which Muhammad
said should be practised.
Sunnat-i-Taqrírí.—That which was done
in the presence of Muhammad and
which he did not forbid.
138
THE LAW.
4. Mustahab. — That
which Muhammad
sometimes did and sometimes omitted.
5. Mubáh. That which may be left unper-
formed without any fear of Divine punish-
ment.
II.-Things unlawful are of three classes :-
1. Harám.-That which is distinctly for-
bidden in the Qurán and Hadís.
2. Makrúh.—That of which there is some
doubt as to its unlawfulness, but which is
generally held to be unclean or unlawful.
3. Mufsid. That which is corrupting and
pernicious.
The divisions of lawful and unlawful do not
merely apply to food, but also to ablutions and
other customs and precepts.
139
XXIV. SIN.
THE Muhammadan doctors divide sins into two
classes, very much as the Roman Catholic
divines do; the usual Roman designation
being that of mortal and venial sin, whilst
Muhammadans use the expressions Kabira and
Saghira, "Great" and "Little." Kabira are
those great sins, of which, if a Musalman do
not repent, he will go to the purgatorial hell
reserved for sinful Muslims. The divines of
Islám are not agreed amongst themselves as to
the exact number of Kabíra sins, but they are
generally considered to be seventeen (vide
Fawáid-us-Shari'at).
1. Kufr, or infidelity.
2. Constantly committing Saghira, or little
sins.
3. Despairing of the mercy of God.
4. Considering one's self safe from the wrath
of God.
140
SIN.
5. False witness.
6. Qazaf, or falsely charging a Musulman
with adultery.
7. Taking a false oath.
8. Magic.
9. Drinking wine.
10. Appropriation of the property of or-
phans.
11. Usury.
12. Adultery.
13. Unnatural crimes.
14. Theft.
15. Murder.
16. Fleeing in battle before the face of an
infidel.
17. Disobedience to parents.
141
XXV.-PUNISHMENT.
PUNISHMENT is divided into three classes:-
Hadd, T''azir, and Qisás.
1. Hadd is that punishment which is said
to have been ordained of God in the Qurán
and the Hadís, and which must be inflicted.
The following belong to this class :-Adultery,
for which the adulterer is stoned. Fornication,
for which one hundred stripes are inflicted.
Drunkenness, for which there are eighty stripes.
The slander of a married person, that is, bring-
ing a false charge of adultery against a married
person, for which the offender must receive
eighty lashes. This punishment is said to
have been instituted by God, when 'A'yesha,
the favourite wife of "the Prophet," was
falsely charged with adultery! Apostacy, for
which the Murtadd, or Apostate, is killed,
unless he repent of his error within three days.
When an Apostate from Islám has been killed
according to the law, or has left the country,
142
PUNISHMENT.
his property goes to those of his heirs who
still remain Musulmáns (vide the " Al Sira-
jiyah ").
2. T'azir is that punishment which is said
to have been ordained of God, but of which
there are not special injunctions, the exact
punishment being left to the discretion of the
Qází, or Judge.
3. Qisás (lit. "retaliation") is that punish-
ment which can be remitted by the person
offended against, upon the payment of a fine or
compensation. The punishment for murder is
of this class. The next akin to the murdered
person can either take the life of his kinsman's
murderer, or accept a money compensation
(Diat). There is also retaliation in case of
wounds. Qisás is the lex talionis of Moses,
CC
eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand,
foot for foot, burning for burning, wound for
wound, stripe for stripe" (vide Exodus xxi.
24). But in allowing a money compensation
for murder, Muhammad departed from the
Jewish code.
143
XXVI.-LAWFUL FOOD.
No animal is lawful food unless it be slaugh-
tered according to the Muhammadan law,
namely, by drawing the knife across the throat
and cutting the windpipe, the carotid arteries,
and the gullet, repeating at the same time the
words "Bismillah Allaho Akbar," i. e.
" In
the name of the great God." A clean animal,
so slaughtered, becomes lawful food for Mus-
lims, whether slaughtered by Jews, Christians,
or Muhammadans.
In the "Sharah Waqaia" it is said that the
following creatures are lawful (halál):-
1. Those animals that are cloven-footed and
chew the cud, and are not beasts of
prey.
2. Birds that do not seize their prey with
their claws, or wound them with their bills,
but pick up food with their bills.
3. Fish; but no other animals which move
in the water.
144
LAWFUL FOOD.
4. Locusts.
Some commentators say that the horse is
lawful; but it is generally held to be "mak-
rúh."
Fish found dead in the water is unlawful;
but if it be taken out and die afterwards it is
lawful.
Alligators, turtles, crabs, snakes, frogs, etc.,
are unlawful. Wine is expressly forbidden in
the Qurán; and, in the judgment of the learned,
this prohibition extends to whatever has a ten-
dency to intoxicate, such as opium, bhang,
chars,* and tobacco. The Akhund of Swat †
has issued several "fatwáhs," prohibiting the
use of tobacco; but the chilam (or pipe), having
become a national institution, no notice has
been taken of the inhibition. The Wahhabis
do not permit its use. In Trans-Indus terri-
tory, the hukka, or chilam, is never allowed
in a mosque.
* Bhang and Chars are intoxicating preparations of
hemp.
+ The Akhund of Swát is a great religious leader
amongst the Muhammadans of North India and Central
Asia. He resides at Seydú, in Swát, about twenty miles
beyond the British frontier.
LAWFUL FOOD.
145
From what we have written, it will be seen
that a Muslim can have no religious scruples
to eat with a Christian, as long as the food
eaten is of a lawful kind. Sayyid Ahmad
Khán Bahádur, C.S.I., has written a treatise
proving that Muhammadans can eat with the
Ahl-i-Kitáb, namely, Jews or Christians. The
Muhammadans of India, whilst they will eat
food cooked by idolatrous Hindus, refuse to
touch that cooked either by Native or Euro-
pean Christians; and they often refuse to allow
Christians to draw water from the public wells,
although Hindus are permitted to do so. Such
objections arise solely from jealousy of race,
and an unfriendly feeling towards the ruling
power. In Afghanistan and Persia, no such
objections exist; and no doubt much evil has
been caused by Government allowing Hindu-
stani Musulmans to create a religious custom
which has no foundation whatever, except that
of national hatred to their English conquerors.
L
146
XXVII.-FARZ-I-KAFÁÍ.
FARZ-I-KAFA'I' are those commands which are
imperative (farz); but which, if one person in
eight or ten perform, it is equivalent to all
having performed it.
1. To return a salutation.
2. To visit the sick, and inquire after their
welfare.
3. To follow a bier on foot to the grave.
4. To accept an invitation.
5. To reply to a sneeze, e. g. if a person
sneeze, and say immediately afterwards, "God
be praised" (Alhamdo lillah), it is incumbent
upon at least one of the party to exclaim,
"God have mercy on you" (Yarhamuk Allah).
There is an interesting chapter on the
custom of saluting after sneezing in Isaac
D'Israeli's "Curiosities of Literature," from
which it appears that it is almost universal
amongst nations.
147
XXVIII.-FITRAT.
FITRAT (lit. "nature") is said to be certain
ancient practices of the prophets before the
time of Muhammad, which have not been for-
bidden by him.
In the Hadís "Muslim," the customs of
fitrat are said to be ten in number.
1. The clipping of the mustachios, so that
they do not enter the mouth.
2. Not cutting or shaving the beard.
3. Cleaning the teeth (i. e. miswák).
4. Cleansing the nostrils with water at the
usual ablutions.
5. Cutting the nails.
6. Cleaning the finger-joints.
7. Pulling out the hairs under the arms.
8.
9.
10. Cleansing the mouth with water at the
time of ablution.
L 2
148
XXIX.-SALUTATIONS.
THE usual Muhammadan salutation is "as
salámu 'alekam," i.e. "The peace of God be
with you."
When a person makes a "salám," and any
of the assembly rise and return it, it is con-
sidered sufficient for the whole company.
The lesser number should always be the first
to salute the greater; he who rides should
salute him who walks; he who walks, him who
stands; the stander, the sitter, etc.
A man
should not salute a woman on the road; and
it is considered very disrespectful to salute with
the left hand, that hand being used for legal
ablutions.
The ordinary salute is made by raising the
right hand either to the breast or to the fore-
head.
In Central Asia the salutation is generally
given without any motion of the hand or body.
SALUTATIONS.
149
Pupils salute their masters by kissing the
hand or sleeve, which is the usual salutation
made to men of eminent piety.
Homage is paid by kissing the feet of the
ruler, or by kissing the ground or carpet.
In Afghanistan, conquered people pay hom-
age by casting their turbans at the feet of the
conqueror; and the heads of tribes often lessen
the size of their turbans before appearing in
the presence of their rulers.
150
XXX.—THE CALIPH.
THE Caliph, or Khalifa (i. e. the vicegerent of
the Prophet), is the sovereign dignity amongst
Muhammadans, vested with absolute power.
The word more frequently used for the office
in Muhammadan works of jurisprudence is
Imám (leader), or Imám-ul-'Azam (the great
leader). It is held to be an essential principle
in the establishment of the office, that there
shall be only one Caliph at the same time;
for the Prophet said:--"When two Caliphs
have been set up, put the last to death and
preserve the second, for the last is a rebel
(vide Mishkát, bk. xvi. chap. i.). According to
all Sunní Muhammadan books, it is absolutely
necessary that the Caliph be "a man, an adult,
a sane person, a free man, a learned divine, a
powerful ruler, a just person, and one of the
Quraish (i. e. of the tribe to which the
Prophet himself belonged). The Shía'hs, of
""
THE CALIPH.
151
course, hold that he should be one of the
descendants of the Prophet's own family; but
this is rejected by the Sunnis and Wahhabis.
The condition that the Caliph should be of the
Quraish, is very important; for thereby the
present Ottoman Sultans fail to establish their
claims to the Caliphate.
After the deaths of the first five Caliphs,-
Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán, Ali, and Hasan,-
the Caliphate, which is allowed by all parties
to be elective, and not hereditary, passed suc-
cessively to the Ommiades and Abbasides.
The temporal power of the Abbaside Caliphs
was overthrown by Houlakon Khan, son of the
celebrated Jengiz Khán, A.D. 1258; but, for
three centuries, the descendants of the Abba-
side, or Bagdad, Caliphs resided in Egypt, and
asserted their claim to the spiritual power.
The founder of the present dynasty of
Ottoman Sultans was Osman, the son of a
tribe of Oghouz Turks, a powerful chief,
whose descendant, Bażazet I., is said to have
obtained the title of Sultán from one of the
Abbaside Caliphs in Egypt, A.D. 1389. When
Selim I. conquered Egypt (A.D. 1516), it is
asserted that he obtained a transfer of the title
152
THE CALIPH.
3
of Caliph to himself from one of the successors
of the old Bagdad Caliphs. It is, however, a
mere assertion; for the title and office being
elective, and not hereditary, it was not in the
power of any Caliph to transfer it to another.
Force of circumstances alone has compelled
the ruler of the Ottoman Empire to assume
the position, and has induced his subjects to
acquiesce in the usurpation. We have not
seen a single work of authority, nor met with
a single man of learning, who has ever at-
tempted to prove that the Sultans of Turkey
are rightful Caliphs; for the assumption of the
title by any one who is not of the Quraish tribe
is undoubtedly illegal and heretical, as will be
seen from the following authorities:-
(Mishkát-ul-Musábih, bk. xxiv. chap xii.)
"Ibn-i-Umr relates that the Prophet of God
said: The Caliphs shall be in the Quraish
tribe as long as there are two persons in it,
one to rule and another to serve.'
(Sharh-ul-Muwágif, p. 606. Arabic Edition.
Egypt.)
"It is a condition that the Caliph (Imám)
be of the Quraish tribe. All admit this, except
the Khawarij and certain Mutazilahs. We all
THE CALIPH.
153
C
say with the Prophet: Let the Caliph be of
the Quraish'; and it is certain that the Com-
panions acted upon this injunction, for Abu
Bakr urged it as an authority upon the Ansárs,
on the day of Sakhifah, when the Companions
were present and agreed. It is, therefore, for
a certainty established that the Caliph must be
of the Quraish."
(The Hujjat-Ullah-al-Bálaghah, p. 335.
Arabic Edition. Delhi.)
"It is a necessary condition that the Caliph
(Imám) be of the Quraish tribe."
(The Kashháf-i-Istaláhat. A Dictionary of
Technical Terms. Edited by Colonel N.
Lees, in loco.)
The Caliph (Imám) must be a Quraish."
It is a matter of history that the Wahhábis
regarded the Turkish Sultan as a usurper when
Sana took Mecca and Medina in 1804; and to
the present day, in countries not under Turkish
rule, the Khutbah is recited in behalf of the
Amír, or ruler of the Muslim state, instead of
the Ottoman Sultan, which would not be the
case if he were acknowledged as a lawful
Caliph. In a collection of Khutbahs, entitled
the Majmua' Khutbah, the name of the Sultan
154
THE CALIPH.
does not once occur, although this collection
is much used in Muhammadan states.
We
have seen it stated that the Sultan is prayed
for in Hyderabad and Bengal ; but, we believe,
it will be found, upon careful inquiry, that he
was not mentioned by name, until very recently,
in any of the mosques of India. Khutbah in
which there are prayers for the Ottoman Sultan
by name, have been imported from Constanti-
nople; but, whoever may be the rightful Caliph,
it is certain that, according to law, the only
sovereign who can be prayed for in an Indian
mosque, is “
"Alexandrina Victoria, Empress of
India" (Qaisár-i-Hind); for all Muhammadans
admit that the Friday Khutbah cannot be re-
cited without the permission of the ruler.
155
XXXI.-MUHAMMADAN CLERGY,
SCHOLARS, AND SAINTS.
THE Muslims have no hereditary priestly caste
as the Hindus, nor have they a distinct order
of clergy exactly corresponding with those of
the Christian Church. But still there is a
powerful hierarchy possessed of great political
and religious influence, which resembles the
Jewish Scribes and Lawyers.
In countries under Muhammadan rule the
religious dignitaries are appointed by the king,
who is properly the highest spiritual authority
in the kingdom. The Shekh-ul-Islám at
Constantinople unites in himself the functions
of the Primate and Lord Chancellor.
The following are the chief religious func-
tionaries, in a state governed according to
Muhammadan law.
Qází.-The minister of justice, who passes
156
MUHAMMADAN CLERGY, ETC.
sentence in all cases of law; religious, moral
civil, or criminal.
Mufti.-The law officer who expounds the
law, and in difficult cases supplies the Qází with
fatwas or decisions.
""
There are still persons in India bearing the
titles of Qází and Mufti, but the offices have
ceased to exist under British Government.
The Indian law, however, permits civil cases
being decided by Muhammadan divines, if both
parties consent to the arrangement.
Imám.-The Arabic word Imám is said, by
Sale, to answer to the Latin antistes, the pre-
sident of the temple. It is also used for the
four successors of Muhammad, the four great
doctors of the four orthodox sects, the twelve
great leaders of the Shía'hs, and for any great
religious leader. It is, however, commonly
used for the person who leads the daily prayer,
and is in receipt of the revenues of the mosque.
The titles of Qází, Muftí, and Imám may be
said to embrace the various appointments held
by Muhammadan divines; but there are also
numerous titles to denote doctors of Science
and Divinity.
Tabib. A doctor of medicine.
MUHAMMADAN, CLERGY, ETC.
157
Hakim. A doctor of philosophy, used also
for a doctor of medicine.
Muhaqqiq. A very learned doctor in one or
two sciences.
Maulawi, also Mullá. A doctor of divinity,
used for any person who has been educated in
the Muhammadan religion, and assumes the
office of teacher.
Faqih. A doctor of law.
Mutakallim. A doctor of theology.
Muhaddis. A doctor of the law of the
traditions.
Mufassir. One learned in the commentaries
on the Qurán.
Madarris. An academical doctor, i. e., one
educated in some school of reputation.
Doctors of Divinity are of three grades:
Maulaví, 'Alim (pl. 'Ulama), Mujtahid (pl. Muj-
tahidín). The title of Mujtahid is held by very
few Sunní Muhammadans, but is more common
amongst the Shía'hs.
In addition to these titles, which express the
degree of learning, there are others which
denote the piety and sanctity of the individual.
Pir and Walí are the common titles; but the
158
MUHAMMADAN CLERGY, ETC.
following express certain degrees of reputed
sanctity:-
'A'bid, one constantly engaged in the worship
of God.
Záhid, one who leads a life of asceticism.
The title of Faqir does not always denote one
who has renounced the possessions of the world,
but is applied to any one of a humble spirit,
one poor in the sight of God, rather than in
need of worldly assistance.
Qutbah and Ghaus, the highest orders of
sanctity. According to vulgar tradition, a
Ghaus is a saint whose ardour of devotion is
such, that in the act of worship his head and
limbs fall asunder! whilst a Qutbah is one
who is supposed to have attained to the state
of sanctity which reflects the heart of the
Prophet.
There are four titles of respect which
scarcely belong to either the religious or the
learned class, but are of more general use:-
Shekh, an appellation which literally signifies
an elder or aged person. It is a common title
of respect, and is almost synonymous with our
English “Mister." In Egypt and Arabia it
MUHAMMADAN CLERGY, ETC.
159
appears to be used for the Hindustani and
Persian Khán, or chief.
""
Miyán, (lit. "a master or "friend") gene-
rally used for the descendants of celebrated
saints, but also as a title of respect.
Sayyid, generally pronounced Syud (lit.
"lord"). For the descendants of Muham-
mad from his daughter Fatimah and her hus-
band 'Ali. The word Sayyid is often used as
part of a name, without reference to family
descent from the Prophet; as Sayyid Ahmad,
Sayyid Shah, &c.
Mír, also used for Sayyids, but not exclu-
sively.
160
XXXII.-THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.
MUHAMMADAN theological literature is very ex-
tensive, and in consequence of the cheapness
of lithographic printing, it is daily increasing.
The following are its chief divisions:-
(1.) Hadis.-Accounts of the precepts and
practice of Muhammad. The collectors of
Hadís may be numbered by hundreds, but the
chief authorities are the six books known as
the Siháh-i-Sita, or "six correct books." The
popular work on the subject amongst the
Sunnis of India being the Mishkát-ul-Musábih.
(See article on Traditions.)
(2.) Usúl (lit. "roots").-Treatises on the
rules and principles of the four foundations of
the Islám law, -being expositions of the exe-
gesis of the Qurán and Hadís, and the prin-
ciples of Ijma' and Qiás. The most popular
works on this subject are the Manár, by
THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.
161
Abdullah ibn Ahmad, A.H. 710, and the Talwi'
Tauzia', by 'Ubaid-Ullah ibn Mas'ud, A.H. 747.
(3.) 'Aqáid (lit. "creeds ").-Expositions of
scholastic theology, founded upon the six ar-
ticles of faith. The most celebrated exposition
of the Islám creed being that by Imám Ghazáli,
A.H. 505. In India the work most read is the
Sharah-i-'Aqáid, by Maulaví Mas'ud S'ad-ud-
dín Taftazáni, a.í. 792.
(4.) Fiqah.-Works on Muhammadan law,
whether civil or religious. The work most
read amongst Sunnis is the Hidayah, written
by a learned man named 'Ali, A.H. 593; part
of which has been translated by the late Colonel
Charles Hamilton. A smaller work, entitled
the Sharah Waqaiah, by Abdul Haqq, is also
much used.
(5.) Tafsir.-Commentaries on the Qurán.
These are very numerous, and contain very
many Jewish traditions of the most worthless
character. One of the latest and most learned
of these productions is said to be the short
commentary by Shah Wali Ullah of Delhi, who
died A.H. 1176.
The best known commentaries amongst the
Sunnis are Baizáwi (A.H. 685), Madárik (A.H.
M
162
THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.
701), Jalálain (A.H. 911), Baghawi (A.H. 515),
Mazhári (A.H. 1225), Hoseini (A.H. 900).
(6.) Siyar.-Ecclesiastical history, i.e., the
history of Muhammad and his successors. This
branch of literature, Sayyid Ahmad Khan of
Aligarh says, "is the one which requires the
most emendation."
The chief authorities on the life of Mu-
hammad and early days of Islám, in addition
to the Hadís, are Ibn Ishaq, Ibn Hishám,
Wáqidi, and Tabarí; whilst the most popular
histories amongst the Sunnis of India are the
Rawzat-ul-Ahbáb, by 'Ataa Ullah ibn Fazl
Ullah, A.H. 1000, and the Madárij-un-Nabuwat,
by Shekh Abdul Haqq, A.H. 1025.
In addition to his theologicial studies, the
Muhammadan student is instructed in Mantiq
(logic), Sarf (inflexion), and Nahw (syntax).
The text of a book is called Matan, the
marginal notes Hashiyah, and its commentary
Sharh.
163
XXXIII.-MUHARRAM AND 'ÁSHURÁA.
THE Muharram (lit. "that which is sacred ")
commences on the first of the month* of that
name, and is continued for ten days, the tenth
day being called 'Áshuráa. They are days of
matam, or lamentation, in commemoration of
the martyrdom of 'Ali, and of Hasan, and
* The twelve months of the Muhammad lunar year are
as follows:
1. Muharram.
2. Safar.
3. Rabí'-ul-awwal.
4. Rabi'-ul-ákhir.
5. Jamád-al-úlá.
6. Jamád-al-ukhrá.
7. Rajab.
8. Sh'abán.
9. Ramazán.
10. Shawwál.
11. Zul-Q'ada
12. Zul-Hijja.
The sacred month.
The month which is void.
The first of spring.
The last of spring.
The first dry month.
The last of spring.
The revered month.
The month of division.
The hot month.
The month for going forth (hunt-
ing).
The month of rest.
The month of pilgrimage.
M 2
164
MUHARRAM AND 'ASHURAA.
Husain,* as observed by the Shía'hs; but the
day 'Áshuraa (the tenth) is also held sacred by
the Sunnís, the observance of the month having
been enjoined by Muhammad on account of its
having been the month of creation.
The ceremonies of the Muharram differ much
in different places; but the following are the
main features of the festival as observed by
the Shía'hs. A place is prepared which is called
the 'Ashúr-khána (the ten-day house), or
Imám-Bára (the Imam place), in the centre of
which is dug a pit, in which fires are kindled,
and at night the people, young and old, fence
across the fire with sticks and swords, and
whilst dancing round it, call out, "Oh 'Ali!
noble Hasan! noble Husain! bridegroom! alas
friend! stay! stay!" etc.; the cry being re-
peated in the most excited manner hundreds of
times, until the whole assembly has reached the
highest pitch of excitement. They then form
*The Khalifa 'Ali was assassinated in the Mosque of
Cufa, A.D. 660. Hasan was poisoned by his wife, at the
instigation of Yazíd. Husain was slain, with three and
thirty strokes of lances and swords, A.D. 680. The story
of Husain is one of the most touching pages of Muslim
history.
MUHARRAM AND 'ASHURAA.
165
themselves in circles, and beat themselves with
chains in the most frantic manner. The women
repeat a funeral eulogium, and the Maulavís,
the Rowzat-us-Shuhádáa, or the Book of
Martyrs.
On the seventh day there are representations
of the marriage ceremony of Qasim, and of the
martyrdom of Husain; and on the eighth day
a lance or spear is carried about the city to
represent Husain's head, which was carried on
the point of a javelin by order of Yazíd. In
addition to these representations, there are the
Tázías, Tábúts, or biers, of the tombs of Hasan
and Husain, a horse-shoe in representation of
Husain's swift horse, and the standards of
Hasan, Husain, and Qásim, and other Muslim
celebrities.
The Sunní Muhammadans do not usually
take part in these ceremonies, but observe the
tenth day, 'Áshuráa, being the day on which
God is said to have created Adam and Eve,
heaven, hell, the tablet of decree, the pen, fate,
life, and death.
Muhammad commanded his followers to ob-
serve the 'Áshuráa by bathing, wearing new
166
MUHARRAM AND 'ASHURAA,
clothes, applying Surma* to the eyes, fasting,
prayers, making peace with one's enemies, as-
sociating with religious persons, relieving or-
phans, and giving of alms.
The fast of 'Ashuráa is a Sunnat fast, i. e.
not founded upon an injunction in the Qurán,
but upon the example of Muhammad.
* Surma is antimony or galena ground to a fine powder,
and applied to the eyelids to improve the brightness of
the eyes.
167
XXXIV.—ÁKHIRI CHAHÁR SHAMBA.*
ÁKHIRI CHAHA'R SHAMBA is the "last Wednes-
day" of the month of Safar, and is a feast held
in commemoration of Muhammad's having ex-
perienced some mitigation of his last illness
and having bathed. It was the last time he
performed the legal bathing, for he died on the
twelfth day of the next month. In some parts
of Islám it is customary, in the early morning
of this day, to write seven verses of the Qurán,
known as the Seven Saláms, and then wash off
the ink and drink it as a charm against evil.
The Akhiri Chahár Shamba is not observed
by the Wahhábís, not being enjoined in the
Quran and Hadís.
* The Persian name for the day; the Arabic being
Arb’áa-ul-Akhír, i.e. "the last Wednesday."
168
XXXV.—BÁRA WAFÁT.*
THE Bára Wafat (i.e. Bára, "twelve," and
Wafát, "death") is the twelfth day of the
month, Rabí-ul-Awwal. It is observed in com-
memoration of Muhammad's death.
On this day, Fatihahs (i.e. the first chapter
of the Quran), are said for Muhammad; and
both in private houses and in the mosques, the
learned recite portions of the Traditions and
other works in praise of the excellences of
Muhammad. These customs are usually ob-
served for the whole twelve days, although the
twelfth day is held most sacred.
The Wahhábís do not observe the Bára
Wafát, as its observance is not enjoined in the
Qurán or Hadís.
* The Hindustani name of the day, there being no
special title for the day in Persian or Arabic.
169
:
XXXVI.—SHAB-I-BARÁT.*
SHAB-I-BARA'T, the "night of record," is ob-
served on the fifteenth day of the month,
Sh'abán. It is the "Guy Fawkes Day" of
India, being the night for display of fireworks.
On this night, Muhammad said, God regis-
ters annually all the actions of mankind which
they are to perform during the year; and that
all the children of men, who are to be born and
to die in the year, are recorded. Muhammad
enjoined his followers to keep awake the whole
night, to repeat one hundred rak'at prayers,
and to fast the next day; but there are gene-
rally great rejoicings instead of a fast, and
large sums of money are spent in fireworks.
The Shab-i-Barát must not be confounded with
*The Persian title; the Arabic being Laylat-ul-Muba-
raka.
170
SHAB-I-BARAT.
the Laylat-ul-Qadr (night of power), mentioned
in the Qurán, which is the twenty-seventh
night of the Ramazán. The Shab-i-Barát, how-
ever, is frequently called Shab Qadr, or the
night of power, by the common people.
171
XXXVII.—'ID-UL-FITR, OR THE
LESSER FESTIVAL.
'ID-UL-FITR (lit. "the feast of breaking the
fast"), is called also the feast of Ramazán, the
Feast of Alms, and the Minor Festival. It is
held on the first day of the month of Shawwál,
which is the day after the close of the Ramazán
fast. On this day, before going to the place of
prayer, the Sadaqa, or propitiatory offerings,
are made to the poor in the name of God.
The offerings having been made, the people
assemble either in the Jama'-i-Masjid (i. e., the
principal mosque), or proceed to the 'Idgah,
which is a special place of worship on festivals.
The worship commences with two rak'at prayers,
after which the Imám takes his place on the
second step of the mimbar (pulpit) and recites
the Khutbah, concluding with a prayer for the
king. After this is ended, he offers up a
munáját, or supplication, for the people, for the
172
'ID-UL-FITR, OR THE LESSER FESTIVAL.
remission of sins, the recovery of the sick, in-
crease of rain, abundance of corn, preservation
from misfortune, and freedom from debt. He
then descends to the ground, and makes further
supplication for the people, the congregation
saying Amin at the end of each supplication.
At the close of the service the members of the
congregation salute and embrace each other,
and offer mutual congratulations, and then
return to their homes, and spend the rest of
the day in feasting and merriment.
173
XXXVIII.—'ID-UL-AZHA´, OR THE
FEAST OF SACRIFICE.
ID-UL-AZHA.* or the Feast of Sacrifice is called
also Yaum-un-Nahr, Qurbán-i-'Id, Qurbán
Bayram, Baqr-i-'Id (the Cow Festival) and the
Great Feast, and is held on the tenth day of
the month Zul-Hijja. This festival has become
part of the Meccan pilgrimage, of which it is
the concluding scene, although it appears that
Muhammad at first intended to conform to the
custom of the Jews in observing the great day
of atonement, but when he failed to maintain a
friendly footing with the Jews, he merged the
rite into the Meccan pilgrimage. This feast,
however, is the great Muhammadan festival,
which is observed wherever Islám exists; and
it is a notable fact that whilst Muhammad pro-
fessed to abrogate the Jewish ritual, and also
Vulg. 'Id-uz-Zohá.
174 'ID-UL-AZHA, OR THE FEAST OF SACRIFICE.
ignored entirely the doctrine of the atonement
as taught in the New Testament, denying even
the very fact of our Saviour's crucifixion, he
made the "day of sacrifice" the great central
festival of his religion.
There is a very remarkable Hadís, related
by 'Ayesha, who states that Muhammad said
"Man hath not done anything on the 'Id-ul-
Azhá more pleasing to God than spilling blood;
for verily the animal sacrificed will come, on
the day of resurrection, with it horns, its hair,
and its hoofs, and will make the scales of his
(good) actions heavy. Verily its blood reacheth
the acceptance of God, before it falleth upon
the ground, therefore be joyful in it.”* Mu-
hammad had thus become unwillingly a witness
to the grand doctrine of the Christian faith
that "without shedding of blood, there is no
remission." The animal sacrificed must be
without blemish, and of full age; but it may be
either a goat, a sheep, a cow, or a camel.
According to the commentator Jalál-ud-din
Syúty, the sacrifice was instituted in commem-
oration of Abraham's willingness to sacrifice
* Mishkat-ul-Masábih, bk. iv, chap. xlii. sect. 2.
'ID-UL-AZHA, OR THE FEAST OF SACRIFICE. 175
C
“
his son Ismail! The following is the account
given by Muhammadan writers: When
Ibrahim (the peace of God be upon him) founded
Mecca, the Lord desired him to prepare a
feast for him. Upon Ibrahim's (the friend of
God) requesting to know what He would have
on the occasion, the Lord replied, 'Offer up thy
son Ismail.' Agreeably to God's command he
'took Ismail to the K'aba to sacrifice him, and
having laid him down, he made several ineffec-
tual strokes on his throat with a knife, on which
Ismail observed, Your eyes being uncovered,
it is through pity and compassion for me you
allow the knife to miss: it would be better if
you blindfolded yourself with the end of your
turban and then sacrificed me.' Ibrahím acted
upon his son's suggestion and having repeated
the words 'bismillah allah-ho akbar' (i.e., ‘in
the name of the great God') he drew the knife
across his son's neck. In the meanwhile, how-
ever,
Gabriel had substituted a broad-tailed
sheep for the youth Ismail, and Ibrahim un-
folding his eyes observed, to his surprise, the
sheep slain, and his son standing behind him."
The account is a ridiculous parody upon the
words of the inspired prophet Moses. In the
176 'ID-UL-AZHA, OR THE FEAST OF SACRIFICE.
Quran the name of the son is not given, al-
though commentators state, that the Prophet
said that he was a descendant of the son of
Abraham who was offered in sacrifice.* The
sacrifice, as it is now performed on the 'Id-ul-
Azhá, is as follows:-The people assemble for
prayer at the 'Idgah as on the 'Id-ul-Fitr; after
prayers the people return to their houses. The
head of the family then takes a sheep (or a cow
or camel) to the entrance of his house and sac-
rifices it, by repeating the words, " In the name
of the great God," and cutting its throat. The
flesh of the animal is then divided, two-thirds
being kept by the family, and one-third being
given to the poor in the name of God.
* The name is not given in the Qurán, but it is in the
Hadís Sahih Bokhári.
177
XXXIX.-NIKAH, OR MARRIAGE.
NIKAH, is the celebration of the marriage con-
tract as distinguished from the festive rejoicings
which usually accompany it; the latter being
called Shádí in Persian and Urdú, and 'Urs in
Arabic.
Marriage, according to Muhammadan law, is
simply a civil contract, and its validity does
not depend upon any religious ceremony.
The legality of marriage depends upon the
consent of the parties, which is called I'jáb and
Qabúl, viz. declaration and acceptance; the
presence of two male witnesses, or one male
and two females;* and a dower of not less
than ten dirhems to be settled upon the woman.
The omission of the settlement does not, how-
ever, invalidate the contract; for, under any
* In Muhammadan law woman, instead of being man's
"better half," is only equal to half a man!
N
178
NIKAH, OR MARRIAGE.
circumstances, the woman becomes entitled to
her dower of ten dirhems or more. Muham-
madans are permitted by the Qurán* to marry
four free women, and to have as many female
slaves as he may possess. Marriages
Marriages for a
limited period were sanctioned by "the
Prophet"; but this law is said to have been
abrogated, although it is allowed by the Shía'hs
even in the present day. These temporary
marriages are called Muť'ah, and are undoubt-
edly the greatest blot in Muhammad's moral
legislation.
Marriage is enjoined upon every Muslim, and
celibacy is frequently condemned by Muham-
mad. The "clergy" are all married men, and
even the ascetic orders are, as George Herbert
would have said, "rather married than un-
married." It is related in the Hadís, that
Muhammad said that, "when the servant of
God marries, he perfects half his religion."
Not long ago we met a Faqír of the Nuksh-
bandía order, a man of considerable reputation
*"Of women who seem good in your eyes marry two,
or three, or four; and if ye fear that ye shall not act
equitably, then one only, or the slaves whom ye ¡have
acquired." (Sura iv. 3.)
NIKAH, OR MARRIAGE.
179
at the court of Cabul, who said that he wished
to lead a celibate life, but that his disciples had
insisted upon. his "
his "perfecting his religion" by
entering upon the married state!
As the religious ceremony does not form part
of the legal conditions of marriage, there is no
uniformity of ritual observed in its celebration.
Some Qázís merely recite the Fátihah (the first
chapter of the Qurán), and the Darúd, or
blessing; but the following is the more com-
mon order of performing the service. The
Qází, the bridegroom, and the bride's attorney,
with the witnesses having assembled in some con-
venient place, arrangements are made as to the
amount of Dower, or Mahr. The bridegroom
then repeats after the Qází the following:-
1. The Istighfar, "I desire forgiveness from
God, who is my Lord."
2. The four chapters of the Qurán com-
mencing with the word "Qul." These chap-
ters have nothing in them connected with the
subject of marriage, and appear to be selected
on account of their brevity.
3. The Kalima, or Creed.
"There is no
deity but God, and Muhammad is the Prophet
of God."
N 2
180
NIKAH, OR MARRIAGE.
4. The Sift-ul-Imán. A profession of belief
in God, the angels, the scriptures, the prophets,
the resurrection, and in fate or absolute decree
of good and evil.
The Qází then requests the bride's attorney
to take the hand of the bridegroom, and to
say, "Such an one's daughter, by the agency
of her attorney, and by the testimony of two
witnesses, has, in your marriage with her, had
such a dower settled upon her, do you consent
to it?" To which the bridegroom replies,
"With my whole heart and soul, to my mar-
riage with this woman as well as to the dower
already settled upon her, I consent, I consent,
I consent!
After this the Qází raises his hands, and
offers the following prayer:-
"O great God! grant that mutual love may
reign between this couple, as it existed be-
tween Adam and Eve, Abraham and Sarah,
Joseph and Zulekha,* Moses and Zipporah,
his Highness Muhammad and 'Áyesha, and his
Highness 'Ali Murtuza and Fátimah-uz-Zahra."
According to Muhammad, Joseph afterwards married
Zulekha, the widow of Potiphar.
NIKAH, OR MARRIAGE.
181
The ceremony being over, the bridegroom
embraces his friends and receives their con-
gratulations. Nikah is preceded and followed
by festive rejoicings, which have been variously
described by Oriental travellers; but they are
not parts of either the civil or religious cere-
mony.
182
XL.—TALÁQ, OR DIVORCE.
IN Islám the wife is the property of the hus-
band, and consequently she can be disposed of
by divorce at a moment's notice. The law has,
however, placed certain slight restrictions upon
the exercise of this right, and has ruled that
there are three kinds of divorce :-
(1) Taláq-i-Ahsan, or "the most laudable form
of divorce," is when the husband divorces his
wife when she is in a state of purity, by one
sentence," thou art divorced," or words to that
effect. This is esteemed the best form, because
the sentence having been only pronounced once,
the husband can again change his mind, with
the consent of his divorced wife, at any sub-
sequent period, until she marries another.
(2.) Taláq-i-Hasan, or "a laudable form of
divorce," is when the husband divorces his wife
TALAQ, OR DIVORCE.
18
by pronouncing the sentence, "thou art di-
vorced," during his wife's period of purity, and
at intervals of a month.
(4.) Taláq-i-Biďaí, or “an irregular form of
divorce," is when the husband repeats the
sentence three times on one occasion.
Whenever the sentence of divorce is repeated
three times it is a Taláq-i-Mutlaq, or an ir-
revocable divorce, after which the husband
cannot marry his repudiated wife until she has
married and lived with another, and is divorced
by her second husband.
In all cases of repudiation, except when a
wife requests her husband to divorce her, the
dower must be repaid to the woman, an ar-
rangement which often prevents a man exer-
cising the privilege.
The ground of divorce, under the Mosaic
law, was "some uncleanness in her" (vide
Deut. xxiv. 1-4), and of which there were
two well-known interpretations. The school of
Shammai seemed to limit it to a moral de-
linquency in the woman, whilst that of Hillel
extended it to the most trifling causes. Our
Lord appears to have confirmed the interpre-
tation of Shammai (St. Matt. v. 32), whilst
184
TALAQ, OR DIVORCE.
"
Muhammad adopted that of Hillel, but dis-
pensing with the "bill of divorcement en-
joined by the Mosaic code, thereby placing the
woman entirely at the will and caprice of her
husband.
185
XLI.—JANAʼZA, OR BURIAL.
In
JANA ZA is the term used both for the bier and
for the Muhammadan funeral service. The
burial service is founded upon the practice of
Muhammad, and varies but little in different
countries, although the ceremonies connected
with the funeral procession are diversified.
Egypt, for instance, the male relations and
friends of the deceased precede the corpse,
whilst the female mourners follow behind.
In North India and Central Asia, women do
not usually attend funerals, and the friends and
relatives of the deceased walk behind the bier.
There is a tradition amongst some Muhamma-
dans that no one should precede the corpse, as
the angels go before. Funeral processions in
Central Asia are usually very simple in their
arrangements, and are said to be more in ac-
cordance with the practice of the " Prophet,"
than those of Egypt and Turkey. It is con-
186
JANAZA, OR BURIAL.
sidered a very meritorious act to carry the
bier, and four from among the near relations,
every now and then relieved by an equal num-
ber, carry it on their shoulders. Unlike our
Christian custom of walking slowly to the
grave, Muhammadans carry their dead quickly
to the place of interment; for Muhammad is
related to have said, that it is good to carry
the dead quickly to the grave to cause the
righteous person to arrive soon at happiness,
and if he be a bad man it is well to put
wickedness away from one's shoulders. Fu-
nerals should always be attended on foot; for
it is said, that Muhammad on one occasion re-
buked his people for following a bier on horse-
back. "Have you no shame ?" said he, " since
God's angels go on foot, and you go upon the
hack of quadrupeds?" It is a highly meri-
torious act to attend a funeral, whether it be
that of a Muslim, a Jew, or a Christian. There
are, however, two traditions given by Bokhárí,
which appear to mark a change of feeling on
the part of the time-serving Prophet of Arabia
towards the Jews and Christians.
"A bier
passed by the Prophet, and he stood up; and
it was said to the Prophet, this is the bier of
JANAZA, OR BURIAL.
187
6
a Jew. It is the holder of a soul,' he re-
plied, from which we should take warning
and fear."" This rule is said to have been
abrogated, for, " on one occasion the Prophet
sitting on the road when a bier passed, and the
Prophet disliked that the bier of a Jew should
be higher than his head, and he therefore stood
up." Notwithstanding these contradictory tra-
ditions, we believe that in all countries Mu-
hammadans are wont to pay great respect to
the funerals of both Jews and Christians. Not
long ago, about sixty Muhammadans attended
the funeral of an Armenian Christian lady at
Peshawur, when the funeral service was read
by the Native clergyman. In the procession
the Muhammadans took their turn with the
Native Christian converts in carrying the bier,
and assisting in lowering the coffin into the
grave. During the reading of the service,
some few seated themselves on the grass, but
the majority listened attentively to the funeral
office, which was impressively read by the
Native pastor, himself a Christian convert
from Muhammadanism.
The Muhammadan funeral service is not re-
cited in the graveyard, it being too polluted a
188
JANAZA, OR BURIAL.
place for so sacred an office; but either in a
mosque, or in some open space near the dwel-
ling of the deceased person, or the graveyard.
The owner of the corpse, i. e., the nearest
relative, is the proper person to recite the
service; but it is usually said by the family
Imám, or the village Qází.
The following is the order of the service :-
Some one present calls out,-
"Here begin the prayers for the dead."
Then those present arrange themselves in three, five, or
seven rows opposite the corpse, with their faces Qiblawards
(i. e. towards Mecca). The Imâm stands in front of the
ranks opposite the head* of the corpse, if it be that of
a male, or the waist, if it be that of a female.
The whole company having taken up the Qíám, or
standing position, the Imám recites the Niyat.
"I purpose to perform prayers to God, for
this dead person, consisting of four Takbirs."
Then placing his hands to the lobes of his ears, he says
the first Takbír.
"God is great!"
Then folding his hands, the right hand placed upon the
left, below the navel, he recites the Subhán :
C6
Holiness to Thee, O God,"
"And to Thee be praise."
* The Shía'hs stand opposite the loins of a man.
JANAZA, OR BURIAL.
189
"Great is Thy Name."
"Great is Thy Greatness.'
"Great is Thy Praise." *
""
"There is no deity but Thee."
Then follows the second Takbir:
"God is great!"
Then the Darúd :---
"O God, have mercy on Muhammad and
upon his descendants, as Thou didst bestow
mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compassion,
and great kindness upon Abraham and upon
his descendants."
""
"Thou art praised, and Thou art great!
"O God, bless Muhammad and his descend-
ants, as Thou didst bless and didst have com-
passion and great kindness upon Abraham and
upon his descendants."
Then follows the third Takbir :
"God is great!
After which the following prayer (Dua') is recited :—
"O God, forgive our living and our dead,
and those of us who are present, and those
who are absent, and our children, and our full
* This sentence is not generally recited in the Subhán
of the daily prayer.
190
JANAZA, OR BURIAL.
grown persons, our men and our women.
O
God, those whom Thou dost keep alive amongst
us, keep alive in Islám, and those whom Thou
causest to die, let them die in the Faith."
Then follows the fourth Takbír :—
"God is great!
وو
Turning the head round to the right, he says:-
"Peace and mercy be to Thee."
Turning the head round to the left, he says:
"Peace and mercy be to Thee."
The Takbir is recited by the Imám aloud,
but the Subhán, the Salám, the Durúd, and
the Dua', are recited by the Imám and the
people in a low voice.
The people then seat themselves on the
ground, and raise their hands in silent prayer
in behalf of the deceased's soul, and afterwards
addressing the relatives they say, "It is the
decree of God." To which the chief mourner
replies, "I am pleased with the will of God."
He then gives permission to the people to
retire by saying, "There is permission to
depart."
Those who wish to return to their houses do
so at this time, and the rest proceed to the
JANAZA, OR BURIAL.
191
grave.
The corpse is then placed on its back
in the grave, with the head to the north and
feet to the south, the face being turned towards
Mecca. The persons who place the corpse in
the grave repeat the following sentence: "We
commit thee to earth in the name of God and
in the religion of the Prophet."
The bands of the shroud having been loosed,
the recess, which is called the láhd, is closed
in with unburnt bricks and the grave filled
in with earth. In some countries it is usual
to recite the Súrat i Twá Háh as the clods
of earth are thrown into the grave; but this
practice is objected to by the Wahhábís, and
by many learned divines. This chapter is as
follows:
"From it (the earth) have We (God) created
you, and unto it will We return you, and out
of it will We bring you forth the second time."
After the burial, the people offer a fátihah
(i.e., the first chapter of the Qurán) in the
name of the deceased, and again when they
have proceeded about forty paces from the
grave they offer another fátihah; for at this
juncture, it is said, the two angels Munkar and
192
JANAZA, OR BURIAL.
Nakír examine the deceased as to his faith.*
After this, food is distributed to beggars and
religious mendicants as a propitiatory offering
to God, in the name of the deceased person.
If the grave be for the body of a woman, it
should be to the height of a man's chest, if for
a man, to the height of the waist. At the
bottom of the grave the recess is made on the
side to receive the corpse, which is called the
láhad. The dead are seldom interred in
coffins, although they are not prohibited.
To build tombs with stones or burnt bricks,
or to write a verse of the Qurán upon them, is
forbidden in the Hadís; but largest one and
brick tombs are common to all Muhammadan
countries, and very frequently they bear in-
scriptions.
On the third day after the burial of the dead,
it is usual for the relatives to visit the grave,
and to recite selections from the Qurán. Those
who can afford to pay Maulavís, employ these
learned men to recite the whole of the Qurán
at the graves of their deceased relatives; and,
as we have already remarked, in a former article,
Vide article on Angels.
1
193
JANAZA, OR BURIAL.
the Qurán is divided into sections to admit of
its being recited by the several Maulavís at
once. During the days of mourning the
relatives abstain from wearing any article of
dress of a bright colour, and their soiled
garments remain unchanged.
194
XLII.-SLAVERY.
SLAVERY ('ubudiyat) has been consecrated by
Muhammadan law, and some of its provisions
have been taken from the Mosaic code. The
traces of heathenism are, however, observable
in most of the Muslim laws with reference to
this question. For example, according to
Jewish law,* if a master slew his slave he was
liable to punishment, whereas the Islamic code †
annexes no worldly punishment for the murder
of a slave.
There is no limit to the number of slave
girls with whom a Muslim may cohabit, and it
is the consecration of this illimitable indulgence
which so popularizes slavery amongst Muham-
madan nations. Some Muslim writers † of the
* Exodus xxi. 20.
† Hidaya, bk. xvi,
Life of Muhammad, by Sayyid Ameer Ali, p. 257. It
SLAVERY.
195
present day contend that Muhammad looked
upon the custom as temporary in its nature,
and held that its extinction was sure to be
achieved by the progress of ideas and change
of circumstances; but the slavery of Islám is
interwoven with the Law of marriage, the Law
of sale, and the Law of inheritance, of the
system, and its abolition would strike at the
very foundations of the code of Muhammad-
anism.
Slavery is in complete harmony with the
spirit of Islám, whilst it is abhorrent to that
of Christianity. That Muhammad ameliorated
the condition of the slave, as it existed under
the heathen laws of Arabia, we cannot doubt;
but it is equally certain that the Arabian
legislator intended it to be a perpetual in-
stitution.
The following traditions* with reference to
the action of the Prophet in this matter are
notable:-
"'Imrán-ibn-Husain said a man freed six
is often said that the buying and selling of slaves is not
sanctioned by Islám; this is not correct, as will be seen
upon reference to the Muhammadan Law of Sale.
* Mishkát, bk. xiii chap. xx. pt. 1.
o 2
196
SLAVERY.
slaves at his death, and he had no other pro-
perty besides; and the Prophet called them,
and divided them into three sections, and then
cast lots; he then ordered that two of them
should be freed, and he retained four in slavery,
and spoke severely of the man who had set
them free.
""
"Jábir said we used to sell the mothers of
children in the time of the Prophet, and of
Abu Bakr; but Omar forbade it in his time."
For certain sins the manumission of slaves
is the legal penalty, and a slave may purchase
his own freedom with the permission of his
owner.
In the Akhlák-i-Jilálí,* which is the popular
work upon practical philosophy amongst the
Muhammadans, it is said that "for service a
slave is preferable to a freeman, inasmuch as
he must be more disposed to submit, obey, and
adopt his patron's habits and pursuits."
Although slavery has existed side by side
with Christianity, it is undoubtedly contrary to
the spirit of the teaching of our divine Lord,
Akhlák-i-Jalálí, by Fakír Jáni Muhammad Asa'ad,
sect. 6.
SLAVERY.
197
who has given to the world the grand doctrine
of universal brotherhood.
Mr. Lecky believes that it was the spirit
of Christianity which brought about the aboli-
tion of slavery in Europe. He says, "The
services of Christianity were of three kinds. It
supplied a new order of relations, in which the
distinction of classes was unknown. It im-
parted a moral dignity to the servile classes.
It gave an unexampled impetus to the move-
ment of enfranchisement."
History of European Morals, vol. ii. p. 70.
198
XLIII.—THE KHUTBAH, OR THE
FRIDAY'S SERMON.
THE Khutbah is the oration or sermon delivered
in the mosque every Friday, and on the chief
festivals,* after the meridian prayer. After
the usual ablutions, the four Sunnat prayers are
recited. The Khatib, or preacher, then seats
himself on the Mimbar (pulpit), whilst the
Muazzin proclaims the Azán; after which he
stands up on the second step,† and delivers
* The 'Id-i-Fitr and the 'Id-ul-Azhá.
† The Mimbar is the pulpit of a mosque. It consists
of three steps, and is sometimes a movable wooden struc-
ture, and sometimes a fixture of brick or stone built
against the wall. Muhammad, in addressing the congre-
gation, stood on the uppermost step, Abu Bakr on the
second, and Omar on the third or the lowest. Osmán,
being the most modest of the Khalifs, would have gladly
descended lower if he could have done so; but this being
impossible, he fixed upon the second step, from which it is
still the custom to preach.
THE KHUTBAH, OR THE FRIDAY'S SERMON. 199
>
the sermon, which must be in the Arabic
language, and include prayers for "Muham-
mad, the Companions, and the King." There
are several books of Khutbahs published for the
use of preachers. The most celebrated of
these preachers' manuals is the Mujmua'
Khitáb, printed by Abdur Rahman of Cawn-
pore. The sermons are arranged for every
Friday in the year, and are the compositions
of various Muslim divines. It is remarkable
that short sermons are meritorious; for it is
related that the "Prophet" remarked that
"the length of a man's prayers and the short-
ness of his sermon are the signs of his sense
and understanding; therefore make your prayers
long and your Khutbah short."
The following is a translation of the third
Khutbah in the book of sermons already men-
tioned; it is a fair specimen of an average
Khutbah, both as to its length and matter :—
"In the name of God, the compassionate,
the merciful.
"Praised be God. Praised be that God who
hath shown us the way in this religion. If He
had not guided us into the path we should not
have found it.
200
THE KHUTBAH, OR THE FRIDAY'S SERMON.
"I bear witness that there is no deity but
God. He is one. He has no associate. I bear
witness that Muhammad is, of a truth, His
servant and His Apostle. May God have mercy
upon him, and upon his descendants, and upon
his companions, and give them peace.
"Fear God, O ye people, and fear that day,
the day of judgment, when a father will not
be able to answer for his son, nor the son for
the father. Of a truth God's promises are
true. Let not this present life make you
proud. Let not the deceiver (Satan) lead you
astray.
'
"O ye people who have believed, turn ye to
God, as Nasuá * did turn to God. Verily God
doth forgive all sin, verily He is the merciful,
the forgiver of sins. Verily He is the most
munificent, and bountiful, the King, the Holy
One, the Clement, the Most Merciful."
The preacher then descends from the pulpit,
and sitting on the floor of the mosque, offers
*
Nasuá, is the name which occurs in the sixth verse of
the Súrat-i-Tahrímah (lxvi.) in the Qurán; it is translated
"true repentance" by Sale and Rodwell, but it is sup-
posed to be a person's name by several commentators.
THE KHUTBAH, OR THE FRIDAY'S SERMON. 201
up a silent prayer. He then, again, ascends
the Mimbar, as before, and proceeds thus :-
"In the name of God, the compassionate,
the merciful.
"Praised be God.
We praise Him. We
seek help from Him. We ask forgiveness of
sins. We trust in Him. We seek refuge in
Him from evil desires and from former sinful
actions. He who has God for his guide is
never lost; and whomsoever He leadeth aside
none can guide into the right path.
"We bear witness that there is no deity but
God. He is one. He hath no partner.
"Verily we bear witness that Muhammad
is the servant and apostle of God, and may
God have mercy upon him, who is more exalted
than any being. May God have mercy upon
his descendants, and upon his companions.
May God give them peace! Especially upon
Amír-ul-Mominín Abu Bakr Sadíq (may God
be pleased with him). And upon him who
was the most temperate of the "friends
Amír-ul-Mominín Omar Ibn-ul-Khattáb (may
God be pleased with him). And upon him
whose modesty and faith were perfect, Amír
ul-Mominín Osmán (may God be pleased with
202 THE KHUTBAH, OR THE FRIDAY'S SERMON.
him). And upon the Lion of the powerful
God, Amír-ul-Mominín Ali ibn Abu-Tálib
(may God be pleased with him). And upon
the two Imáms, the holy ones, the two
martyrs, Amír-ul-Mominín Abu Muhammad
Hasan and Abu Abdullah Husain (may God
be pleased with both of them). And upon
the mother of these two persons, the chief
of women, Fatimah-uz-Zárah (may God be
pleased with her). And upon his (Muham-
mad's) two uncles, Hamza and 'Abbás (may
God be pleased with them). And upon the
rest of the "companions," and upon the "fol-
lowers" (may God be pleased with all of them).
Of Thy mercy, O most merciful of all merciful
ones, O God, forgive all Musalmán men and
Musalman women, all male believers, and all
female believers. Of a truth thou art He who
wilt receive our prayers.
"O God, help those who help the religion of
Muhammad. May we also exert ourselves to
help those who help Islám. Make those weak,
who weaken the religion of Muhammad.
"O God, bless the king of the age, and make
him kind and favourable to the people.
"O servants of God, may God have mercy
THE KHUTBAH, OR THE FRIDAY'S SERMON. 203
upon you. Verily, God enjoineth justice and
the doing of good, and gifts to kindred; and He
forbiddeth wickedness, and wrong, and oppres-
sion. He warneth you that haply ye may be
mindful.*
"O ye people, remember the great and
exalted God. He will also remember you. He
will answer your prayers. The remembrance
of God is great, and good, and honourable,
and noble, and meritorious, and worthy, and
sublime."
The preacher then descends, and taking up
his position as Imám, facing the Mihrab,t
conducts two rak'at prayers. The Khatib,
however, does not always officiate as Imám.
In the above Khutbah we have inserted the
petition usually offered up in behalf of "the
king" in India, although it does not occur
in the collection of sermons from which we
have translated. Until the Mutiny of 1857,
* The ninety-second verse of Súrat-i-Nahe (cxvi.) of
the Qurán.
It
† The Mihráb is the centre of the wall of a mosque,
facing Mecca, to which the Imám (priest) prays.
usually consists of a circular niche in the wall.
204 THE KHUTBAH, OR THE FRIDAY'S SERMON.
we believe that in the majority of mosques in
North India it was recited in the name of the
King of Delhi, and even now we are informed
that some bigoted Imáms say it in the name of
the Sultan of Turkey. The recital of the
Khutbah serves to remind every Muhammadan
priest, at least once a week, that he is in the
land of warfare (Dár-ul-Harb); and the fact
that Muhammadans under Christian rule are
in an anomalous position, is a source of trouble
to many a conscientious Muslim.
A few years
ago, a celebrated Muhammadan divine sent for
a native Christian officer, as he wished to obtain
his aid in an important matter. The nature of
the good man's difficulty was as follows:-The
Friday prayer, or Khutbah, must, according to
Muhammadan law, he said in the name and by
the permission of the ruler of the land. He
had been saying the Friday prayer without
permission of the ruler, and he feared that
these prayers had, consequently, not been ac-
cepted by the Almighty. He, therefore, asked
the Christian officer to obtain the necessary
permission from the magistrate of the district.
The Christian was also a man versed in Muslim
law, and he quoted authorities to prove that
THE KHUTBAH, OR THE FRIDAY'S SERMON. 205
the permission of an "infidel" ruler was not
what Islám enjoined.
In Turkey and Egypt, and in other countries.
under Muslim rule, it is the custom for the
Khatib to deliver the Khutbah whilst he holds
a wooden sword reversed.
The prayer for the reigning monarch, if he
be a Muslim, would be offered up in the follow-
ing manner:
"O God, aid Islám, and strengthen its
pillars, and make infidelity to tremble, and
destroy its might, by the preservation of Thy
servant, and the son of Thy servant, the sub-
missive to the might of Thy Majesty and
Glory, whom God hath aided, our master Amír
Sher 'Alí Khán, son of Amír Dost Muhammad
Khán, may God assist him and prolong his
reign. O God, assist him, and assist his armies.
O Thou God of the religion and Lord of the
world, assist the armies of Muslims; frustrate
the armies of infidels and polytheists, thine
enemies, the enemies of the religion."
206
A
XLIV.—JIHÁD, OR RELIGIOUS WAR.
JIHAD* (lit. "an effort") is a religious war
against the infidels, as enjoined by Muhammad
in the following passages in the Qurán :--
66
Súrat-un-Nisà (vi.).
Fight, therefore, for the religion of God."
*
*
*
*
*
God hath indeed promised Paradise to every one,
But God hath preferred those who fight for the faith."
Súrat-ul Muhammad (xlvii.).
"Those who fight in defence of God's true religion,
God will not suffer their works to perish."
Those who engage in war against the infidels
are called Gházís. The whole question of Jihad
has been fully discussed by Dr. W. W. Hunter,
of the Bengal Civil Service, in his work en-
titled, "Indian Musalmáns," which is the re-
* Some Muhammadan divines say there are two Jiháds,
viz., Jihád-ul-Akbar, or the Greater Warfare, which is
against one's own lusts; and Jihád-ul-Asghar, or the
Lesser Warfare, against infidels.
JIHAD.
207
sult of careful inquiry as to the necessary
conditions of a Jihád, or Cresentade, instituted
at the time of the excitement which existed
in India in 1870-71, in consequence of a sup-
posed Wahhábí conspiracy for the overthrow of
Christian rule in that country. The whole
matter, according to the Sunní Musulmáns,
hinges upon the question whether India is
Dár-ul-Harb, the land of enmity, or Dár-ul-
Islám, the land of Islám.
The Muftís belonging to the Hanifia and
Shafa'ía sects at Mecca decided that, "as long
as even some of the peculiar observances of
Islám prevail in a country, it is Dár-ul-Islám."
The decision of the Muftí of the Málikí sect
was very similar, being to the following effect :-
"A country does not become Dár-ul-Harb as
soon as it passes into the hands of the infidels,
but when all or most of the injunctions of
Islám disappear therefrom."
The law doctors of North India decided that,
"the absence of protection and liberty to
Musulmáns is essential in a Jihád or religious
war, and that there should be a probability of
victory to the armies of Islám."
The Shía'h decision on the subject was as
208
JIHAD.
follows:- A Jihád is lawful only when the
armies of Islám are led by the rightful Imám,
when arms and ammunitions of war and ex-
perienced warriors are ready, when it is against
the enemies of God, when he who makes war
is in possession of his reason, and when he has
secured the permission of his parents, and has
sufficient money to meet the expenses of his
journey."
The Sunnís and Shía'hs alike believe in the
eventual triumph of Islám, when the whole
world shall become followers of the Prophet of
Arabia; but whilst the Sunnís are, of course,
ready to undertake the accomplishment of this
great end, "whenever there is a probability of
victory to the Musulmáns," the Shíá'hs, true
to the one great principle of their sect, must
wait until the appearance of a rightful Imám.
Not very long ago a learned Muhammadan
Qází (judge) was consulted by the writer of
these notes with reference to this interesting
question, namely, whether India is Dár-ul-
Islám, or Dár-ul-Harb. At first he replied,
Dár-ul-Islám, and then, after a short pause,
he said, "Well, sir, may
Well, sir, may I tell you the
truth?" Upon being assured that the ques-
JIHAD.
209
tion was put merely as one of theological in-
quiry, and not for any political reasons, he
replied, "It is Dár-ul-Harb." One of his
reasons for arriving at this conclusion was
the well-known doctrine of Islám that a Muslim
cannot be a Zimmi, or one who pays tribute to
an infidel power. We believe that the fact
that Muhammadans under Christian rule are
in an anomalous position, is a source of trouble
to many a conscientious Muslim. Many Mus-
lims believe that Hijrat, or flight, is incumbent
upon every child of the Faith who is under
Káfir (infidel) rule; but, as our friend the
Qází put it, "Where are they to go to ?"
The Muslim who abandons his country under
such circumstances is called a Muhájir, or
refugee.
When an infidel's country is conquered by
a Muslim ruler, its inhabitants are offered
three alternatives :--
(1.) The reception of Islám, in which case
the conquered become enfranchised citizens of
the Muslim state.
(2.) The payment of a poll tax (Jizíyah), by
which unbelievers in Islám obtain protection,
and become Zimmís.
P
210
JIHAD.
(3.) Death by the sword.
In a state brought under Muslims, all those
who do not embrace the faith are placed under
certain disabilities. They can worship God
according to their own customs, provided they
are not idolators; but it must be done without
any ostentation, and, whilst churches and
synagogues may be repaired, no new place of
worship can be erected. Vide Hidayah,* where
we read: The construction of churches, or
synagogues, in Muslim territory is unlawful,
this being forbidden in the Traditions; but
if places of worship belonging to Jews, or
Christians, be destroyed, or fall into decay,
they are at liberty to repair them, because
buildings cannot endure for ever."
Idol temples must be destroyed, and idolatry
suppressed by force in all countries ruled
according to strict Muslim law.
* Hamilton's Translation, vol. ii, p. 219.
211
XLV.—MARTYRS.
THE title of Shahid, or martyr, is given to
anyone who dies under the following circum-
stances:
1. A soldier who dies in war for the cause
of Islám.
2. One who innocently meets with his death
from the hand of another.
3. The victim of a plague.
4. A person accidentally drowned.
5. One upon whom a wall may fall acci-
dentally.
6. A person burnt in a house on fire.
7. One who dies from hunger.
8. One who dies on the pilgrimage to
Mecca.
If a martyr dies in war, or is innocently mur-
dered, he is buried without the usual washing
before burial, as it is said that the blood of a
martyr is a sufficient ablution.
P 2
212
XLVI. THE FOUR ORTHODOX
SECTS.
THERE are four orthodox sects or schools
of interpretation amongst the Sunnís, the
Hanifi, the Sháfa'í, the Málikí, and the Ham-
balí.
1. The Hanifis are found in Turkey, Centrál
Asia, and North India. The founder of this
sect was Imám Abu Hanífa, who was born at
Koofa, the capital of Irák, A.D. 702, or a.H. 80,
at which time four of the " Prophet's" com-
panions were still alive. He is the great oracle
of jurisprudence, and (with his two pupils
Imám Abu Yusaf and Imám Muhammad) was
the founder of the Hanifi Code of Law.*
2. The Sháfa'ías are found in South India and
Egypt. The founder of this school of interpre-
tation was Imám Muhammad ibn i Idrís al
A Digest of the Hanifi Code of Law has been pub-
lished in English by Mr. N. B, E, Baillie.
THE FOUR ORTHODOX SECTS.
213
Shafa'í, who was born at Askalon, in Palestine,
A.D. 772 (A.H. 150).
3. The Málikís prevail in Morocco, Barbary,
and other parts of Africa, and were founded by
Inám Málik, who was born at Madina, A.D.
717 (A.H. 93). He enjoyed the personal ac-
quaintance of Hanífa, and he was considered
the most learned man of his time.
4. The Hambalis were founded by Imám
Abu 'Abdulláh Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn
Hambal, who was born at Bagdad, A.D. 786
(A.H. 164). He attended the lectures delivered
by Shafa'í, by whom he was instructed in the
traditions. His followers are found in Eastern
Arabia, and in some parts of Africa, but it is
the least popular of the four schools of inter-
pretation. They have no Muftí at Mecca,
whilst the other three sects are represented
there. The Wahhábís rose from this sect.
From the disciples of these four great Imáms
have proceeded an immense number of com-
mentaries and other works, all differing on a
variety of points in their constructions, although
coinciding in their general principles.
214
XLVII. THE SHÍA'HS.
THE Shía'hs (lit. "followers") are the followers
of 'Ali, the husband of Fatimah, the daughter
of Muhammad. They maintain that 'Ali was
the first legitimate Khalífa, or successor to
Muhammad, and therefore reject Abu Bakr,
Omar, and Osmán, the first three Khalifs, as
usurpers. According to the Shía'hs the Muslim
religion consists of a knowledge of the true
Imám, or leader, and the differences amongst
themselves with reference to this question have
given rise to endless divisions. Of the pro-
verbial seventy-three sects of Islám, not fewer
than thirty-two are assigned to the Shía'hs.
The twelve Imáms, according to the Shía'hs,
are as follows:
1. Hazrat ’Ali.
2. Hasan.
3. Husain.
4. Zain-ul-'Abidín.
5. Muhammad Báqr.
THE SHIA'HS.
215
6. Jáfir Sádiq.
7. Músa Kázim.
8. 'Ali Músa Razá.
9. Muhammad Taqí.
10. Muhammad Naqí.
11. Hasan 'Askarí.
12. Abu Qásim (or Imám Mahdí).
The last Imám, Abu Qásim, is supposed
by the Shía'hs to be still alive and concealed
in some secret place; and that he is the same
Mahdí, or director, concerning whom Mu-
hammad prophesied that the world should not
have an end until one of his own descendants
should govern the Arabians, and whose coming
in the last days is expected by all Muslims.
During the absence of the Imám, the Shía'hs
appeal to the Mujtahids, or enlightened doctors
of the law, for direction in all matters both
temporal and spiritual. Since the accession
of Ismail, the first of the Sufí dynasty, A.d.
1499, the Shía'h faith has been the national reli-
gion of Persia. The enmity which exists between
Sunní and Shía'h Muhammadans is, perhaps,
hardly equalled by the mutual animosity which
too often exists between Romanists and Protes-
tants.
216
THE SHIA'HS.
It is not true that the Shía'h Muhammadans
reject the Traditions of Muhammad, although
the Sunnís arrogate to themselves the title of
traditionists. They do not acknowledge the
Siháh-i-Sita, or six correct books of the Sunnís
and Wahhábís, but receive the five collections
of Traditions, entitled: 1. Káfi; 2. Man-lá-
yastahzirah-al-Faqih; 3. Tahzíb; 4. Istibsár;
5. Nahaj-ul-Balághat.
The Shía'h school of law is called the
Imámía,* and it is earlier than that of the
Sunnís; for Abu Hanífa, the father of the
Sunní code of law, received his first instructions
in jurisprudence from Imám Jáfir Sadiq, the
sixth Imám of the Shía'hs; but this learned
doctor afterwards separated from his teacher,
and established a school of his own.
The differences between the Shía'hs and
Sunnís are very numerous, but we will enu-
merate a few of them:-
1. The discussion as to the office of Imám,
already alluded to.
2. The Shía'hs have a profound veneration
* A Digest of the Imámía code has been published by
Mr. N. B. E. Baillie. London, 1869.
THE SHIA HS.
217
for Imám 'Ali, and some of their sects regard
him as an incarnation of divinity. They all
assert that next to the Prophet, 'Ali is the most
excellent of men.
3. They observe the ceremonies of the
Muharram in commemoration of 'Ali, Hasan,
Husain, and Bíbí Fatimah, whilst the Sunnís
only regard the tenth day of Muharram, the
'Áshúráa, being the day on which God is said
to have created Adam and Eve, etc.
4. The Shía'hs permit Muta'h, or temporary
marriages, which are contracted for a limited
period, and for a certain sum of money. The
Sunnís say that Muhammad afterwards can-
celled this institution.
5. The Shía'hs include the Majusí, or fire-
worshippers, among the Ahl-i-Kitáb, or people
of the Book, whilst Sunnís only acknowledge
Jews, Christians, and Muslims, as Kitábíahs.
6. There are also various minor differences in
the ceremony of Sulát, or prayer, and in the
ablutions previous to prayer.
7. The Shía'hs admit a principle of religious
compromise which is called Takia (lit. “guard-
ing one's self"), a pious fraud, whereby the
Shía'h Muhammadan believes he is justified
218
THE SHIA'HS.
in either smoothing down or in denying the
peculiarities of his religious belief in order to
save himself from religious persecution. A
Shía'h can, therefore, pass himself off as a
Sunní, or even curse the twelve Imáms, in
order to avoid persecution.
219
XLVIII. THE WAHHÁBÍS.
THIS sect was founded by Muhammad, son of
Abdul Wahháb, but as their opponents could
not call them Muhammadans, they have been
distinguished by the name of the father of the
founder of their sect, and are called Wahhábís.*
Shekh Muhammad was born at Ayína, a
village in the province of Arad, in the country
of Najd, in the year A.D. 1691. Having been
carefully instructed in the tenets of the Muslim
religion, according to the teachings of the
Hambalí sect, he in due time left his native
place, in company with his father, to perform
the pilgrimage to Mecca. At Madina, he was
instructed by Shekh Abdullah-ibn-Ibrahím, of
Najd; and, it is supposed, that whilst sitting
at the feet of this celebrated teacher, the
* Vide a Wahhábí book entitled Sulh-ul-Aklwán, by
Sayyid Allama Daud, of Bagdad.
220
THE WAHHABIS.
son of Abdul Wahhab first realized how far
the rigid lines of Islám had been stretched,
almost to breaking, in the endeavour to adapt
its stern principles to the superstitions of
idolatrous Arabia. He accompanied his father
to Harimala, and, after his father's death, he
returned to his native village of Ayína, where
he assumed the position of a religious teacher.
His teachings met with acceptance, and he
soon acquired so great an influence over the
people of those parts that the Governor of
Hassa compelled him to leave the district, and
the reformer found a friendly asylum in
Deraiah, under the protection of Muhammad-
ibn-Saud, a chief of considerable influence,
who made the protection of Ibn-Abdul-Wahháb
a pretext for a war with the Shekh of Hassa.
Ibn Saud married the daughter of Ibn-Abdul-
Wahháb, and established in his family the
Wahhábí dynasty, which, after a chequered
existence of more than a hundred years, still
exists in the person of the Wahhábí chief at
Ryadh.*
* The following are the names of the Wahhabí chiefs,
from the establishment of the dynasty:-Muhan mad-ibn-
Saud, died A.D. 1765; Abdul-Azíz, assassinated 1803;
THE WAHHABIS.
221
The whole of Eastern Arabia has embraced
the reformed doctrines of the Wahhábís, and
Mr. Palgrave, in his account of his travels in
those parts, has given an interesting sketch
of the Wahhábí religionists, although he is
not always correct as to the distinctive prin-
ciples of their religious creed.
In the great Wahhábí revival, political in-
terests were united with religious reform, as
was the case in the great Puritan struggle in
England; and the Wahhábís soon pushed their
conquests over the whole of Arabia. In A.D.
1803, they conquered Mecca and Madina, and
for many years threatened the subjugation of
the whole Turkish Empire; but in A.D. 1811,
Muhammad 'Ali, the celebrated Pasha of
Egypt, commenced a war against the Wah-
hábís, and soon recovered Mecca and Madina;
and in 1818, his son, Ibrahím Pasha, totally
defeated Abdullah, the Wahhábí leader, and
Saud-ibn-Abdul Azíz, died 1814; Abdullah-ibn-Saud, be-
headed 1818; Turkí, assassinated 1830; Fayzul, died 1866;
Abdullah, still living. Fayzul and his son Abdullah en-
tertained Col. Sir Lewis Pelly, K.C.B., K.C.S.I., who visited
the Wahhábí capital, as Her Britannic Majesty's represen-
tative, in 1865.
222
THE WAHHABIS.
sent him a prisoner to Constantinople, where
he was executed in the public square of St.
Sophia, December 19th, 1818. But although
the temporal power of the Wahhábís has been
subdued, they still continue secretly to pro-
pagate their peculiar tenets, and in the present
day there are numerous disciples of the sect
not only in Arabia, but in Turkey and in India.
It is a movement which has influenced religious
thought in every part of Islám.
The leader of the Wahhábí movement in
India was Sayyid Ahmad, who was born at
Ráí Barelí, in Oudh, in A.d. 1786.
He began
life as a freebooter; but about the year 1816,
he gave up robbery, and commenced to study
divinity in one of the mosques at Delhi. After
a few years study, he performed the pilgrimage
to the sacred city; and, whilst at Mecca,
attracted the notice of the learned doctors by
the similarity of his teaching to that of the
Wahhábí sectaries, from whom the city had
suffered so much. He was soon expelled from
the town, and he returned to India a fanatical
disciple of the Wahhábí leader. His success
as a preacher was great, both in Bombay and
Calcutta ; and having collected a numerous
THE WAHHABIS.
223
following from the ranks of Islám within
British territory, he proceeded to the north-
west frontier of India, and preached a Jihád,
or Holy War, against the Sikhs. On the 21st
of December, 1826, the war against the infidel
Sikhs began, and almost every place in the
Peshawur valley is, in some way, associated
with this fanatical struggle. The mission of
this Wahhábí leader was soon brought to an
untimely end; for in the battle of Bálakot,
in Hazarah, in May, 1831, when the fanatics
were surprised by a Sikh army, under Sher
Singh, their leader, Sayyid Ahmad, was slain.*
But, as in the case of the Wahhábí leader of
Eastern Arabia, the propagation of the religious
tenets did not cease with Sayyid Ahmad's
death, and within the last thirty years Wah-
hábyism has widely influenced religious thought
amongst the Muhammadans of India. The
people who hold the doctrines of the Wahhábís
do not always combine with them the fanatical
spirit of either the son of Abdul Wahháb, or
* The remnant of the Sayyid's army formed the nucleus
of the Wahhábí fanatics, who are now stationed at the
village of Polosí, on the banks of the Indus, on the north-
west frontier of British India.
224
THE WAHHABIS.
of Sayyid Ahmad Khán; they speak of them-
selves as Ahl-i-Hadis, or the people of the
traditions, or those who interpret the teaching
of the Qurán by the example of Muhammad;
but there can be but little doubt that the
religious principles of the Wahhábís of India
are identical with those of the Wahhábís of
Arabia, although it does not follow that they
are imbued with exactly the same fanatical
spirit. It must, however, be remembered that
there is no separation between Church and
State in the principles of Islám, and that
Muhammadans only cease to be fanatical and
disloyal under foreign rule when they are
certain that opportunities for resistance do not
exist. In the fatwá (decision) given by a
number of learned doctors of Lucknow and
other places, dated 17th July, 1870, it was
stated that "it is necessary that there should be
a probability of victory to the Musalmáns, and
glory to the people of Hindustán. If there be
no such probability, the Jihad is unlawful."
"'*
* Vide Hunter's Indian Musulmáns, Appendix II. Dr.
Badger, in his article in the "Contemporary Review,"
June, 1875, questions whether there is any real affinity
between the Wahhabyism of India and Najd, but we be-
lieve they are identical in principle and spirit.
THE WAHHABIS.
225
The Wahhábís speak of themselves as Mu-
wahhid, or Unitarians, and call all others Mush-
rik, or those who associate another with God;
and the following are some of their distinctive
religious tenets :-
1. They do not receive the decisions of the
four orthodox sects, but say that any man who
can read and understand the Qurán and the
sacred Hadís can judge for himself in matters
of doctrine. They, therefore, reject Ijma' after
the death of the Companions of the Prophet.
2. That no one but God can know the
secrets of men, and that prayers should not be
offered to any Prophet, Walí, Pír, or Saint;
but that God may be asked to grant a petition
for the sake of a saint.
3. That at the last day, Muhammad will
obtain permission (izn) of God to intercede for
his people. The Sunnís believe that permission
has already been given.
4. That it is unlawful to illuminate the
shrines of departed saints, or to prostrate before
them, or to perambulate (tawáƒ) round them.
5. That women should not be allowed to
visit the graves of the dead, on account of their
immoderate weeping.
226
THE WAHHABIS.
6. That only four festivals ought to be
observed, namely, 'Id-ul-Fitr, 'Id-ul-Azhá,
'A'shúráa, and Shab-i-Barát.
7. They do not observe the ceremonies of
Maulúd, which are celebrated on the anniversary
of Muhammad's birth.
8. They do not present offerings (Nazr) at
any shrine.
9. They count the ninety-nine names of God
on their fingers, and not on a rosary.
10. They understand the terms "sitting of
God," and "hand of God," which occur in the
Qurán, in their literal (Haqiqi) sense, and not
figuratively (Majází); but, at the same time,
they say it is not revealed how God sits, or in
what sense he has a hand, etc.*
* On this account the Christian doctrines of the Trinity
and the Sonship of Christ do not present the same diffi-
culties to the mind of a Wahhábí which they do to that of
a Sunní.
227
XLIX. -SUFI'ISM, OR MYSTICISM.
THE term Súfi is said to be derived from the
Arabic Súf, "wool," on account of the woollen
garments worn by the Eastern ascetics; or
from the Persian Sáf, "pure," with reference to
the Sufíistic effort to attain to metaphysical
purity; or from the Greek, oopia, "wisdom,"
i. e., the true wisdom, or knowledge.
Tasawwaf, or Sufiíism, appears to be but
the Muslim adaptation of the doctrines of the
Vedanta school, which we also find in the
writings of the old academies of Greece, and
which Sir William Jones thought Plato learned
from the sages of the East.
The Súfis are divided into innumerable sects;
but although they differ in name, and in some
of their customs, they are all agreed in the
principal tenets, especially those which incul-
cate the absolute necessity of blind submission
to an inspired teacher, or Murshid. They
Q 2
228
SUFIISM.
believe that God only exists. He is in all
things, and all things in him, and all created
beings visible and invisible are an emanation
from God, and not really distinct from Him.
That the soul of man existed before the body
in which it is confined as in a cage. The great
object of the Súfí being to escape from the
trammels of humanity, and to return to the
bosom of divinity, whilst the teachings of their
mystic creed are supposed to lead the soul
onward, stage by stage, until it reaches the
goal-perfect knowledge.
The natural state of every Muslim is Násút,
in which state the disciple must observe the
precepts of the law, or Shari'at; but, as this
is the lowest form of spiritual existence, the
performance of the journey is enjoined upon
every searcher after Truth.
The following are the stages (Manzil) which
the Súfí has to perform. Having become a
searcher after God (Tálib), he enters the first
stage of 'Ubúdiyat, "service." When the Divine
attraction has developed his inclination into
the love of God, he is said to have reached the
second stage of 'Ishaq, "love." This Divine
love, expelling all worldly desires from his
SUFIISM.
229
heart, he arrives at the third stage of Zudh,
"seclusion." Occupying himself henceforward
with contemplation and the investigations of
the metaphysical theories concerning the nature,
attributes, and works of God, which are the
characteristics of the Súfi system, he reaches
the fourth stage of M'arijat, "knowledge."
This assiduous contemplation of metaphysical
theories soon produces a state of mental ex-
citement, which is considered a sure prognos-
tication of direct illumination from God. This
fifth stage is called Wajd, "ecstasy." During
the next stage he is supposed to receive a reve-
lation of the true nature of the Godhead, and
to have reached the sixth stage of Haqiqat,
"truth." The next stage is that of Wasl,
"union with God," which is the highest stage
to which he can go whilst in the body; but
when death overtakes him, it is looked upon as
a total re-absorption into the Deity, forming
the consummation of his journey and the eighth
and last stage of Faná, "extinction." That
stage in which the traveller is said to have
attained to the love of God, is the point from
which the Sufiistic poets love to discuss the
doctrines of their sect. The Sálik, or traveller,
230
SUFIISM.
is the Lover ('Ashiq), and God is the Beloved
One (M'ashuq). This Divine love is the theme
of most of the Persian and Pushtu poems,
which abound in Sufiistic expressions which
are difficult of interpretation to an ordinary
English reader. For instance, Sharáb, "wine,"
expresses the domination of Divine love in the
heart. Gísú, "a ringlet," the details of the
mysteries of Divinity. Mai Khána, “a tavern,"
a stage of the journey. Mirth," "wanton-
ness," and "inebriation," signify religious en-
thusiasm and abstraction from worldly things.
66
The eight stages which we have given are
those usually taught by Súfi teachers in their
published works; but in North India we have
frequently met with persons of this sect, who
have learnt only the four following stages:-
The first, Násút, "humanity," for which
there is the Shari'at, or law. The second,
Malakút, "the nature of angels," for which
there is Tariqât, or the pathway of purity.
The third is Jabarút, "the possession of
power," for which there is M'arifat, or know-
ledge. And the fourth is Láhút, "extinction,"
for which there is Haqiqat, or truth.
The Súfi mystic seeks, by concentration of
SUFIISM.
231
his thoughts and affections on God, to lose his
own identity; and the following fable, related
by Jalál-ud-dín, the author of the Masnawi,*
illustrates their views on the subject. It re-
presents Human Love seeking admission into
the Sanctuary of Divinity :-
"One knocked at the door of the Beloved,
and a voice from within inquired 'Who is
there?' Then he answered, 'It is I.' And the
voice said,This house will not hold me and
thee.' So the door remained shut. Then the
Lover sped away into the wilderness, and fasted
and prayed in solitude. And after a year he
returned, and knocked again at the door, and
the voice again demanded, Who is there?'
And the Lover said, 'It is Thou.' Then the
door was opened."
6
In Professor Max Müller's address to the
Aryan section of the International Congress of
Orientalists assembled in London, in September,
1874, he said:-"We have learnt already one
lesson, that behind the helpless expressions
* The Masnawí is the celebrated book of the Súfí mys-
tics which, it is said, takes the place of the Qurán amongst
the majority of people in Persia.
232
SUFIISM.
*
which language has devised, whether in the
East or the West, for uttering the unutterable
there is the same intention, the same
striving, the same stammering, the same faith.
Other lessons will follow, till in the end we
shall be able to restore that ancient word which
unites not only the East with the West, but
with all the members of the human family,
and may learn to understand what a Persian
poet meant when he wrote many centuries
ago :- Diversity of worship has divided the
human race into seventy-two nations. From
all their dogmas I nave selected one-the love
of God.""
(seventy-three?)
By the seventy-two
nations," are doubtless meant the number of
sects into which Muhammad said Islám would
be divided; but the learned Professor surely
cannot be ignorant of the fact that the "love of
God," selected by the Persian poet, as the
dogma par excellence, is the 'Ishaq, or second
* Muhammad said that, as the Jews had been divided
into seventy-one sects, and the Christians into seventy-two,
the Muslims would be divided into seventy-three, that is
seventy-two in addition to the "orthodox," or Nájíah sect,
each sect, of course, claiming to be Nájíah.
SUFIISM.
233
stage of the Sufiistic Journey. Only those who
have conversed with Súfís on this mystical love
can well realise how impossible it is for the
Christian to reconcile that practical love of
God, which "" gave His only begotten Son,"
and that practical love to God, which is shown
by keeping His commandments, with that mys-
tical love, or 'Ishaq, which is the subject of
Súfi divinity.
234
L.-FAQÍRS, OR DARWESHES.
THE Arabic word Faqir, signifies poor; but it
is used in the sense of being in need of mercy,
and poor in the sight of God, rather than in
need of worldly assistance. Darwesh is derived
from the Persian dar, "a door,"-those who
beg from door to door. The terms are generally
used for those who lead a religious life. Re-
ligious Faqirs are divided into two great
classes, the ba Sahra' (with the law), or
those who govern their conduct according to
the principles of Islám; and the be Shara'
(without the law) or those who do not rule
their lives according to the principles of any
religious creed, although they call themselves
Musulmáns. The former are called Sálík, or
travellers on the pathway (tariquat) to heaven;
and the latter are either Ázád (free), or Majzúb
(abstracted). The Sálik embrace the various
religious orders who perform the Zikrs de-
scribed in our next note. The Majzúb are
FAQIRS, OR DARWESHES.
235
The
totally absorbed in religious reverie.
Ázád shave their beards, whiskers, moustachios,
eyebrows and eyelashes, and lead lives of
celibacy.
The Ázád and Majzúb Faqírs can scarcely
be said to be Muhammadans, so that a descrip-
tion of their various sects do not fall within
the limits of these notes. The Sálik Faqírs
are also divided into very numerous orders
but their chief difference consists in their
Silsilah, or chain of succession, from their
great teachers the Khalifas 'Ali, and Abu Bakr,
who are said to have been the founders of the
religious order of Faqírs. European writers
have distinguished the various orders by their
dress and their religious performances; but
we have not been able to find that these are
the distinguishing features of difference amongst
them.
The following are the chief orders which are
met with in North India :—
1. The Naqshbandía are followers of Khwá-
jah Pír Muhammad Naqshband, and are a very
numerous sect; they usually perform the Zikr-
i-Khafi, or the silent religious devotion de-
scribed in the next chapter.
236
FAQIRS, OR DARWESHES.
2. The Qádiría sprung from the celebrated
Sayyid Abdul Qadir, surnamed Pír Dustagír,
whose shrine is at Bagdad. They practise both
the Zikr-i-Jalí, and the Zikr-i-Khafi. Most of
the Sunní Maulavís on the north-west frontier
of India are members of this order. In Egypt
it is most popular amongst fishermen.
3. The Chishtía are followers of Banda
Nawáz, surnamed the Gaysu daráz, or the long-
ringletted. His shrine is at Calburgah.
The Shía'hs generally become Faqírs of this
order. They are partial to vocal music, for
the founder of the order remarked, that singing
was the food and support of the soul. They
perform the Zikr-i-Jalí, described in the next
article.
4. The Jalálía were founded by Sayyid
Jalál-ud-dín, of Bokhára. They are met with
in Central Asia. Religious mendicants are often
of this order.
5. The Sarwardía are a popular order in
Afghanistan, and comprise a number of learned
men. They are the followers of Hasan Bisrí,
of Basra, near Bagdad.
These are the most noted orders of ba Shara'
Faqírs. The be Shara' Faqírs are very nume-
FAQIRS, OR DARWESHES,
237
rous. The most popular order is that of the
Mudáría, founded by Zinda Sháh Murdár, of
Syria, whose shrine is at Mukanpur, in Oudh.
From these have sprung the Malang Faqírs
who crowd the bazaars of India. They wear
their hair matted, and tied in a knot. The
Rafía order is also a numerous one in some
parts of India. They practise the most severe
discipline, and mortify themselves by beating
their bodies.
D'Ohsson enumerates thirty-two of the prin-
cipal religious orders, giving the name of the
founder, and the place of his shrine.

No.
Name of the
Order.
Founder.
Place of the
Founder's Shrine.
Date,
A.H.
6
Alwání
2 Adhamí
3 Bastámí
123410 CO
4 Saqatí
5 Qádirí
Rufáli
Shekh Alwán
Ibrahim ibn Adham
Jeddah
149
Damascus
161
Bayazid Bastámí
Jebel Bestá í
261
Sirrí Siqatí
Bagdad
295
Abdul-Qadir Jilání
Bagdad
561
Syyid Ahmad Rufáli Bagdad
576
7
Sahrwardí
Shiháb-ud-din
Bagdad
602
8 Kabrawi
Najm-ud-din
Khwaresm
617
9 Sházilí
Abul Hasan
Mecca
656
10 Maulaví
14
15
16 Zainí
17 Baháí
11 Badawi
12 Naqshbandi
13 S'adí
Bakhtá-hí
Khilwati
Jalál-ud-din Mulána Conyah
Abul Fitan Ahmad
Pir Muhammad
S'ad-ud-din
Haji Bakhtásh
'Umar Khilwati
Zain-ud-din
Abdul Ghaní
672
Egypt
675
Persia
719
Damascus
736
Kir Sher
736
Caisare i
800
Cufa
838
Adrianople
870
22
19 Ashrafí
20 Bakrí
18 Bairan í
Hají Bairam
Ashraf Rumí
Angora
876 |
Chín Iznic
899
Abu Bakr Wafáí
Aleppo
902
233
FAQIRS, OR DARWESHES.
No.
Name of the
Order.
Founder.
Place of the
Founder's Shrine.
Date.
A.H.
Sunbulí
Ghulshaní
Yíjit Báshí
Umm Sunání
Jalwatí
Sunbul Yusuf Bolawi Constantinople
Ibrahim Ghulshani
Shams-ud-din
Cairo
Magnesia
Shekh Umm Sunán Constantinople
Pír Uftadí
Hasan-ud-din
Shams-ud-din
Bursah
FCE
'Usháqí
Shamsí
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Sinan Ummi
29
Níyází
30
31
32 Jamálí
Mas'adí
Nuruddiní
Constantinople
Madina
Lemnos
'Alim Sinan Ummí Elmahlí
Muhammad Niyáz
Murád Shámí
Nur-ud-din
Jamál-ud-din
936
940
951
959
988
1001
1010
1079
1100
1132
Constantinople
Constantinople | 1146
Constantinople 1164
We insert the above list on the authority of
M. D'Ohsson; but we have not had an oppor-
tunity of testing the correctness of its infor-
mation.
The order of Maulavís is the most popular
religious order in Constantinople. They are
called by Europeans the dancing, or whirling
darveshes, and their religious performances
constitute one of the public sights in Con-
stantinople. They have service at their Takiya,
or convent, every Wednesday, and at Kasim
Pasha every Sunday, at 2 o'clock. There are
about twenty performers, with high round felt
caps and brown mantles. At a given signal
they all fall flat on their faces, and rise and
walk slowly round and round with their arms
FAQIRS, OR DARWESHES.
239
folded, bowing and turning slowly several
times. They then cast off their mantles and
appear in long bell-shaped petticoats and
jackets, and then begin to spin, revolving,
dancing, and turning with
turning with extraordinary
velocity.
The founder of this religious order was a
native of Balkh, in Central Asia. It is said the
spiritual powers of this extraordinary man were
developed at the early age of six years for once
on a Friday Jalád-ud-din was at Balkh on the
roof of a house with some children of his own
age, when one of the boys asked him if it were
possible for him to jump from one house to the
other. He replied, "If you have faith, jump
up towards heaven." He then sprang upwards
and was immediately lost to sight. The youths
all cried out as he disappearsd, but he soon
returned from the celestial regions, greatly
altered in complexion and changed in figure;
for he had obtained a sight of the abodes of
bliss.
It is impossible to become acquainted with
all the rules and ceremonies of the numerous
orders of Faqirs; for, like those of the Free-
240
FAQIRS, OR DARWESHES.
masons, they may not be divulged to the un-
initiated.
The following is said to be the usual method
of admitting a Muhammadan to the order of a
ba Shara' Faqír. Having first performed the
legal ablutions, the Murid (disciple) seats him-
self before the Murshid (spiritual guide). The
Murshid then takes the Murid's right hand,
and requires of him a confession of sin
according to the following form: "I ask
forgiveness of the great God than Whom there
is no other deity, the Eternal, the Everlasting,
the Living One: I turn to Him for repentance,
and beg His grace and forgiveness." This, or
a similar form of repentance, is repeated several
times. The Muríd then repeats after the
Murshid: "I beg for the favour of God and of
the Prophet, and I take for my guide to God
(here naming the Murshid) not to change or to
separate. God is our witness. By the great
God. There is no deity but God. Amín."
The Murshid and the Murid then recite the
first chapter of the Qurán, and the Murid con-
cludes the ceremony by kissing the Murshid's
hand.
FAQIRS, OR DARWESHES.
241
After the initiatory rite, the Muríd undergoes
a series of instructions, including the Zikrs,
which he is required to repeat daily. The
Muríd frequently visits his Murshid, and some-
times the Murshids proceed on a circuit of
visitation to their disciples. The place where
these "holy men" sit down to instruct the
people is ever afterwards held sacred, a small
flag is hoisted on a tree, and it is fenced in.
Such places are called "Takiya," and are pro-
tected and kept free from pollution by some
Faqír engaged for the purpose.
Those Faqírs who attain to a high degree of
sanctity are called Walis, the highest rank of
which is that of a Ghaus. Of such is the
Akhund of Swát, on the north-west frontier of
India. This celebrated religious leader at the
age of eighteen became a member of the Qádiría
order of Faqírs; and shortly after his incor-
poration, he settled down on a small island in
the river Indus near Attock, where he lived the
life of a recluse for twelve years. During this
time, it is said, his only diet was the wild-grass
seed and buffalo's milk. He soon acquired a
reputation for sanctity, and has gradually
become the great religious leader of Central
Ꭱ
:
242
FAQIRS, OR DARWESHES.
Asia. He now resides at the village of Seydu
in Swát, where he entertains as many as a
thousand visitors daily; men from all parts of
the Muslim world, who come to hear his wisdom
and receive the benefit of his prayers. The
Akhund has always been a great opponent of
Wahhábí doctrines; and, although he is not
well-read in Muslim divinity, his fatwás on re-
ligious ceremonies and secular observances are
received and obeyed by all the Sunní Muham-
madans of the north-west frontier of British
India.*
* An account of the Muhammadan darweshes has been
written by Mr. J. P. Brown, Secretary of the United States
Legation at Constantinople. Trübner & Co., London.
243
LI.-ZIKR, OR THE RELIGIOUS SER-
VICES OF THE DARWESHES.
ZIKR is the religious ceremony, or act of
devotion, which is practised by the various
religious orders of Faqírs, or Darweshes.
Almost every religious Muhammadan is a
member of some order of Faqírs, and, con-
sequently, the performance of zikr is very
common in all. Muhammadan countries; but it
does not appear that any one method of per-
forming the religious service of zikr, is peculiar
to any particular order.
Zikrs, are of two kinds, zikr-i-jalí, that
which is recited aloud, and zikr-i-khafi, that
which is performed either with a low voice, or
mentally.
The Naqshbandía order of Faqirs usually
perform the latter, whilst the Chishtía and
Qádiría orders celebrate the former. There
are various ways of going through the exercise,
R 2
244
ZIKR.
but the main features of each are similar in
character. The following is a zikr-i-jali as
given in the book Qual-ul-Jamíl, by Maulaví
Sháh Walí Ullah, of Delhi :-
1. The worshipper sits in the usual sitting
posture and shouts the word Al-lah (God),
drawing his voice from his left side and then
from his throat.
2. Sitting as at prayers he repeats the word
Al-lah still louder than before, first from his
right knee, and then from his left side.
3. Folding his legs under him he repeats
the word Al-lah first from his right knee and
then from his left side, still louder !
4. Still remaining in the same position, he
shouts the word Al-lah, first from the left knee,
then from the right knee, then from the left
side, and lastly in front, still louder !
5. Sitting as at prayer, with his face towards
Mecca, he closes his eyes, says "Lá"-drawing
the sound as from his navel up to his left
shoulder; then he says i-lá-ha, drawing out
the sound as from his brain; and lastly
"il-lal-lá-ho," repeated from his left side with
great energy·
Each of these stages is called a Zarb. They
ZIKR.
245
are, of course, recited many hundreds of times
over, and the changes we have described
account for the variations of sound and motion
of the body described by Eastern travellers who
have witnessed the performance of a zikr.
The following is a zikr-i-khafi, or that
which is performed in either a low voice, or
mentally.
1. Closing his eyes and lips, he says, “with
the tongue of the heart,
""
Al-la-ho-sami’un, "God the hearer."
Al-la-ho-baswirun, "God the seer."
Al-la-ho-'alimun, "God the knower."
The first being drawn, as it were, from the
navel to the breast; the second, from the
breast to the brain; the third, from the brain
up to the heavens; and then again repeated
stage by stage backwards and forwards.
2. He says in a low voice, "Allah," from
the right knee, and then from the left side.
3. With each exhalation of his breath, he
says, "lá-iláha," and with each inhalation,
“il-lal-lá-ho."
This third zarb is a most exhausting act of
devotion, performed, as it is, hundreds or even
246
ZIKR.
thousands of times, and is, therefore, considered
the most meritorious.
It is related that Maulaví Habib Ullah, now
living in the village of Gabásanri, in the Gadún
country, on the Peshawur frontier, has become
such an adept in the performance of this zarb,
that he recites the first part of the zikr-lá-iláha
with the exhalation of his breath after the mid-
day prayer; and the second part, il-lal-lá-ho,
with the inhalation of his breath before the
next time of prayer, thus sustaining his breath
for the period of about three hours!
Another act of devotion, which usually ac-
companies the zikr, is that of Muráqaba, or
meditation.
The worshipper first performs zikr of the
following:-
Allaho-házarí, “God the present one.”
Allaho-názarí, "God the seer.'
Allaho-shahidí, "God who witnesses.'
Allaho-mai, "God who is with us."
Having recited this zikr, either aloud or
mentally, the worshipper proceeds to meditate
upon some verse or verses of the Qurán. Those
recommended for the Qádiría Faqírs by Maulavi
ZIKR.
247
Sháb Walí Ullah are the following, which we
give as indicating the line of thought which is
considered most devotional and spiritual by
Muslim mystics :-
1. Surat-ul-Hadíd (lvii.), 3.
"He (God) is first. He is last. The Manifest, and
the Hidden, and who knoweth all things."
2. Surat-ul-Hadíd (lvii.), 4.
"He (God) is with you wheresoever ye be."
3. Surat-ul-Qáf (1.), 16.
"We (God) are closer to him (man) than his neck
vein."
4. Surat-ul-Baqr (ii.), 109.
"Whichever way ye turn, there is the face of God."
5. Surat-un-Nisá (iv.), 125.
"God encompasseth all things."
6. Surat-ur-Rahman (lv.), 7.
“All on earth shall pass away, but the face of thy God
shall abide resplendent with majesty and glory.”
Some teachers tell their disciples that the
heart has two doors, that which is fleshy, and
that which is spiritual; and that the zikr-i-
jali has been established for the opening of the
former, and zikr-i-khafi for the latter, in order
that they may both be enlightened.
There certainly must be something invigora-
248
ZIKR.
ting in the exercise of a zikr-i-jalí to a religious
devotee, who seldom stirs out of his mosque;
and we have often been told by Maulavís, that
they find the performance of a zikr keeps evil
thoughts from the mind; but as some of the
most devoted zákirs (i.e. those who perform
the zikr) are amongst the most immoral men,
the religious exercise does not appear to have
any lasting effect on the moral character.
As a curious instance of the superstitious
character of this devotional exercise, the
Chishtía order believe that if a
man sits
cross-legged and seizes the vein called Kaimás,
which is under the leg, with his toes, that it
will give peace to his heart, when accompanied
by a zikr of the "nafi isbát," which is a term
used for the first part of the Kalimah, which
forms the usual zikr, namely:
Lá-iláha-il-lal-laho, "There is no deity but
God."
The most common form of zikr is a recital
of the ninety-nine names of God; for Muham-
mad promised those of his followers who recited
them, a sure entrance to Paradise.*
* Vide Mishkát, bk. cxi.
ZIKR.
249
To facilitate this repetition, the zákir uses a
Tasbih, or rosary, of ninety-nine beads. The
Wahhábís, however, do not use this invention,
but count on their fingers. The introduction
of the rosary amongst Roman Catholics is
generally ascribed to Dominic, the founder of
the Black Friars (A.D. 1221); but Dean Hook
says it was in use in the year 1100; it is, there-
fore, not improbable that the Crusaders bor-
rowed it from their Muslim opponents; and it
is thought that the Muhammadans received it
from the Buddhists.
There are several lists of the supposed
ninety-nine names of God; but the following
is given by Muslim and Bokhárí in their col-
lections of traditions:-
1. Rahmán
2. Rahím.
3. Málik
4. Quddus
5. Salám .
6. Momin.
7. Mohymin
The Compassionate.
The Merciful.
The King.
The Holy One.
The Peace.
The Faithful.
The Protector.
* Surat-al-Aráf (vii.), 179: “Most excellent titles hath
God by these, call ye upon him."
250
ZIKR.
8. 'Azíz
9. Jabbár.
10. Mutakabbir
11. Kháliq .
12. Bárí
13. Musawwir
14. Ghafár.
15. Qahhár.
16. Wahháb
17. Razzáq ·
18. Fattah .
19. 'Alím
20. Qábiz
21. Básit
22. Kháfiz
23. Ráfí
24. Mu'iz
25. Muzil
26. Sami'
•
27. Basír
28. Hákam.
29. 'Adl
30. Latíf
•
31. Khabír.
32. Halím.
→
•
The Incomparable.
The Benefactor.
The Mighty Doer.
The Creator.
The Maker.
The Former.
The Pardoner.
The Powerful.
The Giver.
The Bestower of
Daily Bread.
The Opener.
The Omniscient.
The Restrainer.
The Expander.
The Depresser.
The Exalter.
The Strengthener.
The Lowerer.
The Hearer.
The Seer.
The Judge.
The Just.
The Benignant.
The Knower.
The Clement.
ZIKR.
251
33. 'Azím
34. Ghafúr .
35. Shakúr.
36. 'Alí
37. Kabír
38. Háfiz
39. Muqít
40. Hasíb
•
41. Jalíl
42. Karím .
43. Raqíb
44. Mujíb
45. Wási'
46. Hakím.
47. Wadúd.
48. Majíd
•
49. Báis
50. Shahíd.
51. Haqq
52. Wakíl
53. Qawwí
54. Matín.
55. Walí
56. Hamíd.
The Great.
The Great Pardoner.
The Rewarder.
The Most High.
The Great Lord.
The Guardian.
The Giver of Strength.
The Reckoner.
The Glorious.
The Munificent.
The Watcher.
The Approver of
Supplications.
The Expander.
The Physician.
The All-Loving.
The Glorious.
The Awakener.
The Witness.
The True.
The Provider.
The Powerful.
The Firm.
The Friend.
The One to be
Praised.
252
ZIKR.
57. Muhsí .
58. Mubdí.
59. Mu'íd
60. Mohyí .
61. Mumit.
62. Hai
63. Qaiyyúm
64. Wájid
65. Majíd
66. Wáhid .
67. Samad.
68. Qádir
•
69. Muqtadir
70. Muqaddim
71. Muwakhkhir
72. Awwal.
73. Akhir
•
74. Zahir
75. Bátin
76. Wálí
77. Muta'á.
78. Barr
79. Tawwáb
80. Muntaqim
81. Afú
82. Ráuf
The Counter.
The Cause.
The Restorer.
The Life-Giver.
The Death-Giver.
The Living.
The Self-subsisting.
The Finder.
The Grand.
The Unique.
The Perpetual.
The Powerful.
The Prevailing.
The Bringer before.
The Bringer after.
The First.
The Last.
The Evident.
The Hidden.
The Governor.
The Sublime.
The Doer of Good.
The Propitious.
The Avenger.
The Eraser.
The Benefiter.
ZIKR.
253
83. Málik-ul-Mulk
The King of King-
doms.
84. Zuljalál-wal-Ikrám The Lord of Glory
and Honour
85. Muksit
86. Jámi'
87. Ghaní
88. Mughaní
89. Mutí
90. Maní'
91. Zárr
92. Náfi'
93. Núr
94. Hádí
95. Badia'
96. Báqí
97. Wáris
98. Rashid.
99. Sabúr
•
The Equitable.
The Assembler.
The Rich.
The Enricher.
The Giver.
The Withholder.
The Afflicter.
The Benefactor.
The Light.
The Guide.
The Incomparable.
The Eternal.
The Inheritor.
The Director.
The Patient.
The list either begins or closes with the
peculiar designation of God, Allah, making
the complete number of one hundred names
for the Deity.
The following names occur in other works
which we have consulted, and are sometimes
used in the place of some of those in the list
254
ZIKR.
already given:-Azali, the Eternal; Abadi,
the Everlasting; Maula, the Lord; Ahad,
the only One; Mun'em, the Giver of Blessing;
Sadiq, the Righteous One; Sattár, the Con-
cealer of Sins, Rabb, the Lord.
In the recital of these words the prefix and
inflexion are used thus, Ar-Rahímo! Al-Máliko!
As-Sami'o! etc. Many of the titles will ap-
pear to the English reader to be synonymous,
but Muslim theologians discover in them
shades of difference. It will be observed that
the titles are not arranged in philosophical
order.
In addition to the forms of zikr already
mentioned there are four others which are even
of more common use, and are known as Tasbih,
Tahmid, Tahlil, and Takbir. They are used as
exclamations of joy and surprise, as well as for
the devotional exercise of zikr.
Tasbih is the expression Subhán-Allah !
"Holiness be to God!
Tahmid.
God!"
Tahlil.
Alhamdo-Lilla!
"Praise be to
Lá-il-la-ha-il-lal-lá-ho! "There is
no deity but God!"
Takbir. Allaho-Akbar! "God is great!"
ZIKR.
255
Muhammad said, "Repeat the Tasbih a
hundred times, and a thousand virtues shall be
recorded by God for you, ten virtuous deeds
for each repetition."
When the Tasbih and Tahmid are recited
together it is said thus, Subhán-Allah wa
·Bihamdihi, i. e., "Holiness be to God with His
praise." It is related in the Hadís that Mu-
hammad said, "Whoever recites this sentence a
hundred times, morning and evening, will have
all his sins forgiven.
In forming our estimation of Muhammad and
Muhammadanism we must take into con-
sideration the important place the devotional
exercise of zikr occupies in the system, not for-
getting that it has had the authoritative sanc-
tion of "the Prophet " himself.
256
LII.-THE LORD JESUS CHRIST.
IN the Qurán our blessed Lord is spoken of
as 'Isa (Jesus), and Masih (the Messiah). He
is also called Kalima,* the Word (of God);
Qaul-ul-Haqq,† the Word of Truth; and Rúh,
the Spirit (of God); Rúh-Ullah, the Spirit of
God, being the special title, or Kalima,
whereby Jesus is distinguished from the other
great prophets. He is one "illustrious in this
world and in the next," and "who has near
access to God." He is "God's Apostle to
confirm the law, and to announce an apostle
that should come after, whose name shall be
* Surat-un-Nisá (iv.), 169.
+ Surat-ul-Maryam (xix.), 35. The passage is trans-
lated by Rodwell, as well as by Persian commentators,
"this is a statement of the truth"; but according to
Bezáwí, the words Qaul-ul-Haqq may be taken as a title of
Jesus Christ, i.e. the Word of Truth.
‡ Surat-i-Ál-i-'Imrán (iii.), 40.
THE LORD JESUS CHRIST.
257
Ahmad."* He is said to have been born of
Mary, the sister of Aaron, and the daughter of
'Imrán, near the trunk of a palm tree; to
have spoken in his cradle, and to have per-
formed many miracles during his infancy; to
have cured the blind and the leper; to have
chosen apostles, and to have caused a table to
descend from heaven, both as "a festival and
a sign for them." The Jews are said to have
been deceived by God, and to have crucified
another person instead of Jesus, who
who was
taken up into heaven, where he remains with
his mother in a lofty and quiet place, watered
with springs, until he shall come again in the
last day to convert the whole world to Islám!
The rambling incoherent account of our
blessed Lord's life, as given in the Qurán,
would far exceed the limits of these "Notes";
but it will be found upon reference to the
following Súras, or chapters:
An account of the birth of the Virgin Mary.
-Súra iii. 33-37, 42-44.
Birth of Jesus announced to the Virgin
Mary. Súra iii. 45-48; xix. 16–21.
Surat-us-Sáf (!xi ), 6.
258
THE LORD JESUS CHRIST,
The birth of Jesus. -Súra xix. 22-28.
The miracles of the Infancy.-Súra xix.
29-32; iii. 48; v. 119.
His prophetical mission. - Súra v. 87; xxxiii.
7; xliii. 56-63; lxi. 6.
His choice of apostles.-Súra iii. 51–52; lxi.
14.
The Lord's table.-Súra v. 121–124.
His crucifixion.-Súra iii. 53-54; iv. 156-
158; v. 119; xix. 32; iii. 54.
His assumption with the Virgin Mary into
Paradise. Súra xxiii. 52.
His second advent.-Súra xliii. 59.
He must render an account of himself to
God.-Súra xxiii. 7, 8; v. 118-119, 125, 127;
iv. 158.
There is a remarkable Hadís related by Anas,
which inadvertently proves that, whilst Muham-
mad admitted his own sinfulness, as well as
that of other prophets, he could not charge
our Lord with sin. It is as follows:-" The
Prophet of God said, 'In the day of resurrection
Musalmáns will not be able to move, and they
will be greatly distressed, and will say, "Would
to God that we had asked Him to create some-
one to intercede for us, that we might be taken
THE LORD JESUS CHRIST.
259
from this place, and be delivered from tribula-
tion and sorrow!" Then these men will go
to Adam, and will say, "Thou art the father of
all men, God created thee with His hand, and
made thee a dweller in Paradise, and ordered
His angels to prostrate themselves before thee,
and taught thee the names of all things. Ask
grace for us we pray thee!" And Adam will
say, "I am not of that degree of eminence you
suppose, for I committed a sin in eating of the
tree which was forbidden. Go to Noah, the
Prophet, he was the first who was sent by God
to the unbelievers on the face of the earth.”
Then they will go to Noah and ask for inter-
cession, and he will say, "I am not of that
degree which ye suppose." And he will re-
member the sin which he committed in asking
the Lord for the deliverance of his son (Hud),
not knowing whether it was a right request or
not; and he will say, "Go to Abraham, who
is the Friend of God." Then they will go to
Abraham, and he will say, "I am not of that
degree which ye suppose." And he will re-
member the three occasions upon which he told
lies in the world; and he will say, "Go to
Moses, who is the servant to whom God gave
s 2
260
THE LORD JESUS CHRIST.
1
His law, and whom he allowed to converse
with Him." And they will go to Moses, and
Moses will say, "I am not of that degree which
ye suppose." And he will remember the sin
which he committed in slaying a man, and he
will say,
"Go to Jesus, He is the servant of
God, the Apostle of God, the Spirit of God,
and the Word of God." Then they will go to
Jesus, and he will say, "Go to Muhammad
who is a servant, whose sins God has forgiven
both first and last." Then the Musalmáns
will come to me, and I will ask permission to
go into God's presence and intercede for
them.'" (Vide Mishkát, bk. xxiii. chap. xii.)
261
LIII. THE CRUCIFIXION OF OUR
SAVIOUR.
THE following are the verses in the Qurán
which allude to our blessed Lord's crucifixion:
Surat-un-Nisá (iv.), 157 :—
"And for their saying (we have cursed them),
'Verily we have slain the Messiah, Jesus the
son of Mary, and Apostle of God.'
Yet they
slew him not, and they crucified him not; but
they had only his likeness. And they who
differed about him were in doubt concerning
him; no sure knowledge had they about him,
but followed only an opinion, and they did not
really slay him, but God took him up to Him-
self."
Surat-ul-Maida (v.), 19 :-
"They are infidels who say, 'Verily God is
the Messiah, the son of Mary.' Say: And who
could obtain anything from God to the con-
trary if he chose to destroy the Messiah, the
262
THE CRUCIFIXION OF OUR SAVIOUR.
son of Mary, and his mother, and the whole
world also."
Surat-i-Ál-i-Imrán (iii.), 47, 48 :—
"The Jews plotted and God plotted: but of
those who plot is God the best. Remember
when God said, 'O Jesus! verily I will cause
thee to die, and will take thee up to myself and
deliver thee from those who believe not; and
I will place those who follow thee above those
who believe not until the day of resurrection.
Then to me is your return, and wherein ye
differ will I decide between you.'
Whilst all Muslim commentators are agreed
as to the literal interpretation of these passages,
there is some difference as to the person cruci-
fied in Christ's stead.
1. In the Tafsír-i- Bezáwí it is said that
Christ asked one of his disciples to take his
place.
2. In the Tafsír-i-Mazhárí, that God took
Christ in his human body to heaven alive.
3. In the Tafsír-i-Baghwí, that God trans-
formed Christ's appearance to one of his
enemies, a spy, who was thus crucified in his
stead by mistake.
4. In the Tafsír-i-Kalbí, that Titánús was
THE CRUCIFIXION OF OUR SAVIOUR.
263
crucified, God having transferred Christ's ap-
pearance to that person.
5. In the Tafsír-i-Kamálain that Christ was
dead seven hours, then restored to life and taken
to heaven.
It will be seen that these commentators have
adopted the errors of the Basilidians, and other
heretics, with reference to our Lord's cruci-
fixion; for Irenæus says that the Basilidians
held that Simon of Cyrene was crucified instead
of Christ.
The Cross of Christ" is the missing link in
the Muslim's creed; for we have already al-
luded to the great anomaly of a religion which
rejects the doctrine of a sacrifice for sin,
whilst its great central feast is a Feast of
Sacrifice.
It is related by the Muslim historian Waqidi,
that Muhammad had such repugnance to the
sign of the cross, that he destroyed everything
brought to his house with that figure upon it.
264
LIV.—THE DIVINITY OF CHRIST, AND
THE HOLY TRINITY.
THE following are the allusions to the Holy
Trinity and the Sonship of Christ in the
Qurán:-
Surat-un-Nisá (iv.), 169 :-
"O ye people of the Book! overstep not
bounds in your religion, and of God speak only
truth. The Messiah Jesus, son of Mary, is
only an Apostle of God, and his Word which
he conveyed into Mary, and a Spirit proceeding
from himself. Believe, therefore, in God and
his apostles, and say not there is a Trinity (lit.
"three"). Forbear, it will be better for you.
God is only one God! Far be it from His
glory that He should have a son
*
*
The Messiah disdaineth not to be a servant of
God."
Surat-ul-Maida (v.), 79 :—
'The Messiah, the son of Mary, is but an
THE DIVINITY OF CHRIST.
265
apostle; other apostles have flourished before
him, and his mother was a just person; they
both ate food."
Verse 116 of the same Súra :-
"O Jesus, son of Mary, hast thou said unto
mankind, Take me and my mother as two
Gods beside God?""
From the above verses it appears that
Muhammad thought the Holy Trinity of the
Christians consisted of the Father, the Son,
and the Virgin; and historians tell us that there
existed in Arabia a sect called Collyridians,
who considered the Virgin Mary a divine
person, and offered in worship to her a cake
called Collyris; it is, therefore, not improbable
that Muhammad obtained his perverted notion
of the Holy Trinity from the existence of this
sect. From the expression "they both ate
food," we must conclude that Muhammad had
but a sensuous idea of the Trinity in Unity,
and had never been instructed in the orthodox
faith with reference to this dogma.
In dealing with Muhammadans the Christian
missionary must not treat their system as
though the views of Islám were precisely those
266
THE DIVINITY OF CHRIST.
66
of modern Socinians.* Islám admits the mi-
raculous conception of Christ, and that he is
the "Word" which God conveyed into
Mary"; and whilst the other five great pro-
phets are but "the chosen," "the preacher,"
"the friend," "the converser with," and "the
messenger" of God, Jesus is admitted to be the
Spirit of God." He is the greatest miracle
worker of all the prophets, and whilst Muham-
mad is dead and buried, and saw corruption, all
Muslim divines admit that Jesus "saw no cor-
ruption," and still lives with a human body
in Paradise.
Moreover, it is said in the Hadís that the
Núr-i-Muhammad, the light of Muhammad,
was created before all things which were made
by God.
The pre-existence of the divine
"Word which was made flesh
made flesh and dwelt
amongst us" is not, therefore, an idea foreign
to the Muslim mind.
* We speak of the views of modern Socinians, for we
are aware that both the Socini, uncle and nephew, ad-
mitted the miraculous conception of Christ, and said that
He ought to be worshipped.
267
LV. - TAHRÍF, OR THE ALLEGED
CORRUPTION OF THE SACRED
BOOKS BY THE JEWS AND
CHRISTIANS.
TAHRÍF is the word used by Muhammadan
writers to express the corruption of the sacred
Scriptures of the Jews and Christians as as-
serted in the Qurán.
Imám Fakhar-ud-dín Rází, in his commen-
tary, explains "Tahrif" to mean, to change,
alter, or turn aside anything from the truth.
Muslim divines say there are two kinds of
Tahrif, namely, Tahrif-i-M'anawí, a corruption
of the meaning; and Tahrif-i-Lafzí, a corrup-
tion of the words.
Muhammadan controversialists, when they
become acquainted with the nature of the
contents of our sacred books, and of the im-
possibility of reconciling the contents of the
Qurán with those of the sacred Scriptures,
268
TAHRIF.
charge the Christians with the Tahríf-i-Lafzí.
They say the Christians have expunged the
word Ahmad from the prophecies, and have
inserted the expression "Son of God," and the
story of the crucifixion, death, and resurrection
of our blessed Lord. This view, however, is
not the one held by the most celebrated of the
Muslim commentators.
Imám Muhammad Ismail Bokhárí,* records
that Ibn 'Abbás said that "the word Tahrif
(corruption) signifies to change a thing from
its original nature; and that there is no man
who could corrupt a single word of what pro-
ceeded from God, so that the Jews and Chris-
tians could corrupt only by misrepresenting the
meaning of the words of God."
Ibn-i-Mazar and Ibn Abi Hátim state, in the
commentary known as the Tafsír Durr-i-Mansúr,
that they have it on the authority of Ibn-i-
Munía, that the Taurát (i. e. the books of
Moses), and the Injil (i. e. the Gospels), are in
the same state of purity in which they were
* Vide Hadís-i-Sahíh-Bokhárí, edition printed at the
Matba' Ahmadi Meerut, A.H. 1284 (A.D. 1867), p. 1127,
line 7.
TAHRIF.
269
sent down from heaven, and that no alterations
had been made in them, but that the Jews
were wont to deceive the people by unsound
arguments, and by wresting the sense of
Scripture.
Sháh Walí Ullah, in his commentary, the
Fauz-ul-Kabir, and also Ibn 'Abbás, support
the same view.
This appears to be the correct interpretation
of the various verses of the Qurán charging the
Jews with having corrupted the meaning of
the sacred Scriptures.
For example, Surat-i-Ál-i-Imrám (iii.), 78:
There are certainly some of them who read
the Scriptures perversely, that ye may think
what they read to be really in the Scriptures,
yet it is not in the Scriptures; and they say
this is from God; but it is not from God; and
they speak that which is false concerning God
against their own knowledge."
Imám Fakhar-ud-dín, in his commentary on
this verse, and many others of the same cha-
racter which occur in the Qurán, says it refers
to a Tahrif-i-M'anawi, and that it does not
mean that the Jews altered the text, but
270
TAHRIF.
merely that they made alterations in the course
of reading.
But whilst all the old commentators, who
most probably had never seen a copy of the
sacred Books of the Jews and Christians, only
charge us with a Tahrif-i-M'anawí, all modern
controversialists amongst the Muhammadans
contend for a Tahrif-i-Lafzí, as being the only
solution of the difficulty.
In dealing with such opponents, the Christian
divine will avail himself of the following argu-
ments:-
1. The Qurán does not charge the Jews and
Christians with corrupting the text of their
sacred books; and all the learned Muslim com-
mentators admit that such is not the case.
2. The Qurán asserts that the Holy Scrip-
tures of the Jews and Christians existed in the
days of Muhammad, who invariably speaks of
them with reverence and respect.
3. There now exist manuscripts of the Old
and New Testaments of an earlier date than
that of Muhammad (A.D. 610-632).
4. There are versions of the Old and New
Testaments now extant, which existed before
TAHRIF.
271
Muhammad; for example, the Septuagint, the
Latin Vulgate, the Syriac, the Coptic, and the
Armenian versions.
5. The Hexapla, or Octapla of Origen, which
dates four centuries before Muhammad, gives
various versions of the Old Testament Scrip-
tures in parallel columns.
6. The Syrian Christians of St. Thomas,* of
Malabar and Travancore, in the south of
India, who were separated from the western
world for centuries, possess the same Scrip-
tures.
7. In the works of Justin Martyr, who lived
from A.D. 103 to 167, there are numerous quo-
tations from our sacred books, which prove that
they were exactly the same as those we have
now. The same may be said of other early
Christian writers.
Muhammadan controversialists of the present
day urge that the numerous readings which
exist in the Christian books are a proof that
they have been corrupted. But these do not
* That Christians existed in India at a very early period
is plain from the fact that a Bishop of India signed his
name at the Council of Nice, A.D. 325.
272
TAHRIF.
The
affect, in the least, the main points at issue
between the Christian and the Muslim.
Divine Sonship of Christ, the Fatherhood of
God, the Crucifixion, Death, and Resurrection
of Christ, and the Atonement, are all clearly
stated in almost every book of the New
Testament, whilst they are rejected by the
Qurán.
The most plausible of modern objections
urged by Muslim divines is, that the Christians
have lost the Injil which was sent down from
heaven to Jesus; and that the New Testament
contains merely the Hadis or Sunna-the tra-
ditions handed down by Matthew, Mark, Luke,
John, Paul, and others. It is, of course, a
mere assertion, unsupported by any proof;
but it appears to be a line of argument which
commends itself to Sayyid Ahmad Khán, C.S.I.,
and also to Ameer 'Alí Maulaví, M.A., LL.B. †
The latter professes to be a Muhammadan
* Vide The Muhammadan Commentaries on the Holy
Bible, Part I., by Syud Ahmad Khan, C.S.I. Ghazeepore,
1862.
+ Vide The Life and Teachings of Muhammad, by Syud
Ameer Ali Moulvie, M.A., LL.B., of the Inner Temple,
Barrister-at-Law. London, 1873.
TAHRIF.
273
rationalist; but as Islám is a system of the
most positive dogma, it does not admit either
of rationalism, or "free thought." Sayyid
Ahmad and Ameer 'Alí no more represent the
Muhammadanism of the Qurán and the Tra-
ditions, than the opinions of Mr. Voysey
represent the teaching of orthodox Chris-
tianity.
"Islámism is in itself stationary, and was
framed thus to remain; sterile, like its God,
lifeless like its first principle in all that con-
stitutes life-for life is love, participation, and
progress, and of these the Coranic deity has
none.
It justly repudiates all change, all de-
velopment. To borrow the forcible words of
Lord Houghton, the written book is there
the dead man's hand, stiff and motionless;
whatever savours of vitality is by that alone
convicted of heresy and defection."*
* Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 372.
T
INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS.
A.
'Ábid, 158
Abu-Dáúd, 56
Ahádís, 12
Ahl-i-Kitáb, 11
Ákhiri Chahár Shambah,
Attahíyat, 110
'Aúzobillah, 107
Áyat, 28
Ayyám-ul-Tashríq, 135
Ázád, 234
Azán, 105, 116
Azráíl, 79
167
Alfáz, 31
'Alim, 157
Al-kitáb, 15
Allah, 67
'Amm, 31, 64
Ansár, 24, 62
'Aqáid, 161
Asar, 114
Asháb, 62
Ashiq, 230
Arb'áa-ul-Akhír, 167
Áshúrá'a, 163
Áshúr-Khána, 164
Bahisht, 91
B.
Bait-Ullah, 133
Baqr-i-’Id, 173
Bára-Wafát, 168
Ba Shara', 234
Be Shara', 234
Bint-i-Labún, 126
Bint-i-Mukház, 126
Bokhárí, 58
T 2
276
INDEX.
1
Chást, 114
Chishtía, 236
C.
D.
Dábbat-ul-Arz, 88
G.
Ghaus, 158, 241
Ghází, 206
Ghusal, 105
Gísú, 230
Dajjál, 88
H.
Dalálat, 35
Darúd, 111
Dár-ul-Harb, 207
Dár-ul-Islám, 207
Dár-ul-Qarár, 92
Hadd, 141
Hadís, 50, 160
Hadís-i-'Azíz, 54
Dár-us-Salám, 91
Hadís-i-Gharib, 54
Darwesh, 234
Hadís-i-Hasan, 52
Díat, 142
Hadís-i-Maqtu', 53
Dígar, 114
Hadís-i-Marfu', 52
Dín, 11
Hadís-i-Mashhúr, 54, 62
Dirham, 127
Hadís-i-Mauqúf, 53
Dozakh, 96
Hadís-i-Mauzu', 55
Dua', 32, 111
Hadis-i-Mursal, 54
}
Hadís-i-Mustafíz, 54
Hadís-i-Mutawatir, 53, 62
F.
Faná, 229
Faqíh, 157
Faqír, 158, 234
Farz, 112, 137
Farz-i-Kafáí, 146
Fátihah, 107
Fatwá, 144, 156
Firdaus, 91
Fiqah, 161
Fitrat, 147
Fúrqán, 14
Hadís-i-Sahíh, 52
Hadís-i-Z'aíf, 52
Hájí, 135
Hajj, 101, 130
Hajr-ul-Aswad, 133
Hakim, 157
Halál, 143
Hambali, 213
Hanifí, 212
Haqiqat, 34, 229, 230
Haqiqi, 226
Harám, 138
Harf, 28
Hashíyah, 162
INDEX.
281
Sálik, 229, 234
Saqar, 97
Sarf, 162
Saríh, 34
Sarwardía, 236
Sift-ul-Imán, 180
Siháh-Sittah, 57, 160
Sayyid, 159
Silsilah, 235
Sipára, 30
Sírát, 90
Síyar, 162
Sh'abán, 163
Sulát-ul-Maghríb, 114
Sulát-ul-Musáfir, 115
Sulát-ut-Tahajúd, 114
Sulát-ut-Tarawih, 116
Sulát-uz-Zuha, 114
Sulát-uz-Zuhr, 114
Suls, 30
Sunna, 50
Sunnat, 112
Sunnat-i-F'ili, 137
Sunnat-i-Qaulí, 137
Sunnat-i-Taqrírí, 137
Sunní, 12
Shádí, 177
Shab-i-Barát, 123, 169
Shab-Qadr, 170
Shadíd-ul-Quá, 15
Surá, 29
Sháfa'í, 207, 212
T.
Shahíd, 211
Shaitán, 82
Tab'aín, 53
Sharáb, 230
Taba' Tab'aín, 62
Sharh, 162
Tabib, 156
Shari'at, 230
Tafsír, 161
Shawwál, 163
Tahlil, 254
Shekh, 158
Tahmíd, 254
Shekh-ul-Islám, 155
Shía'h, 12
Subhán, 106
Súfí, 227
Sufi-Ullah, 84
Sulát, 101, 104
Sulát-ul-'Asar, 114
Sulát-ul-Fajr, 114
Sulát-ul-'Ishaa, 114
Sulát-ul-Ishraq, 114
Sulát-ul-Istikharah, 116
Sulát-ul-Juma', 115
Sulát-ul-Khasúf, 116
Sulát-ul-Khauf, 116
Sulát-ul-Kusúf, 116
Tahríf, 267
Tahríf-i-Lafzí, 267
Tahríf-i-M'anawí, 267
Tahzíb, 57
Takbír, 188, 254
Takbír-i-Jalsa, 109
Takbír-i-Qa'úd, 110
Takbír-i-Qíám, 110
Takbír-i-Ruku', 108
Takbír-i-Sijdah, 109
Takbír-i-Tahrímah, 106
Takía, 217
Takiya, 238, 241
Taláq, 182
Taláq-i-Ahsan, 182
282
INDEX.
Taláq-i-Bid'aí, 183
Taláq-i-Hasan, 182
Taláq-i-Mutlaq, 183
Tálib, 228
Taqdír, 98
Tarawih, 121
Taríqat, 230, 234
Tarwíah, 134
Wáhí-Ghair-i-Matlu', 60
Wáhí-Qalb, 48
Wáhí-Qurán, 47
Wáhí-Záhir, 47
Wajd, 229
Wájib, 137
Walí, 47, 157, 241
Wasl, 229
Tasawwaf, 227
Tasbíh, 249, 254
Witr, 112
Wuzu, 105
Tasbih-i-Ruku', 108
Tasbih-i-Sijdah, 108, 109
Tashahhúd, 111
Tasmíyah, 107
Y.
Taurát, 268
T'auuz, 107
Tawáf, 133, 225
Yajúj, 88
T'azír, 142
Yaum-un-Nahr, 173
Tirmízí, 56
Z.
U.
'Ubudíyat, 194, 228
Záhid, 158
Záhir, 32, 47
'Ulama, 157
'Urs, 177
Usúl, 160
W.
Wahhábí, 219
Wábí, 47
Wáhí-Bátin, 48
Zakát, 101, 125
Zákir, 248
Zarb, 244
Zát, 37
Zikr, 243
Zikr-i-Jalí, 243
Zikr-i-Khafí, 243
Zimmí, 209
Zuhd, 229
Zul-Hijja, 135, 163
Zul-Q'ada, 163
Opinions of the Press on the First Edition.
"Altogether an admirable little book. It combines two excellent
qualities, abundance of facts and lack of theories.
On
every one of the numerous heads (over fifty) into which the book is
divided, Mr. Hughes furnishes a large amount of very valuable
information, which it would be exceedingly difficult to collect from
even a large library of works on the subject. The book might well
be called a 'Dictionary of Muhammadan Theology,' for we know of
no English work which combines a methodical arrangement (and
consequently facility of reference), with fulness of information in so
high a degree as the little volume before us."-The Academy. (Review
by Mr. Stanley Lane Poole.)
"It contains multum in parvo, and is about the best outlines of the
tenets of the Muslim faith which we have seen. It has, moreover,
the rare merit of being accurate; and, although it contains a few
passages which we would gladly see expunged, it cannot fail to be
useful to all Government employés, who have to deal with Muham-
madans; whilst to Missionaries, it will be invaluable.”—The Times of
India. (Review by Colonel W. Nassau Lees, LL.D.)
"This small book is the most luminous, most convenient, and, we
think, the most accurate, outline of the tenets and practices of
Islamism that we have met with. It seems exactly the sort of
comprehensive and trustworthy book, in small compass, on this
subject, that we and many more have often looked for in vain.
The author has evidently studied his subject in a faithful,
laborious, and scholarly manner; and has not only studied, but
mastered it. The work is of great value for general students, and
for men whose work lies among the Musulman population, such as
civil servants, and missionaries, it seems to be the very work that
is wanted."-The Friend of India.
"It is manifest throughout the work that we have before us the
opinions of one throughly conversant with the subject, and who is
uttering no random notions.
We strongly recommend Notes
on Muhammadanism. Our clergy especially, even though they are
not missionaries, and have no intention of labouring amongst
Muhammadans, or consorting with them, ought to have at least as
much knowledge of the system as can be most readily acquired,
with a very little careful study, from this useful treatise.”—The
Record.
"The main object of the work is to reveal the real and practical
character of the Islam faith, and in this the author has evidently
been successful."-The Standard.
"Its value as a means of correcting the common impressions about
Islam will reveal itself to the most cursory reader, while the author's
evident scholarship and intimate knowledge of his subject, bespeak
for him a patient hearing on points the most open to controversy.”.
Indian Mail.
"Mr. Hughes has done good service by providing, in the shape of
these 'Notes,' a concise, well arranged, and convenient hand-book of
Islam; so small that all missionaries can easily find time to master
it, yet so comprehensive that the information it gives will be found
sufficient--not, indeed, for the curious investigator of the science, but
for the ordinary Indian missionary.
Knowledge for which,
otherwise, we should be compelled to search through large volumes
in many languages, is here brought together in the compass. of a
small octavo.”—Indian Evangelical Review.
·
"In brief compass it contains a large amount of reliable informa-
tion. Instead of theories and fancies, facts are placed before us.
Muhammadanism is represented as it really is, not as it is supposed
that it might possibly be. Instead of retailing the speculations current
in literary society at home, Mr. Hughes furnishes us with brief but
incisive statements, which, so far as they go, leave nothing to be
desired.”—The Church Missionary Intelligencer.
INDEX.
277
Háwía, 97
Hijrat, 2, 209
Hiqqah, 126
Hutama, 96
'Ibárat, 32, 35
Iblís, 32, 82
I.
Ibn-i-Májah, 56
'Idgah, 171
Islám, 10
Ism-i-Safát, 67
Ism-i-Zát, 67
Ism-ul-'Azam, 67
Istibsár, 57
Istidlál, 35
Istighfár, 179
Isti❜mál, 34
Isráfíl, 79
Itiiáq-i-Fili, 61
Itifáq-i-Qauli, 61
Itifáq-i-Saqúti, 61
'Itiqáf, 121
Izn, 225
'Id-ul-Azhá, 134, 173
'Id-ul-Fitr, 128, 171
'Ifrít, 82
Ihráin, 132
Íjáb, 177
'Ijma', 12, 61
Ilhám, 47, 48
J.
Ilhám, Rabbání, 47
Illat, 64
'Ilm-i-Hadís, 51
Jabarút, 230
'Ilm-i-Tajwíd, 25
'Ilm-i-Usúl, 31
Imám, 150, 156
Imám-Bára, 164
Imám-Mahdí, 89
Imám-ul-'Azam, 150
Imám-ul-Mubín, 98
Ímán, 66
Jahannam, 96
Jahím, 97
Jalálíá, 236
Jamád-ul-úla, 163
Jamád-ul-ukhrá, 163
Jama'-i-Masjid, 171
Jamra, 134
Janáza, 185
Jánn, 82
Ímán-i-Mufassal, 66
Jannat, 91
Ímán-i-Mujmal, 66
Jannat-i-'Adan, 92
Injíl, 268
Jannat-i-'Illiyún, 92
Iqámat, 106, 117
Jannat ul-Firdaus, 92
Iqtizá, 35
'Isa, 256
'Ishaq, 228
Ishárat, 35
Ishárat-ul-Malak, 48
Jannat-ul-Khuld, 91
Jannat-ul-Mawá, 92
Jannat un-N'aím, 92
Jaz'ah, 126
| Jibráíl, 15, 79
278
INDEX.
Jihád, 206
Jihád-ul-Akbar, 206
Jihád-ul-Asghar, 206
Jinn, 82
Jizíyah, 209
Juz, 30
K.
K'aba, 131
Kalím-Ullah, 84
Kabíra, 136, 139
Káfi, 57
Kalimah, 28, 102, 179, 256
Kalám-Ullah, 12, 15
Karína, 32
Khabar-i-Wáhid, 54, 62
Khafí, 32, 33, 37
Khalifa, 150
Khalil-Ullah, 85
Khán, 159
Kháss, 31, 64
Khatib, 198
Khatnah, 103
Khudá, 68
L.
Láhd, 191, 192
Láhút, 230
Lahw-ul-Mahfúz, 98
Laylut-ul-Mubarak,
169
Laylut-ul-Qadr, 121
Lazwá, 96
Madarris, 157
M.
Mahr, 179
Maikháng, 230
Majáz, 34
Majází, 226
Majúj, 88
Majusí, 217
Majzúb, 234
.
123,
Khusús-ul-'ain, 31
Khustis-ul-jins, 31
Khusús-ul-nau', 31
Khutbah, 134, 198
Kindyah, 35
Kitáb, 15, 85
Kitábíah, 217
Kirám-ul-Katibím, 80
Kufr, 37, 139
Makrúh, 138
Malak, 16, 79
Malakút, 230
Malang, 237
Málik, 80
Málikí, 207, 213
Man-lá-yastahzirah-al-faqílı
57
Mansukh, 38
Mantiq, 162
Manzil, 30, 228
Maqám-i-Ibrahim, 133
Máríd, 82
M'arifat, 229, 230
M'ashuq, 230
Masíh, 256
INDEX.
279
Masih-ul-Dajjál, 88
Masjid-ul-Harám, 133
Mátam, 163
Matan, 162
Maulaví, 157, 238
Maulúd, 226
Mazhab, 11
Mihráb, 203
Mikáíl, 79
Millat, 11
Munkar, 80
Munqata', 53
Muráqaba, 246
Muríd, 240
Murshid, 227, 240
Murtadd, 141
Musalmán, 11
Mushkil, 33
Mushrik, 225
Mushtarak, 31
Muslim, 56
Mimbar, 171, 198
Míqát, 132
Mustahab, 138
Mír, 159
Mut'ah, 178
Misqál, 127
Mutakallim, 157
Miswák, 147
Mutashábih, 34
Mitragat, 80
Muttasil, 53
Miyán, 159
Muwahhid, 225
Mízán, 89
Momin, 11
N.
Mua qqibát, 80
Muawattáa, 57
Muawwal, 32
Muazzin, 116, 198
Mubáh, 138
Mudáría, 237
Mufassar, 32
Mufassir, 157
Mufsíd, 138
Mufti, 156
Muhájir, 62, 209
Muhaddis, 157
Muhammad, 1
Nabí, 102
Nabi-Ullah, 84
Nafl, 112
Nafí-isbát, 248
Nahaj-ul-Balághat, 57
Nahw, 162
Nájíah, 232
Nakír, 80
Namáz, 32, 104
Namáz-i-Dígar, 114
Namáz-i-Khuftan, 114
Namáz-i-Peshín, 114
Namáz-i-Shám, 114
Namáz-i-Subh, 114
Muharram, 163
Muhaqqiq, 157
Muhkam, 33
Mujmal, 33
Mujtahidín, 48, 61
Mulla, 157
Munáját, 112, 171
Nasaí, 56
Mujtahid, 157
Námús, 18
Naqshbandía, 235
Nárawá, 137
280
INDEX.
Nass, 32
Násikh, 39
Nasuá, 200
Násút, 228, 230
Nazr, 226
Nikah, 177
Nisf, 30
Niyyat, 106
Nmúz, 104, 114
Núr-i-Muhammad, 266
Qurán-Sharíf, 14
Qutab, 158
Qutbah, 158
R.
Rabi'-ul-Awwal, 163
Rabi'-ul-Akhir, 163
Rafía, 237
P.
Paighambar, 102
Peshín, 114
Pír, 157
Rajab, 163
Kak'at, 110
Ramazán, 119, 163
Rami-ul-Jamár, 134
Rasúl, 84, 102
Rasúl-Ullah, 85
Rawá, 137
Rayyán, 119
Rezwán, 80
Riwayat, 54
Q.
Roza, 101
Qabúl, 177
Rowzat-us-Shuhádár 165
Qádaría, 236
Ruba', 30
Qaul-ul-Haqq, 256
Rúh, 256
Qazá, 120
Qazaf, 140
Qází, 155
Rúh-Ullah, 85, 256
Rúh-ul-Ámín, 15
Qíám, 106
Rúh-ul-Qudus, 15
Ruku', 30
Qíám-i-Sami-Ullah, 108
Qiámat, 87
Qiás, 12, 48, 64
S.
Qíás-i-Jalí, 64
Qíás-i-Khafí, 64
Sab'ata-Ahrúf, 25
Qibla, 135
Qira'at, 24, 107
Qisás, 142
Qurbán-Bayrám, 173
Qurbán-i-'Id, 173
Qurán, 12, 14
Qurán-Majid, 14
Sadaqa, 128, 171
Safar, 163
Saghíra, 139
Sahifah, 85
Sahib-i-Nissab, 125
Salám, 112, 148
S'aír, 97
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much, has also read and thought much on fine art questions. His views are therefore
entitled to that respectful attention which the pleasant dress in which he has clothed
them renders it all the easier to accord."-Scotsman.
"The writing is that of a scholar and a gentleman, and though the critical faculty
is often evinced in a subtle and discriminating form, all allusions to individuals are
made with so much of the kindliness of true good taste, that we are almost conscious
of a reluctance in disagrecing with the author."-The Spectator.
•
•
"Mr Wyke Bayliss is at the same time a practical artist and a thoughtful writer.
The combination is, we regret to say, as rare as it is desirable. He deals ably and
clearly-notably so in this present book-with questions of the day of practical and
immediate importance to artists and to the Art public. . We prefer to send the
reader to the volume itself, where he will find room for much reflection."-The
Academy.
CC
·
One of the most humorous and valuable of the general articles on Art is Mr Wyke
Bayliss' Story of a Dado.'"-The Standard.
MISS SOPHIA BEALE.
The Churches of Paris from Clovis to Charles X., with numerous
Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
CONTENTS:-Notre Dime; Notre Dame des Champs; Notre Dame de Lorette;
Notre Dame des Victoires; Geneviève; Val de Grace; Ste. Chapelle: St Martin; St
Martin des Champs: Etienne du Mont; Eustache; Germain l'Auxerrois; Germain des
Près; Gervais; Julien; Jacques; Leu; Laurent; Merci; Nicolas; Paul; Roch;
Severin; V. de Paul; Madeleine; Elizabeth; Sorbonne; Invalides.
"An interesting study of the historical, archeological, and legendary associations
which belong to the principal churches of Paris."-Times.
"A comprehensive work, as readable as it is instructive. The literary treatment is
elaborite, and the illustrations are numerous and attractive."-Globe,
'For the more serious-minded type of visitor who is capable of concerning himself
in the treasures of art and store of traditions they contain, Miss Beale has prepared
her book on the Churches of Paris. It is more than an ordinary guide-book, for it
mingles personal opinion and comment with curious information drawn from the old
and new authorities on the history and contents of the more ancient and celebrated of
the Paris churches."-Scotsman.
"A monument of historical research and judicious compilation is The Churches of
Paris from Clovis to Charles X., by Sophia Beale (Allen and Cɔ.). This valuable
work, copiously and gracefully illustrated by the author, is destined to serve as a
complete vale-mecum to those British visitors to the French capital who take a special
interest in ecclesiastical architecture and in the curious mediæval lore connected with
several of the venerable Parisian fanes that have survived wars and sieges, revolutions
and spasms of urban 'improvement,' throughout from six to eight centuries.”—Daily
Telegraph.
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MONSEIGNEUR BESSON.
Frederick Francis Xavier de Merode, Minister and Almoner to Pius
IX. His Life and Works. Translated by Lady Herbert. Crown
8vo, 7s. 6d.
"C
The book is most interesting, not only to Catholics, but to all who care for
adventurous lives and also to historical inquirers. De Merode's career as an officer of
the Belgian army, as a volunteer in Algeria with the French, and afterwards at the
Papal Court, is described with much spirit by Monseigneur Besson, and Bishop of
Nimes, who is the author of the original work. The book, which is now translated,
was written with permission of the present Pope, and is, of course, a work agreeable
to the authorities of the Vatican, but at the same time its tone leaves nothing to be
desired by those who are members of the communions."-Athenæum.
SIR GEORGE BIRDWOOD, M.D., K.C.I.E., &c.
Report on the Old Records of the India Office, with Maps and
Illustrations. Royal 8vo, 12s. 6d.
↓
"No one knows better than Sir George Birdwood how to make a baro and short-
hand' index of documents attractive, instructive and entertaining, by means of the
notes and elucidatory comments which he supplies so liberally, and so pleasantly
withal, from his own inexhaustible stores of information concerning the early relations
of India with Europe."-Times.
"The wonderful story (of the rise of the British Indian Empiro) has never been
better told. . . . A better piece of work is very rarely met with."-The Anti-Jacobin.
"Official publications have not as a rule any general interest: but as there are
fagots and fagots' so there are reports and reports, and Sir George B∙rdwood's Report
on the Old Records of the India Office is one of the most interesting that could he read.”
—Journal des Debats.
HENRY BLACKBURN, Editor of "Academy Notes."
The Art of Illustration. A Popular Treatise on Drawing for the Press.
Description of the Processes, &c. Second edition.
edition. With 95 Illustra-
tions by Sir John Gilbert, R.A., H. S. Marks, R.A., G. D.
Leslie, R.A., Sir John Millais, R. A., Walter Crane, R. W. Mac-
beth, A.R.A., G. H. Boughton, A.R.A., H. Railton, Alfred East,
Hume Nisbet, and other well-known Artists. 7s. 6d.
A. capital handbook for Students.
"We thoroughly commend his book to all whom it may concern, and chiefly to the
proprietors of the popular journals and magazines which, for cheapness rather than
for art's sake, employ any of the numerous processes which are now in vogue.”—
Athenæum.
"
'Let us conclude with one of the axioms in a fascinating volume: 'Be an artist
first, and an illustrator afterwards.'"-Spectator.
"The Art of Illustration' is a brightly written account, by a man who has had
large experience of the ways in which books and newspapers are illustrated nowadays.
As a collection of typical illustrations by artists of the day, Mr Blackburn's book
is very attractive."―The Times.
"Mr Blackburn explains the processes-line, half-tone, and so forth-exemplifying
eich by the drawings of artists more or less skilled in the modern work of illustra-
tion. They are well chosen as a whole, to show the possibilities of process work in
trained hands."-Saturday Review.
"Mr Blackburn's volume should be very welcome to artists, editors, and pub.
lishers."-The Artist.
"A most useful book.”-Studio.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
of Messrs W. H. Allen & Co.'s Publications.
7
E. BONAVIA, M.D., Brigade-Surgeon, Indian Medical Service.
The Cultivated Oranges and Lemons of India and Ceylon. Demy
8vo, with oblong Atlas volume of Plates, 2 vols., 30s.
"The amount of labour and research that Dr Bonavia must have expended on these
volumes would be very difficult to estimate, and it is to be hoped that he will be
repaid, to some extent at least, by the recognition of his work by those who are
interested in promoting the internal industries of India."—Home News.
"Dr Bonavia seems to have so thoroughly exhausted research into the why and
wherefore of oranges and lemons, that there can be but little left for the most
enthusiastic admirer of this delicious fruit to find out about it. Plunging into Dr
Bonavia's pages we are at once astonished at the variety of his subject and the wide
field there is for research in an everyday topic. Dr Bonavia has given a very full
appendix, in which may be found a few excellent recipes for confitures made from
oranges and lemons."-The Pioneer.
R. BRAITHWAITE, M.D., F.L.S., &c.
The Sphagnacea, or Peat Mosses of Europe and North America.
Illustrated with 29 plates, coloured by hand, imp. 8vo, 25s.
"All muscologists will be delighted to hail the appearance of this im-
portant work. Never before has our native moss-flora been so carefully
figured and described, and that by an acknowledged authority on the subject."
Science Gossip.
Mosses, perhaps, receive about as little attention from botanists as any
class of plants, and considering how admirably mosses lend themselves to the
collector's
's purposes, this is very remarkable. Something may be due to the
minuteness of the size of many of the species, and something perhaps to the
difficulties inherent in the systematic treatment of these plants; but we fancy
the chief cause of comparative neglect with which they are treated is to be
sought in the want of a good illustrated English treatise upon them. In the
work which is now before us, Dr Braithwaite aims at placing the British
mosses on the same vantage-ground as the more favoured classes of the vege-
table kingdom; and judging from the sample lately issued, he will succeed in
his endeavours."-Popular Science Review.
"TOM BOWLING.”
"TOM
Book of Knots (The). Illustrated by 172 Examples, showing the
manner of making every Knot, Tie, and Splice. By "Tом
BOWLING. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.
""
Edited by JAMES BURROWS.
Byron Birthday Book. 16mo, cloth, gilt edges, 2s. 6d.
A handsome book.
B. CARRINGTON, M.D., F.R.S.
I
British Hepaticæ. Containing Descriptions and Figures of the Native
Species of Jungermannia, Marchantia, and Anthoceros. With plates
coloured by hand. Imp. 8vo, Parts 1 to 4, all published per set, 15s.
S. WELLS WILLIAMS, LL.D., Professor of the Chinese Language
and Literature at Yale College.
China-The Middle Kingdom. A Survey of the Geography, Govern-
ment, Literature, Social Life, Arts, and History of the Chinese Empire
and its Inhabitants. Revised Edition, with 74 Illustrations and a
New Map of the Empire. 2 vols., demy 8vo, 42s.
"The work now before us is second to none in thoroughness, comprehensiveness,
and all the tokens of accuracy of which an outside barbarian' can take cognisance.`
-A. P. PEABODY.
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SURGEON-MAJOR L. A. WADDELL, M.B.
The Buddhism of Tibet. With its Mystic Cults, Symbolism, and
Mythology, and in its relation to Indian Buddhism, with over 200
Illustrations. Demy 8vo, 600 pp., 31s. 6d.
SYNOPSI OF CONTENTS:-Introductory. Historical-Changes in Primi-
tive Buddhism leading to Lamaism-Rie, Development, and Spread of
Lamaism-The Sects of Lamaism. Doctrinal-Metaphysical Sources of the
Doctrine-The Doctrine and its Morality-Scriptures and Literature. Mon-
astic-The Order of Lamas-Daily Life and Routine-Hierarchy and Rein-
carnate Lamas. Buildings-Monasteries-Temples and Cathedral-Shrines
(and Relics and Pilgrims). Mythology and Gods-Pantheon and Images--
Sacred Symbols and Charms. Ritual and Sorcery-Worship and Ritual-
Astrology and Divination-Sorcery and Necromancy. Festivals and Plays-
Festivals and Holidays -Mysic Plays and Masquerades and Sacred Plays.
Popular Lamaism-Domestic and Popular Lamaism. Appendices-Chrono-
logical Table-Bibliography-Index.
'By far the most important mass of original materials contributed to this
recondite study.' -The Times.
"Dr Waddell deals with the whole subject in a most exhaustive manner,
and gives a clear insight into the structure, prominent features, and cults of
the system; and to disentangle the early history of Lamaism from the chaotic
growth of fable which has invested it, most of the chief internal movements
of Lɩmaism are now for the first time presented in an intelligible and syste-
matic form. The work is a valuable addition to the long series that have
preceded it, and is emiched by numerous illustrations, mostly from originals
brought from Lhasa, and from photographs by the author, while it is fully
indexed, and is provided with a chronological table and bibliography.
Liverpool Courier.
"A book of exceptional interest."--Glasgow Herald.
·
"A learned and elaborate work, likely for some time to come to be a
source of reference to all who seek information about Lamaism.
In
the appendix will be found a chronological table of Tibetan events, and a
bibliography of the best literature bearing on Lamaism. There is also an
excellent index, and the numerous illustrations are certainly one of the dis-
tinctive features of the book.”—Morning Post.
"Cannot fail to arouse the liveliest interest. The author of this excel-
lently pro luced, handsomely illustrated volume of nearly six hundred pages
has evidently spared no pains in prosecuting his studies.
The book
is one of exceptional value, and will attract all those readers who take an
interest in the old religions of the far East."-Publishers' Circular.
•
·
"The author is one of few Europeans who have entered the territory of the Grand
Lama, and spent several years in studying the actualities of Lamaism as explained by
Lamas. A Lamaist temple with its fitings was purchased, and the officiating priests
explained in full detail the symbolism an I the rites as they proceeded. Other temples
and monasteries were visited and Lamas employed for copying manuscripts, and
searching for texts bearing upon the author's researches. Enjoying special facilities
for penetrating the reserve of Tibetan ritual, and obtaining direct from Lhasa and
Tashi-hunpo most of the objects and explanatory material needed, much information
has been obtained on Lamaist theory and practice which is altogether new.
""
"The internal developmen's and movements of Lamaism are now for the first time
presented in an intelligible and systematic form. Details of the principal rites, mystic
and other deep-rooted demon worship and dark sorcery, the religious Plays and
Festivals, are given fully."
With numerous illustrations from originals brought from Lhasa,
and from photographs by the author.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
of Messrs W. H. Allen & Co.'s Publications.
9
M. C. COOKE, M.A., LL.D.
** For fuller notices of Dr Cooke's works see under Scientific, pp. 29, 30.
The British Fungi: A Plain and Easy Account of. With Coloured
Plates of 40 Species. Fifth Edition, Revised, crown 8vo, 6s.
Rust, Smut, Mildew, and Mould. An Introduction to the Study of
Microscopic Fungi. Illustrated with 269 Coloured Figures by J. E.
Sowerby. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with Appendix of
New Species. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Handbook of British Hepaticæ. Containing Descriptions and Figures
of the Indigenous Species of Marchantia, Jungermannia, Riccia, and
Anthoceros, illustrated. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Our Reptiles and Batrachians.
A Plain and Easy Account of the
Lizards, Snakes, Newts, Toads, Frogs, and Tortoises indigenous to
Great Britain. New and Revised Edition. With Original Coloured
Pictures of every species, and numerous woodcuts, crown 8vo,
6s.
F. C. DANVERS.
Report to the Secretary of State for India in Council on the
Portuguese Records relating to the East Indies, contained in
the Archivo da Torre de Tombo, and the Public Libraries at Lisbon
and Evora. Royal 8vo, sewed, 6s. net.
REV. A. J. D. D'ORSEY, B.D., K.C., P.O.C.
Portuguese Discoveries, Dependencies, and Missions in Asia and
Africa, with Maps. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
Introductory.
Book I.
The Portuguese in Europe and Asia.
Portugal and the Portuguese.
CONTENTS.
Portuguese Discoveries in the Fifteenth
Century.
Portuguese Conquests of India in the
Sixteenth Century.
The Portuguese Empire in the Sixteenth
Century.
Book II.
The Portuguese Missions in Southern
India.
Early History of the Church in India.
First Meeting of the Portuguese with the
Syrians.
Pioneers of the Portuguese Missions.
The Rise of the Jesuits.
The Jesuits in Portugal.
St Francis Xavier's Mission in India.
Subsequent Missions in the Sixteenth
Century.
Book III.
The Subjugation of the Syrian Church.
Roman Claim of Supremacy.
First Attempt, by the Franciscans.
Secon 1 Attempt, by the Jesuits.
The Struggle against Rome.
Book III.-continued
The Archbishop of Goa.
The Synod of Diamper.
The Triumph of Rome.
Book IV.
Subsequent Missions in Southern India,
with special reference to the Syrians.
Radiation of Mission of Goa.
The Madura Mission.
Portuguese Missions in the Carnatic.
Syrian Christians in the Seventeenth
Century.
Syrian Christians in the Eighteenth
Century.
Book V.
The Portuguese Missions, with special
reference to Modern Missionary
efforts in South India.
The First Protestant Mission in South
India.
English Missions to the Syrians 1806-16.
English Missions and the Syrian
Christians.
The Disruption and its Results.
Present State of the Syrian Christians.
The Revival of the Romish Missions in
India.
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C. L. EASTLAKE.
Notes on the Principal Pictures in the Royal Gallery at Venice.
Crown Svo, 3s. 6d.
VERY REV. FREDERICK W. FARRAR, D.D., F.R.S.
(Archdeacon of Westminster).
Words of Truth and Wisdom, by Very Rev. Frederick W. Farrar,
D.D., F.R.S. Crown 8vo, gilt top, 5s.
Christian Statesmanship.
Legislative Duties.
The Use of Gifts and Oppor-
tunities.
The Brotherhood of Man.
Energy of Christian Service.
Christianity and the Human
Race.
Christianity and Individual.
The Victories of Christianity.
The Christian Remedyagainst
the Frailties of Life.
Prayer, the Antidote
Sorrow.
of
CONTENTS.
The Conquest over Temp.
tation.
Too Late.
The Souls of the Departed.
What Heaven is.
No Discharge in the War
against Sin.
The Monks.
The Early Franciscans.
The Hermits.
The Missionaries.
The Martyrs.
Seneca.
Seneca and St Paul.
The Dead which die in the Gallio and St Paul.
Lord.
The Resurrection of the
Dead.
The Blighted Life.
Wisdom and Knowledge.
The Voice of History.
Roman Society in the days
of St Paul.
Sanskrit.
Greek and Hebrew.
Aryan Migrations.
Words.
"In theological views he might be described as standing between the Evangelical
party and the Broad Church; but his knowledge, coloured by a poetic temperament,
his superabundant fertility, and eloquent luxuriance of style, have gained for him a
unique position in the theological thought of the last twenty years."-Celebrities of the
Century.
GENERAL GORDON, C.B.
Events in the Taeping Rebellion, being Reprints of MSS. copied by
General Gordon, C.B., in his own handwriting; with Monograph,
Introduction, and Notes, by A. Egmont Hake, Author of " The Story
of Chinese Gordon.” With Portrait and Map, demy 8vo, 18s.
"The publication of this volume completes what may be called the personal
narrative of General Gordon's eventful life told in his own words.”—Manchester
Guardian.
“There is no doubt that a wide circle of readers will like to road the story in the
very words of the gallant leader of the Ever Victorious Army.'"—Daily Graphic.
C
A handy book of reference.
Companion to the Writing Desk; or, How to Address, Begin, and
End Letters to Titled and Official Personages. Together with a
Table of Precedence, copious List of Abbreviations, Rules for Com-
position and Punctuation, Instructions on Preparing for the Press, &c.
32mo, Is.
A useful manual which should be in every office.
BARON CUVTER.
The Animal Kingdom, with considerable Additions by W. B. Carpenter,
M.D., F.R.S., and J. O. Westwood, F.L.S. New Edition, Illustrated
with 500 Engravings on Wood and 36 Coloured Plates, imp. 8vo,
2IS.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
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I I
M. GRIFFITH.
India's Princes, short Life Sketches of the Native Rulers of India,
with 47 full-page Illustrations. Demy 4to, gilt top, 215.
The contents are arranged in the following order: -THE PUNJAUB-H. H. The
Maharaja of Cashmere, H.H. The Maharaja of Patiala, H.H. The Maharaja of Kapur-
thalla, RAJPUTANA-The Maharaja of Ouidpur, The Maharaja of Jeypore, The Maha-
raja of Jodhpur, The Maharaja of Uwar, The Maharaja of Bhurtpur. CENTRAL INDIA
-H.H. The Maharaja Holkar of Indore, H.H. The Maharaja Scindia of Gwalior, H.H.
The Begum of Bhopal. THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY-H. H. The Gaik war of Baroda, H. H.
The Rao of Cutch, H. H. The Raja of Kolhapur, H.H. The Nawab of Juarrghad, H H.
The Thakore Sahib of Bhavnagar, H.H. The Thakore Sahib of Dhangadra, H.H. The
Thakore Sahib of Morvi, H. H. The Thakore Sahib of Gondal. SOUTHERN INDIA-H.H.
The Nizam of Hyderabad, H.H. The Maharaja of Mysore, H.H. The Maharaja of
Travancore, &c.
"A handsome volume, containing a series of photographic portraits and local views
with accompanying letterpress, giving biographical and political details, carefully com-
piled and attractively presented."-Times.
GEORGE GRESSWELL.
The Diseases and Disorders of the Ox. Second Edition, demy 8vo,
7s. 6d.
"This is perhaps one of the best of the popular books on the subject which has
been published in recent years, and demonstrates in a most unmistakable manner
the great advance that has been made in Bovine and Ovine Pathology since the days
of Youatt.
To medical men who desire to know something of the disorders
of such an important animal-speaking hygienically-as the Ox, the work can be
recommended.”—The Lancet.
C. HAMILTON.
Hedaya or Guide, a Commentary on the Mussulman Laws.
Second Edition, with Preface and Index by S. G. Grady, 8vo, 35s.
The great Law-Book of India, and one of the most important monuments of Mussul-
man legislation in existence.
A work of very high authority in all Moslem countries. It discusses most of the
subjects mentioned in the Koran and Sonna."—MILLS Mohammedanism.
"A valuable work."-ALLIBONE.
JOSEPH HAYDN.
Book of Dignities, containing lists of the Official Personages of the
British Empire, Civil, Diplomatic, Heraldic, Judicial, Ecclesiastical,
Municipal, Naval, and Military, from the Earliest Periods to the
Present Time, together with the Sovereigns and Rulers of the World
from the Foundation of their respective States; the Orders of
Knighthood of the United Kingdom and India, and numerous other
lists. Founded on Beatson's "Political Index " (1806). Remodelled
and brought down to 1851 by the late Joseph Haydn. Con-
tinued to the Present Time, with numerous additional lists,
and an Index to the entire Work, by Horace Ockerby,
Solicitor of the Supreme Court. Demy 8vo, 25s.
"The most complete official directory in existence, containing about 1,300 different
lists."-Times.
"The value of such a book can hardly be overrated.”—Saturday Review.
"A perfect monument of patient labour and research, and invaluable for many
purposes of reference.”—Truth.
This valuable work has cost its editor, Mr Horace Ockerby, a great deal of labour,
and does infinite credit to his research and industry.”—World.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
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Rev. H. R. HAWEIS, M.A., Author of "Music and Morals.”
Sir Morell Mackenzie, Physician and Operator, a Memoir, compiled
and edited from Private Papers and Personal Reminiscences.
New
Edition, with Portrait and copy of Autograph Letter from the Queen,
crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Family Tree.
Surroundings.
Boyhood.
A Vocation.
The Throat Hospital.
CONTENTS.
Private Practice.
Leisure Hours.
The Emperor.
The German Doctors.
The Book.
The Respite.
The Last Voyage.
Last Glimpses.
The End.
"Mr Haweis writes not only fearlessly, but with remarkable freshness and vigour.
He is occasionally eloquent, and even pathetic. In all that he says we perceive a
transparent honesty and singleness of purpose."-Saturday Review.
"A deeply interesting book, and one which challenges in a most striking and fear-
less manner the stern verdict which Sir Morell's own profession so generally passed
upon his conduct before and after the death of his illustrious patient the Emperor.
The volume is full of absolutely interesting details, many among them new."-Daily
Telegraph.
HOWARD HENSMAN, Special Correspondent of the "Pioneer”
(Allahabad) and the “Daily News" (London).
The Afghan War, 1879-80. Being a complete Narrative of the Capture
of Cabul, the Siege of Sherpur, the Battle of Ahmed Khel, the March
to Candahar, and the defeat of Ayub Khan. With Maps, demy 8vo,
2 IS.
"Sir Frederick Roberts says of the letters here published in a collected form that
' nothing could be more accurate or graphic.' As to accuracy no one can be a more
competent judge than Sir Frederick, and his testimony stamps the book before us as
constituting especially trustworthy material for history. Of much that he relates Mr
Hensman was an eye-witness; of the rest he was informed by eye-witnesses immedi-
ately after the occurrence of the events recorded. There could, therefore, be little doubt
as to the facts mentioned. Credibility might be concurrent with incorrect deductions,
but we are assured by Sir Frederick Roberts that Mr Hensman's accuracy is complete
in all respects. Mr Hensman enjoyed singular advantages during the first part of the
war, for he was the only special correspondent who accompanied the force which
marched out of Ali Kheyl in September 1879. One of the most interesting portions of
the book is that which describes the march of Sir Frederick Roberts from Cabul to
Candahar. Tae description of the Maiwand disaster is given with combined clearness,
simplicity, and power, and will be read with the utmost interest. Indeed, the book is
in every respect interesting and well written, and reflects the greatest credit on the
author."--Athenæum.
SIR JOHN F. W. HERSCHEL, Bart., K.H., &c., Member of
the Institute of France, &c.
Popular Lectures on Scientific Subjects. New Edition, crown 8vo,
65.
"We are reminded of the rapid progress made by science within the last quarter of
a century by the publication of a new edition of Sir John Herschel's Popular Lectures
on Scientifi: Subjects. In 1861, spectrum analysis, as applied to the heavenly bodies,
was referred to as a possibility; now it is not only an accomplished fact, but the
analysis of the gases contained in the sun has led to the discovery of one of them,
helium, upon the earth. Some of the lectures, such as that on light, are practically
popular treatises on the particular subject to which they refer, and can be read with
advantage even by advanced students."The Westminster Review.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
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13
REV. T. P. HUGHES.
Dictionary of Islam. Being a Cyclopædia of the Doctrines, Rites,
Ceremonies, and Customs, together with the Technical and Theological
Terms of the Muhammadan Religion. With numerous Illustrations,
royal 8vo, £2. 2s.
"Such a work as this has long been nceded, and it would be hard to find any one
better qualified to prepare it than Mr Hughes. His 'Notes on Muhammadanism,' of
which two editions have appeared, have proved decidedly useful to students of Islam,
especially in India, and his long familiarity with the tenets and customs of Moslems
has placed him in the best possible position for deciding what is necessary and what
superfluous in a 'Dictionary of Islam.' His usual method is to begin an article with
the text in the Koran relating to the subject, then to add the traditions bearing upon i',
and to conclude with the comments of the Mohammedan scholiasts and the criticisms
of Western scholars. Such a method, while involving an infinity of labour, produces
the best results in point of accuracy and comprehensiveness. The difficult task of
compiling a dictionary of so vast a subject as Islam, with its many sects, its saints,
khalifs, ascetics, and dervishes, its festivals, ritual, and sacred places, the dress,
manners, and customs of its professors, its commentators, technical terms, science of
tradition and interpretation, its superstitions, magic, and astrology, its theoretical
doctrines and actual practices, has been accomplished with singular success; and the
dictionary will have its place among the standard works of reference in every library
that professes to take account of the religion which governs the lives of forty millions
of the Queen's subjects. The articles on Marriage,' Women,' Wives,' Slavery,'
'Tradition,' 'Sufl,' Muhammad,' 'Da'wah' or Incantation, Burial,' and 'God,' are
especially admirable. Two articles deserve special notice. One is an elaborate account
of Arabic Writing' by Dr Steingass, which contains a vast quantity of useful matter,
and is well illustrated by woodcuts of the chief varieties of Arabic script. The other
article to which we refer with special emphasis is Mr F. Pincott on 'Sikhism.' There
is something on nearly every page of the dictionary that will interest and instruct the
students of Eastern religion, manners, and customs."-Athenæum.
6
·
Dictionary of Muhammadan Theology.
6
"
Notes on Muhammadanism, by Rev. T. P. Hughes. Third Edition,
revised and enlarged. Fcap. 8vo, 6s.
•
•
•
"Altogether an admirable little book. It combines two excellent qualities, abun-
dance of facts and lack of theories.
On every one of the numerous heads (over
fifty) into which the book is divided, Mr Hughes furnishes a large amount of very
valuable information, which it would be exceedingly difficult to collect from even a
large library of works on the subject. The book might well be called a Dictionary of
Muhammadan Theology,' for we know of no English work which combines a methodical
arrangement (and consequently facility of reference) with fulness of information in so
high a degree as the little volume before us."-The Academy.
"It contains multum in parvo, and is about the best outlines of the tenets of the
Muslim faith which we have seen. It has, moreover, the rare merit of being accurate;
and, although it contains a few passages which we would gladly see expunged, it can-
not fail to be useful to all Government employés who have to deal with Muhammadāns;
whilst to missionaries it will be invaluable.”—The Times of India.
•
"It is manifest throughout the work that we have before us the opinions of one
thoroughly conversant with the subject, and who is uttering no random notions.
We strongly recommend 'Notes on Muhammadanism.' Our clergy especially, even
though they are not missionarios, and have no intention of labouring amongst Muham-
madans, or consorting with them, ought to have at least as much knowledge of the
system as can be most readily acquired, with a very little careful study, from this use-
ful treatise.”—The Record.
Bengal MS.
SIR W. HUNTER.
MS. Records. A Selected List of Letters in the Board of
Revenue, Calcutta, 1782-1807, with an Historical Dissertation and
Analytical Index. 4 vols., demy 8vo, 30s.
A Statistical Account of Bengal. 20 vols., demy 8vo, £6.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
14
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
J. HUNTER, late Hon. Sec. of the British Bee-keepers' Association.
A Manual of Bee-keeping. Containing Practical Information for
Rational and Profitable Methods of Bee Management. Full Instruc-
tions on Stimulative Feeding, Ligurianising and Queen-raising, with
descriptions of the American Comb Foundation, Sectional Supers, and
the best Hives and Apiarian Appliances on all Systems. Fourth
Edition, with Illustrations, crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
"We are indebted to Mr J. Hunter, Honorary Secretary of the British Bee-keepers'
Association. His Manual of Bee-keeping, just published, is full to the very brim of
choice and practical hints fully up to the most advanced stages of Apiarian Science,
and its perusal has afforded us so much pleasure that we have drawn somewhat largely
from it for the benefit of our readers."-Bee-keepers' Magazine (New York).
"It is profusely illustrated with engravings, which are almost always inserted for
their utility.
There is an old saying that easy writing is hard reading,' but we
will not say thus much of Mr Hunter's book, which, taken as a whole, is perhaps the
most generally useful of any now published in this country."-The Field.
MAJOR LEIGH HUNT, Madras Army, and ALEX. S. KENNY,
M.R.C.S.E., A.K.C., Senior Demonstrator of Anatomy at King's
College, London.
On Duty under a Tropical Sun. Being some Practical Suggestions
for the Maintenance of Health and Bodily Comfort, and the Treatment
of Simple Diseases; with remarks on Clothing and Equipment.
Second Edition, crown 8vo, 4s.
"This little book is devoted to the description and treatment of many tropical
diseases and minor emergencies, supplemented by some useful hints on diet, clothing,
and equipment for travellers in tropical climates. The issue of a third edition proves
that the book has hitherto been successful. On the whole we can commend the hints
which have been given for the treatment of various diseases, but in some places much
has been left to the knowledge of the reader in the selection and application of a
remedy."-Scottish Geographical Magazine.
"Is written more especially for the rougher sex, and is only less important than
Tropical Trials ' because it has had many more predecessors. It is now in a third edition,
and contains practical suggestions for the maintenance of health and bodily comfort,
as well as the treatment of simple diseases, with useful remarks on clothing and equip-
ment for the guidance of travellers abroad."-Daily Telegraph.
Tropical Trials. A Handbook for Women in the Tropics. Crown 8vo,
<<
7s. 6d.
Is a valuable handbook for women in the East, and, we are glad to see, now in its
second edition. It does not treat theoretically of the maladies incidental to Europeans
in hot climates, or go deeply into those matters which properly belong to the experi-
enced doctor, but it gives plain, wholesome advice on matters of health, which, were
it scrupulously followed, it is not too much to say would add fifty per cent. to the
enjoyment of our countrywomen abroad. She could scarcely have a better guide as
to what to do and what not to do than this excellent handbook, which deserves to be
included in every woman's foreign outfit."-Daily Telegraph.
JOHN H. INGRAM.
The Haunted Homes and Family Traditions of Great Britain.
Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
Epitomised in One Volume by R. O'BYRNE, F.R.G.S., &c.
James' Naval History. A Narrative of the Naval Battles, Single Ship
Actions, Notable Sieges, and Dashing Cutting-out Expeditions, fought
in the days of Howe, Hood, Duncan, St Vincent, Bridport, Nelson,
Camperdown, Exmouth, Duckworth, and Sir Sydney Smith. Crown
Svo, 5s.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
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15
MRS GRACE JOHNSON, Silver Medallist Cookery, Exhibition.
Anglo-Indian and Oriental Cookery.
and Oriental Cookery. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
"Overflows with all sorts of delicious and economical recipes."-Pall Mall Budget.
"Housewives and professors of the gentle art of cookery who deplore the dearth
of dainty dishes will find a veritable gold mine in Mrs Johnson's book."-Pall Mall
Gazette.
Appeals to us from a totally original standpoint. She has thoroughly and com-
pletely investigated native and Anglo-Indian cuisines, and brought away the very best
specimens of their art. Her pillau and kedgree are perfect, in our opinion; curries
are scientifically classed and explained, and some of the daintiest recipes we have ever
seen are given, but the puddings particularly struck our fancy. Puddings as a rule
are so nasty! The pudding that is nourishing is hideously insipid, and of the smart
pudding it may truly be said that its warp is dyspepsia, and its woof indigestion. Mrs
Johnson's puddings are both good to taste and pretty to look at, and the names of
some of her native dishes would brighten any menu.
H. G. KEENE, C.I.E., B.C.S., M.R.A.S., &c.
History of India. From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. For
the use of Students and Colleges. 2 vols, with Maps. Crown 8vo,
16s.
"The main merit of Mr Keene's performance lies in the fact that he has assimilated
all the authorities, and has been careful to bring his book down to date. He has been
careful in research, and has availed himself of the most recent materials. He is well
known as the author of other works on Indian history, and his capacity for his self-
imposed task will not be questioned. We must content ourselves with this brief testi-
mony to the labour and skill bestowed by him upon a subject of vast interest and
importance. Excellent proportion is preserved in dealing with the various episodes,
and the style is clear and graphic. The volumes are supplied with many useful maps,
and the appendix include notes on Indian law and on recent books about India.
Globe.
"
"Mr Keene has the admirable element of fairness in dealing with the succession of
great questions that pass over his pages, and he wisely devotes a full half of his work
to the present century. The appearance of such a book, and of every such book, upon
India is to be hailed at present. A fair-miuded presentment of Indian history like that
contained in Mr Keene's two volumes is at this moment peculiarly welcome.”—Times.
An Oriental Biographical Dictionary. Founded on Materials collected
by the late Thomas William Beale. New Edition, revised and
enlarged, royal 8vo, 28s.
"A complete biographical dictionary for a country like India, which in its long
history has produced a profusion of great men, would be a vast undertaking. Tho
suggestion here made only in licates the line on which the dictionary, at some future
time, could be almost indefinitely extended, and rendered still more valuable as a work
of reference. Great care has evidently been taken to secure the accuracy of all that
has been included in the work, and that is of far more importance than mere bulk.
The dictionary can be commended as trustworthy, and reflects much credit on Mr
Keene. Several interesting lists of rulers are given under the various founders of
dynasties.”—India.
The Fall of the Moghul Empire.
From the Death of Aurungzeb to
the Overthrow of the Mahratta Power. A New Edition, with Correc-
tions and Additions, with Map, crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
This work fills up a blank between the ending of Elphinstone's and the commence-
ment of Thornton's Histories.
Fifty-Seven. Some Account of the Administration of Indian Districts
during the Revolt of the Bengal Army. Demy 8vo, 6s.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
16
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
DR TALBOTT, and others.
Keble College Sermons. Second Series, 1877-1888, crown 8vo, 6s.
“To those who desire earnest, practical, and orthodox doctrine in the form of short
addresses, these sermons will be most acceptable; and their lofty tone, their eloquent
wording, and the thorough manliness of their character, will commend them to a wide
circle of readers."-Morning Post.
"Dr Talbot has a second time thoughtfully placed on public record some of the
lessons which were taught during his Wardenship in Sermons preached in the Chapel
of Keble College, Oxford, 1877-1888. The sermons are fresh and vigorous in tone, and
evidently come from preachers who were thoroughly in touch with their youthful
audience, and who generally with much acuteness and skill grappled with the
spiritual and intellectual difficulties besetting nowadays the University career.'
Church Times.
G. H. KINAHAN.
A Handy Book of Rock Names. Fcap. 8vo, 4s.
11
"This will prove, we do not doubt, a very useful little book to all practical geo-
logists, and also to the reading student of rocks. When a difficulty is incurred as to
a species of deposit, it will soon vanish. Mr Kinahan's little book will soon make it
all clear. The work is divided into three parts. The first is a classified table of rocks,
the second part treats of the Ingenite rocks, and the third part deals with those rocks
which are styled Derivate. Dana's termination of yte has been most generally used
by the author, but he has also given the ite terminations for those that like them.
The book will be purchased, for it must be had, by every geologist; and as its size is
small, it will form a convenient pocket companion for the man who works over field
and quarry."--Popular Science Review.
REV. F. G. LEE, D.D. (Vicar of All Saints', Lambeth).
The Church under Queen Elizabeth. An Historical Sketch. By Rev.
F. G. Lee, D.D. (Vicar of All Saints', Lambeth). Second Edition.
Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
"There is the same picturesqueness of detail, the same vigorous denunciation, the
same graphic power, which made the earlier book pleasant reading even to many who
disagree heartily with its tone and object. . . Dr Lee's strength lies in very graphic
description."-Notes and Queries.
"This is, in many ways, a remarkably fine book. That it is powerfully written no
one acquainted with Dr Lee's vigorous style would for a moment dispute."-Morning
Post.
"Presenting a painful picture of the degradation into which the Church had sunk
in Elizabeth's reign."-Daily Telegraph.
Sights and Shadows. Being Examples of the Supernatural. New
Edition. With a Preface addressed to the Critics. Crown 8vo, 6s.
"This work will be especially interesting to students of the supernatural, and their
name is legion at the present moment. It deals with more than one branch of what is
commonly known as spiritualism. The introduction gives a brief resumé of various
forms of magic and divination which have obtained credence in all ages, and later on
we find well-authenticated accounts of apparitions, supernatural warnings, hypnotic
experiments, and miracles of healing. Mr Lee evidently believes that'there are more
things in heaven and earth than are dreamt of in our philosophy,' and few sane people
will disagree with him, though they may not be inclined to accept all his opinions and
assertions as they stand.”—Lady.
<
"Here we have ghostly stories galore, which believers in supernatural visitations
will welcome as upholders of the faith that is in them. Dr Lee is a hard hitter and a
vigorous controversialist, with a righteous contempt for your Darwins and Stuart
Mills, and such like folk, and is not above suggesting that some of them have a decided
worship of the god Self. As for the pompous jargon and silly cynicism which go
many public scribes again and again make use of to throw discredit upon any phase of
the supernatural,' I have nothing to say. They can take care of themselves. This
much I know, that Sights and Shadows' gives one an eerie feeling as midnight
approaches and the fire flickers on the hearth."-Gentlewoman.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
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17
COL. G. B. MALLESON.
History of the French in India.
From the Founding of Pondicherry
in 1674, to the Capture of that place in 1761. New and Revised
Edition, with Maps. Demy 8vo, 16s.
"Colonel Malleson has produced a volume alike attractive to the general reader and
valuable for its new matter to the special student. It is not too much to say that now,
for the first time, we are furnished with a faithful narrative of that portion of European
enterprise in India which turns upon the contest waged by the East India Company
against French influence, and especially against Dupleix."-Edinburgh Review,
"It is pleasant to contrast the work now before us with the writer's first bold plunge
into historical composition, which splashed every one within his reach. He swims now
with a steady stroke, and there is no fear of his sinking. With a keener insight into
human character, and a larger understanding of the sources of human action, he com-
bines all the power of animated recital which invested his earlier narratives with
popularity."-Fortnightly Review.
"The author has had the advantage of consulting the French archives, and his
volume forms a useful supplement to Orme."-Athenæum.
Final French Struggles in India and on the Indian Seas.
Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
New
"How India escaped from the government of prefects and sub-prefects to fall under
that of commissioners and deputy-commissioners; why the Penal Code of Lord
Macaulay reigns supreme instead of a Code Napoleon; why we are not looking on
helplessly from Mahe, Karikal, and Pondicherry, while the French are ruling all over
Madras, and spending millions of francs in attempting to cultivate the slopes of the
Noilgherries, may be learnt from this modest volume. Colonel Malleson is always
painstaking, and generally accurate; his style is transparent, and he never loses sight
of the purpose with which he commenced to write."—Saturday Review.
"A book dealing with such a period of our history in the East, besides being
interesting, contains many lessons. It is written in a style that will be popular with
general readers."-Athenæum.
"It strikes one as the best thing he has yet done. Searching, yet easy, his pen goes
with unflagging power through the military wonders of a hundred years, connecting
the accounts of battles by a sufficient historic thread."—Academy.
History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the
War of 1878, with map, demy 8vo, 18s.
"The name of Colonel Malleson on the title-page of any historical work in relation
to India or the neighbouring States is a satisfactory guarantee both for the accuracy
of the facts and the brilliancy of the narrative. The author may be complimented upon
having written a History of Afghanistan which is likely to become a work of standard
authority."-Scotsman.
The Battle-Fields of Germany, from the Outbreak of the Thirty Years'
War to the Battle of Blenheim, with maps and one plan, demy 8vo,
16s.
"Colonel Malleson has shown a grasp of his subject, and a power of vivifying the
confused passages of battle, in which it would be impossible to name any living writer
as his equal. In imbuing these almost forgotten battle-fields with fresh interest and
reality for the English reader, he is re-opening one of the most important chapters of
European History, which no previous English writer has made so interesting and
instructive as he has succeeded in doing in this volume."—Academy.
Ambushes and Surprises, being a Description of some of the most
famous instances of the Leading into Ambush and the Surprises of
Armies, from the time of Hannibal to the period of the Indian Mutiny,
with a portrait of General Lord Mark Ker, K. C. B., demy 8vo, 18s.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
18
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JAMES IRVIN LUPTON, F.R.C.V.S., author of "The External
Anatomy of the Horse," &c.
The Horse as he Was, as he Is, and as he Ought to Be, with
Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
"Written with a good object in view, namely, to create an interest in the important
subject of horse-breeding, more especially that class known as general utility horses.
The book contains several illustrations, is well printed and handsomely bound, and we
hope will meet with the attention it deserves."-Live Stock Journal.
T. MILLER MAGUIRE, M.A., LL.D.
American War--Campaigns in Virginia, 1861-2, with Maps. Royal
8vo, paper covers, 3s. 6d.
MRS MANNING.
Ancient and Mediæval India. Being the History, Religion, Laws,
Caste, Manners and Customs, Language, Literature, Poetry, Philo-
sophy, Astronomy, Algebra, Medicine, Architecture, Manufactures,
Commerce, &c., of the Hindus, taken from their Writings. With
Illustrations. 2 vols., demy 8vo, 30s.
IRVING MONTAGU (late Special War Correspondent
Camp and Studio.
8vo, 6s.
London News ").
"Illustrated
Illustrated by the Author. New Edition. Crown
"His animated pages and sketches have a more than ephemeral interest, and
present a moving picture of the romance and the misery of countries and populations
ravaged by great opposing armies, and many a picturesque episode of personal ex-
periences; he is pleasant and amusing enough."-Daily News.
"Mr Irving Montagu's narrative of his experiences as war artist of the Illustrated
London News during the Russo-Turkish war, though late in appearing, may be read
with interest. War correspondents and artists usually enjoy a fair share of adventure;
but Mr Montagu appears to have revelled in dangers which seem anything but desir-
able when studied in cold blood. Mr Montagu has much that is interesting to tell
about the horrors of the siege of Kars and the prowess of the fair young Amazon who
commanded a troop of Bashi-Bazuks, and even seduced a Russian general to her side.
How he got to the front in spite of Russian prohibition, disguised as a camp follower,
how his portmanteau was shelled a few inches behind his back, what he risked and
what he saw in the memorable lines before Plevna, will be read with great interest.
The book is well illustrated by many vigorous sketches, some of which are exceedingly
humorous." Athenæum.
"A bright chatty record of wars, scenes, and adventures in various parts of the
world."-Echo.
Wanderings of a War Artist.
Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Illustrated by the Author. New
"Mr Montagu is to be congratulated on an eminently readable book, which, both
in style and matter, is above the average of productions in this kind."-The Morning
Post.
"This is an enchanting book. Equally as writer and as artist, Mr Irving Montagu
is a delightful companion. This beautiful and exceptionally interesting volume does
not by any means exhaust the literary and artistic achievements of the well-known
'special' of the Illustrated London News."-The Daily Neus.
"His own adventures are largely seasoned with stories of other people and ancc-
dotes he picks up He went through the second siege of Paris under the Commune,
and some of the best reading in the book is the picture he gives of the state of poor,
beautiful Paris, seen by the eye of an observing, impartial man, who has no object in
either exaggerating or under-colouring the work of the Commune.”—The Spectator.
"The adventures of Mr Montagu are narrated with humour, and are seldom dull
reading."-Glasgow Herald.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
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19
J. MORRIS, Author of "The War in Korea," &c., thirteen years
resident in Tokio under the Japanese Board of Works.
Advance Japan. A Nation Thoroughly in Earnest. With over 100
Illustrations by R. Isayama, and of photographs lent by the Japanese
Legation. 8vo, 12s. 6d.
"Mr Morris evidently knows the country well, and is a strong believer in its
future; his book will be found a useful summary of recent history, abounding in good
character sketches, accompanied with photographs, of the leading men."-Times.
"Is really a remarkably complete account of the land, the people, and the institu-
tions of Japan, with chapters that deal with matters of such living interest as its
growing industries and armaments, and the origin, incidents, and probable outcome
of the war with China. The volume is illustrated by a Japanese artist of repute; it
has a number of useful statistical appendices, and it is dedicated to His Majesty the
Mikado."-Scotsman.
"Mr Morris, who writes, of course, with thorough local knowledge, gives a very
complete and eminently readable account of the country, its government, people, and
resource. The work, which contains a large number of portraits and other illustra-
tions, is decidedly 'on the nail,' and may be recommended not only as a book to read,
but as of value for reference."-Westminster Gazette.
tr
+
Puts before us a clear view of the point which has been reached. His work is
historical, social, and descriptive; we see in it the Japanese of to-day as he really is.
Mr Morris has also something to say on the Japanese at home-how he eats, how he
dresses, and how he comports himself; while wider issues are discussed in the chapters
treating of the administration of the islands, their ports, communications, trades, and
armaments.”—Globe.
CC
•
A well-proportioned sketch of the Japanese of to-day, so recent as to include the
results of the war. There is much else I should like to quote in this able and
interesting book. It has a good chapter on natural history, and an excellent chapter
on diet, dress, and manners; it gives just enough of Japanese history to help the
ordinary reader who wants to learn his Japan on easy terms; it has also most useful
and attractively conveyed information in its brief account of the principal cities of
Japan, communications and armament, language and literature, mines and minerals."
-Queen.
"He summarises clearly, concisely, the existing knowledge on the Japanese Parlia-
mentary system, territorial and administrative divisions, natural history, domestic
and national customs, dynastic changes, old feudal institutions, town populations,
industries, mineral and other natural resources, railways, armaments, the press, and
other subjects too many for enumeration. Even the chapter on language and litera-
ture makes an appalling subject interesting. . . Mr Morris has brought his very use-
ful account of Japan up-to-date. He gives a good summary of the recent war with
China, and then proceeds to make some well-considered suggestions on a matter of
supreme importance to Europe no less than to the two Empires of the Far East.”
CHARLES MARVIN.
The Region of the Eternal Fire. An Account of a Journey to the
Caspian Region in 1883. New Edition. With Maps and Illustra-
tions. Crown 8vo, handsomely bound, 6s.
"The leading authority of the English Press on the Central Asian Question is
Charles Marvin, a man of iron industry, who has wielded his comprehensive knowledge
of the region in such a manner as to render eminent service to his country.”—Opinion
of Arminius Vambery.
"Charles Marvin's services in respect of the Russo-Afghan Question have been
invaluable. He has heard with his own ears the opinions expressed on the subject by
Russian generals and diplomatists, and, for the love of England, has spent his own
money to warn England's people.”—Opinion of Colonel Malleson, "The Russo-Afghan
Question," p. 55.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
20
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
W. O'CONNOR MORRIS.
Great Commanders of Modern Times, and the Campaign of 1815.
Turenne-Marlborough--Frederick the Great-Napoleon-Welling-
ton-Moltke. With Illustrations and Plans. Royal 8vo, 21S.
"Mr Morris certainly brings to his task vast reading and exhaustive research.'
Athenæum.
•
"We gladly welcome this handsome volume by Judge O'Connor Morris, which gives
evidence on every page of careful reading and correct judgment.
An admirable
book to place in the hands of any student who wishes to get some idea of the history
of the art of war."—Academy.
"To the students of war this book will prove of the utmost interest and the greatest
possible service."—National Observer.
"Writes vividly and well.”—Times.
CARDINAL NEWMAN.
Miscellanies from the Oxford Sermons of John Henry Newman,
D.D. Crown 8vo, gilt top, 5s.
"All the resources of a master of English style-except, perhaps one, description-
were at his command; pure diction, clear arrangement, irony, dignity, a copious
command of words, combined with a reserve in the use of them-all these qualities
went to make up the charm of Newman's style, the finest flower that the earlier system
of a purely classical education has produced."-Athenæum.
"The pieces presented to us here are carefully chosen, and answer the purpose of
the present volume. The selections which are contained in it happily avoid any of
these passages which have been the grounds of controversy. As a general rule we are
able to take in the teachings of this book without any arrière-pensée, without any
feeling that we have here the germ of those theories which estrange their author from
us."-Athenæum.
COL. F. A. WHINYATES, late R.H.A., formerly commanding
the Battery.
Military Regiments-From Corunna to Sevastopol, the History of
"Č" Battery, "A" Brigade, late "C" Troop, Royal Horse
C'
Artillery, with succession of Officers from its formation to the present
time. With 3 Maps, demy 8vo, 14s.
EDWARD NEWMAN, F.Z.S.
British Butterflies. With many Illustrations. Super royal 8vo, 7s. 6d.
DEPUTY SURGEON-GENERAL C. T. PASKE, late of the Bengal
Army, and Edited by F. G. AFLALO.
Life and Travel in Lower Burmah, with Frontispiece. Crown 8vo, 6s.
"In dealing with life in Burmah we are given a pleasant insight into Eastern life;
and to those interested in India and our other Eastern possessions, the opinions Mr
Paske offers and the suggestions he makes will be delightful reading. Mr Paske has
adopted a very light style of writing in Myamma,' which lends an additional charm
to the short historical-cum-geographical sketch, and both the writer and the editor
are to be commended for the production of a really attractive book.”—Public Opinion.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
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2 I
Translation of the famous Passion Play.
Passion Play at Oberammergau, The, with the whole Drama translated
into English, and the Songs of the Chorus in German and English ;
also a Map of the Town, Plan of the Theatre, &c. 4to, cloth, 3s. 6d.
paper, 2s. 6d.
C
The author of 'Charles Lowder' has done a real service in publishing a transla-
tion of The Passion Play at Oberammergau,' with a description of the play and short
account of a visit there in 1880. To those who have already seen it, this little book
will recall vividly the experience of what must be to all a memorable day, while to
those who are going in 1890 it is ɛimply invaluable.”—Guardian.
MARY A. PRATTEN.
My Hundred Swiss Flowers, with a short account of Swiss Ferns.
With 60 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, plain plates, 12s. 6d. ; with plates
coloured by hand, 25s.
"The temptation to produce such books as this seems´ irresistible. The
author feels a want; the want is undeniable. After more or less hesitation
he feels he can supply it. It is pleasantly written, and affords useful hints
as to localities."—Atheneum,
R. A. PROCTOR.
Watched by the Dead, a loving study of Dickens' half-told tale. Crown
8vo, cloth, Is. 6d. ; boards, Is.
"Mr Proctor here devotes much study and much ingenious conjecture to restoring
the plot of 'The Mystery of Elwin Drood.' It would not be fair were we to attempt
to give in a small compass the result of his labours. It must suffice to say that those
who have occupied themselves with this curious problem will be interested in the
solution here offered for their acceptance."-Spectator.
WILLIAM PROCTOR, Stud Groom.
The_Management and Treatment of the Horse in the Stable,
Field, and on the Road. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged,
Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 6s.
"There are few who are interested in horses will fail to profit by one portion or
another of this useful work."-Sportsman.
"We cannot do better than wish that Mr Proctor's book may find its way into the
hands of all those concerned in the management of the most useful quadruped we
possess."-England.
"There is a fund of sound common-sense views in this work which will be interest-
ing to many owners.”—Field.
"6
Coming from a practical hand the work should recommend itself to the public.”—
Sportsman.
WILLIAM RAEBURN ANDREW.
Raeburn (Sir Henry, R.A.), Life by his Great-Grandson, William
Raeburn Andrew, with an Appendix comprising a list of his works
exhibited in the Royal Academy, Edinburgh. 8vo, 10s. 6d.
Mr Andrew's book, which on this occasion appeals to a wider public, makes no
pretence to do more than to bring together the biographical fragments concerning
Raeburn gathered out of various publications and to make them coherent with a little
cement of his own.' Possibly a fuller and more original biography of the greatest of
our portrait-painters, who was at the same time one of the greatest ornaments of the
Edinburgh Society of the beginning of the century, may yet see the light; and in the
meantime we can be grateful to Mr Andrew for bringing together and arranging so
rich a store of topographical and personal details connected with his illustrious
ancestor. In an appendix is a useful annotated catalogue of the 1876 exhibition of
Raeburn's works."-Scotsman.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
22
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
R. RIMMER, F.L.S.
The Land and Freshwater Shells of the British Isles.
Illustrated
with 10 Photographs and 3 Lithographs, containing figures of all the
principal Species. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 5s.
"This handsomely got up little volume supplies a long-felt want in a very ingenious
and trustworthy manner. The author is an enthusiastic conchologist, and writes
both attractively and well, and in a manner so simple and natural that we have no
fear that any ordinarily educated man will easily understand every phrase. But
the feature of this book which strikes us most is that every species of British land and
freshwater shell has been photographed, and here we have all the photographs, natural
size in the albertype process, so that the merest tyro will find no difficulty in identi-
fying any shell he may find.”—Science Gossip.
ALEXANDER ROGERS (Bombay Civil Service, Retired).
The Land Revenue of Bombay, a History of its Administration, Rise,
and Progress, with 18 Maps. 2 vols., demy 8vo, 30s.
"Mr Rogers has produced a continuous and an authoritative record of the land
changes and of the fortunes of the cultivating classes for a full half-century, together
with valuable data regarding the condition and burdens of those classes at various
periods before the present system of settlement was introduced. Mr Rogers now.
presents a comprehensive view of the land administration of Bombay as a whole, the
history of its rise and progress, and a clear statement of the results which it has
attained. It is a narrative of which all patriotic Englishmen may feel proud. The old
burdens of native rule have been lightened, the old injustices mitigated, the old fiscal
cruelties and exactions abolished. Underlying the story of each district we see a per-
ennial struggle going on between the Increase of the population and the available
means of subsistence derived from the soil. That increase of the population is the
direct result of the peace of the country under British rule. But it tends to press
more and more severely on the possible limits of local cultivation, and it can only be
provided for by the extension of the modern appliances of production and distribu-
tion. Mr Rogers very properly confines himself to his own subject. But there is
ample evidence that the extension of roads, railways, steam factories, and other
industrial onterprises, have played an important part in the solution of the problem,
and that during recent years such enterprises have been powerfully aided by an
abundant currency."-The Times,
ROBERT SEWELL.
Analytical History of India, from the earliest times to the Abolition of
the East India Company in 1858. Post 8vo, 8s.
"Much careful labour has been expended on this volume."— Athenæum.
"The object of the author in compiling the following analytical sketch of Indian
history has been to supply a want felt by most students of the more voluminous
standard works of Mill, Elphinstone, Thornton, and Marshman, for a condensed outline
in one small volume, which should serve at once to recall the memory and guide the
eye. At the same time he has attempted to render it interesting to the general reader
by preserving a medium between a bare analysis and a complete history; so that,
without consulting the eminent authorities mentioned above, the mind may readily
grasp the principal outlines of the early condition of India, and the rise and progress
of the East India Company. For the more full comprehension of these facts the author
has provided, in addition to a table of contents and a chronological index, an index to
the geographical position of the places to which reference is made in the text, bearing
the latitudes and longitude as given in Thornton's Gazetteer of India.' This will be
found not only to aid the student who is but partially acquainted with the map of
India, but also by means of occasional accents to guide him in the ordinary pro-
nunciation of the names."-Preface.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
of Messrs W. H. Allen & Co.'s Publications.
23
G. P. SANDERSON.
Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India; their Haunts and
Habits, from Personal Observation, with an account of the Modes of
Capturing and Taming Wild Elephants. With 21 full-page Illus'ra-
tions, reproduced for this Edition direct from the original drawings,
and 3 Maps. Fifth Edition. Fcap. 4to, 12s.
"We find it difficult to hasten through this interesting book; on almost every page
some incident or some happy descriptive passage tempts the reader to linger. The
author relates his exploits with ability and with singular modesty. His adventures
with min-cuters will afford lively entertainment to the reader, and indeed there is n
portion of the volume which he is likely to wish shorter. The illustrations add to the
attractions of the book.”—Pall Mall Gazette.
"This is the best and most practical book on the wild game of Southern and
Eastern India that we have read, and displays an extensive acquaintance with natural
history. To the traveller proposing to visit India. whether he be a sportsman, a
naturalist, or an antiquarian, the book will be invaluable : full of incident and sparkling
with anecdote."-Bailey's Magazine.
"This-the fifth edition of a work as charming to read as it is instructive-will be
welcomed equally by lovers of sport, and of natural history. Though he met with and
shot many other kinds of wild beasts, the bulk of the volume, well written, well illus-
trated, and generally well got up, deals chiefly with the elephant, the tiger, the bison,
the leopard, and the bear. Mr Sanderson, with exceptional powers of observation,
cultivated friendly intercourse with the natives; and he was consequently able to utilise
to the utmost the singularly favourable opportunities enjoyed by him as director of
elephant-capturing operations in Mysore and Chittagong. The result is a book which
to graphic details of sporting adventures far surpassing the common, adds a correct
natural history of the animals chiefly dealt with, and particularly the clephant. From
this real king of beasts, Mr Sanderson carefully removes every exaggeration made both
for or against him, which had been repeated without any good foundation by one
writer after another; he substitutes for fables a description of elephantine anatomy,
size, habits, and character which may be said to sum up all that we know for certain
about the animal, and nearly all that one can wish to know. We should have wished
to see this edition brought up to date. The book is more fascinating than a romance;
and we have read it now the third time with as great a zest as when we revelled over
the perusal of the first edition."—Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review.
PROFESSOR SHELDON.
The Future of British Agriculture, how Farmers may best be bene-
fited. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.
"Fortunately Prof. Sheldon has no mind to play the part of a prophet, but from
the plenitude of a long experience gives sage counsel how to farm abreast of the time
and be ready for whatever may ensue.
This little book is well worth reading,
and it is pleasant to find that the Professor by no means despairs of the future of
agriculture in England.”—Academy.
"We welcome the book as a valuable contribution to our agricultural literature,
and as a useful guide to those branches in which the author is especially qualified to
instruct."-Nature.
"In this beautifully printed and well-bound little book Professor Sheldon, in
his usual happy style, surveys the agricultural field, and indicates what he thinks
is the prospect in front of the British farmer. Like a watchman he stands upon his
tower-and when asked, What of the night? he disavows not that we are in the night,
but earnestly declares that the morning cometh apace. The professor is an optimist;
he does not believe that the country is done, and still less does he favour the idea that,
taking a wide survey, the former days were better than these On the contrary, he
urges that the way out of the wilderness is not by any by-path, but by going right
ahead; and, ere long, the man who holds the banner high will emerge triumphant."
-Scottish Farmer.
J. SMITH, A.L.S.
Ferns British and Foreign.
Fourth Edition, revised and greatly
enlarged, with New Figures, &c. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
24
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
G. BARNETT SMITH, Author of "History of the English
Parliament."
Leaders of Modern Industry. Biographical Sketches.
Contents:-The Stephensons, Charles Knight, Sir George Burns,
Sir Josiah Mason, The Wedgwoods, Thomas Brassey, The Fairbairns,
Sir William Siemens, The Rennies. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
"Leaders of Modern Industry' is a volume of interesting biographical sketches of
the pioneers of various phases of industry, comprising the Stephensons, Charles
Knight, Sir George Burns, Sir Josiah Mason, the Wedgwoods, Thomas Brassey, the
Fairbairns, Sir William Siemens, and the Rennies.'
."-World.
Women of Renown. Nineteenth Century Studies.
Contents:-Frederika Bremer, Countess of Blessington, George Eliot,
Jenny Lind, Mary Somerville, George Sand, Mary Carpenter, Lady
Morgan, Rachel, Lady Hester Stanhope. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
Mr Barnett Smith continues his biographical activity. It is not many weeks since
a volume appeared from his pen on "Christiau Workers of the Nineteenth Century";
now we have "Women of Renown: Nineteenth Century Studies." The later is the
larger and more elaborate work of the two, but in design and execution it is not
greatly dissimilar from the earlier volume. Desirous of showing what the women of
eminence whom he has chosen for delineation really were-how they lived, moved,
and acted--the author has presented them wherever he could "as painted by them
selves or their contemporaries." Autobiographies and biographics are thus, as far as
available, laid under contribution. In the hands of so capable a compiler as Mr
Barnett Smith such materials have been skilfully utilised, and the result is a series of
brightly written sketches.
The Life and Enterprises of Ferdinand de Lesseps-The only full
and Complete English Account of. New Edition. Revised, and
brought up to the time of his death, with Portrait. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
"A great part of M. de Lesseps' career already belongs to history, and is invested
with a lustre which nothing can obscure. Mr G. Barnett Smith makes this clear in bis
useful and painstaking compilation. It is skilfully executed, and illustrates aptly
and not altogether inopportunely, both the poetry and the prose of M. de Lesseps'
extraordinary career."-The Times.
•
"A very comprehensive life of Ferdinand de Lesseps has been produced by G.
Barnett Smith, who has already proved his ability as a faithful and painstaking bio-
grapher. The career of M. de Lesseps was one of great achievements and great
vicissitudes. This biographer lauds his achievements. The facts of the prosecution
in connection with the Panama Canal project are claborately set forth in this volume,
to which all readers interested in the question should refer for information on a matter
which to people not resident in France must have appeared unusually complicated."-
Westminster Review.
ARTHUR PENRHYN STANLEY, D.D. (Dean of Westminster).
Scripture Portraits and other Miscellanies collected from his Published
Writings. By Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, D.D. Crown 8vo, gilt top,
5s.
"In virtue of his literary genius, his solid acquirements, his manly sense, and his
sympathetic and generous piety, he ranks among the most eminent and estimable of
Christian teachers."-Chambers's Encyclopædia.
"These essay's range over a period of twenty years (1850-1870), and they furnish a
series of singularly interesting illustrations of the great controversies which have
agitated that time. Every one, indeed, of his essays has achieved in its day a
success which makes a recommendation unnecessary. -ALLIBONE.
•
•
For the Reduced Prices apply to
of Messrs W. H. Allen & Co.'s Publications.
25
E. (E. SOMERVILLE and MARTIN ROSS, THE AUTHORS
OF "AN IRISH COUSIN."
Through Connemara in a Governess Cart.
Illustrated by W. W.
Russell, from Sketches by Edith (E. Somerville. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
"The quaint seriousness, the free and hearty fun, the sly humour of this narrative,
are charmingly bright and attractive."- World.
"A bright and breezy narrative of two ladies in Connemara who preferred inde-
pendence and a mule to society and a mail car. Their simple story is divertingly
told."-Times.
"The delightful wilderness of mountain, peat bog, and heather, and all that they
said and did, are graphically described in this chatty and extremely readable volume."
--Daily Telegraph.
"Sketches of Irish Life, the eccentricities of wandering Saxons, and descriptions of
local scenery, are worked up in a manner which makes the book a pleasant companion.
Mr Russell has in his illustration ably supported the writers."-Morning Post.
By the same Authors.
In the Vine Country -Bordeaux and its Neighbourhood, Illustrated.
Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
66
The genuine fund of wit and humour which sparkles throughout will be enjoyed
by all."-Glasgow Herald.
"The authors have the knack of putting their readers in the situation in which
they themselves were, and so the book, light and smart as it is, is heartily enjoyable."
-Scotsman.
"A bright, artless narrative of travel."- Times.
"There is not a dull line in the volume from the first page to the last,”—Lady's
Pictorial.
·
J. E. TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.
For fuller notices of Dr Taylor's Works, see Scientific, pp. 33, 34.
Second
Flowers: Their Origin, Shapes, Perfumes, and Colours. Illustrated with
32 Coloured Figures by Sowerby, and 161 Woodcuts.
Edition. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
The Aquarium: Its Inhabitants, Structure, and Management. Second
Edition, with 238 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Half-Hours at the Seaside. Illustrated with 250 Woodcuts. Fourth
Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.
Half-Hours in the Green Lanes.
Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.
Illustrated with 300 Woodcuts.
E. THORNTON.
A Gazetteer of the Territories under the Government of the Viceroy
of India. Last Edition. Revised and Edited by Sir Roper
Lethbridge, C.I.E., and A. N. Wollaston, C.I.E. Demy 8vo,
1,070 pp., 28s.
PERCY M. THORNTON.
With Maps and Plates.
Harrow School and its Surroundings.
Demy 8vo, 15s.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
26
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
W. M. TORRENS.
History of Cabinets. From the Union with Scotland to the Acquisition
of Canada and Bengal.
2 vols. Demy Svo, 36s.
"It is almost impossible-and, alas! now useless as regards the writer-to praise
this book too highly. It is a clever, sincere, and painstaking contribution to the
making of modern history, and all students of constitutional and parliamentary history
will find much to interest and instruct them in these able volumes. In all the minor
matters of references, indexing, and printing every care has been taken. Indeed, all
is praiseworthy, and the pity is that the writer should have passed away without
receiving the thanks of students."-St James's Budget.
&
"Allistory of Cabinets' from the beginning of the Eighteenth Century down to
the death of George II., which the late Mr M'Cullagh Torrens regarded as the work
of his life,' was published yesterday. It consists of two volumes of considerable bulk,
showing at once that something more than the origin and progress of the Cabinet
system had occupied the attention of the author. In fact, a history of Cabinets is a
history of Governments, and a history of Governments is, in a great measure, a history
of England."—The Standard.
Indian Snake Poisons.
A. J. WALL.
Their Nature and Effects.
CONTENTS.
Crown 8vo, 6s.
The Physiological Effects of the Poison of the Cobra (Naja Tripudians).—The Physio-
logical Effects of the Poison of Russell's Viper (Daboia Russellii). The Physiological
Effects produced by the Poison of the Bungarus Fasciatus and the Bungarus Coeruleus.
-The Relative Power and Properties of the Poisons of Indian and other Venomous
Snakes.-The Nature of Snake Poisons.- Some practical considerations connected with
the subject of Snake-Poisoning, especially regarding prevention and treatment.-The
object that has been kept in view, has been to define as closely as possible, the con-
ditions on which the mortality from Snake-bite depends, both as regards the physio-
logical nature of the poisoning process, and the relations between the reptiles and their
victims, so as to indicate the way in which we should best proceed with the hope of
diminishing the fearful mortality that exists.
JOHN WATSON, F.L.S.
Ornithology in Relation to Agriculture and Horticulture, by various
writers, edited by John Watson, F. L.S., &c. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.—Miss Eleanor A. Ormerod, late Consulting
Entomologist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England; O. V. Alpin,
F.L.S., Member of the British Ornithologists' Union; Charles Whitehead,
F.L.S., F.G.S., &c., author of "Fifty Years of Fruit Farming"; John
Watson, F.L.S., author of "A Handbook for Farmers and Small Holders
the Rev. F. O. Morris, M. A., author of "A History of British Birds"; G.
W. Murdoch, late editor of The Farmer; Riley Fortune, F.Z.S.; T. H.
Nelson, Member of the British Ornithologists' Union; T. Southwell, F.Z.S.;
Rev. Theo. Wood, B.A., F.I.S.; J. II. Gurney, jun., M.P.; Harrison Weir,
F.R.H.S.; W. H. Tuck.
"Will form a textbook of a reliable kind in guiding agriculturists at large
in their dealings with their feathered friends and foes alike.”—Glasgow
Herald.
•
"This is a valuable book, anl should go far to fulfil its excellent purpose.
It is a bo k that every agriculturist should possess."-Land" and
Water.
"It is well to know what birds do mischief and what birds are helpful.
This book is the very manual to clear up all such doubts."— Yorkshire Post.
"In these days of agricultural depressiou it behoves the farmer to study,
among other subjects, ornithology. That he and the gamekeeper often bring
down plagues upon the land when they fancy they are ridding it of a pest is
exceedingly well illustrated in this series of papers."-Scotsman.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
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27
SAMUEL WILBERFORCE, D.D. (Bishop of Winchester).
WILberforce,
Heroes of Hebrew History. Crown 8vo, gilt top, 5s.
"The tales which he relates are all good, and have a moral aim and purpose."—
Athenæum.
"It is written with a natural and captivating fervour."-London Quarterly Review.
"An interesting historical account."-London Lit. Gaz.
$6
Using his influence as a man of the world for the purpose of modifying those about
him for good, and making them serve as his instruments for the furtherance of the
objects which he had at heart. He was the most delightful of companions, and the
wittiest talker of his time. Of his extraordinary versatility and extraordinary powers
of work, it is impossible to speak at length here, but both qualities are abundantly
illustrated in his life by Canon Ashwell."-Celebrities of the Century.
S. WELLS WILLIAMS, LL.D., Professor of the Chinese Language
and Literature at Yale College.
China--The Middle Kingdom.
Kingdom. A Survey of the Geography, Govern-
ment, Literature, Social Life, Arts, and History of the Chinese Empire
and its Inhabitants. Revised Edition, with 74 Illustrations and a New
Map of the Empire. 2 vols. Demy 8vo, 42s.
Dr S. Wells Williams' Middle Kingdom has long occupied the position of a classic,
It is not only the fullest and most authoritative account of the Chinese and their
country that exists, but it is also the most readable and entertaining. This issue is
practically a new work-the text of the old edition has been largely re-written and the
work has been expanded so as to include a vast amount of new material collected by
Dr Williams during the late years of his residence in China--as well as the most recent
information respecting all the departments of the Empire. Many new illustrations
have been added and the best of the old engravings have been retained. An important
feature of this edition is a large map of the Chinese Empire from the best modern
authorities, more complete and accurate than any map of the country hitherto
published.
HARRY WILLIAMS, R.N. (Chief Inspector of Machinery).
Dedicated, by permission, to Admiral H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh.
The Steam Navy of England. Past, Present, and Future.
Contents:-Part I.-Our Seamen; Part II.-Ships and Machinery;
Part III.—Naval Engineering; Part IV.—Miscellaneous, Summary,
with an Appendix on the Personnel of the Steam Branch of the Navy.
Third and enlarged Edition. Medium 8vo, 12s. 6d.
"It is a series of essays, clearly written and often highly suggestive, on the still
unsolved, or only partially and tentatively solved, problems connected with the man-
ning and organisation, and propulsion of our modern war-ships, . . . being laudably
free from technicalities, and written in a not unattractive style, they will recommend
themselves to that small, but happily increasing, section of the general public which
concerns itself seriously and intelligently with naval affairs."-Times.
Mr Harry Williams, a naval engineer of long experience and high rank, discusses
the future requiroments of the fleet. He is naturally most at home when dealing with
points which specially affect his own branch of the service, but the whole book is well
worth study.”—Manchester Guardian.
"Must be pronounced a technical book in the main, although its author expressly
states that he wrote it not so much for professional as non-professional men.' Its
manifest object is to promote the efficiency of our steam navy in times to come, keeping
which aim steadfastly in view Mr Williams has brought great knowledge and ability to
bear upon the endeavour to forecast what provision it would be well to make in order
to meet the full naval requirements of the British nation. His highly instructive work
is divided into four parts, under the respective titles of 'Our Seamen,' 'Ships and
Machinery,' Naval Engineering,' and 'Miscellaneous,' which again are carefully
summarised in some fifty pages of eminently readable matter. The three chapters of
miscellanea deal principally with the coal-endurance, engine-room complements, elec-
tric lighting, and steam-steering machinery of Her Majesty's ships."-Daily Telegraph
¿
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
28
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
Professor H. H. WILSON, author of the "Standard History of India."
Glossary of Judicial Terms, including words from the Arabic,
Persian, Hindustani, Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali,
Bengali, Uriya,
Uriya, Marathi,
Guzarathi, Telugu, Karnata, Tamil, Malayalam, and other languages.
4to, cloth, 30s.
Wynter's Subtle Brains and Lissom Fingers. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
The Buried Roman City in Britain.
Silvertown.'
Advertising.
Vivisection.
The New Hotel System.
The Restoration of our Soil.
CONTENTS.
Half-Hours at the Kensington Museum.
Mudie's Circulating Library.
Fraudulent Trade Marks.
Superstition: Where does it End?
The New Counterblast to Tobucco.
Air Traction,
Illuminations,
Boat-Building by Machinery.
The Effects of Railway Travelling upon
Health.
The Working-Men's Flower Show.
Messages under the Sea.
Town Telegraphs.
The Bread We Eat.
66
Early Warnings.
Dining Rooms for the Working Classes.
Railway and City Population.
A Day with the Coroner.
The English in Paris.
The Times Newspaper in 1798.
The Under-Sea Railroad.
Oh, the Roast Beef of Old England.
Physical Education.
Advice by a Retirod Physician.
The Clerk of the Weather.
Portsmouth Dockyard.
Village Hospitals.
Railways, the Great Civilisers.
On taking a House.
Photographic Portraiture.
Doctor's Stuff.
Smallpox in London.
Hospital Dress.
Excursion Trains.
Altogether Subtle Brains and Lissom Fingers' is about the pleasantest book of
short collected papers of chit chat blending information with amusement, and not over-
tasking the attention or the intelligence, that we have seen for a good while."-London
Reader.
LIEUT. G. J. YOUNGHUSBAND, Queen's Own Corps of Guides.
Eighteen Hundred Miles in a Burmese Tat, through Burmah, Siam,
and the Eastern Shan States. Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 5s.
"There is a good deal of jocular description in this book, which, as the reader will
easily see, has been introduced with an eye rather to amusement than to accuracy; but
after all the volume will have repaid the reader for the few hours which may be spent
in its perusal if it conveys to him, as it is calculated to do, a fair impression of the
difficulties which beset the wayfarer in a strange land who, when in search of the
pleasures of travel, begins his journey where he should leave off, and ends it where he
should have started."-Athenæum.
"Mr Younghusband's account of his adventures is written simply and without
exaggeration, but on the whole we think we would rather read about the Shan country
than travel in it."—Literary World.
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29
Scientific Works: including Botany, Natural
history, &c.
E. BONAVIA, M.D., Brigade-Surgeon, Indian Medical Service.
The Cultivated Oranges and Lemons of India and Ceylon. Demy
8vo, with oblong Atlas Volume of Plates, 2 vols. 30s.
R. BRAITHWAITE, M.D., F.L.S., &c.
The Sphagnaceæ, or l'eat Mosses of Europe and North America.
Illustrated with 29 Plates, coloured by hand. Imp. 8vo, 25s.
"All muscologists will be delighted to hail the appearance of this important work.
Never before has our native moss-flora been so carefully figured and described,
and that by an acknowledged authority on the subject."-Science Gossip.
"Mosses, perhaps, receive about as little attention from botanists as any class of
plants, and considering how admirably mosses lend themselves to the collector's
purposes, this is very remarkable. Something may be due to the minuteness of the
size of many of the species, and something perhaps to the difficulties inherent in the
systematic treatment of these plants; but we fancy the chief cause of comparative
neglect with which they are treated is to be sought in the want of a good 'illustrated
English treatise upon them. In the work which is now before us, Dr Braithwaite aims
at placing the British mosses on the same vantage-ground as the more favoured classes
of the vegetable kingdom; and judging from the sample lately issued, he will succced
in his endeavours."-Popular Science Review.
B. CARRINGTON, M.D., F.R.S.
British Hepaticæ. Containing Descriptions and Figures of the Native
Species of Jungermannia, Marchantia, and Anthoceros. Imp. 8vo,
sewed, Parts 1 to 4, plain plates, 2s. 6d. cach; coloured plates,
3s. 6d. each.
M. C. COOKE, M.A., LL.D.
The British Fungi: A Plain and Easy Account of.
With Coloured
Plates of 40 Species. Fifth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 6s.
"Mr Cooke writes for those whose education and means are limited, and with pre-
eminent success. It is really a pleasure to read the manuals which he has published,
for they are up to the mark, and so complete as to leave hardly anything to be desired.
The new work on the fungi appears to be equally valuable with those which he has
already printed. It contains descriptions of the esculent fungi, the manner in which
they are prepared for the table, how to discriminate the nutritious from the poisonous
species, details of the principles of their scientific classification, and a tabular arrange-
ment of orders and genera.
Handbook of British Hepaticæ. Containing Descriptions and Figures
of the Indigenous Species of Marchantia, Jungermannia, Riccia, and
Anthoceros, Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 6s.
"It is very creditable to Mr Cooke that the drawings in his book are all sketches
from nature made by his own pencil. This shows work, and is more respectable than
the too common practice of copying engravings from the authorities in the particular
branch of science. This little book is valuable, because in some respects it is certainly
a good guide-book to a number of edible fungi unknown to the public."-Popular
Science Review.
"Probably no group in the British flora has received so little attention as the
Hepatice. Dr M. C. Cooke has now filled up the gap by producing a Handbook of
the British Hepaticæ,' containing full descriptions of all the species, about two hundred
in number, known to inhabit the British Islands. -Nature.
M. C. Cooke's Books continued.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
30
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
M. C. COOKE, M.A., LL.D.—continued.
Our Reptiles and Batrachians. A Plain and Easy Account of the
Lizards, Snakes, Newts, Toads, Frogs, and Tortoises indigenous to
Great Britain. New and Revised Edition. With original Coloured
Pictures of every Species, and numerous Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 6s.
CONTENTS.
Reptiles and Snake-stones. The Blind Worm.
The Common Lizard.
The Sand Lizard.
The Green Lizard.
The Natterjack.
Palmate Newt,
The Leathery Turtle.
The Common Snake.
The Smooth Snake.
The Viper, or Adder.
Great Water Newt.
Gray's Banded Newt.
Amphibia or Batrachians.
The Common Frog.
The Edible Frog.
The Common Toad,
Common Smooth Newt or
Eft,
The Hawk's-Bill Turtle.
Appendix.
"Mr Cooke has especially distinguished himself as a student of the fungi and the
fresh-water alga, his works on these orders being the standard treatises in English.
He has also paid some attention to zoology and chemistry, his education in these as in
other sciences being obtained by persistent self-instruction.”—Celebrities of the Century.
Rust, Smut, Mildew, and Mould. An Introduction to the Study of
Microscopic Fungi. Illustrated with 269 Coloured Figures by J.
E. Sowerby. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with Appendix
of New Species. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Those of our readers who are the happy possessors of microscopes would welcome
this book with delight, as opening the way to a definite study of a most interesting
branch of plant life. The minute fungi, here so faithfully depicted by Mr Sowerby,
and so carefully described by Dr Cooke, have not only beauty of form and colour, but
wonderful life-histories. Every hedge or lane or piece of waste ground, even in the
suburbs of large towns, will provide specimens, which may be easily preserved on the
plants which they attack or mounted as microscope slides.
Important to Botanists and Students of Natural History.
European Fungi (Hymenomycetum) Synoptical Key to.
Cooke
(M. C.) and Quelet (L., M.D., &c.)-Clavis Synoptica Hymenomy-
cetum Europæorum. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. 6d. ; or, interleaved with ruled
paper, 8s. 6d.
"Without pretending to high scientific quality, the work throughout is well fitted to
instruct and to attract a class of readers who might shrink from grappling with a
scientific text-book."-Saturday Review.
BARON CUVIER.
The Animal Kingdom. With considerable Additions by W. B.
Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., and J. O. Westwood, F. L.S. New
Edition, Illustrated with 500 Engravings on Wood and 36 Coloured
Plates. Imp. 8vo, 21s.
J. HUNTER, late Hon. Sec. of the British Bee-keepers' Association.
A Manual of Bee-keeping. Containing Practical Information for
Rational and Profitable Methods of Bee Management. Full Instruc-
tions on Stimulative Feeding, Ligurianising and Queen-raising, with
descriptions of the American Comb Foundation, Sectional Supers,
and the best Hives and Apiarian Appliances on all systems. Fourth
Edition. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d.
"We cordially recommend Mr Hunter's neat and compact Manual of Bee-keeping.
Mr Hunter writes clearly and well."-Science Gossip.
"We are indebted to Mr J. Hunter, Honorary Secretary of the British Bee-keepers'
Association. His Manual of Bee-keeping, just published, is full to the very brim of
choice and practical hints fully up to the most advanced stages of Apiarian Science,
and its perusal has afforded us so much pleasure that we have drawn somewhat largely
from it for the benefit of our readers.”—Bec-keepers' Magazine (New York).
For the Reduced Prices apply to
of Messrs W. H. Allen & Co.'s Publications.
31
G. H. KINAHAN.
A Handy Book of Rock Names. Fcap. 8vo, 4s.
"This will prove, we do not doubt, a very useful little book to all practical geologists,
and also to the reading student of rocks. When a difficulty is incurred as to a
species of deposit, it will soon vanish. Mr Kinahan's little book will soon make it all
clear. The work is divided into three parts. The first is a classified table of rocks, the
second part treats of the Ingenite rocks, and the third part deals with those rocks which
are styled Derivate. Dana's termination of yte has been most generally used by the
author, but he has also given the ite terminations for those that like them. The book
will be purchased, for it must bo had, by every geologist; and as its size is small, it will
form a convenient pocket companion for the man who works over field and quarry.”—
Popular Science Review.
Professor E. LANKESTER.
The Uses of Animals in Relation to the Industry of Man. New
Edition. Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 4s.
Silk, Wool, Leather, Bone, Soap, Waste, Sponges, and Corals, Shell-fish, Insects,
Furs, Feathers, Horns and Hair, and Animal Perfumes, are the subjects of the twelve
lectures on "The Uses of Animals."
•
C
"In his chapter on Waste,' the lecturer gives startling insight into the manifold
uses of rubbish.
Dr Lankester finds a use for everything; and he delights in
analysing each fresh sample of rejected material, and stating how each of its com-
ponent parts can be turned to the best account."-Athenæum.
Practical Physiology: A School Manual of Health.
Woodcuts. Sixth Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d.
Constitution of the Human Body,
CONTENTS.
Nature of the Food supplied to the Human
Body.
Digestion, and the Organs by which it is
performed.
Nature of Blood and its Circulation by the
Heart.
CC
With numerous
Breathing, or the Function of Respira-
tion.
The Structure and Functions of the
Skin.
The Movements of the Human Body.
The Brain and Nerves.
The Organs of the Senses.
Writing for schoolboys, Dr Lankester has been careful to consult their tastes.
There are passages in this little work which will make it popular, and the instructor
will probably be hailed by a name which is new to people of his class, that of a
' regular brick."". -Athenæum,
MRS LANKESTER.
Talks about Health: A Book for Boys and Girls. Being an Explana-
tion of all the Processes by which Life is Sustained. Illustrated.
Small 8vo, IS.
The Late EDWARD NEWMAN, F.Z.S.
British Butterflies. With many Illustrations. Super royal 8vo, 7s. 6d.
"The British butterflies have found a good friend in Mr Newman, who has given
us a history of their lives-from larva to imago, their habits and their whereabouts-
which is one of the most perfect things of the kind. And we are glad to read the
author's statement that his work has attained, while in progress, a sale that is almost
unattainable in English scientific works. Firstly, the work consists of a series of
notices to the young who may be disposed to go butterfly-hunting. And in them we
find the author's great experience, and we commend this part of his work to our
readers. The next part deals with the subjects of anatomy, physiology, and embryo-
logy of the insects; and finally we come to the separate account of each species. This
latter is admirably given. First comes a capital engraving, life size, of the species,
and then follows in order the life, history, time of appearance and locality, occupying
from a page to a page and a half or two pages of a large quarto (or nearly so) volume.
All this is done well, as we might expect from the author; it is clear, intelligible, and
devoid of much of the rubbish which abounds in books of this kind generally. We
must conclude by expressing the hope that all who are interested in insects will make
themselves aquainted with the volume."-Popular Science Review.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
32
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
MARY A. PRATTEN.
My Hundred Swiss Flowers. With a Short Account of Swiss Ferns.
With 60 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, plain plates, 12s. 6d.; coloured
plates, 25s.
"The temptation to produce such books as this seems irresistible. The author
feels a want; the want is undeniable. After more or less hesitation he feels he can
supply it. It is pleasantly written, and affords useful hints as to localities."-
Athenæum.
S. L. PUMPHREY.
A Little Brown Pebble, with 10 full-page cuts. Fcap. 410, 3s. 6d.
"In the story of A Little Brown Pebble,' its writer endeavours to introduce geo-
logical science into the nursery, showing what strange creatures lived in the ancient
seas, what monsters inhabited the primeval forests, and how our country alternated
between torrid heats and an arctic cold. The accuracy of the information is guaran-
teed by competent authorities, and the illustrations are spirited. There is no reason
why the attempt should not succeed.”—Academy, 21st December 1889.
R. RIMMER, F.L.S.
The Land and Freshwater Shells of the British Isles.
Illus-
trated with 10 Photographs and 3 Lithographs, containing figures of
all the principal Species. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 5s.
"This handsomely got up little volume supplies a long-felt want in a very ingenious
and trustworthy manner. The author is an enthusiastic conchologist, and writes
both attractively and well, and in a manner so simple and natural that we have no
fear that any ordinarily educated man will easily understand every phrase. But the
feature of this book which strikes us most is that every species of British land and
freshwater shell has been photographed, and here we have all the photographs, natural
size in the albertype process, so that the merest tyro will find no difficulty in identi-
fying any shell he may find."-Science Review.
J. SMITH, A.L.S.
Ferns British and Foreign.
:
Fourth Edition, revised and greatly en-
larged, with many illustrations. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
"Each genus is described, and the technical characters upon which it is founded
are shown in the accompanying illustrations, and the indispensable technical terms
are explained by examples. The meaning and derivations of the botanical names of
ferns are also given in sufficient detail and with sufficient accuracy to meet the wants
of amateurs, if not of scholars. But perhaps the most valuable part of the work is that
devoted to instruction in the cultivation of ferns, which occupies some seventy pages
of the book. A bibliography of the subject and an excellent index make up the
remainder of this useful volume, which we recommend to all persons desirous of know-
ing something more about ferns than being able to recognise them by sight."-Field.
"Mr Smith's work entitles him to admiration for his industry and for the manifest
care with which he has studied his subject; and his present enlarged work will certainly
become and be a standard library book of reference for all pteridologists and orna-
mental gardeners (whether professional or amateur) who devote attention to filiculture.
And there really is no family of plants which is more elegant than are ferns. Indi-
genous British ferns alone afford a most interesting scope of research and collection."
-Whitehall Review.
"This is a new and enlarged edition of one of the best extant works on British
and foreign ferns which has been called for by the introduction, during the interval
of ten years which has elapsed since the issue of the first edition, of a number of exotic
species which have been collected and arranged under their respective genera and
tribes as an appendix. There are thus introduced 234 entirely new species. The sixty
pages devoted to a treatise on the cultivation of ferns are invaluable to the forn-grower,
professional or amateur, describing the conditions under which ferns grow in their
native country-knowledge which is essential to their really successful cultivation
in this."- Rural World.
-
For the Reduced Prices apply to
of Messrs W. H. Allen & Co.'s Publications.
33
J. E. TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.G.S.
Flowers: Their Origin, Shapes, Perfumes, and Colours, Illus-
trated with 32 Coloured Figures by Sowerby, and 161 Woodcuts.
Second Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 7s. 6d.
CONTENTS
The Old and New Philosophy of Flowers-The Geological Antiquity of Flowers
and Insects-The Geographical Distribution of Flowers-The Structure of Flowering
Plants-Relations between Flowers and their Physical Surroundings-Relations
between Flowers and the Wind-The Colours of Flowers-The External Shapes of
Flowers-The Internal Shapes of Flowers-The Perfumes of Flowers-Social Flowers
-Birds and Flowers-The Natural Defences of Flowering Plants.
"This is an altogether charming book, full of wisdom, cheerful, simple, attractive,
and informed throughout with a high purpose. Its object is to place within reach of
the general public in an agreeable form the results of the most recent and compre-
hensive botanical research. The author is so bold as to ask why flowers were made,
and is not without means to answer the question reverently and truthfully. He
connects them by the aids that science supplies with the history of creation, and the
records of the rocks, and with the history of man, and the progress of the agricultural
and horticultural arts. He tells us how they are influenced by soil and climate, how
changed and multiplied by insects and other agencies, how their seeds are blown
about the world, and how by innumerable divine appointments it at last comes about
that the life of a man is environed and beautified with flowers. The work is rich in
the results of travel, and it happily connects the vegetable products of the globe with
the conditions that favour them and the wants they satisfy. It is therefore a book
for all ages, and for botanists and gardeners, as well as for such as rather too gladly
confess they know nothing about plants. We should like to see it on every
family table in the whole length and breadth of the United Kingdom."—Gardeners'
Magazine.
The Aquarium: Its Inhabitants, Structure, and Management.
Second Edition, with 238 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
"Few men have done more to popularise the natural history science than the late
Dr Taylor. The work before us, while intended as a handbook to public aquaria, is
responsible for many attempts, successful and otherwise, at the construction of the
domestic article. The book is replete with valuable information concerning persons
and things, while the directions for making and managing aquaria are very clear and
concise. The illustrations are numerous, suitable, and very good.”—Schoolmaster.
6
"The ichthyologist, be it known, is not such a fearful or horrific'sort of wild-
fowl' as his name would seem to argue him. The prevalence of the breed, the extent
of its knowledge, the zeal of its enthusiasm, and the number of the aquaria it has
built for itself in town or country, are all part and parcel of that 'march of science
which took its impetus from Darwin and the Origin of Species.' Those who do not
already know that useful book, 'The Aquarium,' by Mr J. E. Taylor, Ph.D., F. L.S.,
&c., should procure this new edition (the sixth). It forms a convenient handbook or
popular manual to our public aquaria. The aquarium, its inhabitants, its structure
and its management, are the author's especial care. And with the help of well-known
works and a wide experience he has managed to put together a most praiseworthy
book.”—Science Siftings.
Half-Hours in the Green Lanes. Illustrated with 300 Woodcuts. Fifth
Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.
A book which cannot fail to please the young, and from which many an older
reader may glean here and there facts of interest in the field of nature. Mr Taylor
has endeavoured to collect these facts which are to be recorded daily by an observant
country gentleman with a taste for natural history; and he has attempted to put them
together in a clear and simple style, so that the young may not only acquire a love for
the investigation of nature, but may also put up (by reading this little book) an im-
portant store of knowledge. We think the author has succeeded in his object. He
has made a very interesting little volume, not written above the heads of its readers
as many of those books are, and he has taken care to have most of his natural history
observations very accurately iHustrated."-Popular Science Review.
J. E. Taylor's Books continued.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
34
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
J. E. TAYLOR, F.L.S., F. G.S.-continued.
Half-Hours at the Seaside. Illustrated with 250 Woodcuts. Fourth
Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.
"The love of natural history has now become so prevalent, at least among purely
English readers, that we hardly meet a family at the seaside one of whose members
has not some little knowledge of the wonders of the deep. Now, of course, this love
of marine zoology is being vastly increased by the existence of the valuable aquaria
at the Crystal Palace and at Brighton. Still, however, notwithstanding the amount
of admirable works on the subject, more especially the excellent treatises of Gosse
and others, there was wanted a cheap form of book with good illustrations which
should give a clear account of the ordinary creatures one meets with on the sands
and in the rock pools. The want no longer exists, for the excellent little manual that
now lies before us embraces all that could be desired by those who are entirely ignorant
of the subject of seaside zoology, while its mode of arrangement and woodcuts, which
are carefully drawn, combine to render it both attractive and useful."—Popular
Science Review.
Riding, Veterinary, and Agriculture.
EDWARD L. ANDERSON.
How to Ride and School a Horse. With a System of Horse Gym-
nastics. Fourth Edition. Revised and Corrected. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.
"He is well worthy of a hearing."-Bell's Life.
"Mr Anderson is, without doubt, a thorough horseman."—The Field.
"It should be a good investment to all lovers of horses."—The Farmer.
"There is no reason why the careful reader should not be able, by the help of this
little book, to train as well as ride his horses.”—Land and Water.
JAMES IRVINE LUPTON, F.R.C.V.S.
The Horse, as he Was, as he Is, and as he Ought to Be.
Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Illustrated.
"Written with a good object in view, namely, to create an interest in the im-
portant subject of horse-breeding, more especially that class known as general utility
horses. The book contains several illustrations, is well printed and handsomely
bound, and we hope will meet with the attention it deserves."—Live Stock Journal.
WILLIAM PROCTOR, Stud Groom.
The Management and Treatment of the Horse in the Stable, Field,
and on the Road. New and Revised Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
"There are few who are interested in horses will fail to profit by one
portion or another of this useful work. Coming from a practical hand the
work should recommend itself to the public."-Sportsman.
There is a fund of sound common-sense views in this work which will be
interesting to many owners."-Field.
Second Edition.
Second Edition.
Demy 8vo,
GEORGE GRESSIVELL.
The Diseases and Disorders of the Ox.
of the Ox.
7s. 6d.
"This is perhaps one of the best of the popular books on the subject which has been
published in recent years, and demonstrates in a most unmistakable manner the great
advance that has been made in Bovine and Ovine Pathology since the days of Youatt.
To medical men who desire to know something of the disorders of such an
important animal-speaking hygienically-as the Ox, the work can be recommended."
-The Lancet.
"It is clear, concise, and practical, and would make a very convenient handbook of
reference."-Saturday Review.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
of Messrs W. H. Allen & Co.'s Publications.
35
PROFESSOR SHELDON.
The Future of British Agriculture.
Benefited. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.
How Farmers may best be
Fortunately Prof. Sheldon has no mind to play the part of a prophet,
but from the plenitude of a long experience gives sage counsel how to farm
abreast of the time and be ready for whatever may ensue. This little
book is well worth reading, and it is pleasant to find that the professor by
no means despairs of the future of agriculture in England.”—Academy.
•
•
"We welcome the book as a valuable contribution to our agricultural
literature, and as a useful guide to those branches in which the author
is especially qualified to instruct.”—Nature.
"In this beautifully printed and well-bound little book of 158 pp.,
Professor Sheldon, in his usual happy style, surveys the agricultural field,
and indicates what he thinks is the prospect in front of the British farmer.
Like a watchman he stands upon his tower-and when asked, What of the
night? he disavows not that we are in the night, but earnestly declares that
the morning cometh apace. The professor is an optimist; he does not believe
that the country is done, and still less does he favour the idea that, taking a
wide survey, the former days were better than these. On the contrary, he
urges that the way out of the wilderness is not by any by-path, but by going
right ahead; and, ere long, the man who holds the banner high will emerge
triumphant."-Scottish Farmer.
joz
JOHN WATSON, F.L.S.
Ornithology in Relation to Agriculture and Horticulture, by various
writers, edited by John Watson, F. L. S., &c. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.—Miss Eleanor A. Ormerod, late Consulting
Entomologist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England; O. V. Aplin,
F.L.S., Member of the British Ornithologists' Union; Charles Whitehead,
F.L.S., F.G.S., &c., author of "Fifty Years of Fruit Farming"; John
Watson, F.L.S., author of "A Handbook for Farmers and Small Holders";
the Rev. F. O. Morris, M. A., author of "A History of British Birds"; G. W.
Murdoch, late editor of The Farmer; Riley Fortune, F.Z.S.; T. H. Nelson,
Member of the British Ornithologists' Union; T. Southwell, F.Z.S.; Rev.
Theo. Wood, B.A., F.I.S.; J. H. Gurney, jun., M.P.; Harrison Weir,
F.R.H.S.; W. H. Tuck.
"Will form a textbook of a reliable kind in guiding agriculturists at large
in their dealings with their feathered friends and foes alike.”—Glasgow
Herald.
"This is a valuable book, and should go far to fulfil its excellent purpose.
It is a book that every agriculturist should possess."-Land and
Water.
"It is well to know what birds do mischief and what birds are helpful.
This book is the very manual to clear up all such doubts."— Yorkshire Post.
"In these days of agricultural depression it behoves the former to study,
among other subjects, ornithology. That he and the gamekeeper often bring
down plagues upon the land when they fancy they are ridding it of a pest is
exceedingly well illustrated in this series of papers."-Scotsman.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
36
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
India, China, Japan, and the East.
SURGEON-MAJOR L. A. WADDELL, M.B., F.L.S., F.R. G.S.,
Member of the Royal Asiatic Society, Anthropological Institute, &i.
The Buddhism of Tibet, with its Mystic Cults, Symbolism, and Mytho-
logy, and in its Relation to Indian Buddhism, with over 200 Illustra-
tions. Demy 8vo, 31s. 6d.
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS:-Introductory. Historical: Changes in Primitive Bud-
dhism leading to Lamaism-Rise, Development, and Spread of Lamaisin-The Sects of
Lamaism. Doctrinal: Metaphysical Sources of the Doctrine-The Doctrine and its
Morality-Scriptures and Literature. Monastic: The Order of Lamas-Daily Life and
Routine-Hierarchy and Reincarnate Lamas. Buildings: Monasteries-Temples and
Cathedrals-Shrines (and Relics and Pilgrims). Mythology and Gods: Pantheon and
Images-Sacred Symbols and Charms. Ritual and Sorcery: Worship and Ritual—
Astrology and Divination- Sorcery and Necromancy. Festivals and Plays: Festivals
and Holidays-Mystic Plays and Masquerades and Sacred Plays. Popular Lamaism:
Domestic and Popular Lamaism. Appendices: Chronological Table-Bibliography-
Index.
"By far the most important mass of original materials contributed to this recondite
study.”—The Times.
"Dr Waddell deals with the whole subject in a most exhaustive manner, and gives
a clear insight into the structure, prominent features, and cults of the system; and to
disentangle the early history of Lamaism from the chaotic growth of fable which has
invested it, most of the chief internal movements of Lamaism are now for the first
time presented in an intelligible and systematic form. The work is a valuable
addition to the long series that have preceded it, and is enriched by numerous illus-
trations, mostly from originals brought from Lhasa, and from photographs by the
author, while it is fully indexed, and is provided with a chronological table and biblio-
graphy."-Liverpool Courier.
'A book of exceptional interest.”—Glasgow Herald.
•
"A learned and elaborate work, likely for some time to come to be a source of
reference for all who seek information about Lamaism.
In the appendix will be
found a chronological table of Tibetan events, and a bibliography of the best literature
bearing on Lamaism. There is also an excellent index, and the numerous illustrations
are certainly one of the distinctive features of the book."-Morning Post.
"Cannot fail to arouse the liveliest interest. The author of this excellently pro-
duced, handsomely illustrated volume of nearly six hundred pages has evidently
spared no pains in prosecuting his studies. . The book is one of exceptional value,
and will attract all those readers who take an interest in the old religions of the far
East."-Publishers' Circular.
•
SIR EDWIN ARNOLD, M.A., Author of " The Light of Asia," &c.
The Book of Good Counsels. Fables from the Sanscrit of the
Hitopadésa. With Illustrations by Gordon Browne. Autograph and
Portrait. Crown 8vo, antique, gilt top, 5s.
A few copies of the large paper Edition (limited to 100 copies),
bound in white vellum, 25s. each net.
"The Book of Good Counsels,' by Sir Edwin Arnold, comes almost as a new book,
so long has it been out of print. Now, in addition to being very tastefully and
prettily reissued, it contains numerous illustrations by Mr Gordon Browne.
few may remember, it is a book of Indian stories and poetical maxims from the
Sanskrit of the Hitopadesa. The book is almost a volume of fairy tales, and may pass
for that with the younger generation, but it is a little too heavily overlaid with philo-
sophy to be dismissed wholly as such. In fact, like all that Sir Edwin Arnold has
brought before us, it is full of curious fancies, and that it is a charming little book to
look at is its least merit."-Daily Graphic.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
of Messrs W. H. Allen & Co.'s Publications.
37
CAPTAIN JAMES ABBOTT.
Narrative of a Journey from Herat to Khiva, Moscow, and St
Petersburgh during the late Russian invasion at Khiva.
With Map
and Portrait. 2 vols., demy 8vo, 245.
The real interest of the work consists in its store of spirited anecdote, its enter-
taining sketches of individual and national character, its graphic pictures of Eastern
life and manners, its simply told tales of peril, privation, and suffering encountered and
endured with a soldier's courage. Over the whole narrative, the naiveté and frank-
ness of the writer cast a charm that far more than covers its occasional eccentricities
of style and language. It has seldom fallen to our lot to read a more interesting
narrative of personal adventure. Rarely, indeed, do we find an author whose
constant presence, through almost the whole of two large volumes, is not only
tolerable, but welcome. Few readers will rise from a perusal of the narrative
without a strong feeling of personal sympathy and interest in the gallant Major; even
though here and there unable to repress a smile at some burst of ecstasy, some abrupt
apostrophe, such as would never have been perpetrated by a practical writer, and a
man of the world.
SIR E. C. BAYLEY.
The Local Muhammadan Dynasties, Gujarat.
Forming a Sequel
to Sir H. M. Elliott's "History of the Muhammadan Empire
of India. Demy 8vo, 21S.
"}
"The value of the work consists in the light which it serves to throw upon dis-
puted dates and obscure transactions. As a work of reference it is doubtless useful.
Regarding the way in which its learned translator and editor has acquitted himself
of his task it is scarcely necessary to write; a profound scholar and painstaking in-
vestigator, his labours are unusually trustworthy, and the world of letters will doubt-
less award him that meed of praise, which is rarely withheld from arduous and con-
scientious toil, by assigning him, in death, a niche in the temple of fame, side by side
with his venerated master, Sir Henry Elliott."-Academy.
This book may be considered the first of a series designed rather as a supplement
than complement to the 'History of India as Told by its own Historians.' Following
the Preface, a necessarily brief biographical notice-written in the kindly and appre-
ciative spirit which ever characterises the style of the learned editor of Marco Polo,
whose initials are scarcely needed to confirm his identity-explains how on Professor
Dowson's death, Sir Edward Clive Bayley was induced to undertake an editorship for
which he was eminently qualified by personal character and acquaintance with the
originator of the project which constituted his raison d'être. But the new editor did
not live to see the actual publication of his first volume. Scarcely had he completed
it for the press, when his career was brought to a close. A singular fatality seems to
have attended the several able men who have taken the leading part in preserving this
particular monument of genuine history. Henry Elliott, John Dowson, Edward Clive
Bayley, and more recently still (during the current year), Edward Thomas, the high-
class numismatist, all have passed away, with hands upon the plough in the very field
of Oriental research. Without asking to whose care the preparation of any future
volumes may be entrusted, let us be thankful for the work, so far completed and-at
this time especially-for the instalment which has just appeared."-Athenæum.
SIR GEORGE BIRDWOOD, M.D.
Report on the Old Records of the India Office, with Maps and
Illustrations. Royal 8vo, 12s. 6d.
Those who are familiar with Sir George Birdwood's literary method will appreciate
the interest and the wealth of historical illustration with which he invests these topics."
-Times, Feb. 26, 1891.
"Sir George Birdwood has performed a Herculean task in exploring, sorting, and
describing the masses of old India Office records, which Mr Danvers has now got into
a state of admirable arrangement, so that, with the help of Sir George's Index, they
may be readily and profitably consulted by students."-Scotsman.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
38
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
E. BONAVIA, M.D., Brigade-Surgeon, Indian Medical Service.
The Cultivated Oranges and Lemons of India and Ceylon. Demy
8vo, with Atlas of Plates, 30s.
"The amount of labour and research that Dr Bonavia must have expended on these
volumes would be very difficult to estimate, and it is to be hoped that he will be repaid,
to some extent at least, by the recognition of his work by those who are interested in
promoting the internal industries of India."-Home News.
"There can be no question that the author of this work has devoted much time and
trouble to the study of the Citrus family in India. That the preparation of the book
has been a labour of love is evident throughout its pages.”—The Englishman. ·
f. C. danverS, Registrar and Superintendent of Records,
India Office, London.
Report to the Secretary of State for India in Council on the Portu-
guese Records relating to the East Indies, contained in the
Archivo da Torre de Tombo, and the Public Libraries at Lisbon and
Evora. Royal 8vo, sewed, 6s. net.
"The whole book is full of important and interesting materials for the student
alike of English and of Indian history."-Times.
"It is more than time that some attention was paid to the history of the Portuguese
in India by Englishmen, and Mr Danvers is doing good service to India by his investi-
gation into the Portuguese records."-India.
"We are very grateful for it, especially with the gratitude which consists in a long-
ing for more favours to come. The Secretary of State spends much money on worse
things than continuing the efforts of which the book under review is only the first
result."-Asiatic Quarterly Review.
The visits of inspection into the records preserved in Portugal bearing on the
history of European enterprise in Eastern seas, which were authorised by the Secretary
of State for India in 1891 and 1892, have resulted in the production of a most interest-
ing report, which shows that a vast store of historical papers has been carefully pre-
served in that country, which deserves more thorough investigation. Mr Danvers,
whose devotion to the duties of the Record Department is well known, hastened to
carry out his instructions, and his report fully attests the earnestness with which he
pursued his task. The documents range in date from 1500 to the present date, and
contain clusters of documents numbering 12,465 and 5,274, and 1,783 in extent, besides
many other deeply interesting batches of smaller bulk. It seems that no copies exist
of most of these documents among our own records, a fact which invests them with
peculiar interest.
GEORGE DOBSON.
Russia's Railway Advance into Central Asia.
from St Petersburg to Samarkand, Illustrated.
Notes of a Journey
Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
"The letters themselves have been expanded and rewritten, and the work contains
seven additional chapters, which bring the account of the Transcaspian Provinces
down to the present time. Those of our readers who remember the original letters
will need no further commendation of our correspondent's accuracy of information
and graphic powers of description."-Times.
"Offers a valuable contribution to our knowledge of this region. The author
journeyed from St Petersburg to Samarkand by the Russian trains and steamers.
He wonders, as so many have wondered before, why the break in the line of railway
communication which is made by the Caspian Sea is allowed to continue. His book is
eminently impartial, and he deals with the question of trade between India and Central
Asia in a chapter full of the highest interest, both for the statesman and the British
merchant."-Daily Telegraph.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
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39
REV. A. J. D. D'ORSEY, B.D., K.C., P.0.C.
Portuguese Discoveries, Dependencies, and Missions in Asia and
Africa, with Maps. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
Introductory.
Book I.
The Portuguese in Europe and Asia.
Portugal and the Portuguese.
CONTENTS.
Portuguese Discoveries in the Fifteenth
Century.
Portuguese Conquests of India in the
Sixteenth Century.
The Portuguese Empire in the Sixteenth
Century.
Book II.
The Portuguese Missions in Southern
India.
Early History of the Church in India.
First Meeting of the Portuguese with the
Syrians.
Pioneers of the Portuguese Missions.
The Rise of the Jesuits.
The Jesuits in Portugal.
St Francis Xavier's Mission in India.
Subsequent Missions in the Sixteenth
Century.
Book III.
The Subjugation of the Syrian Church.
Roman Claim of Supremacy.
First Attempt, by the Franciscans.
Second Attempt. by the Jesuits.
The Struggle against Rome.
Book III.-continued.
The Archbishop of Goa.
The Synod of Diamper.
The Triumph of Rome.
Book IV.
Subsequent Missions in Southern India,
with special reference to the Syrians.
Radiation of Mission of Goa.
The Madura Mission.
Portuguese Missions in the Carnatic.
Syrian Christians in the Seventeenth
Century.
Syrian Christians in the Eighteenth
Century.
Book V.
The Portuguese Missions, with special
reference to Modern Missionary
efforts in South India.
The First Protestant Mission in South
India.
English Missions to the Syrians 1806-16.
English Missions and the Syrian
Christians.
The Disruption and its Results.
Present State of the Syrian Christians.
The Revival of the Romish Missions in
India.
GENERAL GORDON, C.B.
Events in the Taeping Rebellion. Being Reprints of MSS. copied
by General Gordon, C. B., in his own handwriting; with Monograph,
Introduction, and Notes. By A. Egmont Hake, author of "The
Story of Chinese Gordon." With Portrait and Map. Demy 8vo, 18s.
"A valuable and graphic contribution to our knowledge of affairs in China at the
most critical period of its history."-Leeds Mercury.
"Mr Hake has prefixed a vivid sketch of Gordon's career as a leader of men,'
which shows insight and grasp of character. The style is perhaps somewhat too
emphatic and ejaculatory-one seems to hear echoes of Hugo, and a strain of Mr
Walter Besant-but the spirit is excellent.”—Athenæum.
"Without wearying his readers by describing at length events which are as
familiar in our mouths as household words, he contents himself with giving a light
sketch of them, and fills in the picture with a personal narrative which to most people
will be entirely new."-Saturday Review.
F. V. GREENE, Military Attache to the U.S. Legation
at St Petersburg.
Sketches of Army Life in Russia. Crown 8vo, 9s.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
40.
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M. GRIFFITH.
India's Princes. Short Life Sketches of the Native Rulers of India,
with 47 Portraits and Illustrations. Demy 4to, gilt top, 21s.
THE PUNJAUB.
LIST OF PORTRAITS.
H.H. the Maharaja of Cashmere.
H.H. the Maharaja of Patiala.
H.H. the Maharaja of Kapurthalla.
RAJPUTANA.
The Maharaja of Oudipur.
The Maharaja of Jeypore.
The Maharaja of Jodhpur.
The Maharaja of Ulware.
The Maharaja of Bhurtpur.
CENTRAL INDIA.
H.H. the Maharaja Holkar of Indore.
H.H, the Maharaja Scindia of Gwalior.
H.H. the Begum of Bhopal.
THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.
H.H. the Gaikwar of Baroda.
H.H. the Ruo of Cutch.
H.H. the Raja Kolhapur.
H.H. the Nawab of Junagarh.
H.H. the Thakore Sahib of Bhavnagar.
H.H. the Thakore Sahib of Dhangadra.
H.H. the Thakore Sahib of Morvi.
H.H. the Thakore Sahib of Gondal.
SOUTHERN INDIA.
H.H. the Nizam of Hyderabad.
H.H. the Maharaja of Mysore.
H.H. the Maharaja of Travancore.
"A handsome volume containing a series of photographic portraits and local
views with accompanying letterpress, giving biographical and political details,
carefully compiled and attractively presented."-Times.
C. HAMILTON.
Hedaya or Guide. A Commentary on the Mussulman Laws. Second
Edition. With Preface and Index by S. G. Grady. Svo, 35s.
"A work of very high authority in all Moslem countries. It discusses most of the
subjects mentioned in the Koran and Sonna."-MILL'S Muhammadanism.
The great Law-Book of India, and one of the most important monuments of Mussul-
man legislation in existence.
"A valuable work.”—ALLIBONE.
Of Zakat.
Of Nikkah or Marriage.
Of Rizza or Fosterage.
Of Talak or Divorce.
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
Of Ittak or the Manumission of Slaves.
Of Eiman or Vows.
Of Hoodood or Punishment.
Of Saraka or Larceny.
Of Al Seyir or the Institutes.
Of the Law respecting Lakects or Found-
lings.
Of Looktas or Troves.
Of Ibbak or the Absconding of Slaves.
Of Mafkoods or Missing Persons.
Of Shirkat or Partnership.
Of Wakf or Appropriations.
Of Sale.
Of Serf Sale.
Of Kafalit or Bail.
Of Hawalit or the Transfer of the Kazee.
Of the Duties of the Kazee.
Of Shahadit or Evidence.
Of Retractation of Evidence.
Of Agency.
Of Dawee or Claim.
Of Ikrar or Acknowledge.
Of Soolh or Composition.
Of Mozaribat or Co-partnership in the
Profits of Stock and Labour.
Of Widda or Deposits.
Of Areeat or Loans.
Of Hibba or Gifts.
Of Ijaro or Hire.
Of Mokatibes.
Of Willa.
Of Ikrah or Compulsion.
Of Hijr or Inhibition.
Of Mazoons or Licensed Slaves.
Of Ghazb or Usurpation.
Of Shaffa.
Of Kissmat or Partition.
Of Mozarea or Compacts of Cultivation.
Of Mosakat or Compacts of Gardening.
Of Zabbah or the Slaying of Animals for
Food.
Of Uzheea or Sacrifice.
Of Kiraheeat or Abominations.
Of the Cultivation of Waste Lands.
Of Prohibited Liquors.
Of Hunting.
Of Rahn or Pawns.
Of Janayat or Offences against the Person.
Of Deeayat or Fines.
Of Mawakil or the Levying of Fines.
Of Wasaya or Wills.
Of Hermaphrodites.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
of Messrs W. H. Allen & Co.'s Publications.
4I
HOWARD HENSMAN, Special Correspondent of the "Pioneer'
(Allahabad) and the "Daily News" (London).
The Afghan War, 1879-80. Being a complete Narrative of the Capture
of Cabul, the Siege of Sherpur, the Battle of Ahmed Khel, the March
to Candahar, and the defeat of Ayub Khan. With Maps. Demy 8vo,
2IS.
"Sir Frederick Roberts says of the letters here published in a collected form that
'nothing could be more accurate or graphic.' As to accuracy no one can be a more
competent judge than Sir Frederick, and his testimony stamps the book before us as
constituting especially trustworthy material for history. Of much that he relates Mr
Hensman was an eye-witness; of the rest he was informed by eye-witnesses immedi-
ately after the occurrence of the events recorded. We are assured by Sir Frederick
Roberts that Mr Hensman's accuracy is complete in all respects. Mr Hensman enjoyed
singular advantages during the first part of the war, for he was the only special corre-
spondent who accompanied the force which marched out of Ali Kheyl in September
1879. One of the most interesting portions of the book is that which describes the
march of Sir Frederick Roberts from Cabul to Candahar. Indeed, the book is in
every respect interesting and well written, and reflects the greatest credit on the
author."-Athenæum.
Sir H. HUNTER.
A Statistical Account of Bengal.
1. Twenty-four Parganas and Sundar-
bans.
2. Nadiya and Jessor.
3. Midnapur, Hugli, and Hourah.
4. Bard wan, Birbhum, and Bankhura.
5. Dacca, Bakarganj, Faridpur, and
Maimansinh.
6. Chittagong Hill Tracts, Chittagong,
Noakhali, Tipperah, and Hill
Tipperah State.
20 vols. Demy 8vo, £6.
7. Meldah, Rangpur, Dinajpur.
8. Rajshahf and Bogra.
9. Murshidabad and Pabna.
10. Darjiling, Jalpaigurf, and Kutch
Behar State.
11. Patna and Saran.
12. Gaya and Shahabad.
13. Tirhut and Champaran.
14. Bhagalpur and Santal Parganas.
15. Monghyr and Purniah.
Bengal MS. Records, a selected list of Letters in the Board of Revenue,
Calcutta, 1782-1807, with an Historical Dissertation and Analytical
Index. 4 vols. Demy 8vo, 30s.
"This is one of the small class of original works that compel a reconsideration of
views which bave been long accepted and which have passed into the current history
of the period to which they refer. Sir William Wilson Hunter's exhaustive examination
of the actual state of the various landed classes of Bengal during the last century
renders impossible the further acceptance of these hitherto almost indisputable dicta
of Indian history. The chief materials for that examination have been the contem-
porary MS. records preserved in the Board of Revenue, Calcutta, of which Sir William
Hunter gives a list of 14,136 letters dealing with the period from 1782 to 1807. Nothing
could be more impartial than the spirit in which he deals with the great questions
involved. He makes the actual facts, as recorded by these letters, written at the
time, speak for themselves. But those who desire to learn how that system grew out
of the pre-existing land rights and land usages of the province will find a clear and
authoritative explanation. If these four volumes stood alone they would place their
author in the first rank of scientific historians; that is, of the extremely limited
class of historians who write from original MSS. and records. But they do not stand
alone. They are the natural continuation of the author's researches, nearly a genera-
tion ago, among the District Archives of Bengal, which produced his Annals of
Rural Bengal' in 1868 and his 'Orissa' in 1872. They are also the first-fruits of that
comprehensive history of India on which he has been engaged for the last twenty years,
for which he has collected in each province of India an accumulation of tested local
materials such as has never before been brought together in the hands, and by the
labours, of any worker in the same stupendous field, and which, when completed, will
be the fitting crown of his lifelong services to India. These volumes are indeed an
important instalment towards the projected magnum opus; and in this connection
it is of good augury to observe that they maintain their author's reputation for that
fulness and minuteness of knowledge, that grasp of principles and philosophic insight,
and that fertility and charm of literary expression which give Sir Williani Hunter his
unique place among the writers of his day on India."-The Times.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
C
42
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
::
REV. T. P. HUGHES.
A Dictionary of Islam, being a Cyclopædia of the Doctrines, Rites,
Ceremonies, and Customs, together with the Technical and Theological
Terms of the Muhammadan Religion. With numerous Illustrations.
Royal 8vo, £2 25.
Such a work as this has long been needed, and it would be hard to find
any one better qualified to prepare it than Mr Hughes. His 'Notes on
Muhammadanism,' of which two editions have appeared, have proved de-
cidedly useful to students of Islam, especially in India, and his long familiarity
with the tenets and customs of Moslems has placed him in the best possible
position for deciding what is necessary and what superfluous in a 'Dictionary
of Islam.' His usual method is to begin an article with the text in the
Koran relating to the subject, then to add the traditions bearing upon it, and
to conclude with the comments of the Mohammedan scholiasts and the
criticisms of Western scholars. Such a method, while involving an infinity of
labour, produces the best results in point of accuracy and comprehensiveness.
The difficult task of compiling a dictionary of so vast a subject as Islam, with
its many sects, its saints, khalifs, ascetics, and dervishes, its festivals, ritual,
and sacred places, the dress, manners, and customs of its professors, its com-
mentators, technical terms, science of tradition and interpretation, its super-
stitions, magic, and astrology, its theoretical doctrines and actual practices,
has been accomplished with singular success; and the dictionary will have its
place among the standard works of reference in every library that professes
to take account of the religion which governs the lives of forty millions of
the Queen's subjects. The articles on 'Marriage,' 'Women,' 'Wives,'
Slavery, Tradition,' 'Sufi,' 'Muhammad,' 'Da'wah or Incantation,
'Burial,' and 'God,' are especially admirable. Two articles deserve special
notice. One is an elaborate account of Arabic Writing' by Dr Steingass,
which contains a vast quantity of useful matter, and is well illustrated by
woodcuts of the chief varieties of Arabic script. The other article to which
we refer with special emphasis is Mr F. Pincott on 'Sikhism.' There is some-
thing on nearl every page of the dictionary that will interest and instruct
the students of Eastern religion, manners, and customs."—Athenæum.
·
Dictionary of Muhammadan Theology.
Notes on Muhammadanism. By Rev. T. P. Hughes.
revised and enlarged. Fcap. 8vo, 6s.
•
•
Third Edition,
"Altogether an admirable little book. It combines two excellent quali-
ties, abundance of facts and lack of theories.
On every one of the
numerous heads (over fifty) into which the book is divided, Mr Hughes
furnishes a large amount of very valuable information, which it would be
exceedingly difficult to collect from even a large library of works on the
subject. The book might well be called a 'Dictionary of Muhammadan
Theology,' for we know of no English work which combines a methodical
arrangement (and consequently facility of reference) with fulness of informa-
tion in so high a degree as the little volume before us."-The Academy.
It contains multum in parvo, and is about the best outline of the
tenets of the Muslim faith which we have seen. It has, moreover, the rare
merit of being accurate; and, although it contains a few passages which we
would gladly see expunged, it cannot fail to be useful to all Government
employés who have to deal with Muhammadans; whilst to missionaries it
will be invaluable.”—The Times of India.
"The main object of the work is to reveal the real and practical character
of the Islam faith, and in this the author has evidently been successful."-
The Standard.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
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43
MRS GRACE JOHNSON, Silver Medallist, Cookery Exhibition.
Anglo-Indian and Oriental Cookery. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
H. G. KEENE, C.I.E., B.C.S., M.R.A.S., &c.
History of India. From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. For
the use of Students and Colleges. 2 vols. Crown 8vo, with Maps,
16s.
"The main merit of Mr Keene's performance lies in the fact that he has assimilated
all the authorities, and has been careful to bring his book down to date. He has been
careful in research, and has availed himself of the most recent materials. He is well
known as the author of other works on Indian history, and his capacity for his self-
imposed task will not be questioned. We must content ourselves with this brief testi-
mony to the labour and skill bestowed by him upon a subject of vast interest and
importance. Excellent proportion is preserved in dealing with the various episodes,
and the style is clear and graphic. The volumes are supplied with many useful maps,
and the appendix include notes on Indian law and on recent books about India.
Globe.
31
"Mr Keene has the admirable element of fairness in dealing with the succession of
great questions that pass over his pages, and he wisely devotes a. full half of his work
to the present century. The appearance of such a book, and of every such book, upon
India is to be hailed at present. A fair-minded presentment of Indian history like that
contained in Mr Keene's two volumes is at this moment peculiarly welcome."-Times.
"In this admirably clear and comprehensive account of the rise and consolidation
of our great Indian Empire, Mr Keene has endeavoured to give, without prolixity, a
statement of the relevant facts at present available, both in regard to the origin of the
more important Indian races and in regard to their progress before they came under
the unifying processes of modern administration. To this undertaking is, of course,
added the completion of the story of the 'unprecedented series of events' which have
led to the amalgamation of the various Indian tribes or nationalities under one rule.
In theory, at least, there is finality in history. Mr Keene traces the ancient Indian
races from their earliest known ancestors and the effect of the Aryan settlement. He
marks the rise of Buddhism and the great Muslim Conquest, the end of the Pathans,
and the advent of the Empire of the Mughals. In rapid succession he reviews the
Hindu revival, the initial establishment of English influence, and the destruction of
French power. The author records the policy of Cornwallis, the wars of Wellesley,
and the Administration of Minto-the most important features in Indian history before
the establishment of British supremacy. It is a brilliant record of British prowess and
ability of governing inferior races that Mr Keene has to place before his readers. We
bave won and held India by the sword, and the policy of the men we send out year by
year to assist in its administration is largely based on that principle. The history of
the land, of our occupation, and our sojourning, so ably set forth in these pages, is
inseparable from that one essential fact."-Morning Post.
An Oriental Biographical Dictionary.
by the late Thomas William Beale.
larged. Royal Svo, 28s.
Founded on materials collected
New Edition, revised and en-
"A complete biographical dictionary for a country like India, which in its long
history has produced a profusion of great men, would be a vast undertaking. The
suggestion here made only indicates the line on which the dictionary, at some future
time, could be almost indefinitely extended, and rendered still more valuable as a work
of reference. Great care has evidently been taken to secure the accuracy of all that
has been included in the work, and that is of far more importance than mere bulk.
The dictionary can be commended as trustworthy, and reflects much credit on Mr
Keene. Several interesting lists of rulers are given under the various founders of
dynasties."—India.
The Fall of the Moghul Empire. From the Death of Aurungzeb to
the Overthrow of the Mahratta Power. A New Edition, with Correc-
tions and Additions. With Map. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
This work fills up a blank between the ending of Elphinstone's and the commence-
ment of Thornton's Histories.
Fifty-Seven. Some Account of the Administration of Indian Districts
during the Revolt of the Bengal Army. Demy 8vo, 6s.
Any Bookseller at Home and Abroad.
44
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
G. B. MALLESON.
History of the French in India. From the Founding of Pondicherry
in 1674, to the Capture of that place in 1761. New and Revised
Edition, with Maps. Demy 8vo, 16s.
"Colonel Malleson has produced a volume alike attractive to the general reader and
valuable for its new matter to the special student. It is not too much to say that now,
for the first time, we are furnished with a faithful narrative of that portion of European
enterprise in India which turns upon the contest waged by the East India Company
against French influence, and especially against Dupleix.”—Edinburgh Review.
"It is pleasant to contrast the work now before us with the writer's first bold plunge
into historical composition, which splashed every one within his reach. He swims now
with a steady stroke, and there is no fear of his sinking. With a keener insight into
human character, and a larger understanding of the sources of human action, he com-
bines all the power of animated recital which invested his earlier narratives with
popularity."-Fortnightly Review.
"The author has had the advantage of consulting French Archives, and his volume
forms a useful supplement to Orme."-Athenæum.
Final French Struggles in India and on the Indian Seas. New
Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
How India escaped from the government of prefects and sub-prefects to
fall under that of Commissioners and Deputy-Commissioners; why the Penal
Code of Lord Macaulay reigns supreme instead of a Code Napoleon; why we
are not looking on helplessly from Mahe, Karikal, and Pondicherry, while the
French are ruling all over Madras, and spending millions of francs in attempt-
ing to cultivate the slopes of the Neilgherries, may be learnt from this modest
volume. Colonel Malleson is always painstaking, and generally accurate; his
style is transparent, and he never loses sight of the purpose with which he
commenced to write."-Saturday Review.
"A book dealing with such a period of our history in the East, besides
being interesting, contains many lessons. It is written in a style that will be
popular with general readers."-Athenæum.
History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the
War of 1878. With map. Demy 8vo, 18s.
"The name of Colonel Malleson on the title-page of any historical work in
relation to India or the neighbouring States, is a satisfactory guarantee both
for the accuracy of the facts and the brilliancy of the narrative. The author
may be complimented upon having written a History of Afghanistan which
is likely to become a work of standard authority."-Scotsman.
The Battlefields of Germany, from the Outbreak of the Thirty Years'
War to the Battle of Blenheim. With Maps and 1 Plan. Demy 8vo,
16s.
Colonel Malleson has shown a grasp of his subject, and a power of
vivifying the confused passages of battle, in which it would be impossible to
name any living writer as his equal. In imbuing these almost forgotten
battlefields with fresh interest and reality for the English reader, he is re-
opening one of the most important chapters of European history, which no
previous English writer has made so interesting and instructive as he has
succeeded in doing in this volume."-Academy.
Ambushes and Surprises, being a Description of some of the most famous
instances of the Leading into Ambush and the Surprises of Armies,
from the time of Hannibal to the period of the Indian Mutiny. With a
portrait of General Lord Mark Ker, K. C.B. Demy 8vo, 18s.
For the Reduced Prices apply to
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MRS MANNING.
Ancient and Mediæval India. Being the History, Religion, Laws,
Caste, Manners and Customs, Language, Literature, Poetry, Philo-
sophy, Astronomy, Algebra, Medicine, Architecture, Manufactures,
Commerce, &c., of the Hindus, taken from their Writings. With
Illustrations. 2 vols. Demy 8vo, 30s.
J. MORRIS, Author of "The War in Korea," &c., thirteen years
resident in Tokio under the Japanese Board of Works.
Advance Japan. A Nation Thoroughly in Earnest. With over 100
Illustrations by R. Isayama, and of Photographs lent by the Japanese
Legation. 8vo, 12s. 6d.
"Is really a remarkably complete account of the land, the people, and the institu-
tions of Japan, with chapters that deal with matters of such living interest as its
growing industries and armaments, and the origin, incidents, and probable outcome
of the war with China. The volume is illustrated by a Japanese artist of repute; it
has a number of useful statistical appendices, and it is dedicated to His Majesty the
Mikado."-Scotsman.
DEPUTY SURGEON-GENERAL C. T. PASKE, late of the Bengal
Army, and Edited by F. G. AFLALO.
Life and Travel in Lower Burmah, with frontispiece. Crown 8vo, 6s.
"In dealing with life in Burmah we are given a pleasant insight into
Eastern life; and to those interested in India and our other Eastern
possessions, the opinions Mr Paske offers and the suggestions he makes will
be delightful reading. Mr Paske has adopted a very light style of writing in
'Myamma,' which lends an additional charm to the short historical-cum-
geographical sketch, and both the writer and the editor are to be commended
for the production of a really attractive book."—Public Opinion.
ALEXANDEr rogers, Bombay Civil Service Retired.
The Land Revenue of Bombay. A History of its Administration,
Rise, and Progress. 2 vols, with 18 Maps. Demy 8vo, 30s.
"These two volumes are full of valuable information not only on the Land Revenue,
but on the general condition and state of cultivation in all parts of the Bombay Pre-
sidency. Each collectorate is described separately, and an excellent map of each is
given, showing the divisional headquarters, market-towns, trade centres, places of
pilgrimage, travellers, bungalows, municipalities, hospitals, schools, post offices,
telegraphs, railways, &c."-Mirror of British Museum.
Mr Rogers has produced a continuous and an authoritative record of the land
changes and of the fortunes of the cultivating classes for a full half-century, together
with valuable data regarding the condition and burdens of those classes at various
periods before the present system of settlement was introduced. Mr Rogers now
presents a comprehensive view of the land administration of Bombay as a whole, the
history of its rise and progress, and a clear statement of the results which it has
attained. It is a narrative of which all patriotic Englishmen may feel proud. The old
burdens of native rule have been lightened, the old injustices mitigated, the old fiscal
cruelties and exactions abolished. Underlying the story of each district we see a per-
ennial struggle going on between the increase of the population and the available
means of subsistence derived from the soil. That increase of the population is the
direct result of the peace of the country under British rule. But it tends to press
more and more severely on the possible limits of local cultivation, and it can only be
provided for by the extension of the modern appliances of production and distribu-
Mon. Mr Rogers very properly confines himself to his own subject. But there is
ample evidence that the extension of roads, railways, steam factories, and other
industrial enterprises, have played an important part in the solution of the problem,
and that during recent years such enterprises have been powerfully aided by an
abundant currency."-The Times.
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46
Great Reductions in this Catalogue
G. P. SANDERSON, Officer in Charge of the Government
Elephant Keddahs.
Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India; their Haunts
and Habits, from Personal Observation. With an account of the
Modes of Capturing and Taming Wild Elephants. With 21 full-page
Illustrations, Reproduced for this Edition direct from the original
drawings, and 3 Maps. Fifth Edition. Fcap. 4to, 12s.
"We find it difficult to hasten through this interesting book; on almost every page
some incident or some happy descriptive passage tempts the reader to linger. The
author relates his exploits with ability and with singular modesty. His adventures
with man-eaters will afford lively entertainment to the reader, and indeed there is no
portion of the volume which he is likely to wish shorter. The illustrations add to the
attractions of the book."—Pall Mall Gazette.
"This is the best and most practical book on the wild game of Southern and
Eastern India that we have read, and displays an extensive acquaintance with natural
history. To the traveller proposing to visit India, whether he be a sportsman, a
naturalist, or an antiquarian, the book will be invaluable: full of incident and sparkling
with anecdote."-Bailey's Magazine.
ROBERT SEWELL, Madras Civil Service.
Analytical History of India. From the Earliest Times to the Aboli-
tion of the East India Company in 1858. Post 8vo, Ss.
"Much labour has been expended on this work."-Athenæum.
EDWARD THORNTON.
A Gazetteer of the Territories under the Government of the Vice-
roy of India.
New Edition, Edited and Revised by Sir Roper
Lethbridge, C.I. E., late Press Cominissioner in India, and Arthur N.
Wollaston, H. M. Indian (Home) Civil Service, Translator of the
"Anwar-i-Suhaili." In one volume, Svo, 1,000 pages, 28s.
Hunter's " Imperial Gazetteer" has been prepared, which is not only much
more ample than its predecessor, but is further to be greatly enlarged in the New
Edition now in course of production. In these circumstances it has been thought
incumbent, when issuing a New Edition of Thornton's "Gazetteer" corrected up to
date, to modify in some measure the plan of the work by omitting much of the
detail and giving only such leading facts and figures as will suffice for ordinary pur-
poses of reference, a plan which has the additional advantage of reducing the work to
one moderate-sized volume.
It is obvious that the value of the New Edition must depend in a large measure
upon the care and judgment which have been exercised in the preparation of the
letterpress. The task was, in the first instance, undertaken by Mr Roper Lethbridge,
whose literary attainments and acquaintance with India seemed to qualify him to a
marked degree for an undertaking demanding considerable knowledge and experience.
But in order further to render the work as complete and perfect as possible, the
publishers deemed it prudent to subject the pages to the scrutiny of a second Editor,
in the person of Mr Arthur Wollaston, whose lengthened service in the Indian Branch
of the Civil Service of this country, coupled with his wide acquaintance with Oriental
History, gives to his criticism an unusual degree of weight and importance. The
joint names which appear on the title-page will, it is hoped, serve as a guarantee to
the public that the Gazetteer" is in the main accurate and trustworthy, free alike
from sins of omission and commission. It will be found to contain the names of many
hundreds of places not included in any former edition, while the areas and popula-
tions have been revised by the data given in the Census Report of 1881.
** The chief objects in view in compiling this Gazetteer are:
1st. To fix the relative position of the various cities, towns, and villages with as
much precision as possible, and to exhibit with the greatest practicable brevity all
that is known respecting them; and
2ndly. To note the various countries, provinces, or territorial divisions, and to
describe the physical characteristics of each, together with their statistical, social,
and political circumstances.
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DR C. EDWARD SACHAU.
Athâr-Ul-Bâkiya of Albîrûnî: The Chronology of Ancient Nations,
an English Version of the Arabic Text Translated and Edited with
Notes and Index. Imp. 8vo (480 pp.), 42s.
A book of extraordinary erudition compiled in A.D. 1000.
A. J. WALL.
Indian Snake Poisons: Their Nature and Effects. Crown 8vo, ´6s.
CONTENTS.
The Physiological Effects of the Poison of the Cobra (Naja Tripudians).—The Physio-
logical Effects of the Poison of Russell's Viper (Daboià Russellii).-The Physiological
Effects produced by the Poison of the Bungarus Fasciatus and the Bungarus Coeruleus.
-The Relative Power and Properties of the Poisons of Indian and other Venomous
Snakes. The Nature of Snake Poisons.-Some practical considerations connected with
the subject of Snake-Poisoning, especially regarding Prevention and Treatment.-The
object that has been kept in view, has been to define as closely as possible the condi-
tions on which the mortality from Snake-bite depends, both as regards the physio-
logical nature of the poisoning process, and the relations between the reptiles and their
victims, so as to indicate the way in which we should best proceed with the hope of
diminishing the fearful mortality that exists.
S. WELLS WILLIAMS, LL.D., Professor of the Chinese
Language and Literature at Yale College.
China-The Middle Kingdom. A Survey of the Geography, Govern-
ment, Literature, Social Life, Arts, and History of the Chinese
Empire and its Inhabitants. Revised Edition, with 74 Illustrations
and a New Map of the Empire. 2 vols. Demy Svo, 42s.
"Williams' Middle Kingdom' remains unrivalled as the most full and accurate
account of China-its inhabitants, its arts, its science, its religion, its philosophy-
that his ever been given to the public. Its minuteness and thoroughness are beyond
all praise."-North American Review.
The standard work on the subject."-Globe.
PROFESSOR H. H. WILSON.
Glossary of Judicial and Revenue Terms, including words from
the Arabic, Teluga, Karnata, Tamil, Persian, Hindustani, Sanskrit,
Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Guzarathi, Malayalam, and other languages.
4to, 30s.
"It was the distinguishing characteristic of our late director that he con-
sidered nothing unworthy of his labours that was calculated to be useful, and
was never influenced in his undertakings by the mere desire of acquiring
distinction or increasing his fame. Many of his works exhibit powers of
illustration and close reasoning, which will place their author in a high
position among the literary men of the age. But it is as a man of deep
research and as a Sanskrit scholar and Orientalist, as the successor of Sir Wm.
Jones and H. T. Colebrooke, the worthy wearer of their mantles and inheritor
of the pre-eminence they enjoyed in this particular department of literature,
that his name will especially live among the eminent men of learning of his
age and country."-H. T. PRINSEP.
"A work every page of which teems with information that no other
scholar ever has or could have placed before the public.
The work
must ever hold a foremost place not only in the history of India but in that of
the human race."-Edinburgh Review.
LIEUT. G. J. YOUNGHUSBAND, Queen's Own Corps of Guides.
Eighteen Hundred Miles in a Burmese Tat, through Burmah, Siam,
and the Eastern Shan States. Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 5s.
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